Fluid Mechanics

[As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work.
You must
attend them. Should you fail to attend either one you will be asked to complete
some extra work. This will involve a detailed report and further questions. The
simplest strategy is to do the lab.]
Notes For the First Year Lecture Course:

Department of Civil Engineering
Homework:
Example sheets: These will be given for each section of the course. Doing these will
greatly improve your exam mark. They are course work but do not have credits
toward the module.
Lecture notes: Theses should be studied but explain only the basic outline of the
necessary concepts and ideas.
Books: It is very important do some extra reading in this subject. To do the examples
you will definitely need a textbook. Any one of those identified below is adequate and
will also be useful for the fluids (and other) modules in higher years - and in work.
Example classes:
There will be example classes each week. You may bring any problems/questions
you have about the course and example sheets to these classes.
CE 1
73 1 FLUID MECHANICS
0. Contents of the Course

0.1
Objectives:
x
The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in civil
engineering.
Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Fluids Lecture and Test Schedule
0.2
Consists of:
x
Week
Lectures:
20 Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application.
Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. You
will be asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
0
1
Assessment:
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 80% of the module credits.
This consists of 6 questions of which you choose 4.
2 Multiple choice question (MCQ) papers, worth 10% of the module credits.
These will be for 30mins and set during the lectures. The timetable for these MCQs
and lectures is shown in the table at the end of this section.
1 Marked problem sheet, worth 10% of the module credits.
Laboratories: 2 x 3 hours
These two laboratory sessions examine how well the theoretical analysis of fluid
dynamics describes what we observe in practice.
During the laboratory you will take measurements and draw various graphs according
to the details on the laboratory sheets. These graphs can be compared with those
obtained from theoretical analysis.
You will be expected to draw conclusions as to the validity of the theory based on the
results you have obtained and the experimental procedure.
After you have completed the two laboratories you should have obtained a greater
understanding as to how the theory relates to practice, what parameters are important
in analysis of fluid and where theoretical predictions and experimental measurements
may differ.
The two laboratories sessions are:
1. Impact of jets on various shaped surfaces - a jet of water is fired at a target
and is deflected in various directions. This is an example of the application of
the momentum equation.
2. The rectangular weir - the weir is used as a flow measuring device. Its
accuracy is investigated. This is an example of how the Bernoulli (energy)
equation is applied to analyses fluid flow.
Specific Elements:
x Introduction
x Fluid Properties
x Fluids vs. Solids
x Viscosity
x Newtonian Fluids
x Properties of Fluids
x Statics
x Hydrostatic pressure
x Manometry / pressure measurement
x Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
x Dynamics
x The continuity equation.
x The Bernoulli Equation.
x Applications of the Bernoulli equation.
x The momentum equation.
x Application of the momentum equation.
x Real Fluids
x Boundary layer.
x Laminar flow in pipes.
x Introduction to dimensional analysis
x Dimensions
x Similarity
0.4
Books:
7
8
9
10
day
17
18
24
25
31
February 1
7
8
14
15
21
22
28
March
1
7
8
14
15
21
22
April
11
12
0.3
Date
Month
January
May
19
20
26
27
3
4
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Subject
Lecture
Fluid properties
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Statics
Dynamics
Test
MCQ
Problem Sheet
Surveying
Surveying
Surveying
Surveying
Real fluids
Easter Vacation
Dimensional analysis
Revision Lectures
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
MQC
These notes give more information than is found in the lectures. They do not replace textbooks.
You must also read at least one of the recommended fluid mechanics books. The notes
may be read online or printed off for personal use.
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module.
(You will probably not need any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the Civil Engineering
course)
Fluid Mechanics, Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A, Longman.
Akiskanlar Mekanigi, Prof.Dr. M. Salih Kirkgz, Kare Yaynlari

Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Featherstone R E and Nalluri C, Blackwell Science.
0.6
Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
0.7
Why are we studying fluid mechanics on a Civil Engineering course? The provision of adequate
water services such as the supply of potable water, drainage, sewerage are essential for the
development of industrial society. It is these services which civil engineers provide.
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either directly or indirectly.
Some examples of direct involvement are those where we are concerned with manipulating the
fluid:
x
Sea and river (flood) defences;
Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
Dams;
Irrigation;
Pumps and Turbines;
Water retaining structures.
To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric) system - which you will
already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in the same system or
the wrong solutions will results.
Despite this warning you will still find that this is the most common mistake when you attempt
example questions.
0.8
The SI System of units
The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practise which are made from combinations
of these primary units.
And some examples where the primary object is construction - yet analysis of the fluid
mechanics is essential:
x
Flow of air in / around buildings;
Bridge piers in rivers;
Ground-water flow.
System of units
As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become
confused as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field
of fluid mechanics. Over the years many different ways have been used to express the various
quantities involved. Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different
units for the same thing - they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American
pint is 4/5 of a British pint!
Primary Units
The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
Notice how nearly all of these involve water. The following course, although introducing general
fluid flow ideas and principles, will demonstrate many of these principles through examples
where the fluid is water.
Quantity
SI Unit
Dimension
length
mass
time
temperature
current
luminosity
metre, m
kilogram, kg
second, s
Kelvin, K
ampere, A
candela
L
M
T
T
I
Cd
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have
dimension of L.
(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions - we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)
Derived Units
0.9
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those
most used are shown in the table below:
Quantity
velocity
acceleration
force
energy (or work)
power
pressure ( or stress)
density
specific weight
relative density
viscosity
surface tension
SI Unit
m/s
m/s2
N
kg m/s2
Joule J
N m,
kg m2/s2
Watt W
N m/s
kg m2/s3
Pascal
P,
N/m2,
kg/m/s2
kg/m3
N/m3
kg/m2/s2
a ratio
no units
N s/m2
kg/m s
N/m
kg /s2
ms-1
ms-2
Dimension
LT-1
LT-2
kg ms-2
M LT-2
2 -2
2 -2
kg m s
ML T
Nms-1
kg m2s-3
ML2T-3
Nm-2
kg m-1s-2
ML-1T-2
kg m-3
ML-3
Example: Units
1.
A water company wants to check that it will have sufficient water if there is a prolonged drought
in the area. The region it covers is 500 square miles and various different offices have sent in
the following consumption figures. There is sufficient information to calculate the amount of
water available, but unfortunately it is in several different units.
Of the total area 100 000 acres are rural land and the rest urban. The density of the urban
population is 50 per square kilometre. The average toilet cistern is sized 200mm by 15in by
0.3m and on average each person uses this 3 time per day. The density of the rural population
is 5 per square mile. Baths are taken twice a week by each person with the average volume of
water in the bath being 6 gallons. Local industry uses 1000 m3 per week. Other uses are
estimated as 5 gallons per person per day. A US air base in the region has given water use
figures of 50 US gallons per person per day.
The average rain fall in 1in per month (28 days). In the urban area all of this goes to the river
while in the rural area 10% goes to the river 85% is lost (to the aquifer) and the rest goes to the
one reservoir which supplies the region. This reservoir has an average surface area of 500
acres and is at a depth of 10 fathoms. 10% of this volume can be used in a month.
a) What is the total consumption of water per day?
-2 -2
kg m s
N sm-2
kg m-1s-1
Nm-1
kg s-2
ML-2T-2
1
no dimension
b) If the reservoir was empty and no water could be taken from the river, would there be
enough water if available if rain fall was only 10% of average?
M L-1T-1
MT-2
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
find out, else your guess will probably be wrong.
One very useful tip is to write down the units of any equation you are using. If at the end the
units do not match you know you have made a mistake. For example is you have at the end of a
calculation,
30 kg/m s = 30 m
you have certainly made a mistake - checking the units can often help find the mistake.
More on this subject will be seen later in the section on dimensional analysis and similarity.
What make fluid mechanics different

to solid mechanics?
LECTURE CONTENTS
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes.
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
xThe nature of a fluid is different to that of a solid

xIn fluids we deal with continuous
streams of fluid.
In solids we only consider individual elements.
In this section we will consider how we

can classify the differences in nature
of fluids and solids.
What do we mean by nature of a fluid?
Fluids are clearly different to solids.
But we must be specific.
We need some definable basic
physical difference.
We know that fluids flow under the

action of a force, and the solids dont but solids do deform.
What use can we make of these ideas?

In the analysis of fluids
we often take small volumes (elements)
and examine the forces on these.
So we can say that

xfluids lack the ability of solids to
resist deformation.
Take the rectangular element below.
xfluids change shape as long as a

force acts.
What forces cause it to deform?
(These definitions include both

gasses and liquids as fluids.)
Fluids in motion
Consider a fluid flowing near a wall.
- in a pipe for example -
F
C
Fluid next to the wall will have zero velocity.
Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F,

are know as shearing forces.
The fluid sticks to the wall.
From this we arrive at the definition:
Moving away from the wall velocity increases

to a maximum.
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

or flows, when subjected to shearing forces.
This has the following implications

for fluids at rest:
Plotting the velocity across the section gives

velocity profile
If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting

on it, and
any force must be acting perpendicular to the fluid
Change in velocity with distance is

velocity gradient =
du
dy
As fluids are usually near surfaces

there is usually a velocity gradient.
What use is this observation?
Under normal conditions one fluid

particle has a velocity different to its
neighbour.
Particles next to each other with different
velocities exert forces on each other
(due to intermolecular action )
i.e. shear forces exist in a fluid moving
close to a wall.
It would be useful if we could quantify

this shearing force.
This may give us an understanding of
what parameters govern the forces
different fluid exert on flow.
We will examine the force required to

deform an element.
What if not near a wall?
Consider this 3-d rectangular element,

under the action of the force F.
v
No velocity gradient, no shear forces.
A 2-d view may be clearer

b
E x
F
C
The shearing force acts on the area

C
A Gz u Gx
under the action of the force F
Shear stress, W is the force per unit area:

b
F
A
The deformation which shear stress causes is

measured by the angle I, and is know as
shear strain.
F
C
F
A
Using these definitions we can amend our

definition of a fluid:
In a fluid I increases for as long as W is applied the fluid flows

In a solid shear strain, I, is constant for a fixed
shear stress W.
It has been shown experimentally that the

rate of shear strain is directly
proportional to shear stress
Wv
W
Constant u
in differential form this is
time
du
dy
= velocity gradient.
The constant of proportionality is known as

the dynamic viscosity, P
giving
We can express this in terms of the cuboid.

If a particle at point E moves to point E in
time t then:
for small deformations
shear strain I
u

y
u/y is the rate of change of velocity with distance,
I
Constant u
10
x
y
du
dy
which is know as Newtons law of viscosity
rate of shear strain

A fluid which obeys this rule is know as a
Newtonian Fluid
(sometimes also called real fluids)
Newtonian fluids have constant values of P
(note that
x
t
is the velocity of the particle at E)
Non-Newtonian Fluids
So
11
12
Some fluids do not have constant P.

