Notes Chapter - 3

Electrical Utilities
3.1 Electrical Motors

Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. There are
basically 3 types of motors:

1. AC Induction Motors
2. AC Synchronous Motors
3. DC Motors

The detailed classification of electric motors is given below :

Electric Motors

D.C. Motors A.C. Motors

Brushless D.C Brush D.C Single Phase Three phase/polyphase Linear

Shunt Wound Shaded pole Induction Induction
Separately Excited Reluctance Squirrel cage Synchromous
Series wound Split Phase Slip ring
Compound wound Synchronous

Electric motors are inherently very efficient. Their efficiencies vary from 85%
to 95% for motors of sizes ranging from 10 HP to 500 HP. It is still possible to
improve the efficiency of these motors by 1 to 4% by improving the design of motor
.

3.1.1 Power Consumption in Motors

a) Efficiency and Power Factor

The power consumed by a 3-phase AC motor is given by

Power Input = 3 x Voltage x Current x Power Factor

If the voltage is in Volts and the current in Amperes, the power will be in Watts (w).
The power in Watts divided by 1000 is kilowatts (kW). The power input to the
motor varies with the output shaft load.

Electrical Power input (kW) = Mechanical Shaft Output x 100

Motor Efficiency (%)

Electrical Power input (KVA) = Power Input (kW) x 100

Power Factor
Variations of motor efficiency and power factor with load are shown in Fig. 3.1
Torque speed and current speed characteristics of different types of rotors are
shown in Fig.3.2. The load vs full load current is shown in Fig. 3.3. The following
may be noted from these curves.

75
1. The motor efficiency remains almost constant upto 50% load. Below 50% load, 100
the efficiency drops significantly till it reaches zero at 0% load.
2. At a particular operating voltage and shaft load, the motor efficiency is fixed by SMALL MOTOR
90
(BELOW 25 HP)
design, it cannot be changed externally.
3. The power factor reduces with load. At no load the p.f. is in the range of 0.05 to 80

% Full Load Current

0.2 depending on size of the motor.
70
4. At no load, the power consumption is only about 5% or so, just sufficient to
supply the iron loss, friction and windage losses. 60 LARGE MOTOR
5. The no load current is however of the order of 30% to 50% of full load current. (25 HP & ABOVE)
50
This amount of magnetizing current is required because of air gap in the motor.
6. The starting torque is 100% to 200%, the maximum torque is 200% to 300% of 40
rated torque.
7. The starting current remains at a high value of more than 500% of rated current 30
upto 75% to 80% speed and then drops sharply. 20
25 50 75 100
100 1.0

90 0.9 % Load (Shaft Power)

80 0.8
Fig 3.3 : Current v/s Load
70 0.7
% Efficiency & Power Factor

3.1.2 Importance of Motor Running Cost-Life Cycle Costs

60 0.6

50 0.5 Motors can run without problems for 20 years or more with good protection and
routine maintenance. However, if they are running inefficiently, it is worthwhile
40 0.4

pf
% replacing them as running costs are much more than first costs. Motors can be
30 0.3 considered as consumable items and not capital items, considering the current
energy prices. The importance of running cost can be seen from Table 3.1. The
20 0.2
following points may be noted:
10 0.1
Table 3.1 : Importance of Motor Running Cost
0
0 25 50 75 100
% Load j
Motor Rating (kW) 7.5 37
Efficiency + Power Factor
Low High Low High
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency

Fig 3.1 : Load vs Efficiency & Power Factor. Efficiency 0.86 0.88 0.92 0.93

Power Input (kW) 8.72 8.52 40.22 39.78

Running Hours 6000 6000 6000 6000

Energy Input (kWh) 52320 51120 241320 238680

Running Cost 209280 204480 965280 954720

(Rs.) per Annum (@Rs. 4.00/ kWh)

Running Cost (Rs.) for 10 years 2092800 2044800 9652800 9547200

First Cost (Rs.) 12000 12000 70000 70000

First Cost as % of Running cost 0.57 0.59 0.72 0.73
for 10 years

1. Even a small motor of 7.5 kW consumes, at full load, electricity worth Rs. 20
lakh in 10 years. Similarly, a 37 kW motor consumes about Rs. 1 crore worth of
electricity in 10 years.
2. The first cost is only around 1% of the running cost for 10 years, hence running
Fig 3.2 : Performance with Tee Bar, Deep Bar, Trapezoidal and Double Cage costs are predominant in life cycle costing.
Rotors

76 77
3. Even a small difference in efficiency can make a significant difference in
running cost.
4. When economically justified, motors may be replaced, even if these have
been recently installed.

3.1.3 Energy Saving Opportunities in Motors 1. Current (star)

2. Current (Delta)
3. Power factor (star)
The main energy saving opportunities in motors can be summarized as follows: 4. Power factor (Delta)
5. Efficiency (star)
a) Stopping idle or redundant running of motors. 6. Efficiency (Delta)
b) Matching motor with the driven load (sizing of motors) 7. Speed (star)
c) Operation of under-loaded Delta connected motor in Star connection. 8. Speed (Delta)
d) Soft starters with Energy Saving Features. 9. Change overline
e) Use of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
f) Improving drive transmission efficiency
g) Use of high efficiency motors
h) Improvement in motor drive systems

Oversized Motors lead to the following problems:

Fig. 3.4 : Motor Performance in Delta and Star Connections
1. Higher investment cost due to larger size.
2. Higher running cost due to decrease in efficiency. The following suggestions are made :
3. Higher maximum demand due to poor power factor. 1. If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft
4. Higher cable losses and demand charges. load, the motor can be permanently connected in Star.
5. Higher switchgear cost. 2. If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torque
6. Higher space requirement. requirement, then the motor can be started with a suitable starter and, after
7. Higher installation cost.
overcoming the starting inertia, be automatically switched from Delta to Star,
8. Higher rewinding cost (in case of motor burnout)
using timer control or current sensing. If the load is below 30% most of the
Table 3.2 Shows the effects of oversized motors on the energy bill and time, but if the load exceeds 50% sometimes, automatic Star-Delta changeover
investment Switches (based on current or load sensing) can be used. But, if the
changeover is very frequent the contactors would get worn out and the savings
achieved may get neutralised by the cost of frequent contactor replacements.
3. If the motor is nearly always operating above 30% of the rated load and
Table - 3.2 : Increased Costs due to Oversized Motors sometimes runs below 30% load, a careful analysis is required before
installing any arrangement for operation in star connection at light loads.
Motor Rating (kW) 15 30 55
Case Study 1: ‘Delta' to 'Star' connection in Vegetable Oil Works
Motor Load Requirement (kW) 15 15 15
Motor Efficiency % 89 89 84
Input Power (kW) 16.85 16.85 17.85
Brief
Input Energy (kWh) 101100 101100 107100
(for 6000 hrs/ annum) A 25 hp/18.5 kW motor was driving a cooling water circulation pump. The motor
Motor Power Factor 0.89 0.75 0.50 was 30% loaded. It was decided to connect the delta connected motor in star. The
Input KVA 18.93 22.44 35.70 electrical measurement before & after connection of motor from 'delta' to 'star' is
Energy Difference (kWh) - - 6000
Increase in Running Cost (Rs.) - - 24000
given below:
Investment (Rs.) 25000 55000 95000
Increase in Investment (Rs.) - Parameters Before After Saving /
30000 70000
Implementation Implementation Improvement
(Delta) (Star)
Voltage (V) 415 415 -
Current (A) 18.5 9.5 9.0
Power Factor 0.5 0.87 0.37
Power Input (kW) 6.72 5.96 0.76
Speed (rpm) 1469 1454

78 79
Energy Saving Energy Saving

Energy Savings : 0.76 kW i.e. 11.3% Annual savings : 1,16,000 kWh

Annual Saving : 6080 kWh Annual saving : Rs. 0.47 Million
Investment : Rs.5000 Investment : Rs. 0.5 Million
Payback Period : 10 months Payback period : 13 months

Case Study 2: Use of Soft Starter to Facilitate Large Motor Starting with Power Case Study 4: High Efficiency Gear in Place of Low Efficiency Gear (for a
Supply from Captive D.G. Set Reactor with Worm Gear )

Brief Energy Saving

Measurements made in a continuous chemical process plant, where a soft starter Parameter Low efficiency Worm gear Saving/Improvement
was introduced to reduce the starting kick when the motor is started on D.G. set, are gear
high-lighted below : Motor Rating (kW) 7.5 3.75 3.75
Application : 250 hp Air Compressor Actual Motor 3.75 3.0 0.75
Motor Details : 250 hp, 415 V, 3-Phase, 1500 rpm, 313 A 3.75 3.0 0.75
Input (kW)
Starting Using Star/Delta Starter
Case Study 5: Use of High Efficiency Motors in a Textile Plant
Initial Starting kick : 1800 A for 2 Sec. (Direct)
Maximum Starting Current : 480 A (star) / 536 A (delta) Brief
Continuous Current : 278 A
The Ring Frame motor rating was 40 kW. A standard efficiency motor was
Starting With Soft Starter : compared with an energy efficient motor as given in table below:

Settings : Current Limit - 200% ; Ramp Time - 30 seconds Energy Saving

Starting Current Kick : 685 A which Reduces to 155 A in 30 seconds
Standard Motor vs EE Motor
Benefits : Starting current kick reduced by about 60%. Any dip in voltage at the
main busbar of DG Set is reduced. The expenditure on maintenance of the motor Description Standard Energy Efficient
and the attached mechanical load is also reduced. (Low Eff) Motor (EE) Motor
Case Study 3 : VFD for Cooling Tower Pump in a Chemical Plant Motor rating, kW 40 40
Efficiency % 92 94.5
Brief
Energy consumed, kWh/doff 96.22 92.54
This is a case study from a chemical plant manufacturing resins, used for
manufacturing paints. A cooling tower with a 125 HP pump was used for Weight of yarn per doff 44 44.5
process cooling applications. In the existing system, flow variation was through Specific energy consumption, 2.187 2.080
closing/opening valves at the end use points. kWh/kg yarn
Also, in the existing system, the return water line of the cooling tower was throttled Annual electricity saving, kWh - 9564
to control the flow. After installation of an inverter to control the motor speed, this
Pay back period on extra - 5
valve was fully opened, thus eliminating the throttling losses.
cost of EE motor, months
Motor Rating : 125 hp, 415 V, 170A, 2975 rpm.

Valve position Power consumption

20% open 53.5 kW
Fully open 40 kW
Power Saving 13.5 kW

80 81
Table shows comparative data of super efficient motors developed by one Energy Efficiency Estimates for Emerging Motor Technologies
manufacturer.
Table 3.3 : Energy Efficiency Estimates for Emerging Motor Technologies
Super Efficient Motor
Technology Energy Savings (%) Notes
Standard Motor Super Efficient Motor
New Motors
Output 15 kW 15 kW
Frame Size 160 L 160 L Superconductor 2 to 10 Higher efficiencies at partial load
Supply System 415 V +_ 6%; 50 Hz V +_ 3% 415 V +_ 10%; 50 Hz V +_ 5% Copper Rotor 1 to 3 5% has been reported
RPM 1445 1475
Efficiency 89% 93% Switched Reluctance 3
Fan Plastic C.I Permanent Magnet 5 to 10
Ambient 40° C 50° C
Written Pole 3 to 4
Taking annual running hours 7165 7165
Input kW at full load 16.85 16.13 Controls
Input kW difference 0.72
Unit Rate (Rs/kWh.) 4 MagnaDrive Up to 60 Savings are great compared to
Annual Savings - 20,635 non- ASDs. Compared to ASDs
Net Unit Price (Rs.) 21940 32200 (Ajustable speed drive )energy
Price difference - 10,260 savings will be less.
Payback - 19 months
PAYBACK drive Up to 60 Savings are great compared to non
3.1.4 Emerging New Motor Systems -ASDs. Compared to ASDs energy
savings will be less.
Emerging motor system improvements can be categorized into the following three
Advanced ASDs 2 Savings are compared to
areas of development opportunities:
conventional ASDs
1. Upgrades to the motors themselves, for example:
(Source : LBNL :Energy Efficient Techologies for Industries)
• super conductive motors
• permanent magnet motors 3.2 Electric Furnaces
• copper rotor motors
• switched reluctance (SR) drives Electricity is a very clean but costly fuel for heating and melting applications. There
• written pole motors are number of advantages in electricity use like improved product quality due to
• very low loss magnetic steels absence of fuel impurities, excellent power control, clean environment (pollution is
transferred to central power station) and high efficiency at end use point. But since
2. System design optimization and management, such as: conversion efficiency of fuel to electricity is only 35% at the power station, the
overall efficiency from fuel to end use heating is likely to be 15 to 25%. Hence
• end use efficiency improvements
keeping the overall energy scenario in view, electricity should be used for only
• use of premium lubricants
• advanced system design and management tools special heating applications. Fuel should be used directly to the extent possible. For
many conventional heating applications like billet heating and heat treatment,
3. Controls on existing systems, for example: alternate fuels, especially natural gas where available, must be considered. Many
companies have changed over from electric heating to heating by other fuels to
• multi-master controls on compressors reduce costs.(However for Induction and Arc Furnances no alternatives are
• sensor based controls presently available ) Table 3.4 gives the inter-fuel substitution.
• advanced adjustable speed drives with improvements like
regenerative braking, active power factor correction, better torque/speed
control.

3.1.5 Potential Energy Savings

Primary specific electrical energy savings for particular motor applications are
summarized in Table 3.3.

82 83
 Table - 3.4 : Interfuel Substitution : Cost of Alternative Fuels
Energy Balance Energy Percentage
Energy Source Cost Heat Value Cost Per (kWh/tonne) (%)
1000 kCal
Coal Rs. 2000/MT 4000 kCal/Kg. Rs. 0.50 Input Energy 660 100
Oil Rs. 20/Kg 10000 kCal/Kg. Rs. 2.00 Useful Heat 380 58.5
Natural Gas Rs. 8/Nm3 9000 kCal/Nm3 Rs. 0.88 2
Coil I R 130 20
Electricity Rs. 4.50/kWh 860 kCal/kWh Rs. 5.23
Radiation Losses 97.5 15
Electricity is used in arc furnaces, induction furnaces, heat treatment furnaces, billet Conduction Losses 34 5.2
heaters, ovens, infrared heaters, etc.
Other Unaccounted 18.5 1.3
Case Study 6 : Replacement of Electric Oven by Gas Fired Oven in an
Engineering Industry Table-3.6 : Heat Balance of a Heat Treatment Furnaces (Bell Type)
Energy Input 822.75 kWh
Brief
Heat In Charge 167.00 kWh
Surface Heat Losses Energy
Electrical Oven LPG Fired Oven Soaking Heating 204.00 kWh
Outer Bell 136.10 kWh
Existing Oven : 18 kW Rating Cost of Electricity / hr : 0.11 kW
Inertia Loss 250.90 kWh
X Rs. 5.00 = Rs. 0.55 (For Auxillaries)
Inner Bell Inertia Loss 44.50 kWh
Cost of Electricity/hr : 18 kW x Rs. 5= Rs. 90 Cost of LPG/hr : 1.55 Kg x Rs. 25 Unaccounted Loss 20.25 kWh
= Rs. 38.75
Total Running Cost/hr : Rs. 90.00 Total Running Cost / hr = Rs. 39.30
Table-3.7 : Heat Balance in the Arc Furnace

kWh/Liquid Metal Tonne

Savings per Hour = 90.00 - 39.30 = Rs. 50.70 (56%)
Steel Plant 1: 170 T Steel Plant 2 : 30 T
Annual Savings: = Rs. 50.70 x 24 hours x 25 Days x 12 Furnace Furnace
Energy Input
= Rs. 3,65,040
Electrical Energy 426 682
Cost of LPG Fired Oven Rs. 63,000
Carbon Combustion 126 126
Payback Period 3 Months Other Chemical Reactions 70 70
(exothermic)
3.2.1 Heat Balance and Energy Saving Opportunities Combustion of Graphite Electrodes 48 64
Total 670 942
In order to estimate the efficiency of furnaces and also to identify major losses, a
Energy Output
heat balance is useful. A heat balance gives information on the energy input, useful
Useful Heat in Liquid Metal 392 426
energy and major losses.
Exhaust Gases 104 120
Table -3.5 : Energy Balance of Coreless Induction Furnaces Sensible Heat in Slag 57 76
Electrical Losses 47 60
Material : Grey Iron
Losses During Operation - 170
Crucible Capacity : 3200 Kg
Production Capacity : 1600 kg/hr. Conduction, Radiation 40 60
Power : 733 kW Heat Losses ---Electrodes 12 12
Volt : 968 volts Unaccounted Losses 18 18
Total 670 942

84 85
Table - 3.8 : Energy Balance of a Continuous furnace (Heat treatment furnace Energy Saving
conveyor system)
Annual energy saving : 30,000 kWh
Energy Balance Energy (kWh) Percentage Investment : Rs.61,000/-
Payback period : 13 months
Total Energy Input per hour 37.4 100
3.2.2 Energy Savings by Operational Features
Losses Through Insulation 3.8 10
Losses in Cooling Zone 5 13.0 a) Operate at full power and capacity as far as possible to get as high a utilization
rate as possible. Poor capacity utilization of electric furnaces cause a large
Losses Due to Conveyor 8.6 23
wastage of energy. Holding periods can be kept to a minimum. Separate
Useful Heat 10 27 holding furnaces can sometimes be useful.
Unaccounted Losses* 10 27 b) Minimise tapping time and frequency to reduce radiation losses and to reduce
operation at low power levels.
* Mostly due to convective heat loss due to cold air ingress c) Charging system should be such that charging time and frequency are
minimised. Possibility of charge compacting and preheating can be explored.
Case Study 7 : Replacement of an Inefficient, Oversized Oven d) Molten metal handling and transfer system including ladles can be designed in
such a fashion that transfer time and loss in temperature are minimised. Ladle
Brief preheating system lead to savings. Well insulated ladles are also necessary.
e) Opening of furnace lids, slagging door etc. must be minimised.
In a fuse gear industry, the major energy consuming equipment was an oven used f) For heat treatment furnaces, production can be so planned that once a furnace is
for drying ink on ceramic parts and softening of brass components. During the started, it can be utilised continuously, otherwise a lot of energy is wasted in
energy audit, some measures suggested to reduce the energy consumption were; heating the furnace itself. Capacity utilisation is also very important.
g) For many heat treatment applications, it may be worthwhile collecting jobs so
a) Reduction of internal volume of the oven to match the basket size.
that full capacity utilisation is achieved.
b) Proper sealing of the door to reduce the heat loss.
h) Weight of jigs and fixtures for heat treatments should be minimised.
c) Repair of the rear wall of the oven, which had developed cracks, to reduce
i) Surface temperature may be kept at 45oC to 60oC for heat treatment furnaces to
heat loss.
d) Reduction of weight of basket from 30 kg to 10 Kg. reduce radiation losses.
e) Use of ceramic fibre insulation in place of fire bricks to reduce starting time j) Process parameters, like heat treatment cycle time and temperatures, have to be
and reduce thermal inertia. checked.

It was decided to replace the 28 kW oven with a smaller 12 kW oven. The important Case Study 8 : Electrical Energy Conservation in a Foundry through
difference between the old oven and the new oven are highlighted in Table below. operational improvement .

Comparison of Performance of Old and New Ovens Brief

The plant is equipped to produce about 350 tonnes of Malleable Iron and S.G. Iron
Castings per month.

Steel scrap is melted in two 4 tonne / 1150 KVA mains frequency furnaces. The
product mix consists of a large number of relatively low and medium weight
castings. Moulds are made on automatic moulding machines (Pneumatic). The
castings are shot blasted, annealed in electric furnaces (600 kW). Fettling and
grinding also uses pneumatic tools. These are fed by two compressors of 93 kW
each, working one at a time.

The present production level is around 220 Tonnes / month. Energy consumption is
about 700,000 kWh/month with a maximum demand of around 2700 kVA.

Approximate percent consumption of major equipments are given in the Table

below.

86 87
 % Distribution Among Major Loads On A Typical Day Case Study 10: Modification Annealing Ovens in a cable manufacturing industry
Total Melting Annealing Compressors Sand Other Lighting
load Furnaces furnaces Plant Loads
Brief
% of Total 100 60 17.14 11.48 2.55 6.52 2.28
load A cable manufacturing industry, has several annealing ovens, which account for a
significant portion of the electricity consumption. A 317 kW oven is used for
Energy saving was achieved through operational improvement like compacting the annealing aluminum conductor in large drums. The oven was large for the jobs
scrap and loading it with crane, closing the furnace lid, shutting off the ventilation being handled. It was redesigned for the job, cutting ceiling height and the
fans for capacitor cooling during favorable ambient conditions etc. insulation was changed to ceramic fibre. The observations are as follows :
Energy Saving Parameters Before After Savings/Improvement
Implementation Implementation
Parameter Before After Saving/Improvement
Energy Consumption (kWh) 1930 500 ( - ) 1430
Implementation Implementation
Time needed (hrs.)
SEC (kWh / T) 900 700 ( - ) 200
(5 Tonne charge) 8.5 3.5 ( - ) 5.0
Charging time (hrs.) 10 4 (-)6 Production
Annual Saving (kWh) - - ( - ) 1,22,070 (Charges per day) 3.0 5.0 (+ ) 2.0
Radiation loss (kWh/day) 500 - ( - ) 1,00,000
Ventilator fan for 15 NIL ( - ) 30,000 kWh/annum Energy saving
capacitors (HP)
Annual Savings : Rs. 1.2 Million
Investment : Rs. 0.25 Million
Case Study 9: Replacement of inefficient arc furnace with induction furnace Payback period : 3 months
Brief 3.3 Compressed Air System
Background : A leading automobile components casting foundry had two indirect Compressed air is one of the most expensive utilities in manufacturing facilities.
arc furnaces of capacity 30kg and 80kg respectively. These furnaces were used for First used more than a century ago in pneumatic drills for mining, compressed air
producing specialized automobile components. Smaller capacities of the existing has now become an indispensable and a productivity improvement tool for a
furnace meant the number of melting batches was high and correspondingly the number of applications ranging from air powered hand held tools to advanced
fixed heat loss component was very high. pneumatic robotics. Cost of energy in the compressed air is at least 5 times that of
These inefficient arc furnaces were replaced with one medium frequency (3000 Hz) electricity. The energy content in compressed air is further reduced by pressure drop
induction furnace of capacity 125 kW, having two pots 50 kg and 100 kg in distribution systems, leakage etc. as shown in fig.3.5. Hence it is important to
respectively. The 50-kg pot is rated at 90 kW while for the 100-kg pot rating is manage generation, distribution and utilisation of compressed air from energy
125 kW. efficiency viewpoint.

Energy Saving :

Particulars Units Before implementation After Improve %

(Indirect arc Furnaces) impleme ment Improve
30 kg 80 kg Total / ntation ment
IAF IAF avg.
Monthly energy kWh 14434 6280 20714 8267 12447 60
consumption
Metal tapped per month Kg 13970 2100 16070 13974 -2096 -13
No of heats per month No 438 27 465 330 -135 -29
Specific energy kWh 968 2990 1085 592 494 60
consumption per Mt.
Annual energy kWh 173208 75360 248568 99204 -149364 -60
consumption
Cost of energy Rs 621816 270542 892359 356142 -536217 -60
Annual energy savings kWh 149364
Annual cost savings Rs 536217
Investment incurred Rs 1000000
Payback period Years 1.86
2
Fig . 3.5 : Energy Flow Diagram

88 89
3.3.1 Analysis of Compressed Air System The pump-up test described above gives only an estimate of the compressor
capacity and cannot be considered as very accurate. It is only a simple practical
3.3.1.1 Data Collection
method under site conditions with minimal instrumentation. A more scientific
As a first step towards managing energy use in compressed air system, the method of conducting the pump-up test with proper installed instrumentation is
following information should be collected. This exercise if done systematically can available in IS:5456-1985.
be extremely useful for identifying energy saving potential.
The power consumption can be measured with portable power meter or energy
1) Specifications of each compressor such as capacity, pressure, motor ratings meter and the specific power consumption (kW/100cfm) can be calculated. Some
etc. of the common causes of higher Specific Power Consumption are:
2) Loading and unloading pressure setting of each compressor
3) How many compressor normally operate and whether any shift-wise or daily - Poor inter-cooler performance.
variation in number of compressors operated - Malfunctioning of discharge and/or suction valves.
4) Collect data on end- use of compressed air in the plant, such as : Pressure, flow, - Worn out piston rings.
end use, dryers, regulators, etc. - Choked suction side filters.
5) Pipe size and its layout
Case study 11 : Installing Refrigeration dryers in Compressed Air system
3.3.1.2 Analysis Of Equipment and System Performance
Brief
The following actions need to be taken to estimate the compressed air system
parameters: It is recommended to replace absorption type air dryer with refrigeration type dryer
as absorption dryer uses 10% - 15% purge air for re-generation of desicant .
a) Estimation of capacity of each compressor
b) Measurement of power input to the compressor at full load and part load Energy Saving
conditions
c) Estimation of total compressed air leakage in the plant and section-wise Saving Obtained by installing Refrigeration Dryer in Compressor
leakage estimation if possible
d) Conduct a survey of compressed air leakage points by soap solution method or Parameter Before After Saving /
Implementation Implementation Improvement
by using ultrasonic leakage detector.
Actual load (kW) 16.6 14.11 2.49
e) Estimate pressure drops in headers.
Total running hours / year 1800 1800 -
f) Loading & unloading pressures and loading and unloading time of
Annual Energy consumption 29880 25398 4482
compressors . (kWh)
Annual savings (Rs.) - - 15780
3.3.1.3 Estimation of Capacity of Compressors
Investment (Rs.) - - 94000
The ideal method of estimating air compressor capacity is to use flow meters. In the Payback period (years) - - 6
absence of flow meters, the capacity can be estimated on site by the Pump-Up test.
The compressor capacity can then be estimated by using the following formula: Case Study 12 : Installation of automatic drain traps in compressed air network

(P2 - P1) x Vr x Tc Brief

Q=
Pa t
Where, In an engineering unit, moisture traps were found stuck up in either open or closed
condition thus making a loss of compressed air continuously or corroding of
Q = Capacity of the air compressor, Nm3/min pipeline and other networking devices. On rectifying the faults, savings were as
P1 = Initial pressure, (kg/cm2 a ) under:
P2 = Final pressure, (kg/cm2 a )
Pa = Atmospheric pressure (kg/cm2 a ) Energy Saving
Vr = Receiver volume, m3(including piping from compressor to receiver and up
to receiver outlet valve and also oil separator volume for screw compressors) Particulars Actual energy savings
t = time taken to raise the pressure from P1 to P2, minutes Annual total energy savings, kWh 84,000
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) 0.42
Tc= Temperature correction factor (= Tr/Ta)
Tr = Air temperature in receiver, °K (i.e. °C + 273 ) Cost of implementation Rs. (million) 0.10
Ta = Ambient temperature, °K (i.e. °C + 273 ) Simple payback period (months) 3

90 91
Case Study 13 : Improving the performance of 500 cfm reciprocating compressor Leakage tests can be done separately for each section of the plant by isolating the
supply to compressed air to the remaining sections of the plant during the leakage
Brief test.
In an engineering company, plant was having 3 nos - air compressors of IR make. Case Study 14 : Cost of compressed air leakage from holes at different
All the three compressors were run continuously totaling to air requirement of 980 pressures
cfm. While the performance of 2 nos air compressors of 240 CFM each was found
satisfactory, the 3rd compressor of 500 cfm was performing sub standard. The
Orifice Diameter Air Leakage Power Cost of Wastage,
volumetric efficiency was only 87 % and the power consumption was more (20 Wasted kW
(in inches) Scfm Rs. (for 8000 hrs/year)
kW/100 cfm) as against 19.4 kW/100 cfm. Efficiency of the compressor 3 had gone @ Rs. 4.50/kWh
down. By improving the performance of this compressor, one compressor of 240 cfm At 3 bar (45 psig) pressure
was totally stopped. After maintenance the savings effected were as under:
1/64 0.211 0.0207 744
Energy Saving
1/32 0.845 0.083 2981
1/16 3.38 0.331 11925
Particulars Actual energy savings
1/8 13.5 1.323 47628
Annual total energy savings, kWh 74,000
1/4 54.1 5.3 190865
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) 0.340
Cost of implementation Rs. (million) 0.100 At 7 bar (100 psig) pressure
Simple payback period (months) 4
1/64 0.406 0.069 2485
3.3.1.4 Estimation Of Air Leakage Level 1/32 1.62 0.275 9915
1/16 6.49 1.10 39719
Leakage of compressed air is a major reason for the poor overall efficiency of 1/8 26 4.42 159120
compressed air systems. It may be noted that, at 7 bar (100 psig), about 100 cfm air 1/4 104 17.68 636480
leakage is equivalent to a power loss of 17 kW i.e. about Rs. 0.62 million per annum.

The leakage level can be estimated by observing the average compressor loading Estimation of Pressure Drop
and unloading time, when there is no legitimate use of compressed air on the shop
The pressure loss from the air compressors to the end-use points may be kept at as
floor.
low a level as possible, i.e., below 0.3 to 0.5 bar.
QxT
Air Leakage in m3/min, q =
T+ t The air compressors should be located close to the equipment requiring large
Where, quantum of air for reducing pressure drops. If the end-uses are spread over a large
area, a ring main header can help reduce pressure drop. The pressure drop in
Q = Compressor capacity, in m3/min (as estimated from the pump-up test) pipelines is approximately proportional to the square of the air velocity. The
T = Time on load ,min pressure loss can also be calculated for straight pipe lines by the following formula
t = Time on unload, min
Pressure drop (in bars) = 7.5 x 10 4 x Q1.85 x L
Leakage points can be identified from audible sound. For small leakage, ultrasonic d5 x p
leakage detectors can be used. Soap solution can also be used to detect small where,
leakage in accessible lines. The following points can help reduce compressed air Q = Air flow in m3 /min. (Free air)
leakage: L = Length of pipeline (m)
d = Inside diameter of pipe, mm
a) Reduce the line pressure to the minimum acceptable. p = Initial pressure, bar (absolute)
b) Selection of good quality pipe fittings.
c) Provide welded joints in place of threaded joints. Case Study 15 : Pressure drop calculation for a 3" header and a 4" header
d) Sealing of unused branch lines or tappings. for a flow of 100 scfm and a pressure of 7 bar, based on the
e) Provide ball valves (for isolation) at the main branches at accessible points. above equation
f) Install flow meters on major lines.
g) Avoid installation of underground pipelines to avoid corrosion & leakage.

92 93
Brief 3.3.2 Identifying Energy Saving Opportunities

Description Units 3" Header 4" Header It is very important to have a systematic approach for saving energy in compressed
Inlet pressure bar, abs 7 7 air system. The fundamentals of this approach are basically:

Air flow scfm 100 100 1. Manage end use of air. This includes proper understanding of end use
Length of pipe meter 100 100 requirement, often termed as the ultimate goal to be achieved.
2. Match the system with the end use requirement in the most efficient way.
Pipe inside dia. mm 75 100 3. Improve the efficiency of compressors and related equipments through
Pressure drop bar 2.1 0.5 maintenace.
4. Scouring (moisture removal) by compressed air can be replaced by high
psi 30.9 7.3 pressure blowers. The energy saving can be 80%.
5. Material conveying applications can be replaced by blower systems or
Normally, the velocity of compressed air should not be allowed to exceed 6 m/s. preferably by a combination of belt/screw conveyers and bucket elevators.
6. For applications like blowing of components, use of compressed air amplifiers,
Pipe fittings like valves, elbows & no. of bends etc. also contribute to additional blowers or gravity-based systems may be possible.
pressure losses. 7. Use of compressed air for cleaning should be discouraged.
8. Replacement of pneumatically operated air cylinders by hydraulic power
Case Study 16 : Pressure Drop (in bar) In different Pipe sizes of 100 ft. Length packs can be considered.
9. Use of compressed air for personal comfort cooling can cause grievous injuries
Brief
and is extremely wasteful. If a ¼" hose pipe is kept open at a 7 bar compressed
air line for personal cooling for at least 1000 hours/annum, it can cost about
Rs. 1.0 lakh/annum. Operating cost of a 1.5 TR window air conditioner
Nominal FAD, cfm Line Pressure, psig
for the same period would be only about Rs. 12,000/- per annum.
pipe size (Free Air
10. Use vacuum systems in place of venturi system.
(in inches) Delivery)
40 50 75 100 125 150 11. Mechanical stirrers, conveyers, and low-pressure air may mix materials
far more economically than high-pressure compressed air.
1 10 4.39 3.70 2.68 2.09 1.72 1.46 12. Air conditioning systems can cool cabinets more economically than
2 20 0.54 0.46 0.33 0.26 0.21 0.18 vortex tubes that cool by venting expensive high pressure air.
3 50 0.43 0.36 0.26 0.20 0.17 0.14
4 100 0.41 0.34 0.25 0.19 0.16 0.14 Case Study 18 : Installation of VSD on a compressor to avoid the compressed
air blow-off in the system
6 200 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.11
Brief
Case Study 1 7 : Reduction in pressure drop in the compressed air.
The chemical plant has five process fermentors, where the compressed air is used as
Brief raw material and as well as for the agitation. Five large compressors in use were of
reciprocating, single stage, double acting, horizontal, non-lubricated type having
A leading bulk drug company has three reciprocating compressors having the the capacity of 4000 m3/hr, rated pressure 1.5 kg/cm2, rated motor 200 kW. In view of
capacity of 280 cfm and the corresponding power consumption was 58 kW at 7.5 the variations in the load and the energy lost due to bleed off, variable speed drive
kg/cm2. The actual air requirement at user end was only 6.0 kg/cm2. The pressure was installed to adjust the speed based on requirement.
drop in the system was taking place of the order of 1.5 kg/cm2. On analysis, it was
found that high pressure drop in the system was due to under sizing of the piping. Energy Saving
The existing(2") piping was replaced by suitable sized piping (3"). Overall saving
in energy was as under:
Particulars Actual energy savings
3
Energy Saving Average bleed air quantity(m /hr) 1320
Annual total energy savings, million kWh 0.580
Particulars Actual energy savings Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) 1.52
Annual total energy savings, kWh 35,000 Cost of implementation Rs. (million) 2.0
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) 0.123 Payback period (months) 16
Cost of implementation Rs. (million) 0.25
Payback period (years) 2

94 95
Case Study 19 : Energy saving in compressed air system by eliminating Case Study 21 : Monitoring of air consumption using hour meter installed at
artificial demand compressor motor and reduction of air leakages

Brief Brief

In a manufacturing industry, compressed air is the major utility used in many In a paper and pulp industry, for supplying instrument air, two compressors working
applications. The industry has 2 centrifugal compressors of 3000 cfm each and 3 at 10 kg/cm2 and 1 m3 per minute were running. The air leakage in the system
reciprocating compressors of 1000 cfm each. 1 centrifugal compressor and 2 increased and the air compressors started running for more than 20 hrs a day to meet
reciprocating compressors are always running totaling to 5000 cfm. It was the requirement. Upon installation of the hour meters, it became easy to monitor the
observed that there was a fluctuation of pressure from 98 psi to 67 psi. Two running hours of compressors and also estimate the air consumption as well as
intermediate control stations each of 4500 cfm have been installed which reduced leakages .The leakages were arrested and also a reduction in total running hrs of
the fluctuation of pressure from 31 psi to 2 psi. Energy saving potential was as compressors was achieved . Savings effected were as under:
under:
Energy Saving
Energy Saving
Particulars Actual energy savings
Particulars Actual energy savings
Annual total energy savings, million kWh Annual total energy savings, kWh 75,000
0.873
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) Annual savings, Rs. (million) 0.3
2.9
Cost of implementation Rs. (million) Cost of implementation Rs. 2,000
2.0
Payback period (months) Payback period (months) <1
9

Case Study No. 20 : Saving due to pressure optimization

Case Study 22 : Arresting of air leakages in an automobile unit
Brief
Brief
In an automobile plant, it was reported that the maximum air pressure requirement
A leading automobile unit, which produces 2 wheelers, has seven large compressors
at machine end is 6.5-7.0 kg/cm2 but plant is maintaining 7.0- 8.5 kg/cm2.
with a rated output of 7500 cfm. Compressors consume about 60 lakh units annually
Generating higher pressure than required is a loss of power i.e roughly 4% loss in
(i.e about 12 % of total power consumption). The compressed air is mainly used in
maintaining 1 kg/cm2 higher pressure. The details of losses are as follows: pneumatic tools, instruments, control valves. During the recently concluded energy
Energy Saving audit, it was observed that the leakage in the system was 1400 cfm, which was
about 20% total air consumption. After arresting the leakages, the savings to the
Pressure requirement : 6.5-7.0 kg/cm2 company were as under:
Pressure maintained : 7.0-8.5 kg/cm2
Rated Compressor power : 75 kW for 458 cfm compressor Energy Saving
Rated Avg. compressor power : 65 kW
( ON and OFF load) Particulars Actual energy savings
Avg. compressor power (ON and OFF load) Annual total energy savings, kWh 0.864
after reduction in pressure by 1 kg / cm2 : 62.4 kW
Annual Cost savings, Rs. (million) 3.0
Particulars Actual energy savings Cost of implementation Rs. (million) 0.2
Annual total energy savings,kWh 10,000 Payback period (month) 1
Annual Cost Savings, Rs. 61,000
Cost of Implementation Nil
Payback Period Immediate

96 97
3.4 Pumps, Blowers, Fans & Variable Speed Drives
Pumping of water and blowing of air are very basic needs. This can be done by
either positive displacement systems like reciprocating pumps, gear pumps, roots
blowers etc. or by the centrifugal pumps and blowers. Centrifugal devices do not
use a rubbing barrier as in positive displacement equipments but depend upon the
kinetic energy imparted to water or air due to rotating motion. They are used in
majority of applications needing FLOW due to their inherent reliability,
ruggedness and reasonably good efficiency.
Basic energy is proportional to the product of FLOW and TOTAL PRESSURE
HEAD. The head is mainly friction head and static head.
The static head is a function of choice of location and inherent system design while
the friction head varies inversely with fifth power of pipe diameter and other flow
passages as also to the square of FLOW. The friction based energy is thus decided
by CUBE OF FLOW.
The equations relating rotodynamic pump performance parameters of flow, head
and power absorbed, to speed are known as the Affinity Laws and are as follows:
Q N
H N2
P N
3 other innovative changes.
Where:
Q = Flow rate
H = Head
P = Power absorbed
N = Rotating speed
Efficiency is essentially independent of speed
Flow: Flow is proportional to the speed
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2
Head: Head is proportional to the square of speed
H1/H2 = (N1²) / (N2²)
Power (kW): Power is proportional to the cube of speed
kW1 / kW2 = (N1³) / (N2³)
Optimizing the energy efficiency of a pumping system needs attention, action and
investments to use the highest possible pump efficiency, to use the pump around its
Best Efficiency Point (BEP) which is at a unique flow, to minimize pipe and
exchanger losses, minimize/eliminate use of valves and select Minimum Needed
Flow under ALL operating conditions. This may call for variable flow systems in
many cases to suit operation or to SAVE energy. Changing flow will need retuning
the system for optimization.
Incorporating efficient pump and method of flow capacity control at the design
stage or as a retrofit by using variable speed, trimming of impellers, variable pitch
designs (axial flow), changing impellers and change of pumps along with minimal
flow concept and better (bigger) heat exchangers, summarises the total concept of
energy saving measures.
98
The operation of fan is similar. There is no static head. The head in the heat
exchanger is small compared to head lost in ducts, bends and dampers. In addition
to the elegant universally applicable variable speed method of capacity control, we
can use variable pitch designs and inlet guide vane control for fans.
3.4.1 Energy Saving in Pumps
Basically, for an ideal system with given piping, the open valve system
characteristics should cut the pump curve at BEP flow (Best Efficiency Point Flow).
But this is rarely possible. Hence, a practical system suffers in varying degrees by :
1. Loss due to drop in efficiency of the pump for off duty point operation.
2. Loss in throttling valve to some extent.
3. Piping size of historical value and layout which can be changed.
4. A pump of old design which has room for improvement.
5. An old heat exchanger, where the design emphasis may be on lesser material
content (low first cost) and smaller space giving relatively higher drop for same
function.
6. It is very important to realise that the effects of flow may be proportional to first
power of Q (heat exchangers have even Q0.8), so that reduction in flow by even
marginal percentage brings about considerable energy savings.
7. An unquestioned Static Head can be altered in some cases by re-layout and
8. Very large drop (relative) in throttling valve which can be minimised or
eliminated.
9. There is a fair chance of improving new working point pump efficiency to
increase savings.
The methods for saving energy by altering the pump characteristic are briefly as
under :
1. By trimming the impeller i.e. reduction in impeller diameter.
2. By changing the impeller to get a different characteristic.
3. By a change of blade angle in axial flow type if that feature exists/or installed.
4. By changing the pump if the change is drastic/also for more efficiency.
5. By change of Speed - Most elegant and universally applicable method.
6. By stopping of pump, if parallel operation is properly planned.
Case Study 23 : Eliminating Throttling Losses by Use of Variable Speed Drive
Brief
Figure below shows a system with an unthrottled flow of 12000 lpm and a variation
upto 6000 lpm. The pump efficiency figures are shown on the head-flow curve. The
best efficiency of 85% is at 12000 lpm which is lowered to 69% at 6000 lpm. Static
head is 10 metres. The throttled operation parameter are shown in the Table below.
99
 Case Study 24 : Modification of Pumps at a Fertilizer Plant :

Brief

An in-house energy audit by Technical Services department revealed mismatches

due to insufficient data at design stage or extra safety margins. A large number of
impellers were trimmed. In the Ammonia plant, 6 numbers of cooling water pumps
of 960 kW motors were being operated to maintain cooling water pressure at 5
Kg/Sq. cm. Gauge. After the system study, it was decided to operate at lower head
and higher flow. One heat exchanger at a height was served with a booster pump.
This measure saved 500 kW. Table below summarises different saving measures
resulting in a saving of 774.4 kW.

