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Employment
1. Fundamental Equation
2. Principle of Effective Demand
3. Consumption Function
4. Marginal Efficiency of Capital (MEC) and
rate of interest
5. Multiplier
6. Trade Cycle
7. Fiscal Policy
1. Fundamental Equation
The fundamental equation of Keynes is
Y=C+I
Y = National Income
C = Consumption
I = Investment
According to Keynes, the level of national income
determines the level of employment.
If NI increases the level of employment could also
be increased.
So that, increasing the level of NI employment also
increases and thereby the economy should be move
from the under-employment to full employment
condition.
According to Keynes the three constituents of national income are
– consumption, investment and expenditure
Government expenditure plays a dominant role and according to
Keynes formula
Y=C+I+G
Y = National Income
C = Consumption
I = Investment
G = Government Expenditure.
Keynes total income depends on total employment – this depends
on effective demand in the economy.
Effective demand depends on consumption expenditure and
investment expenditure.
Consumption depends on income and propensity to consume –
Investment depends on Marginal Efficiency of Capital (MEC) and
rate of interest.
Level of Employment and Income
MEC
Size of Propensity to Rate of Interest
Income Consume
Expectation of Replacement
Profit cost
Liquidity Supply of
Preference Money
C+Y
C2 R
P
Consumption
C1
Y1 Y2
Income
• The propensity to consume higher in the lower income level
and lower in high income level (poor and rich)
• Propensity to consume is fairly stable during short period as
the consumption habits of the community will not change.
• Propensity to consume – two types
• Average propensity to consume (APC) – refers to the total
amount of consumption expenditure divided by a given total
income at a particular period.
C
APC = Total Consumption A P≡ C
Total Income Y
• Marginal propensity to consume (MPC) –refers to the additional changes
in consumption as result of changes in income
MPC = ∆ C
∆ Y
4. Marginal Efficiency of Capital (MEC)
Keynesian effective demand consists of two major components –
consumption and investment.
Consumption function – more or less stable in the short period.
Therefore investment function has the vital role in determination of
effective demand.
The level of investment depends upon two important factors –
marginal efficiency of capital and rate of interest.
MEC refers to the expected profitability of an additional capital
asset.
It may be defined as the highest rate of return over cost expected
from the marginal or additional unit of capital asset.
For example, suppose a plant costs Rs. 10.000 to an entrepreneur
and the expected yield from the plant is Rs. 500 per annum.
Then the marginal efficiency of the plant would be 500 X 100 = 5%
10.000
Q1 Q2 Q3
____
+ + + …….. Qn
(1 + r) (1+r)2 (1=r)3
(1+r)n
5. Rate of Interest
The rate of interest is determined on the
liquidity preference of the people.
Liquidity preference is governed by
transaction motive, precautionary motives and
speculative motives.
The supply of money and the liquidity
preference together determine the rate of
interest.
Investment function
Investment function is the crucial factor in the
determination of effective demand.
Investment demand depends upon two factors MEC
and rate of interest.
Rate of interest is comparatively stable and does not
frequently change in the short run. Therefore, the
fluctuations in the level of investment depends on
MEC.
Higher the MEC higher will be the level of
investment and vice-versa.
During the period of depression the prospects of
profit will become little and they may not be
increased by the economy.
Investment has two types
1. Induced investment and
2. Autonomous investment.
Autonomous investment is an investment which does not
change with the changes in the income level – independent of
income.
Keynes thought that the level of investment depends upon
MEC and rate of interest – therefore, changes in income level
will not affect investment.
Autonomous investment generally takes place in houses,
roads, public undertakings and in other types of economic
infrastructure such as power, transport and communication.
This autonomous investment depends more on population
growth and technical progress than on the level of income.
Most of the autonomous investment undertaken by
government – at time of depression enhancing aggregate
demand.
Y
Ia Ia
Investment
O National Income Y
Savings and Investments
Keynes in his famous work “General Theory of employment,
interest and money” – saving and investment are always equal.
This gave rise to a severe controversy in economics as to whether
saving and investment are always equal or unequal.
The modern economists argues that concepts of saving and
investment in two different senses.
Savings and investment are always equal – at equilibrium position.
Savings and investments are not equal under disequilibrium position.
Aggregate investment is always equal to aggregate savings.
National output consists of two types goods – consumption goods
and investment goods.
O=C+I
O = National Output
C = Consumption goods
I = Investment goods
• Similarly national income is divided under two heads –
consumption and savings
Y=C+S
Y = national income
C = Consumption
S = Savings
• National output is always equal to national income
O=Y
C+S=C+I Investment = Savings
S=I
• As long as S and I are equal aggregate income Y will be
constant and the level of employment will also be constant.
• But in practice S & I need not be equal as the saver group and
investing group are different and their objectives is differ.
• This leads to divergence between savings and investments.
• If there is excess of savings over investment – it will bring
about depression in business – an excess of investment over
savings is responsible for business boom.
Multiplier
• The concept of multiplier is an important tool of analysis
in the Keynesian theory of income and employment.
• This was first introduced by R.F. Kahn – with reference to
employment. Manifold increase in employment as a result
of initial increment in investment.
• Keynes propounded the concept of investment multiplier
with reference to the much large increase in total income
direct as well as indirect, as a result of original increase in
investment.
• Keynesian multiplier is also known as investment or
income multiplier.
• The essence of multiplier is that increase in income,
output, or employment is manifold the original increase in
investment.
• For example – if investment equal to Rs.100 crores
is made, then the income will increased by multiple
of Rs.300 or 400 crores it can be says that
multiplier 3 or 4.
• Thus ratio of increment in income to the increment
in investment
• Multiplier k = MPC = ∆ Y
∆ I
K = multiplier
∆ Y = changes of income
∆ I = changes in investment
Z
Y
C+I1
C+I
∆ I
C
Aggregate Demand
∆ Y
450
O Y1 Y2 X
National Income