They do not obey Newtons Law of viscosity.
This graph shows how P changes for different fluids.

Bingham plastic
The general relationship is:
Gu
A B
Gy
Newtonian
Shear stress,
They do obey a similar relationship and can

be placed into several clear categories
Pseudo plastic
plastic
Dilatant
where A, B and n are constants.
Ideal, (=0)
Rate of shear, u/y
For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = P and n = 1
x Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before

flow commences.
x Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear
stress must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An
example is sewage sludge.
x Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the
viscosity decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidial
substances like clay, milk and cement.
x Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear
e.g. quicksand.
x Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of
time shear force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
x Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of
time shear force is applied
xViscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a

sudden large change in shear they behave like plastic.
13
14
Properties of Fluids:
Liquids vs. Gasses

Density
Liquids and gasses behave in much the same way
Some specific differences are
1. A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as
being incompressible.
A gas is easily to compress and usually treated as
such - it changes volume with pressure.
2. A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and
will form a free surface
A gas has no fixed volume, it changes volume to
expand to fill the containing vessel. No free surface is
formed.
There are three ways of expressing density:
1. Mass density:
mass per unit volume
mass of fluid
volume of fluid
Units: kg/m3
Causes of Viscosity in Fluids

Dimensions:
ML3
Viscosity in Gasses
xMainly due to molecular exchange between layers
Mathematical considerations of this momentum
exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity.
Typical values:
xIf temperature increases the momentum exchange

between layers will increase thus increasing viscosity.
Air = 1.23 kg m
Water = 1000 kg m
3
3
, Mercury = 13546 kg m
, Paraffin Oil = 800 kg m
3
3
.
Viscosity in Liquids
xThere is some molecular interchange between layers
in liquids - but the cohesive forces are also important.
xIncreasing temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive
forces and increases the molecular interchange.
Resulting in a complex relationship between
temperature and viscosity.
15
16
2. Specific Weight:
Viscosity
(sometimes known as specific gravity)
Z
Z
weight per unit volume
Ug
Units: Newtons per cubic metre, N
2 2
Dimensions: ML
Typical values:
Water =9814
Air =12.07
/m
There are two ways of expressing viscosity
1. Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity
(or kg/m2/s2)
P = the shear stress, W, required to drag one layer of

fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance
away.
du
dy
Force Velocity
Area Distance
Force u Time
=
Area
Mass
Length u Time
N m 3 , Mercury = 132943 N m 3 ,
P W
N m 3 , Paraffin Oil =7851 N m 3
3. Relative Density:
ratio of mass density to

a standard mass density
U subs tan ce
U
$
H 2O ( at 4 c )
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the
maximum mass density for water (which occurs at
at atmospheric pressure.
Units: none, as it is a ratio
Dimensions: 1.
Typical values:
Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
4$ c)
Units: N s/m2 or kg/m s (kg m-1 s-1)

(Note that P is often expressed in Poise, P,
where 10 P = 1 N s/m2.)
Dimensions: ML-1T-1
Typical values:
Water =1.14 u 10-3 Ns/m2, Air =1.78 u 10-5 Ns/m2,
Mercury =1.552 Ns/m2, Paraffin Oil =1.9 Ns/m2.
17
LECTURE CONTENTS
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Section 2: Statics
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
Application of
Bernoulli equation.
Boundary layer.
Similarity
2. Kinematic Viscosity

Q = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
18
P
U
Units: m2s-1
Dimension: L2T-1
Typical values:
Water =1.14 u 10-6 m2/s, , Air =1.46 u 10-5 m2/s m s ,
Mercury =1.145 u 10-4 m2/s, Paraffin Oil =2.375 u 10-3
m2/s.
2 1
19
20
STATICS
What do we know about the forces

involved with static fluids?
4 Lectures
Objectives
From earlier we know that:

xIntroduce idea of pressure.
1. A static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it.
xProve unique value at any particular elevation.
2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must
be acting at right angles to the boundary.
xShow hydrostatic relationship.

xExpress pressure in terms of head of fluid.
F1
F2
R1
xPressure measurement using manometers.

F
R2
Fn
x Determine the magnitude and

direction of forces on submerged surfaces
Rn
Pressure force normal to the boundary
21
22
This is also true for:
Pressure
x curved surfaces
Convenient to work in terms of pressure, p,

which is the force per unit area.
x any imaginary plane
pressure
An element of fluid at rest is in equilibrium:
p
3. The sum of forces in any
direction is zero.
4. The sum of the moments of forces
about any point is zero.
Force
Area over which the force is applied
F
A
Units: Newtons per square metre,

N/m2, kg/m s2 (kg m-1s-2).
(Also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the
bar, where 1bar = 105 N/m2)
Uniform Pressure:
If the force on each unit area
of a surface is equal then
uniform pressure
23
24
Summing forces in the x-direction:
Pascals Law
Force in the x-direction due to px,
Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.
p x u Area ABFE
Fx x
ps
Fx s
A
px
Force in the x-direction due to ps,
ps u Area ABCD u sin T

psGs Gz
Gy
Gs
psGy Gz
p x Gx Gy
( sin T
py
Gy
Gs )
Force in x-direction due to py,
Fx y
Remember:
No shearing forces
To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Fx x Fx s Fx y
All forces at right angles to the surfaces
p xGxGy psGyGz 0
px
ps
25
26
To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Summing forces in the y-direction.

Force due to py,
Fy
p y u Area ABCD
p y GxGz
Fy Fy Fy weight
y
s
x
p yGxGy psGxGz Ug GxGyGz
Component of force due to ps,
Fy
ps u Area ABCD u cosT

psGsGz
The element is small i.e. Gx, Gx, and Gz, are small,
so Gx u Gy u Gz, is very small
and considered negligible, hence
Gx
Gs
py
psGxGz
( cos T
Gx
Gs )
ps
We showed above
px
Fy x
ps
thus
Component of force due to px,
0
px
py
ps
Force due to gravity,
weight = - specific weight u volume of element
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
1
= Ug u GxGyGz
2
This is Pascals Law and applies to fluids at rest.
27
28
The forces involved are:

Vertical Variation Of Pressure
In A Fluid Under Gravity
Force due to p1 on A (upward) = p1A

Force due to p2 on A (downward) = p2A
p2, A
Area A
Fluid density
Force due to weight of element (downward)

= mg
= mass density u volume u g
= U g A(z2 - z1)
z2
Taking upward as positive, we have

p1, A
p1 A p2 A UgA z2 z1 = 0
z1
p2 p1
Vertical cylindrical element of fluid
cross sectional area = A
UgA z2 z1
Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure

decreases linearly with increase in height
mass density = U
p2 p1
UgA z2 z1
This is the hydrostatic pressure change.
29
30
Equality Of Pressure At
The Same Level In A Static Fluid
P
Fluid density
Area A
z
pr, A
pl, A
Face L
Face R
weight, mg
Horizontal cylindrical element
We have shown
cross sectional area = A
pl = pr
mass density = U
For a vertical pressure change we have
left end pressure = pl

right end pressure = pr
pl
p p Ugz
pr
pq Ugz
and
For equilibrium the sum of the

forces in the x direction is zero.
so
p l A = pr A
p p Ugz
pp
pl = p r
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.
pq Ugz
pq
Pressure at the two equal levels are the same.
This true for any continuous fluid.

31
32
General Equation For

Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid
Horizontal
If T
90 then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e.

horizontal),so
(p + p)A
Area A
dp

ds T 90$
Fluid density
s
dp
dx
dp
dy
Confirming that pressure change

on any horizontal plane is zero.
z + z
mg
Vertical
pA
If T
0 then s is in the z direction (vertical) so

dp

ds T 0$
A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary

orientation.
dp
dz
Ug
From considering incremental forces (see detailed

notes on WWW or other texts) we get
Confirming the hydrostatic result
dp
ds
Ug cos T
p2 p1
z2 z1
Ug
p2 p1
Ug z2 z1
33
34
Pressure And Head

It is convenient to take atmospheric
pressure as the datum
We have the vertical pressure relationship
dp
dz
Ug ,
Pressure quoted in this way is known as

gauge pressure i.e.
integrating gives
p = -Ugz + constant
Gauge pressure is
pgauge = U g h
measuring z from the free surface so that z = -h

z
The lower limit of any pressure is

the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
y
x
Pressure measured above

a perfect vacuum (zero)
is known as absolute pressure
Ugh constant
surface pressure is atmospheric, patmospheric .

Absolute pressure is
patmospheric
constant
pabsolute = U g h + patmospheric
so
p
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric
Ugh patmospheric
35
36
A gauge pressure can be given
Pressure Measurement By Manometer
using height of any fluid.
Ugh
Manometers use the relationship between pressure

and head to measure pressure
This vertical height is the head.
The Piezometer Tube Manometer
If pressure is quoted in head,

the density of the fluid must also be given.
Example:
The simplest manometer is an open tube.

This is attached to the top of a container with liquid
at pressure. containing liquid at a pressure.
What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2 in

head of water of density, U = 1000 kgm-3
Use p = Ugh,
p
Ug
500 u 103
1000 u 9.81
h1
In head of Mercury density U = 13.6u103 kgm-3.

3
500 u 10
3
h2
50.95m of water
3.75m of Mercury
13.6 u 10 u 9.81
In head of a fluid with relative density J = 8.7.
The tube is open to the atmosphere,
remember U = J u Uwater)
3
The pressure measured is relative to

atmospheric so it measures gauge pressure.
500 u 10
586
. m of fluid J = 8.7
8.7 u 1000 u 9.81
37
38
An Example of a Piezometer.
What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that
can be measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m?
And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what
would the maximum measurable gauge pressure?
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1
pA = U g h 1
Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid h2
pB = U g h 2
Problems with the Piezometer:

1. Can only be used for liquids
2. Pressure must above atmospheric
3. Liquid height must be convenient
i.e. not be too small or too large.
39
40
The U-Tube Manometer
We know:
U-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids

and gases to be measured
U is connected as shown and filled with
manometric fluid.
Pressure in a continuous static fluid

is the same at any horizontal level.
pressure at B = pressure at C
pB = pC
Important points:
1. The manometric fluid density should be
greater than of the fluid measured.
Uman > U
For the left hand arm

pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure of height of
liquid being measured
pB = pA + Ugh1
2. The two fluids should not be able to mix

they must be immiscible.
For the right hand arm

pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure of height of
manometric liquid
Fluid density
D
pC = patmospheric + Uman gh2

h2
A
We are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract

patmospheric giving
h1
B
pB = pC
Manometric fluid density
pA = Uman gh2 - Ugh1
man
41
42
An example of the U-Tube manometer.
What if the fluid is a gas?

