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6
Chapter 6
Summary
This section outlines a systematic approach to the descriptions of cuttings, sidewall core samples, core samples and
associated hydrocarbon shows at the wellsite.
However, describing a pièce of rock, whether it be a cutting, core chip or whatever can be very subjective. The
emphasis of this section is to promote a systematic and methodical approach to descriptions that will minimise the
potential variations caused by subjectivity. The guidelines presented throughout this section are there for you to
follow.
• Brief guidelines for the systematic description and testing of samples of various rock
types:
* clastics
* carbonates
* evaporites
* organic material
• The description and analysis of shows
• Spécial requirements for cores and sidewall cores
The wellsite geologist must always strive to make the best possible description and évaluation of both samples and
shows.
Prod, tweezers Mudloggers Thèse should be good quality and not bent Good tweezers
are essentiel for manipulating individual cuttings samples. If
they are bent ask the Mudloggers to order new pairs.
Spot Trays Mudloggers Thèse enamel trays can be used for examining individual
cuttings for shows and chemical tests. Tests using acid
should always be done in the spot trays. They should be
washed thoroughly after use.
UVbox Mudloggers Essentiel for évaluation of shows. Should be either close to
fume cupboard or should hâve m eans of evacuating
fumes.
Colour Comparison Mudloggers or Client if The AAPG colour comparison charts should be used by
ail geologists to ensure consistency.
chart required
Percentage/Grain Mudloggers/Geologists Ail the mudlogging companies hâve their own handy
visual comparison & grain size/roundness.
size charts
Chemicals Mudloggers Acids, chemical thinner, alizarin red. Ideally should be
kept in fume cupboard.
Sample Description Client or Cambrian Pads of description sheets are provided by citent Thèse
Sheets should be filled in as fully as possible.
Plastic 'Samplex' Mudloggers The lpggers hâve only a limited supply of métal trays.
Thèse trays are good for comparing samples over
Trays significant depth intervais.
Abbreviations list Client or Cambrian Most clients hâve a standard list of descriptive
abbreviations both in summary and in rull. Use Cambrian
standard abbreviations if required.
Ail the equipment should be thoroughly checked at the beginning of the well. J
If any of the equipment are broken or damaged then they should be replaced as soon as possible.
The wellsite geologist should help in keeping the sample description area dean, neat and tidy. Don't assume that the
mudloggers are paid slaves who will always clear up after you - they hâve enough jobs to do already.
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1 shows a typical client area in a mudlogging unit Most of
the equipment required for sample description and évaluation are
shown hère.
Microscope
The microscope (Figure 6.2) should be of good quality, dean and
well maintained. Check that the microscope focuses properly at ail
powers and that the image is bright at maximum magnification. This
means that the microscope lamp must be powerfiil too.
Figure 62
Date: October 2001 6.4 Sample and Author
Version: 2.01 Show Description TJH
Geôlogy Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
Figure 6.4
UVBox
Make sure it is working BEFORE you need it, check for spare bulbs and find out if
there is a vacuum System for exhaust. Fumes from chemical solvent can be powerful
and detrimental to health. Ensure that there is a safe working environment. (Figure
6.5)
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.5
EOCK
-.COIOR CHART-
Colour and grain size charts should be available. Are ail the pages of the colour chart get
présent (they often l ripped out)? The 'grey colours' page is most used - are ail unfaded
colours présent and [ and is there a spare? Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.7
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
'
S
a
m
p
l
e
x
'
t
Chemicals r
a
are a minimum requirement for correct sample descriptions mate
y
identification) arbonate identification) (cernent identification)
s
évaluation)
're-hydrating samples) in proper, safe, plastic or glass
a
containers with droppers. r
e good for keeping a evaluating subtle changes
over large intervais, sample trays to be freed
up. Figure 6.9 trays.
Figure 6.9
J
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
• Do keep the sheets neat and tidy. Use pencil so mistakes can be rubbed out
• Do write legibly. There's not much point doing the description if nobody else can read it
• Do number each sheet and put the date on. This makes life much easier when the pages
need to be archived.
• Do look at ail samples and, as a minimum, estimate the percentage lithologies and note
gases and ROPs.
• If a sample is not caught, for whatever reason, then note on the description sheet why
and which samples are missing. For example lost circulation etc.
• Do make comprehensive notes on the Description Sheets. Note any drilling problems or
events such as trips.
• Make a spécial note of contaminants and note their rough percentage. Métal shavings,
for instance, are they increasing?
• Do note any gas peaks on the sheets and note trip and connection gases if they occur.
The lithology description sheets are fairly generic. They can be modifîed if required. However, please use client
sheets if they are provided using the guidelines as outlined above.
WELU MB
Dftti falvof Pmi HnHon MchO Cir •M g M M su Ctf Ut Dol Ctfef PMCliplHM
ei
1 w a n } t U
•h a
Figure 6.10
6.2.1 Overview
There are a number of ways in which the wéllsite geologist can ensure that the samples collected and which are
described are représentative of the interval drilled.
• Check that the lag is correct. See Chapter 3 for instructions on checking the lag.
• Occasionally check how the mudloggers or sample catchers are catching the samples
• Continuously review sample processing to ensure accuracy and consistency.
• Check that bags and dry samples are being fîlled and boxed correctly
The following subsections describe the steps to ensure the most représentative sample.
Sampling programs are planned by the opérations geologist in coopération with license geologists and must fit in
with corporate and governmental régulations. Most governments will require that samples are caught on ail
exploration and appraisal wells and that there is full well coverage. They will also regulate about sample intervais.
In nearly ail cases a number of samples from each interval are taken in bags, tins etc for shipping from the wéllsite.
Thèse samples will be split and sent to the operator, partners and government for future analysis. Samples are also ; )
brought to the mudlogging unit in the sieves for processing; see section 6.2.9, and description.
Snot Sample
Spot samples are taken at the request of the wéllsite geologist, drilling supervisor or engineer or, in rare cases, on
the mudlogger's own initiative. As interval samples are taken relatively infrequently it is sometimes bénéficiai to
look at samples from a spécifie lagged depth - representing a very short interval. The sample is taken directly from
the shaker screens and processed through the sieves for description purposes only. No bagged or tinned samples are
taken. Examples when spot samples might be taken:
Spot samples are a very useful tool for spécifie lithology identification. Spot samples should not be taken too
frequently as the mudloggers complain about the workload, and should not interfère with interval sample collection.
Sample is generally ladled into bags and sieves by the use of a large
spoon. Check that this too is strong enough for the job.
There should be back-ups available for ail thèse items and, if not, the
wellsite geologist should ensure that new supplies are ordered.
AIso periodically check that sample bags, boxes and tins are marked up correctly.
Hardhat
Gloves (waterproof) Safety glasses/goggles Ear protection
Fireproof coveralls Safety boots
Figure 6.12
Cuttings
pile
Catching
plate
Shaker
closed off
Sand
Traps Shale
frequently being closed down for maintenance, chute
screen changes etc. Shutting down one
shaleshaker can increase the flow over the other shakers. This flow can be controlled
by opening or closing 'gâtes' at the top of each shaker- flow must not be too much to swamp the shakers, nor too
little to back up in the header tank. Excess flow can cause mud to flow over the screens and wash sample away.
Drill cuttings cornes into the header tank (also known as the possum belly) entrained in the mud via the flowline.
The header tank contains a number of sensors including, température sensor (FLT- flowline température), mud
density and gas trap. Each shaker has two screens, the upper screen is coarse and sieves out the larger cuttings and
cavings while the lower screen cuts out the fine cuttings. The mud passes through both screens and returns to the
pits via the sand-traps. The sandtraps allow provide an area of settlement for unwanted fine solids before the mud
passes down into the active pit System before being pumped round the hole again.
J
The vibrations of the shale shaker forces the cuttings down the screens and off the end. On most rigs a cuttings plate
has to be put down to collect the cuttings, otherwise they will be washed down through grating, into the shale chute
and thence, to the sea. Note that the cuttings will only go to the sea with water-based mud. Oil based cuttings will be
sent to cuttings hopper and transported from the rig site for environmentally-friendly disposai.
In some circumstances the shale shakers can be by-passed with returns to the sand-traps or dumped to the sea.
