Filtration

(Slow sand, Rapid gravity and Roughing)

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy
Associate Professor, Thapar University
Patiala (PUNJAB) 147 001
INDIA
Granular media filtration
(rapid gravity, slow sand and roughing
filters)
Filtration types
Depth filtration and surface filtration
Granular media filters
Slow sand filters
Rapid (sand) gravity filters
open type
Closed type (pressure filters!)
High rate filters
Duel media (sand and anthracite) and multi-media (sand, anthracite
and garnet) filters
Roughing filters (pre-filters)
Membrane filters
Micro-filters
Ultra-filters
Nano-filters (Reverse Osmosis)
Home water treatment options
Candle filters
Bio-sand filter
Filtration
Used to remove suspended particles, small flocs, turbidity and
even pathogens
Rapid gravity filter for flocs and suspended particles removal
Slow sand filters for the removal of turbidity and pathogens
Roughing filter as pre-filter for reducing suspended solids,
flocs and turbidity to acceptable levels and making water fit
specially for slow sand filtration
VRF (vertical upflow) and HRF (horizontal flow)
Mechanisms of treatment
Transport of solids to the filter medium grain surface by settling,
inertial impaction/interception, diffusion, brownian motion, etc.
Retention of the transported solids by straining, electrochemical
forces, vander Waals forces, physical adsorption, etc.
Bio-film and biological action (biodegradation)
Chemical destabilization (coagulation) and flocculation also
contributes (Alum enhances pathogen removal in SSF)
Particle Removal Mechanisms
Suspension
feeders
Grazers
Attachment to
biofilms
Capture by
predators
to medium
to previously
removed
particles
by medium
by
previously
removed
particles
Straining
(fluid and
gravitational
forces)
Attachment
(electrochemical
forces)
Physical-Chemical
Biological
Particle
Removal
Mechanisms
A bed of filtering medium supported on a gravel layer resting
on a porous structure and under-drain system
Filter medium: sand (effective size & uniformity coefficient)
Water reservoir of desired height (depth) is maintained over the
filter bed for higher rates of filtration
Filtration rates are in the range 4 to 12 m/hr.
In closed type, water is maintained under pressure over the bed
Continued use clogs the filter bed and reduces filtration rates,
necessitates regular backwashing (every 24 to 72 hours once)
The filtration unit has a channel for feeding water and draining
out the backwash water
Over-head backwash water supply reservoir with necessary
piping and fittings is used in the backwashing (compressed air!)
Overflow weir and troughs are provided over the filter bed for
the backwash water collection and conveyance to the channel
Necessary piping and fittings specially valves to control flows
both during run and during backwashing (draining out of initial
filtration water as wastewater)
Rapid Gravity (open type) Filters
Schematic diagram of a rapid gravity filter
Here A, B, C, D and E are the flow control valves used
Provisions for use ofc compressed air in the backwashing
Gravel
Backwash water
Overhead tank
Multi-media filter
Filter media
Commonly used media
Sand (SG: 2.6 typical bed depth 8 to 24 inch) typical effective size 0.45
to 0.55 mm and uniformity coefficient of 1.65
Anthracite coal (SG: 1.6; typical bed depth: 6.5 to 18 inch)
Garnet (SG: 4.2; typical bed depth: 4.5 inch)
Green sand (a natural resin specific to iron and manganese)
Needs regeneration (reappearance of punk colour) with potassium
permanganate
Filtralite (baked clay!) (SG 1.6 to 1.8) synthetic medium
Granular activated carbon
Characteristics
Size and size distribution (effective size and uniformity coefficient)
Density and bulk density
Porosity (external!) and swelling properties
Ability to support microbial film development
Adsorption and ion exchange properties
Strength properties such as hardness
Grain size and its distribution are important and affects clear
water head loss and built-up head loss during filter run
Sieve analysis and plotting cumulative passing through the given
sieve sizes on a log-probability plot
Sieve size is described by mesh number
10 mesh has 2 mm pore size
18 mesh has 1 mm pore size
35 mesh has 0.5 mm pore size
60 mesh has 0.25 mm pore size
99% pass size and 1% pass size
Effective size: pass size for 10% of the material (indicated by D
10
)
median size of the grain
Uniformity coefficient: ratio of D
60
/D
10
(similar to Stand. Dev.)