Energy Saving
Modification on Pumps at a Fertilizer Plant

Description Power Original Data After Modification

Flow Dia Cons. Head Flow Dia Cons. Head Saving
M3/hr Mm kW M M3/hr Mm kW M kW
Condensate 150 321 159 220 150 291 130 180 29
Throttling Losses and Savings By Use of Variable Speed Hot Condensate 150 346 83 175 150 320 70.2 150 12.8
Pump Performance With Throttling Control C/X - 102 Conds. 82.1 258 57 155.3 82.1 202 35 146 22

Flow lpm 12000 9000 6000 C/X - 701 Conds. 60.2 250 45 158 60.2 203 27 95 18
System Pressure (m) 23.50 17.93 13.35 C/X - 101 Conds. 102 280 63 158 102 NA 38 95 20.2
Pump Pressure (m) 23.20 27.50 29.50 D.M. Transfer 125 306 60 128 125 294 55.4 118 20.5
Pump Efficiency (%) 86.00 79.50 69.00 Treated Ammonia Conds. 186 350 125 102.6 186 320 104.5 86 20.5
Pump Input (kW) 53.58 50.87 41.92 Treated Amm. Conds. 186 350 125 102.6 186 320 104.5 86 20.5
Motor Load (%) F.L 97.41 92.49 76.20
Motor Efficiency (%) 90.00 89.60 89.00 Additionally
Motor Input (kW) 59.53 56.77 47.10
Starter Efficiency (%) 99.80 99.80 99.80 1. Ammonia CW pump was totally stopped saving 500 kW .
Input (kW) 59.65 56.88 47.20 2. One G.S.W. pump was stopped due to inter-connection of C.W and G.S.W,
Energy Saving thereby saving 80 kW.

The same system was equipped with an inverter with 97.5%, efficiency changing to Case study 25 : Replacing the inefficient pumps with energy efficient pumps
89.5% at reduced load (See Table below). matching the characteristics with the others connected in
parallel
Pump Performance With Variable Speed
Brief
Flow lpm 12000 9000 6000
System / Pump Pressure (m) 23.50 17.93 13.35 In one of the Jal Board boosting stations, there were 6 nos pumps-3 of 125 HP and
Pump Efficiecny (%) 86.00 85.50 78.00 other 3 of 100 HP pumps. While the 125 HP pumps were giving their efficiency near
Pump Input (KW) 53.58 31.02 16.78 to the rated efficiency of 58 %, the 100 HP pumps were giving efficiency in the range
Motor RPM 1450 1210 1000 of 13% to 19 %. The efficiency had gone down as these were run in parallel with 125
Motor Load % F.L. 97.40 56.40 30.50 HPpumps, which were having different characteristics. Further, the head
Motor Efficiency (%) 93.70 93.60 90.00 generated by these pumps was much higher than required as the flow was being
Motor Input (kW) 57.18 33.14 18.64 throttled.
Controller Efficiency % 97 94 89.50
Energy Saving
Input (kW) 58.95 35.25 20.83
Savings Inputs (kW) 0.70 21.63 26.37 Replacement of 100 HP pump by energy efficient pump with VFD
% Saving (Throttled - Input) 1.12 38.03 55.80
Energy saving : 0.185 Million kWhr
Annual saving : 0.74 Million
Investment : 1.2 MIllion
Payback period : 20 months
100 101
Case study No. 26 : Use of one high capacity pump in place of 4 nos of small 3. By Inlet guide vane - Introduces prerotation to add tangential velocity at inlet
capacity chilled water pumps to improve entry conditions with reduced flow. Better compared to dampers.
4. Changing to better suited blower/fan.
Brief 5. By changing blade angle in axial flow fans if applicable.
6. By changing the speed, which is applicable to all blowers/fans.
No. of Pumps in parallel : 4 (20 HP each) 7. By stopping redundant fans/blowers.
Capacity of pumps : 20.5 lps, 43.75m 8. Improved design FRP fans for cooling towers have given 10% to 30% savings.
Valve throttled : 60%-80%
New pumps (1 no.) : 50 HP Case study 27 : Replacement of Inefficient fans
Instead of 4 nos. of Pumps, one big pump of 50 HP motor and energy efficient pump Brief
was installed. Savings effected were as follows:
The test results for the individual fans show that there is mismatch between fan
Energy Saving selection and the exact requirements and the operating static pressure of these fans
is between 13% and 60% of the rated pressure and the flow of fans is between 90%
Annual energy saving : 0.123 Million kWhr and 150% of the rated flow. This mismatch has resulted in low operating efficiency
Annual cost saving : Rs 0.637 Million
of the fan system. It is suggested to replace the low efficiency fans with high
Investment in modification : Rs 0.370 Million
Simple payback : 7 months efficiency fans.

3.4.2 System Operation and Energy Saving Methods for Blowers/Fans : Sl. Fan Name % of Flow % of Static Static
No. Pressure Efficiency
Fig. 3.6 shows a fan performance curve for flow reduction from 0.66 per unit to 1 Cooler fan A 89.78 55.65 55.00
0.50 per unit. The system head characteristic does not have static head in the case of 2 Cooler fan B 127.36 45.84 65.10
blowers and fans. The system resistance consists of dampers, ducts with bends etc. 3 Cooler fan C 86.74 59.09 58.84
and diffusers or such other equipments. The system curve follows the expression 4 Air fan 119.32 27.99 36 .88
KQ2 which is a parabola starting from origin. 5 Reverse fan 99.65 27.00 16.93
6 Mill fan 35.03 39.08 18.70
7 Cement fan 19.41 13.43 4.19
8 ESP fan 30.99 13.54 9.97

Energy Saving

Calculation for kVA Savings by Changing the Fan Motor (OnlyCooler Fan-1 is
taken for example)

Parameter Before After Saving/

Implementation Implementation Improvement
Power consumption 108 78 ( - ) 30
(kW)
Power factor 0.80 0.85 ( + ) 0.05
Annual saving (Rs.) - - ( + ) 4,92,480
Fig 3.6 : Fan Performance with Variable Speed Operation
* The impeller power for the new fan is calculated by taking 10% margin in present
All the points listed under pumps are applicable to blowers/ fans. The loss in flow. 15% margin in present static pressure and 90% fan efficiency for cooler than
damper at reduced flow is shown in Fig. 3.6 by shaded areas. Due to absence of (for other fans - 75% fan efficiency)
static head, a larger proportion of energy is dissipated in dampers. Capacity control
saving methods are listed below alongwith energy related comments: Total energy saving for all the fans in above table (kWh/t clinker) : 1.037
Annual saving : Rs.2.2 Million
1. By outlet damper - Reduces energy use but relatively large damper loss. Investment : Rs.2.4 Million
2. By inlet damper - Reduced suction reduces effective density to give reduced Payback period : 13 months
head/flow. Better compared to outlet damper.

102 103
Case Study 28: Speed Reduction of Vacuum Blowers and Agitators in Pulp & Energy saving
Paper Industry
Average running kW of ID fan with VFC : 55 kW
Brief Average running kW of ID fan with VFD : 13 kW
Energy saved/day (42 x 24 hours) : 1008 kWh
(a) Some of the vacuum blowers of PM 1 were being operated with dampers closed Annual saving : Rs. 0.647 Million
to a greater degree. The blowers are belt driven. The pulley sizes are changed Investment : Rs. 1.2 Million
to reduce the speed of the fans. Payback period : 2 years
(b) Speed reduction was carried out on new bleached high density tower agitator.
(c) The plant personnel decided to operate the blower at 2100 rpm and keep the Case Study 31: Installation of Variable Frequency Drive for Control of ID Fans
damper fully open. After implementation, the power consumption was in place of Inlet Damper Control in Pulp & Paper Industry
measured to be 17.4 kW.
Brief
Energy Saving
50 tph AFBC boiler was provided with 2 nos. ID fans. The furnace draft was being
(a) Annual Saving : Rs. 0.12 Million controlled by varying the inlet damper position of ID fans. Each ID fan is driven by
Investment : Rs. 0.1 Million 90 kW motor, 750 rpm. The normal damper opening when boiler was at full load
Payback period : 10 months awas 55%. It was decided to install 2 nos. 90 kW VFDs for fan control.

(b) Annual Saving : Rs.93000 Energy Saving

Investment : Rs.15000
Payback period : 2 months Power consumption before VFD : 84 kW (each motor)
Power consumption after VFD : 58 kW (each motor)
(c) Energy Saving : 16 kWh Annual Saving : Rs. 0.75 Million
Annual energy saving : 96000 kWh Investment : Rs. 1.1 Million
Annual saving : Rs. 0.48 Million Payback period : 18 months
Investment : Nil
Payback period : Immediate Case Study No. 32 : VFD in Pump in Paper Plant

Case study 29 : Interconnection of Blowers in the plant Brief

Brief Industry : Paper

Application : Pump (Water Suction)
There are 7 nos. of 3000 cfm (6" head) blower for machine exhaust. It is suggested Motor Rating : 3 Phase AC Induction Motor
to inter-connect the blower with damper so that minimum number of blowers can be Rating : 130 HP - Volt : 415 V
run common to all machines and can also be run independently if required. Current : 160 A - RPM : 1440
Previous System : Motor was run through Star-Delta Starter
Energy Saving Problem Observed : 1. Excess Water drained & hence wastage of water
2. Energy loss due to drain control
Annual saving : Rs. 1,62,940 3. Mechanical wear & tear
Investment : Rs. 25000
Payback period : 2 months Present System : Water outlet controlled by varying the speed of AC
motor using V.F.D.
Case Study 30 : Replacement of Variable Speed Fluid Coupling (VFC) with
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) in Pulp & Paper industry
Freq Amp. kW Water m3 / hr. Drain Valve
Brief (Hz)
The variable fluid coupling was replaced with a variable frequency drive for I.D. Previous System 50 100 60 130 50 to 70 open
fan of soda recovery boiler, for furnace draft control. The fan was operating Present System 25 to 40 40 to 50 40 130 100% (Average)
around 740 rpm, whereas motor speed was 970 rpm. Recognizing the efficieny
difference between VFC and VFD, VFD was installed to replace VFC.

104 105
Energy Saving Option (a)

Actual capacity of 100 kW motor : 500 m3/hr New Flow rate, Q2 = 90 x 1.2
Actual requirement for process : 130 m3/hr = 108 m3/hr
Without drive power consumption : 60 kW Pressure developed across fan, H2 = 80-(65-20)
With AC Drive power consumption : 40 kW = 35 mm WC
Energy Saving : 480 kWh/day New fan static efficiency = 68 -5
Annual Saving : Rs 0.65 Million = 63%
Investment : Rs 0.325 Million For flow Q1 = 90 m3/s, H1 =?, Q2 = 108 m3/s and H2= 35 mm WC
Payback period : 5 months (Q2/ Q1)2 = (H2/H1)
(108/90)2 = (35/H1)
3.4.3 Sample Calculations H1 = (90/108)2 x35
= 24 mm )
A) An industrial fan with measured flow rate of 90 m3/s has 80 mm WC static
Power developed at fan shaft = 90 x 24
pressure developed across it. The motor power drawn is 120 kW and motor 102 x 0.63
efficiency of 86%. We first find out the fan static efficiency. = 33.61 kW
New impeller diameter (D2)
For the above fan, the bagfilter in the system was replaced with ESP
Considering the fan law
(Electrostatic Precipitator). The pressure drop across the bagfilter was 65 mm (D1 / D2) = (Q1/Q2) = (N1/N2)
WC. With ESP, pressure drop was 20 mmWC. Flow rate increased by 20%. D1 = 70 mm, Q1=108, Q2 = 90, D2 = 58 mm, N1= 850 RPM
The original flow can be obtained by two options: New impeller diameter, D2 = 58 mm
a) Impeller trimming New RPM = 90/108 x 850
= 708 RPM
b) Reduced RPM with pulley diameter change
Option (b)
For option (a), if original impeller size were 70 mm in diameter, what would be
Efficiency at reduced RPM = 66%
the new impeller diameter if efficiency drops by 5%?
Power developed at fan shaft = 90 x 24
For option (b), what would be the required reduction in RPM if fan was 102 x 0.66
= 32.08 kW
originally running at 850 RPM and efficiency at reduced RPM is expected to
Differential power savings = 1.53 / 0.86 x 8760 hours/annum x Rs.4 / kWh
be 66%? = Rs. 62340
We finally find out the differential energy savings between the two options at B) A centrifugal pump pumping water operates at 35 m3/hr and at 1440 RPM. The
8760 hours/annum and at Rs.4 / unit. pump operating efficiency is 68% and motor efficiency is 90%. The discharge
Motor power drawn = 120 kW pressure gauge shows 4.4 kg/cm2. The suction is 2m below the pump
Power input at fan shaft (BHP) = 120 x 0.86 centerline. If the speed of the pump is reduced by 50 % estimate the new flow,
= 103.2 kW head and power
Flow, Q1 = 90 m3/s
Pressure developed across fan, H1 = 80 mm Flow = 35 m3/hr
Original impeller diameter (D1) = 70 mm Head developed by the pump = 44 - (-2) = 46 m
Original RPM = 850 RPM Hydraulic Power = Q (m3/s) x Total head, hd - hs (m) x (kg/m3) x g (m2/s)/1000
Fan static efficiency = Flow x Pressure developed across fan x100 Power drawn by the motor = (35/3600) x 46 x 1000 x 9.81
102 x Power developed at fan shaft 1000 x 0.68 x 0.9 (i.e. efficiency of pump & motor)
= 90 x 80 x 100 = 7.2 kW
102 x 103.2 Flow at 50 % speed Q2 : 35 / Q2 = 1440/720
= 68 % Q2 = 17.5 m3/hr
Head at 50 % speed H2 : 46 / H2 = (1440/720)2
H2 = 11.5 m
Power at 50 % speed P2 : 7.2/kW2 = 14403 / 7203
P2 = 0.9 kW

106 107
3.5 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning System The other commonly used and easily understood figure of merit is
Specific Power Consumption = Power Consumption (kW)
Refrigeration systems are used for process cooling by chilled water or brine, ice Refrigeration effect (TR)
plants, cold storage, freeze drying, air-conditioning systems etc. The refrigerant A lower value of Specific Power Consumption implies that the system has better
temperatures for process cooling applications may range from 15°C to as low as - efficiency.
70°C.
3.5.1.1 Specific Energy Consumption in Refrigeration andAir-conditioning Systems
Comfort air-conditioning requires refrigerant temperatures in the range of 0°C to Table 3.9 shows the figures of merit for Vapour Compression systems using
5°C. Air-conditioning generally implies cooling of room air to about 24°C and reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Table 3.10 shows the figures of merit for
relative humidity of 50%-55%. steam heated and also direct natural gas / LDO fired absorption chillers; here, in
In some applications, air-conditioning involves humidification of air up to 70%- addition to COP and EER, the specific steam consumption in kg/hr/TR is mentioned.
80% relative humidity (as in textile industry) or dehumidification of air to less than Table 3.9 : COP, EER & Specific Power for Vapour Compression Systems (for
20% (e.g.in some pharmaceutical industries, rooms housing sophisticated
chilled water at 8oC with water cooled condensers)
electronic equipment, storage rooms for hygroscopic materials etc.).
Capacity TR Power kW COP EER Btu/hr/W Specific Power kW/TR
There are types of refrigeration system :
a) Vapour Compression System Open Type Reciprocating Compressors
b) Vapour Absorption System 10.78 6.62 5.75 19.7 0.61
32.20 21.38 5.32 18.2 0.66
Vapour compression machines are used extensively for refrigeration. This system 48.30 32.06 5.32 18.2 0.66
requires motive power to drive a compressor, which is supplied by an electric motor 64.40 42.75 5.32 18.2 0.66
or engine. Semi-hermetic Reciprocating Compressors
9.26 7.00 4.62 15.8 0.76
With increasing electricity prices, there is renewed interest in Absorption
13.90 12.10 4.03 13.8 0.87
Refrigeration machines, wherein heat is used for cooling. Users having waste heat
42.00 34.50 4.28 14.6 0.82
or economical heat energy sources are using the absorption chillers.
Open Type Centrifugal Compressors
3.5.1 Energy Consumption in Refrigeration Systems 563.67 329.94 6.00 20.5 0.59
Window Air-conditioners & Split Units
The cooling effect of refrigeration systems is generally quantified in tonnes of 1.5 1.8 to 2.3 2.9 to 2.3 7.8 to 10 1.2 to 1.5
refrigeration.
Note : The above data is based only on the compressor power consumption,
1 Tonne of Refrigeration (TR) = 3023 kcal/hr
= 3.51 kWthermal auxiliary power for pumps, fans etc. is excluded.
= 12000 Btu/hr
Table 3.10 : COP, EER & Specific Power for Vapour absorption Systems (for
The commonly used figures of merit for comparison of refrigeration systems are chilled water at 8oC with water cooled condensers)
Coefficient of Performance (COP), Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) and Specific
Power Consumption (kW/TR). The definition of these terms are given below. Capacity TR Steam pressure Steam cons. COP EER Specific
kg/cm2 K=Kg/hr. Btu/hr/W steam cons.
If both refrigeration effect and the work done by the compressor (or the input Kg/hr/TR
power) are taken in the same units (TR or kcal/hr or kW or Btu/hr), the ratio is Single Effect Chiller (Steam heated)
240 3.0 2101.0 0.61 2.10 8.75
COP = Refrigeration Effect Double Effect Chiller (Steam heated)
Work done
100 8.0 490.2 1.10 3.76 4.90
If the refrigeration effect is quantified in Btu/hr and the work done is in Watts, the 155 8.0 736.5 1.13 3.86 4.75
ratio is 270 8.5 1284.0 1.13 3.86 4.76
500 8.0 2296.0 1.17 4.00 4.59
EER = Refrigeration Effect (Btu/hr) Double Effect Chiller (Direct fired)
3
Work done (Watts) 78 - 27.3 m /hr 0.96 3.28 0.35
natural gas m3/hr/TR
Higher COP or EER indicates better efficiency. 150 - 54.6 0.96 3.27 0.36
lit/hr LDO lit/hr/TR

108 109
Comments : (b) Operate at Higher Temperature

a) Well designed and well maintained vapour compression systems, using
reciprocating compressors, for chilled water at about 8°C have COP of 4 to
5.8, EER in the range of 14 to 20 Btu/hr/W and Specific Power Consumption
in the range of 0.61 to 0.87 kW/TR. It may be noted that Open-type
compressors are more efficient than semi-hermetic compressors.
b) Centrifugal compressors, which are generally used for cooling loads about 150
TR, can have COP of about 6, EER greater than 20 and Specific Power
Consumption of 0.59 kW/TR.
The approximate thumb rule is that for every 1oC higher temperature in the
evaporator, the specific power consumption will decrease by about 2% to 3%.
(c ) Accurate Measurement and Control of Temperature
When the refrigeration system's cooling capacity is significantly more than the
actual cooling load, expansion valve control based on superheat sensing often leads
to supercooling, resulting in an energy penalty due to unnecessarily lower
temperature and also lower COP at lower temperatures.

c) Double Effect Absorption chillers at about 8°C have COP in the range of 1 to (d) Reduce Air-conditioning Volume and Shift Unnecessary Heat Loads
1.2, EER in the range of 3.3 to 4 Btu/hr/W. The Specific Steam Consumption
• Unnecessary heat loads may be kept outside air-conditioned spaces.
of double effect machines is in the range of 4.5 to 5.25 kg/hr/TR, at a steam
• Use False Ceilings
pressure of 8 to 8.5 bar. The specific fuel consumption figures of directly fired • Use Small "Power Panel" Coolers
double effect chillers are 0.35m3/hr/TR (natural gas) and 0.36 lit/hr/TR (LDO). • Use Pre-Fabricated, Modular Cold Storage Units
In comparison with compression system, it can still save energy cost if waste
heat or any other cheaper alternative fuel is available. (e) Minimise Heat Ingress

The system efficiency of both vapour compression and absorption systems is • Check and Maintain Thermal Insulation
critically dependent on the performance of the heat exchangers i.e. evaporator, • Insulate Pipe Fittings & Flanges
condenser and cooling tower. Any deterioration in these equipment leads to huge • Use Landscaping to the Reduce Solar Heat Load
energy penalties. • Reduce Excessive Window Area
• Use Low Emissivity (Sun Control) Films
3.5.2 Energy Saving Opportunities • Use Low Conductivity Window Frames
• Provide Insulation on Sun-Facing Roofs and Walls.
(a) Avoid Refrigeration & Air-conditioning to the Extent Possible • Provide Evaporative Roof Cooling
• Use Doors, Air-Curtains, PVC Strip Curtains
• Use Evaporative Cooling for Comfort Cooling in Dry Areas : • Use High Speed Doors for Cold Storage
• Use Cooling Tower Water at Higher Flows for Process Cooling :
(f) Using Favourable Ambient Conditions
Table 3.11 : Effect of Evaporator and Condenser Temperatures on Refrigeration
Machine Performance • Use Cooling Tower Water Directly for Cooling in Winter
• Design New Air-conditioning Systems with Facility for 100% fresh air
during winter
Evaporator Capacity Condens er Temperature o C • Use Ground Source Heat Pumps
Temperature
o
C +35 +40 +45 +50 (g) Use Evaporators and Condensers with Higher Heat Transfer Efficacy
+5 Capacity (TR) 151 143 135 127
• Use Heat Exchangers with Larger Surface Area
Power cons. (kW) 94 102.7 110.6 117.8
1°C higher temperature in the evaporator or 1°C lower temperature
Sp.Power (kW/TR) 0.62 0.72 0.82 0.93 in the condenser can reduce the specific power consumption by
0 Capacity (TR) 129 118 111 104 2 to 3%.
• Use Plate Heat Exchangers for Process and Refrigeration Machine
Power cons. (kW) 90 96.8 103 108.9
Condenser Cooling
Sp.Power (kW/TR) 0.70 0.82 0.93 1.05 Plate heat exchangers have a temperature approach of 1oC to 5oC instead
-5 Capacity (TR) 103 96 90 84 of around 5oC to 10oC for shell and tube heat exchangers.
Power cons. (kW) 84.2 89.6 94.7 99.4 • Avoid the Use of Air Cooled Condensers for large cooling loads .
• Use evaporative Pre-coolers for Air-cooled Condensers
Sp.Power (kW/TR) 0.82 0.93 1.05 1.19

110 111
Case Study 33 : Replacement of Existing Evaporator with a New Evaporator The methods used for air purging are :
with Better Heat Transfer Efficacy
• Direct venting of the air-refrigerant mixture, which is a primitive manual
Brief technique.
• A small compressor draws a sample of the refrigerant gas and compresses
After achieving the saving by reduction in speed of compressors, a decision was the mixture, condensing as much as possible of the refrigerant, and vents
taken to replace the existing "Ammonia Evaporator Coil in Tank" with "Shell & the vapour mixture that is now rich in non-condensibles.
Tube Heat Exchanger". The comparative measurements are as follows. • A low temperature evaporator, in-built in the system, condenses most of
the refrigerant from the refrigerant-air mixture drawn from the condensor
Parameter Before After Saving /
or receive and vents the non-condensibles. This method does not require
Implmentation Implementation Improvement a separate compressor and is used widely.
Power consumption (kW) 39.9 32.3 7.6
Operating hrs./day 10 6.7 3.3 Purging of non-condensibles plays an important role in maintaining the efficiency
Energy Consumption 323 267 56 of refrigeration machines.
(kWh/day)
Case Study 34 : Modification in Chilled Water Pumping System
Energy Saving
Brief
Annual savings : 18371 kWh
Annual savings : Rs. 82670 The chilled water system had primary (chiller side) and secondary (process side)
Investment : Rs. 0.12 Million pumps with a hot well and cold well arrangement. Since the chilled water
Payback period : 1.5 years requirement for the plant was reasonably steady, it was decided to eliminate the
primary pump and connect the warm chilled water from the secondary side directly
3.5.2.1 Energy Saving Opportunities in Normal Operation to the chiller, bypassing the hot well. In view of the increased pressure requirement,
a new, efficient pump of appropriate head requirement was recommended. The
• Use Building Thermal Inertia
power consumption scenario before and after this change is as follows:
• Put HVAC Window Air Conditioners and Split Units on Timer or
Occupancy Sensing Control Energy Saving
• Interlock Fan Coil Units in Hotels with Door Lock or Master Switch
• Improve Utilisation Of Outside Air.
• Maintain Correct Anti-freeze Concentration Parameter Before After Saving /
• Install a Control System to Co-ordinate Multiple Chillers. Implementation Implementation Improvement
• Permit Lower Condenser Pressures during Favourable Ambient Operating hrs. of primary pump 10 NIL -
Conditions. (hrs.)
• Optimise Water/Brine/Air Flow Rates
Energy consumption (kWh/day) 85 NIL -
• Defrosting : The most widely used methods for defrosting are:
Operating hrs. of secondary 24 24 -
1. Shutting down the compressor, keeping the fan running and allowing pump (hrs.)
the space heat to melt the frost. Energy consumption (kWh/day) 271 139 132
2. Using out side warm air to melt the frost after isolating the coil from Total power consumption 356 139 217
the cold room. (kWh/day)
3. Using electric resistance heaters in thermal contact with the coil.
4. Bypass the condenser and let the hot gas into the evaporator to melt Case study 35 : Replacement of inefficient condensers of central AC plant of
the frost. administrative building of a corporate house
5. Spray water on the coils to melt the frost.
• Match the Refrigeration System Capacity to the Actual Requirement Brief
• Monitor Performance of Refrigeration Machines
In the administrative building, there are two compressors installed by a company.
3.5.2.2 Maintenance to Ensure Energy Efficient Operation Each compressor is of 60 TR rating as per normal perception of the operating staff.
Originally there were two 10 HP pumps for circulation of condenser cooling water
• Clean Fouled Heat Exchangers
• Specify Appropriate Fouling Factors for Condensers and the cooling was achieved by spray nozzles. Subsequently an induced draft
• Do Not Overcharge Oil cooling tower was installed for condenser water cooling. Further one 15 HP pump
• Purging the Condenser of Air was put in parallel to existing 10 HP pumps because of poor cooling and high
discharge problem, it was thought that the water supply was inadequate. There are
two independent DX coils (Air Handling Units).
112 113
During the study the pressures, temperatures & water flow in the cooling water - Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.
circuit were measured. It was observed that there was a high discharge pressure - Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern.
and low suction pressure due to heavy scaling in condenser. - Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
- On old counterflow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with
Consequent upon study, the condensers were replaced. Valves were replaced with new square spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
butterfly valves and cooling coils were cleaned. Filters of AHU units were also - Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self
replaced. extinguishing, PVC cellular units.
- Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers
Energy Saving and relocate or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or
exhaust.
Annual energy saving : 21275 kWh - Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
Annual Saving : Rs. 75,000 - Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
Investment : Rs. 0.16 Million balance.
Payback period : 2 years - Use a velocity pressure recovery fan ring.
- Consider on-line water treatment.
Case study 36 : Savings due to stopping bypass through idle pumps and idle
- Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
condensers. - Shut off loads that are not in service.
- Take blow down water from return water header.
Brief
- Optimise blowdown flow rate.
In an automobile plant, condenser water was flowing through the idle pumps and - Send blowdown water to other uses or to the cheapest sewer to reduce
the idle condensers resulting in loss of head as the valves had broken down and effluent treatment load.
- Install interlocks to prevent fan operation when there is no water flow.
were passing. By stopping by-pass though idle pumps and idle condensers the
- Replace ordinary Aluminium fans by more energy efficient
energy savings was as follows :
aerodynamically designed FRP fans (Fibre Reinforced Plastic).
Energy Saving
Case study 37 : Replacement of existing metal (aluminum alloy) blades by FRP
Annual Energy Saving : 2760 kVAh blades for cooling towers.
Annual Saving : Rs.979800
Investment : Nil Brief
Payback : Immediate
The cooling tower specification is given below:
3.5.3 Cooling Towers
Sl. Location Specification Fan M otor Rated Actual
In many plants, after the cooling tower has been in service for a few years, the need No. Power (kW) Power kW
for improving its performance is felt. This may be due to: 1. Cooling Plant Capacity
a) Deterioration of efficiency of the cooling tower, Cooling tower 200 TR 11.5 5.93
b) Deterioration in the efficiency of the heat exchangers (coolers, condensers
etc.) at the end-use side, Replace the aluminum blades by new energy efficient FRP blades. By using FRP
c) Additional heat rejection due addition of equipment, plant capacity etc. blades there will be a minimum saving of 10% in the energy.
Two parameters, which are useful for determining the performance of cooling Savings obtained by conversion of aluminium blades to FRP blades.
towers, are the Temperature Range and Temperature Approach.
Energy Saving
3.5.3.1 General Tips to Save Energy in Cooling Towers
Actual power on cooling tower fan motor : 5.93 kW
- Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures. Percentage of power savings by conversion to FRP blades : 10%
- Control the optimum temperature as determined from cooling tower Working hrs/ day : 24
and chiller performance data. Working days/ year : 355
- Use two-speed or variable speed drives for cooling tower fan control if the Tariff (Rs./unit) : Rs. 3.53
fans are few. Stage the cooling tower fans with on-off control if there are Annual saving : 5.93 x 0.10 x 24 x 355 = 5,052,36 kWh
many. Annual saving @ of Rs 3.53/kWh : Rs.17,834
- Turn off unnecessary cooling tower fans when loads are reduced. Investment : Rs.10,000
- Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to Payback period : 7 months
fouling.
- Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
114 115
Case study 38 : Installation of automatic temperature controller in the cooling 3.6.2 Transformer Operation
tower systems.
3.6.2.1 Variation of losses during operation
Brief
The losses vary during the operation of a transformer due to loading, voltage
0
Install automatic temperature controller for cooling towers (28-30 C). The changes, harmonics and operating temperature.
controller switches off the fan when the cold well temperature goes below the set
temperature and switches on when temperature goes above the set temperature (28- Case Study 39: Parallel operation of transformers in a Tea Industry
30 0C). Brief
Energy Saving Energy Audit for Tea Factories making C.T.C. Tea, was conducted. Power is
received at 22 kV and 11 kV by separate lines. This is stepped down by two 500 kVA
Parameter Before After Implementation Saving/ Transfromer 22 kV/433V which feeds segregated loads.
Implementation Improvement %
Annual Power 114423 80096 30% The typical loss figures for 500 kVA transformers are 1660 W for no load and
Consupmtion (kWh) 6900W as load losses for 100% load. It was recommended to parallel both
transformers for a total 500 kVA load on secondary side. Also, cut off one
Annual Saving : Rs.137300 transformer from H.V. side in lean season and holidays when the load is 5% to
Investment : Rs.50000 below 25%.
Payback period : 5 months
Calculations
3.6 Energy Savings in Transformers
For total load of 500 kVA, there are three options.
Transformer is the most efficient equipment in an electrical system. Distribution
transformers are very efficient, with efficiencies of 97% or above. It is estimated a) Only one transformer takes full 500 kVA Load.
that transformer losses in power distribution networks can exceed 3% of the total Losses = 1 . 66 ( No L oad) + ( 500 /500 ) 2 x 6 . 9 k W ( l oad l osses )=8.56 kW
electrical power generated. In India, for an annual electricity consumption of
about 500 billion kWh, this would come to around 15 billion kWh. b)One transformer takes segregated 300 kVA while second takes 200
kVA segregated load.
3.6.1 Losses in Transformers Losses = 1 . 66 + ( 300 /500 )2 x 6 . 9 + 1 . 66 + ( 200 /500 ) 2 x 6 . 9 k W=6.90 kW

Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss c) Both are paralleled to take 250 kVA each.
1. No-load loss (also called core/iron loss) is the power consumed to sustain the
magnetic field in the transformer's steel core. Core loss occurs whenever the Losses = 2 (1.66 + (250/500)2 x 6.9) kW= 6 .77 kW.
transformer is energized; core loss does not vary with load. Core losses are
caused by two factors: hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is Thus on major load, the losses are minimum by paralleling both transformers.
that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing
AC rises and falls and reverses direction. Eddy current loss is a result of Operation at part load during lean season :
induced currents circulating in the core.
2. Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in a) Two paralleled transformers
the transformer windings. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the Losses = 2 { 1 . 66 + ( 0 . 25 /2 ) 2 x 6 . 9 } = 3 . 54 k W at 25 % load
windings. Copper loss varies with the square of the load current. (P = I²R) Losses = 2 { ( 1 . 66 ) + ( 0 . 05 /2 ) 2 x 6 . 9 } = 3 . 33 k W at 5 % load
b) Only one transformer is energized
For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load loss, PNO-
LOAD, and load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, At any load level can
Losses = 1 . 66 x ( 0 . 25 ) 2 x 6 . 9 = 2 . 09 k W at 25 % load
then be calculated from:
Losses = 1 . 66 x ( 0 . 05 ) 2 x 6 . 9 = 1 . 68 k W at 5 % load
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (%Load/100)² x PLOAD Thus losses are minimum at low loads using only one transformer .
Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can The tariff was kVA of M. D. x R s . 60 + R s . 0 . 89 x k Wh + R s . 150 meter rent.
be computed as:
2
The total annual consumption for the factory was 1.85 Million kWh per year
kVA Load
= No load loss + Rated kVA x (full load loss) and the electricity bill was Rs 2.04 Million giving Rs 1.10/kWh as average cost.