Note that shaker screen mesh size is determined by the mud engineer. With high mud flow rates on top hole then
coarser screens are used. Fine grained cuttings can go through thèse screens. The wellsite geologist should be aware
of the casing screen size currently being used.
• The wellsite geologist should periodically check that the mudlogger has placed the cuttings sample
plate at the optimum point for sample collection.
• Ensure that there are good communications so that the shaker hand informs the mudlogger of any
shaker changes in advance. The cuttings plate position can be changed and no sample lost.
CLAY
Bentonlto
Claystone then drilled Claystone drilled for 2nd 5 m, Claystone to surface and covers
sandstone cuttings in annulus sandstone to surface plate sandstone cuttings on plate. J
The sample from 2510 to 2520 m is now at the surface and ready for collection.
• The mudlogger should watch the lag and hâve ail sample bags ready to catch the sample at the
correct time.
The first 5m of the sample - the sandstone - will be at the base of the cuttings pile and will be covered by the second
5m of sample - the claystone.
J
Date: October 2001 6.11 Sample and Author
Version: 2.01 Show Description T3H
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
UPPER 8CREEN
urrmt)
2510m
Sampls from
coarse
screen
further from
shaker
Figure 6.22
The sample falls into a pile (Figure 6.21), with the shallowest sample of
the interval at the bottom. Also the sample from the finer screen tends to fall close
to the shaker (see Figure 6.22). If lower screen is fine there will be considérable
amounts of barite as well as fine sample.
The wellsite geologist should regularly check how the mudloggers or sample catchers are catohing the
samples to ensure consistency. Is the sample représentative?
The sample in the coarse sieve should be gentry washed through into the fine sieve. Take
a sample o f any unconsolidated clay for analysis before the washing process commences.
Put the coarse sieve to one side but don't throw away the sample. The coarser fragments
should be analysed for amount (is it increasing - pore pressure indicator) and for rock fab ric
analysis.
Further wash the sample in the fine sieve to remove any traces of drilling fluid. Not
too much if the sample is unconsolidated clay - it will be washed away.
A représentative sample should be taken from the fine sieve. Note that as when you
are panning for gold ail the heavier fragments are forced to the side ofthe sieve by
the washing process. Take sample from the middle to the edge of the sieve as
shown in Figure 6.25. Figure 6.24
Tray Sample taken from centre to edge of sieve
Figure The
sample
in the métal cuttings tray s h o u l d
be gently swirled round to
distribute the sample evenly
(Figure 6.26). Ideally, the sample
on the cuttings tray should be
uniformly one cutting deep
across the tray for optimum
descriptive conditions. A depth
tag sh ould be placed on the tray
corresponding to
depth ofthe interval. S a m p l e s s h o u l d
be briefly left propped up on a sponge to drain off excess wàt!
description (Figure 6.27-6.28).
Again, it is useful to show the mudloggers exactly how you want the samples presented. See Figure 6.29. Things to
check regularly: -
Sample 1 layer
thick on tray
Small pile of
unwashed sample
Packing away wet samples and tins Ail the wet sample bags and geochemical tins etc should be packed away in boxes or
bags. Full boxes should be marked clearly and stored away in containers.
Shale density Washed shale sample taken fresh from fine sieve and analysed for density using shale
density column
Calcimetry Small atnount of washed and dried sample is mixed with acid in a sealed chamber. Any
reaction with carbonates gives off CO2. The amount of CO2 and the rate of reaction can
be used to estimate percentages of calcium and magnésium carbonate (limestone and
dolomite
Blender gas Small cupful of un washed sample is put in a kitchen blendor together with some water
and mixed. Any gases given off are sucked into a detector and analysed. Can give an
indication of low permeability réservoirs - gas retained in cuttings.
Dry sample processing Washed cuttings are taken fiom the fine sieve, placed on métal trays and put in an oven to
dry. When dry, the sample are placed in dry sample envelopes. Thèse are kept at the rig
for future référence by the wellsite geologist, if required, and then stored or distributed
after the well.
Figure 6.31
Figure 6.32
Most mudloggers will set up a washing station in the shale shaker house. Hère containers of base-oil and détergent
will be set up. Thèse will be large enough to allow washing of samples in the sieves. As much of the oil based mud J
as possible should be removed at this stage, before washing in water to remove the détergent. Samples are then
processed in the mud-logging unit as normal.
While samples tend to be of better quality with oil-based muds this washing process obviously may wash away any
hydrocarbons. There is a délicate balance between not washing enough and having oil based mud still in the sample
and washing too much and losing shows.
SAFETY
• Oil based mud can give off fumes when hot Make sure mudloggers wear appropriate safety equipment
including breathing masks.
• Dry samples will give off fumes wbile being dried in sample oven. Ensure that fumes are exhausted from
unit
• Make sure mudloggers keep unit clear of oil based mud. It is commonly dragged in on boots and coveralls
and many mudlogging units set up 'clean zones' where personnel must remove boots or wear plastic
overshoes.
Cavings Uthology Always check the coarse sieve from time to tinte to check for cavings. Large cuttings found hère
are also useful as they give better dues to rock fabric and allow you to make better descriptions.
évaluation Provenance of large cuttings/cavings is, however, ofien questio nable, so be careful with thèse.
Cavings monitoring Ensure amounts, type and size of cavings are monitored closely. When cavings are présent or
suspected, this tact should be noted on the worksheet and may indicate an underlying formation
pressureorboreho leinstabililyproblenLForexançle,drillmgmaliniestonesuccessicmwhilst
experiencing cavings fromoveriyingshales,tbepercentages may be 90% shale, 10% limestone. Thèse
would be recorded with die added note: 'shale ail cavings'
Sample backlogs Never let a backlog of samples accumulate, not only is it difficult to catch up but the Mudloggers get
short of métal trays. Use Samplex trays (see below) to keep samples for review purposes if
available. It is possible to eut the bottom off of polystyrène or cardboard cups to use as temporary
storage after samples hâve been described. Always describe samples on the métal trays.
Keeping samples moist Cuttings samples are coDected wet fiom die shale shaker. Samples should be described whilststillwet and
should not be left to dry out or re -hydrated with water. Put samples in plastic bags, or at least cover them
up, if it is to be sometime before they are described. However, the texture of certain formation types can
be seen more clearly when dry, so occasionally keep a portion of sample forlater.dry
Mud additives Get the Mudlogger to bave représentative samples ofall potentiel mud additives that may beusedintne
well. If you think mère is contamination fiom drilling flirid additives then dwck with your référence set
Remember, thèse may change somewhat after being subjected to the pressures and températures of
circulation.
If changes do occur then look again at individual samples to see if any changes hâve been missed. Do thèse changes
tie in with tops? Thèse changes can be used for descriptive intervais on logs and reports.
J
Date: October 2001 6.17 Author
Version: 2.01 Sample and Show Description TIH
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
As a minimum please try to follow the checklists presented hère. They are meant to ensure that ail relevant aspects of
the samples are described and help to assure quality.
Essentially, ail of thèse samples can be described in the same way although rock fabric and texture is more di£Scult in
small cuttings. Whilst we advocate a systematic examination technique you should never limit your descriptions to those
aspects described hère if you feel that there are other relevant aspects. Always note down any unusual features which may
be useful for identification purposes later.
If there are micropalaeo or geochemical personnel making examinations of samples at the wellsite then make use of their
résulte in your descriptions. Never ignore any source of information or data abo ut the samples.
The fîrst part of this chapter deals with the description and testing of samples. The second part of the section is devoted to
show évaluation and description.
Figure 6.34
1. Look al the sample tray without the microscope. Are the various lithotypes easily distinguishable?
Ensure there is sufficient sample on the tray and that it is a maximum of one layer thick.
2. Put the sample tray in the UV box, is there any fluorescence? Is this natural minerai fluorescence or is
there a possible show?
3. Put the sample tray under the microscope at low magnification and look round the tray. As the sample
tray is p rocessed the various lithotypes are aggregated by the washing action.