Nothing changes.
The manometer work exactly the same.
Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge

pressure of fluid density U = 700 kg/m3, and the
manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density
of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?
BUT:
As the manometric fluid is liquid

(usually mercury , oil or water)
And Liquid density is much
greater than gas,
Uman >> U
Ugh1 can be neglected,

and the gauge pressure given by
pA = Uman gh2
43
44
Pressure difference measurement

Using a U-Tube Manometer.
pressure at C = pressure at D
pC = pD
The U-tube manometer can be connected

at both ends to measure pressure difference between
these two points
pC = pA + U g ha
pD = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
pA + U g ha = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
Fluid density
Giving the pressure difference

hb
E
pA - pB = U g (hb - ha) + (Uman - U)g h

h
A
Again if the fluid is a gas Uman >> U, then the terms

involving U can be neglected,
ha
D
pA - pB = Uman g h
Manometric fluid density man
45
An example using the u-tube for pressure

difference measuring
Advances to the U tube manometer
In the figure below two pipes containing the same

fluid of density U = 990 kg/m3 are connected using a
u-tube manometer.
What is the pressure between the two pipes if the
manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Problem: Two reading are required.

Solution: Increase cross-sectional area
of one side.
Result:
One level moves
much more than the other.
Fluid density
Fluid density
p2
p1
B
ha = 1.5m
46
diameter D
hb = 0.75m
h = 0.5m
diameter d
z2
Datum line
z1
Manometric fluid density man = 13.6
If the manometer is measuring the pressure

difference of a gas of (p1 - p2) as shown,
we know
p1 - p2 = Uman g h
47
48
volume of liquid moved from

the left side to the right
= z2 u ( Sd2 / 4)
Problem: Small pressure difference,

movement cannot be read.
The fall in level of the left side is

Volume moved
Area of left side
z 2 Sd 2 / 4
z1
Solution 1: Reduce density of manometric

fluid.
SD 2 / 4
d
z2
D
Result:
Greater height change easier to read.
Putting this in the equation,

2
d
Ug z 2 z 2

p1 p2
Solution 2: Tilt one arm of the manometer.
d
Ugz 2 1

D
Result:
If D >> d then (d/D)2 is very small so

p1 p2 Ugz2
Same height change - but larger

movement along the
manometer arm - easier to read.
Inclined manometer
49
p1
diameter D
er
Example of an inclined manometer.

An inclined manometer is required to measure an air
pressure of 3mm of water to an accuracy of +/- 3%.
The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the larger
arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid
has density Uman = 740 kg/m3 and the scale may be
read to +/- 0.5mm.
What is the angle required to ensure the desired
accuracy may be achieved?
p2
diameter d
ad
e
eR
al
Sc
50
z2
Datum line
z1
The pressure difference is still given by the

height change of the manometric fluid.
p1 p2
Ugz2
but,
z2
p1 p2
x sin T
Ugx sin T
The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased

further by a greater inclination.
51
52
Choice Of Manometer
Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids
Take care when fixing the manometer to vessel

Burrs cause local pressure variations.
We have seen these features of static fluids

x Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution
x Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous
fluid are equal
x Pressure at a point acts equally in all
directions (Pascals law).
Disadvantages:
x Slow response - only really useful for very slowly
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures;
x For the U tube manometer two measurements
must be taken simultaneously to get the h value.
xForces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right

angles to that boundary.
x It is often difficult to measure small variations in

pressure.
x It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
Fluid pressure on a surface
x For very accurate work the temperature and

relationship between temperature and U must be
known;
Pressure is force per unit area.

Pressure p acting on a small area GA exerted
force will be
Advantages of manometers:
x They are very simple.
F = puGA
x No calibration is required - the pressure can be

calculated from first principles.
Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at

right-angles to the surface.
53
54
Horizontal submerged plane
General submerged plane

F =p A
1 1 1
F =p A
2 2 2
The pressure, p, will be equal at all points of

the surface.
The resultant force will be given by
R pressure u area of plane
R = pA
F =p A
n n n
The total or resultant force, R, on the

plane is the sum of the forces on the
small elements i.e.
R p1GA1 p 2 GA2 p n GAn pGA
Curved submerged surface
and
This resultant force will act through the
centre of pressure.
Each elemental force is a different

magnitude and in a different direction (but
still normal to the surface.).
It is, in general, not easy to calculate the
resultant force for a curved surface by
combining all elemental forces.
For a plane surface all forces acting

can be represented by one single
resultant force,
acting at right-angles to the plane
through the centre of pressure.
The sum of all the forces on each element

will always be less than the sum of the
individual forces, pGA .
55
56
zGA is known as
Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a

general plane surface in a liquid.
O
O
Fluid
density
the 1st Moment of Area of the

plane PQ about the free surface.
elemental
area A
Resultant
Force R D
G
area A
x
C
And it is known that

zGA Az
area A
Sc
Take pressure as zero at the surface.
A is the area of the plane
z is the distance to the centre of gravity

(centroid)
Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on

an element GA, depth z,
p = Ugz
In terms of distance from point O
zGA
So force on element
= 1st moment of area
F = UgzGA
u sinT
about a line through O
Resultant force on plane

(as
Ax sin T
Ug zGA
x sin T )
The resultant force on a plane
(assuming U and g as constant).
UgAz
UgAx sin T
57
This resultant force acts at right angles

through the centre of pressure, C, at a depth D.
58
Sum of moments
Moment of R about O =
How do we find this position?
UgAx sin T S c
As the plane is in equilibrium:
The moment of R will be equal to the sum of the
moments of the forces on all the elements GA
about the same point.
Ug sin T s 2 GA
The position of the centre of pressure along the

plane measure from the point O is:
s GA
2
Sc
It is convenient to take moment about O
Ax
How do we work out

the summation term?
The force on each elemental area:
UgzGA
Ug s sin T GA
the moment of this force is:
Moment of Force on GA about O
R u S c = UgAx sin T S c
Equating
Take moments of the forces.
Force on GA
Ug sin T s 2 GA
Ug s sin T GA u s
Ug sin T GAs 2
This term is known as the

2nd Moment of Area , Io,
of the plane
(about the axis through O)
U , g and T are the same for each element, giving the

total moment as
59
60
2nd moment of area about O
Io
s 2GA
How do you calculate the 2nd moment of

area?
It can be easily calculated

for many common shapes.
2nd moment of area is a geometric property.

It can be found from tables BUT only for moments about
an axis through its centroid = IGG.
The position of the centre of pressure

along the plane measure from the point O is:
Sc
2 nd Moment of area about a line through O
Usually we want the 2nd moment of area

about a different axis.
1st Moment of area about a line through O
Through O in the above examples.
and
We can use the
Depth to the centre of pressure is
parallel axis theorem

D S c sin T
to give us what we want.
61
62
The 2nd moment of area about a line

through the centroid of some common
shapes.
The parallel axis theorem can be written
Io
I GG Ax 2
Shape
We then get the following

equation for the
position of the centre of pressure
Area A
2nd moment of area, I GG ,

about
an axis through the centroid
bd
bd 3
12
bd
2
bd 3
36
SR 2
SR 4
Rectangle
b
Sc
D
I GG
x
Ax
I
sin T GG x
Ax
Triangle
h
G
h/3
Circle
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem
R
G
and the I GG will be given)
4
Semicircle
G
63
SR
R
(4R)/(3)
01102
.
R4
64
An example:
Find the moment required to keep this triangular
gate closed on a tank which holds water.
1.2m
For vertical walls of constant width

it is possible to find the resultant force and
centre of pressure graphically using a
D
2.0m
pressure diagram.
1.5m
Submerged vertical surface Pressure diagrams
We know the relationship between

pressure and depth:
p = Ugz
So we can draw the diagram below:
gz
z
2H
3
R
p
gH
This is know as a pressure diagram.

65
Pressure increases from zero at the

surface linearly by p = Ugz, to a
maximum at the base of p = UgH.
The area of this triangle represents the
resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall,
66
For a triangle the centroid is at 2/3 its height

i.e. the resultant force acts
2
horizontally through the point z
H.
3
For a vertical plane the
depth to the centre of pressure is given by
Units of this are Newtons per metre.

Area
1
u AB u BC
2
1
HUgH
2
1
UgH 2
2
2
H
3
Resultant force per unit width

R
1
UgH 2
2
( N / m)
The force acts through the centroid of

the pressure diagram.
67
68
The same technique can be used with combinations

of liquids are held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
For example:
Check this against

the moment method:
The resultant force is given by:
UgAz
oil o
UgAx sinT
Ug H u 1
H
sinT
2
1.2m
water
1
UgH 2
2
g0.8
g1.2
Find the position and magnitude of the resultant

force on this vertical wall of a tank which has oil
floating on water as shown.
and the depth to the centre of pressure by:
0.8m
I
sin T o
Ax
and by the parallel axis theorem (with width of 1)
Io
I GG Ax 2
1u H3
H
1 u H
12
2
H3
3
Depth to the centre of pressure
H 3 / 3
D 2
H / 2
2
H
3
69
70
Submerged Curved Surface

If the surface is curved the resultant force
must be found by combining the elemental
forces using some vectorial method.
In the diagram below liquid is resting on

top of a curved base.
E
Calculate the
C
B
horizontal and vertical

components.
G
O
FAC
RH
Combine these to obtain the resultant

force and direction.
Rv
The fluid is at rest in equilibrium.
So any element of fluid

such as ABC is also in equilibrium.
(Although this can be done for all three

dimensions we will only look at one vertical
plane)
71
72
Consider the Horizontal forces

The sum of the horizontal forces is zero.
C
B
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid

above a curved surface is:
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
curved surface onto a vertical plane.
RH
FAC
We know
1. The force on a vertical plane must act
horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane).
2. That RH must act through the same point.
No horizontal force on CB as there are

no shear forces in a static fluid
So:
RH acts horizontally through the centre of

pressure of the projection of
the curved surface onto an vertical plane.
Horizontal forces act only on the faces

AC and AB as shown.
FAC, must be equal and opposite to RH.

We have seen earlier how to calculate
resultant forces and point of action.
AC is the projection of the curved surface

AB onto a vertical plane.
Hence we can calculate the resultant

horizontal force on a curved surface.
73
Consider the Vertical forces
74
Resultant force
The sum of the vertical forces is zero.

E
The overall resultant force is found by

combining the vertical and horizontal
components vectorialy,
C
B
G
Resultant force
2
RH
RV2
Rv
There are no shear force on the vertical edges,

so the vertical component can only be due to
the weight of the fluid.
So we can say
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a
curved surface is:
RV = Weight of fluid directly above the curved
surface.
It will act vertically down through the centre of
gravity of the mass of fluid.
75
And acts through O at an angle of T.
The angle the resultant force makes to the

horizontal is
R
T tan 1 V
RH
The position of O is the point of interaction of

the horizontal line of action of R H and the
vertical line of action of RV .
76
A typical example application of this is the

determination of the forces on dam walls or curved
sluice gates.
What are the forces if the fluid is below the

curved surface?
Find the magnitude and direction of the

resultant force of water on a quadrant gate as
shown below.
This situation may occur or a curved sluice gate.