116 117
Energy saving Saving in load losses =

[( pf1 ) - 1 ]
2

Annual energy saving : 1000 kWh (Per unit loading as per kW) 2 x Load losses at full load x
Annual saving : Rs.10000
Investment : Nil Thus, if p.f. is 0.8 and it is improved to unity, the saving will be 56.25% .
Payback period : Immediate Case study 40 : Reallocation of the load of transformer
3.6.2.2 Energy Saving by optimum -utilisation of transformers Brief

Table 3.12 summarises the variation in losses and efficiency for a 1000 kVA Presently there are 3 numbers of transformers in a plant. From the data given it can
transformer and also shows the difference in losses by using a 1600 kVA be seen that Transformer No.3 i.e. 1250 kVA transformer is loaded only 28.70% i.e.
transformer for the same. The 1000 kVA transformer has a no load loss of 1700 359 kVA against 1250 kVA. It is recommended to shift the load to a lower capacity
watts and load loss of 10500 Watts at 100% load. The corresponding figures for transformer of 750 kVA which is lying idle.
1600 kVA transformer are 2600 Watts and 17000 Watts respectively. Loading is by
Transformer Loading:
linear loads. Temparatures assumed equal.
Transformer Rated Voltage Current Loading kVA Loading
Table 3.12 : Comparison of transformer losses kVA %
1 2000 440 1200 914.94 45.72
2 2000 440 1280 953.29 47.66
TRANSFORMER-1 TRANSFORMER-2 Difference
3 1250 440 471 358.87 28.70
1000 kVA, No load losses = 1700 W 1600 kVA. No load in losses, 4 750 440 - - Idle
losses = 2600 W W
Savings obtained by reallocating transformer No.3 load to idle transformer:
Per unit Load Total Output Efficiency Load Total
Load losses losses kW % losses, W losses, Calculations
W
Existing average load = 358.87 kVA
0.1 105 1805 100 98.23 60 2660 861 Existing transformer No.3 rating = 1250 kVA
0.2 420 2120 200 98.9 5 265 2865 745 Percentage loading of TR : 3 = 28.70%
Recommended Transformer rating with respect = 750 kVA
0.4 1680 3380 400 99.16 1062 3662 282 to average load
0.6 3780 5480 600 99.09 2390 4990 -490 Copper loss for existing 1250 kVA transformer = (0.2870)2 x 6 x 24 x 330
= 3914 kWh
0.8 6720 8420 800 98.96 4250 6850 -1570 = 0.59 kW
1.0 10500 12200 1000 98.18 6640 9240 -2960 (where 6 kW = full load copper loss of existing 1250 kVA transformer-considering
330 days 24 hrs operation in a year)
The efficiency of 1000 kVA transformer is maximum at about 40% load. Using a Iron loss for 1250 kVA transformer = 2.5 x 24 x 365 = 21900 kW
1600 kVA transformer causes under loading for 1000 kW load. The last column (Where 2.5 kW = iron loss for1250 kVA transformer)
show the extra power loss due to oversized transformer. As expected, at light loads,
Total loss for 1250 kVA transformer = 21900 + 3914 kWh
there is extra loss due to dominance of no load losses. Beyond 50% load, there is
= 25814 kWh
saving which is 2.96 kW at 1000 kW load.
On replacement of 1250 kVA transformer with 750 kVA transformer, the average
The saving by using a 1600 kVA transformer in place of a 1000 kVA transformer at loading of 750 kVA transformer will be = 359 = 47.85%
1000 kW load for 8760 hours/annum is 25930 kWh/year @ Rs .5.0/kWh, this is 750
worth Rs 0.129 Million. The extra first cost would be around Rs 1.5 Million. Hence Copper loss for 750 kVA transformer =(0.4785)2 x 4 x 330 x 24
deliberate oversizing is not economically viable. = 7255 kWh
(where 4 kW = full load copper loss of 750 kVA transformer-considering operating
3.6.2.3 Reduction of losses due to improvement of power factor hours – 24 for 330 days)
Transformer load losses vary as square of current. Industrial power factor vary Iron loss for 750 kVA transformer = 1.95 x 365 x 24
from 0.6 to 0.8. Thus the loads tend to draw 60% to 25% excess current due to poor = 17082 kWh
power factor. For the same kW load, current drawn is proporational to kW/pf. If (where 1.95 kW = iron loss for 750 kVA transformer)
p.f. is improved to unity at load end or transformer secondary, the saving in load
losses is as under. Total losses for 750 kVA transformer = 7255 + 17082
= 24337 kWh
118 119
Energy Saving Monetary saving : Rs.52,000
Investement : Nil
Savings in kWh = 25814 – 24337 Payback period : Immediate
= 1477 kWh
Annual Savings @ Rs.4.20 per kWh =1477 x 4.20 3.7 Energy Savings in Lighting
= Rs. 6203
Lighting energy consumption contributes to 20 to 45% in commercial
Case study 41: Operating the two transformers in parallel to reduce buildings and about 3 to 10% in industrial plants. Most industrial and
transformer losses. commercial energy users are aware of energy savings in lighting systems.
Significant energy savings can be realized with a minimal investment of capital and
Brief common sense.
Power is received from the electricity board and 3 nos. of 10000 kVA, 33kV/ 433 Table 3.13 : Recommended lighting levels
volts transformer are installed for stepping it down to 433 volts for plants
distribution. Each transformer feeds its own P.C.C. and facility is available to run Illuminance Examples of Area of Activity
the transformer in parallel. level (lux)
Now the transformers are run independently and the loads in them are not
Minimum service illuminance in exterior
balanced. The load on the T.R. 2 and 3, which were in service, was monitored for 24
General Lighting for 20 circulating areas, outdoor stores , stockyards
hrs.
rooms and areas used 50 Exterior walkWays & platforms.
These transformers have their maximum efficiency at 25 to 50% of loading. As per either infrequently
and/or casual or 70 Boiler house.
monitoring, transformer 3 is loaded around 50% and transformer 2 is loaded at
simple visual tasks 100 Transformer yards, furnace rooms etc.
less than 25% of their respective rated capacities both operating outside their
maximum efficiency ranges. 150 Circulation areas in industry, stores and stock
rooms.
These transformers were run in parallel.
General lighting for 200 Minimum service illuminance on the task.
Energy Saving interiors
300 Medium bench & machine work, general
Total losses before parallel operation : 75.2 kW process in chemical and food industries,
Total losses after parallel operation : 64.5 kW casual reading and filing activities.
Energy saving by parallel operation : 4035 kWh
Monetary saving/yr. : Rs.14,204 450 Hangers, inspection, drawing offices, fine
Operation : 24. x 365 hrs bench and machine assembly, colour work,
Load on each transformer in day time : 66% - 77% critical drawing tasks.
Load on each transformer in night time : 15% - 20%
Investment : Nil 1500 Very fine bench and machine work,
Payback period : Immediate instrument & small precision mechanism
assembly; electronic components, gauging &
Case study 42 : Power saving by optimizing transformer operation in large inspection of small intricate parts (may be
Government building partly provided by local task lighting)

Brief Additional localised 3000 Minutely detailed and precise work, e.g. Very
lighting for visually small parts of instruments, watch making,
One transformer is dedicated to one separate annexe building, the other 4 nos are exacting tasks engraving.
connected in the configuration of 2 each on east and west wing of the buildings. (Source : CIE, IES)
Switching off one transformer each on west and east wing load during weekly off Indian standards IS 3646 & SP-32 describes the illuminance requirements at
days and transferring the load on the other transformers in line shall save the the various work environments in detail.
no-load losses of the transformer & the maximum efficiceny of the other 2
transformers can be attained by loading at 40-50 % load. 3.7.1 Energy Saving Opportunities

Energy Saving 3.7.1.1 Use Natural Day Lighting

The utility of using natural day lighting instead of electric lighting during the day is
Energy Saving per hour : 2kW
well known, but is being increasingly ignored especially in modern air-
Total energy saving : 13,000 kWh
120 121
conditioned office spaces and commercial establishments like hotels, shopping Table 3.14 :Information on Commonly Used Lamps
plazas etc. Industrial plants generally use daylight in some fashion, but
improperly designed day lighting systems can result in complaints from Lamp Type Lamp Rating in Watts Efficacy Color Lamp
personnel or supplementary use of electric lights during daytime. (Total Power including (including Rendering Life(hrs)
ballast losses in Watts) ballast losses, Index
Light pipe: This is a reflective tube that brings clean light from the sky into a where
applicable)
room, no need for lighting or incandescent bulbs. These are aluminium tubes Lumens/Watt
having silver lining inside. One 13" light pipe can illuminate about 250 sq.ft of
floor area with an illuminance of 200 lux. A 9" dia pipe can give the same General Lighting Service 15,25,40,60,75,100,150,200, 8 to 17 100 1000
iilluminance over a 100 sq.ft area. (GLS) (Incandescent bulbs) 300,500 (no ballast)

A 4 ft length of light pipe of the above size provides a daytime average of 750 watts Tungsten Halogen 75,100,150,500,1000,2000 13 to 25 100 2000
worth of light in June, 250 watts in December. If the pipe length increases to 20 ft, (Single ended) (no ballast)
50% of the light reaches the surface. These are expensive, costing between 150 Tungsten Halogen 200,300,500,750,1000,1500, 16 to 23 100 2000
to 250 dollars and is one of the emerging technologies in day lighting. (Double ended) 2000 (no ballast)
Case study 43 : Installation of solar energy systems in canteen/guest houses
Fluorescent Tube lights 20,40,65 31 to 58 67 to 77 5000
Brief (Argon filled) (32,51,79)

Solar water heaters in canteen were installed in place of electric heaters. By Fluorescent Tube lights 18,36,58 38 to 64 67 to 77 5000
installing these heaters, at least 8 months in an year, solar energy could be used. (Kryptonne filled) (29,46,70)
Existing heaters were retained for supplementing these units in case of bad weather Compact Fluorescent 5, 7, 9,11,18,24,36 26 to 64 85 8000
or rainy season. Lamps (8,12,13,15,28,32,45)
(CFLs) (without
Energy Saving prismatic envelope)
Annual saving : 0.216 Million kWh Compact Fluorescent 9,13,18,25 48 to 50 85 8000
Annual saving : Rs. 0.68 Million Lamps (9,13,18,25)
Investment : Rs. 0.45 Million (CFLs) (with i.e. rating is inclusive of
Payback period : 8 months prismatic envelope) ballast consumption

3.7.1.2 De-lamping to reduce excess lighting Mercury Blended Lamps 160 (internal 18 50 5000
ballast, rating is
De-lamping is an effective method to reduce lighting energy consumption. In some
inclusive of
industries, reducing the mounting height of lamps, providing efficient
ballast
luminaires and then de-lamping has ensured that the illuminance is hardly
consumption)
affected. De-lamping at empty spaces where active work is not being performed is
also a useful concept. High Pressure Mercury 80,125,250,400,1000,2000 38 to 53 45 5000
Vapour (HPMV) (93,137,271,424,1040,2085
3.7.1.3 Task Lighting )
Metal Halide Lamps 250,400,1000,2000 51 to 79 70 8000
Task Lighting implies providing the required good illuminance only in the (Single ended) (268,427,1040,2105)
actual small area where the task is being performed, while the general illuminance
Metal Halide Lamps 70,150,250 62 to 72 70 8000
of the shop floor or office is kept at a lower level; e.g. Machine mounted lamps or (Double ended) (81,170,276)
table lamps.
High Pressure Sodium 70,150,250,400,1000 69 to 108 25 to 60 >12000
3.7.1.4 Selection of High Efficiency Lamps and Luminaires Vapour Lamps (HPSV) (81,170,276,431,1060)
Low Pressure Sodium 35,55,135 90 to 133 -- >12000
Details of common types of lamps are summarised in table 3.14 below. From Vapour (48,68,159)
this list, it is possible to identify energy saving potential for lamps by replacing Lamps (LPSV)
with more efficient types.
Source : Best Practice Manual-Lighting : MEDA

122 123
Table- 3.15 Summarises the replacement possibilities with the potential savings. Case study 46 : Conversion of High pressure mercury vapour lamp and
Halogen lamp with High pressure sodium vapour lamp.
Table 3.15: Savings by Use of More Efficient Lamps
Brief
Lamp type Power saving
Sector High pressure mercury vapour lamp of 250W & 400W capacity, halogen lamp of
Existing Replace by Watts % 500 W were used for street lighting in a manufacturing plant. 250W and 400W High
pressure mercury vapour lamp used for street lighting could be replaced with 70W
Domestic/Commercial GLS 100 W *CFL 25 W 75 75
& 150W High pressure sodium vapour lamp respectively. 500W Halogen lamps
Industry GLS 13 W *CFL 9W 4 31
used for street lighting and outside the factory could be replaced with 70W High-
GLS 200 W Blended 160 W 40 20
pressure sodium vapour lamp.
TL 40 W TLD 36 W 4 10
Industry/Commercial HPMV 250 W HPSV 150 W 100 37 Energy Saving
HPMV 400 W HPSV 250 W 150 35
* Wattages of CFL includes energy consumption in ballasts. Annual saving : Rs.97,700/-
(Source : Website of Bureau of Energy Efficiency) Investment : Rs.20,000
Payback period : 3 months
Case study 44: Replacement of Incandescent lamps and blended mercury
vapor lamps by compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) Case study 47 : Replacement of filament type indicating lamps by LED type
indicating lamps, assuming 0.8 as load factor:
Brief
Brief
The lighting conversion efficiency of the incandescent lamp is 13.8 lumens per watt
which is very low. Blended mercury vapor lamps of 160 W installed had much In a refractory manufacturing unit, there were 150 nos of 10 W filament type lamps
higher luminous intensity than required. Blended lamps were very inefficient and for indication purpose. These used to be glowing for 24 hrs for all the days of the
the lighting conversion efficiency was only 18 lumens per watt. Replaced year. It was consuming 1.2 kW. The total energy consumed was 10512 units on
incandescent and blended type mercury vapor lamps with CFL. yearly basis. During the energy audit, it was decided that these can be replaced by
LED type lamps consuming only 1 w power. After replacement by 10 nos of 1 W
Energy Saving LED lamps, the total consumption became of 1051 units per year. The saving
annually was observed of 9461 units, resulting in monetary saving of Rs 0.43 lakh
Annual energy saving : Rs. 2.07 Million
Investment : Rs. 1.24 Million per year (Rate of Rs 4.50 per unit).
Payback period : 8 months
Energy Saving
Case study 45 : Utilization of natural light by installing translucent sheets
Annual Saving : Rs.43,000/-
for roofs in plant. Investment : Rs.15000/-
Payback period : 4 months
Brief
3.7.1.5 Reduction of Lighting Feeder Voltage
Fluorescent lamps were used to illuminate 100 rooms even during daytime, since
natural lighting was not sufficient. Plant had already installed translucent sheets Fig. 3.7 shows the effect of variation of voltage on light output and power
in many offices and wanted to install in other offices in a phased manner. Installed consumption for fluorescent tube lights. Similar variations are observed on other
translucent sheets in the roofs to utilize natural lighting. After installing gas discharge lamps like mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps and
translucent sheets, lamps could be switched off for 8 hrs a day. sodium vapour lamps. Table-3.16 summarises the effects. Hence reduction
in lighting feeder voltage can save energy, provided the drop in light output is
Energy Saving
acceptable.
Annual Saving : Rs.21,500
Investment : Rs.20000
Payback period : 11 months

124 125
 Case Study 48 : Use of lighting voltage controller to reduce lighting energy
consumption

Brief

A paper manufacturing plant has a connected lighting load of nearly 370 kW. This
consists of fluorescent fittings, HPSV,HPMV & CFL lamps for plant, office
and area lighting. The lighting load is fed from 3.3 kV bus by 4 nos. of LT
transformers. These transformers have lighting loads apart from other loads.
Each transformer is connected to a Lighting circuit Distribution box. The
total actual load varies between 300 to 350 kW during night. Meters are
fitted at each DB to measure power consumption.

The voltage levels at lighting DBs vary between 225 & 240 V. Lighting loads
consume less power at lower voltages. The installation of lighting voltage
controllers, of different kVA, on each DB brought down the lighting
consumption by 20%. The output voltages were set at 210 V.

Energy Saving

No. of DB lighting circuits : 4

Total Power consumption : 338 kW

After installation
Total Power consumption : 275 kW
Annual Total energy savings : 0.245 Million kWh
Annual Cost savings : Rs. 0.49 Million
Cost of Implementation : Rs. 1.24 Million
Fig 3.7: Effect of Voltage Variation on Fluorescent Tube light Parameters Simple payback period : 2 .5 years

Table 3.16 : Variation in Light Output and Power Consumption Case study 49 : Installation of Automatic Voltage Regulator (Energy Saver) in
Lighting Circuit.
Particulars 10% lower voltage 10% higher voltage
Brief
Fluorescent lamps
Light output Decreases by 9 % Increases by 8 % The lighting to the plant was provided mainly by discharge lamps like blended
Power input Decreases by 15 % Increases by 8 %
HPMV lamps mercury vapour lamps, sodium vapour lamps and fluorescent lamps. In discharge
Light output Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 % lamps, the light output is roughly proportional to the input voltage. A reduction in
Power input Decreases by 16 % Increases by 17 % voltage of about 5% does not cause a proportional reduction in light output. The
Mercury Blended lamps light output is reduced marginally by 2%, but there is a substantial reduction of
Light output Decreases by 24 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 % about 10% in power consumption. Similarly, a higher voltage does not give
Metal Halide lamps proportionally higher light output, but the power consumed is substantially high.
Light output Decreases by 30 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 % The lighting & other electrical loads were segregated into different circuits and
HPSV lamps energy saver was connected to the lighting load only. The total lighting load worked
Light output Decreases by 28 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 26 %
out to 900 kW. Nearly 25% of lighting energy consumed could be saved by installing
LPSV lamps Energy Saver.
Light output Decreases by 4 % Decreases by 2 %
Power input Decreases by 8 % Increases by 3 % Energy Saving
(Source : Website of Bureau of Energy Efficiency)
Annual Energy saving : 7,68,960 kWh (considering 10% saving)
Annual Saving : Rs 3.5 Million
Investment : Rs 3.2 Million
Payback period : 11 months

126 127
3.7.1.6 Electronic Ballasts Twilight switches can be used to switch the lighting depending on the
availability of daylight. Care should be taken to ensure that the sensor is installed
Conventional electromagnetic ballasts (chokes) are used to provide higher in a place, which is free from shadows, light beams of vehicles and
voltage to start the tube light and subsequently limit the current during interference from birds. Dimmers can also be used in association with photo-
normal operation. Table-3.17 shows the approximate savings by use of electronic control; however, electronic dimmers normally available in India are
ballasts. suitable only for dimming incandescent lamps. Dimming of fluorescent tube
lights is possible, if these are operated with electronic ballasts; these can be
Table - 3.17 : Savings by use of Electronic Ballasts
dimmed using motorised autotransformers or electronic dimmers (suitable for
dimming fluorescent lamps; presently, these have to be imported).
Type of Lamp With Conventional With Electronic Power Savings, Infrared and Ultrasonic occupancy sensors can be used to control lighting in
Electromagnetic Ballast Ballast Watts cabins as well as in large offices. Simple infrared occupancy sensors are now
available in India. However ultrasonic occupancy sensors have to be imported.

40 W Tubelight 42 11 In developed countries, the concept of tube light fixtures with in-built
53
electronic ballast, photo-controlled dimmer and occupancy sensor is being
70 W HPSV 81 75 6 promoted as a package.
(Source : Website of Bureau of Energy Efficiency) 3.7.1.9 Exterior Lighting Control
Electronic ballasts have also been developed for 20W and 65W fluorescent tube Use a lighting control panel with time clock and photocell to control exterior
lights, 9W & 11W CFLs, 35W LPSV lamps and 70W HPSV lamps. These are now lighting to turn on at dusk and off at dawn and turn non-security lighting off
commercially available. earlier in the evening for energy savings.
Case Study 50: Use of Electronic Ballasts at Electrical Switchgear Case study 51 : Installing Photo Electric Controls in identified areas to
Manufacturing Plant control artificial lighting
Brief Brief
No. of electronic blasts : 24000 The lighting in the plant was mainly provided by fluorescent lamps. The shop areas
Hours/annum operation : 2400
were provided with north light in the roof which provided good lighting in the shop
Energy Saving floor during day time when sky was clear. Apart from this, the machines were also
provided with work lights. In spite of all these provisions the shop artificial lights
Annual Energy Saving through electronic ballast : 8,83,200 kWh were always switched on.
Annual additional saving due to : 1,39,100
reduced heat load on air-conditiong (kWh) Segregated lighting and fan circuits provided distribution boards exclusively for
Total annual energy saving : 10,22,300 kWh lighting. Installed photo electric switches to switch off light in identified areas.
Annual saving : Rs 6.29 Million
Investment : Rs 3.6 Million Energy Saving
Payback period : 7 months
Annual Energy saving : 43,800 kWh
3.7.1.7 Low Loss Electromagnetic Chokes for Tube Lights Annual saving : Rs.1,57,000/-
Investment : Rs.80,000/-
The loss in standard electromagnetic choke of a tube light is likely to be 10 to 15 Payback period : 6 months
Watts. Use of low loss electromagnetic chokes can save about 8 to 10 Watts
per tube light. The saving is due to the use of more copper and low loss Case study 52 : Providing Day Light Switches to control lamps in identified
steel laminations in the choke, leading to lower losses. areas.

3.7.1.8 Timers, Twilight Switches & Occupancy Sensors Brief

Automatic control for switching off unnecessary lights can lead to good energy
savings. Simple timers or programmable timers can be used for this purpose.
The timings may have to change, once in about two months, depending upon the
season. Use of timers is a very reliable method of control.
128
The process area of the plant was provided with enough lighting by means of
Fluorescent Lamps. Fluorescent lamps were ON throughout the day. It was
observed that translucent sheets were not provided in the roof.
129
Installed Day Light Switches to switch off lamps and provided translucent sheets in Energy Saving
the roof to get natural light in daytime.
Annual Energy Saving : 24400 kWh
Energy Saving Annual Saving : Rs.167100
Investment : Rs. 240 Million for 21 major roads
Annual Energy Saving : 2,74,176 kWh Payback period : 54 months
Annual saving : Rs.11,67,990
Investment : Rs.68000/- 3.7.1.10 T5 Fluorescent Tube Light
Payback Period : 1 months
The Fluorescent tube lights in use presently in India are of the T12 (40w)
Case Study 53: Street lighting modifications at Municipal Corporation and T8 (36W). T12 implies that the tube diameter is 12/8" (33.8mm), T8
implies diameter of 8/8" (26mm) and T5 implies diameter of 5/8" (16mm). This
Brief means that the T5 lamp is slimmer than the 36W slim tube light. The advantage of
the T5 lamps is that due to its small diameter, luminaire efficiencies can be
Conventionally, streetlight planning in a Municipal Corporation was not
improved by about 5%. However, these lamps are about 50mm shorter in length
systematic - it was normally quantity based and not lighting design based.
than T12 and T8 lamps, which implies that the existing luminaires cannot be
Photometric & Installation terms were totally ignored and the Selection criteria
used. In addition, T5 lamp can be operated only with electronic ballast.
for Lamps & Luminaires ignored.
Case Study 54 : Use of T5 fluorescent lamps in Pharmaceutical industry
The corporation realized the need for uniform & required level of illumination
with increased energy efficiency. As a part of this innovation, they decided to Brief
develop street lighting on new roads in a scientific and systematic manner by
implementing "Code of practice for lighting of Public thoroughfares IS 1944 Prior to the installation of T5 lamps, the administration, Clean room and R&D
(Part I & II), 1970". areas of the plant were using T8 (36W) lamps. There were about 1500 lamps
altogether. The lamps were having electromagnetic ballasts which consume about
During different seasons street light ON / OFF timings are changed. 12 watts/lamp.
• The ON time varies from 6:00 pm during winters to 7:45 pm during summers. After consultations with the manufacturer of T5 tube lights, a deferred
payment scheme was evolved where in the cost of the lamp will be repaid in 12
• The OFF time varies from 7:15 am during winters to 5:30 am during summers.
months. Warranty was also given for 12 months, during which if a lamp fails, free
• It is necessary to fix ON / OFF timings for the entire year according to sunset replacement is ensured. The price of one T5 lamp was Rs 875/-.
and sunrise timings.
Energy Saving
• For this purpose annual programmable time switches are preferable
Power consumption of 36w T/L : 48 W
rather than the conventional manual ones to switch ON & OFF exactly at the
Power consumption of 28 w T5 T/L : 29 W
required timings throughout the year. Energy saving per T/L : 19 W
Annual energy saving : 0.13 Million kWh
Almost 5 to 10% savings are achieved by using annual programmable time
Annual savings : Rs 0.6 Million
switch. Investment : Rs. 1.2 Million
Payback period : 2 years
Parameter Before After
Implementation Implementation 3.7.1.11 Lighting Maintenance
Pole height (m) 8.5 to 10 8.5 to 10
Meters Mounting height 7 to 8 10 Maintenance is vital to lighting efficiency. Light levels decrease over time because
Span between Poles 30 42
Over hang (m) 1.5 to 3 0.9 to 1.25 of aging lamps and dirt on fixtures, lamps and room surfaces. Together, these factors
Meters Angle of Tilt (degrees) 15 5o-10 o can reduce total illumination by 50 percent or more, while lights continue drawing
Wattage of Luminaries 250 250 full power. The following basic maintenance suggestions can help prevent this.
No. of poles 33 22 (33% reduction)
No. of HPSV lamps 66 44 • Clean fixtures, lamps and lenses every 6 to 24 months by wiping off the dust.
Cost of Installations (Rs.) 7,57,100 5,90,000 (22%
• Replace lenses if they appear yellow.
saving)
Annual Electrical Consumption 74,500 50,100 (32.75% • Clean or repaint small rooms every year and larger rooms every 2 to 3
(kWh) saving) years.
Average Illumination Less than10 Lux 30 Lux with 40% • Consider group re-lamping.
uniformity

130 131
3.8 Towards Energy Efficient Homes Energy saving can be achieved in homes and our day-to-day life by adopting the
following simple measures.
Home uses of energy constitute the following: -
3.8.2 Lighting & Fans
• For cooking (LPG, kerosene, electricity, biogas, biomass)
• For lighting (electricity, kerosene, biogas) • Use natural lighting during the day.
• For heating (electricity, kerosene, coal, biomass) • Replace incandescent lamps with a CFL. Payback period of CFL assuming its
• For cooling (electricity, use of home gadgets) cost as Rs. 110/- is less than 6 months.
• For transportation (petrol, diesel, electricity) • Switch off the light when not in use.
• Use 28W tubelight in place of 40W tubelight.
3.8.1 Electricity • Replace the conventional choke with electronic blast.
• Use electronic regulators for energy saving.
Consumption level of some of the commonly used household electrical appliances • Lubricate the fans regularly.
is given in the following table-3.18.
3.8.3 Air-conditioner
Table 3.18 : Electricity Consumption of Electrical Appliances
• Use stabilizer with air conditioner & act the voltage to 220 V.
Appliances Capacity Consumption • Clean the filters, condenser coils and thermostat at regular intervals.
Instant Geyser 3000 Watt 3 units/ hour • Avoid frequent opening of doors and windows.
• Avoid direct sunlight in the air conditioned space.
Immersion Rod 1000 Watt 1 unit/ hour
• Installation of reed screens in air-conditioners.
Air Conditioner 1500 – 2500 Watt 8.5 – 14.5 units/ day
• Save Re. 1/- per hour by setting the room temperature to 250C.
Air Cooler 170 Watt 1.7 units/ day • Purchase 'Star' rated energy efficient Air Conditioners only.
Fan 60 Watt 0.6 unit/ day
Refrigerator 200/300/500 Watt 2/3/5 unit/ day 3.8.4 Electric Water Heater
Electric Kettle 1000 – 2000 Watt 1 – 2 units/ hour
Hot plate 1000 – 1500 Watt 1 – 1.5 units/ hour • Change of heating element every 5 to 6 years.
Oven 1000 Watt 1 unit/ hour • Set the thermostat at 50 0C to save power.
Toaster 800 Watt 0.8 unit/ hour • Put on the water heater only 15 minutes before use.
Iron 750 Watt 0.65 – 0.75 unit/ hour
3.8.5 Refrigerator
Incandescent Lamp 100/ 60/ 40 Watt 0.5/ 0.3/ 0.2 unit/ day
Fluorescent Lamp 40/ 20 Watt 0.28/ 0.15 unit /day • Use stabilizer with refrigerator & set the voltage to 220 volt.
Slim Tube 36 Watt 0.26 unit/day • Check the gaskit to avoid ingress of heat from outside.
Compact Fluorescent Lamp 7/ 9/ 11/ 13 Watt 0.06-0.09 unit/ day • Avoid frequent opening of refrigerator door.
TV 180 Watt 0.2 unit/ hour • Do not place the refrigerator in kitchen or congested area.
Vacuum Cleaner 800 Watt 0.8 unit/ hour • Regular defrosting to avoid ice accumulation in the freezer.
Desktop Cleaner 120 Watt 0.13 unit/ hour • Cool the food before putting it in the refrigerator.
• Purchase 'Star' rated Energy Efficient Refrigerators only.
The following appliances typically can be attributed as electricity guzzlers: 3.8.6 Washing Machine
• Air conditioner • Using the machine at full load, the water consumption remains the same
• Electric Water heater irrespective of load of clothes.
• Refrigerator • Switch on the washing machine after loading.
• Washing machine • Put off the machine from the main switch after use.
• Television • Same about 15%-20% of power by setting thermostat to 500C.
• Incandescent lamp
• Computer 3.8.7 Television
Rational Use of Energy • Switch off the TV from the main switch and not through remote control.
• Don't leave TV on stand-by mode as it consumes around 80 watts of power
Rational use of energy does not mean that we sacrifice the need for comfortable even when not being viewed.
existence. Rational use of energy strictly means to use the available energy more
efficiently and avoid wastage of energy when a particular appliance is not in use.
Energy saving potential in a typical house is 20%-25%. If the electricity bill is Rs.
2000/- p.m., one saves about Rs. 400/- p.m. by proper use of electrical appliances.
132 133
3.8.8 Computers D. Air Conditioning
System:
• Switch on the computer when required to be used . 1. Effectiveness of -Install Screw
• Don't leave the computer in stand-by mode when not in use as in stand-by existing Units is Chillers of
only 64% and 8,10,000 kWh 39.69 75.00 23 months total 600 TR
mode, it consumes 60 watts of power (monitor plus CPU) while no useful work specific power capacity
is being done. consumption is high
2. Cooling water -Keep the idle
and chilled Units isolated
3.9 Energy Audit Study Conducted by PCRA water is flowing 1,20,000 kWh 5.88 Nil Immediate by closing the
in idle Units. appropriate
valves.
Case Study 55 : Energy Audit of a Bank's Head Quarter building in New Delhi

Brief
References
Punjab National Bank- with its beginning in April, 1895 at Lahore- is at present one
of the foremost banks in India with a network of 4500 offices, serving more than 3.7 1. Designing with Light- A lighting Handbook - Anil Walia-International
crore customers and having a business turn over exceeding Rs 1,94,000 crores. The Lighting Academy
focus areas during the Energy Audit were: 2. Handbook of Functional requirements on Industrial Buildings-SP-32- Bureau
of Indian Standards
1.1 Review of Electricity Bills, Contract Demand & Power Factor 3. Energy Savings in Electric Motors : PCRA
1.2 Study of DG Set 4. Energy Savings in Electric Furnaces : PCRA
1.3 Study of Motor Loading 5. Energy Savings in Compressed Air System : PCRA
1.4 Study of Illumination 6. Energy Savings in Pumps, Fans & Variable Speed Drives : PCRA
1.5 Study of Air Conditioning System 7. Energy Savings in Refrigeration & Air Conditioning System : PCRA
8. Energy Audit Reports of PCRA
Energy Savings 9. IS : 325 - "Three Phase Induction Motors - Specifications"
10. IEC: 60034 (1to 18) - Rotating Electrical Machines
Sl Equipment / Expected Savings Expected Savings Expected Payback Action Required 11. IS : 4722 - Rotating Electrical Machines
No. Observation per annum per annum Investment Period 12. IS: 8789 - Values of Performance characterstics for Three-Phase Induction
Reason (kWh/kVAh, kL) (Rs in lakh) (Rs in Lakh) Motors
A. Load Management: 13. IS : 12615 - Induction Motors :Energy Efficient Three-Phase squiral cage-
speficiation
1. Power Factor is 4,23,420 kVAh 20.75 4.00 3 months -Monitor and Maintain 14. IS : 13555 - Guide for selection & Application of Three-phase A.C. Induction
poor and is Power Factor. Motors for different types of driven equipment.
sometimes leading - Connect capacitors through
APFC (Automatic Power 15. NEMA MG-1 : National Electrical Mnaufacturers Association, USA
Factor Controller 16. EEMA -19 : Energy Efficeint Indution Motors - Three phase - squiral cage
- Install capacitors of 800 17. Preformance, Selection & Application of Large A.C. Motors by Devki Energy
kVAR. Consultancy Pvt. Ltd., Vodadora
B. DG Set: 18. Induction Machines by P.L. Alger
1. Specific Power -The engine needs service. 19. Electrical Machies by M. Mostenko
Generation of DG Consult the dealer or 20. 'Industrial Furances' (Book), E.I. Kazantsev, Mir Publishers, Moscow.
12 kL of HSD 3.96 Minimal Immediate 21. 'Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry': C.James Erickson, IEEE Press -
sets very low. manufacturer
C. Illumination: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., (IEEE), New York
22. 'Efficient Use and Management of Electricity in Industry' Devki Energy
1. Use of energy - Replacing existing Consultancy Pvt. Ltd, Vadodara.
efficient lights incandescent and 23. 'Energy Audit Manual' (Series No.1) - 'Steel Foundary', National Productivity
11,497 kWh 0.56 0.14 3 months
halogen lamps with CFLs
Council, New Delhi.
24. 'BCIRA' Publication - UK
2. Use of 28 W, T5 Replacing existing
25. 'Industrial Furnaces' W.Trinks - M.H. Mawhinney - John Wiley
tube lights 2000 nos. of tube lights
2,26,000 kWh 11.07 16.00 18 months 26. 'Induction Heating Handbook' John Davies & Peter Simpson - Mcgraw Hill
with 28 W T/L having
27. Compressed Air System - A Guidebook on Energy and Cost Saving, E.M.
electronic chokes.
Talbott, The Fairmont Press Inc., Zilburn, USA.
28. Compressors-Selection & Sizing, Boyce & Brown, Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houstonne, USA

134 135
29. 'Pump Hand Book'-I.J. Karassik, WC Krutzsch, W.H. Fraser, J.P. Messina,
McGraw Hill International.
30. 'Analysis of Water Distribution Systems'- T.M. Walski CBS Publishers, Delhi.
31. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning' - W.F. Stoecker and J.W. Jones - Tata
McGraw Hill.
32. 'Technology Menu for Efficient Energy Use'-National Productivity Council,
India and Centre for Energy and Enviornmental- Studies of Princetonne
University.
33. 'Good Practice Guide No. 2' - Energy Efficiency Office, Deptt. of Energy, U.K.
34. 'Energy Saving, with Adjustable Frequency Drive'- Allen Bradley Publication.
35. Saving Electricity in Utiltiy Systems of Industrial Plants, Devki Energy
Consultacny Pvt. Ltd., Vadodara.
36. Industrial Refrigeration Handbook, Wilber F. Stoeker, McGraw Hill .
37. Refrigeration and Air conditioning, M. Prasad, New Age International (P) Ltd.
38. ASHRAE Handbooks, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
39. Cooling Tower Technology- Maintenance, Upgrading and Rebuilding, Robert
Burger, The Fairmont Press Inc., Georgia, USA
40. Low-E Glazing Design Guide, Timothy E. Johnson, Butterworth Architecture.
Section 3
41. Best Practice Manual - Electric Motors Transformers, Lighting : MEDA.
42. Energy Efficient Technologies for Industries, LBNL ,USA.
43. Bureau of Energy Efficiency-Course Material for Energy Manager/Auditor.
44. Websites/Product Information CDs of the following manufacturers:
1. www.energymanagertraining.com
Energy Conservation
2. Cromptonne Greaves Lighting Division
3. Bajaj Electricals
4. GE lighting, USA
5. Watt Stopper Inc, USA
in the
6. Vergola India Ltd
7. Lighting reasearch centre, USA
Hydrocarbon sector
Chapter - 4
Ø Refining Sector
Chapter - 5
Ø Exploration & Production
Chapter - 6
Ø LPG Bottling Plants
Chapter - 7
Ø Marketing Terminals/ Depots

136
 Chapter - 4
Refining Sector
4.1 Introduction

The downstream oil sector is an extremely important part of the supply chain.
Growing demand for oil products clearly means that there will be a rising volume of
crude oil that needs to be refined. Moreover, the oil products demand structure will
change, with the expected continued move towards lighter distillates. At the same
time, driven by environmental concerns, products specifications shall be moving
towards significantly cleaner products that will necessitate substantial reduction in
sulphur content as well as improvements in other quality parameters. To meet these
challenges, the downstream sector will require significant investments to ensure
that sufficient distillation capacity is in place, supported by adequate conversion
and desulphurisation, as well as other secondary processes and facilities.