4. A visual détermination of the relative percentages of the various lithologie components should be
made and entered on the Wellsite Description Sheet Don't be afraid to go back and change thèse
percentages when you hâve described the lithotypes as it is sometimes better to gauge percentages
after the descriptions and the sample has dried a bit
5. Methodically describe the samples as per the guidelines laid out below.
Figure 6.35
J
Date: October 2001 6.19 Sample and Author
Version: 2.01 Show Description TJH
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
Description of cuttings samples is very différent to that of thin sections. We are looking at small chips of rock under
relatively moderate magnification with little rock texture visible. It takes a while to become proficient at cuttings
descriptions but it is time well spenL Good cuttings descriptions can yield much information regarding porosity,
permeability, texture, environment of déposition, shows - indirectry and directly..
The following methodical scheme can be followed when describing samples. It is a generic version. If the company you
are working for has mère own scheme then use theirs as a préférence.
Descriptions are generally made on the Wellsite Description sheets using abbreviations. This saves time and space.
However, it is not compulsory to use abbreviations. If you feel it is easier to use full words men please do. However, do
not use your own abbreviations as other people may not be able to understand them. Either use standard abbreviations or
full words. Abbreviations should generally be used on the Wellsite Lithology Log but not on reports and the Final
Composite Log. Again this will dépend on client préférence.
It is possible to write descriptions direct into a computer but can be more time-consuming and the cuttings area can be
wet and adjacent to chemicals. Not tiie best environment for computers.
Descriptions should be made for clastic rocks using catégories in the following orden -
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Rock Type Sandstone, sUtstme etc.
Colour Use standard colour charte
Grain Colour Mmnry applies to sandstones
Try to describe each of catégories in turn for each sample description. Obviously grain shape will not be applicable to
claystones, for example, so ignore catégories which do not apply.
Gradational lithotypes Silty claystones, argillaceous sandstones, sandy siltstones are always difficult to describe and to
put relative percentages on. As noted before, tiy not to spend hours agonising over percentages
and make a note of the gradations on worksheets and descriptions. Qualifying names such as
those above and tuffaceous claystone etc. must only be used if there is a significant amount of the
qualifying rock type présent
Consolidation Distinguish the rock types based on the degree of consolidation:
Consolidated---------------------- > Unconsolidated
Gravel Conglomerate
Scree Breccia
Till Tillite
Sand Sandstone
Silt Siltstone
Clay Claystone Shale
Contaminants Mud additives, métal shavings and cernent can ail dilute the sample to varying degrees. You will
need to infonn the drilling supervisor and mud engineer about the contaminants and if they
become too pervasive and start to mask the sample then inform the drilling supervisor and
opérations geologist.
Sandstone type It is very difficult to differentiate between the main classes of sandstone using cuttings samples. It
might be possible to tell between tbe following: ¦ Orthoquartzite - Quartz more than 75% of
rock plus silica cernent Howeve r, recognising feldspars can be difficult in cuttings samples •
Greywacke - Common lithic fragments and feldspar with quartz only 25% of content and poorly
sorted. • Arkose - Feldspars more common than lithic fragments and quartz less than 75%.
Again difficult to identify feldspars at times
Loose Sand Grains Loose sand grains are a common featute on sample trays and need to be given more flian a cursory
examinabon • Firstiy, are/fey jonrfgrains? CiystaUinebarite looks verysimilarto fine loose sand
grains and you must examine (he grains carefully to ensure they are sand. Barite dries with a dusty
white sheen and crushes easily to white powder. • On top hole,the sandstone units are fairly
unconsolidated and poorly cemented. The action of the bit and the jetting action of the mud are
enough to completely disaggregate the sand grains but you should check for any residual cernent or
matrix around the grains and also for minerai growfhs on the grains. * Loose sand grains
froradeeper in the well may be a signofoverbalance. If the sandstone cuttings are not cleared
quickly from die bit then they will be subjected to much grinding action by the bit itself which will
dissagregate die grains. If there is little overbalance then nie sandstone cuttings should be liberated
fairly quickly and should be seen as proper sandstone cuttings. Again check for residual cernent and
matrix in loose grains. Where grains are loose it is impossible to estimate permeability and porosity
Metamorphic/Igneous It can sometimes be difficult to identify some igneous and metamorphic rock types based on physical
appearance in cuttings. It is enough to roughly dassify tbem and make a full description. As long asthey
lithotypes are described in reporte then if there is much interest then samples can be analysed in a laboratoryaway
from tbe wellsite to get an exact identification. Don't spend a great deal of time describing themas they
are unlikely to be of particular interest in oil industry tenus other than for provenance studies.
If you cannot identify a particular rock type then don't worry. As long as you note its présence, do a full description
and make a stab at identification this will be good enough.
6.4.3 Colour
Colour is very subjective. Each individual has their own idea of colour and it
is a pointless exercise to argue over relative shades. To make this category more
objective it is strongly recommended that ail members of tfae wellsite crew use a
standard Rock Colour Chart such as that produced by tfae Geological Society ------COLOR CHART-
ROCK
of America (Figure 6.36). It consists of a small booklet where each page
consists of small oblongs of différent hues of the same colour. Each colour
has a name and a number
• Grip a small représentative pièce of wet cutting with tweezers. You will
need at least a moderately sized pièce.
• Put the colour chart, with me page of the a pproximate colour visible,
under the microscope.
• Compare tfae cutting with each hue in turn until you get tfae closest match
Most operators prefer tfae colour to be written down whilst otfaers may require
tfae colour code. Figure 6.36
Are the colours variable? There are various terms that can be used?
Mottled Mott Varieeated Vgated
Streaked Strkd Spedded Spkld
Varicoloured vcol Spotted spttd
Colour can also be used as simple diagnostic tool to aid in minerai and environmental détermination.
Lightgreen Iron Ferous reduced state indicative of reducing environment Greens and purple réduction
spots are found in parts of Tertiary, Triassic etc.
BrightGreen Glauconite, Chlorite , Glauconite is common i n many horizons and is thought, in many cases to be a product
offishtaeces. It is common on lower marine shelf euvuoiuuenls. Chlorite and
and Chamosite chamoshe (an oxy-chlorite) may be found in sédiments derivedfiom nearby
metemorphic sources or in deeper wells as products of diagenesis.
Blue Tufiàceous Blue colouration is common in Balder Formation which is of volcanic origin
D a r k g r e y- Carbonaceous material Anoxie environments, usually marine in nature. This allows préservation oforganic
material and disseminated iron sulphide is commonly associatcd The Kimmeridge
brown black - Clay/Draupne Formation of the North Sea is characteristicaUy a brown black-olive
olive black black colour and is one of me best hydrocarbon source rocks in the world.
Yellow - ochre Limonite Limonite covers a range of hydrated iron oxides and iron hydroxides. It is a weathering
product of ail iron containing minerais.
Brown Oil Check for shows!
Loose lse Grains disaggregate when the sample dry. Not used on
clay/shale rocks.
Friable fii Loose grains can be separated by pressure fiom the fingers.
Fïnn Grains can be separated with a probe.
Hard hd Grains difiîcult to defach, pressure results in cuttings
breaking grains.
Veryhard vhd Individual grains cannot be detached and cuttings break
through grains.
Further terms are ofien applied to clay-based lithologies which descnbe the solubiliry to water of the claystone. This is
especially so when dealing with soft tophole clays. Various terms are used, soluble hydrateable, hygroturgid etc. and they
ail mean pretty much the same - the lithology disintegrates when exposed to water.
• You occasionally check how the sample is being washed by the mudlogger. Is much of the
claystone fraction being washed away?
• Get the mudlogger to put a small pile of unwashed sample on the sample tray. This allows a
direct comparison between the washed and unwashed sample.
• Try to make estimâtes of percentages based on unwashed sample rather than washed sample in O
thèse circumstances. The non-soluble fraction may be considerably enhanced by the washing
process.
When testing for hardness the fracture or 'break' of the cutting can described. The break may be described using the
following terms: -
or may be described using terms defined in the next section on cuttings shape.
If there is a high overbalance men cuttings are not freely liberated and they are much smaller. They may be rolled round
on bottom and will hâve a more rounded and less 'fresh' appearance. Influences on bit shape are discussed below
The common, fâirly self explanatory, descriptive adjectives used for cuttings shape include:
The corollary of this is that if we know what the bit type is and the lithology that the bit shape may give us some
indication of the overbalance, which will help us with formation pressure évaluation (See Appendix 1).
The following table shows how cuttings are influenced by bit type and overbalance.