C
Gate width 3.0m
B
G
1.0m
FAC
Water = 1000 kg/m
RH
A
R
Rv
The force calculation is very similar to

when the fluid is above.
77
Horizontal force
78
Vertical force
C
B
G
FAC
RH
A
A
Rv
What vertical force would

keep this in equilibrium?
The two horizontal on the element are:

The horizontal reaction force RH
The force on the vertical plane AB.
If the region above the curve were all

water there would be equilibrium.
The resultant horizontal force, RH acts as shown in

the diagram. Thus we can say:
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid below a

curved surface is:
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
curved surface onto a vertical plane.
79
Hence: the force exerted by this amount of fluid

must equal he resultant force.
The resultant vertical force of a fluid below a

curved surface is:
Rv =Weight of the imaginary volume of fluid
vertically above the curved surface.
80
The resultant force and direction of application

are calculated in the same way as for fluids
above the surface:
Resultant force
An example of a curved sluice gate which

experiences force from fluid below.
A 1.5m long cylinder lies as shown in the figure,
holding back oil of relative density 0.8. If the cylinder
has a mass of 2250 kg find
a) the reaction at A
b) the reaction at B
E
2
RH
RV2
And acts through O at an angle of T.

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal
is
R
tan 1 V
RH
81
LECTURE CONTENTS
82
Fluid Dynamics
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Section 2: Statics
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
Boundary layer.
Similarity
Objectives
1.Identify differences between:
xsteady/unsteady
xuniform/non-uniform
xcompressible/incompressible flow
2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
3.Introduce the Continuity principle
4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
5.Use the continuity equations to predict
pressure and velocity in flowing fluids
6.Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
7.Demonstrate use of the momentum equation
to predict forces induced by flowing fluids
83
84
Fluid dynamics:
Flow Classification
The analysis of fluid in motion
Fluid flow may be

classified under the following headings
Fluid motion can be predicted in the

same way as the motion of solids
By use of the fundamental laws of physics and
the physical properties of the fluid
Some fluid flow is very complex:
e.g.
xSpray behind a car
xwaves on beaches;
xhurricanes and tornadoes
xany other atmospheric phenomenon
uniform:
Flow conditions (velocity, pressure, crosssection or depth) are the same at every point in
the fluid.
non-uniform:
Flow conditions are not the same at every point.
steady:
Flow conditions may differ from point to point
but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady:
Flow conditions change with time at any point.
All can be analysed

with varying degrees of success
(in some cases hardly at all!).
Fluid flowing under normal circumstances

- a river for example conditions vary from point to point
we have non-uniform flow.
There are many common situations

which analysis gives very accurate predictions
If the conditions at one point vary as time

passes then we have unsteady flow.
85
86
Combining these four gives.
Compressible or Incompressible Flow?
Steady uniform flow.

Conditions do not change with position
in the stream or with time.
E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity.
All fluids are compressible - even water.

Density will change as pressure changes.
Steady non-uniform flow.

Conditions change from point to point in the stream
but do not change with time.
E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at
the inlet.
Under steady conditions

- provided that changes in pressure are small we usually say the fluid is incompressible
- it has constant density.
Three-dimensional flow
In general fluid flow is three-dimensional.
Unsteady uniform flow.

At a given instant in time the conditions at every
point are the same, but will change with time.
E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a
pump pumping at a constant rate which is then
switched off.
Pressures and velocities change in all

directions.
In many cases the greatest changes only occur
in two directions or even only in one.
Unsteady non-uniform flow.

Every condition of the flow may change from point to
point and with time at every point.
E.g. Waves in a channel.
Changes in the other direction can be effectively

ignored making analysis much more simple.
This course is restricted to Steady uniform flow

- the most simple of the four.
87
88
One dimensional flow:
Two-dimensional flow
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow

not across the cross-section.
Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in

one direction at right angles to this.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters

varying in time but not across the cross-section.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be

shown by curved lines on a plane.
Below shows flow pattern over a weir.
But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall
- yet non-zero in the centre there is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
Pipe
Ideal flow
Real flow
Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow?

Possibly - but it is only necessary if very high
accuracy is required.
In this course we will be considering:

xsteady
xincompressible
xone and two-dimensional flow
89
90
Streamlines
Some points about streamlines:
It is useful to visualise the flow pattern.

Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity
contours - can be drawn.
x Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are

parallel to that boundary
x The direction of the streamline is the direction
of the fluid velocity
These lines are know as streamlines.

Here are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section
of an aircraft wing shaped body:
x Fluid can not cross a streamline

x Streamlines can not cross each other
x Any particles starting on one streamline will
stay on that same streamline
x In unsteady flow streamlines can change
position with time
Fluid flowing past a solid boundary does not

flow into or out of the solid surface.
x In steady flow, the position of streamlines

does not change.
Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction

must be along the boundary.
91
92
Streamtubes
Some points about streamtubes
A circle of points in a flowing fluid each

has a streamline passing through it.
xThe walls of a streamtube are streamlines.

xFluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
cannot cross a streamtube wall.
These streamlines make a tube-like shape

known as a streamtube
xA streamtube is not like a pipe.

Its walls move with the fluid.

x In unsteady flow streamtubes can change
position with time
x In steady flow, the position of streamtubes
does not change.
In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat

(in the plane of the paper):
93
m
dm
dt
94
Flow rate
Volume flow rate - Discharge.
Mass flow rate
More commonly we use volume flow rate

Also know as discharge.
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
mass
time taken to accumulate this mass
discharge, Q
A simple example:
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then:
mass flow rate
mass of fluid in bucket

time taken to collect the fluid
8.0 2.0
7
0.857kg / s
m
=
volume of fluid
time
A simple example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 litres in 25 seconds,
what is the discharge?
2.0 u 10 3 m3
25 sec
0.0008 m3 / s
0.8 l / s
95
96
A simple example:
Discharge and mean velocity

-3
If we know the discharge and the diameter of a

pipe, we can deduce the mean velocity
If A = 1.2u10 m
And discharge, Q is 24 l/s,
mean velocity is
Q
A
um
um t
2.4 u 10 3
x
12
. u 10 3
2.0 m / s
area A
Pipe
Cylinder of fluid
Cross sectional area of pipe is A

Mean velocity is um.
Note how we have called this the mean velocity.
In time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point X with

a volume Au um u t.
This is because the velocity in the pipe is not

constant across the cross section.
x
The discharge will thus be
Q=
Q
volume A u um u t
=
t
time
Aum
u
um
umax
This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the

area gives the discharge, applies to all
situations - not just pipe flow.
97
98
Applying to a streamtube:
Continuity
This principle of conservation of mass says matter
cannot be created or destroyed
Mass enters and leaves only through the two

ends (it cannot cross the streamtube wall).
2
u2
This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as

control volumes (or surfaces)
A2
Mass flow in
1
Control
volume
u1
A1
Mass flow out
For any control volume the principle of conservation

of mass says
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase

per unit time
per unit time
of mass in
control vol
per unit time
Mass entering = Mass leaving

per unit time
per unit time
U1GA1u1
U2GA2u2
Or for steady flow,
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass

within the control volume, so
U1GA1u1
For steady flow

Mass entering = Mass leaving
per unit time
per unit time
U2GA2 u2
Constant
m
dm
dt
This is the continuity equation.
99
100
In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the

mean velocity and write
U1 A1um1
U2 A2 um2
Constant
Some example applications of Continuity
m
Section 1
For incompressible, fluid U1 = U2 = U
Section 2
A liquid is flowing from left to right.

By the continuity
(dropping the m subscript)
A1u1U1
A1u1
A2 u2
A2 u2 U2
As we are considering a liquid,

U1 = U 2 = U
Q1
This is the continuity equation most often used.
This equation is a very powerful tool.

It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of
this course.
A1u1
Q2
A2u2
An example:
If the area A1=10u10-3 m2 and A2=3u10-3 m2
And the upstream mean velocity u1=2.1 m/s.
The downstream mean velocity is
u2
A1
u1
A2
7.0 m / s
101
Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands

or diverges as in the figure below,
102
Velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

2
1
Section 1
Section 2
If d1=30mm and d2=40mm and the velocity u2=3.0m/s.
mass flow into the junction = mass flow out
The velocity entering the diffuser is given by,

U 1 Q1 = U 2 Q 2 + U 3 Q3
u1
A2
u2
A1
S d 22 / 4
S d12 / 4
u2
d 22
d12
u2
When incompressible
d2
u2
d1
Q1 = Q 2 + Q3
40
3.0 5.3 m / s
30
$ 1 u1 = $ 2 u2 + $ 3 u3
103
104
If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2

diameter 40mm takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3
diameter 60mm.
What are the values of discharge and mean velocity in each
pipe?
Discharge in:
Q1
The Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the
principle of conservation of energy along a
streamline
Sd12
u1
A1u1
It can be written:
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
0.00392 m3 / s
Discharges out:
0.001178m3 / s
Q2
0.3Q1
Q1
Q2 Q3
Q1 0.3Q1
Q3
These terms represent:
Pressure
0.7Q1
Velocities out:
A2 u2
u2
0.936 m / s
Q3
A3u3
u3
Kinetic
Potential
energy per energy per energy per

unit weight unit weight unit weight
0.00275 m3 / s
Q2
H = Constant
Total
energy per
unit weight
These term all have units of length,

they are often referred to as the following:
p
Ug
potential head = z
velocity head =
pressure head =
0.972 m / s
u2
2g
total head = H
105
106
The derivation of Bernoullis Equation:
Restrictions in application
of Bernoullis equation:
Cross sectional area a
B
B
A
xFlow is steady
A
mg
xDensity is constant (incompressible)

xFriction losses are negligible
xIt relates the states at two points along a single
streamline, (not conditions on two different
streamlines)
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at
any instant in time!
Fortunately, for many real situations where the
conditions are approximately satisfied, the
equation gives very good results.
An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has

potential energy due to its height z above a datum and
kinetic energy due to its velocity u. If the element has
weight mg then
potential energy = mgz
potential energy per unit weight =
kinetic energy =
1 2
mu
2
kinetic energy per unit weight =
u2
2g
At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the

fluid will flow, moving the cross-section, so work will be
done. If the pressure at cross section AB is p and the area
of the cross-section is a then
force on AB = pa
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section
AB will have moved to AB
volume passing AB =
mg
Ug
therefore
107
108
distance AA =
The Bernoulli equation is applied along

streamlines
like that joining points 1 and 2 below.
Ua
work done = force u distance AA