Refining capacity additions have fluctuated considerably through cycles of both

excess and tight capacity. In the 1970s and 1980s, the refining industry experienced
periods of rapid expansion fuelled by rising demand and anticipated sustained
growth. Global capacity peaked at 82 million barrels per day (mb/d) in 1981 and
declined to 73-74 mb/d by the late 1980s. The 1990s and early part of this century
were more balanced with regard to capacity and demand, until the consumption
surge of refined products in 2004 and 2005 that created a much tighter situation in
the refining sector. Regionally, the Middle East, India and China are the focus for
major refining capacity expansions over the rest of this decade, accounting together
for almost 8 mb/d of announced projects.

4.2 Refining sector in India

Having achieved the capacity additions targets of 34 MTPA of the 10th Plan (Period
2002-07), the installed capacity at the end of 11th Plan (2007-08 to 2011-2012) has
been pegged at around 241 MTPA (Table 4.1). Among the refineries expected to
come up during the 11th Plan, the most significant is the export oriented 29 MTPA
RPL refinery at Jamnagar.

Table- 4.1 Cumulative refining capacity and capacity additions during

Eleventh Plan (by year) (MT)

1 April 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Refining 148.97 158.70 194.70 210.21 225.88 240.96
Capacity
Capacity 9.73 36.00 15.51 15.67 15.08
addition

139
As on April, 2008, India with 19 refineries had a total installed refinery capacity of 4.3 Oil Trade
149 MTPA. Of this, 105.5 MTPA capacity was in the public sector and the rest in
private sector. (Table - 4.2) With indigenous production stagnating at around 30 MT per annum during the last
five years and the increase in demand being met through increased imports, India's
Table - 4.2 self-sufficiency in petroleum products has decreased from 29.4% in 2003-04 to
25.5% in 2007-08. India imported 121.7 MT of crude and 22.7MT of petroleum
Refinery State Capacity Throughput Capacity
MTA (MT) Utilization products at a value of Rs. 3,50,270 Crore. As per Hydro-carbon vision 2025, almost
(%) 90% of India's crude demand shall have to be met through imports, India's net oil
Public sector import is projected to increase to 3 mb/day in 2015 and 6 mb/day in 2030 while
Indian Oil
Corporation Limited
product exports are expected to reach nearly 1.6 mb/day.
(IOCL)
Guwahati Assam 1.00 0.92 92.00 The total production of petroleum products in India during 2007-08 was 149.90
Barauni Bihar 6.00 5.64 94.00 MT, against domestic consumption of 129.24 MT. Since the year 2001-02, with
Koyali Gujarat 13.70 13.71 100.07
Haldia West Bengal 6.00 5.72 95.33
excess production vis-à-vis in-house consumption, India became net exporter of
Mathura Uttar Pradesh 8.00 8.03 100.38 petroleum products (Figure-4.1). In the year 2007-08, India's total export of
Digboi Assam 0.65 0.56 86.15 petroleum products was 39.33 MT resulting in export earnings of Rs.1,07,603 crore
Panipat Haryana 12.00 12.82 106.83
(Figure-4.2). The export of petroleum products during the year were dominated by
BRPL, Bongaigaon Assam 2.35 2.01 85.53
CPCL, Manali Tamil Nadu 9.50 9.80 103.16
diesel (14.3 MT), followed by naphtha (9.3 MT), petrol (4.2 MT), and Fuel Oil
CPCL, Narimanam Tamil Nadu 1.00 0.46 46.00 (4.72 MT). Foreign exchange earnings from petroleum products export during the
Total (IOCL) 60.20 59.67 99.12 year 2007-08 constituted around 15% of the country's total export earnings, which
Hinudstan Petroleum
is more than any other sector i.e. minerals, textiles or gems & jewellery etc. It is
Corporation projected that by 2015, India's net product export shall reach nearly 1.6 Mb per day.
Limited(HPCL)
Mumbai Maharashtra 5.50 7.35 133.64
125.47
Figure -4.1 Demand- supply position of petroleum products since 2001-02
Visakhapatnam Andhra 7.50 9.41
Pradesh
Total (HPCL) 13.00 16.76 128.92
160
Oil & Natural Gas 140
Corporation (ONGC)
Tatipaka Tamil Nadu 0.08 0.06 75.00
120
MRPL, Mangalore Karnataka 9.69 12.53 129.31 100
Total (ONGC) 9.77 12.59 128.86 80
Bharat Petroleum
Corporation Limited 60
(BPCL)
40
BPCL, Mumbai Maharashtra 12.00 12.74 106.17
KRL, Kochib Kerala 7.50 8.17 108.93 20
NRL, Numaligarh Assam 3.00 2.57 85.67 0
Total (BPCL) 22.5 23.48 104.36 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Total (public sector) 105.47 112.50 106.67 1 /0 2 /0 3 /0 4 /0 5 /0 6 /0 7 /0
Private sector 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00
RIL, Jamnagar Gujarat 33.00 31.80 96.36
Essar Oil, Vadinar Gujarat 10.50 6.50 61.90
Total (private sector) 43.50 38.30 88.05
Grand total All India 148.97 150.80 101.22 Demand Supply
Source : PPAC (2007) and MOP&NG (2006)
The complexity of the refining sector has increased markedly since the end of the
1990s due to capacity additions and expansion of cracking units. Between 1997
and 2006, Vis breaker capacity increased from 65 to 130 kb per day, Coking
capacity from 30 to 250 kb per day, Catalytic cracking capacity from 150 to 470 kb
per day and Catalytic Hydro Cracking Capacity from 25 to 310 kb per day.
Distillation capacity is projected to be almost doubled by 2014 to 5.2 Mb per day as
a result of capacity expansion and commissioning of New Greenfields Refineries.

140 141
 Figure -4.2 Earnings from export of petroleum products Energy is consumed in refineries as: -

120 • Direct fuel in heaters/ boilers/ GTGs

100
• Indirect fuel to raise steam

Value in Rs. Lakh Lakhs

80

60 • To generate power through STGs

40
• To meet process requirement
20

0
• Steam & power for process equipments drive, utilities, illumination etc.
2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08
• Cooling water circulation
Source : PPAC (2007)
4.4.1 Specific energy consumption in Indian refineries
4.4 Energy Consumption in Refining Industry
Amongst the 19 refineries in Public and Private Sector, Reliance refinery is India's
Petroleum refining industry in India is one of the major energy users, consuming most energy efficient in terms of the Energy Intensity Index*. Reliance ranks in the
around 7.5% of the total energy consumed by the industrial sector. Energy use in a top 5% of worldwide refineries, with an EII of 64 in 2002, and it ranked highest of
refinery varies due to changes in the type of crude processed, the product mix, the all participating refineries in the Shell Benchmark of energy and loss performance.
complexity of refinery as well as the sulfur content requirement of the final Table - 4.4 shows the performance of PSU, Indian refineries in terms of their MBN
products. Furthermore, operational factors like capacity utilization, maintenance rating (excluding the Reliance refinery, which does not report an MBN index).
practices, as well as the age of the equipment affect energy use in a refinery.
However, energy consumption per unit of input, is a misleading indicator of the
The major energy consuming processes in a refinery are crude distillation, followed energy performance of refineries as it does not account for differences in
by the hydrotreater, reforming, and vacuum distillation. This is followed by a complexities, output slates or type of crude processed. A simple topping unit, for
number of processes consuming a somewhat similar amount of energy, i.e., thermal example, will always have a lower specific energy consumption than a complex
refinery- sometimes one-fourth as much- but may not be able to produce blended
cracking, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking, alkylate and isomer production.
gasoline or to remove sulfur from final products. In India, the energy performance
Total energy consumption in Indian refineries during the year 2007-08, was about of refineries is expressed in terms of specific energy consumption, measured as
1000 BTUs per barrel per Energy Factor (MBTU/Bbl/NRGF). This unit,
316 Trillion Btu or about 2.1 Trillion Btu per million tonne of crude oil throughput.
commonly referred to as MBN, was developed by the Centre for High Technology
During the five years period, between 2002-03 and 2006-07, while the refinery (sponsored by the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas) to provide a comparable
throughput rose by 28%, the corresponding increase in energy demand shotup by basis to compare energy performance of refineries of different configurations by
nearly 52%. This increase in energy consumption was due in part to the refinery accounting for the throughput of secondary units.
capacity expansion but mainly it was due to the addition of energy intensive
secondary processing units to improve fuel quality to meet Euro III & Euro IV 4.4.2 Secondary Processing Units in Indian Refineries
norms for transport fuels and also to reduce the bottom of the barrel by producing
value added products. However, the energy consumption per million tonne of crude Comparing the ratio of primary upgrading capacity to crude distillation i.e.
cracking to distillation ratio, Indian refineries are relatively simple. Most large
throughput has reduced marginally in the year 2007-08, due to energy efficiency
refineries in India have a cracking to distillation ratio of less than 40%, the only
improvement programmes aggressively taken up by various refinery units exceptions being the Reliance Refinery (59%) and Panipat Refinery (55%), that
(Table - 4.3). meet the average of the US Refinery Industry (56%). Higher cracking to distillation
Table - 4.3: Energy Consumption in Indian Refineries ratio facilitate refineries the flexibility to process lighter to very heavy crudes.
Year Throughput Total Energy Consumption % change 4.4.3 Refinery fuel use and losses
(MT) Consumed per tonne of over the
(TBtu) throughput previous As can be seen from Table-4.5, aggregate refinery fuel use and losses have
(TBtu/MT) year increased over the years as refinery throughput has expanded and new upgrading
2002-03 110.582 202.558 1.832 - units have been brought on line. To process less expensive, heavy and higher
2003-04 118.680 239.204 2.016 +10.04 sulphur crude to meet the domestic demand pattern, it would be necessary to
2004-05 124.304 251.437 2.023 + 0.35 expand the secondary cracking facilities of less complex refineries.
2005-06 126.986 274.113 2.159 + 6.70
2006-07 141.463 308.002 2.177 + 0.83
2007-08 150.806 316.506 2.099 - 3.60 * The Solomon's EII is a unit-by-unit bench marking methodology that adjusts
the unit consumption energy coefficients for process units based on feedstock
Source: CHT
or operational parameters.
142 143
Table 4.4 Energy Performance of Indian Refineries (1000BTU/Bbl/NRGF) Table- 4.5 Refinery Throughput and Output (1000 tonnes per year)

Refinery 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08
IOCL-Guwahati 104.79 81.68 77.67 77.21 77.44
IOCL-Barauni 77.69 74.07 71.91 72.95 69.34 Throughput 118680 124304 126986 141463 150806
IOCL-Gujarat 69.89 78.86 75.00 73.03 68.52
Light Distillates
IOCL-Haldia 87.87 80.35 76.42 71.13 69.33
IOCL-Mathura 75.37 76.42 69.19 66.8 67.08 LPG 5362 5578.4 5532 6359 6743
IOCL-Digboi 151.16 98.83 92.37 92.49 92.06 Naphtha 11046 14219.6 14493 16730 16470
IOCL-Panipat 69.19 68.81 66.76 68.07 61.31 Motor Gasoline 11211 11057.5 8308 12423 14129
HPCL-Mumbai 91.18 95.29 94.62 90.41 92.26
Others 4393 2007.9 4091 41532 3154
HPCL-Visakh 99.85 99.39 94.39 87.56 86.83
BPCL-Mumbai 94.46 95.98 78.19 70.47 70.48 Middle Distillates
BPCL-Kochi 92.00 94.80 95.50 93.06 87.25 MTO 244 226.5 212 187 186
CPCL-Manali 97.66 84.86 77.17 73.75 73.55 Aviation Turbine Fuel 4302 5197.2 6219 7850 8915
CPCL-CBR 139.81 154.21 167.29 130.57 138.85 (Jet Kerosene)
BRPL 93.39 94.26 92.47 91.39 90.64 Kerosene 9948 9042.8 8862 8477 7867
NRL 81.39 72.22 70.53 71.2 66.15
Light Diesel Oil 1628 1385.2 944 803 713
MRPL 66.69 65.07 65.27 63.5 61.55
Industry average 81.85 81.09 76.43 73.55 70.73 High Speed Diesel 43129 40664 53666 58467
Source : CHT
Others 486 525.2 1649 626 891
4.5 Energy Efficiency opportunities in Petroleum Refineries
Heavy Distillates
A large variety of opportunities exist within petroleum refineries to reduce energy
consumption while maintaining or enhancing the productivity of the plant. Studies
Lubricants 666 645.8 676 967 855
by several companies in the petroleum refining industry have demonstrated the Fuel Oil 13355 14814.5 14118 15524 15957
existence of a substantial potential for energy efficiency improvement in almost all
facilities. Competitive benchmarking data indicate that most petroleum refineries
Petroleum Coke 2739 3159.9 3182 3791 4124
can economically improve energy efficiency by 10-20%. Paraffin Wax 50 56.1 54 62 66
Major areas for energy efficiency improvement are utilities (30%), fired heaters Bitumen 3379 3346.9 3575 3838 4450
(10%), process optimization (15%), heat exchangers (15%), motor and motor Others 1304 373.7 1224 1761 2772
applications (10%), and other areas (10%). Of these areas, optimization of utilities,
heat exchangers, and fired heaters offer the most low investment opportunities, Total products 113244 118444.9 119911 136074 145793
while other opportunities may require higher investments.
* Gross Refinery Fuel & 8894 9312.9 10069 11691 12274
Energy efficiency in refining sector can be divided into three broad categories i.e. Loss
• Process specific

• Utilities related * This includes external fuels used such as natural gas etc.

• Generic

144 145
Table 4.6 provides access keys by process and utility system to the description of
the energy efficiency opportunities. For individual refineries, actual payback
period and energy savings for the measures will vary, depending on plant
configuration and size, plant location, and plant operating characteristics.
Table 4.6 Energy Efficiency opportunities in petroleum refineries. For each
major process in the refinery (in rows) the applicable categories of energy
efficiency measures are given (in columns).
Process
• PROCESS SPECIFIC
4.5.1 Desalting
The principle of desalting is to wash the crude oil or heavy residues with water at
high temperature and pressure to dissolve, separate and remove the salts and solids.
Crude oil may contain varying quantities of inorganic compounds such as water
soluble salts, sand, silt, rust particles and other solids, together characterized as
bottoms sediment. The salt in the crude is primarily in the form of dissolved or
suspended salt crystals in water emulsified with the crude. These impurities,
especially salts, could lead to fouling and corrosion of heat exchangers (crude

H ig h T e m p e r a t u r e C o g e n e r a tio n
preheaters) and especially the crude distillation unit overhead system. Salts are
detrimental to the activity of many of the catalysts used in the downstream
conversion processes and sodium salts stimulates coke formation in furnaces.

G a s E x p a n s io n T u r b in e s

H yd ro g en M an ag em e n t
The water phase from the overheads crude distillation unit and other used water
E n e rg y m a n a g e m e n t
streams are normally fed to the desalter as washwater. Efforts are made in the

O th e r O p p o r t u n itie s
F la r e G a s R e c o v e r y

P r o c e s s In te g r a tio n
S te a m D is tr ib u tio n
industry to minimize water content of the crude to less than 0.3% and bottoms

P ro c e s s H e a te rs
P o w e r R e c o v e ry
sediments to less then 0.015%. The concentration of inorganic impurities in the
C o g e n e r a t io n

cleaned stream are highly dependent on the design and operation of the desalter as
G a s ific a t io n
well as the crude source.

D is tilla tio n

L ig h tin g
B o ile r s
The quantity of inorganic impurities in the crude oil depends very much on the

M o to rs
crude origin and the crude handling during transportation. The water used in crude
desalting is often untreated or partially treated water from other refining process.
Table 4.7 shows the typical operating conditions and water consumptions in the
Desalting X desalters, depending on the type of crude oil used.

CDU X X X X X X X X Table- 4.7 Operating conditions and water consumption in the Desalters
VDU X X X X X X X X Crude oil density Water Wash % Temp (°C)
Hydrotreater X X X X X X X X X kg/m3 (at 150°C) v/v
<825 3-4 115 - 125
Cat. Reformer X X X X X X X X X X 825-875 4-7 125 - 140
FCC X X X X X X X X X X >875 7 - 10 140 - 150

Hydrocracker X X X X X X X X X X
Good Desalting Practices
Coker X X X X X X X X X
I Multistage Desalters and the combined use of AC and DC fields:
Visbreaker X X X X X X X X X Multistage desalters and the combined use of AC and DC fields provide high
Alkylation X X X X X X desalting efficiencies resulting in substantial energy savings. Two-stage or
even three-stage desalting is used either (if) the crude oil salt content is higher
Hydrogen X X X X X X X X than 0.02%, or (if) the heavy residue is further catalytically processed.
X X X X X X X X X X X X X ii The Benefits of this Process are;
Utilities
Note : "X" indicates that relevant energy efficiency measures are possible in these • The dual polarity field delivers twice the voltage of an AC fields, using the
areas. Lighting and boilers, used throughout refineries, are all included under same power supply/transformer requirement as an AC field.
Utilities. • Because of the unchanging polarity of the DC field, water droplets respond by
migrating between electrodes.
• Once water droplets approach one of the electro droplets they become charged
with the same high voltage static charge that is on that plate. In a plate net
charge is imparted to the water droplets causing the attraction of

146 147
 water droplets causing coalescence. The DC field forces the water droplets into
coalescence course for faster coalescence. These processes are operated at a
lower temperature than the conventional de-salter.
iii The lower operating temperatures mean lower fuel costs
The dual polarity Electrostatic Treater is designed to operate at temperature
lower than a conventional electrostatic treater and upto 600 F cooler than heater
treaters. Consequently, it can process at higher viscosities, which means less
heat is required to reduce the viscosity of the oil at processing conditions. It
provides sizeable fuel cost for any gravity of crude oil. (For example, with
32.5° API gravity, 10,000 BOPD of crude and 1,000 BWPD of water, the dual
polarity Treater achieves a savings of 1,156,250 Btu/Hr. At 60% heat results in
a fuel savings of 46,250 scf/day).
iv Enhancing the oil/water separation.
Techniques applied:
I. Transfer the water effluent from desalting units to a settling drum where a
further separation between oil and water can be achieved.
II. Choosing accurate optimum interface level controllers. As a function of
specific gravity and range of crudes processed, sensors like displacers,
capacitance probes or radio wave detectors are used to control interface
level.
III. A good improvement in water-oil separation can be achieved by using
"wetting" agents.
IV. Use of non-toxic, biodegradable, crude specific demulsifying chemicals
to promote fast coalescence of the water droplets.
v Enhance the solid/ water-oil separation
Solids entering the crude distillation unit are likely to attract more oil and produce
additional emulsions and sludge. The amount of solids removed from the desalting
unit should, therefore, be maximized. The objective is to minimize solids leaving
the desalter with the crude oil.
Techniques Applied:
I. Use low-pressure water in the desalter to avoid turbulence.
II. Replace the water jets with mud rakes. They cause less turbulence when
removing settled solids.
III. The water phase (suspension) can be separated in a pressurized plate separator.
Alternatively a combination of a hydrocyclone desalter and a hydrocyclone
de-oiler can be used.
IV. Evaluate the effectiveness of a sludge wash system.
vi Re-use of water for the desalter
The desalting process plays an important role in the waste water management in a
refinery. The water used in other processes can be re-used in the desalter.
148
The following process water streams can be suitable for use as desalter wash water:
I. The accumulated water in the crude distillation unit overhead drum, usually
1-2% w/w on crude feed from steam injection.
II. The (unstripped) steam condensates from the light and heavy gas oil dryers
and the vacuum distillation overhead (about 3.5% w/w on feed)
III. Stripped sour water and also other solid-free process water streams.
IV. Blowdowns from cooling water and boilers.
4.5.2 Distillation CDU/ VDU
Despite the high level of heat integration and heat recovery that is normally applied,
crude distillation unit remains the most intensive energy-consuming process in a
refinery. In a refinery, atmospheric and vacuum distillation units account for 35-
40% of the total process energy consumption followed by hydrotreating with
approx. 18-20%. The various processes downstream of the CDU make use of the
elevated temperatures of the product streams leaving the CDU. The number of side-
streams in a high vacuum unit is chosen to maximize heat integration of producing
streams at different temperatures, rather than to match the number of products
required. Heat is provided by process heaters and/or by steam. Energy efficiency
opportunities exist in the heating side and by optimizing the operation of distillation
column. The utility requirements for the atmospheric and vacuum distillation units
are given in Table 4.8.
Table - 4.8 The utility requirements for CDU
Unit Type Fuel Electricity Steam Cooling water
(MJ/t) (kWh/t) consumed T=10°C)
(m3/t, D
(kg/t)
Atmospheric 400 – 680 4–6 25 – 30 4.0
Vacuum 400 – 800 1.5 – 4.5 20 – 60 3 –5
Note: Replacement of the steam ejectors by vacuum pumps will reduce stea m consumption and waste
water generation but increase the electricity consumption.
Energy Saving Opportunities in CDU/ VDU
I Optimization of Operational Parameters. The optimization of the reflux
ratio of the distillation column can produce significant energy savings. The
efficiency of a distillation column is determined by the characteristics of the
feed. If the characteristics of the feed have changed over time or compared to
the design conditions, calculations to derive new optimal operational
parameters should be done to improve operational efficiency. Steam and/or
fuel intensity can be compared to the reflux ratio, product purity, etc. and
compared with calculated and design performance on a daily basis to
improve the efficiency.
ii Checking Product Purity. Many companies tend to excessively purify
products and sometimes with good reason. However, purifying to 98% when
95% is acceptable is not necessary. In this case, the reflux rate should be
decreased in small increments until the desired purity is obtained. This will
decrease the reboiler duties. This change will require no or very low
investments (Saxena, 1997).
149
iii Seasonal Operating Pressure Adjustments. For plants that are in locations
that experience winter climates, the operating pressure can be reduced
according to a decrease in cooling water temperatures (Saxena, 1997).
However, this may not apply to the VDU or other separation processes
operating under vacuum. These operational changes will generally not require
any investment.
iv Reducing Reboiler Duty. Reboilers consume a large part of total refinery
energy use as part of the distillation process. By using chilled water, the
reboiler duty can in principal be lowered by reducing the overhead condenser
temperature. A study of using chilled water in a 100,000 bbl/day CDU has led
to an estimated fuel saving of 12.2 MBtu/hr for a 5% increase in cooling
duty (2.5 MBtu/hr) (Petrick and Pellegrino, 1999).
v Upgrading Column Internals. Damaged or worn internals can result in
increased operation costs. As the internals become damaged, efficiency
decreases and pressure drop rise. This causes the column to run at a higher
reflux rate over time. With an increased reflux rate, energy costs will increase
accordingly. Replacing the trays with new ones or adding a high performance
packing can have the column operating like the day it was brought online.
When replacing the trays, it will often be worthwhile to consider new efficient
tray designs. New tray designs can result in enhanced separation efficiency
and decrease pressure drop. This will result in reduced energy consumption.
When considering new tray designs, the number of trays should be optimized.
vi ReVamping of CDU column. By packing CDU HGO section by suitable
packing material, contact time between the vapours and condensate increases
which results in improved product quality and product volume in CDU. We
can achieve better distillation and lower overflash resulting in lower VDU
throughput by recovering more HGO at CDU.
A Refinery in Japan achieved the following ENCON effect by packing of CDU
HGO section as seen in Table 4.9.
Table - 4.9
Parameter Before After
HGO drawoff (kl/h) 10.2 22.9
HGO sec. Liq. Load (gpm/ft2) 0.45 0.12
VDU furnace duty (Gcal/h) 28.2 25.9
Different HGO yield (%) 1.3 4.7
0
900 F recovery (%) 79.7 84.7
HGO properties Ni (ppm) <0.1 <0.1
vii Combination of GTG and CDU Furnace. Installation of GTG and utilization
of GTG flue gas (550°C including 15% of oxygen) can be utilized as heat
source for combustion of air for furnace resulting in low cost power
production and minimizing the gas emissions.
150
A Refinery in Japan achieved the following energy conservation in their plant
by the combination of GTG and CDU Furnace as seen in Table- 4.10:
Table - 4.10
Parameter Before After
Fuel Consumption 66 46
(Gcal/H)
Flue Gas (O2) 3.0 4.5
viii Reduction in CDU Operating Pressure. By reducing pressure at flash zone
by 0.12 Kg/cm², temperature drop of 80°C is achieved at flash zone and
temperature drop of around 120°C is achieved at furnace outlet resulting in fuel
reduction of 0.3 litre/ kl.
ix Stripper Optimization. Steam is injected into the process stream in strippers.
Steam strippers are used in various processes and especially the CDU is a large
user. The strip steam temperature may be too high and the strip steam use may
be too high. Optimization of these parameters can reduce energy use
considerably. This optimization can be part of a process integration (or pinch)
analysis for the particular unit.
x Installation of Process Control Systems. A few companies supply control
equipment for CDUs. Aspen technology has supplied over 70 control
applications for CDUs and 10 optimization systems for CDUs. Typical cost
savings are $0.05 - $0.12/bbl of feed, with paybacks less than 6 months. Key
Control supplies an expert system advisor for CDUs. It has installed one system
at a CDU, which resulted in reduced energy consumption and flaring and
increased throughput with a payback of 1 year.
xi Process Integration/Pinch Analysis. Process integration is especially
important in the CDU, as it is a large energy consumer processing all incoming
crude oil. Older process integration studies show reductions in fuel use
between 10 and 19% for the CDU (Clayton, 1986; Sunden, 1988; Lee, 1989)
with payback periods less than 2 years. An interesting opportunity is the
integration of the CDU and VDU, which can lead to fuel savings from 10-20%
(Clayton, 1986; Petrick and Pellegrino, 1999) compared to non-integrated
units, at relatively short paybacks. The actual payback period will depend
heavily on the layout of the refinery, needed changes in the heat exchanger
network and the fuel prices.
xii Installation of Combustion air preheater. By installing a combustion air
preheater, using the hot flue gas and an additional FD fan in one of the VDU
which used natural draft and had no heat recovery, a refinery in UK by reducing
flue gas temperature to 275°C achieved energy cost saving of Rs. 95 lakhs per
year with a payback period of 2 years.
xiii Modification in Reduced Crude Cut Point. Typically crude distillation units
in India have been designed for reduced crude cut point of 370-380°C. The
design also provides necessary features to limit the quantity of diesel range
material which goes to the vacuum unit to about 6-8 per cent on reduced crude.
This results in additional energy consumption. If the reduced crude oil (RCO)
151
 cut point is reduced and the balance diesel (boiling between the reduced cut cooling pumps and the consumption of agents used for conditioning of cooling
point and 370°C) is recovered as the top product in the vacuum column, there is water. Within the refinery there are many processes where surplus steam can
a net saving in energy as can be seen in the following table 4.11. be recovered and be used for the production of vacuum. However, an energy
management analysis will help to decide, whether use of surplus steam for
Table - 4.11 Net Saving of Energy steam ejection instead of applying vacuum pumps is more efficient than using
S Parameter Case I Case II Case III
surplus steam for other purposes.
No.
1. RCO cut point, °C 370 360 350 xvi Reduction of the vacuum pressure in the vacuum distillation unit
2. Crude feed, T/hr 206 206 206
RCO, T/hr 93 96 100
Lowering the vacuum pressure, e.g. down to 20-25 mm Hg, will allow a
3.
4. PA heat recovery- 11.3 10.4 9.1
reduction in the furnace outlet temperature, while maintaining the same target
Atm column cut point of the vacuum residue. This technique would provide some benefits,
(Million kcal/hr) both in terms of energy conservation and of pollution. The reduction benefits
5. PA heat re covery- 8.4 9.1 10.0
Vac. Column are:-
(Million kcal/hr)
6. Furnace duty -Atm, Million 18.2 16.9 15.7 • A lowered potential for cracking or coking at furnace tubes.
kcal/hr
• A reduced cracking of feed to lighter products.
7. Furnace duty -Vac., Million 4.2 4.8 5.3
kcal/hr. • A lowered furnace fired duty and hence lowered fuel consumption.
8. Total Heat Duty of 22.4 21.7 21.0
furnaces, Million kcal/hr xvii Energy Efficient Design for CDU. Technip and Elf (France) developed an
energy efficient design for a crude distillation unit, by redesigning the crude
The total furnace duty is found to reduce as the RCO cut point is brought down,
recovery in the atmospheric section. RCO cut point of 350-360°C has been preheater and the distillation column. The crude preheat train was separated in
found to be ideally suited resulting in low energy consumption and improved several steps to recover fractions at different temperatures. The
diesel quality. distillation tower was re-designed to work at low pressure and the outputs were
changed to link to the other processes in the refinery and product mix of the
iv Progressive Distillation Unit refinery. The design resulted in reduced fuel consumption and better heat
integration (reducing the net steam production of the CDU). Technip claims up
Progressive distillation is the extreme of heat integration between atmospheric to a 35% reduction in fuel use when compared to a conventional CDU.
and vacuum distillation. It also avoids superheating of light cuts to
temperatures higher than strictly necessary for their separation and it avoids xviii Other measures
degrading the thermal levels associated with the drawing-off of heavy cuts. A
progressive distillation unit with integrated CDU/ VDU, saves up to 30% on • Recycling of overhead steam injected into the atmospheric distillation column
total energy consumption for these units. The heater process duty (MW/100 by using the injector into the VDU - Energy saving 8562 kl/ yr.
tonnes of crude) of a distillation capacity of 10 million tonnes per year is
around 17.3 for light crude. Using progressive crude distillation it is reduced • Installation of a side reboiler around the central levels of a distillation column
to 10.1. The specific energy consumption (overall energy consumption in to reduce consumption of heating steam - Energy saving in crude oil equivalent
tones of fuel equivalent per 100 tonnes of crude) for a distillation capacity of of 483 kl/ yr.
10 million tones per year is 1.7 - 2.0 for light crude, whereas using the
progressive distillation unit only consumes 1.15. The energy savings for a 10 • An increase in temperature of the feed charged from atmospheric distillation
million tonnes/year refinery is in the range of 50000 tonnes heavy fuel unit to the VDU, reduces the specific consumption of energy required for the
compared to conventional technology. VDU equivalent of 1314 kl/ yr.

xv Use of vacuum pumps and surface condensers
Vacuum pumps and surface condensers have largely replaced barometric
condensers in many refineries to eliminate this oily wastewater stream.
Replacing the steam ejectors by vacuum pumps will reduce the sour water
flow from 10 to 2 m³/h. The vacuum may be generated by a combination of
vacuum pumps and ejectors to optimize energy efficiency. Other benefits are
cross linked with cross-media effects.
• Utilizing waste heat of heavy gas oil from the atmospheric column results in
reduction in steam consumption for the reboiler of stripper - which is crude oil
equivalent of 938 kl/ yr.
• The utilization of waste heat of the overhead vapor as a heat source for
preheating the water of the boiler reduces steam requirement for heating the
deaerator which results in energy reduction in crude oil equivalent of 454 kl/ yr.

Replacement of the steam ejectors by vacuum pumps will increase the

electricity consumption for vacuum generation, but will reduce the heat
consumption, the cooling water consumption, the electricity consumed for

152 153
Case Study 1 : Trimming of impeller dia of crude boosters from 235 mm This has resulted distillate yield improvement from 14% to 19% resulting less
pump to energy requirement for vaporization in the column and furnace resulting fuel saving
220 mm. of 1688 SRFT/annum. Hasys software was used to arrive at the energy saving
effects operating pressure for various crudes.
Brief
Energy Savings
As the capacity utilization of CDU is 70% this modification called for trimming of
pump impeller to reduce the motor power consumption by 15%. Saving of 1688 SRFT/year

Energy Savings Investment amount - Nil

Improvement Effect - Rs. 2.4 crores/year
Before trimming of impeller After trimming of impeller
Pay back Period - Immediate
5 5
KWhr x 10 /year KWhr x 10 /year
Consumption of Case Study 4: Energy Efficiency improvement through crude preheat train
Power for the 9.3 8 optimization in the refinery
booster pump
Brief
Saving of 1.3 x 105/year KWhr.
Investment amount - Rs. 0.5 Lakh The preheat temperature of crude before entering into the furnace of crude
Improvement effect - Rs. 1.02 Lakhs/year distillation unit (for the processing of LS crude) is on an average 225°C. Pinch
Pay back period - 6 months technology was applied to optimize, reorient the preheat exchangers. This
modification calls for installation of new exchangers (8 nos.) and new 13 nos. of
Case Study 2 : Installation of online oxygen analyzer
pumps and rec-orientation of exchangers. The modification also calls for
Brief replacement of existing main fractionator for reflux drum and provision of boot in
the stabilizer.
Installation of online oxygen analyzer on the 2 nos. of AVU furnaces to measure and
maintain the percentage of O2 level level in the range 2-3% so as to maintain By carrying out the above modification crude preheat temperature increased from
furnace efficency beyond 85% maintaining the arch pressure level. 225°C to 284°C min. thereby reducing the fuel consumption in the furnace by an
amount 6874 kL/year. The investment for the total modification is 34.6 crores.
Energy savings
Energy Savings
Parameter Before installation of new After installation of new
O2 analyser (the existing O2 analyser Annual Fuel Oil Saving - 6874 kL of FO/year
analyzer not working)
Fuel Gas Consumption
Investment amount - Rs. 34.6 crores
in 2 nos. of furnaces 877 Nm³/hr 851 Nm³/hr Improvement Effect - Rs. 11.6 crores/year
Pay back Period - 3 years

Saving of 26Nm3/hr of fuel gas. 4.5.3 Production of Lube Oil Base Stock

Investment amount - Rs. 2 Lakhs (for 2 nos. of on line O2 analyser)
Improvement effect - Rs. 7.64 Lakhs/year (Considering 8000 hrs of operation)
Pay back Period - 16 months
Case Study 3 : Reduction of top pressure of Pre flash Drum (PFD) of crude
distillation unit
Brief
Reduction of top pressure of PFD (Pre flash Drum) of crude distillation unit from
the range 7.5 - 8.5 kg/cm²g to the range 5.5 - 6.5 kg/cm²g for LS crude and reduction
of PFD top pressure from the range 10.0 - 12.0 kg/m²g (for various crudes) to the
range 8.0-10.0 kg/m²g for HS crude. Fuel saving accrued by reduction the pressure
is 1688 SRFT/yr and distillate yield improvement is from 14 to 19%.
i Vaccum Distillation
The atmospheric residuum or reduced crude leaving the bottom of the CDU column
passes through the fired heater into the flash zone of the VDU where it is
fractionated into lube distillates. Steam is introduced into the VDU flash zone to
lower the vapor pressure of the distillates and permit removal of high boiling
hydrocarbons.
Refiners have in recent years refurbished existing VDUs and installed new VDUs
with high efficiency internals to reduce the flash zone pressure and improve the
purity and yield of lube oil distillates obtained from lube crudes. These changes
result in improved processing response in down stream units and improve base oil
viscosity.

154 155
Case Study 5 : Reduction of injection steam in vacuum column by recycling
overhead steam.
Brief
Steam is injected into the vacuum distillation column to reduce the partial pressure
of lighter fractions. The injected steam goes to the overhead condenser as overhead
steam to be condensed to waste water. This modification recycled the injected steam
back to the distillation column by means of an injector, thereby achieving energy
saving.
The steam ejector generates vacuum inside the body by injecting high pressure
(driving steam) at a high velocity from nozzles and induces the low pressure steam
(supply steam) which is used as recycled steam in this case. This enables the
hitherto unused and discharged low pressure steam to be pressurized and reused.
iv Solvent Extraction of Lube Distillate
EXON & Texaco Development Corporation Refining Processes based on the use of
N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as the extraction solvent are being used in the
refineries as NMP Process.
This process is being used as a replacement for furfural and phenol in the extraction
of lube base stocks.
The by products from lube solvent refining processes are aromatic extracts which
are used in manufacture of asphalt, carbon black, fuel, petrochemicals, rubber and
as coker and FCCU feed.
Solvent extraction is used for the purpose of removing aromatics and other
undesirable constituents to improve the VI and quality of lube base stocks.