PDC Platelets
PDC bits produce very characteristic cuttings shapes as
shown in Figure 6.38. In a situation close to balance, as in
the left of the figure, sheared and stepped cuttings are
produced. With a situation of overbalance then a sheared
but more uniform cutting is produced. Note that in each
case the rock fabric is severely disrupted if not totally
destroyed.
Figure 6.38
A typical PDC cutting is shown in Figure 6.39, highly magnified, on the right
and shows the typical stepped appearance. A vague rock iàbric can just be made
out and wbich has been disrupted by the shearing process. The curved surface
may hâve a smoothed and polished appearance.
The cuttings will be slightly crumbly and moderately hard when force is applied
to them. They are very characteristic.
Figure 6.39
Figure 6.40
Pseudoplastic failure can lead to the production of the following bit generated textures:-
• Rock or Bit Flour: Usually soft and lighter colored than normal' cuttings. It is soft,
amorphous, pasty and is slightly hydrated by the mud in water based drilling fluids.
• Loose sand grains: For cemented and consolidated sandstones the original sandstone
matrix is ground out and the sand grains are liberated. The original sandstone texture is
destroyed. Unconsolidated sandstones can be totally disrupted by jetting (force of mud
through bit jets) and will resuit in loose sand grains in samples.
• Clasts: Clasts from conglomérâtes and breccias may be released by bit action that
destroys the matrix. Large clasts will be too large for transportation and will be broken
up. Small pebbles may be transported up the annulus.
The geologist should pay some attention to cuttings shape and quality as well as describing the lithological features.
The nature of the cuttings can be used as a pore pressure indicator.
Grain size can be easily measured using one of the grain size comparison charte that are available in many of the
Mudlogging units such as the old Exlog one in Figure 6.42. It also gives comparisons for sorting and roundness
which are also most useful.
Figure 6.42
It must also be noted that the grain size will also be affected by the
mesb size of the shale shakers that are being used. Always be aware of
the shaker screen size that is currently in use and how it will affect the
samples. On tophole it is common for large mesh sizes to be used so
that cuttings and even fairly coarse sand grains will go straight
through and thus will not be seen in samples.
The common set up at ail times is to hâve coarser screens above finer
ones on the shale shakers. This is why it is important that
représentative samples must be taken from both screens and mud
cleaner/centrifuge output to ensure that, for
instance, fine sand grains are not missed.
As it is difficult to gauge comparative grain sizes in whole rock samples of cuttings and core chips it is best to
J
disaggregate the sample to evaluate grain sizes. Simply crush a few grains of sandstone in a spot tray or on a spare
métal tray and spread the grains out so they are one layer thick. Use the grain comparison chart to gauge the grain
size and also you will get a much better idea of sorting. It is easy to note other characteristics of the rock at this
stage.
ANGULARITY
It is worthwhile spending a Utile time
FromPewMs
looking at thèse maturity indicators. Figure 6.43
However, thèse can be affected by later minéralisation so that the original grains are eroded, coated or overgrown. Any
évidence for this needs to be described, as it will effect grain shape and porosity and permeability. A number of terms are
commonlyused:-
Pftttae Surfaces of grains hâve small holes caused by chemical solution or physical impacts.
Staining Thin veneer of minéralisation with a coloured, barely noticeable, powdery appearance.
Jnm stainine is common but may also be oil staining!
Coatine Thicker veneer of minéralisation on grain surfaces.
Frastine As its name implies a w*ite powdery coatine to grains caused abrasion of surfaces.
Striated Abrasions or scratchesoftenparallel in nature «
Glassy Minerai overgmwms into void with fiât crystal surfaces apparent
Check ail translucent and transparent grains for internai features such as inclusions and fractures.
WeD sorted wellsrtd Range of particle size confined to two adjoining grain sizes.
SUtstones must be well sorted by this criteria.
Moderateiy sorted modsrtd Range of particle size confined to four adjoining grain sizes.
Poorly sorted prlysrtd Range of grain sizes over more than four grain sizes.
Sorting gives an indication of the textural maturity of the sédiment and is one of the major influences on porosity
and permeability. As it is difficult to gauge comparative grain sizes in whole rock samples of cuttings and core
chips it is best to disaggregate the sample to evaluate sorting. Simply crush a few grains of sandstone in a spot tray
or on a spare métal tray and spread the grains out so they are one layer thick. Ensure you are not looking at well
sorted laminations of différent grain sizes.
Evaluation is best camed out by examining dry sample. Représentative cuttings may be selected from the dried portion of
the sample, or more simply sélect pièces from the wet sample to describe lithology and then let them dry out Porosity
may then be estimated by placing a drop of water on a dried cutting while viewing through the microscope. The speed at
which the water is absorbed by the cutting will help in subjectively evaluating porosity and permeability. Where
distinguishable, porosity should be described using the following ternis:
Trace Tr 0-5% O
Poor Pr 5-10%
Fair Fr 10-20%
Good Gd 20-30%
The évaluation of porosity should also include an évaluation of the type of porosity présent (e.g. intergranular, vuggy, pin-
point, etc.).
Permeability will be related to the porosity to a certain extent If you can see porosity but water absorption rates are low then
you must assume that the permeability is fairly poor.
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Date: October 2001 6.29 Sample and Author
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Carbonate rocks are generally deposited in shallow, warrn marine environments. Clastic input is minimal allowing the
waters to be clear and light If the original textures are présent then the Dunham classification can be used and some
basic inferences as to energy of déposition made. If me carbonate rock has been subject to recrystallisation then a
description giving the basic rock features and crystal size is generally ail that is possible at the wellsite.
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Rock Type Liraestone, Dolomite, gradations in betweea Define in ternis of Dunham if
possible. Some définitive tests aie possible.
Colour Use standard colour charte
Hardnèss How résistant aie the cuttings to applied force
CuttingsShape Gênerai shape ofcuttings
Grain/Crystal Size Ifcrystalline
Crystal Shape Ifappiopnate
Sorting If appropriate, in packstones and grainstones etc.
Follow this systematic séquence of description as illustrated in the above table. The description of carbonate rocks is
in most ways the same as that for clastics and only the différences will be highlighted in the text below.
Détermination of carbonate rock type at the wellsite usually consists of working out via simple tests what the rock is
and then fitting it in to the Dunham classification. If crystalline, the rock should be described in terms of its crystal
size.
"^^^ "Dolomite"
-Uimtww"
J
allow more spécifie déterminations of rock character to be made.
Whilst Iimestones and dolomites are the commonest rock types there are several other
'subtypes' that are commonly used.
Figure
6.45
Chalk
Very fine grained, predominantly white limestone made up of the skeletons of a planktonic algae called
coccolithospheres. Chalk is very widespread in the Cretaceous but many Iimestones can be said to hâve a 'chalky'
texture and it is a readily identifiable rock type.
Mari
This is a fine grained calcareous mudstone. There are various définitions of mari and it is recommended that the term
is not used with either calcareous claystone or argillaceous limestone being used instead. Even hère it is often difScult
to pick between thèse two tenns as they are just gradational members of the same séries.
Ideally when put in dilute hydrochloric acid a calcareous claystone cutting will retain its integrity whilst an
argillaceous limestone cutting will not, leaving a clayey residue in the spot tray.
Arenaceous Limestones
Differentiate sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone in the same way as argillaceous limestones. Drop cuttings in
dilute hydrochloric acid and see if they disaggregate.
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Date: October 2001 6.33 Sample and Author
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Grain Size
Grain size détermination may be difficult with carbonates especially if recrystallisation has taken place. It may be that
a description of crystal size or a mixture of crystal and grains may be required.
Sortinq
Again may be difficult as grain types may be so variable and recrystallisation may hâve occurred.
Surface Texture
Surface textures can be enhanced by etching cuttings with a small amount of acid. This may reveal grain size and
shape, crystallim'ry, fossil material etc. Crystal shape may also be distinguished:
¦ Crystal growth
¦ Fractures and fissures
¦ Vugs
¦ Stylolites
Stylolites are quite common in carbonates but may appear as argillaceous/carbonaceous streaks especially in PDC bit-
derived cuttings.
Natural Fluorescence
Many carbonates exhibit natural minerai fluorescence. Assuming there is no eut (in which case there is probably a
show), always check samples under the UV light to see if minerai fluorescence is présent It may be the fîrst
indication that carbonate rocks are présent.