=
m
pa u
Ua
pm
work done per unit weight =
p
Ug
This term is know as the pressure energy of the flowing

stream.
Summing all of these energy terms gives
Pressure
Kinetic
Potential
energy per energy per energy per
unit weight unit weight unit weight
total head at 1 = total head at 2

or
or
p u2

z
Ug 2 g
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction)

or energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It
can be expanded to include these simply, by adding the
appropriate energy terms:
Work done
Energy
supplied
energy per unit per unit per unit
energy per
per unit weight
weight
weight
weight at 2
unit weight at 1
p2 u22
z h wq
Ug 2 g 2
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
H Constant
Loss
Total
Total
By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy

in the system does not change, thus the total head does
not change. So the Bernoulli equation can be written
p u2

z
Ug 2 g
p2 u22
z
Ug 2 g 2
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
Total
energy per
unit weight
109
Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is often combined with
the continuity equation to find velocities and
pressures at points in the flow connected by a
streamline.
An example:
Finding pressures and velocities within a
contracting and expanding pipe.
u1
u2
p1
p2
110
Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline

joining section 1 with section 2.
p2 u22
p1 u12
z1
z2
Ug 2 g
p2
Ug 2 g
p1
U
2
(u12 u22 )
Use the continuity equation to find u2
A1u1
A2u2
u2
A1u1
A2
d1
u1
d2
7.8125 m / s
So pressure at section 2
section 1
section 2
p2
A fluid, density U = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily

through the above tube.
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2
The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2)
200000 17296.87
182703 N / m2
182.7 kN / m2
Note how
the velocity has increased
the pressure has decreased
What is the gauge pressure at section 2?
111
112
We have used both the Bernoulli equation and

the Continuity principle together to solve the
problem.
Use of this combination is very common. We will
be seeing this again frequently throughout the
rest of the course.
Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube is a simple velocity measuring device.
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has
streamlines similar to this:
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

Some move to the left and some to the right.
The centre one hits the blunt body and stops.
The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many

situations not just the pipe flow.
Here we will see its application to flow
measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as
in open channels.
At this point (2) velocity is zero

The fluid does not move at this one point.
This point is known as the stagnation point.
Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the
pressure at this point.
Along the central streamline at 1: velocity u1 , pressure p1
at the stagnation point of: u2 = 0. (Also z1 = z2)
p1 u12

U 2
p2
p2
U
1
p1 Uu12
2
113
How can we use this?
Pitot Static Tube

The necessity of two piezometers makes this
arrangement awkward.
The blunt body does not have to be a solid.

I could be a static column of fluid.
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot
tube within the pipe can be used as shown below to
measure velocity of flow.
h1
114
The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and

they can then be easily connected to a
manometer.
h2
1
2
1
X
h
A
We have the equation for p2 ,
p2
Ugh2
u
1
p1 Uu12
2
1
Ugh1 Uu12
2
2 g (h2 h1 )
[Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its
diameter is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are
considered to be at the same level]
We now have an expression for velocity from two

pressure measurements and the application of the
Bernoulli equation.
115
The holes on the side connect to one side of a

manometer, while the central hole connects to the
other side of the manometer
116
Using the theory of the manometer,
p1 Ug X h Uman gh
pB
p2 UgX
pA
pB
p2
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring

discharge in a pipe.
p1 Ug X h Uman gh
p2 UgX
We know that
Venturi Meter
pA
It is a rapidly converging section which increases the

velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure.
1
p1 Uu12 , giving
2
p1 hg Uman U
p1
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe

by a gently diverging diffuser section.
Uu12
2
2 gh( Um U )
u1
about 6
about 20
The Pitot/Pitot-static is:

2
xSimple to use (and analyse)
xGives velocities (not discharge)

z2
xMay block easily as the holes are small.
z1
datum
Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2

117
p1 u12

z
Ug 2 g 1
p2 u22

z
Ug 2 g 2
The theoretical (ideal) discharge is uuA.

Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to
friction, we include a coefficient of discharge (Cd |0.9)
By continuity
Q
u2
u1 A1
Qideal
u2 A2
Qactual
u12 A1
1
2 g A2
Cd Qideal
Cd u1 A1
p p2
z1 z2
2g 1
Ug
Cd A1 A2
A12 A22
In terms of the manometer readings
p1 Ugz1
u12 A12 A22
2 g A22
u1
u1 A1
Qactual
u1 A1
A2
Substituting and rearranging gives
p1 p2
z1 z2
Ug
118
p1 p2
z1 z2
Ug
p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h)
U
h man 1
U
Giving
p p2
z1 z2
2g 1
Ug
A2
2
2
A1 A2
Qactual
Cd A1 A2
U
2 gh man 1
U
A12 A22
This expression does not include any

elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
When used with a manometer
The Venturimeter can be used without knowing its angle.
119
120
Flow Through A Small Orifice

Venturimeter design:
Flow from a tank through a hole in the side.
xThe diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration

after the throat. So that pressure rises to something near
that before the meter.
xThe angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8
degrees.
Aactual
xWider and the flow might separate from the walls

increasing energy loss.
xIf the angle is less the meter becomes very long and
pressure losses again become significant.
xThe efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back
to the original is rarely greater than 80%.
Vena contractor
The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional

losses by minimising the contact between the hole and the
liquid.
The streamlines at the orifice
contract reducing the area of flow.
xCare must be taken when connecting the manometer so

that no burrs are present.
This contraction is called the vena contracta.

The amount of contraction must
be known to calculate the flow.
121
Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1

on the surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice.
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the
pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0).
We use a coefficient of contraction

to get the area of the jet
If we take the datum line through the orifice

then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
u2
The discharge through the orifice

is
jet area u jet velocity
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta
not the area of the orifice.
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so

again the pressure is atmospheric (p2 = 0).
122
Aactual
u22
2g
Cc Aorifice
Giving discharge through the orifice:
2 gh
This theoretical value of velocity is an overestimate

as friction losses have not been taken into account.
Q
Qactual
Au
Aactual uactual
Cc Cv Aorifice utheoretical
A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the

theoretical velocity,
uactual
Cd Aorifice utheoretical
Cv utheoretical
Cd Aorifice 2 gh
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they

usually lie in the range( 0.97 - 0.99)
123
Cd is the coefficient of discharge,

C d = C c u Cv
124
This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so
Time for the tank to empty

We have an expression for the discharge from the tank
Cd Ao 2 gh
A
Cd Ao 2 gh
We can use this to calculate how long

it will take for level in the to fall
Gh
Gt
A
Gh
Cd Ao 2 g h
Gt
As the tank empties the level of water falls.
The discharge will also drop.
Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final

level, h2, gives the time it takes to fall this height
h1
h2
The tank has a cross sectional area of A.

In a time dt the level falls by dh
The flow out of the tank is
h 1/2
Gh
Gt
2 h
2h1/ 2
A
>2 h @hh12
Cd Ao 2 g
2A
Cd Ao 2 g
Au
Q A
A
h2 Gh
h
Cd Ao 2 g 1 h
>
h2 h1
(-ve sign as dh is falling)

125
Submerged Orifice
What if the tank is feeding into another?
126
Time for Equalisation of Levels in Two Tanks

The time for the levels to equalise can be found by
integrating this equation as before.
Area A1
Area A2
h1
By the continuity equation
h2
Gh1
Gh
A2 2
Gt
Gt
A1Gh1 A2Gh2
A1
Q
QGt
Orifice area Ao
Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the

deeper tank to point 2 at the centre of the orifice,
p2 u22
p1 u12

z1

z2
Ug
Ug
2g
0 0 h1
u2
writing
2g
Ugh2 u22

0
Ug 2 g
A1 A2
and
QGt
2 g (h1 h2 )
And the discharge is given by
Gh Gh1 Gh2 so
A1Gh1 A2Gh1 A2Gh
A2Gh
Gh1
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 ) Gt
Cd Ao u
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 )
but
So the discharge of the jet through the submerged orifice

depends on the difference in head across the orifice.
127
Gt
A1Gh1
A1 A2
Gh
A1 A2
h1 h2
A1 A2
Gh
A1 A2 Cd Ao 2 g h
128
Integrating between the two levels
Flow Over Notches and Weirs
A1 A2
Gh
h
final
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g hinitial h
xA notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir.

xIt is a device for measuring discharge.
h final
2 A1 A2
> h @hinitial
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g
2 A1 A2
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g
>
h final hinitial
xA weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in

rivers.
xIt is used as both a discharge measuring device and a
device to raise water levels.
xThere are many different designs of weir.
h is the difference in height between

the two levels (h2 - h1)
xWe will look at sharp crested weirs.

Weir Assumptions
The time for the levels to equal use

hinitial = (h1 - h2) and hfinal = 0
xvelocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we

can ignore kinetic energy.
xThe velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below
the free surface. u
2 gh
These assumptions are fine for tanks with notches or
reservoirs with weirs, in rivers with high velocity
approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must
be taken into account
129
130
A General Weir Equation
Rectangular Weir
Consider a horizontal strip of

width b, depth h below the free surface
The width does not change with depth so
b
b
constant
velocity through the strip, u

discharge through the strip, GQ
2 gh
Au bGh 2 gh
Substituting this into the general weir equation gives

H
Qtheoretical B 2 g h1/ 2 dh
0
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir

crest, h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge
H
2 g bh1/ 2 dh
Qtheoretical
0
2
B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient
of discharge, Cd, to account for
losses at the edges of the weir
and contractions in the area of flow,
This is different for every differently

shaped weir or notch.
We need an expression relating the width of flow
across the weir to the depth below the free surface.
131
Qactual
Cd
2
B 2 gH 3 / 2
3
132
V Notch Weir
The Momentum Equation

And Its Applications
The relationship between width and depth is

dependent on the angle of the V.
We have all seen moving

fluids exerting forces.
x The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the air

moving over the wing.
The width, b, a depth h from the free surface is
x A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on

whatever it hits.
T
2 H h tan
2
So the discharge is
The analysis of motion is as in solid mechanics:

by use of Newtons laws of motion.
Qtheoretical
T
2 2 g tan H hh1/ 2 dh
2
0
H
2
T 2
2 2 g tan Hh 3/ 2 h5/ 2
2 3
5
0
The Momentum equation

is a statement of Newtons Second Law
8
T
2 g tan H 5/ 2
2
15
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a
coefficient of discharge
Qactual
Cd
It relates the sum of the forces

to the acceleration or
rate of change of momentum.
8
T
2 g tan H 5 / 2
2
15
133
134
From solid mechanics you will recognise

F = ma
In time Gt a volume of the fluid moves

from the inlet a distance u1Gt, so
What mass of moving fluid we should use?
volume entering the stream tube = area u distance

= A 1u1 Gt
We use a different form of the equation.