D
90
(needed in the backwash velocity calculations)
Filter medium
Log probability plots of filter medium size
The graded gravel layer
Supports the filter medium from below
The filter medium should not penetrate into it and gravel
should not enter the under-drain system
Particles of a layer above should not penetrate the layer below
it
Spherical particles allow penetration of particles of <1/3
rd
the
gravel size
Size of the particles in the above layer can be half the size of the
particles in the layer below
90 percentile size filter medium particles should not penetrate
the top gravel layer
Gravel of the bottom most gravel layer should not penetrate
the under drain system
Minimum size of the gravel should be twice the perforations size
The graded gravel layer
Thickness of each of the gravel layers should be >6 times the
largest size particle of the layer
Graded gravel layers for an under drain system with 5 mm
perforations and for a filter medium of 1.0 mm (D
90
) size
10-20 mm size gravel of >120 mm thickness
5-10 mm size gravel of >60 mm thickness
2.5-5.0 mm size gravel of >30 mm thickness
1.25-2.5 mm size gravel of >15 mm thickness
A newly assembled filter may be started with backwashing
Ensures proper stratification of the filter medium above
The graded gravel layer should ensure uniform
distribution of the upward flowing backwash water and
compressed air
The under-drain system
Under drain system should
Support the graded gravel, filter bed and water column
Allow filtered water to pass through, collected and conveyed out
Allow the incoming backwash water (and compressed air) to pass
through and dispersed for the filter bed backwashing
The under drain system can be
A water box with porous concrete roof
Concrete slabs with slots supported on concrete ribs
A water manifold with perforated laterals
The graded gravel and the under drain system may better be
considered together as integral components
Geo-textiles and geo-nets can also be used in assembling the
under drain system


Typical filtration rates of 5 to 15 m/hr. are achieved through
maintaining a water column (water reservoir) of up to 1.5 m
height above the filter bed
In closed type rapid gravity filters, a virtual water column of the
desired height is maintained through pressurizing the water
Size of the filter medium, extent of clogging of the filter bed,
and height of water column over the filter bed determine the
filtration rates
Gravity filters are operated either at constant rate (but variable
head) or at constant head (but variable rate)
Head loss/filtration rate or turbidity break through are used as
the basis for filter backwash
Pizometers are used for the monitoring of head loss across the
filter
Water reservoir over the filter bed