Use the Mudlogger's calcimeter to get a more reliable measurement of both the calcium and magnésium carbonate in a
particular sample. Thèse can be determined by this instrument in a few minutes. This data should complément and not
replace yourown observations however.
Distilledwater
Paper Towcltodtv
Dilute Hydrochloric acid (20%)
Potassium fcmcyanidc
Alizarin Red solution
The following procédure is recommended for calcite staining with Alizarin Red;
1. The larger dish should be filled about half-full with the staining solution,
2. Wash cuttings or core chips with freshor distilled water and allow to dry.
3. Place the dry fragments into the staining solution of hydrochloric acid, potassium ferricyanide and alizarin red..
4. The staining of the fragments becomes visible afterone minute.
5. Examine me samples in me solution.
6. Calcite will be stained red, ferroan calcite, purple, ferroan dolomite, blue, and dolomite remains unstained.
The staining solution can be re-used, but must not be poured back into the container of fresh solution.
• Sabkha - From the Arabie term referring to wide, sait encrusted supra-tidal areas such as those
in Abu Dhabi. Occasional flooding of the surface and subséquent evaporation of the seawater
leads to déposition of gypsum and salts. Anhydrite is for med by the re-solution and
replacement of gypsum. Whilst thin evaporite units are formed using this mechanism, thicker
units are harder to account for.
• Basinal - This method requires a basin with restricted inflow of saline fluids. The fluids
evaporate and evaporites start to form when saline water concentration is above 50% of the
original volume. This method of formation is more likely to give thicker evaporite intervais
than that of sabkha although it does dépend on the frequency of influx waters which may tend
to dilute the basinal waters.
Minerais tend to be formed in the reverse order of their solubilities but this also is température dépendant Gypsum,
for example, will be deposited below 42°C, and anhydrite above. Assuming constant conditions, a typical evaporite
séquence or cycle is shown below. However, this idéal séquence may be disrupted by influxes of water into the
basin, subséquent recrystallisation and température changes.
The description of evaporite rocks follows similar catégories to those of clastics and carbonates and, apart from rock
type récognition will not be expanded upon further than that presented in the table below:-
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Rock Type A number of identification methods can be used to correctly identify rock type.
Colour Use standard colour charts
Hardness and fracture How résistant are the cuttings to applied force
CuttinssShape Gênerai shape of cuttings
CrystalSize Ifcrystalline
CrystaISbape If appiopriate
Solubility In salts etc.
Recrystallisation Evidence forre-crystallisan'on
Porosity/Penneability Visual déterminations only. Likely to be almost always zéro.
Accessory Minerais Where appiopriate - likely only to be other evaporites or, rarely argillaceous
material
Unusual Features Microfossils, fissures, etc.
Hydrocarbon Shows Not normaUy associated with evaporites
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Date: October 2001 6.37 Sample and Author
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Cuttings quality and There will be no change in cuttings when drilling the harder evaporites in the séquence such as anhydrite,
dolomite etc. However, with a mud that is not sait saturated there will be a marked decrease in cuttings
quantity quantity when drilling salts. This is because the sait is dissolving into the mud and thus ail the cuttings will
dissolve before they reach the surface. This will resuit in the shakers appearing clean and the Mudloggers
complain that they hâve no sample to coll ect! Ensure that bags are suitably marked up to explain the lack of
sample. Do not just throw the bags away as confusion may later ensue when the samples are processed
onshore - where are the missing samples?
Gas levels Because evaporites are essentially lacking in porosity, gas levels are generally very low when drilling them. Of
course if there is any secondary porosity some gas may be found and the gas levels may be masked if gas is
seeping into the hole at other levels.
Colourof cuttings Most of the evaporites are colourless to white or very light grey with some translucence. Polyhalite may hâve a
red tinge, whilst anhydrite is white, hard and dense. Use colour comparison charts as appropriate.
Solubility of cuttings Cuttings of sait can look very sim ilar to sand grains in some circumstances. However, the sait will crush quite
easily and is readily soluble in fresh water.
Tasteof cuttings Sait obviously tastes salty! Some of the salts, such as camallite, can taste particularly bitter whilst other
evaporites, such as polyhalite and anhydrite hâve no taste.
Chemical tests There are basic chemical tests that can be carried out to identify common evaporites. Mudlogging units
should hâve the necessary chemicals and you should check at the beginning of the well that they hâve thèse if
evaporites are prognosed (see next page).
Date: October 2001 6.38 Sample and Author
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Geology
Barytes Ba(SO4) colourless, white, yellow None None 4.40 Rare, co mmonly
assoclated with anhydrite
Bischoflte MBCI2.6H2O Colourless, white Very VSoluble 1.60 - 0 Hole enlargement If mud
bitter notsaltsaturated
Camallite KO.MgCB.6H20 White, slightly red & yellow Very VSoluble 1.61 78 200 Hole enlargement if mud
bitter notsaltsaturated
Epsomlto MgSO4.7H2O Colourless, white Very VSoluble 2.10 Simllarto Camallite
bitter
Glauberite Na2SO4.CaS04 Colourless, white, grey, yellow - None 2.70 - - - Rarely developed, found
white 2.80 with mlrabilite
Gypsum CsSOMHÎO Colourless, white, rr plnk None None 2.32 52.5 0 Above 500-700 m only
yellow and grey
Hallte NaCI Colourless, tlnted when impure Salty Soluble 2.17 67 0 Hole enlargement If mud
not sait saturated, uniform
drill rate
¦ ¦ ¦
Hexahydrite MgSO4.(IH2O - - - Rare
Kalnlte M(|SO4.KajH20 Colourless, white & light grey Very Soluble 2.13 225 Rare, commonly
salty & assodatedwithhalite
si bitter
Kieserite MgSO4.H20 Colourless, white & light grey None VSoluble 2.57 0 Oftenassociatedwith
-
Syhrite
Langbelnite K2SO4JMgSO4 Colourless, white, occaslonally None VSoluble 2.83 52 275 Rarely developed
si plnk
Mlrablllte Na2SO4.4H2O Colourless, white Salty Soluble 1.4- - - Falriy rare. Assoclated with
1.5 halite
Polyhalite K2SO4.2MgSO4.2Ca Grey white, si yellow & red None VSoluble 2.78 57.5 180 Oftenassociatedwith
SO4.2H2O Anhydrite
Sylvtte KQAIsCt2.6H2O Colourless, white Bitter Soluble 1.98 74 >500 Similartorocksalt
and
salty
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Date: October 2001 6.39 Sample and Author
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Geology
The présence of either anhy drite and gypsum can be confirmed by the following test:
1. Pick out several good cuttings from the sample and place them in a test tube.
2. Fill the test tube with distilled water and wash the grains thoroughiy by shaking the test tube
vigorously.
3. Pour offthe water and then repeat the washing séquence again.
The présence of either anhydrite and gypsum can be confirmed by the following test:-
6.6.5 Chert
Cherts are very hard chemicaliy derived rocks and can impact on drilling opérations. Chert is, cryptocrystalline, very
hard and very brittle, with conchoidal fracture and, typically, large sharp cuttings. The colour of chert is indicative
of its depositional environment:
If chert is found in sample the wellsite geologist should inform the drilling supervisor straight away. Chert can
dramatically reduce the life of ail types of bit as it is so abrasive.
Pyroclastics
Fragmentai volcanic material
blown into atmosphère by
Figure 6.46 explosive acBvity
The simple classification illustrated above shows only a small number of rock types. In most wells drilled by the oil
industry only a very few of the vast range of igneous rocks will be encountered. The most common igneous rocks
encountered will be dolente dykes and sills, basalts and, most frequently, pyroclastic material, especially tuffs.
However, 'basement' could consist of any type of igneous rock. Only the more commonly encountered igneous rocks
are described hère.
Granités
Granités, when fractured, can in fact form producible réservoirs and in drill cuttings can be very difficult to
distinguish from immature sandstones and 'granité wash'. Distinguishing factors will be very slow and generally
consistent ROP, low gas readings and fresh crystal faces. Examine crystals/grains closely for évidence of cleavage.
Polerites
Usually consist of hard, fine grained material with angular cuttings shapes which are very dark grey black in colour.