Consider a streamtube:
And assume steady non-uniform flow
The mass entering,
mass entering stream tube = volume u density

= U1 A1 u1 Gt
A2
u2
A1
u1
And momentum
momentum entering stream tube = mass u velocity

= U1 A1 u1 Gt u1
1
u1 t
Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:
momentum leaving stream tube = U2 A 2 u 2 Gt u 2
135
136
By Newtons 2nd Law.
An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
Force = rate of change of momentum
F=
mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2

we can write
( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 )
Gt
rate of change of mass
dm
dt
U1 A1u1 U2 A2u2
m
We know from continuity that

The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is
U1 A1u1u1 mu
1
Q A1u1 A2 u2
The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is
And if we have a fluid of constant density,

i.e. U1 U2 U , then
U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
F QU (u2 u1 )
Thus the rate at which momentum changes

across the stream tube is
U2 A2 u2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
2 mu
1
So
Force = rate of change of momentum

F m ( u2 u1 )
137
138
So we have these two expressions,

either one is known as the momentum equation
The previous analysis assumed the inlet and

outlet velocities in the same direction
i.e. a one dimensional system.
F m ( u2 u1 )
What happens when this is not the case?
u2
2
QU ( u2 u1 )
The Momentum equation.

1
This force acts on the fluid

in the direction of the flow of the fluid.
u1
We consider the forces by resolving in the

directions of the co-ordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction
Fx
m u2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
m u2 x u1 x
or
Fx
UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
UQu2 x u1 x
139
140
And the force in the y-direction
Fy
In summary we can say:
m u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
Total force
on the fluid =
m u2 y u1 y
or
Fy
UQu2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
UQ u2 y u1 y
F
rate of change of
momentum through
the control volume
m uout uin
or
UQuout uin
The resultant force can be found by combining

these components
Fy
Remember that we are working with vectors so

F is in the direction of the velocity.
FResultant
Fx
Fresultant
Fx2 Fy2
And the angle of this force
Fy
tan 1
Fx
141
This force is made up of three components:
142
Application of the Momentum Equation
FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body

touching the control volume
Force due the flow around a pipe bend
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
A converging pipe bend

lying in the horizontal plane
turning through an angle of T.
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure

outside the control volume
So we say that the total force, FT,

is given by the sum of these forces:
u2
A2
F T = FR + F B + F P
1
u1
A1
The force exerted

by the fluid
on the solid body
touching the control volume is opposite to FR.
So the reaction force, R, is given by
R = -FR
143
144
Why do we want to know the forces here?
Control Volume
As the fluid changes direction

a force will act on the bend.
y
This force can be very large

in the case of water supply pipes.
The bend must be held in place
to prevent breakage at the joints.
2 Co-ordinate axis system
We need to know how much force a support

(thrust block) must withstand.
Any co-ordinate axis can be chosen.

Choose a convenient one, as above.
Step in Analysis:
3 Calculate the total force
1.Draw a control volume

2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3.Calculate the total force
4.Calculate the pressure force
5.Calculate the body force
6.Calculate the resultant force
In the x-direction:
FT x
UQu2 x u1 x
u1 x
u1
u2 x
u2 cosT
FT x
UQu2 cosT u1
145
In the y-direction:
UQ u2 y u1 y
FT y
u1 y
u1 sin 0
u2 y
u2 sin T
FT y
UQu2 sin T
Knowing the pressures at each end the pressure

force can be calculated,
FP
4 Calculate the pressure force

If we know pressure at the inlet we can relate
this to the pressure at the outlet.
Ug 2 g
pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
FP x
p1 A1 cos 0 p2 A2 cosT
FP y
p1 A1 sin 0 p2 A2 sin T
The body force due to gravity is acting in the

z-direction so need not be considered.
6 Calculate the resultant force
As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2

And with continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2
FT x
p2
1
1
2
2
2 A2 A1
UQ
p2 A2 sin T
There are no body forces in the x or y directions.

FRx = FRy = 0
p2 u22

z hf
Ug 2 g 2
where hf is the friction loss

(this can often be ignored, hf=0)
p1
p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
5 Calculate the body force
Use Bernoulli.
p1 u12

z1
146
FT y
147
FR x FP x FB x
FR y FP y FB y
148
FR x
FT x FP x 0
Impact of a Jet on a Plane
UQu2 cosT u1 p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
FR y
A jet hitting a flat plate (a plane)

at an angle of 90q
FT y FP y 0
We want to find the reaction force of the plate.
i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay
in the same position.
UQu2 sin T p2 A2 sin T

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
FRy
FResultant
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are

shown in the figure below.
FRx
u2
FR2 x FR2 y
FR
x
u1
And the direction of application is
FR y
tan 1
FR x
u2
the force on the bend is the same magnitude but

in the opposite direction
FR
149

In the x-direction
FT x
150
FT x
FR x
UQu2 x u1 x
FR x FP x FB x
FT x 0 0
UQu1 x
UQu1 x
Exerted on the fluid.
The system is symmetrical

the forces in the y-direction cancel.
The force on the plane is the same magnitude

but in the opposite direction
FR x
R
FT y
4 Calculate the pressure force.

The pressures at both the inlet and the outlets
to the control volume are atmospheric.
The pressure force is zero
FP x
FP y
FB y
y
u2
0
u1

As the control volume is small
we can ignore the body force due to gravity.
FB x
If the plane were at an angle

the analysis is the same.
But it is usually most convenient to choose the
axis system normal to the plate.
u3

151
152
Force on a curved vane

in the x direction
This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the

analysis is simpler.
UQu2 u1 cosT
FT x
Pressures at ends are equal - atmospheric

by continuity u1
Q
, so
A
u2
Both the cross-section and velocities

(in the direction of flow) remain constant.
U
FT x
Q2
1 cosT
A
u2
and in the y-direction
FT y
UQu2 sin T 0
U
u1
Q2
A
4 Calculate the pressure force.

The pressure at both the inlet and the outlets to
the control volume is atmospheric.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure above.
FP x
FP y
153
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
No body forces in the x-direction, FB x = 0.
UgV
FR x
FT x
U
The force on the vane is the same magnitude

but in the opposite direction
Q2
1 cosT
A
FT y
FR y FP y FB y
FR y
FT y
FR y
tan 1
FR x
exerted on the fluid.
FR x FP x FB x
And the direction of application is
(This is often small as the jet volume is small

and sometimes ignored in analysis.)
FT x
FR2 x FR2 y
FR
In the y-direction the body force acting is the

weight of the fluid.
If V is the volume of the fluid on the vane then,
FB x
154
FR
Q2
A
155
156
LECTURE CONTENTS
Real fluids
x Introduction to Laminar and Turbulent flow
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Section 2: Statics
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
Similarity
x Head loss in pipes

x Hagen-Poiseuille equation
x Boundary layer theory
x Boundary layer separation
x Losses at bends and junctions
157
158
Flowing real fluids exhibit

viscous effects, they:
Laminar and turbulent flow
x stick to solid surfaces

x have stresses within their body.
Injecting a dye into the middle of flow in a pipe,

what would we expect to happen?
This
From earlier we saw this relationship between

shear stress and velocity gradient:
W v
du
dy
The shear stress, W, in a fluid

is proportional to the velocity gradient
- the rate of change of velocity across the flow.
this
For a Newtonian fluid we can write:
du
dy
or this
where P is coefficient of viscosity

(or simply viscosity).
Here we look at the influence of forces due to
momentum changes and viscosity
in a moving fluid.
159
160
All three would happen but for different flow rates.
The was first investigated in the 1880s

by Osbourne Reynolds
in a classic experiment in fluid mechanics.
Top: Slow flow

Middle: Medium flow
Bottom: Fast flow
Top:
Middle:
Bottom:
A tank arranged as below:
Laminar flow
Transitional flow
Turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
overall direction of flow is one way.
But what is fast or slow?
At what speed does the flow pattern change?
And why might we want to know this?
161
After many experiments he found this

expression
162
What are the units of Reynolds number?

We can fill in the equation with SI units:
Uud
P
U = density,
d = diameter
U kg / m3 , u m / s,
P Ns / m2 kg / m s
u = mean velocity,
P = viscosity
Re
kg m m m s
1
m3 s 1 kg
A quantity with no units is known as a

non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity.
This value is known as the

Reynolds number, Re:
Laminar flow:
Transitional flow:
Turbulent flow:
It has no units!
This could be used to predict the change in

flow type for any fluid.
Re
Uud
P
(We will see more of these in the section on

dimensional analysis.)
Uud
P
The Reynolds number, Re,

is a non-dimensional number.
Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000
163
164
At what speed does the flow pattern change?
What is the MINIMUM velocity when flow is

turbulent i.e. Re = 4000
We use the Reynolds number in an example:
Re
A pipe and the fluid flowing
have the following properties:
water density
pipe diameter
(dynamic) viscosity,
U = 1000 kg/m3
Uud
P
4000
0.0044 m / s
In a house central heating system,

typical pipe diameter = 0.015m,
d = 0.5m
P = 0.55x103 Ns/m2
limiting velocities would be,

0.0733 and 0.147m/s.
What is the MAXIMUM velocity when flow is
laminar i.e. Re = 2000
Re
u
u
Uud
P
Both of these are very slow.

In practice laminar flow rarely occurs
in a piped water system.
2000
Laminar flow does occur in

fluids of greater viscosity
e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant.
2000P 2000 u 0.55 u 10 3

1000 u 0.5
Ud
0.0022 m / s
165
166
Laminar flow
What does this abstract number mean?

xRe < 2000
We can give the Re number a physical meaning.
xlow velocity
xDye does not mix with water
xFluid particles move in straight lines
This may help to understand some of the

reasons for the changes from laminar to
turbulent flow.
Re
xSimple mathematical analysis possible

xRare in practice in water systems.
Uud
P
Transitional flow
x2000 > Re < 4000
xmedium velocity
inertial forces
viscous forces
xDye stream wavers - mixes slightly.
When inertial forces dominate

(when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger)
the flow is turbulent.
Turbulent flow
xRe > 4000
xhigh velocity
xDye mixes rapidly and completely
xParticle paths completely irregular
When the viscous forces are dominant

(slow flow, low Re)
they keep the fluid particles in line,
the flow is laminar.
xAverage motion is in flow direction

xCannot be seen by the naked eye
xChanges/fluctuations are very difficult to
detect. Must use laser.
xMathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used
xMost common type of flow.