Energy Savings v Energy Reduction Techniques for extraction of lube distillate

a Multiple effect evaporation

After
improvement
The solvent based processes used for the manufacture of lube oils are energy
Steam consumption Reduction of 120,000 Operating hours : intensive because large volumes of solvent must be recovered by flash distillation
(for 5 MMT/year t’put) t/year (15 tons/hr) 8000 hr/year for recycle in the process. The number of stages used for evaporation of the solvent
has a significant effect on the energy cost.
Reduction of 15 Tonnes/hr. of Steam
b Single effect
Investment amount - 6 crores
Improvement effect - 8 crores/year 1. Solvent is vaporized at one pressure level
Pay back Period - 9 months 2. Energy is wasted in condensation; it is not recovered
ii Deasphalting Process c Double effect
Deasphalting is an extractive - precipitation process. The purpose of the process is 1. Solvent is vaporized at two pressure levels.
the removal of asphaltenes, resins and metals from vacuum residua and very heavy 2. One half of he solvent is vaporized at each pressure level
vacuum gas oils. 3. Condensing vapors are used to operate the first evaporator
4. Energy requirements are reduced by 45 to 50 percent
The deasphalted oils from atmospheric residua and very heavy vacuum distillates
are used as feedstocks to lube processing units for the manufacture of lube base oils d Triple effect
ranging from solvent neutral oils to cylinder oils and bright stocks.
1. Solvent is vaporized at three pressure levels
iii Solvent Recovery Techniques in propane Deasphalting unit 2. One third of the solvent is removed at each pressure level
3. Condensing vapors are used to operate the first two stages
Conventional Solvent Recovery Supercritical Solvent Recovery 4. Energy requirements are reduced by an additional 30 - 33 percent
Single effect evaporation ROSE@ process compared to double effect evaporation
Double effect evaporation 5. Energy requirements are 30 to 33 percent of single effect.
Triple effect evaporation DEMEX process
vi Solvent Dewaxing Process
Double and triple effect evaporation units use 40 to 50 percent of the energy of a
single effect evaporation for solvent recovery. These reductions in energy are The raw paraffin distillates and residual oils leaving the crude stills contain wax and
obtained because the heat required to vaporize the solvent in the higher pressure are normally solids at ambient temperature. The desphalting and refining processes
flash vaporization stages is used to vaporize solvent in the next lower pressure flash concentrate the wax in the base oil feedstocks. Removal of wax from these fractions
vaporization stages. The amount of energy saved is proportional to the solvent to is necessary to permit manufacture of lubricating oils with the desired low
feed ratio and the cost of steam, fuel and electrical power. temperature properties. Although the cold settling pressure filtration processes and
centrifuge dewaxing processes have for the most part been replaced by solvent
dewaxing using MEK (Methyl Ethyl Ketone)/Toluene and MIBK/ Toluene. The

156 157
wax produced in this process is separated by filtration and is a by product of this
process called as Slack Wax. The solvent recovery units in this process consumes
considerable amount of energy.
a Inert Gas Stripping
This involves using inert gas in place of steam for stripping the last traces of
solvent from the dewaxed oil and wax.
b Benefits from use of Inert Gas Stripping
Energy requirements reduced Dilution ratios reduced
Dewaxed oil yield increased Solvent losses reduced
Dewaxing differential decreased Maintenance costs reduced
vii Catalytic Dewaxing/isodewaxing Process
Modern wax processing routes for producing VHVI LOBs is wax or paraffin waxy
isomerisation straight away from the lube stocks by using catalyst to reduce pour
point.
Case Study 6 : Use of controlled hot refrigerant gas by-passing SDU Plant
Chiller
Brief
Use of controlled hot refrigerant gas by-passing SDU Plant Chiller to maintain
desired suction pressure and stop use of steam tracing on brine return line.
For stable operation, the suction pressure should be maintained at a desired
minimum level even in the absence of real heat load. This can be achieved by
controlled discharge hot gas bypass arrangement with the control valve operating
based on feed back of suction pressure. The control valve can be programmed to
control the suction pressure in a tight bond. This can avoid the use of steam to create
spurious heat load and save about 1.2 TPH steam.
Energy Savings
Steam saving potential is 1.2 TPH and 9600 T/year (considering 8000 hrs of operation)
Investment amount - Rs. 10 Lakhs
(for the modification i.e control valve, piping & instrumentation)
Improvement effect - Rs. 30 Lakhs/year
Pay back Period - 4 months
4.5.4 Hydrogen Management and Recovery
Hydrogen is used in the refinery in processes such as hydrocrackers and
desulfurization using hydrotreaters. The production of hydrogen is an energy
intensive process using naphtha reformers and natural gas-fueled reformers. These
processes and other processes also generate gas streams that may contain a certain
amount of hydrogen not used in the processes or generated as by-product of
distillation of conversion processes. In addition, different processes have varying
quality demands for the hydrogen feed. Reducing the need for hydrogen make-up
will reduce energy use in the reformer and reduce the need for natural gas.
158
The major technology developments in hydrogen management within the refinery
are hydrogen process integration or hydrogen cascading and hydrogen recovery
technology (Zagoria and Huycke, 2003). Revamping and retrofitting of existing
hydrogen networks can also increase hydrogen capacity between 3% and 30%
(Ratan and Vales, 2002).
i Hydrogen Integration
Hydrogen network integration and optimization at refineries is an important
application of pinch analysis. Most hydrogen systems in refineries feature limited
integration and pure hydrogen flows are sent from the reformers to the different
processes in the refinery. But as the use of hydrogen is increasing in refineries, the
value of hydrogen is more and more appreciated. Using the approach of
composition curves used in pinch analysis, the production and uses of hydrogen of a
refinery can be made visible.
ii Hydrogen Recovery
a Utilizing low purity hydrogen streams
Hydrogen recovery is an important technology development area to improve the
efficiency of hydrogen recovery, reduce the costs of hydrogen recovered and
increasing the purity of the resulting hydrogen flow. Hydrogen can be recovered
indirectly by routing low-purity hydrogen streams to the hydrogen plant (Zagoria
and Huycke, 2003). Hydrogen can also be recovered from offgases by routing it to
the existing purifier of the hydrogen plant or by installing additional purifiers to
treat the offgases and ventgases. Suitable gas streams for hydrogen recovery are the
offgases from the hydrocracker, hydrotreater, coker, or FCC. The cost savings of
recovered hydrogen is around 50% of the costs of hydrogen production (Zagoria
and Huycke, 2003).
b Using Absorption/ Membrane Technology
Hydrogen can also be recovered using various technologies, of which the most
common are pressure swing and thermal swing absorption, cryogenic distillation,
and membranes. The choice of separation technology is driven by desired purity,
degree of recovery, pressure, and temperature. Various manufacturers supply
different types of hydrogen recovery technologies, including Air Products, Air
Liquide, and UOP.Membrane technology generally represents the lowest cost
option for low product rates, but not necessarily for high flow rates (Zagoria and
Hucyke, 2003).
c Using PSA Technology for High flow rates
For high-flow rates, PSA technology is often the conventional technology of
choice. PSA is the common technology to separate hydrogen from the reformer
product gas. Hundreds of PSA units are used around the world to recover hydrogen
from various gas streams. Cryogenic units are favored if other gases, such as LPG,
can be recovered from the gas stream as well. Cryogenic units produce a medium
purity hydrogen gas stream (up to 96%). Membranes are an attractive technology
for hydrogen recovery in the refinery. If the content of recoverable products is
higher than 2-5% (or preferably 10%), recovery may make economic sense (Baker
et al., 2000).
159
iii Hydrogen Production Saving of 7.7 kW of power resulting 58,800 kWh/year of power saving.

If there is excess steam available at a plant, a pre- reformer can be installed at the Investment amount - Rs. 45,000/- (for de-staging)
reformer. Adiabatic steam reforming uses a highly active nickel catalyst to reform a Improvement effect - Rs. 41,000/-/year
hydrocarbon feed, using waste heat (900°F) from the convection section of the Pay back Period - 1.1 year
reformer. This may result in a production increase of as much as 10% (Abrardo and
Case Study 8 : Reduction of steam / carbon ratio
Khurana, 1995). The technology can also be used to increase the production
capacity at no additional energy cost, or to increase the feed flexibility of the Brief
reformer. This is especially attractive if a refinery faces increased hydrogen
demand to achieve increased desulfurization needs or switches to heavier crudes. The steam to carbon ratio of this hydrogen production unit was 5.5 and higher than
Various suppliers provide pre-reformers including Haldor-Topsoe, Süd-Chemie, other refineries values of 4.5 to 5.0 because of the specific energy consumption is
and Technip-KTI. high, the refinery embarked on a modification to reduce the steam to carbon ratio
and successfully reduced it to 4.7
iv Other Options
Problems that are anticipated when the steam to carbon ratio is reduced are as
• By reducing steam/ carbon ratio in the hydrogen production unit energy saving follows;
in crude oil equivalent of 3848 kl/ yr is achieved.
• Increase carbon deposits on the catalysts
• The minimization of surplus hydrogen production and reduction in energy • Rise of surface temperature of the reaction tubes of the reforming furnace
consumption of flare required to combust the gas in a hydrogen production unit • Insufficient steam supply to the conversion reactors
results in energy saving which is crude oil equivalent of 1431 kl/yr. • Insufficient heat supply to the absorption agent regenerating column
• Foaming in the absorption tower
• Installation of a membrane separator for hydrogen results in energy saving and
reduction of cost by recovering hydrogen from refinery by-product gas - At steam to carbon ratio - 4.7 or higher none of the problems except foaming was
Energy saving in crude oil equivalent of 6466 kl/yr. encountered.

Case Study 7 : De-staging of 6 stages to 5 stages of HGU reformer boiler fuel
pump
Brief
De-staging of 6 stages to 5 stages of HGU reformer boiler fuel pump so as to
elimate pressure difference between the pump discharge pressure, 44 kg/cm²g and
boiler drum pressure 30kg/cm²g. This pressure drop is presently maintained by
reduction of pressure through a control valve.
Countermeasures to foaming:
• The cause of foaming was identified, blow velocity of the absorbent became too
fast because the ceramic packing in the absorption tower had been broken into
small pieces.
• Replacement of the ceramic packing by more study stainless steel packing.
Solved the foaming problem. As a result the steam to carbon ratio was reduced
from 5.5 to 4.7

By de-staging of the pump from 6 stages to 5 stages, the discharge pressure of the Energy Savings
pump will come down from 44 kg/cm²g to 35 kg/cm²g eliminating/reducing the
pressure drop in the boiler drum feed control valve. Power consumption of the Before modification After modification
pump motor will come down from 50.7 kW to 43 kW resulting saving of 58,000
kwh/year. Fuel consumption – Fuel Oil Equivalent 3,630 kl/y reduction

Energy Savings Fuel Consumption – Crude Oil Equivalent 3,848 kl/y reduction

Before de -staging of HGU After de-staging of HGU

boiler feed pump boiler feed pump Investment amount - Operational improvement without capital investment
Improvement effect - 6 crores per annum
Power Consumption 50.7 kW 43 kW

160 161
Case Study 9: Use of H2 rich gas catalytic reformer unit (via HGU) for Case Study 11 : Computer-controlled reduction of surplus hydrogen in
recycling in CRU in place of use of pure H2 ex HGU and PSA. Hydrogen production unit

Brief Brief

The H2 is generated from HGU and PSA using feed as Natural Gas. A part of pure H2
is being recycled to CRU. At the same time, H2 rich gas generated in the catalytic
Reforming Unit (CRU) is routed to Fuel Gas. This Hydrogen rich gas ex CRU can
be routed to HGU replacing NG feed and this H2 after HGU can be recycled back to
CRU stopping recycling of pure H2 from HGU and PSA. This can save use of NG
from outside source to HGU and PSA for the production of H2 and the net saving of
natural gas is to the tune of 38 kg/hr.
Higher chlorine content in the hydrogen rich gas is harmful to the reformer catalyst.
The chlorine content of H2 rich gas is 3 ppm. When an amount of 38 kg/hr of H2 rich
gas is mixed with 1229 kg/hr of natural gas feed going to HGU, the concentration of
chlorine comes down to 0.09 ppm which is not at all harmful to CRU catalyst. (as it
is less than 1 ppm. However, installation of chlorine guard at the downstream of
HGU can also take care of chlorine shock to CRU catalyst.
Energy Savings
The operation of the hydrogen production unit is required to ensure stable supply of
hydrogen to the related units regardless of fluctuation of all operational variations.
Because of this requirement, production quantity of purified hydrogen tends to be
excessive, resulting in production loss. This method minimizes the surplus hydrogen
production by computer control.
Conventionally, the quantity of hydrogen production was manually controlled in
response to the changes in demand for hydrogen as well as the changes in the
amount of raw materials fed into the hydrogen production unit. However, the
control was insufficient because of the manual operation, and the surplus hydrogen
tends to be about 2.5% on an average. The surplus hydrogen had to be flared. After
modification, production quantity of hydrogen was controlled by ACS computers in
response to changes in hydrogen demand and in the amount of raw materials and
production loss of the hydrogen production unit became 0 %.
Energy Savings

NG Saving = 38 kg/hr
Attribute After improvement
Fuel consumption - heavy oil 1,350 kL/y reduction
Investment amount - Rs. 6 lakhs (For lying pipeline from CRU to PSA outlet line) equivalent
Improvement effect - Rs. 18 lakhs/year
Pay back Period - 4 months Fuel consumption - Crude oil 1,431 kL/y reduction
equivalent
Case Study 10 : Installation of a membrane separator for hydrogen
Investment amount : Rs 4 million,
Brief Improvement effect : Rs 12 million/year
Investment payback : 0.4 year
The hydrogen production cost of the existing hydrogen production plant is high.
Installation of a membrane separator for hydrogen realized energy saving and Case Study 12 : Routing of excess low pressure separator off gas ex
reduction of cost by recovering hydrogen from refinery byproduct gas streams and Hydrocracker to hydrogen generation plant
consequently by reducing the operation rate of the existing hydrogen production
plant Brief

Energy Savings Hydrocracker unit low pressure separator off gas which is in excess has been used
as recycle H2 for HGU. This has resulted in the reduction of make up H2 production
Attribute Effect by introduction demand.

Fuel oil equivalent of fuel
consumption
Crude oil equivalent of fuel
consumption
Investment amount
Improvement effect
Investment payback
Reduction of 6,100 kl/y Energy Saving Effects
Fuel oil saving to the tune of 1740 MT per annum
Reduction of 6,466 kl/y
Investment amount : Nil
Improvement effect : Rs. 1.74 crores
: Rs 120 million Pay back Period : Immediate
: Rs 52 million /year
: 2.5 years 4.5.5 Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) Fluid catalytic crackers are net energy
users, due to the energy needed to preheat the feed stream in a modern refinery, FCC
energy use is estimated at 6% of total energy use.

162 163
The following table 4.12 shows the energy and process materials usage in the
catcrackers:-
Table 4.12
FCC RCC
Fuel (MJ/t) 120 – 2000 120 – 1200
Electric ity (kWh/t) 8 – 50 2 – 60
Steam consumed (kg/t 30 – 90 50 – 300
Steam produced (kg/t) 40 – 60 100 – 170
3 5 – 20 10 – 20
Cooling water (m /t,
DT -17ºC)
Catalyst make -up (kg/t) 0.4 – 2.5 2 -4
Virtually all the heat required in a FCC unit is generated in the regenerator. The
catalyst used depends greatly on the type of product required and can be silica-
alumina substrate carrying rare earth and/ or precious metals or can be based on
zeolites.
The fuel oil from the CDU is converted into lighter products over a hot catalyst bed
in the fluid catalytic cracker (FCC). FCC is the most widely used conversion
process in refineries. The FCC produces high octane gasoline, diesel, and fuel oil.
The FCC is mostly used to convert heavy fuel oils into gasoline and lighter
products. The FCC has virtually replaced all thermal crackers.
Energy Conservation Options in FCC
i Installation of Process Control System
Several companies offer FCC control systems, including ABB Simcon,
AspenTech, Honeywell, Invensys, and Yokogawa. Cost savings may vary between
$0.02 to $0.40/bbl of feed with paybacks between 6 and 18 months. Timmons et al.
(2000) report on the advantages of combining an online optimizer with an existing
control system to optimize the operation of a FCC unit at the CITGO refinery in
Corpus Christi, Texas. The Citgo refinery installed a modern control system and an
online optimizer on a 65,000 bpd FCC unit. The combination of the two systems
was effective in improving the economic operation of the FCC. The installation of
the optimizer led to additional cost savings of approximately $0.05/barrel of feed to
the FCC, which resulted in an attractive payback (Timmons et al., 2000).
ii Opportunities for Power Recovery
FCC runs at elevated pressures, enabling the opportunity for power recovery
from the pressure in the flue gas. The major application for power recovery in the
petroleum refinery is the fluid catalytic cracker (FCC). However, power recovery
can also be applied to hydrocrackers or other equipment operated at elevated
pressures. Modern FCC designs use a power recovery turbine or turbo expander to
recover energy from the pressure. The recovered energy can be used to drive the
FCC compressor or to generate power. Power recovery applications for FCC are
characterized by high volumes of high temperature gases at relatively low
pressures, while operating continuously over long periods of time between
164
maintenance stops (> 32,000 hours). There is wide and long-term experience with
power recovery turbines for FCC applications. Various designs are marketed, and
newer designs tend to be more efficient in power recovery. Recovery turbines are
supplied by a small number of global suppliers, including GE Power Systems.
A refinery in Houston, USA replaced an older power recovery turbine to enable
increased blower capacity to allow an expansion of the FCC. The re-rating of the
FCC power recovery train led to power savings of 22 MW. Petro Canada's
Edmonton refinery replaced an older turbo expander by a new more efficient unit,
saving around 18 TBtu annually.
Power recovery turbines can also be applied at hydrocrackers. Power can be
recovered from the pressure difference between the reactor and fractionation stages
of the process. In 1993, the Total refinery in Vlissingen, the Netherlands, installed a
910 kW power recovery turbine to replace the throttle at its hydrocracker (get data
on hydrocracker). The cracker operates at 160 bar. The power recovery turbine
produces about 7.3 million kWh/year (assuming 8000 hours/year). The investment
was equal to $1.2 million (1993$). This resulted in a payback period of
approximately 2.5 years at the conditions in the Netherlands (Caddet, 2003).
Iii Optimisation of Process Design
The product quality demands and feeds of FCCs may change over time. The
process design should remain optimized for this change. Increasing or changing
the number of pumparounds can improve energy efficiency of the FCC, as it allows
increased heat recovery (Golden and Fulton, 2000). A change in pumparounds may
affect the potential combinations of heat sinks and sources.
iv Heat Recovery from the regenerator flue gas
Heat recovery from the regenerator flue gas is conducted in a waste heat boiler or in
a CO-boiler. The steam produced in the CO boiler normally balances the steam
consumed. Installing an expander in the flue gas stream from the regenerator can
further increase the energy efficiency. The waste heat boiler recovers the heat from
the flue gas and the expander can recover part of the pressure to be used in the
compression of the air needed in the regenerator. An example of the application of
an expander saved 15MWe for the flue gas generated by a FCC of a capacity of
5Mt/yr.
v Waste Water Management within FCCU
The latest design of catcrackers contained a cascading overhead wishing section
which minimizes water usage. Re-use waste water generated in FCCU can be used
for the desalters thereby reducing water usage and reuse of water refinery.
New design and operational tools enable the optimization of FCC operating
conditions to enhance product yields. Petrick and Pellegrino (1999) cite studies
that have shown that optimization of the FCC-unit with appropriate modifications
of equipment and operating conditions can increase the yield of high octane
gasoline and alkylate from 3% to 7% per barrel of crude oil. This would result in
energy savings.
165
vi Other Options reducing valve and pressure-reducing orifice. The present technology recovers a
portion of the pressure energy of this gas in the form of power by installing an
• Optimization of heat recovery from the overhead, middle and bottom refluxes expander turbine for pressure reduction. The flue gas, after being de-pressured by
improves the energy saving effects in FCCU - energy reduction in crude oil the expander turbine, is sent to the CO boiler for combus- tion.
equivalent of 1884 kl/ yr.
The coke (CO gas) required for 10,000 BPD production is 3 to 6 tons. 11 to 14
• In the FCC unit, the reduction of pressure inside the regeneration column kilograms of air is required for combustion of one kilogram of coke. The power
reduces the consumption of steam for driving the air blower for the required for feeding this combustion air accounts for more than 50 percent of the
regeneration column resulting in energy saving of 1024 kl/ yr of oil equivalent. entire power requirement of the FCC unit.
Case Study 13 : Energy saving by reducing the pressure inside the After modification
regeneration column.
1) The gas expander turbine is connected with the air blower and a steam turbine
Brief on the same axis.
2) The coke combustion gas discharged from the regenerator has a pressure from
The pressure within the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit can be reduced by
1.5 to 3.0 Kg/cm2 g and temperature from 620 to 730ºC. This flue gas is sent to a
increasing the capacity of the cooler at the top of the FCC distillation column. The
CO boiler where its CO content is burned to recover heat energy in the form of
modification achieves energy saving by reducing the pressure inside the
steam.
regeneration column and thereby reducing, the consumption of steam for driving
the air blower for the regeneration column. Energy Savings
The possibility of the following items were examined before modification. Before After
installation installation
(1) To reduce the pressure inside the system by increasing the capacity of the air
Generation capacity - 7,000 kW
cooler at the top of the distillation column. (35,000 BPD)
(2) To reduce the air volume of the air blower for the regeneration column.
Annual generation - 56,000 MWh
Air volume of the air blower and air pressure of the regeneration column before capacity (8,000
and after improvement. hour/year)
Crude oil equivalent - Reduction of
Before After Effect
improvement improvement 13,600 kl/year
2
Regeneration column air pressure (kg/cm ) 2.86 2.63 0.23 reduction
3
Air blower. Air volume (Nm /hr) 1755 860 895 reduction
Investment amount : Rs 800 million
Energy Savings Improvement effect : Rs 336 million/year Investment
Pay back Period : 2.5 years
After improvement
FCC oil throughout 8,42,000 Kl/y 4.5.6 Catalytic Reforming
increase
High Pressure Steam Consumption 12,557 t/y reduction Reforming is undertaken by passing the hot feed stream through a catalytic reactor.
Crude oil equivalent 1,024 kl/y reduction In the reactor, various reactions such as isomerization, dehydrogenation and
hydrocracking occur to reformulate the hydrocarbons in the stream. Some of these
Investment amount - Rs. 14.5 lakhs (For modification of air cooler)
reactions are endothermic and others are exothermic. The types of reactions depend
Improvement effect - Rs. 4.9 lakhs
Pay back Period - 3 years on the temperature, pressure and velocity in the reactor. Undesirable side reactions
may also occur and need to be limited.
Case Study 14 : Power recovery system in Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit
Two techniques, namely Continuous regeneration and Semi-regeneration are
Brief employed in catalytic reforming. In the regeneration process of the catalyst in a
continuous reforming unit, a slip stream of catalyst is withdrawn, 60-80 kg coke/
The flue gas, or coke combustion gas (containing CO at a high content), generated tonne feed is burned off with hot air/ steam. In the cyclic or semi-regenerative units,
from the regenerator of a fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit of petroleum refining the regeneration of catalyst and the resulting emissions are discontinuous.
process, is normally sent to a CO boiler after pressure reduction using a pressure-
While the continuous catalyst reformer process has higher energy efficiency due to
the heat recovery from product, from pump around and due to integration with
topping and vacuum units, the heat integration is lower in the semi-regenerative

166 167
reformer process. However, many semi-regenerative units have applied better feed
affluent exchange to minimize energy consumption.
Table 4.13 given below shows the summary of the utilities and catalyst
requirement for the catalytic reforming.
Reduction in recycled gas quantity to the allowable limits in the catalytic reforming
unit saves the power for recycling the gas and the heat power required for the
furnace resulting in energy saving.
Case Study 15 : Reduction of quantity of the recycle gas in the reforming unit

Table - 4.13 Brief

In the reforming unit a gas rich in hydrogen is circulated for maintaining the
Parameter Reforming Semi-regenerative Continuous hydrogen concentration necessary for the reaction and for preventing deterioration
process regeneration process
Electric power, kWh - 246* 6142* of the catalyst due to carbon deposition on the catalyst. The volume of the recycling
Specific consumption (kWh/t) 25-50 55 - gas often becomes more than necessary.
Fuel fired, GJ - 185* 232*
Specific fuel consumption (MJ/t) 1400 - 71.5 t/kt
By reducing the volume of recycled gas, it is possible to reduce the power for driving
2900 the compressor as well as heat required for the furnace. However, as the decrease of
Cooling water, 1-3 0.12 – 3 5.5 the recycling gas may lead to the deterioration of the catalyst, the reduction of the
(m3/t, D T=10 0 C) recycle gas to be controlled within the allowable limit.
High-pressure steam generated, 50-90 64 - 90 97
kg/t Energy Savings
Boiler feed water, kg/t 170 22
* Values related to a capacity of 2351 t/d. Specific values related to capacity values.
Note: First column gives ranges for all types of reformers.
Before After Effect
Molar ratio of 6.4 5.1
hydrogen/hydrocarbon
i Increased Product Recovery Energy Fuel 2.56 kl/d reduction
Consumption Electricity 5,120 kWh/d
Product recovery from a reformer may be limited by the temperature of the reduction
distillation to separate the various products. An analysis of a reformer at the
Colorado Refinery in Commerce City, showed increased LPG losses at increased
Saving of Fuel - 2.5 Kl/day
summer temperatures. The LPG would either be flared or used as fuel gas. By
Saving of Electricity - 5120 KWhr./day
installing a waste heat driven ammonia absorption refrigeration plant, the recovery Investment amount - Operational improvement without capital investment
temperature was lowered, debottlenecking the compressors and the unsaturated Improvement Effect - Rs.1.33 crores/annum
light-cycle oil streams (Petrick and Pellegrino, 1999). The heat pump uses a 150°F (Basis: 330 days of operation per annum)
waste heat stream of the reformer to drive the compressor. The project resulted
in annual savings of 65,000 barrels of LPG. The recovery rate varies with ambient Case Study 16 : Installation of 4 nos. of on line O2 analyzer in the four furnaces
temperature. The liquid product fraction contained a higher percentage of heavier of CRU to maintain the O2 level
carbon chain (C5, C6+) products. The payback period is estimated at 1.5 years.
Brief
ii Reduction of system pressure (Separator drum Pressure)
By installing on line O2 analyser will allow the measurement and control of % O2 in
Modern CCR (Continuous Catalyst regeneration) process can maintain a very low the flue gas. By controlling % of O2 level at 2-3% will increase the furnace efficiency
pressure of about 3.5 kg/m2g. This low pressure obviously calls for high severity of to 80% from the existing level of about 77%. This will ensure saving of 30 Nm3/hr of
operation and faster deposition of coke on catalyst. But the continuous regeneration fuel gas saving.
can remove the coke from the catalyst. As a whole this can reduce the power
consumption of recycle compressor and fetch energy saving as a whole. Energy Savings

iii Other Options

Before installation on line O 2 After installation of online
Recycle ratio (H2 recycle flow/feed) plays an important role in CRU for analyser in the 4 nos. of furnaces O2 analyser in the 4 nos. of
maintaining the catalyst health with respect to catalyst coking. The reduction of this in CRU furnaces in CRU
ratio increases the coking tendency of the catalyst and decreases the cycle length 3 3
(between two successive regeneration of catalyst in semi regeneration process). Fuel Gas Consumption 1000 Nm /hr 970 Nm /hr
However optimization of the same can give reduction of power for driving the
recycle compressor.

168 169
Saving of 30 Nm3/hr of fuel gas. Table - 15

Investment amount - Rs. 20 Lakhs (for 4 nos. of O2 analyser) Electricity Steam consumed Steam produced Cooling water
Improvement effect - Rs. 12.6 Lakhs/year (kWh/t) (kg/t) (kg/t) T=10 0C)
(m3/t, D
Pay back Period - 22 months 60 – 140 300 – 500 (MP) 500 – 600 (HP) 20 - 40

4.5.7 Coking Coking Process - Energy Conservation Measures

A new generation of coking processes has added additional flexibility to the
refinery by converting the heavy bottom fed into lighter feedstocks and coke.
Coking can be considered a severe thermal cracking process. Modern coking
processes can also be used to prepare feed for the hydrocracker.
Coking processes :
i Heat Integration: The delayed coking process has a low level of heat
integration. The heat to maintain the coke drums at coking temperature is
supplied by heating feed and the recycle stream in a furnace. The atmospheric
or vacuum residue can be fed straight into the delayed coking unit without
intermediate cooling, which results in high heat integration level between the
different units and saves considerable amount of cost on heat exchangers.

Two types of Coking processes are used in Petroleum refineries, the delayed and ii Combustion of Coking Gas: - The Flexi Coking process has a high level of heat
fluid coking processes that produce coke and the flexi coking process which integration. The only source of heat in the Flexi Coking Process is the gasifier,
gasifies the coke produced in a fluid coking process to produce coke gas. where coke is partially oxidized. The remainder of the heat in the coker gas is
recovered by generating steam. The energy efficiency can be further increased
i The Delayed and fluid coking of the coking gas is combusted in a gas turbine of a combined cycle unit.
The basic process is the same as thermal cracking except that feed streams are iii Use of Oily Sludges as Coker feed stocker: - In the case of delayed coker, the
allowed to react for longer without being cooled. The delayed coking feedstream sludge can be injected into the coking drum with the quench water or can be
of residual oil is first introduced to fractioning tower where residual lighter injected into the coker blowdown contactor used in separating the quenching
materials are drawn off and the heavy ends are condensed. The heavy ends are products. In refineries with a coker, oily sludges from the waste water
removed, heated in a furnace and then fed to a insulated vessel called the coke drum treatment plant can be used to produce coke which can be further used as fuel
where the cracking takes place. In the case of fluid coking, the fluidized bed is within the refinery.
used. Temperature (440 - 450 °C), pressure (1.5 - 7.0 bar g) and recycle ratio are the
main process variables which contribute to the quality and yields of delayed coking iv Water use in the cooling/ cutting processes: The water used in the cutting/
products. Energy & process materials required in the Delayed coking Process are cooling operations is continuously re-circulated with a bleed-off to the refinery
given in the Table 4.14 : wastewater treatment. Settling and filtering over a vacuum filter enables the
reuse of this water resulting in a "Closed Water Loop" for water make up to the
Table - 4.14 quenching and cutting water loop.
Fuel Electricity Steam consumed Steam produced Cooling water
(MJ/t) (kWh/t) (kg/t) (kg/t) (m3/t, DT = 17 °C) Case Study 17: Installation of VFD for ID & FD fans of DCU furnace.
800 – 1200 20 – 30 50 – 60 50 – 125 6 – 10
Note: Electricity including the electric motor drives for the hydraulic decoking pump. Brief
ii Flexi coking This modification installs VFD for 1 No. each of ID and FD fan of 60 kW each.
In the Flexi coking process, a heavy feed is preheated to 315-370 °C and sprayed on Energy Savings
a bed of hot fluidized coke (recycled internally). The coke bed has a reaction
temperature between 510-540 °C. At this temperature, cracking reactions take Before installation of After installation of VFD
place. Cracked vapor products are separated in cyclones and are quenched. Some VFD
of the products are condensed, while the vapors are led to a fractionator column, Consumption of Power in 60 kW 50 kW
which separates various product streams. The coke is stripped from other products, ID/FD
and then processed in a second fluidized and reactor where it is heated to 590 °C.
The hot coke is then gasified in a third reactor in the presence of steam and air to Reduction of 1.60 lacs KWhr./year
produce synthesis gas. Sulfur (in the form of H2S) is removed, and the synthesis gas
(mainly consisting of CO, H2, CO2 and N2) can be used as fuel in (adapted) boilers or Investment amount - 15 lacs
furnaces. The coking unit is a consumer of fuel (in preheating), steam and power. Improvement effect - 5.6 lacs / yr (for 8000 hrs & electricity cost @
Utility requirement in the Flexi Coking Process is given in Table 15: - Rs. 3.5 per kWh
Pay back Period - 32 months

170 171
Case Study 18 : Proper insulation of DCU furnace. Energy Savings

Brief Fuel Saving - 1800 mt/year in DCU furnace

Investment amount - Rs. 1.06 crores (For installation of 2 nos. of exchangers
Furnace surface temperature varied between 60 - 96°C proper insulation called for and allied piping)
the safety and energy conservation point of view. Improvement effect - 1.70 crores/year
Pay back Period - 8 months
Energy Savings
4.5.8 Hydrotreater
Saving of 110 kl of FO
Desulfurization is becoming more and more important as probable future
Investment amount - 32 lacs regulations will demand a lower sulfur content of fuels. Desulfurization is currently
Improvement effect - 18 lacs mainly done by hydrotreaters. In a hydrotreater, the feedstream is mixed with
Pay back Period - 1.8 years hydrogen and heated to a temperature between 260-430ºC. In some designs, the
Case Study 19 : Installation of the lowest sized impeller in the DCU feedstream is heated and then mixed with the hydrogen. The reaction temperature
should not exceed 430ºC to minimize cracking. The gas mixture is led over a
Brief catalyst bed of metal oxides most often cobalt or molybdenum oxides on different
metal carriers. The catalysts help the hydrogen to react with sulfur and nitrogen to
Installation of the lowest sized impeller as suggested by manufacture in the DCU form hydrogen sulfides H2S and ammonia. The reactor effluent is then cooled, and
(Delayed coking unit) fractionators bottom pump to reduce the operating point the oil feed and gas mixture is then separated in a stripper column. Part of the
from 57 kg/cm2g to 40 kg/ cm2g to elimate the pressure drop in the feed control valve stripped gas may be recycled to the reactor.
to Coker furnace.
The operating conditions are dependent on feedstock composition (related to crude
1. In operation of DCU fractionator bottom pump which sends the material to source as well as type and severity of prior processing), catalyst and product
furnace through a control valve where the pressure developed by the pump specifications.
gets lost by 20 to 30 kg/cm2 (50% of the pressure developed by the
fractionators bottom pump is lost). The feedstocks to hydrogen finishing processes include the following;

2. By replacing the existing impeller of the pump by the smallest impeller (as Solvent extracted deasphalted oils Hydrocracked distillates
per manufacturer) the discharge pressure of the pump can be brought down Hydrocracked deasphalted oils Deasphalted oils
to 40kg/cm2g thereby eliminating the pressure drop in the control valve. Solvent refined distillates Slack waxes
Unrefined distillates Hard waxes
Energy Savings
The effects of hydrogen finishing temperature and pressure are highly dependent on
Before replacement of impeller After replacement of impeller of
of the fractionators bottom pump the fractionators bottom pump the quality of the feedstock, produce specifications and the type of catalyst used. An
Consumption of power by 215.5 kW 143.5 kW increase in temperature or pressure will normally improve neutralization,
fractionators bottom pump
motor desulfurization, denitrification, product colour and product stability. However,
increasing the temperature above some maximum which is related to the catalyst
Reduction of power 6.0 lakh kWh/year.
and feedstock quality will degrade the colour, colour stability, oxidation stability
Investment amount - Rs. 1 Lakh (for 2 nos. of pump motor) and other properties of the base oil and at the same time energy consumption will
Improvement effect - Rs. 4.2 Lakhs/year also increase.
Pay back Period - 3 months
Hydrotreating Options
Case Study 20 : Heat recovery from RFO stream in DCU (Delayed Coking Unit).
• HDT heavy naptha pre-cat reforming is very common
Brief • HDT of FCC napths becoming more common and more sophisticated
• 95 - 99% of sulfur may be removed
The RFO was getting cooled by on open box cooler. Two new exchangers were • Saturation of olefins and aromatics possible by typically avoided because of
installed. One exchangers is thermosyphon type where the RFO is routed first to octane loss
bring down the temperature from 400oC to 200oC and to generate steam at low
Diesel Hydrotreating Technologies
pressure. This stream of 2000C RFO then routed to normal shell and tube exchanger
to heat BFW water. The additional steam generated was sent to furnace. This was • Tightening sulfur specs have stimulated massive investment in new HDT
resulted in FO saving of about 1860 MT/year. New lines were laid for technologies
interconnecting RFO stream to thermos phone exchanger. • 95 - 99% sulphur typically removed
172 173
• HDT improves cetane number and saturates some olefins and aromatics
• HAD techs have evolved to saturate aromatics and eliminate sulfur
• GTL technologies also evolving to produce zero - sulfur synthetic diesels.
Resid/VGO Hydrotreating Technologies
• RDS was rare outside of Japan (Belgium, Kuwait, S. Korea, UK, US also have)
• FCC feed (VGO) pretreatment more common, resulting in lower - sulfur light
and middle distillate output
• May also be considered mild hydrocracking depending on level of conversion
Growth in World HDT Capacity
i Energy Conservation Options
Installation of a multivariable predictive control. MPC system was demonstrated
on a hydrotreater at a SASOL refinery in South Africa. The MPC aimed to improve
the product yield while minimizing the utility costs. The implementation of the
system led to improved yield of gasoline and diesel, reduction of flaring,
and a 12% reduction in hydrogen consumption and an 18% reduction in fuel
consumption of the heater (Taylor et al., 2000). Fuel consumption for the reboiler
increased to improve throughput of the unit. With a payback period of 2 months, the
project resulted in improved yield and in direct and indirect i.e., reduced hydrogen
consumption and energy efficiency improvements.

• World HDT capacity grew from 24.9 mb/d in 1985 to 40.5 mb/d in 2003 -a
2.7% increase per year.
• CDU capacity grew at only 0.7% / year
• Further expansions expected with many markets working to improve fuel
quality.
• Automakers ask for "as close to zero - sulfur as soon as possible"
A hydrotreater unit specifically employed to remove sulphur from, various
feedstocks, is called a Hydro De-Sulphurisation Unit (HDS). The H2 consumption,
and consequently the energy requirement, significantly increase in the order
naphtha (0.05% H2), distillate (0.3% H2) and residue hydrotreating (1.8% H2). Table
16 shows the utility requirements for different hydrotreatments.
Case Study 21 : Improvement of heat recovery system in Vacuum gas oil
hydrotreater unit
Brief
The existing vacuum gas oil desulfurization unit cools the reaction products to
separate them into gas, including recycling gas, and oil, and then reheats the oil for
fractionation. The amount of heat dissipated at this condensing cooler is great. To
recover a portion of this heat loss on one hand, and to overcome the increasing
fouling of the combined feed heat exchanger which increases restriction on
throughput on the other, the heat recovery system of the entire plant was improved
and a new hot separator was installed.