Backwash water overflow weirs and troughs are provided in
the reservoir zone above the filter bed
Level difference between the overflow weir and water level in
the backwash water reservoir is maximized
Overflow weir is provided above the fluidized filter bed (during
backwashing) for avoiding filter medium washout
The Filtration unit is provided with a channel either in the
middle or to one side
Backwash water troughs drain into this channel
Has a wash water drain, and water inlet of the filter opens into
this channel
The channel ensures submergence of the filter bed in water
Water reservoir over the filter bed
Overhead reservoir of backwash water
Holds filtered water and supplies for the filter backwashing
Almost constant head of water is maintained in the reservoir to
ensure constant backwash velocities in the filters
The reservoir, and the piping and fittings are designed to
ensure the water supply for achieving the desired backwash
velocity
Excess backwash velocities can washout the filter medium and
lower velocities can result in inefficient cleaning of the filter
Sizing of the overhead reservoir (capacity and water depth)
reliability (against pump and power failures) is given importance
Deciding on the relative elevation of the reservoir
Filtered water is pumped and maintained in the overhead
reservoir
Pumping system for the reliable pumping of filtered water into
the overhead reservoir is important
Filter cycle
Filter operation
Once filtered water reaches the acceptable quality, stop wasting and
collect filtered water
Filter water either at constant rate or at constant head
Backwash the filter when
Head loss across the filter crosses a desired set value (2.5 m)
Filtration rate drops below a set value
Turbidity breaks through the filter
Stop filter operation
Head loss or turbidity are used as the basis for filter backwash
Close filter inlet and allow filtration till water level drops below the
wash water overflow weir, but the sand bed remains submerged
Filter backwashing
Close filtered water outlet and introduce compressed air for air
scouring the bed run the compressed air for a specified duration
Open wash water outlet and introduce backwash water
stop compressed air injection (air injection and backwash water
introduction, at sub-fluidizing water flows, can overlap)
continue backwash water flow till clear water overflows the weir
Filter cycle
Air scouring during backwashing
Air scouring is very effective when water is introduced at sub-
fluidization rates along with the compressed air
air creates additional turbulence without substantially increasing of
filter bed expansion
Compressed air is used in three different modes
First only compressed air and then the backwash water
First only compressed air, then both air and backwash water (at sub-
fluidization rate), and then only backwash water (at fluidization rates)
First compressed air and backwash water (at sub-fluidization rate) and
then only backwash water (at fluidization rates)
Air scouring is a water conservation measure
Filter to waste
Stop backwash water, allow draining out of the washwater
Close wash water drain, open water inlet and open filtered water
wasting drain
Allow wastage of filtered water till desired water quality is achieved
Typical filtration cycle
Filter problems
Mud balls: Deposition of solids during backwashing instead of
washout with backwash water
Can be from poor coagulation-flocculation-settling
Can be due improper filter backwashing
Surface cracking: compressible matter around the media
surface causes the surface cracking
Media boils: can be caused by
Too rapid backwash (higher backwash velocities!)
Displacement or uneven distribution of the gravel layer
Air binding:
Excessive head loss during filter run leading to negative
pressures in the under drain system can result in air suction
Running the filter dry (filter bed exposed to air)
Improper backwashing (from shorter backwash durations,
lower backwash velocities, etc. )
Can be a cause for media boiling, loss of filter media and
inefficient filter cleaning
Filter hydraulics: During run
Two separate categories: hydraulics of filtration process and
hydraulics of filter backwashing
Carmen-Kozeny equation is used for the hydraulic analysis
of filter (Fair-Hatch equation, Rose equation and Hazen
equation can also be used)
g
V
d
L f
h
s
2
3
1
o
o
|

=
75 . 1
1
150 +

=
R
N
f
o

|
s
R
dV
N =
h is head loss through filter bed
f is friction factor (f
i
)
o is bed porosity
L is depth of filter bed
d is diameter of the media particle
d
gi
is geometric mean between sieve sizes
V
s
is superficial (approach) filtration velocity
| is particle shape factor
(1 for spherical particle
0.82 for rounded sand
0.75 for average sand
0.73 for crushed coal/angular sand)
is density and is viscosity of water
N
R
is Reynold number
p
i
is fraction of solids

=
gi
i
i
s
d
p
f
g
LV
h
2
3
1 1
o
o
|
Equation for non-uniform bed is to be used
f value will be different for different dia. particles
There are no acceptable mathematical equations for assessing
head loss changes in clogged beds
The equations are applicable for clean filter beds
Solids accumulation decrease porosity & increase head loss
Head loss change depends on Nature of the suspension,
Characteristics of the media, and Filter operation
If constant head (driving force) is applied then filtration rate will
diminish with decreasing porosity
For constant filtration rates head applied should be increased to
match with the head loss increase
Terminate filter run for backwash on sufficient solids accumulation
Storage capacity of the bed is exhausted
Driving force available is not sufficient for enough filtration rates
Filter hydraulics: during run
Direction of flow is reversed (upwards through the media)
Media bed is expanded (contact among the grains is
broken) and grain surfaces are exposed for cleaning by
hydrodynamic shear forces
rubbing action among the grains
Expansion occurs when force applied by flowing water is
greater than the buoyant weight of the grains
Head required for expansion = weight of the packed bed


Depth of expanded bed
Greater than the packed bed depth
Assuming weight of packed bed = weight of fluidized bed

( )
w
w m
f b
L h

o

= 1
f b
f b
L L
o
o

=
1
1
L
fb
is depth of the fluidized bed
o Is porosity and o
fb
is porosity of
fluidized bed
h
fb
is head loss need to initiate
bed expansion

m
is density of the medium

w
is density of water
Filter hydraulics: during backwash
Porosity of the expanded is a function of terminal settling
velocity of the particles and the backwash velocity and
given as