167
168
Attaching a manometer gives

pressure (head) loss due to the energy lost by
the fluid overcoming the shear stress.
Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline

Up to now we have considered ideal fluids:
no energy losses due to friction
Because fluids are viscous,

energy is lost by flowing fluids due to friction.
This must be taken into account.
p
The effect of the friction shows itself as a

pressure (or head) loss.
The pressure at 1 (upstream)
is higher than the pressure at 2.
In a real flowing fluid shear stress

slows the flow.
How can we quantify this pressure loss

in terms of the forces acting on the fluid?
To give a velocity profile:
169
Consider a cylindrical element of

incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe,
As the flow is in equilibrium,
170
driving force = retarding force
'p
area A
Ww is the mean shear stress on the boundary
Sd 2
4
'p
Upstream pressure is p,
Downstream pressure falls by 'p to (p-'p)
W wSdL
Ww 4 L
d
Giving pressure loss in a pipe in terms of:

The driving force due to pressure
xpipe diameter
xshear stress at the wall
driving force = Pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
pA p 'p A
'p A
'p
Sd 2
4
The retarding force is due to the shear stress
shear stress u area over which it acts

= W w u area of pipe wall
= W wSdL
171
172
What is the variation of shear stress in the flow?
Shear stress and hence pressure loss varies

with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
w
Many experiments have been done
with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers.
R
r
A graph of pressure loss and Re look like:
At the wall
Ww
R 'p
2 L
At a radius r
W
W
r 'p
2 L
r
Ww
R
A linear variation in shear stress.

This graph shows that the relationship between
pressure loss and Re can be expressed as
This is valid for:

xsteady flow
xlaminar flow
xturbulent flow
'p v u
laminar
turbulent 'p v u1.7 ( or
2 .0 )
173
Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
174
The fluid is in equilibrium,

shearing forces equal the pressure forces.
In general the shear stress Ww. is almost

impossible to measure.
For laminar flow we can calculate
a theoretical value for
a given velocity, fluid and pipe dimension.
W 2Sr L
'p A
'p r
L 2
Newtons law of viscosity saysW
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles

of fluid do not cross.
du
,
dy
We are measuring from the pipe centre, so
Flow is like a series of concentric cylinders

sliding over each other.
P
du
dr
Giving:
'p r
du
P
L 2
dr
du
'p r

dr
L 2P
And the stress on the fluid in laminar flow is

entirely due to viscose forces.
As before, consider a cylinder of fluid, length L,
radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe.
In an integral form this gives an

expression for velocity,
r
r
'pSr 2
175
'p 1
r dr
L 2P
176
The value of velocity at a

point distance r from the centre
ur
What is the discharge in the pipe?
'p r 2
C
L 4P
The flow in an annulus of thickness Gr
GQ ur Aannulus
Aannulus
At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at

r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;
2
'p R
L 4P
At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is

laminar:
ur
'p 1
R2 r 2
L 4P
This is a parabolic profile

(of the form y = ax2 + b )
so the velocity profile in the pipe looks similar to
S (r Gr )2 Sr 2 | 2SrGr
GQ
'p 1
R 2 r 2 2SrGr
L 4P
'p S R 2
R r r 3 dr
L 2P 0
'p SR 4
L 8P
'p Sd 4
L128P
So the discharge can be written
'p Sd 4
L 128P
This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation

for laminar flow in a pipe
177
To get pressure loss (head loss)

in terms of the velocity of the flow, write
pressure in terms of head loss hf, i.e. p = Ughf
178
Boundary Layers
Recommended reading: Fluid Mechanics
by Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A.
Longman publishers. Pages 327-332.
Mean velocity:
Q/ A
Ugh f d 2
32 PL
Fluid flowing over a stationary surface,

e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe,
is brought to rest by the shear stress to
This gives a, now familiar, velocity profile:
umax
Head loss in a pipe with laminar flow by the

Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
o
zero velocity
hf
32 PLu
Ugd
Wall
2
Zero at the wall
A maximum at the centre of the flow.
Pressure loss is directly proportional to the

velocity when flow is laminar.
The profile doesnt just exit.

It is build up gradually.
It has been validated many time by experiment.

It justifies two assumptions:
1.fluid does not slip past a solid boundary
2.Newtons hypothesis.
179
Starting when it first flows past the surface

e.g. when it enters a pipe.
180
Understand this Boundary layer growth diagram.
Considering a flat plate in a fluid.
Upstream the velocity profile is uniform,

This is known as free stream flow.
Downstream a velocity profile exists.

This is known as fully developed flow.
Free stream flow
Fully developed flow
Some question we might ask:

How do we get to the fully developed state?
Are there any changes in flow as we get there?
Are the changes significant / important?
181
Boundary layer thickness:
182
First: viscous forces

(the forces which hold the fluid together)

G = distance from wall to where u = 0.99 umainstream
When the boundary layer is thin:

velocity gradient du/dy, is large
by Newtons law of viscosity
shear stress, W = P (du/dy), is large.
G increases as fluid moves along the plate.

It reaches a maximum in fully developed flow.
The force may be large enough to

drag the fluid close to the surface.
The G increase corresponds to a

drag force increase on the fluid.
As the boundary layer thickens

velocity gradient reduces and
shear stress decreases.
As fluid is passes over a greater length:

xmore fluid is slowed
xby friction between the fluid layers
xthe thickness of the slow layer increases.
Eventually it is too small

to drag the slow fluid along.
Fluid near the top of the boundary layer drags the

fluid nearer to the solid surface along.
Up to this point the flow has been laminar.

Newtons law of viscosity has applied.
The mechanism for this dragging

may be one of two types:
This part of the boundary layer is the

laminar boundary layer
183
184
Second: momentum transfer
Close to boundary velocity gradients are very large.

Viscous shear forces are large.
Possibly large enough to cause laminar flow.
This region is known as the laminar sub-layer.
If the viscous forces were the only action

the fluid would come to a rest.
This layer occurs within the turbulent zone

it is next to the wall.
It is very thin a few hundredths of a mm.
Viscous shear stresses have held the fluid

particles in a constant motion within layers.
Eventually they become too small to
hold the flow in layers;
Surface roughness effect
the fluid starts to rotate.
Despite its thinness, the laminar sub-layer has vital

role in the friction characteristics of the surface.
In turbulent flow:
Roughness higher than laminar sub-layer:
increases turbulence and energy losses.
In laminar flow:
Roughness has very little effect
The fluid motion rapidly becomes turbulent.

Momentum transfer occurs between fast moving
main flow and slow moving near wall flow.
Thus the fluid by the wall is kept in motion.
The net effect is an increase in momentum in the
boundary layer.
This is the turbulent boundary layer.
Boundary layers in pipes

Initially of the laminar form.
It changes depending on the ratio of inertial and
viscous forces;
i.e. whether we have laminar (viscous forces high) or
turbulent flow (inertial forces high).
185
Use Reynolds number to determine which state.

Uud
Re
Boundary layer separation

Divergent flows:
Positive pressure gradients.
Pressure increases in the direction of flow.
Laminar flow:
Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 <

Turbulent flow:
186
Re < 4000
Re > 4000
The fluid in the boundary layer has so little

momentum that it is brought to rest,
and possibly reversed in direction.
Reversal lifts the boundary layer.
u1
u2
p1
p2
p1 < p 2
u1 > u2
Laminar flow: profile parabolic (proved in earlier lectures)

The first part of the boundary layer growth diagram.
Turbulent (or transitional),
Laminar and the turbulent (transitional) zones of the
boundary layer growth diagram.
Length of pipe for fully developed flow is
the entry length.
Laminar flow
|120 u diameter
This phenomenon is known as

boundary layer separation.
Turbulent flow | 60 u diameter

187
188
Boundary layer separation:
Examples of boundary layer separation
xincreases the turbulence

A divergent duct or diffuser
velocity drop
(according to continuity)
pressure increase
(according to the Bernoulli equation).
xincreases the energy losses in the flow.

Separating / divergent flows are inherently
unstable
Convergent flows:
xNegative pressure gradients
xPressure decreases in the direction of flow.
xFluid accelerates and the boundary layer is thinner.
u1
Increasing the angle increases the probability of

boundary layer separation.
u2
p2
p1
Venturi meter
p1 > p2
Diffuser angle of about 6q

A balance between:
u1 < u 2
xFlow remains stable
xlength of meter
xdanger of boundary layer separation.
xTurbulence reduces.
xBoundary layer separation does not occur.
189
190
Tee-Junctions
Assuming equal sized pipes),

Velocities at 2 and 3 are smaller than at 1.
Pressure at 2 and 3 are higher than at 1.
Causing the two separations shown
Two separation zones occur in bends as shown
above.
Pb > Pa causing separation.
Pd > Pc causing separation
Y-Junctions
Tee junctions are special cases of the Y-junction.
Localised effect
Downstream the boundary layer reattaches and
normal flow occurs.
Boundary layer separation is only local.
Nevertheless downstream of a
junction / bend /valve etc.
fluid will have lost energy.
Bends
191
192
Flow past a cylinder

Slow flow, Re < 0.5 no separation:
Moderate flow, Re < 70, separation

vortices form.
Fluid accelerates to get round the cylinder

Velocity maximum at Y.
Pressure dropped.
Fast flow Re > 70

vortices detach alternately.
Form a trail of down stream.
Karman vortex trail or street.
(Easily seen by looking over a bridge)
Adverse pressure between here and downstream.

Separation occurs
Causes whistling in power cables.

Caused Tacoma narrows bridge to collapse.
Frequency of detachment was equal to the bridge
natural frequency.
193
Aerofoil
Normal flow over a aerofoil or a wing cross-section.
(boundary layers greatly exaggerated)
194
At too great an angle

boundary layer separation occurs on the top
Pressure changes dramatically.
This phenomenon is known as stalling.
All, or most, of the suction pressure is lost.

The plane will suddenly drop from the sky!
The velocity increases as air flows over the wing. The

pressure distribution is as below
so transverse lift force occurs.
Solution:
Prevent separation.
1 Engine intakes draws slow air from the boundary
layer at the rear of the wing though small holes
2 Move fast air from below to top via a slot.
3 Put a flap on the end of the wing and tilt it.
195
196
Examples:
LECTURE CONTENTS
Exam questions involving boundary layer theory are

typically descriptive. They ask you to explain the
mechanisms of growth of the boundary layers including
how, why and where separation occurs. You should also be
able to suggest what might be done to prevent separation.

Similarity
197
198
Dimensions and units
Dimensional Analysis
Application of fluid mechanics in design makes use
of experiments results.
Any physical situation

can be described by familiar properties.
Results often difficult to interpret.

Dimensional analysis provides a strategy for
choosing relevant data.
Used to help analyse fluid flow
e.g. length, velocity, area, volume, acceleration etc.
Especially when fluid flow is too complex for

mathematical analysis.
These are all known as dimensions.
Specific uses:
Dimensions are of no use without a magnitude.
x help design experiments
i.e. a standardised unit
x Informs which measurements are important
e.g metre, kilometre, Kilogram, a yard etc.
x Allows most to be obtained from experiment:

Dimensions can be measured.
e.g. What runs to do. How to interpret.
Units used to quantify these dimensions.