Table 4.16 - Utilities requirement of Hydrotreater Installation of a hot separator/heat exchanger

1) A hot separator was installed to reduce the heat loss at the effluent cooling
Fuel Electricity Steam Cooling Wash H2 condenser.
(MJ/t) (kWh/t) consumed water water (kg/t) 2) The combined heat exchanger system was expanded to increase heat recovery
(kg/t) (m3/t, (kg/t) from the reactor effluent.
T=10°C)
D
1-15
3) A preheater was added to the charge oil system to increase heat recovery from
Naphtha processed 200- 5-10 10-60 2-3 40-50
350 the fractionator bottom.
Distillate processed 300- 10-20 60-150 2-3 30-40 1-15
500 Improvement effects and system flow
Residue processed 300- 10-30 60-150 2-3 30-40 10-
800 100 1) The temperature at the inlet to the reactor charge heater has risen from 3230C to
Hydroconversion 600- 50-110 200-300 2-10 - -
1000 (steam 3440C.
produced) 2) The temperature at the fractionator charge heater has risen from 2300C to
Note:Hydroconversion is an exothermic reaction and the heat generated in the reactor system is 2610C.
partially recovered in the feed product exchanger.
3) The throughput has increased because of the reduced loads on the heaters.

Hydrotreaters use a considerable amount of energy directly (fuel, steam, Energy saving effects
electricity) and indirectly (hydrogen).
After improvement
Various alternatives are demonstrated at refineries around the world, including the Fuel consumption - heavy fuel oil equivalent 7,300 kl/y reduction
oxidative desulfurization process (Valero's Krotz Springs, Louisiana) and the S
Fuel consumption - crude oil equivalent 7,738 kl/y reduction
Zorb process at Philip's Borger (TX). The S Zorb process is a sorbent operated in a
fluidized bed reactor. Philips Petroleum Co. claims a significant reduction in
Investment amount : Rs 200 million
hydrogen consumption to produce low-sulfur gasoline and diesel (Gislason, 2001). Improvement effect : Rs 87.2 million/year
A cursory comparison of the characteristics of the S Zorb process and that of Investment payback : 2.3 years
selected hydrotreaters suggests a lower fuel and electricity consumption, but
increased water consumption.

174 175
Case Study 22 : Rotation control of the recycle gas compressor in Heavy oil referred to as a sulfuric acid alkylation unit (SAAU) or a hydrofluoric alkylation
direct hydrotreater unit Unit, (HFAU). However, oil refinery employees may simply refer to the unit as the
Alkyl or Alky unit. The catalyst is able to protonate the alkenes (propylene,
Brief butylenes) to produce reactive carbocations, which alkylate isobutene. The reaction
The recycle gas of this unit is pressurized by the recycle gas compressor and loses is carried out at mild temperatures (0 and 300C) in a two phase reaction. It is
pressure as it passes through the reactor, heat exchangers and control valves. If it is important to keep a high ratio of isobutene to olefin at the point of reaction to
possible to operate the unit with the control valves, the major contributor to the prevent side reactions that lead to a lower octane product, so the plants have a high
pressure drop, nearly fully open, the power consumption of the compressor could recycle of isobutene back to feed. The phases separate spontaneously, so the acid
be reduced. The improvement herein explained realized energy saving by phase is vigorously mixed with the hydrocarbon phase to create sufficient contact
controlling r.p.m. of the compressor in operation to reduce pressure drops across surface.
control valves The product is called alkylate and is composed of a mixture of high octane,
The pressure loss at the control valves accounts for 17% of all losses in this system branched chain paraffinic hydrocarbons (mostly isopentane and isooctane).
when the valves are 80% open. Control valves, if operated in full open, reduce most Alkylate is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional antiknock
efficiently the power consumption required. However, in actual operations, RPM. properties.
of the compressor has been controlled so that control valves are 90 % open to The octane number of the alkylate depends mainly upon the kind of olefins used and
accommodate the fluctuation of the process upon operating conditions. For example, isooctane results from combining
Energy savings butylenes with isobutene and has an octane rating of 100 by definition. As there are
other products in the alkylate, so the octane rating will vary accordingly.
Before After Effect
improvement improvement Most crude oils conytain only 10 to 40 percent of their hydrocarbon constituents in
Steam consumption (t/h) 32.8 t/h 30.6 t/h 2.2 t/h reduction
the gasoline range, so refineries use a fluid catalytic cracking process to convert
Steam consumption (t/y) 18,400 t/y reduction high molecular weight hydrocarbons into smaller and more volatile compounds.
Crude oil equivalent 1,582 kl/y reduction Polymerization converts small gaseous olefins into liquid gasoline size
hydrocarbons. Alkylation processes transform small olefin and iso paraffin
Investment amount (A) : a set of microcomputers: Rs 4.8 million,
molecules into larger iso-paraffins with a high octane number.
Improvement effect (B) : Rs 24.4 million/year
Investment payback (A/B ) : 3 months The summary of the utility consumptions in the two techniques currently used in
4.5.9 Alkylation the alkylation processes is given in the Table 4.17.

Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. The alkyl Table 4.17 Estimated utilities and chemical consumption for the various
group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion or a alkylation techniques
carbine (or their equivalents).
Alkylation technique
Alkylating agents are widely used in chemistry because the alkyl group is probably Values per tonne of alkylate produced Sulphuric acid Hydrofluoric
Utilities
the most common group encountered in organic molecules. Electricity (kWh) 4 20 – 65
Fuel (MJ) n.a. 1000 – 3000
In oil refining contexts, alkylation refers to a particular alkylation of isobutene with Steam (kg) 830 100 – 1000
Cooling water (m3) 72 62
olefins. It is a major aspect of the upgrading of petroleum. (DT = 11 °C)
Industrial water (m3) 0.08
Options for Alkylation

It depends upon the type of alkylating agents Energy Conservation Opportunities

i Nucleophilic alkylating agents i Feedstock upgradation by selective hydrogenation

ii Electrophilic alkylating agents
iii Radical alkylating agents The naphtha hydrotreatment or isomerisation (e.g. hydrogenation of butadiene,
iv Carbene alkylating agents isomerisation of 1-butene to 2-butene) helps the alkylation units to reduce the acid
losses and consequently the waste generation. As consequence, the amount of
In a standard oil refinery process, isobutene is alkylated with low molecular weight caustic consumption is decreased. The reduction in acid and caustic consumption
alkenes (primarily a mixture of propylene and butylenes) in the presence of a strong depends on the feed diene content, which varies widely at different refineries.
acid calatyst, either sulphuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. In an oil refinery it is

176 177
ii Implementation of ACS
Motiva's Convent (Louisiana) refinery implemented an advanced control system
for their 100,000 bpd sulfuric acid alkylaiton plant. The software package
integrates information from chemical reactor analysis, pinch analysis, information
on flows, and information on energy use and emissions to optimize efficient
operation of the plant. The system aims to increase product yield by approximately
1%, reduce electricity consumption by 4.4%, reduce steam use by 2.2%, reduce
cooling water use by 4.9%, and reduce chemicals consumption by 5-6% (caustic
soda by 5.15, sulfuric acid by 6.4%) (U.S.DOE-OIT, 2000). The companies
offering alkylation controls are ABB Simcon, Aspen technology, Emerson,
Honeywell, Invensys, and Yokogawa. The controls typically result in cost savings
of $0.10 to $0.20/ bbl of feed with paybacks of 6 to 18 months.
4.5.10 Visbreaking
Visbreaking/ thermal cracking is one of the oldest conversion processes to upgrade
heavy oil fractions. The fuel stock is heated above 500 0C and then fed to a reaction
chamber which is kept at a presence of about 9.65 bar (g).
Options of Visbreaking
i Coil Visbreaking: The term coil (or furnace) visbreaking is applied to
units where the cracking process occurs in the furnace tubes (or "coils") . Material
exiting the furnace is quenched to halt the cracking reactions: frequently this is
achieved by heat exchange with the virgin material being fed to the furnace, which
in turn is a good energy efficiency step, but sometimes a stream of cold oil (usually
gas oil) is used to the same effect. The gas oil is recovered and re-used. The extent of
the cracking reaction is controlled by regulation of the speed of flow of the oil
through the furnace tubes. The quenched oil then passes to a fractionator where the
products of the cracking (gas, LPG, gasoline, gas oil and tar) are separated and
recoverd.
ii Soaker Visbreaking:In soaker visbreaking, the bulk of the cracking
reaction occurs not in the furnace but in a drum located after the furnace called the
soaker. Here the oil is held at an elevated temperature for a pre-determined period of
time to allow cracking to occur before being quenched. The oil then passes to a
fractrionator. In soaker visbreaking, lower temperatures are used than in coil
visbreaking. The comparatively long duration of the cracking reaction is used
instead.
Process Options
Visbreaker tar can be further refined by feeding it to a vacuum fractionator. Here
additional heavy gas oil may be recovered and routed either to catalytic cracking,
hydrocracking or thermal cracking units on the refinery. The vacuum - flashed tar
(sometimes referred to as pitch) is then routed to fuel oil blending. In a few refinery
locations, visbreaker tar is routed to a delayed coker for the production of certain
specialist cokes such as anode coke or needle coke.
178
Soaker visbreaking versus coil visbreaking
From the standpoint of yield, there is little or nothing to choose between the
two approaches. However, each offers significant advantages in particular
situations:
" Coil cracking uses higher furnace outlet temperatures (470-5000C) and
reaction times from one to three minutes, while soaker cracking uses lower
furnace outlet temperatures (430 - 440 0C) and longer reaction times. The
product yields and properties are similar.
" For visbreaking, fuel consumption accounts for about 80% of the operating
costs with a net fuel consumption of 1-1.5% w/w on feed. Fuel requirements for
soaker visbreaking are about 30 - 35% lower.
" De-coking: The cracking reactions forms petroleum coke as a byproduct. In
coil visbreaking, this lays down in the tubes of the furnace and will eventually
lead to fouling or blocking of the tubes.
The same will occur in the drum of a soaker visbreasker, though the lower
temperature used in the soaker drum lead to fouling at a much slower rate. Coil
visbreakers therefore require frequent decoking. This is quite labour intensive.
Soaker drums require far less frequent attention but while taken out of service
normally requires a complete halt to the operation which is the more disruptive
activity and will vary from refinery to refinery.
" Fuel Economy: The lower temperatures used in the soaker approach mean that
these units use less fuel. In cases where a refinery buys fuel to support process
operations, any savings in fuel consumption could be extremely valuable. In
such cases, soaker visbreaking may be advantageous.
The typical utilities consumption for a visbreaker are: -
Table 4.18 Utility consumptions for a visbreaker
Fuel (MJ/t) 400 – 800
Electricity (kWh/t) 10 – 15
S team consumed (kg/t) 5 – 30
3
Cooling water (m /t, D
T = 10°C) 2 - 10
Note: the power consumption given is for “furnace” cracking.
The most important factor in controlling the cracking severity should always be
stability and viscosity of the visbroken residue fed to the fuel oil pool. In general, an
increase in the temperature or residence time results in an increase in severity.
Increased severity produces higher gas-plus-gasoline yield and at the same time a
cracked residue (fuel oil) of lower viscosity. Excessive cracking, however, leads to
an unstable fuel oil, resulting in sludge and sediment formation during storage.
Thermal cracking units to upgrade atmospheric residue have conversion levels of
35-45% and the viscosity of the atmospheric residue is reduced.
179
• UTILITIES
4.5.11 Steam Generation and Distribution
An estimated 30% of all onsite energy use in Refineries is in the form of steam. The
refining industry uses steam for a wide variety of purposes, the most important
being process heating, drying or concentrating, steam cracking, and distillation.
Steam can be generated through waste heat recovery from processes, cogeneration,
and boilers. In most refineries, steam will be generated by all three sources, while
some smaller refineries may not have cogeneration equipment installed. While the
exact size and use of a modern steam systems varies greatly, there is an overall
pattern that steam systems follow, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4.3 Schematic presentation of a steam production and distribution system
Whatever the use or the source of the steam, efficiency improvements in steam
generation, distribution and end-use are possible. A recent study by the U.S.
Department of Energy estimates the overall potential for energy savings in
petroleum refineries at over 12% (U.S. DOE, 2002).
i Boilers
a Boiler Feed Water Preparation. Depending on the quality of incoming water,
the boiler feed water (BFW) needs to be pre-treated to a varying degree. Various
technologies may be used to clean the water. A new technology is based on the use
of membranes. In reverse osmosis (RO), the pre-filtered water is pressed at
increased pressure through a semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis and
other membrane technologies are used more and more in water treatment (Martin
et al., 2000).
The Flying J refinery in North Salt Lake Utah installed a RO-unit to remove
hardness and reduce the alkalinity from boiler feed water, replacing a hot lime
water softener, resulting in reduced boiler blowdown from 13.3% to 1.5% of steam
produced and reduced chemical use, maintenance, and waste disposal costs. With
an investment of $350,000 and annual benefits of approximately $200,000, the
payback period amounted to less than 2 years.
b Improved Process Control. Flue gas monitors are used to maintain
optimum flame temperature, and to monitor CO, oxygen and smoke. The oxygen
content of the exhaust gas is a combination of excess air deliberately introduced to
improve safety or reduce emissions and air infiltration (air leaking into the boiler).
180
By combining an oxygen monitor with an intake airflow monitor, it is possible to
detect small leaks. Using a combination of CO and oxygen readings, it is possible to
optimize the fuel/air mixture for high flame temperature and thus the best energy
efficiency and low emissions. The payback of improved process control is
approximately 0.6 years (IAC, 1999).
c Reduce Flue Gas Quantities. Often, excessive flue gas results from leaks in
the boiler and the flue, reducing the heat transferred to the steam, and increasing
pumping requirements. These leaks are often easily repaired. Savings amount to 2-
5% (OIT, 1998). This measure consists of a periodic repair based on visual
inspection. The savings from this measure and from flue gas monitoring are not
cumulative, as they both address the same losses.
d Reduce Excess Air. The more air is used to burn the fuel, the more heat is
wasted in heating air. Air slightly in excess of the ideal stoichometric fuel/air ratio is
required for safety, and to reduce NOx emissions, and is dependent on the type of
fuel. For gas and oil-fired boilers, approximately 15% excess air is adequate (OIT,
1998; Ganapathy, 1994). Poorly maintained boilers can have up to 140% excess air.
Reducing this back down to 15% even without continuous automatic monitoring
would save 8%.
e Maintenance. A simple maintenance program to ensure that all components of
the boiler are operating at peak performance can result in substantial savings. The
absence of a good maintenance system can end up costing a steam system up to 20-
30% of initial efficiency over 2-3 years. On average, the possible energy savings
are estimated at 10% (DOE, 2001a). Improved maintenance may also reduce the
emission of criteria air pollutants.
Fouling of the fireside of the boiler tubes or scaling on the waterside of the boiler
should also be controlled. Tests show that a soot layer of 0.03 inches (0.8 mm)
reduces heat transfer by 9.5%, while a 0.18-inch (4.5 mm) soot layer reduces heat
transfer by 69% (CIPEC, 2001). For scaling, 0.04 inches (1 mm) of buildup can
increase fuel consumption by 2% (CIPEC, 2001). Moreover, scaling may result in
tube failures.
f Recover Heat From Flue Gas. Heat from flue gases can be used to preheat
boiler feed water in an economizer. While this measure is fairly common in large
boilers, there is often still potential for more heat recovery. The limiting factor for
flue gas heat recovery is the economizer wall temperature that should not drop
below the dew point of acids in the flue gas. One percent of fuel use is saved
for every 25°C reduction in exhaust gas temperature. (Ganapathy, 1994).
Since exhaust gas temperatures are already quite low, limiting savings to 1% across
all boilers, with a payback of 2 years (IAC, 1999).
g Recover Steam From Blowdown. When the water is blown from the high-
pressure boiler tank, the pressure reduction often produces substantial amounts of
steam. This steam is low grade, but can be used for space heating and feed water
preheating. For larger high-pressure boilers, the losses may be less than 0.5%. It is
estimated that this measure can save 1.3% of boiler fuel use for all boilers below 100
MMBtu/hr (approximately 5% of all boiler capacity in refineries). The payback
period of blowdown steam recovery will vary between 1 and 2.7 years (IAC, 1999).
181
h Reduce Standby Losses. In refineries often one or more boilers are kept on Energy Savings
standby in case of failure of the operating boiler. The steam production at standby
can be reduced to virtually zero by modifying the burner, combustion air supply and
Area Identified Surface Annual Equivalent Approximate Simple
boiler feed water supply. By installing an automatic control system the boiler can o
Temp C reduction annual cost of payback
reach full capacity within 12 minutes. Installing the control system and modifying in heat monetary insulation period
loss saving
the boiler can result in energy savings up to 85% of the standby boiler, depending on
million
the use pattern of the boiler. Rs. lacs Rs. lacs Months
Kcal
HP steam pipeline 85 9.91 0.13 0.03 2.24
ii Steam Distribution
VHP steam header 70 21.96 0.30 0.09 3.79
When designing new steam distribution systems, it is very important to take into Pipeline opposite 200 214.89 2.92 0.10 0.41
compressor
account the velocity and pressure drop (Van de Ruit, 2000). This reduces the risk of
oversizing a steam pipe, which is not only a cost issue but would also lead to higher VHP line near 90-JBA-207 75 7.13 0.10 0.03 3.10

heat losses. However, it may be too expensive to optimize the system for changed Inlet vertical pipe 60 2.53 0.03 0.02 6.57
steam demands. Still, checking for excess distribution lines and shutting off those Drain pipe 75 7.16 0.10 0.03 3.10
lines is a cost-effective way to reduce steam distribution losses. Other maintenance HP line near condensate 91 11.64 0.16 0.03 1.90
measures for steam distribution systems are described below. drum
Condensate header 75 7.16 0.10 0.03 3.10
a Improve Insulation: Crucial factors in choosing insulating material include
HP header at B/l 90 11.34 0.15 0.03 1.95
low thermal conductivity, dimensional stability under temperature change,
HP line near PRDS 85 9.90 0.13 0.03 2.24
resistance to water absorption, and resistance to combustion. New materials
insulate better, and have a lower heat capacity. Savings of 6-26% can be achieved if 246.76 3.5 0.22 0.76

this improved insulation is combined with improved heater circuit controls. The
shell losses of a well-maintained boiler should be less than 1%.
b Maintain Insulation. It is often found that after repairs, the insulation is not
replaced. In addition, some types of insulation can become brittle, or rot. As a
result, energy can be saved by a regular inspection and maintenance system (CIBO,
1998). Exact energy savings and payback periods vary with the specific situation in
the plant.
Case Study 23: Replacing the Damaged Insulation to arrest Heat Losses.
Brief
In a gas based Petrochemical plant, the VHP steam is supplied from utility boilers
(UB#2 & UB#3) to the process plants GCU and LPG. The length of the steam
headers to these plants from the Utility Plant is approximately one kilometer. The
discussions of the audit team with shift-in charge and respective Heads of the
Plants revealed that the temperature drop across the pipeline has been significantly
high as a result the steam temperature at the battery limit of LPG (4700C) and GCV
(4600C) are lower.
The high surface temperatures of insulated steam headers / pipes indicate the
damaged or inadequate insulation. For the above-mentioned areas, it was
recommended to replace the insulation to arrest the heat losses. Since the measured
surface temperatures are significantly higher than the normal temperature, the
anticipated energy savings will be substantial and the payback period will be
attractive (less than a year). Table gives the cost-benefit analysis of replacing the
insulation.
c Improve Steam Traps. Using modern thermostatic elements, steam traps can
reduce energy use while improving reliability. The main advantages offered by
these traps are that they open when the temperature is very close to that of the
saturated steam (within 2°C), purge non-condensable gases after each opening, and
are open on startup to allow a fast steam system warm-up. These traps are also very
reliable, and useable for a wide variety of steam pressures (Alesson, 1995). Energy
savings will vary depending on the steam traps installed and state of maintenance.
d Maintain Steam Traps. A simple program of checking steam traps to
ensure that they operate properly can save significant amounts of energy. If the
steam traps are not regularly monitored, 15-20% of the traps can be malfunctioning.
In some plants, as many as 40% of the steam traps were malfunctioning. Energy
savings for a regular system of steam trap checks and follow-up maintenance is
estimated at up to 10% (OIT, 1998; Jones 1997; Bloss, 1997) with a payback period
of 0.5 years.
e Monitor Steam Traps Automatically. Attaching automated monitors to
steam traps in conjunction with a maintenance program can save even more
energy, without significant added cost. This system is an improvement over steam
trap maintenance alone, because it gives quicker notice of steam trap
malfunctioning or failure. Using automatic monitoring is estimated to save an
additional 5% over steam trap maintenance, with a payback of 1 year (Johnston,
1995; Jones, 1997).

182 183
Case Study 24 : Replacement of Damaged Steam Traps. The traps which are chocked or indicated as low temperature needs to be repaired
immediately to let the condensate flow smoothly out of the system and to ensure
Brief effective heat transfer. Though it is difficult to precisely estimate the achievable
energy savings, it can be concluded that by ensuring effective operation of the
Study of Steam Traps In a gas based Petrochemical plant, there are over 1,000
remaining 45 traps, fuel savings worth more than Rs.10 lac per annum can be easily
steam traps in different sections of the plant for varying applications on the steam
achieved. The investment required towards replacement of parts of the traps or
mains, condensate lines, and process requirement. The traps installed are of
replacement the traps itself can be paid back in less than an year. The improved
different types - Thermodynamic, Bucket, and Orifice, and of different sizes.
steam trap performance also would ensure effective heat transfer hence enhanced
Field testing of steam traps During an energy audit study, about 170 representative throughput. Therefore, the overall savings that can accrued due to satisfactory
steam traps were tested using the portable steam trap tester "TRAPMAN", from functioning of traps would be many fold.
different sections of the plant, viz., GCU, LPG, Butene - 1, Boiler & Power Plant,
f Repair Leaks. As with steam traps, the distribution pipes themselves often
and GPU. The working condition of the traps in terms of Good / Blowing / Chocked
have leaks that go unnoticed without a program of regular inspection and
/ Low Temperature / Bypass was measured using the portable instrument.
maintenance. In addition to saving up to 3% of energy costs for steam production,
The findings of the steam traps performance evaluation are summarized below : having such a program can reduce the likelihood of having to repair major
leaks (OIT, 1998).
Performance of Steam Traps
Case study 25 : Arresting the Steam Leakages
S. Item No. of % Brief
No. traps
1 No. of traps in good condition 81 48 In one of the gas based Petrochemical plant the steam distribution network was
2. No. of traps blowing / leaking 44 26 studied in detail to identify steam leakage points and quantify the leakages. All the
3. No. of traps chocked 16 9 process sections, utilities, and headers were covered in the study. Leakages were
4. No. of traps indicating low temperature 29 17 identified from flanges, valves, joints, etc. The nature of leakage varies from
Total No. of traps studied 170 100 medium to heavy in many places. The steam leakage points were identified during
the survey and listed below:
As can be observed from the table, only 48% of the traps tested are in good working
conditions. The remaining 52% of the traps are either blocked (chocked), leaking, It is recommended to arrest the steam leakages from the above mentioned areas
or at low temperature. The following measures are recommended to improve the immediately by replacing the damaged valves, pipe fittings, flanges, traps, etc. The
performance of the steam traps and reduce the steam losses and associated energy resultant monetary savings and payback period are as follows:
losses. It is recommended to replace all the 89 faulty steam traps immediately to Energy Savings
arrest steam leakage and losses. The anticipated energy savings, investment
required, and approximate payback period are as follows:
Particulars
Energy Savings
No of steam leakage points
Description Unit Value 20
identified
No. of steam traps leaking nos. 44
Estimated steam leakage per kg/hr 7.5 Steam leakage per point 7.5 kg/hr
trap
Enthalpy of leakage steam kCal/kg 750
Working hours per annum 7200 hr
Heat loss due to leakage kCal/hr 247500 Steam savings due to arrest of
3 1,080 Tonnes/annum
NCV of natural gas kCal/sm 8176 leakages
Boiler efficiency % 90
3 Equivalent natural gas savings 92,000 SM 3/annum
Loss of natural gas sm /hr 33.64
Operational hours per annum hrs 7200 Annual monetary savings Rs.9 lac
3
Annual natural gas loss sm 242172
Cost of natural gas Rs/sm
3
10
Investment required Rs.5 lac
Annual monetary savings by Rs. lacs 24 Simple payback period 7 months
stopping leakages
Anticipated Investment Rs. lacs 4.5
Payback period months 2

184 185
As can be seen from the table above, by attending to steam leakages, monetary
savings worth Rs.9 lac can be achieved with an investment of Rs.5 lac towards
replacement of damaged pipe sections. The payback works out to be 7 months.
g Recover Flash Steam. When a steam trap purges condensate from a
pressurized steam distribution system to ambient pressure, flash steam is produced.
This steam can be used for space heating or feed water preheating (Johnston, 1995).
h Return Condensate. Reusing the hot condensate in the boiler saves energy
and reduces the need for treated boiler feed water. The substantial savings in energy
costs and purchased chemicals costs makes building a return piping system
attractive. Care has to be taken to design the recovery system to reduce efficiency
losses (van de Ruit, 2000). Maximum energy savings are estimated at 10% (OIT,
1998) with a payback of 1.1 years (IAC, 1999) for those sites without or with
insufficient condensate return. An additional benefit of condensate recovery is the
reduction of the blowdown flow rate because boiler feedwater quality has been
increased.
4.5.12 Compressors and Compressed Air
Compressors consume about 12% of total electricity use in refineries. The major
energy users are compressors for furnace combustion air and gas streams in the
refinery. Compressed air is probably the most expensive form of energy available in
an industrial plant because of its poor efficiency. Typically, efficiency from start to
end-use is around 10% for compressed air systems (LBNL et al., 1998). In addition,
the annual energy cost required to operate compressed air systems is greater than
their initial cost. Many opportunities to reduce energy in compressed air systems
are not prohibitively expensive; payback periods for some options are extremely
short - less than one year.
i Maintenance. Inadequate maintenance can lower compression efficiency,
increase air leakage or pressure variability and lead to increased operating
temperatures, poor moisture control and excessive contamination. Better
maintenance will reduce these problems and save energy:
• Blocked pipeline filters increase pressure drop. A 2% reduction of annual
energy consumption in compressed air systems is projected for more
frequent filter changing (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001).
• Poor motor cooling can increase motor temperature and winding resistance,
shortening motor life, in addition to increasing energy consumption. In
addition to energy savings, this can help avoid corrosion and degradation of
the system.
• Inspect fans and water pumps for peak performance.
• Inspect drain traps periodically to ensure they are not stuck in either the open
or closed position and are clean. According to vendors, inspecting and
maintaining drains typically has a payback of less than 2 years (Ingersoll-
Rand, 2001).
• Maintain the coolers on the compressor to ensure that the dryer gets the lowest
possible inlet temperature (Ingersoll-Rand, 2001).
186
• Check belts for wear and adjust them. A good rule of thumb is to adjust them
every 400 hours of operation.
• Check water-cooling systems for water quality (pH and total dissolved solids),
flow and temperature. Clean and replace filters and heat exchangers as per
manufacturer's specifications.
• Minimize leaks (see also Reduce leaks section, below).
• Specify regulators that close when failed.
• Applications requiring compressed air should be checked for excessive
pressure, duration or volume. They should be regulated, either by production
line sectioning or by pressure regulators on the equipment itself.
ii Monitoring. Proper monitoring and maintenance can save a lot of energy and
money in compressed air systems. Proper monitoring includes the following
(CADDET, 1997):
• Pressure gauges on each receiver or main branch line and differential gauges
across dryers, filters, etc.
• Temperature gauges across the compressor and its cooling system to detect
fouling and blockages
• Flow meters to measure the quantity of air used
• Dew point temperature gauges to monitor the effectiveness of air dryers
• kWh meters and hours run meters on the compressor drive
• Compressed air distribution systems when equipment has been
reconfigured.
• Check for flow restrictions of any type in a system, pressure rise resulting
from resistance to flow increases the drive energy on the compressor by 1%
of connected power for every 2 psi of differential (LBNL et al., 1998;
Ingersoll- Rand, 2001).
iii Reduce leaks in pipes and equipment. Leaks can be a significant source of
wasted energy. A typical plant that has not been well maintained could have a
leak rate between 20 to 50% of total compressed air production capacity
(Ingersoll Rand, 2001). Overall, a 20% reduction of annual energy
consumption in compressed air systems is projected for fixing leaks (Radgen
and Blaustein, 2001).
iv Reducing the Inlet Air Temperature Reducing the inlet air temperature
reduces energy used by the compressor. In many plants, it is possible to reduce inlet
air temperature to the compressor by taking suction from outside the building. As a
rule of thumb, each 3°C will save 1% compressor energy use (CADDET, 1997;
Parekh, 2000).
v Maximize Allowable Pressure Dew Point at Air Intake. Choose the dryer
that has the maximum allowable pressure dew point and best efficiency. A rule of
thumb is that desiccant dryers consume 7 to 14% of the total energy of the
compressor, whereas refrigerated dryers consume 1 to 2% as much energy as the
compressor (Ingersoll Rand, 2001). Consider using a dryer with a floating dew
point. Note that where pneumatic lines are exposed to freezing conditions,
refrigerated dryers are not an option.
187
vi Controls. The objective of any control strategy is to shut off unneeded
compressors or delay bringing on additional compressors until needed. All
compressors that are on should be running at full load. Positioning of the control
loop is also important; reducing and controlling the system pressure downstream of
the primary receiver results in reduced energy consumption of up to 10% or more
(LBNL et al., 1998).
• Start/stop (on/off) is the simplest control available and can be applied to small
reciprocating or rotary screw compressors.
• Load/unload control, or constant speed control, allows the motor to run
continuously but unloads the compressor when the discharge pressure is
adequate. In most cases, unloaded rotary screw compressors still consume 15
to 35% of full-load power when fully unloaded, while delivering no useful
work (LBNL et al., 1998).
Modulating or throttling controls allows the output of a compressor to be varied to
meet flow requirements by closing down the inlet valve and restricting inlet air to
the compressor. Changing the compressor control to a variable speed control
saves up to 8% per year (CADDET, 1997).
vii Properly Sized Regulators. Regulators sometimes contribute to the biggest
savings in compressed air systems. By properly sizing regulators, compressed
air will be saved that is otherwise wasted as excess air.
viii Sizing Pipe Diameter Correctly. Inadequate pipe sizing can cause pressure
losses, increase leaks, and increase generating costs. Pipes must be sized
correctly for optimal performance or resized to fit the current compressor
system. Increasing pipe diameter typically reduces annual energy
consumption by 3% (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001).
ix Heat Recovery For Water Preheating. As much as 80 to 93% of the electrical
energy used by an industrial air compressor is converted into heat. In many
cases, a heat recovery unit can recover 50 to 90% of the available thermal
energy for space heating, industrial process heating, water heating, makeup
air heating, boiler makeup water preheating, industrial drying, industrial
cleaning processes, heat pumps, laundries or preheating aspirated air for oil
burners (Parekh, 2000). Paybacks are typically less than one year.
x Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs). Implementing adjustable speed drives in
rotary compressor systems has saved 15% of the annual compressed air energy
consumption (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001).
xi High Efficiency Motors. Installing high efficiency motors in compressor
systems reduces annual energy consumption by 2%, and has a payback of less
than 3 years (Radgen and Blaustein, 2001).
Case Study 26 : Replacement of reciprocating air compressor
In a Petroleum refinery, there were 4 reciprocating air compressors, out of which 2
used to run to cater instrument air and service air requirement in the original
refinery configuration. These compressors were lower energy efficient and
obsolete in nature and had problems of frequent breakdowns and maintenance.
188
With the addition of more secondary units, air requirement had increased. To meet
increased air requirement compressor with higher energy efficiencies have been
installed. Thus, new Centrifugal Air Compressors of capacity 5000 NM3/Hr, 650
KW each were provided replacing four numbers of old reciprocating compressors.
ith the provision of this centrifugal compressor savings of ~ 100 SRFT per
compressor has been achieved.
4.5.13 Process Heaters
Over 60% of all fuel used in the refinery is used in furnaces and boilers. The average
thermal efficiency of furnaces is estimated at 75-90%. Accounting for unavoidable
heat losses and dewpoint considerations, the theoretical maximum efficiency is
around 92% (HHV) (Petrick and Pellegrino, 1999). This suggests that on average a
10% improvement in energy efficiency can be achieved in furnace and burner
design.
The efficiency of heaters can be improved by improving heat transfer
characteristics, enhancing flame luminosity, installing recuperators or air-
preheaters, and improved controls. New burner designs aim at improved mixing of
fuel and air and more efficient heat transfer. Many different concepts are developed
to achieve these goals, including lean-premix burners (Seebold et al., 2001),
swirl burners (Cheng, 1999), pulsating burners (Petrick and Pellegrino, 1999) and
rotary burners (U.S. DOE-OIT, 2002e). Also, furnace and burner design has to
address safety and environmental concerns.
i Maintenance
Regular maintenance of burners, draft control and heat exchangers is essential
to maintain safe and energy efficient operation of a process heater.
Draft Control. Badly maintained process heaters may use excess air. This
reduces the efficiency of the burners. Excess air should be limited to 2-3%
oxygen to ensure complete combustion.
Valero's Houston refinery has installed control systems to reduce excess
combustion air at the three furnaces of the CDU. The control system allows
running the furnace with 1% excess oxygen instead of the regular 3-4%. The
system has not only reduced energy use by 3 to 6% but also reduced NOx
emissions by 10-25%, and enhanced the safety of the heater.
ii Air Preheating
Air preheating is an efficient way of improving the efficiency and increasing
the capacity of a process heater. The flue gases of the furnace are used to
preheat the combustion air. Every 35°F drop in the exit flue gas temperature
increases the thermal efficiency of the furnace by 1% (Garg, 1998). Typical
fuel savings range between 8 and 18% and is typically economically attractive
if the flue gas temperature is higher than 650°F and the heater size is 50
MMBtu/hr or more (Garg, 1998).
VDU. At a refinery in the United Kingdom, the temperature of the flue gas was
reduced to 470°F. This led to energy cost savings of $109,000/year with a
payback period of 2.2 years (Venkatesan and Iordanova, 2003).
189
iii New Burners
In many areas, new air quality regulation will demand refineries to reduce NOx
and VOC emissions from furnaces and boilers. Instead of installing expensive
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) flue gas treatment plants, new burner
technology developed by ChevronTexaco, in collaboration with John Zink
Co., for refinery applications based on the lean premix concept, reduces
NOx emissions from 180 ppm to below 20 ppm.
Case Study 27 : Installation of High efficiency furnace in Hydro-finishing
unit
Brief
In a refinery, the existing old furnace (with radiation section only) in HFU was
replaced with new high efficiency furnace (with both radiation & convection
section) and with Low NOx & low excess air burners.
Energy Savings
Investments : Rs. 200.00 Lakhs
Fuel Savings : 215 MT of IFO /annum on full T'put Operation
Savings : Rs. 19.40 Lakhs
4.514 Electric Motors
Electric motors are used throughout the refinery, and represent over 80% of all
electricity use in the refinery. The major applications are pumps (60% of all motor
use), air compressors (15% of all motor use), fans (9%), and other applications
(16%).
Using a "systems approach" that looks at the entire motor system (pumps,
compressors, motors, and fans) to optimize supply and demand of energy services
often yields the most savings. For example, in pumping, a systems approach
analyzes both the supply and demand sides and how they interact, shifting the focus
of the analysis from individual components to total system performance. The
measures identified below reflect aspects of this system approach including
matching speed and load (adjustable speed drives), sizing the system correctly, as
well as upgrading system components.
i Motor Optimization
a Sizing of Motors. Motors and pumps that are sized inappropriately result in
unnecessary energy losses. Where peak loads can be reduced, motor size can
also be reduced. Correcting for motor over sizing saves 1.2% of their
electricity consumption, and even larger percentages for smaller motors
(Xenergy, 1998).
b Higher Efficiency Motors. High efficiency motors reduce energy losses
through improved design, better materials, tighter tolerances, and improved
manufacturing techniques. With proper installation, energy efficient motors
run cooler and consequently have higher service factors, longer bearing and
insulation life and less vibration.
190
Typically, high efficiency motors are economically justified when exchanging
a motor that needs replacement. The best savings are achieved on motors
running for long hours at high loads. Replacing a motor with a high efficiency
motor is often a better choice than rewinding a motor. The practice of
rewinding motors currently has no quality or efficiency standards.
ii Power Factor. Inductive loads like transformers, electric motors and HID
lighting may cause a low power factor. A low power factor may result in
increased power consumption, and hence increased electricity costs. The
power factor can be corrected by minimizing idling of electric motors,
avoiding operation of equipment over its rated voltage, replacing motors by
energy efficient motors and installing capacitors in the AC circuit to reduce the
magnitude of reactive power in the system.
iii Voltage Unbalance. Voltage unbalance degrades the performance and
shortens the life of three-phase motors. A voltage unbalance causes a current
unbalance, which will result torque pulsations, increased vibration and
mechanical stress, increased losses, motor overheating reducing the life of a
motor. It is recommended that voltage unbalance at the motor terminals does
not exceed 1%. For a 100 hp motor operating 8000 hours per year, a correction
of the voltage unbalance from 2.5% to 1% will result in electricity savings of
9,500 kWh.
iv Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDS)/Variable Speed Drives (VSDs). ASDs
better match speed to load requirements for motor operations. Energy use on
many centrifugal systems like pumps, fans and compressors is approximately
proportional to the cube of the flow rate. Hence, small reductions in flow that
are proportional to motor speed can sometimes yield large energy savings.
Paybacks for installing new ASD motors in new systems or plants can be as low
as 1.1 years (Martin et al., 2000). The installation of ASDs improves overall
productivity, controls product quality and reduces wear on equipment, thereby
reducing maintenance cost.
Case study 28 : Installation of Variable Speed Drives for pumps in DM plant
and CPU plant
Brief
The major pumps in DM water plant and condensate polishing units have
recirculation lines along with valves in order to maintain the desired line pressure
in view of variable requirement. This recirculation results in bypassing of excess
water from the discharge line to the supply source. The pump is operated with the
constant load since variations are controlled by recirculation valve.
The recirculation results in energy loss since the pump is operated on full load
condition though there is variable requirement. The following table gives the
measured water flows of discharge line and recirculation.
191
 Energy Loss due to recirculation Reduction in power consumption : 42 kW
Operating hours : 8000 per year
Pump ID code Pump Power, Supply Recirculatio Energy loss % loss to Energy savings per annum : 3.36 lakh kWh
discharge kW to n flow, lps due to the total
flow, lps users, recirculation, Annual cost savings (Rs.4.50/kWh) : Rs.15.12 lakh
lps kW Anticipated Investment : Rs. 21 lakh
Degasser water -32 71 59.7 37 34 27 45 Payback period : one year six months
PPP1A
Condensate feed pump- 62 55 50.5 11.5 10 18 v Variable Voltage Controls (VVCs). In contrast to ASDs, which have variable
32 P 102 A flow requirements, VVCs are applicable to variable loads requiring constant
Polished Condensate 74.38 51.3 47.5 26.88 18 36 speed. The principle of matching supply with demand, however, is the same as
transfer pump- 32 P 101 A for ASDs.
Total 166 55 33
4.5.15 Pumps
It can be seen that on average about 33 % of energy is being lost due to
recirculation. In the petroleum refining industry, about 59% of all electricity use in motors is for
pumps (Xenergy, 1998). This equals 48% of the total electrical energy in refineries,
The energy loss due to recirculation can be avoided by installing the variable speed making pumps the single largest electricity user in a refinery. Pumps are used
drives (VSD) to the pumps. Installation of variable speed drives will enable the throughout the entire plant to generate a pressure and move liquids. Studies have
pumps only to discharge as per the requirement by sensing the pressure in the shown that over 20% of the energy consumed by these systems could be saved
discharge line. After installation of VSD, the recirculation valves should be fully through equipment or control system changes (Xenergy, 1998).
closed to achieve the energy savings.
It is important to note that initial costs are only a fraction of the life cycle costs of a
Energy Savings pump system. In general, for a pump system with a lifetime of 20 years, the initial
capital costs of the pump and motor make up merely 2.5% of the total costs (Best
Considering the minimum energy savings to the tune of 25 % (present average loss Practice Programme, 1998). Depending on the pump application, energy costs may
is of 33%) the total energy savings achievable in the above three pumping systems make up about 95% of the lifetime costs of the pump.
estimated and tabulated below:
i Operations and Maintenance. Inadequate maintenance at times lowers pump
system efficiency, causes pumps to wear out more quickly and increases costs.
Pump Better maintenance will reduce these problems and save energy. Proper

In v e s tm e n t
la k h k W h

R s . la k h s
maintenance includes the following (Hydraulic Institute, 1994; LBNL et al.,

r e q u ir e d ,
o p e r a te d

s a v in g s ,

s a v in g s ,
in s ta lle d

ID code R s . la k h
s a v in g s

Annual

Annual
E n e rg y
P o w e r,
pum ps

pum ps

e n e rg y

1999):
No. of

No. of

cost
kW

• Replacement of worn impellers.