Again characterised by slow ROPs and low gas readings.
Thus, tuffs can be very variable in colour and grain size. They are commonly described as grey through blue grey
and green grey, speckled black and white with glassy shards and globules. Grain size can vary from very fine
through to coarse. More often than not they hâve been deposited and re-worked with sands and clays and tuffaceous
sandstones and claystones may be encountered depending on the environment of déposition.
Contact metamorphism will occur around intrusions. Look out for minéralisation of sedimentary rocks.
Régional metamorphism (Greenschist faciès) starts at températures of 350 to 500°F (176 to 260 °C). It will affect rock
texture and causes a green colouration caused by appearance of chlorite, epidote and actinolite.
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Date: October 2001 6.43 Author
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Otherwise, core chips are taken every mètre or so and at intervais of especial interest. Core chip descriptions are
described below.
Do not leave cores or sidewall cores out in the open for too long as they will dehydrate and any hydrocarbons
présent may start to evaporate and be lost. Keep ail samples sealed in plastic bags or bottles.
Figure 6.47
Figure 6.47 shows a typical core chip and it's size. The process oftaking core chips is described in Chapter 7. The
same process should be observed for conventional whole core as for chips from sleeve coring.
Ensure ail the chips are placed in well marked bags or bottles
Ensure containers are clean
Keep samples from exposure to air as much as possible ,
Keep description area clean and that you hâve ail necessary equipment for description.
A hammer is useful for hard samples
This information should be treated as prelùninary and should be emphasised on any transmission. The detailed
description may reveal subtle shows or porosity and pertneability that cannot be seen on any 'quick-look'.
NOTE: Quickly replace ail core chips in bags to stop them de-hydrating. If nec essary put chips into new, clean
well-marked bags. This is especially so when oil-based mud is used as the bags get covered in OBM and the
markings rub off. It also helps to minimise contamination of the samples.
Detailed Description
A detailed description, especially when there are shows, can take some time. For a 30 m core with lm core chip
samples the total description time may be 4 hours or so. Before starting the main description:
• Ensure ail the trays, spot trays, prods and tweezers are clean and you hâve ail the necessary equipment and
plentiful supply of chemicals
• You might need a hammer for hard core chips
• Make sure the description area is clear and you hâve plenty of room to spread out.
When carrying out the main description view the whole core chip and break off a small représentative chip for
microscope work.
Shows
Take a small pièce of sample and place on a spot tray. Put under UV light and check for shows. Carefully describe
àll aspects of shows as described later in this chapter. Remember to describe the amount degree and colour of oil
staining, fluorescence and eut for each chip. In the case of patchy show development more than one solvent eut
analysis may be required for each core chip. It is sometimes bénéficiai to methodically place show samples in order
on spot tray so that the variations in shows through the core can be assessed. x
Clearing Up
When the sample description is complète then throw away ail material used in the description. Clean off the métal
sample tray ready for next sample. Always keep the workplace clean and tidy and avoid cross-contamination of
samples. Clean up when you hâve finished.
Put ail samples away in well marked plastic bags and place neatly in box for transportation.
Figure 6.48
• Define a show
• Give an overview of factors which influence shows
• Describe gas shows and how to evaluate them
• Describe oil shows and how to evaluate them
Factor Description
Rock Properties The type and magnitude ofthe porosity and permeability greatly influence the magnitude or amount of any show.
Highly porous and perméable rocks are rapidly and often completely flushed by the mud filtrate so there may be a
large show in the mud stream, detected by oil in the pits, while the cuttings will hâve very little residual oil and only a
poor show. Imperméable rocks tend to retain their formation fluids throughout the drilling process so there will be a
small show in the mud stream but a comparatively better show in the ditch samples. Vuggy or fracture porosity bas a
very high penneability coupled with a very simple pore geometry. This type of rock may be flushed almost entirely
of its contained fluids the instant it is penetrated so that the shows will be quite small, even for good producing
intervais.
Type of Hydrocarbon In gênerai, heavy oil will be flushed léss easily tha n light oils or gas. The in-situ réservoir conditions will govem
the gas-in-mud and oil-in-mud concentration. Solution of large amounts of gas in oil will resuit in shrinkage ofthe oil,
diminishing the amount that will enter the mud. Dry gas and distillate réservoirs are difficult to evaluate because
ofthe lack of oil in either the mud or the cuttings. For thèse, a chromatographic analysis ofthe mud gas is very useful.
An oil réservoir is easier to detect because the cuttings provide direct évidence.
Drilling Rate The magnitude ofthe show in the drilling mud will be directly propoitional to the rate of pénétration because this
rate governs the rate at which hydrocarbons are added to the mud stream. A rapid pénétration rate reduces the rime the
J
formation is subjected to the differential pressure that may exist between the mud and formation fluids, thereby
diminisbing the flushing effect
Density and Viscosity The greater the density ofthe drilling fluid, the greater will be the pressure differential existing between the mud
and die formation fluid pressure, resulting in increased flushing action. Jet drilling bits also increase the flushing
ofthe Drilling Fluid action. If the mud is too light, there will be a tendency for the formation up the hole to bleed gas into the mud and pro
vide an undesirable background of gas. When the mud has a high viscosity, the release ofthe gas from the mud at
surface is inhibited. If the mud is not de-gassed efficiently, the gas détecter will show a large and persistent
background reading that may obscure a genuine show. If the gas in the mud continues to build up, the gas détecter may
eventually become saturated and thus not be able to loganyjiew shows.
Depthof the Well A deep well is usually associated with high pressure differentials and slow drilling rates, both of which will reduce the
magnitude of any shows. In deep wells the hole size is usually smaller so that less rock is pulverised per meter of
pénétration. Circulation rimes are longer in deep wells, resulting in greater chances for mixing and dilution of
hydrocarbons in the cuttings.
Miscellaneous Occasionally the geologist will encounter an anomalous show, i.e. one that just does not seem valid. For gas shows,
suspect the addition of some chemicals or diesel oil to the mud. Some additives used in the mud may cause it to
Drilling Conditions foam.
The main hydrocarbon gases recorded by the Mudlogging unit devices are:-
Méthane Cl CH,
Ethane C2 CH3,CH3
Propane C3 CH3, CHî, CH3
Butane iC4,nC4 CH3,(CH2)2,CH3
Pentane iC5, nC5 CH3,(CH2)3,CHj
Cl through C5 are the common names used to dénote thèse gases at the wellsite. The relative proportion of thèse
gases can give an indication of the type and composition of réservoir fluids (See Gas Ratios below).
• Total Gas: AH hydrocarbon gases totalised and constantly measured and recorded in
percentage (1% = 10,000 ppm)
• Chromatograph: Components, usually just Cl to CS recorded cych'cally every few
minutes (ppm).
The Total Gas trace is the one that is usually reviewed and which provides a continuous monitor of gas levels
produced from the well. It is measured as a percentage gas in air.
The Chromatograph takes a sample every few minutes and provides a chromatographic breakdown in ppm. The
values of Cl, C2 ... etc are calculated accurately by an integrator, which measures the exact area under each
chromatographic peak, compares it with the calibration and transmits the value to the computer database. Figure
6.49 illustrâtes a basic diagram of the gas system.
Periddlcsunpling
<J Contlnuoua lampling
& détection of
hydrocarbon gases,
iiMMuradm
ma In air
GasTrap
On most chromatographs the cycle timing can be adjusted. On tophole intervais when 'heavy' gases, i.e. C3+ are
rare the cycle time is set to 3 minutes or so just to pick up Ihe light gases. When heavy gases are suspected then the
fiill cycle should be instigated, which can take up to 5 minutes. This is quite a long time and, often, to sample at a
gas peak, it is possible to hold the cycle and initiate it when required. At the end of each cycle the System is flushed
before the next cycle résumes.
It must be realised that thèse gas readings are ail relative. The values recorded dépend on so many factors that the
levels are only a qualitative and not an exact quantitative value. With this in mind it must be realised that it is
impossible to compare values between wells and, sometimes, within the same well. Gas levels are affected by: -
Mud Properties The higher the overbalance, the Iower the gas levels will be in the mud. Also gel strength has an effect; a
thick mud will retain the gas more.