It depends on the correct identification of variables
In dimensional analysis we are concerned with the
nature of the dimension
Relates these variables together

Doesnt give the complete answer
i.e. its quality not its quantity.
Experiments necessary to complete solution

Uses principle of dimensional homogeneity
Give qualitative results which only become
quantitative from experimental analysis.
199
200
The following common abbreviations are used:
This table lists dimensions of some common

physical quantities:
length
=L
Quantity
SI Unit
mass
=M
velocity
m/s
ms-1
LT-1
=T
acceleration
m/s2
ms-2
LT-2
force
N
kg ms-2
M LT-2
kg m2s-2
ML2T-2
time
force
=F
temperature
=4
kg m/s2
energy (or work)
Joule J
N m,
kg m2/s2
Here we will use L, M, T and F (not 4).
power
We can represent all the physical properties we are

interested in with three:
Watt W
pressure ( or stress)
N m/s
Nms-1
kg m2/s3
kg m2s-3
N/m2,
Nm-2
kg/m/s2
kg m-1s-2
kg/m
specific weight
relative density
kg m
ML-3
kg m-2s-2
ML-2T-2
a ratio
no units
no dimension
viscosity
F = MLT
ML-1T-2
N/m
kg/m2/s2
-2
-3
and one of M or F
As either mass (M) of force (F) can be used to
represent the other, i.e.
ML2T-3
Pascal P,
density
L, T
Dimension
surface tension
2 -1
M = FT L
N s/m2
N sm-2
kg/m s
kg m-1s-1
M L-1T-1
-1
N/m
Nm
kg /s2
kg s-2
MT-2
We will always use LTM:
201
Dimensional Homogeneity
202
What exactly do we get

from Dimensional Analysis?
Any equation is only true if both sides

have the same dimensions.
A single equation,
It must be dimensionally homogenous.
Which relates all the physical factors

of a problem to each other.
What are the dimensions of X?
2
B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
An example:
Problem: What is the force, F, on a propeller?
L (LT-2)1/2 L3/2 = X
What might influence the force?
L (L1/2T-1) L3/2 = X
L3 T-1 = X
It would be reasonable to assume that the force, F,

depends on the following physical properties?
The powers of the individual dimensions must be

equal on both sides.
diameter,
(for L they are both 3, for T both -1).
forward velocity of the propeller

(velocity of the plane), u
Dimensional homogeneity can be useful for:
fluid density,
1. Checking units of equations;
revolutions per second,
2. Converting between two sets of units;
fluid viscosity,
P
3. Defining dimensionless relationships
203
204
Common S groups
From this list we can write this equation:
Several groups will appear again and again.
F = I ( d, u, U, N, P )
These often have names.
0 = I ( F, d, u, U, N, P )
They can be related to physical forces.
or

Other common non-dimensional numbers
I and I1 are unknown functions.
or ( S groups):
Reynolds number:
Uud
inertial, viscous force ratio
Re
Dimensional Analysis produces:
F
Nd P
,
,
Uu 2 d 2 u Uud
Euler number:
p
En
Uu 2
These groups are dimensionless.
I will be determined by experiment.

These dimensionless groups help
to decide what experimental measurements to take.
Froude number:
u2
Fn
gd
Weber number:
Uud
We
Mach number:
u
Mn
c
pressure, inertial force ratio
inertial, gravitational force ratio
inertial, surface tension force ratio
Local velocity, local velocity of sound ratio
205
216
Kinematic similarity
Similarity
The similarity of time as well as geometry.

It exists if:
i. the paths of particles are geometrically similar
ii. the ratios of the velocities of are similar
Similarity is concerned with how to transfer

measurements from models to the full scale.
Three types of similarity
which exist between a model and prototype:
Some useful ratios are:

Vm L m / Tm O L
Velocity
Vp L p / Tp OT
Geometric similarity:
The ratio of all corresponding dimensions
in the model and prototype are equal.
Acceleration
For lengths
Lmodel
Lm
OL
Lprototype
Lp
Discharge
OL is the scale factor for length.

For areas
Amodel
L2m
O2L
Aprototype L2p
am
ap
Qm
Qp
Lm / Tm2
L p / Tp2
L3m / Tm
L3p / Tp
Ou
OL
O2T
O3L
OT
Oa
OQ
A consequence is that streamline

patterns are the same.
All corresponding angles are the same.
217
218
Dynamic similarity
Modelling and Scaling Laws

Measurements taken from a model needs a scaling
law applied to predict the values in the prototype.
If geometrically and kinematically similar and

the ratios of all forces are the same.
Fm
Fp
M mam
M pa p
Force ratio
2
Um L3m O L
2 OL
O
O
u
U L
U p L3p O2T
OT
An example:
O U O2L O2u
For resistance R, of a body

moving through a fluid.
R, is dependent on the following:
This occurs when

the controlling S group
is the same for model and prototype.
U
LT-1
u:
l:(length) L
P:
ML-1T-1
So
I (R, U, u, l, P ) = 0
The controlling S group is usually Re.

So Re is the same for
model and prototype:
Um um dm
Pm
ML-3
Taking U, u, l as repeating variables gives:
R
Uu 2 l 2
U p upd p
Pp
It is possible another group is dominant.

In open channel i.e. river Froude number is
often taken as dominant.
Uul
Uul
Uu 2 l 2 I
This applies whatever the size of the body

i.e. it is applicable to prototype and
a geometrically similar model.
219
220
Example 1
For the model
Rm
Um um2 lm2
An underwater missile, diameter 2m and length 10m is tested in a

water tunnel to determine the forces acting on the real prototype.
A 1/20th scale model is to be used. If the maximum allowable speed
of the prototype missile is 10 m/s, what should be the speed of the
water in the tunnel to achieve dynamic similarity?
Um um lm
Pm
and for the prototype
Rp
U p u 2p l p2
Dynamic similarity so Reynolds numbers equal:

Um um dm U p u p d p
U u l
I p p p
Pp
Pm
Dividing these two equations gives
Rm / Um um2 lm2
R p / U p u 2p l p2
The model velocity should be

U d P
um u p p p m
Um d m P p
I Um um lm / P m
IU puplp / P p
W can go no further without some assumptions.

Assuming dynamic similarity, so Reynolds number
are the same for both the model and prototype:
Um um dm
Pm
Pp
U p upd p
Pp
Both the model and prototype are in water then,

Pm = Pp and Um = Up so
um
up
dp
dm
10
1
1 / 20
200 m / s
so
Rm
Rp
Um um2 lm2
U p u 2p l p2
This is a very high velocity.

This is one reason why model tests are not always
done at exactly equal Reynolds numbers.
i.e. a scaling law for resistance force:
OR
A wind tunnel could have been used so the values of

the U and P ratios would be used in the above.
OU O2u O2L
221
222
Example 2
So the model velocity is found to be
A model aeroplane is built at 1/10 scale and is to be tested in a

wind tunnel operating at a pressure of 20 times atmospheric. The
aeroplane will fly at 500km/h. At what speed should the wind
tunnel operate to give dynamic similarity between the model and
prototype? If the drag measure on the model is 337.5 N what will
be the drag on the plane?
Uul
Uu l I
Rm
Rp
Uu l I Re
2 2
Rm
Rp
For dynamic similarity Rem = Rep, so
0.5u p
Uu l
Uu l
2 2
2 2
20 0.5
1 1
p
2
2
.
01
0.05
So the drag force on the prototype will be
U d P
up p p m
Um d m P p
um
um
1 1
20 1 / 10
250 km / h
up
And the ratio of forces is
Earlier we derived an equation for resistance on a

body moving through air:
2 2
um
Rp
1
Rm
0.05
20 u 337.5 6750 N
The value of P does not change much with pressure

so Pm = Pp
For an ideal gas is p = URT so the density of the air in
the model can be obtained from
pm
pp
20 p p
pp
Um
Um RT
U p RT
Um
Up
Um
Up
20U p
223
Geometric distortion in river models

For practical reasons it is difficult to build a
geometrically similar model.
A model with suitable depth of flow will often be far
too big - take up too much floor space.
Keeping Geometric Similarity result in:
xdepths and become very difficult to measure;
xthe bed roughness becomes impracticably
small;
xlaminar flow may occur (turbulent flow is normal in rivers.)
Solution: Abandon geometric similarity.
Typical values are
1/100 in the vertical and 1/400 in the horizontal.
Resulting in:
xGood overall flow patterns and discharge
xlocal detail of flow is not well modelled.
The Froude number (Fn) is taken as dominant.
Fn can be the same even for distorted models.
225
224

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[As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work.

Notes For the First Year Lecture Course:

0. Contents of the Course

Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.

1 Marked problem sheet, worth 10% of the module credits.

Akiskanlar Mekanigi, Prof.Dr. M. Salih Kirkgz, Kare Yaynlari

Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics

Sea and river (flood) defences;

Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;

Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;

Pumps and Turbines;

Water retaining structures.

Flow of air in / around buildings;

Bridge piers in rivers;

What make fluid mechanics different

xThe nature of a fluid is different to that of a solid

In this section we will consider how we

We know that fluids flow under the

What use can we make of these ideas?

So we can say that

Take the rectangular element below.

xfluids change shape as long as a

What forces cause it to deform?

(These definitions include both

Fluid next to the wall will have zero velocity.

Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F,

The fluid sticks to the wall.

From this we arrive at the definition:

Moving away from the wall velocity increases

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

This has the following implications

Plotting the velocity across the section gives

If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting

Change in velocity with distance is

As fluids are usually near surfaces

What use is this observation?

Under normal conditions one fluid

It would be useful if we could quantify

We will examine the force required to

What if not near a wall?

Consider this 3-d rectangular element,

No velocity gradient, no shear forces.

A 2-d view may be clearer

The shearing force acts on the area

under the action of the force F

Shear stress, W is the force per unit area:

The deformation which shear stress causes is

Using these definitions we can amend our

In a fluid I increases for as long as W is applied the fluid flows

It has been shown experimentally that the

in differential form this is

The constant of proportionality is known as

We can express this in terms of the cuboid.

u/y is the rate of change of velocity with distance,

which is know as Newtons law of viscosity

rate of shear strain

is the velocity of the particle at E)

Some fluids do not have constant P.

This graph shows how P changes for different fluids.

The general relationship is:

They do obey a similar relationship and can

where A, B and n are constants.

For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = P and n = 1

Shear stress, W is the force per unit area:

N m 3 , Paraffin Oil =7851 N m 3

ps u Area ABCD u sin T

p yGxGy psGxGz Ug GxGyGz

ps u Area ABCD u cosT