This relation on incorporation into the expression for
expanded bed depth



For a stratified non-uniform bed the expression will become

22 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
B
fb
V
V
o
22 . 0
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
t
B
f b
V
V
L L
o
V
B
is back wash velocity
V
t
is terminal settling velocity of particles
Optimum porosity for backwashing is 0.65-0.70

|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
22 . 0
1
) 1 (
ti
B
i
f b
V
V
x
L L o
Filter hydraulics: during backwash
Optimum expansion for backwashing is
1.2 to 1.55 times of unexpanded bed
5 . 4
fB t B
V V o =
Flow Regime
Defined on the basis of Reynolds number (Re)



Four flow regimes
Darcy flow (Re<1) encountered in slow sand filters!
Forchheimer flow (Re 1-100) encountered in rapid sand
filters!
Transition flow (Re 100-800) not encountered in filtration
Fully turbulent flow (Re >800) not encountered in
filtration
w
f w
e
D V
R

=

w
is fluid density

w
is fluid dynamic viscosity
D is dia. of media grain
V
f
is superfecial velocity (filtration rate)
Flow Regime
Darcy flow
Occurs (when Re is <1) in slow sand filters and also in rapid
sand filters (when the filtration rates are lower)
Flow is governed by Darcys law


Forchheimer flow
Occurs in rapid sand filters when filtration rates are high and
during backwashing (3>Re<25)
Laminar flow (influenced by both viscous & inertial forces)
Head loss is given by
L
h
K V
L
f
=
K is hydraulic conductivity
hL is head loss across the filter
L is depth of the filter bed (granular media)
2
2 1 f f
L
V K V K
L
h
+ =
Slow Sand Filters
Slow Sand Ffilters (SSF)
History
Use of SSF dates back to 1790 in Lancashire, England (used to filter
municipal water in London in 1829)
SSF was shown to remove bacteria in 1885, and to remove Giardia
in 1980s
According to WHO, under suitable conditions, slow sand
filtration is the cheapest, the simplest and the most efficient
method of water treatment
Used for Turbidity (colloidal particles) removal, for the reduction
of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, and also for organic levels
reduction
Used for treating low turbidity water (<20 NTU)
Water with >20 NTU turbidity requires pre-treatment (roughing
filters!) - pre-treatment may also be needed for BOD reduction
Water with >200 NTU turbidity is not at all allowed
Physical operations, and chemical and microbiological processes
may be involved in the treatment
SSF : Constituents
Includes three tanks (raw water, filter & filtered water tanks)
Filter tank includes
Supernatant water (0.5 to 1.5 m depth)
Sand (filter) bed
Granular filter medium of 0.15-0.35 effective size and 2-3
uniformity coefficient
Medium must be free from organic matter, loam and clay
Depth of the bed is >0.6 m (upto 1.6 m)
Schmudzdecke layer (a biological film or mat!)
Develops on the top of the sand bed within a few weeks, and
disturbed by cleaning, but redevelops within a few days
Filters out and/or consumes and absorbs/adsorbs organic and
inorganic contaminants including bacteria, viruses, etc.
Gravel layer: 3 grades of gravel (fine, 2-8 mm; medium size, 8-
16 mm; and bottom coarse size, 6-32 mm) are used
Drainage system: bricks, concrete slabs, porous concrete,
perforated pipes and screen system
Covering of filter to avoid winter freezing and algal growth
A. Valve for raw water inlet and regulation of filtration rate
B. Valve for draining unfiltered water
C. Valve for back-filling the filter bed with clean water
D. Valve for draining filter bed and outlet chamber
E. Valve for delivering treated water to waste
F. Valve for delivering treated water to the clear-water
reservoir
SSF: Schmutzdecke layer
A bio film/mat (0.5 to 2 cm) formed on the sand bed surface
Made up of algae, bacteria, fungi and other microbes and
accumulated particulates
Full development may take a few weeks time (>4 weeks)
Proper water temp. and sufficient nutrients support development
Requires 2-7 days (even 2 to 3 weeks) for the redevelopment after
each cleaning
Filters out or consumes and absorbs/adsorbs organic and inorganic
contaminants and contributes to the reduction of bacteria, viruses
and protozoa
Reported as good for the removal of <2 m particles
Bacteriovory was reported as the significant biologically mediated
particle removal mechanism
Breaks down organics, acts as fine mechanical filter
The sand filter (the top 20 cm, even upto 0.4 to 0.5 m depth) also
shows biological activity
Slow Sand Filter
Thickness of the sand layer: >0.6 m (every additional 0.3 m
thick layer supports additional 3-4 years operation)
Oxfam filters: Geo-textile fabric is used on the top of the sand
layer for retaining much of the suspended matter strained from
the loaded water
The gravel layers can be replaced by a synthetic fabric
Below the gravel for protecting the filter tank lining, 50 mm
thick sand layer may be used
Filter must always be kept submerged in water for maintaining
the biological mat
Must not be run dry (unless complete draining out is needed)
Outlet should be slightly (50 mm) above the top of the sand
layer for keeping the filter wet and submerged
Provisions should be made to
dissipate the energy of the water loaded to the filter
drain out the supernatant water
drain out the filter bed
backfill the filter with filtered water