• Bearing inspection and repair.
Degasser water - 3 1 59.7 15 1.20 5.40 5.00 • Bearing lubrication once annually or semiannually.
32 PPP1A • Inspection and replacement of packing seals.
Condensate feed 3 1 55 14 1.12 5.04 5.00 • Inspection and replacement of mechanical seals.
pump- • Wear ring and impeller replacement.
• Pump/motor alignment check.
32 P 102 A
Polished 3 1 51.3 13 1.04 4.68 5.00 Typical energy savings for operations and maintenance are estimated to be between
Condensate 2 and 7% of pumping electricity use. The payback is usually one year (Xenergy,
transfer pump- 1998; U.S. DOE-OIT, 2002c).
32 P 101 A
ii Monitoring. Monitoring in conjunction with operations and maintenance
Total 166 42 3.36 15.12 15.00 can be used to detect problems and determine solutions to create a more
efficient system. Monitoring can determine clearances that need be adjusted,
indicate blockage, impeller damage, inadequate suction, operation outside
preferences, clogged or gas-filled pumps or pipes, or worn out pumps.
Monitoring should include:

192 193
• Wear monitoring
• Vibration analyses
• Pressure and flow monitoring
• Current or power monitoring
• Differential head and temperature rise across the pump/ thermodynamic
monitoring
• Distribution system inspection for scaling or contaminant build-up
iii Reduce Need. Holding tanks can be used to equalize the flow over the
production cycle, enhancing energy efficiency and potentially reducing the
need to add pump capacity. In addition, bypass loops and other unnecessary
flows should be eliminated. Energy savings may be as high as 5-10% for each
of these steps (Easton Consultants, 1995).
Case study 29 : Optimisation of Cooling Water Flow
Brief
Three numbers of cooling water pumps were used to supply cooling water to
refinery units. Excess flow /wastage of cooling water observed in AVU and DCU
plant. The problem of cooling water system is not the flow but the low pressure of
the cooling water, hence by stopping one of the cooling water pumps and optimizing
cooling water in AVU and DCU and installation of one small booster pump of
maintaining supply header pressure at 4.5 kg/cm2 can save 257 kW per hour, which
is equivalent to 21.6 lakhs kwhr/year.
Energy savings
Investment costs : Rs. 10 lakhs (for the installation of booster pump)
Savings achieved : Rs. 15 lakhs
Pay back period : 8 months
iv More Efficient Pumps. According to Easton Consultants, 1995, pump
efficiency may degrade 10 to 25% in its lifetime. Replacing a pump with a new
efficient one saves between 2 to 10% of its energy consumption (Elliott, 1994).
v Correct Sizing Of Pump(s) (Matching Pump To Intended Duty). Pumps
that are sized inappropriately result in unnecessary losses. Where peak loads
can be reduced, pump size can also be reduced. Correcting for pump over
sizing can save 15 to 25% of electricity consumption for pumping (Easton
Consultants, 1995).
vi Use Multiple Pumps. Often using multiple pumps is the most cost-effective
and most energy efficient solution for varying loads, particularly in a static
head-dominated system. Installing parallel systems for highly variable loads
saves 10 to 50% of the electricity consumption for pumping (Easton
Consultants, 1995). Variable speed controls should also be considered for
dynamic systems.
194
vii Trimming Impeller or Shaving Sheaves. If a large differential pressure
exists at the operating rate of flow, the impeller diameter can be trimmed so
that the pump does not develop as much head
Case study 30 : Trimming the Diameter of Pump Impeller
Brief
Salt Union Ltd. produces white salt by the multistage evaporation of brine. A by-
product of the process is condensate, which is exported to a nearby power station to
feed the boiler. Operational analysis showed that the pressure generated by the
condensate export pump was considerably higher than was necessary. The high
degree of throttling that was consequently needed had led to instability in the
system, resulting in mal-operation and high maintenance costs.
Energy savings
Trimming the diameter of pump impeller resulted in reducing power required by the
pump and also allowed a smaller motor to be fitted which further resulted in energy
savings.
Potential users : Any user of pumps
Investment costs : Rs. 20,000.00
Savings achieved -
(a) Energy Saving : Rs. 7,50,000.00
(b) Savings in repair : Rs. 2,50,000.00
& maintenance
Payback period : 8 days
viii Controls. Remote controls enable pumping systems to be started and stopped
more quickly and accurately when needed, and reduce the required
labor. In addition to energy savings, the control system reduces maintenance
costs and increases the pumping system's equipment life.
ix Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs). ASDs better match speed to load
requirements for pumps where, as for motors, energy use is
approximately proportional to the cube of the flow rate. Hence, small
reductions in flow that are proportional to pump speed may yield large energy
savings. In addition, the installation of ASDs improves overall productivity,
and product quality, and reduces wear on equipment, thereby reducing future
maintenance costs.
x Avoid Throttling Valves. Extensive use of throttling valves or bypass loops
may be an indication of an oversized pump. Variable speed drives or on off
regulated systems always save energy compared to throttling valves
(Hovstadius, 2002).
195
xi Correct Sizing Of Pipes. Similar to pumps, undersized pipes also result in
unnecessary losses. Increasing the pipe diameter may save energy but must be
balanced with costs for pump system components. Correct sizing of pipes
should be done at the design or system retrofit stages where costs may not be
restrictive.
xii Replace Belt Drives. Inventory data suggests 4% of pumps have V-belt
drives, many of which can be replaced with direct couplings to save energy
(Xenergy, 1998). Savings are estimated at 1%.
xiii Precision Castings, Surface Coatings, Or Polishing. The use of castings,
coatings, or polishing reduces surface roughness that in turn, increases
energy efficiency. It may also help maintain efficiency over time. Energy
savings for coating pump surfaces are estimated to be 2 to 3% over uncoated
pumps (Best Practice Programme, 1998).
xiv Sealings. Seal failure accounts for up to 70% of pump failures in many
applications (Hydraulic Institute and Europump, 2001). The sealing
arrangements on pumps will contribute to the power absorbed. Often the use of
gas barrier seals, balanced seals, and no- contacting labyrinth seals optimize
pump efficiency.
xv Curtailing Leakage Through Clearance Reduction. Internal leakage losses
are a result of differential pressure across the clearance between the impeller
and the pump casing. The larger the clearance, the greater is the internal
leakage causing inefficiencies. The normal clearance in new pumps ranges
from 0.35 to 1.0 mm (Hydraulic Institute and Europump, 2001). With wider
clearances, the leakage increases almost linearly with the clearance. For
example, a clearance of 5 mm decreases the efficiency by 7 to 15% in closed
impellers and by 10 to 22% in semi-open impellers.
xvi Dry Vacuum Pumps. Dry vacuum pumps were introduced in the
semiconductor industry in Japan in the mid-1980s. The advantages of a dry
vacuum pump are high energy efficiency, increased reliability, and reduced air
and water pollution. It is expected that dry vacuum pumps will displace oil-
sealed pumps (Ryans and Bays, 2001) in the next 5 to 7 years. Dry pumps have
major advantages in applications where contamination is a concern.
4.5.16 Lighting
Lighting and other utilities represent less than 3% of electricity use in refineries.
Still, potential energy efficiency improvement measures exist, and may contribute
to an overall energy management strategy. Because of the relative minor
importance of lighting and other utilities, this Energy Guide focuses on the most
important measures that can be undertaken.
i Lighting Controls. Lights can be shut off during non-working hours by
automatic controls, such as occupancy sensors. Manual controls can also be
used in addition to automatic controls to save additional energy in small areas.
ii Replace T-12 Tubes by T-5 Tubes or Metal Halides. The initial output for T-
12 lights is high, but energy consumption is also high. T-12 tubes have poor
efficacy, lamp life, lumen depreciation and color rendering index. Because of
this, maintenance and energy costs are high. Replacing T-12 lamps with T-5
lamps approximately doubles the efficacy of the former. There are a number of
196
T-5 lights and ballasts in the market and the correct combination should be
chosen for each system.
iii Replace Mercury Lights by Metal Halide or High-Pressure Sodium
Lights. In industries where color rendition is critical, metal halide lamps save
50% energy compared to mercury or fluorescent lamps. Where color
rendition is not critical, high-pressure sodium lamps offer energy savings of 50
to 60% compared to mercury lamps. High-pressure sodium and metal halide
lamps also produce less heat, reducing HVAC loads. In addition to energy
reductions, the metal halide lights provide better lighting, provide better
distribution of light across work surfaces, improve color rendition, and reduce
operating costs (GM, 2001).
iv Replace Standard Metal Halide HID With High-Intensity Fluorescent
Lights. Advantages of the high efficiency fluorescent lamps are many: lower
energy consumption, lower lumen depreciation over the lifetime of the lamp,
better dimming options, faster start-up and restrike capability, better color
rendition, higher pupil lumens ratings, and less glare (Martin et al., 2000).
High-intensity fluorescent systems yield 50% electricity savings over standard
metal halide HID.
v Replace Magnetic Ballasts With Electronic Ballasts. A ballast is a
mechanism that regulates the amount of electricity required to start a lighting
fixture and maintain a steady output of light. Electronic ballasts save 12 to 25%
power over their magnetic predecessors (EPA, 2001). If automatic daylight
sensing, occupancy sensing and manual dimming are included with the
ballasts, savings can be greater than 65% (Turiel et al., 1995).
vi Reflectors. A reflector is a highly polished "mirror-like" component that
directs light downward, reducing light loss within a fixture. Reflectors can
minimize required wattage effectively.
vii Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Radium Lights. One way to reduce
energy costs is simply switching from incandescent lamps to LEDs or radium
strips in exit sign lighting. LEDs use about 90% less energy than
conventional exit signs (Anaheim Public Utilities, 2001).
Case study 31 : Using Energy Transformer for Plant Lighting
Brief
The actual wattage of lamps used is always higher than the manufacturer's rated
wattage and it depends mainly on the characteristic of the Ballast with which the
particular lamp is operated on the mains supply voltage at any given time. Thus
saving can be achieved.
By using energy saving transformer for plant lighting in a refinery, 20% power
consumption reduction has been possible in two major units, i.e. Crude Distillation
unit and hydrocracker resulting in saving of 9 lakhs kwhr/year.
Energy Savings
Investment costs : Rs. 4.46 lakhs (for the transformer)
Savings achieved : Rs. 27 Lakhs/annum
Pay back period : 2 months
197
Case study 32 : Replacement of conventional tube-lights with energy efficient
tube-lights
Brief
During the course of the audit it was found that there are around 3500 nos. of
conventional 40W fluorescent tube-lights installed in the plant and operating on
the normal copper chokes. These type of fittings take more power as compared to
the energy efficient tube-lights now available in the market. It is therefore
recommended to replace all the existing conventional tube light fittings with the
energy efficient tube-lights along-with electronic ballast. The cost benefit analysis
of replacing the existing fluorescent tube-lights (FTLs) with T-5 is substantial.
Energy Savings
INSTALLATION OF T -5 FTLs WITH ELECTRONIC BALLAST IN PLACE
OF EXISTING CONVENTIONAL FTLs
Number of tube-lights 3500
iii High Efficiency Belts (Cog Belts). Belts make up a variable, but significant
portion of the fan system in many plants. It is estimated that about half of the
fan systems use standard V- belts, and about two-thirds of these could be
replaced by more efficient cog belts (Xenergy, 1998). Standard V-belts tend to
stretch, slip, bend and compress, resulting in loss of efficiency. Replacing
standard V-belts with cog belts can save energy, even as a retrofit. Cog belts run
cooler, last longer, require less maintenance and have an efficiency that is
about 2% higher than standard V-belts. Typical payback periods is less than
one year.
4.5.18 Power Generation
Most refineries have some form of onsite power generation. In fact, refineries offer
an excellent opportunity for energy efficient power generation in the form of
combined heat and power production (CHP). CHP provides the opportunity to use
internally generated fuels for power production, and allowing greater independence
of grid operation. This increases reliability of supply as well as the cost-
effectiveness.

Present power consumption per tube-light W 48

i Combined Heat and Power Generation (CHP)

Total power consumption by these tube lights kW 168 The petroleum refining industry is one of the largest users of cogeneration or CHP
Power consumption per tube light after
in the country. Total installed capacity is next only to the chemical and pulp & paper
industry. Still, only about 10% of all steam used in refineries is generated in
replacement with T-5 & electronic ballast W 28 cogeneration units. Hence, the petroleum refining industry is also identified as one
New power consumption kW 98 of the industries with the largest potential for increased application of CHP.
Power saved kW 70 Wherever process heat, steam, or cooling and electricity are used, cogeneration
Annual operating time hrs 3300 plants are significantly more efficient than standard power plants because they take
advantage of what are losses in conventional power plants by utilizing waste heat.
Annual energy savings kWh 231000
In addition, transportation losses are minimized when CHP systems are located at or
Cost benefit Rs. Lacs 10.40 near the refinery.
Expected Investment Rs. Lacs 19.25
Innovative gas turbine technologies can make CHP more attractive for sites with
Payback period months 22 large variations in heat demand. Steam injected gas turbines (STIG or Cheng cycle)
can absorb excess steam, e.g., due to seasonal reduced heating needs, to boost
power production by injecting the steam in the turbine. The size of typical STIGs
4.5.17 Fans starts around 5 MWe, and is currently scaled up to sizes of 125 MW. STIGs have
been installed at various sites worldwide, especially in Japan, Europe and in the
Fans are used in boilers, furnaces, cooling towers, and many other applications. As
United States. Energy savings and payback period will depend on the local
in other motor applications, considerable opportunities exist to upgrade the
circumstances (e.g., energy patterns, power sales, conditions).
performance and improve the energy efficiency of fan systems. Efficiencies of fan
systems vary considerably across impeller types (Xenergy,1998). However, the Steam turbines are often used as part of the CHP system in a refinery or as stand-
cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency opportunities depends strongly on the alone systems for power generation. The efficiency of the steam turbine is
characteristics of the individual system. determined by the inlet steam pressure and temperature as well as the outlet
pressure. Each turbine is designed for a certain steam inlet pressure and
i Fan Oversizing. Most of the fans are oversized for the particular application,
temperature. The operators should make sure that the steam inlet temperature and
which can result in efficiency losses. However, it may often be more cost- pressure are optimal. An 18°F decrease in steam inlet temperature will reduce the
effective to control the speed, than to replace the fan system. efficiency of the steam turbine by 1.1% (Patel and Nath, 2000). Similarly,
ii Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD). Significant energy savings can be achieved maintaining exhaust vacuum of a condensing turbine or the outlet pressure of a
by installing adjustable speed drives on fans. Savings may vary between 14 backpressure turbine too high will result in efficiency losses.
and 49% when retrofitting fans with ASDs (Xnergy, 1998)

198 199
Case study 33 : Installation of lower capacity Pump in HRSG
Brief
Installation of a smaller pump of rated capacity 37m3/hr for feeding water to Heat
Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG-5) and input power requirement of new 45 kw
pump motor is available from the steam turbine (which will be able to produce max
150 kw). This could replace the existing pump/motor which consumes 146 kw for
supplying the water to HRSG-4. The saving of 146 kw is achieved by installing a
lower capacity pump. By this, the requirement of PRV is to reduce 6.5 TPH of MP
steam to LP steam for process required.
Energy Savings
Investment costs : Rs. 22 lakhs
Savings achieved : Rs. 8.6Lakhs
Pay back period : 2.6 years
ii Steam Expansion Turbines
Steam is generated at high pressures, but often the pressure is reduced to allow the
steam to be used by different processes. For example, steam is generated at 120 to
150 psig. This steam then flows through the distribution system within the plant.
The pressure is reduced to as low as 10-15 psig for use in different process. Once the
heat has been extracted, the condensate is often returned to the steam generating
plant. Typically, the pressure reduction is accomplished through a pressure
reduction valve (PRV). These valves do not recover the energy embodied in the
pressure drop. This energy could be recovered by using a micro scale backpressure
steam turbine. Several manufactures produce these turbine sets.
iii High-temperature CHP
Turbines can be pre-coupled to a crude distillation unit (or other continuously
operated processes with an applicable temperature range). The off gases of the gas
turbine can be used to supply the heat for the distillation furnace, if the outlet
temperature of the turbine is high enough. One option is the so-called 'repowering'
option. In this option, the furnace is not modified, but the combustion air fans in the
furnace are replaced by a gas turbine. The exhaust gases still contain a considerable
amount of oxygen, and can thus be used as combustion air for the furnaces. The gas
turbine can deliver up to 20% of the furnace heat.
Another option, with a larger CHP potential and associated energy savings, is
"high- temperature CHP". In this case, the flue gases of a CHP plant are used to heat
the input of a furnace or to preheat the combustion air.
iv Gasification
Gasification provides the opportunity for cogeneration using the heavy bottom
fraction and refinery residues (Marano, 2003). Because of the increased demand for
lighter products and increased use of conversion processes, refineries will have to
manage an increasing stream of heavy bottoms and residues. Gasification of the
heavy fractions and coke to produce synthesis gas can help to efficiently remove
these by-products. The state-of-the-art gasification processes combine the heavy
by-products with oxygen at high temperature in an entrained bed gasifier.
200
Due to the limited oxygen supply, the heavy fractions are gasified to a mixture of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Sulfur can easily be removed in the form of H2S to
produce elemental sulfur. The synthesis gas can be used as feedstock for chemical
processes. However, the most attractive application seems to be generation of
power in an Integrated Gasifier Combined Cycle (IGCC). In this installation the
synthesis gas is combusted in a gas turbine (with an adapted combustion chamber to
handle the low to medium-BTU gas) generating electricity. The hot flue gases are
used to generate steam. The steam can be used onsite or used in a steam turbine to
produce additional electricity (i.e., the combined cycle). Cogeneration efficiencies
can be up to 75% (LHV) and for power production alone the efficiency is estimated
at 38-39% (Marano, 2003).
Entrained bed IGCC technology is basically developed for refinery applications,
but is also used for the gasification of coal. Hence, the major gasification
technology developers were oil companies like Shell and Texaco. IGCC provides
a low-cost opportunity to reduce emissions (SOx, NOx) when compared to
combustion of the residue, and to process the heavy bottoms and residues
while producing power and/or feedstocks for the refinery.
IGCC is being used by the Shell refinery in Netherlands to treat residues from the
hydrocracker and other residues to generate 110 MWe of power and 285 tonnes of
hydrogen for the refinery. The investment costs will vary by capacity and products
of the installation. The capital costs of a gasification unit consuming 2,000 tons per
day of heavy residue would cost about $229 million of the production of hydrogen
and $347 million for an IGCC unit. The operating cost savings will depend on the
costs of power, natural gas, and the costs of heavy residue disposal or processing.
4.6 Refinery Environmental Issues
Refineries are industrial sites that manage huge amounts of raw materials and
products and are intensive consumers of energy and water. In their storage and
refining processes, refineries generate emissions to the atmosphere, to the water
and to the soil, to the extent that environmental management has become a major
factor for refineries. The type and quantity of refinery emissions to the environment
are oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, particulates mainly generated from
combustion processes, and volatile organic carbons. Water is used intensively in a
refinery as process water and for cooling purposes. The main water contaminates
are hydrocarbons, sulphides, ammonia and some metals.
In the context of the huge amount of raw material that are processed, refineries do
not generate substantial quantities of waste. Currently, waste generated by
refineries are dominated by sludges, and spent chemicals e.g. acids, amines,
catalysts. Emissions to air are the main pollutants generated by the oil refineries.
For every million ton of crude oil processed, refineries emit from 20000 - 820000
tonnes of carbon dioxide, 60-700 tonnes of nitrogen oxides, 10 - 3000 tonnes of
particulate matter, 30 - 6000 tonnes of sulphur oxides and 50 - 6000 tonnes of
volatile organic chemicals. To process per million tonnes of crude oil, refineries
generated 0.1 to 5 Million of waste water and 10 - 2000 tonnes of solid waste. These
big differences in emissions can be partially explained by the differences in
integration and type of refineries e.g. simple vs. complex.
A large number of techniques have been considered in the determination of best
available techniques to combat emissions in various refining processes.
201
4.6.1 Crude Desalting The following table gives example of the air emissions generated by the
atmospheric and vacuum distillation units by two European refineries. These tables
Increased efficiency of desalters may reduce wash water usage. Other include the emissions from combustion of fuels in the furnaces.
environmental benefits would be limited to energy savings, related to more
efficient electric field. Table 4.19 Examples of air emissions generated by crude oil and vacuum
distillation units
Available Techniques to Combat Emissions
Installation Fuel Throughput Units SO2 NOx CO CO2 Particu-
Consumption (MT/yr) lates
(i) Enhance the oil/water separation before discharge to the waste water (GWh/yr)
treatment plant CDU 8.5 mg/m
3
35 100 100 5
1138.8 Crude Oil t/yr 35.2 100.4 100.4 220927 5
3
The system results in oil/ water separation, reducing the charge of oil to the waste Vacuum 4.5 mg/m 35 100 100 5
Distillation 639.5 Atm. Res. t/yr 19.8 56.6 56.6 182252 2.8
water treatment and recycling it to the process as well as reductions in the oily
sludge generation. With the application of the technique some to the API separators. Process Waste Water

(ii) Enhance the solid/ water-oil separation
By using water at low pressure and loss shear mixing device, the content of oil in the
generated sludges can be decreased and the separation of the sludges from the water
phase can be enhanced. In a few refineries, desalters have been equipped with a
bottom flushing system.
(iii) Re-use of water for the desalter
By reusing the water, the refinery could reduce the hydraulic loading to the waste
water treatment units and reduce consumption of water.
(iv) Stripping of the desalter brine
Strip desalter brine for hydrocarbons, sour components and ammonia removal
before sending treatment This can be resulted in reduction of the hydrocarbon,
sulphur and ammonia content of the waste water generated within the desalter. For
example, phenol emissions can be reduced by 90% and benzene emissions by 95%.
Process waste water generated in the atmospheric distillation units is 0.08 - 0.75 m3
per tonne of crude oil processed. It contains oil, H2S, suspended solids, chlorides,
mercaptans, phenol, an elevated pH, and ammonia and caustic soda used in column
overhead corrosion protection. It is generated in the overhead condensers, in the
fractionators and can also become contaminated from spillages and leaks. The
overheads reflux drum (gasoil dryer condensator) generates 0.5% water on crude +
1.5% steam on feed with a composition of H2S 10 - 200 mg/I and NH3 10 - 30 mg/I.
Sour water is normally sent to water stripper/treatment.
Wastewater (sour water) is generated in the vacuum distillation units from process
steam injection in furnace and vacuum tower. It contains H2S, NH3 and dissolved
hydrocarbons. If steam ejectors and barometric condensers are used in vacuum
distillation, significant amounts of oily wastewater can be generated (+10 m3/h)
containing also H2S, NH3.
Residual Wastes Generated

4.6.2 Distillation CDU/ VDU
Potential releases into the air from primary distillation units are: -
• Flue gases arising from the combustion of fuels in the furnaces to heat the
crude oil.
• Pressure relief valves on column overheads; relief from overhead
accumulator are piped to flare as well as the vent points.
• Poor containment in overhead systems, including barometric sumps and
vents.
• Glands and seals on pumps, compressors and valves.
• De-coking vents from process heaters. During furnace decoking, some
emission of soot can occur if operation is not properly controlled in terms of
temperature or steam/ air injection.
• Venting during clean-out procedures.
• Some light gases leaving the top of the condensers on the vacuum
distillation column.
• Fugitive emissions from atmospheric and vacuum distillation units alone
account for 5-190 t/yr for a refinery with a crude capacity of around 8.5
MT/ yr.
Sludges can be generated from the cleaning-out of the columns. The amount
depends on the mode of desludging and the base solid and water content of the crude
processed. The range of solid waste generation from a crude unit of 8.5 MT/ yr
ranges from 6.3 - 20 t/day.
Available techniques to combat emissions
(i) Treatment of non-condensables from vacuum ejector set condensor
uncondensable from overhead condensers can be passed to light ends
treatment or recovery systems or refinery fuel gas systems; sour
uncondensable gases vented from sealed barometric pumps of vacuum
distillation units should be extracted and dealt with in a manner appropriate to
the nature of the sour gas.
Vacuum distillation column condensers may emit 0.14 kg/m3 of vacuum feed
and can be reduced to negligible levels if they are vented to heater or
incinerator. Pollution reduction is achieved if vacuum gaseous streams (vent
gas) are routed to an appropriate amine scrubbing unit instead of being directly
burned in the process heater.

202 203
(ii) Waste Water treatment and re-use (iii) Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

The overhead reflux drum generates some waste water. That water can be re-used as These systems reduce the NOx emissions by 40-80%. The outlet
a desalter wash water. Sour water from atmospheric and vacuum unit condensates concentrations can be down to <200 - 400 mg/Nm3@3% O2 depending on the
should pass to a sour water stripper in enclosed systems to optimize water re-use by nitrogen content of the feedstock. Instead of ammonia, urea can be also
application of side-stream softening to blowdown streams. This reduces water used. The use of urea has the advantage to be more soluble in water and
consumption and reabsorb pollutants. consequently reduce the risk of handling/ storage of NH3.
(iii) Other techniques to consider in the atmospheric units are:- (iv) Wet scrubbing
a) De-coking vents to be provided with suitable knock-out and dust suppression A suitably designed wet scrubbing process will normally provide an
facilities; suitable methods of preventing emissions during clean-out effective removal efficiency of both SO2/SO3 and particulates. With the
procedures need to be used. inclusion of an extra treatment tower, to oxidize the NO to NO2, NOx can
b) Many oily sludges can be sent to the crude distillation or in alternative to the
also be removed partially.
coking unit where they become part of the refinery products.
c) Use of spend caustic instead of fresh caustic for corrosion control on (v) Venturi Scrubbing
distillation unit.
Venturi scrubbing can also remove most of the sulphur dioxide present in the
4.6.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking - FCC flue gases. Tertiary cyclones with venturi scrubber in the FCCU regenerator
This section gives emission information from the FCC when it is run under have reached efficiencies of 93% in reducing SO2 and particulate emissions.
favourable conditions and the regenerator in total combustion mode. The
4.6.4 Catalytic Reforming
catcracker is the source of SO2 and Nox, CO2, CO, dust particulates, N2O, SO3,
metals, hydrocarbons (ex. Aldehydes) and ammonia emissions. For example, the Air emissions from catalytic reforming arise from the process heater gas,
basic design of a FCC includes two-stage cyclones in the regenerator vessel, which hydrocarbons from pressure relief valves and leakages and regeneration.
prevent the bulk of the fine catalyst used from escaping from the system. However, Hydrocarbons and dust releases may arise from venting during catalyst
smaller catalyst particles, some of which are introduced with fresh catalyst and replacement procedures and during clean-out operations. The table 4.21 shows an
some created by attrition in the circulating system, are not easily retained by the example of emissions to the air generated by reformers in two European refineries.
two-stage cyclone system. Consequently, in many cases, other abatement The table also shows the emissions generated by the heaters.
techniques can be included to complement the process abatement techniques. The
table gives a summary of the lowest emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere due Table 4.21
to an uncontrolled catcracker. Installation Fuel Throughput SO2 NOx CO CO2 Particulars
Consumption (t/yr)
3
Table 4.20 Emission factors in Kg. /1000 litres of fresh feedstock Platformer 753.4 1000000 mg/m 35 100 100 5
Mider (1) Naphtha t/yr 24.1 68.7 68.7 146152 3.4
kg/t 0.024 0.069 0.069 146 0.003
PM Sox CO HC Nox (as No2) Aldehydes NH3 feed
3
Platformer 494.1 728000 mg/m 18 170 5 1
(as SO2) OMV Naphtha t/yr 8.8 83 2.4 95848 0.5
0.267 – 0.286 – 39.2 0.630 0.107 – 0.416 0.054 0.155 kg/t 0.012 0.114 0.003 132 0.001
feed
0.976 1.505 Notes: Data are related to yearly average, 3% O 2, dry conditions. (1) Emissions from the Mider refinery, only
limit values are given. Loads and specific emissions were calculated.
Available Techniques to combat Emissions
The amount of waste water generated in the catalytic reforming is around 1-3 litres
(i) Partial combustion mode in the regenerator per tonne of feestock. The waste water contains high-level of oils, suspended solids,
COD and relatively low levels of H2S (sulphides), chloride, ammonia and
The use of partial combustion mode together with a CO boiler generates mercaptans. Spent catalyst fines (alumina silicate and metals) may be generated
less CO and Nox emissions compared with full combustion. from the particulate abatement techniques. Spent catalyst generated is around 20 to
25 tonnes per year for a 5 Mtonnes per year refinery.
(ii) Hydrotreatment of feed to the catcracker
Available Techniques to combat Emissions
FCC feed hydrotreatment can reduce the sulphur content to <0.1 - 0.5% w/w
(depending on the feedstock). (I) Type of catalyst promoter

Ozone depleting substances (e.g. carbon tetrachloride) are sometimes used

during the regeneration of the catalyst of the reformer. Emissions of such
204 205
 substances should be minimized by using less harmful substitutes or by using
them in confined compartments.
(ii) Cleaning of the regeneration flue gas
Regenerator flue gas containing HCI, H2S, small quantities of catalyst fines,
traces of Cl2, SO2 and dioxides can be sent to a scrubber prior to release to
atmosphere. This results in reduction of particulates and volatile acids (HCI,
H2S). It has been reported that Cl2 filter also traps dioxins.
a Waste Water generated by hydrotreatments
Hydrotreating and hydroprocessing generate a flow of waste water of 30-55
l/tonne. It contains H2S, NH3, high pH, phenols, hydrocarbons, suspended
solids, BOD and COD. This process sour water should be sent to the sour water
stripper/ treatment. Potential releases into water include HC and sulphur
compounds from spillages and leaks, particularly from sour water lines. In
distillate hydro treatments, solid deposits such as (NH4)2SO4 and NH4CL are
formed in the cooler parts of the unit and must be removed by water wash.