Gas Trap Effîciency The positioning of the gas trap in the ditch/header tank is crucial (Figure 6.51). If it is not placed in the
correct position it may miss the main flow and gas readings will be Iower. The trap itself may be too high or
low in the mud, partially blocked with cuttings etc. Thèse factors will affect the mud flow through it and
the amount of entrained gas that can be released. The Mudloggers should always check the trap
regularly. Some gas traps hâve an air slot to dilute the gas. If this becomes partially blocked the gas
values will be artificially enhanced.
Configuration of surface Gas may be Iost at the bel! nipple, flow Une (if partially uncovercd) and from the ditch/header tank.
More gas will be liberated if the ditch has a larger surface area.
system
Gas Detectors Gas levels will be affected by the ef ficiency and calibration of the Mudloggers System.
Hole Size The bigger the hole drilled the more gas will be released per depth unit penetrated.
Gas loss
from top of Excessive gas
riser (Bell loss If open Gas to mudlogging
Nipple) flowllne
Gas loss from unit *
flow Une Floating Gas Trap - Figure 6.50
Gas loss from i correct positioning
s
headertank^
liS_
fu
Shale
\
i Shaker
Texpels
u r b u lmore
e n t f lgas
ow ^ * l
A
S
Agitator
Header Tank
Swab gas: Very similar in mode of occurrence to connection gas but caused when the pipe is pulled up but not at a connection.
Micro- or
Swab gases should be measured at the peak and recorded as values above background.
(Very rarely used offshore nowadays). During the course of drilling it is important to compare the continuously measured gas
J
from the ditch trap wi th a single, independent sampling technique. Spécifie quantifies of mud or cuttings are placed in a
Blender gas: blender with a measured quantity of water. This is capped and agitated and the released gas is drawn off by vacuum across
to a gas détecter.
This system, called microgas-analysis (the results being called blender gas), shows the amount of gas trapped in the mud or
cuttings. The units of gas measured from diluted mud should be 1/2 to 2/3 less than the ditch gas readings from the same
ditch mud. When it is equa l to or greater than a corresponding ditch gas measurement, the funnel viscosity may be
dangerously high and the PV/YP properties of the drilling mud (yield point in particular) are not correctly proportioned.
Blender gas values cannot be compared on a parallel basis with the ditch gas readings but are indicative of the porosity-
permeability characteristics important to the geological évaluation of the formation.
Gas Kick This has two meanings. The usual meaning is a sudden influx of gas into the wellbore i.e. the well 'kicks'. However, some
geologists refer to a sudden increase in gas levels, incorrectly, as a 'gas kick'. This leads to misunderstandings and
unnecessary panic so the terni should always be qualified with an explanation and only use it in its well control context
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Date: October 2001 6.51 Sample and Author
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For example in Figure 6.53 below gas peaks A and B are both 5%.
However, gas peak A is much more significant being 4% above a
background of 1 % compared with peak B wbich is 1 % over a
background of 4%.
Figure 6.53
Gas ratio plotting is part of an overall évaluation. The results are not conclusive due to the empirical nature of the
plot, and the uncertainty of the gas analysis.
The components of reservoired hydrocarbons hâve been found to vary over definite ranges, and tlms the ratio ranges
of thèse components should also vary in a predictable fashion. The magnitude of the C1/C2 ratio détermines the
type of hydrocarbons in the réservoir. The slope of the line, when the ratios C1/C2, C1/C3, C1/C4 and C2/C3 are
plotted on the Cambrian Gas Ratio Evaluation Sheet (Figure 6.54, below) détermines whether water or
hydrocarbons will be produced (Form = gasrat.xls).
Record gas peak chromatograph values (Cl - C4) for the zone of interest.
Record background gas - look back on charte.
Calculate the gas values above background, and the hydrocarbon ratios.
Plot the ratios on the Gas Ratio Evaluation Worksheet
The spreadsheet (gasratxls) does ail the calculation automatically.
(AfterPixler, 1969)
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Date: October 2001 6.53 Sample and Author
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Figure 6.54
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
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Geology
The output is far superior to single page plots described in the previous section. They are continuous plots of
chromatograph gas ratios and can give much more interprétative résulte. They will use also use différent
terminology and produce différent styles of output You will still need to interpret thèse plots so make sure you
understand the principles and resuite of their plots.
Hydrocarbon Balance Ratio C1+C2 C3 + Relates to density of réservoir fluid, decreases with increase in
(Bh) C4 + C5 fluid density
Plotted in same track as Wh - Log Scale
Hydrocarbon Character Ratio C4 + C5 Only used when excessive méthane is présent - this retards
Ci Wh and Bh values. If Ch > 0.5, gas/light oil o r condensate is
(CH) indicated. See steps interprétation steps below.
Plotted in ifs own track - Linear scale.
Interpr étation
GAS RATIOS
Ch RATIO Wh RATIO
I
3. If the Wh is in the gas phase and Bh < Wh, gas/oil or Very Light
gas/condensate is indicated * (see below) Dry Gas
4. If the Wh is in the oil phase and the Bh < Wh, the
greater the différence/séparation, the denser the oil
5. If the Wh is in the residual oil phase and Bh < Wh,
Light Gas ? i
Jtf
residual oil is indicated
I lI
Gas/Light
1. If the Ch < 0.5, gas potential is indicated and the Wh vs Oil
Bh interprétation is correct
2. If the Ch > 0.5, gas/light oil or condensate is indicated.
Coal Bed
Effect
ilu S11
i
Médium
GravItyOil ç
s
Residual
Oil
1 11 J
Figure 6.55
6.10.7 Conclusion
Assuming that the gas values are représentative, then ftom the simple gas peak and chromatograph readings a great
deal of information can be obtained regarding gas type and potential productivity at the wellsite.
J
Date: October 2001 6.55 Sample and Author
Version: 2.01 Show Description TJH
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
The wellsite geologist should be especially vigilant if the 'heavy gases', C3-C5 appear and start to increase in
magnitude. Thèse are strong indicators of the présence of hydrocarbons.
Followed correctly, the systematic approach to show évaluation and description outlined below will ensure that ail
the characteristics of a particular show are evaluated and described.
Oil in Mud Evaluate the présence of oil in the mud as well as the cuttings.
Microgas Evaluate the hydrocarbons in tbe mud and sample using the Microgas
System.
Analysis
Odour Is there any hydrocarbon odour?
Oil staining and Examine cuttings or core chips under naturel light and microscope. Is oil
staining apparent
bleeding
Fluorescence Check samples for uniformity, percentage, colour, and intensity of
fluorescence under UV light.
Solvent eut Check rate colour and character of solvent cut fluorescence.
Crush Cut Is there an improvement when the sample is crushed? Re-check
fluorescence and cut
Residue Is there any residue? Note colour, fluorescence and amount
6.11.2 Equipment
To ensure quality show descriptions you will need to ensure that you hâve working equipment This needs to be
checked well before it is used - if the UV box is not working it may take days to get another one to the wellsite.
Make sure it Works well before you need it and check that there are spare UV bulbs. Other equipment that will be
required are good quality, clean spot trays. It is a good idea to
wash ail spot trays with détergent before using them for show
évaluation.
Figure 6.56
6.56
Sample and Show Figure 6.57 Author
Date: October 2001 TJH
Version: 2.01 Description
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University _ ,
Geology
Take a set amount of mud (e.g. 200 ml - as long as it is the same each rime) in a dish and examine under UV light.
Describe colour and intensîty of oil fluorescence.
If none, dilute with half as much volume of water (e.g. 100ml) and leave for 5 minutes. Describe again.
Oil shows in the mud are evaluated on the basis of the percentage of the mud surface covered by oil fluorescence
with a rating of poor, fair, good or very good. Oil and gas in the cuttings indicates that the formations is releasing
the hydrocarbons relatively easily and indicates permeability is fairly good. It should tie in with high total gas and
chromatograph readings.
Before an expected hydrocarbon bearing zone always check for oil in mud from samples before and after bottoms
up of the top of the zone so you hâve a 'control' sample. Double check for any contaminants. -\
AH microgas readings should be recorded on your worksheets to be used in you full évaluation later.
6.11.5 Odour
Note any hydrocarbon odour from the mud or unwashed cuttings or in fresh core chips.
Type
High and médium API gravity oils
Odour
Strong gassy odour
J
condensâtes Strong petroliferous odour
Low API oils Do not smell strongly.