Slow Sand Filter
Water loaded should have <50 NTU turbidity
use pre-filter when it is >30 NTU
Filtration rate:
50 to 100 times slower than the rate for rapid gravity filter
100 to 300 L/m
2
hour (ideal: 0.2 m/hr & Max. rate:0.3 m/hr)
Filtered water has <0.3 NTU turbidity (goal is <0.1 NTU)
Filtered water may require chlorination for superior water quality
Anaerobic conditions in the filter bed can infuse lasting bad
taste to water
Often necessitates water pre-treatment to remove organics
Water being filtered must have >3 mg/L DO
Start-up of a slow sand filter may take quite long time
Development of the biological mat Schmutzdecke takes a few
weeks time
In the water reservoir algal growth can occur
can add oxygen to water, but can interfere with the operation
Cleaning of Slow Sand Filter
Initial head loss for a clean slow sand filter is <0.2 feet
Head loss >5 feet is avoided (can lead to air binding and
uneven flow of water through the filter) through cleaning
Clogged filter (filtration rate dropped below acceptable levels)
needs cleaning
Cleaned once in every 20 to 90 days turbidity of water and
filtration rate determine the cleaning interval
Supernatant from the sand bed is drained out to below 20 cm
depth of the sand bed prior to cleaning through scraping
After scrapping, refilling the filter with water should be done
from the bottom for avoiding the air entrapment
Involves manual scraping of 2 to 5 cm of the top sand and
dsicarding
New sand is added when the sand depth drops to <24 inch (may
be once in 10 years)
Cleaning affects the filter performance for a few days (ripening
period)
After the ripening period returns to normal performance
Design parameters Recommended range of values
Filtration rate
Area per filter bed
0.15 m
3
/m
2
h (0.10.2 m
3
/m
2
h)
Less than 200 m
2
(in small community water supplies to ease
manual filter cleaning)
Number of filter beds Minimum of two beds
Depth of filter bed 1 m (minmum of 0.7 m of sand depth)
Filter media Effective size (ES) = 0.150.35 mm;
uniformity coefficient (UC) = 2-3
Height of supernatant water 0.71 m (maximum 1.5 m)
Underdrain system
Standard bricks
Precast concrete slabs
Precast concrete blocks with
holes on top
Porous concrete
Perforated pipes
Generally no need for further hydraulic
calculations.
Maximum velocity in the manifolds and in
laterals = 0.3 m/s
Spacing between laterals = 1.5 m
Spacing of holes in laterals = 0.15 m
Size of holes in laterals =3 mm
Design parameters for typical slow sand filter
Bio-sand Filter
Bio-sand filter: Maintenance
1) Remove the lid and the
colander/diffuser basin.
2) Lower the water level inside
the filter by using a small cup
to scoop out the water that has
not drained through the outlet
pipe.
3) Make a small hole in the sand
with the cup. Scoop out the
water that accumulates in it
until only wet sand remains.
4) Remove 3 to 5cm of the fine
sand layer and set it aside.
(After washing and drying in
the sun, this sand may be
reused next time maintenance
is performed.)

5) Add clean, fine sand from
previous maintenance. Level
the surface of the sand.
6) Reinstall the colander/diffuser
basin.
7) Slowly add water to the filter
until water begins to flow
through the outlet pipe again
and water is 5 cm above fine
sand layer.
8) Again remove the lid and
colander/diffuser basin
9) Level the surface of the sand
again
10) Reinstall the colander/diffuser
basin
Roughing Filters (RF)
(HRF and VRF)
Roughing Filters
A pre-treatment unit used to remove/separate fine solids that
could not be removed by sedimentation
May precede final treatment processes like SSF and chlorination
Required to reduce turbidity of water to <20 to 50 NTU prior to
filtration in slow sand filters
Removal of suspended solids require laminar flow conditions
within the filter bed (Reynolds Number: <1.0)
Also be used to remove chemical flocs prior to biol. treatment
and biological flocs prior to chlorination
Roughing filters can also support adsorption, absorption and
chemical and biological processes
Vander waals forces and electrostatic forces attract the particles
and hold on the medium surface
Biological water quality, dissolved organic matter, colour etc.,
parameters can get adjusted
Can handle very low organic loads higher loads can clog the
filter and reduce the hydraulic cleaning capacity
Roughing Filters
Broken burnt bricks, charcoal, coconut fiber, quartz sand, gravel,
charcoal, maize cobs or any other clean insoluble and mechanically
resistant material can be used as filter medium
Filter media particle size varies from >20 mm to <2 mm
Use of multi-grade filter media, with size decreasing in the flow
direction, can promote particle penetration through the filter bed
Filter incorporates a simple self cleaning (backwashing) mechanism
An under drainage system enables the filter flushing and cleaning
Flow direction is reversed through opening the downwash drains and
higher rates of flows clean the filter
Unpacking the filter media and cleaning may often be required
Performance monitoring is done using the parameters: TSS,
turbidity, colour, coliform count, iron and manganese, and algae
Mostly run in up-fow or horizontal flow regimes (VRF and HRF
systems)
Have larger capacities to store the removed solids (HRFs have
relatively larger storage capacity than VRFs)

Roughing Filters: HRF
Filtration rates for HRF may be in the range of 0.3 to 1.5 m/hr
Shallow structure and hence and hence no structural problems
Unlimited length of the filter is possible
Usual length is 5 to 7 m
Filter is usually assembled in 3 compartments (coarse, medium
and fine medium filter phases
Filter medium size ranges from <4 mm to >20 mm
Water is maintained below to the surface of the filter bed to
shade and prevent the algal growth
HRFs are less susceptible to solids breakthrough and more
sensitive to hydraulic short-circuiting
Can handle short time turbidity loads of 500 to 1000 NTU
Drainage facilities are placed at the bottom of the filter
perpendicular to the flow direction
Drainage velocities of 60-90 m/hr are used for a good hydraulic
cleaning of the filter


Roughing Filters: VRF systems
Occupy relatively lesser floor space
Usually includes 3 or more filters arranged in series
VRF in layers (the 3 or more filters are stratified) are also used
Height of the filter bed may be 1 to 1.2 m and the filter
medium size is 12-18 mm; 8-12 mm; and 4-8 mm
Filter bed is covered (by a layer of stones (100 mm size!) for
shading the water and preventing algal growth
Bottom of the filter has drainage facilities (perforated pipes,
false filter bottom, etc.)
Operated either as down-flow or as up-flow filters (upflow
filters are recommended - VRF in layers are operated only in
upflow mode)
Filter material is maintained completely submerged in water (10
cm layer of water is maintained above the filter)
Filtration rate is usually o.3 to 1.0 m/hr
Can handle water with turbidity 50-150 NTU
Filter resistance or head loss is <20 cm per filter

Design of multistage multigrade roughing
filter
Multistage (3 or more stages), multigrade filter (VRF in layers)
Divisible into the filter bed proper and the gravel support layers
Gravel support layers satisfy the condition of thickness >6 times the
size of the largest medium particle in the layer
Thickness of the filter bed layer can be much higher
Inlet conveys water into the under drain system and uniformly
distributes water for the upflow filtration
Air bubble entry into the under-drain system is avoided
Reservoir for holding enough water for the backwashing
Filtered water is drained out while keeping the filter bed submerged
Under drain system allowing backwashing (at the rate of 40-60
m/hr)
Filtration rate (0.3 to 1.0 m/hr)
Laminar flow conditions are ensured within the filter bed (Rynolds
number <1.0)
Scour velocities are avoided with the filter bed

Typical design of a Multistage Multigrade
Vertical flow Roughing filter