The degree of odour, e.g. faint, moderate, strong should be applied. Alway s examine fresh samples.
J
Date: October 2001 6.57 Author
Version: 2.01 Sample and Show Description TJH
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
Oil may be seen to be bleeding from cores and this should be noted on any descriptions. However, if the permeability
in the core was good the oil would hâve swiftly flowed out of the core so the observation of bleeding oil generally
means that permeability may be poor. Note the percentage of stain in whole cores or core chips.
6.11.7 Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the property to glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. The fluorescence varies with the API gravity of
the oil. Examine fresh surfaces of cuttings and core chips in the UV box for fluorescence and note the:-
Any changes of thèse parameters with depth can give évidence for différent zones within an oil column, possibly
transition zones. The information should be combined with gas ratio data to try and give a better évaluation.
Pick out several of the fluorescent grains and check them under the microscope for staining.
The relation between the colour of fluorescence and the gravity of the crude oil can be very useful in the
interprétation of shows and evaluating the readings of the gas detector. A comparison between gravity and colour of
fluorescence is shown below.
OH Gravitv
N.B. Oil gravity in degrees API is computed as:
°API = (141,5 / spec. grav.) -131,5
Where spec. grav. means spécifie gravity of oil at 60 °F referred to water at 60 °F.
Minerai Fluorescence
Note that there are a number of rock types that bave natural minerai fluorescence:
Fluorescence Summarv
Light
Crude
APIGravity >45 35-45
Dolomite, Sandy
Llmestone, Paper,
Shale, Fosslls,
Mari, Clay Mari
• Rate - how fast is the cut - slow, fast, instantaneous? If very slow a cut may not be
apparent for several minutes. Low API oils will cut more slowly than light oils in the
same penneability rock.
• Colour - The intensity and colour of the cut should be described. For example bright
Figure 6.58 :°ld, nùlky white etc.
• Cnaracter - ibis may variously be described as blooming, streaming, clouding and
diffuse (or intermediate variants) (See Figure 6.59, below), and reflects the prosity and
penneability of the chosen cuttings.
N.B. Most solvents or cutting agents used at the wellsite are highiy toxic and may be carcinogenic. Care
should be taken to avoid direct inhalation and contact with the skin.
Minerai fluorescence will not give a solvent cut. Use mis fact to distinguish real shows.
J
Date: October 2001 6.59 Sample and Author
Version: 2.01 Show Description TJH
Geology Wellsite and Opérations
Oxford Brookes University
Geology
SHOW: 10% free oil in mud with pale yellow fluorescence and strong hydrocarbon odour, 50% unwashed cuttings
with pale to bright yellow fluorescence, 40% sandstone grains with irregular pale brown oil stain showing bright
yellow fluorescence, instantaneous pale yellow-blue streaming eut, slightly improved on crushing, with strong
yellow residue.
6.11.12 ShowQuality
The primary objective of the Percent of cuttings QUAUTYOF THE SHOW
with a fluorescense In
show évaluation is to provide, a sample (caving
through a detailed analysis of ignored)
Utile or no porosity. Some visible porosity. Good porosity. Good
the show characteristics, some UWeornostaining. Fair visible stalning. Fair visible stalning. Bright
understanding of the in-situ Weak fluorescense. fluorescense. Slow fluorescense. Good
Cutonlyafter streaming cut. streaming cut.
permeability and porosity cnjshlng.
relationships in the réservoir.
For example, a strong show in
the mud, but a poor show in the 10% Very Poor-Trace Poor Poor-Fair
Figure 6.60
Combined with porosity évaluation and gas readings, shows are rated as a POOR, FAIR, GOOD or VERY GOOD
OIL SHOW. (See Figure 6.60)
When staining is visible it varies from honey -coloured to brown- black, depending on the gravity and composition
of the crude oil. Experienced geologists can distinguish 'dead oil1 from 'live oil' staining. The following is intended
as a gênerai guide to help distinguish between live and dead oil shows:
Dead OH Stain
Dead oil staining is the remnant of bitumen bulbs or a Veathered1 remains of a live oil stain. It usually appears as a
'powdery', non-lustrous coating on grains. Dead oil commonly appears as a dull brown-black, non-lustrous, irregular or
patchy stain. It may yield a rare and poor direct fluorescence and/or eut fluorescence.
One problem is contamination of the sample by pipe dope. High grade 'dopes' used on the drill collars usually hâve
a metallic base and are normally very distinctive under the microscope. The pipe dope used liberally on the drill
pipe is often a cheaper variety and non-metallic. Following a bit change the ditch samples may be heavily
contaminated with pipe dope which fluoresces blue-white through to yellow. If the wellsite geologist is in doubt as
to the origin of fluorescence in the cuttings samples, and suspects that it may be due to pipe dope contamination, he
should inspect samples of the pipe dopes in use on the rig floor and compare their fluorescent characteristics with
x
the cuttings. Pipe dope contamination can also be a problem during coring as the pipe dope can be forced into the J
periphery of the core, thereby simulating oil staining. If the staining is confined to the outside of the sample or core
and not évident on a freshly broken or crushed pièce, it probably is pipe dope.
Also note that certain mud additives hâve a natural minerai fluorescence in the pale yellow white to milky white
range. Glycol is widely used as a shale swelling inhibiting agent in drilling fluids. It does however seem to give a
weak milky white eut fluorescence to cuttings exposed to the drilling mud.
Carbonaceous Material
Black or brown disseminated flakes of plant remains, opaque to translucent, no direct fluorescence, usually no eut but may
hâve occasional low intensity milky white eut fluorescence due to minor associated 'solubles'. Where abundant in
cuttings, or in cores, carbonaceous material may occur as bedded units of COAL (black, shiny, conchoidal fracture),
LIGNITE (brown, earthy, often crumbly) or PEAT (brown, fîbrous, 'woody').
N.B. Coal beds often show higb associated Cl and C2 ditch gas readings, but no C3.
Bitumen
A solid or semi-solid "hydrocarbon1. The terni bitumen is used hère to cover a range of carbonaceous compounds
including gilsonite, asphalt, pitch, tar etc. Note that bituminous substances (particularly asphaltines) are commonly
added to the mud system to improve hole conditions. If the Wellsite geologist sees bituminous material in the
cuttings, he should first check with the Mud Engineer whether such material has been added to the mud.
Bitumen occurs as discrète nodules or bulbs in rock pores. It is hard to "plastic' or 'slippery' when probed and is
commonly black in colour or opaque. Bitumen and bituminous substances generally show nil to moderate
fluorescence, with a streaming white to yellow eut. The bitumen often occupies the larger pore spaces and when
reached by the solvent, the 'enlivened' bitumen tends to radiate through the remaining pores mimicking an overall eut
fluorescence. Thus it is extremely important to locate and identify the bitumen particle within the sample before
adding the solvent
Bitumen may be présent in water wet réservoirs as a biodegraded or weathered oil residue in which case it may be
wrongly identified as an 'oil show', or may be a minor component in oil zones in which case it may wrongly
ORGANIC MATERIAL IN
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1
«"WKBBSSSS"
Figure 6.61
I
l
CRUDE OIL | [___ BITUMEH |
• Rate of Pénétration
• Torque
• Gas levels
• LWD curves, usually minimum gamma ray and resistivity
Having LWD information can help the most in lithological identification and formation tops. Without thèse data
there is much more dependence on the ROP, torque and gas.
Gas Higher
6.12.2 Quality Control
The final interprétation will also be an opportunity for quality control: ROP Faster
¦
Does Iithology, as described in samples, fit in with the real-time and
lagged, drilling and LWD parameters (Figure 6.62)? ¦M -¦ _ ¦
c »
—i
t j: j
An offset between the real-time (i.e. ROP and lagged data (gas and m
samples) could occur as in the Figure 6.62. This would indicate a
problem with the lag that should be resolved using a carbide
L 1
. l
•• ».
¦ il
4*
other tracer. bomb or CC 1 r km»
Figure 6.62 _
¦ |
'" L
M
M
ROP Min /m \J J J
LWDGRAAPI *
WÊm
Mudloggeis LWD L1 m
^
« ¦ '4
*
•
f r
Ft/hr or m/hr 0
Min/m or min/5ft 50
50