(iii) Electrostatic precipitator in the regeneration flue gas b Solid Wastes generated by hydrotreatments

Regenerator flue gas containing HCI, H2S, small quantities of catalyst fines,
traces of Cl2, SO2 and dioxins can be sent to an electrostatic precipitator prior to
release to atmosphere. This results in reduction of particulate content in the
flue gas coming from the regenerator.
(iv) Dioxins formation in catalytic reforming units
Dioxins are typically formed in the three types (continuous, cyclic and semi
regenerative) of catalytic reforming during the regeneration of the catalyst. If
the regenerator flue gas is treated in a water scrubber, dioxins are transferred in
waste water. In some other cases, the use of fixed bed filters have resulted in
combine reduction of chlorine and dioxins.
4.6.5 Hydrogen Consuming Processes (Hydrotreater/ Hydrocracker)
i Hydrotreating
Air emissions from hydrotreating may arise from process heater flue gas vents,
fugitive emissions and catalyst regeneration (CO2, CO, NOx, SOx). The off-
gas stream may be very rich in hydrogen sulphide and light fuel gas. The fuel
gas and hydrogen sulphide are typically sent to the sour gas treatment unit and
sulphur recovery unit. Hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds from pressure
relief valves; leakages from flanges, glands and seals on pumps, compressors
and valves, particularly on sour gas and sour water lines; venting during
catalyst regeneration and replacement procedures or during cleaning
operations. The following table 4.22 shows two examples of emissions from
hydrotreating processes. These air emissions include the emissions generated
by the combustion of fuel required in those processes.
Those processes generate spent catalyst fines (aluminium silicate and metals
Co/Mo and Ni/ Mo 50 - 200 t/yr for 5 Mt/ yr refinery). For process units using
expensive catalysts, contracts with the supplier exist for taking the spent
catalyst back for regeneration and/ or recycling. This practice is also being
adopted for other types of catalysts. During the last 20 years the use of catalytic
processes has increased considerably and hence also the regeneration and
rework services, particularly used to capture the water content of some streams
(e.g. distillate hydrodesulphurisation).
ii Hydrocracking
Emissions from hydrocracking units included heater stack gas containing CO,
SOx, NOx, hydrocarbons and particulates that generate smoke, grit and dust in
the flue gas, fugitive emissions (hydrocarbons) and catalyst regeneration (CO2,
CO, NOx, SOx, and catalyst dust). Fuel gas and bleed stream will contain H2S
and should be further treated. VOCs are generated by the non-condensable
from vacuum ejectors set condenser.
a Waste Water
Hydrocracking generates a flow of waste water of 50-110 I per tonne
processed. It contains high COD, suspended solids, H2S, NH3 and relatively
low levels of BOD. The sour water from the first stage HP separator, LP
separator, and overhead accumulator should be sent to the sour water stripper/
treatment. Effluent from hydro conversion processes may contain occasionally
metals (Ni/ V).
b Solid wastes

Table 4.22 Hydrocracking also generates spent catalysts fines (metals from crude oil, and
hydrocarbons). Catalyst should be replaced once per <1-3 years generating an
consumptio

Throughput

Particulars
n (GWh/yr)

Installation average of 50-200 t/yr for a refinery of 5 Mt/ yr. Hydroconversion normally
Mider
generates between 100 and 300 t/yr of spent catalysts which contain more
Units
(t/yr)

NOx

CO2
Fuel

SO2

CO

Naphtha 1500000 mg/m3 35 100 100 5

heavy metals than hydrocracking catalysts.
t/yr 7.1 20.3 20.3 39937 1
Hydrotreater 205.9 Naphtha kg/t feed 0.005 0014 0.014 27 0.001 4.6.6 Hydrogen Production
3
Middle distillate 3000000 mg/m 35 100 100 5
205.9 GO t/yr 7.1 20.3 20.3 39937 1 The feed for the hydrogen plant consists of hydrocarbons in the range from
kg/t feed 0.002 0.007 0.007 13
Vacuum 2600000 mg/m 3
35 100 100
0 natural gas to heavy residue oils and coke. The conventional steam reformer
5
distillate 578.2 VGO t/yr 18.6 53.2 53.2 164776
2.7 process produces hydrogen of 97-98% v/v purity and is the most commonly
kg/t feed
0.007 0.02 0.02 63 0.001 used method for hydrogen production. The second commonly used route is to
Emissions are only limit values. Loads and specific emissions were calculated. Data are related to yearly average, 3% O2, dry conditions. transform heavy oil residues to petroleum coke and its subsequent gasification

206 207
 to produce syn gas. Hydrogen production through steam reformer and coke Emissions levels of <1mg HF/Nm3 can be achieved. The vent gas should pass
gasification results in various types of air emissions and generation of solid to flare not to the refinery fuel gas system; a dedicated flare /stack is normally
waste in case of coke gasification process. retained for this. Fugitive emissions are also generated by this process. KF or
NaF is formed during the neutralization process. The spent solution is stored
i Steam Reforming
and then requires regeneration with lime (or alumina).
Nox emissions are the most important to consider. Other emissions such as
SOx or water emissions are minimal, because low-sulphur fuel is typically b Water
used and there are few emissions other than flue gas. The choice of heat HF alkylation effluents are a potential cause of acid excursions in refinery
recovery system can have a major effect on NOx production, since both the
amount of fuel fired and the flame temperature will be affected. NOx emissions effluents and a high standard of control should be exercised on the
from a steam-reforming unit using gas or light gasoline as fuels and with low - neutralization treatment system, e.g. online pH monitoring. The effluent
NOx burners are 25-40 mg/MJ (100-140 mg/ Nm3, 3% O2). Other emissions, containing HF acid can be treated with lime (CaO-Ca (OH)2), AlCl3 or CaCl2 or
such as CO2, originate from carbon in the feed. it can be neutralized indirectly in a KOH system to produce the desired CaF2 or
AlF3 (insolubles) which is separated in a settlement basin.
ii Coke gasification
c Wastes
Sulphur sorbents, such as limestone (CaCO3) or dolomite (Mg, Ca carbonate),
are normally used in the gasifier, reducing drastically the sulphur content. The HF process also yields tars (polymeric material) but these are essentially
Sulphur composition in the exhaust gas ranges from 600 to 1200 mg/Nm3 of free from HF. HF-containing tars are neutralized (with lime or alumina) and
H2S and COS. If no sorbent is used, the sulphur content of the gas will be in disposed of by incineration or blended as a fuel-oil component in small
proportion to the sulphur in the feed. In oxygen-blown gasification, the sulphur amounts because its pronounced odours. However, technology and special
content will be about 10000 mg/ Nm3 per percent sulphur in the feed. operating techniques such as internal acid regeneration have virtually
Ammonia is formed in the gasifier from the fuel-bound nitrogen. Ammonia in eliminated this liquid-waste stream.
the product gas typically contained less than 5% of the fuel-bound nitrogen
when limestone was present in the gasifier. ii Sulphuric Acid - Alkylation Process
iii Solid Waste Technologies using sulphuric acid as catalyst produce very large quantities of
spent acid (sulphuric and sulphonic acids) that has to be regenerated. The
The solid waste from the process consists mainly of spent limestone and metals transport of spent and fresh acid to and from the sulphuric acid regeneration has
from the petcoke. Volatile metals and alkalis tend to accumulate on the
give rise to some concern and increased the pressur on refiners to establish
particulate as the gas is cooled. The particulates contain a high percentage of
carbon and are usually sent with the ash to a combustor, where the remaining sulphuric acid regeneration plants near the alkylation unit. In some cases this
carbon is burned and the calcium sulphide is oxidized to sulphate. transport to/from the regeneration facility is by pipeline. However, no major
new improvements have been introduced in sulphuric acid alkylation
4.6.7 Alkylation technology dealing with the spent acid issue. Fugitive emissions from this
process is similar to the HF alkylation.
As described earlier, the alkylation process is catalyzed by using hydrofluoric
acid or sulphuric acid. The main advantages of the HF alkylation process are Potential releases in terms of air pollutants, wastewater and solid waste
the regeneration of HF which minimizes waste formation and disposal and also generated by the alkylation processes are summarized in the tables 4.23, 4.24 &
lower acid/ catalyst consumption as well as less consumption of energy and 4.25 given below:
cooling. In the sulphuric acid alkylation process, the major drawback is the
disposal of spent acid. Table 4.23: Air emissions generated by the alkylation processes
i HF- Alkylation Process Air Pollutant
CO2, SO2, NOx and other
Sulphuric acid
From column heating
Hydrofluoric
From column heating
pollutants arise from the furnaces furnaces
furnaces*
a Effluent gases Hydrocarbons May be released from May be released from
pressure reliefs, storage, pressure reliefs, storage,
handling operations, spillages handling operations,
and fugitive emissions and spillages and fugitive
HF is a very dangerous compound because of its severe corrosive nature and water and waste discharges emissions and water and
waste discharges
burning effects of both liquid and fumes to skin, eyes and mucous membranes. Halogens n.a. Fluoride compounds may be
released from pressure
Consequently, storage and handling it should comply with all safety rules. reliefs, vent gas and
spillages
Scrubber using alkylation solution (NaOH or KOH) is necessary to remove HF Odours n.a. Acid-sulphide oil may be
released from process shut-
from the incondensable gas stream. The acid relief neutralizer is operated so as down ponds during
maintenance work,
to minimize the hydrogen fluoride content of the incondensable gas stream. particularly the descaling of
pipes conveying hydrogen
fluoride. This may be
odorous
* Emissions from these combustion processes are addressed i n an integrated way.

208 209
 Table 4.24: Waste water generated by alkylation processes ii Waste Water

Water parameter Sulphuric Hydrofluoric
Waste Water Waste water produced in the
alkylation processes has low pH,
suspended solids, dissolved solids,
COD, H2S, and spend acid.
Hydrocarbons n.a. HC from separator drains
(surge drum, accumulator,
dryer) and spillages, and of
acidic effluent containing
dissolved and suspended
chlorides and fluorides from
the settlement pit or the
process shutdown ponds.
Acid Sulphuric acid Effluents from HF scrubber are
2-8 m3/h with compositions
min/ max of 1000 – 10000
ppm F; after time treatment 10
– 40 ppm F.
Table 4.25: Solid waste generated by the alkylation techniques
Solid waste Sulphuric Hydrofluoric
Sludge n.a. The flow 7 – 70 kg sludge per
kg used HF (dry solids
contents 3 – 30%)
Hydrocarbons Sludge generated in the HC from spent molecular
neutralization process sieves, carbon packings and
contains hydrocarbons. acid-soluble oil. Sludge
Dissolved polymerization generated in the neutralization
products are removed from the process contains
acid as a thick dark oil. hydrocarbons. Dissolved
polymerization products are
removed from the acid as a
thick dark oil.
Acid products in the sludge Sludge generated in the Inorganic fluorides (Na/KF)
neutralization process and chlorides from treatment
contains sulphuric acid. stages. Sludge generated in
the neutralization process
contains CaF2.
Halides n/a Composition of sludge is 10 –
-
40 ppm F after lime treatment.
Waste water is generated from the coke removal, water bleed from coke
handling, sour water from fractionator overhead, cooling operations and from
the steam injection and should be treated. The amount of waste water
generated in the coking processes is around 25 litres per tonne of feedstock. It
contains H2S, NH3 suspended solids (coke fines with high metal contents),
COD, high pH, particulate matter, particulate matter, hydrocarbons, sulphur
compounds, cyanides and phenols.
iii Solid Wastes
Solid wastes generated in the coking processes are coke dust (carbon particles
and hydrocarbons) and hot oil blowdown sludges containing hydrocarbons.
iv Delayed Coking
1. Uncondensable vapours generated in the coking processes should not pass to
the flare system.
2. Pressure reliefs from the coke drums should pass to the quench tower.
3. Steam generated in this process can be used to heat up other refinery processes.
4. The delayed coking process has a low level of heat integration. The heat to
maintain the coke drums at coking temperature is supplied by heating the feed
and the recycle stream in a furnace. The atmospheric residue and/ or vacuum
residue can be fed straight into the delayed coking unit without intermediate
cooling, which results in a high heat integration level between the different
units and saves a considerable amount of capital on heat exchangers.
v Fluid Coking
Another technique that can be used to prevent emissions or increase energy
integration in the fluid coking is to use the coking gas in a gas turbine of a
combined cycle unit. Extra information on the application of refinery fuel gas
in combined cycle units appears in Table 4.26 .

4.6.8 Coking Process Table - 4.26

Process PM SOx (as CO HC NOx (as Aldehyde NH3
The most important health and safety aspect of coking processes is the handling of SO2) NO2)
Fluid coking units 1.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
the coke fines. uncontrolled
Fluid coking with 0.019 n.a. Neg Neg n.a. Neg Neg
i Emissions to the air ESP and CO boiler 6
Neg: Negligible
Air emissions from coking operations include the process heater flue gas emissions
and fugitive emissions. In addition, the removal of coke from the drum (delayed Available techniques to combat emissions: -
coking) can release particulate and any remaining hydrocarbons to the atmosphere. I Handling and storage of the coke
The main pollutants generated as well as the sources are described below: -
• Cut the coke into a double roll cluster and convey it to an intermediate storage
• Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur compounds in mercaptans may be released silo.
from the sour water stream from reflux condensers. • Spray the coke with a very fine layer of oil, which sticks the dust fines to the
• Hydrocarbons may be released from pressure reliefs on reflux drums and coke.
vessels, quench tower emissions, storage and handling operations, spillages • Covered and de-pressurized conveyor belts.
and waste and water discharges. • Aspiration systems to extract or collect dust.
• Particulate matter may be released from the kiln gas cleaning system, the • Use of an enclosed hot blowdown system.
rotary cooker gas cleaning system, coke handling and storage, loading • Dust extraction systems can be incorporated with loading equipment.
operations and from the calcinatory process.
210 211
ii Particulate abatement in coking processes
The particulate abatement technique used in the FCC (Cyclones or ESP) that
may be also used here, bag filters can be used in this processes.
SO2 abatement techniques
Sulphur oxides are emitted during the coking processes, especially during the
calcinations processes. The principal option to reduce sulphur dioxide
releases from the process is the use of the lowest possible sulphur-content
feedstocks. In practice, low-sulphur feeds are typically used for product
quality reasons, since a substantial part of the sulphur remains fixed in the
product.
iii Treatment of the waste water
In the coking processes, sour water is generated (steam condensate).
Consequently, all water from the coking process is send to the sour-water
stripper before being sent to the waste water treatment plant.
iv Separation of the oil/ coke fines from the coke-cutting water
The proposed pollution prevention alternative was to retrofit the sump where
the oil/ coke fines are collected with an inclined plate separator to increase the
separation efficiency.
Coke fines and water generated from the coke-cutting operation enter an in-
ground sump where the solids and water are separated by gravity. A refinery
study indicated that over twenty-five tones a year of coke fines entered the
sewer system from that separator.
v Control and re-use of the coke fines
Coke fines are often present around the coker unit and coke storage areas. The
coke fines can be collected and recycled before being washed to the sewers or
migrating off-site via the wind. Collection techniques include dry sweeping
the coke fines and sending the solids to be recycled or disposed of as non-
hazardous waste. Another collection technique involves the use of vacuum
ducts in dusty areas and vacuum hoses for manual collection which run to a
small baghouse for collection. This results in reduced soil contamination by
coke particulates including metals.
212
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214 215
Notes Chapter - 5
Exploration and Production
5.1 Introduction

India's GDP is growing at about 8-9% annually. Current projections are that this
trend will continue. High growth rate demands enhanced energy inputs, particularly
for a country like India where the per capita oil and gas consumption is almost one-
fifth of the global average. At the present rate of consumption, it is expected that
India's crude oil reserves will exhaust in less than 20 years from now while its
natural gas reserves will last for about 40 years. An additional strain is placed by the
fluctuating price of crude. Currently, we import over 73% of our crude oil
requirements.

5.1.1 Sedimentary Basins of India

India has 26 sedimentary basins of which only about 20% are moderately to well
explored. The remaining sedimentary area remains to be intensively explored.
Judging by the spate of recent discoveries, the areas that are yet to be explored hold
enormous promise.

Table - 5.1: Total Sedimentary Area: 3.14 Million Sq.Km.

Level of Area (Million Sq.Km.)
Exploration 1995-96 1998-99 2004-05 2006-07
Unexplored 1.557 1.276 0.698 0.468
Exploration Initiated 0.556 0.837 1.155 1.376
Poorly explored 0.529 0.529 0.689 0.655
Moderate to well 0.498 0.498 0.598 0.641
explored
Source : DGH

5.1.2 Production

Total oil production during 2007-08 was 34.11 MMT and that of gas 32.402 BCM.
The contribution of Pvt/JV companies was about 18% of the total Oil & Gas
production.

5.1.3 Drilling

Of the total of 415 wells drilled, 163 were exploratory and 252 were development
wells. As in the previous year, the national oil companies contributed to the bulk of
the drilling. A total of 1005050 meters were drilled which include 406960 meters of
exploratory and 598090 meters of development drilling.

5.2 Energy Efficiency Improvement Scope In Upstream Sector

The upstream hydrocarbon sector can generally be divided into four distinct
divisions:

1. Seismic survey, Exploration & development of hydrocarbon reservoirs

which primarily comprise of drilling rigs and allied equipment

217
 2. Production of Oil & Gas which may comprise of
a. Oil collection stations
b. Gas Compressor station
c. Sucker Rod Pumps
d. Water supply stations
e. Power Station
3. Transportation of Oil & Gas which may comprise of
a. Crude Oil Pumping Stations
b. Gas Compressor Stations
4. Gas Based Petrochemical Complexes
a. Petrochemical Plant
b. LPG Recovery Plants
c. LPG Bottling Plants
Effective and result oriented conservation methods adopted by the upstream
undertakings include reduction of gas flaring by re-injection of gas to underground
reservoir, installation of waste heat recovery systems, utilization of non-
conventional energy sources, undertaking energy audits & efficiency up gradation
of equipment & appliances, substitution of diesel with natural gas, deployment of
solar-powered illumination panels, battery operated vehicles, bio-gas etc.
5.2.1 Enhanced Oil Recovery
Crude oil development and production in oil reservoirs can include up to three
distinct phases: primary, secondary and tertiary (or enhanced) recovery. During
primary recovery, the natural pressure of the reservoir or gravity, drive oil into the
wellbore combined with artificial lift techniques (such as pumps), which bring the
oil to the surface. But only about 10 percent of a reservoir's original oil in place is
typically produced during primary recovery. Secondary recovery techniques to the
field's productive life generally by injecting water or gas to displace oil and drive it
to a production wellbore, resulting in the recovery of 20 to 40 percent of the original
oil in place.
However, with much of the easy-to-produce oil already recovered from oil fields,
producers have attempted several tertiary, or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR),
techniques that offer prospects for ultimately producing 30 to 60 percent or more of
the reservoir's original oil in place. Three major categories of EOR have been found
to be commercially successful to varying degrees:
• Thermal recovery, which involves the introduction of heat such as the
injection of steam to lower the viscosity or thin the heavy viscous oil and
improve its ability to flow through the reservoir.
• Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon
dioxide that expand in a reservoir to push additional oil to a production
wellbore or other gases that dissolve in the oil to lower its viscosity and
improves its flow rate.
• Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules
called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods or the use of
detergent-like surfactants to help lower the surface tension that often
prevents oil droplets from moving through a reservoir.
218
Each of these techniques has been hampered by its relatively high cost and in some
cases, by the unpredictability of its effectiveness.
5.2.2 CO2 Injection
The EOR technique that is attracting the most new market interest is carbon dioxide
(CO2)-EOR. First tried in 1972 in Scurry County, Texas, CO2 injection has been
used successfully at number of locations today.
The presence of an oil bearing transition zone beneath the traditionally defined base
(oil-water contact) of an oil reservoir is well established. What is now clear is that,
under certain geologic and hydrodynamic conditions, an additional residual oil
zone (ROZ) exists below this transition zone and this resource could add further to
oil resource in place and could be recoverable with state-of-the-art CO2-EOR
technologies.
Until recently, most of the CO2 used for EOR has come from naturally occurring
reservoirs. But new technologies are being developed to produce CO2 from
industrial applications such as natural gas processing, fertilizer, ethanol, and
hydrogen plants in locations where naturally occurring reservoirs are not available.
One demonstration at the Dakota Gasification Company's plant in Beulah, North
Dakota is producing CO2 and delivering it by a new 204-mile pipeline to the
Weyburn oil field in Saskatchewan, Canada. Encana, the field's operator, is
injecting the CO2 to extend the field's productive life, hoping to add another 25
years and as much as 130 million barrels of oil that might otherwise have been
abandoned.
A turning point in CO2-EOR advances is a project funded by US DOE in the Hall-
Gurney field in Kansas that seeks to demonstrate this technology's time has come -
providing energy, economic and environmental benefits. A companion project
underway in the Hall-Gurney field involves testing the feasibility of 4-D high
resolution seismic monitoring of CO2 injection in thin, relatively shallow mature
carbonate reservoirs. Incorporating such time-lapsed monitoring data into CO2-
EOR programs could dramatically improve the efficiency and economics of using
the technology in many Mid-continent fields.
Additional work has examined potential improvements in CO2-EOR technologies
beyond the state-of-the-art that can further increase this potential. This work
evaluating the potential of "game changing" improvements in oil recovery
efficiency for CO2-EOR illustrates that the wide-scale implementation of next
generation CO2-EOR technology advances have the potential to increase oil
recovery efficiency from about one-third to over 60 percent.
5.2.3 Other Areas
Crude Oil exploration is the most energy intensive operation and is explained in
detail in this chapter. The other major areas where energy is consumed and
opportunities for conservation exists are listed below:
5.2.3.1 Pumping Stations
The major energy consuming equipments generally are:
219
Electrical Motors: Improvement opportunity can be explored in appropriate
Loading Pattern, Power Factor improvement, Mechanical Power Transmission
Systems and other operational parameters.
Pumping System: Improvement opportunity can be explored by optimising the
pumping and allied system pressures, RPM of the engines, engine efficiencies and
other operational parameters for crude oil driven engines for pumping of crude oil
or product and fire fighting pumps (Engine or Motor Driven) and feasibility of
reduction in the Power Consumption.
Air Compressors: Improvement opportunity can be explored by analysis of
various parameters like intake receiver capacity, operational Free Air Delivery
(FAD) of the Air Compressors, leakages in the system, evaluation of the feasibility
of Pressure Optimisation etc.
Illumination System: Improvement opportunity can be explored by use of energy
efficient lighting systems.
DG Sets Performance: Improvement opportunity can be explored by operation of
DG Sets to evaluate their average cost of Power Generation and subsequently
identify areas wherein energy savings could be achieved after analysing the
operational practices.
Specific Energy Consumption: SEC per throughput of each station and
comparison of SEC of each station should be found out and benchmarked.
Consumption vs. Power Generated and by improving performance with reduced
specific electrical energy consumption.
The major equipments are electrical system network, motors, air compressors,
Cooling Towers, Illumination systems, where energy conservation opportunities
can be explored.
Electrical System Network: Improvement opportunity can be explored by study of
all the Transformer operations of various Ratings / Capacities, their Operational
Pattern, Loading, No Load Losses, Power Factor Measurement on the Main Power
Distribution Boards and possible improvements in energy metering systems for
better control and monitoring.
5.2.3.5 Sucker Rod Pumps
The major equipments are motors, DG Sets, Illumination systems, etc.
5.2.3.6 Gas Processing Plants
The major equipments consists of motors, pumps, steam systems, HRSGs, Boilers,
Captive Power houses, Gas Turbines, Steam turbines, Gas Compressors, Air
Compressors, Steam Traps, Illumination, Heaters, distillation/ separation columns,
cooling towers, transformers, electrical system networks, air conditioning etc.
Case Study 1: Energy Audit of a major Gas based Petrochemical Complex
Brief

Diesel & Crude Oil Handling System: Improvement opportunity can be explored The Petrochemical Complex is designed to process 12 million metric standard
by monitoring energy consumption in heater in centrifuge unit, fuel forwarding cubic meter per day (MMSCMD) of natural gas to produce 440,000 TPA of
modules, etc. and study the feasibility of energy conservation. Ethylene in the first phase and down stream products, such as the various grades of
high density polyethylene (HDPE) and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). A
5.2.3.2 Gas Compressor Stations (GCS) LPG recovery unit is being installed and successfully producing 258250 TPA of
LPG and 71,000 TPA of Propane from the natural gas.
Study of Gas Compressors in GCS (Motor / Gas Engine Driven Unit):
Improvement opportunity can be explored by Studying the Operational practices The main energy sources of the plant are electricity and Natural gas. The plant
being adopted, Monitoring the Specific Energy Consumption, Scheduling of the consumes about 42 Million kWh electrical units per annum (from the grid), around
Gas / Motor Driven Compressors, Formulation of specific recommendations for 240 Million from in-house and natural gas quantity of 363 Million sm3 per annum.
reduction in the overall Electrical energy/Gas Consumption. The major equipments
are Motors, Air Compressors, Cooling Towers, Illumination systems. Energy savings
Summary of Energy Savings
Cooling Towers: Improvement opportunity can be explored by studying the
operational performance of the Cooling towers through measurements of Description Unit Quantity
Electricity @ Rs. 4.5/kWh Million kWh/annum 25.8
temperature differential, air/ water flow rate and then evaluate specific performance
Lean Gas @ Rs. 10/SCM MMSCM*/annum 13.0
parameters like approach, efficiency etc.
* MMSCM = 106 Standard Cubic Metre
5.2.3.3 Water Supply Station
Annual savings : Rs. 246.3 Million
The major equipments are motors, pumps and Illumination systems Investment required : Rs. 124.7 Million
5.2.3.4 Power Station Payback period : 6 months

Improvement opportunity can be explored by evaluating the operational efficiency
of turbines & alternators, Evaluation of the Specific Energy Consumption pattern of
the Gas/Steam Turbine as well as allied equipment, Load rationalization & overall
reduction in the Specific Energy Consumption, Evaluation of Specific Gas/Steam
Thermal Energy Systems
The Plant has three utility boilers UB#1, UB#2 & UB#3, each designed to generate
VHP steam at 105 kg/cm2 and 515oC. The VHP steam generated in the utility boilers

220 221
is used in utility steam turbines for power generation and subsequently for driving Annual savings : Rs. 3.7 Million
the boiler auxiliaries and for process heat applications. The recommendations Investment required : Rs. 3.5 Million
pertaining to the operation of the two boilers (UB#1 & UB#3), which were in Payback period : 11 months
operation during the field visit of the audit are as follows:
• Boiler feed water pump (Utility boiler#2)
• Optimization of excess air in Utility Boiler UB#2
The feed water pump operating efficiency was much below (38%) the desired
The boiler was operating at a high excess air level of 68%, whereas the pump efficiency level (60%) for efficient operation. By replacing the existing
recommended level is 10%, resulting in high flue gas losses. As a result, the pump with an energy efficient pump, a saving of 0.42 Million kWh per year can
boiler efficiency dropped by 4 percent points to 91% (NCV basis) as against the be achieved.
design value of 95%. By maintaining the O2% in flue gases always below 3%
Annual savings : Rs. 1.9 Million
(in order to keep excess air level below 15%) by continuous monitoring of O2%
Investment required : Rs. 5.0 Million
in flue gases and thereby regulating the combustion airflow to the boiler, a Payback period : 32 months
saving of 1 MMSCM of gas per year can be achieved.
• Utility Steam Turbines
Annual savings : Rs. 10.0 Million
Investment required : Rs. 5.0 Million The plant has installed two nos. of Steam Turbo Generators (STG#1 &
Payback period : 6 months STG#2); one is extraction type having a capacity of 15.5 MW and the other is
condensing type of 25.5 MW, to meet the plant's electricity requirements.
• Optimization of excess air in Utility Boiler UB#3
STG# 1
The boiler was operating at a high excess air level of 46%, whereas the
recommended level is 10%, resulting in high flue gas losses. As a result, the • The observations and measurements showed that, the specific steam
boiler efficiency dropped by 6 percent points to 80% (GCV basis) as against the consumption per MW power generation is higher than the rated/design
design value of 86%. By maintaining the O2% in flue gases always below 3% condition. This may be due to leakage in labyrinth-gland packing
(in order to keep excess air level below 15%) by continuous monitoring of O2% between two stages or any other maintenance reason like
in flue gases and thereby regulating the combustion airflow to the boiler, a corrosion/erosion in turbine blade surface. Hence it was recommended to
saving of 0.9 MMSCM of gas per year can be achieved. consult the manufacturer to ascertain the possible reasons.
After rectifying the same the steam consumption may be reduced nearer
Annual savings : Rs. 9.1 Million
to the designed requirement. The steam consumption (T/MW) in the HP and
Investment required : Rs. 5.0 Million
Payback period : 6 months LP side is 21.23 and 12.21.

• Replacement of inefficient UB#2 FD Fan with that of energy efficient fan • The measurements and analysis showed that Steam Turbine efficiency in
both H.P. & L.P. stage was lower i.e. 61.8 % and 61.5 % than expected.
It was found that the efficiency of the steam turbine driven UB#2 FD fan
was much below (23%) the desirable efficiency level (60%). Hence, by • The loading of the turbine was 59%.
replacing the existing FD Fan of UB#2 with an energy efficient fan, a saving • By enhancing the loading of the turbine, reducing the leakages, the
of 0.3 Million kWh per year can be achieved. operating efficiency of the turbine can be enhanced to 65% with an annual
Annual savings : Rs. 1.4 Million savings of 1.2 MMSCM per year.
Investment required : Rs. 3.5 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 11.9 Million
Payback period : 29 months
Investment required : Rs. 5.0 Million
• Replacement of inefficient UB#3 FD Fan with that of energy efficient Payback period : 5 months
fan STG#2
The operational efficiency of UB#3 FD fan was poor (13%) compared to the • The turbine was running at low operating efficiency of 57.8 % because of
desirable efficiency level (60%). Hence, by replacing the existing FD Fan with operation of turbine at part load of 59 %.
an energy efficient FD Fan, a saving of 0.82 Million kWh per year can be
achieved. • By enhancing the loading of the turbine, reducing the leakages, the
operating efficiency of the turbine can be enhanced to 65 % with an annual
saving of 0.3 MMSCM per year

222 223
 Annual savings : Rs. 3.3 Million Payback period : 3 months
Investment required : Rs. 2.5 Million
Payback period : 9 months • Maintenance of faulty steam traps

• Heat Recovery Steam Generators
By improving the efficiency of HRSG - I & II by de-scaling the water side
surface, changing the layout of different components of the HRSG from the
existing to the proposed i.e. in the sequence of Super Heater-II, Super Heater-I,
Evaporator-II, Evaporator-I & Economizer, a saving of around 2% on a very
conservative estimate can be achieved. The modifications will lead to
increased steam generation. This increase will reduce the load on utility
boilers, which will ultimately reduce the natural gas consumption by 1.8
MMSCM of natural gas per year.
Annual savings : Rs. 17.8 Million
Investment required : Rs. 2.0 Million
Payback period : 2 months
• Cracked Gas (CG) Compressor
The specific steam consumption per KW shaft power in H.P. Stage was higher
with respect to the rated designed condition because of low efficiency of steam
turbine. By increasing the efficiency of HP as well as LP steam turbine a
saving of 1 MMSCM fo natural gas can be achieved.
By repairing the traps which are chocked and let the condensate flow
smoothly out of the system to ensure effective heat transfer, a saving of 0.1
MMSCM of natural gas per year can be achieved.
Annual savings : Rs. 1.0 Million
Investment required : Rs. 1.0 Million approx
Payback period : 12 months
• Performance evaluation of all steam traps
The savings estimated above was based on the survey conducted on 170 traps,
which form less than 20% of the total traps installed in the plant. The actual
energy savings that can be achieved by steam traps maintenance would be
several times higher than what has been estimated above. Therefore, it was
recommended to get a survey done for all the steam traps in the plant and
replace / repair the faulty traps immediately to arrest energy losses in the steam
system.
• Steam Distribution System
- Condensate recovery

Annual savings : Rs. 10.2 Million A total of 7 TPH of condensate can be recovered and reused as boiler feed
Investment required : Rs. 3.0 Million water from HDPE and LPG Plants. The investment required would be in terms
Payback period : 4 months of additional condensate pipes, condensate pump, and insulation of the
network. In addition to the fuel savings, the other benefits would be reduced
• Condensing Steam Turbine of Propylene (C3R )Refrigeration Compressor costs of water treatment of 7 TPH water. The net savings would be the
0.6 MMSCM of natural gas per year.
The condensing steam turbine of C3R compressor was running at poor
efficiency. This was due to leakage in labyrinth-gland packing between two Annual savings : Rs. 6.2 Million
stages or any other maintenance reason like corrosion/erosion in turbine blade Investment required : Rs. 3.0 Million
surface. Hence it was recommended to consult the manufacturer to ascertain Payback period : 6 months
the possible reasons. After rectifying the same, a saving of 0.17 MMSCM of
- Arresting steam leakages
natural gas per year can be achieved.
The plant had steam leakages at a number of areas. By arresting the steam
Annual savings : Rs. 1.7 Million
leakages from the identified areas (by replacing the damaged valves,
Investment required : Not ascertained
Payback period : NA pipefittings, flanges, traps, etc), a saving of 0.09 MMSCM of natural gas per
year can be achieved.
• Replacement of damaged traps
Annual savings : Rs. 0.9 Million
The plant had 44 faulty steam traps. By immediate replacement of these traps Investment required : Rs. 0.5 Million
to arrest steam leakage and losses, a saving of 0.2 MMSCM of natural gas per Payback period : 7 months
year can be achieved.
- Improve insulation of pipes
Annual savings : Rs. 2.1 Million
A number of areas in the steam lines had high surface temperatures. The high
Investment required : Rs. 0.45 Million
surface temperatures of insulated steam headers / pipes indicate the damaged
or inadequate insulation. It was recommended to replace the insulation to
arrest the heat losses thereby saving 0.04 MMSCM of natural gas per year.

224 225
 Annual savings : Rs. 0.35 Million becomes imperative for the plant to keep a good power factor on the main
Investment required : Rs. 0.03 Million incomer. For this, the plant has installed capacitors. The average PF being
Payback period : 1 months maintained was very close to unity, which is a good practice.
- Installation of back pressure steam turbine in place of PRDS • Motor Load Study:
To meet HP steam requirement, a PRDS was installed to convert VHP steam to A complete motor load survey was carried out during the energy audit so as to
HP steam. It was recommended to install a backpressure steam turbine in assess the motor loading pattern and assess the potential for motor down-sizing,
place of the PRDS. The turbine would facilitate power extraction to the extent application of VFD, soft starter etc. In all about 170 motors above 25kW were
of 2 MW and simultaneously expand the steam to the required level of studied and the basis for categorising the motors as under-loaded was loading
40 kg/cm2. A saving of 9.1 Million kWh per year can be achieved. less than 50%. In all 44 motors were found to be under-loaded (26% of the motors
studied). For the motors loaded less than 50%, an exercise was done to analyze
Annual savings : Rs. 40.9 Million the feasibility of replacement of these motors by suitably sized energy efficient
Investment required : Rs. 37 Million
motors (EEM). Few motors where the payback was less than 5 years are being
Payback period : 11 months
recommended for such replacement. For motors that offer a payback of 5 years or
• Furnaces less, the reduction in motor losses will be to the tune of 38.5 kW. An annual saving
of 0.31 Million kWh per year can be achieved by replacing the under loaded
- Improve the furnace insulation motors.
The surface temperature at various portions of the operating furnaces were Annual savings : Rs. 1.4 Million
found to be high. By improving the insulation at hot spots, a saving of 0.22 Investment required : Rs. 0.5 Million
MMSCM of natural gas per can be achieved. Payback period : 5 months

Annual savings : Rs. 22.3 Million • Power Factor Study:

Investment required : Rs. 1.75 Million
Payback period : 1 month During the audit of the electrical motors, the PF profiling was also done. For
most of the motors it was found that the PF was quite healthy but for a few
- Reduce blow down from Furnace # 3 and # 4 motors (20 in number out of a total of 170 studied), the PF was below 0.7,
which may be due to the low loading at the point of measurements. It was
The blow down rate of Furnace#3 and Furnace#4 was high compared to that advised that, for all motors, the PF should be kept as high as possible (ideally
of Furnace#1 & 2. The excess blow down from these two furnaces is 0.95) so as to have reduced line losses, to ensure better voltage regulation at
estimated to be 6 TPH. By reducing the blow down rate of these two the motor end & healthy motor load performance, to take proper care
furnaces to the optimum level, a saving of 0.3 MMSCM of natural gas per year regarding the loading pattern, over-hauling and re-winding practices.
can be achieved.
• Compressors:
Annual savings : Rs. 3.3 Million
Investment required : NIL • It was recommended to operate 3 HT compressors in place of operating 2
Payback period : Immediate LP air and 2 nitrogen compressors. The maximum air requirement for the plant
Electrical Systems is around 18400 CFM at a pressure of around 8 kg/cm2. Since three HT
compressors alone can meet this requirement if scheduled properly, it is
• Transformers advised to operate only three HT compressors. This will save 5.7 Million
kWh electrical units annually.
A complete loading analysis of the transformers was carried out. The
loading pattern showed that in most of the cases, the loading was on the Annual savings : Rs. 25.7 Million per annum
lower side. For most of the transformers the best efficiency point was in Investment required : Rs. 4.0 Million
the loading range of 40-50%, but the transformers were found to be Payback period : 2 months
operating at a lesser load. This has basically been done so as to have high
• Presently, the Khosla compressors are being used to supply air at 8 kg/cm2 to the
plant operating reliability. For the sake of reliability, the plant has
boiler/instrumentation. During the audit it was found that the LP air
compromised on higher transformer losses, which is justified owing to the
compressors were also operating at 8 kg/cm2 and since there was surplus capacity
critical & continuous operating schedule of the plant.
of these compressors, seldom the excess air compressed by these air
• Capacitors: compressors is vented out at high pressure. It was recommended that instead of
venting this high-pressure air, which represents energy loss, this air should be used to
The billing from the state electricity board was based on kVAh and hence it
226 227
 supply boiler/instrumentation purposes & thus avoid the operation of the Khosla kWh per year.
compressor. This will save 0.13 Million kWh electrical energy per year.
Annual savings : Rs. 5.3 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 0.6 Million Investment required : Nominal
Investment required : Rs. 0.1 Million Payback period : Immediate
Payback period : 2 months
• Installation of variable speed drives for pumps in DM plant and CPU plant
• As service air application require air at low pressures, it was recommended to
use transvector nozzles for cleaning & service air requirements. This Recirculation valves are installed to degasser water pump, condensate
exercise will help save 0.09 Million kWh electrical units per annum. feed pump and polished condensate transfer pump. It was recommended to
install VSD to these pumps to avoid recirculation thereby saving 0.33 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 0.42 Million kWh per year.
Investment required : Rs. 0.2 Million
Payback period : 6 months Annual savings : Rs. 1.5 Million
Investment required : Rs. 2.1 Million
• Lighting: Payback period : 17 months

• It was found that lighting transformers were all under-loaded. It was advised to • Replacement of DM water transfer pumps with one large pump coupled
explore the possibility of supplying adjacent areas by a single lighting with VSD
transformer so as to improve the transformer loading.
DM water transfer pumps were operating at poor efficiency and recirculation
• Replacement of the conventional tube-lights, presently operating with was observed across the valve. It was recommended to replace the present
copper chokes, around 3500 in number, by the energy efficient T-5 tube pumps with one large pump coupled with VSD, saving 0.34 Million kWh per
-lights and with electronic ballast was recommended. This measure will save year.
0.23 Million kWh units of electrical units annually.
Annual savings : Rs. 1.52 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 1.04 Million Investment required : Rs. 1.5 Million
Investment required : Rs. 1.93 Million Payback period : 12 months
Payback period : 22 months
• Replacement of raw water transfer pumps
Water Pumping System & Cooling Towers
Raw water collected in Reservoir # 3 is transferred to Reservoir # 1 with the aid
The Plant has several water pumping systems such as cooling water of two pumps. It was found that the actual head was too high compared to rated
supply, raw water supply, DM water system in addition to three large head and efficiency was low. It was recommended to replace the present
cooling towers. pumps with required head pump (32 m) and thereby achieve energy savings of
0.2 Million kWh per year.
• Rationalisation of CT # 1 water pumps operation
Annual savings : Rs. 0.9 Million
GCU (Gas Cracker Unit) section has a separate set of pumps while GPU (Gas Investment required : Rs. 0.6 Million
Processing Unit) & IOP (Integrated Oxide Plant) has different set of pumps Payback period : 8 months
with dedicated headers. It was recommended to replace the impellers of pumps
and operate as a common system thereby resulting in reduction of power • Installation of variable speed drive to the cooling water make up pump
consumption by 5.0 Million kWh per year.
During the audit study it was observed that there is wide variation in flow
Annual savings : Rs. 22.64 Million and pressure of cooling water make up pump. It was suggested to install
Investment required : Rs. 10.0 Million variable speed drive to the motor and control the speed by monitoring the
Payback period : 5 months pressure, thereby saving 0.12 Million kWh per year of energy.

• Reduce the discharge pressure of pumps (or) replace the pumps with Annual savings : Rs. 0.54 Million
suitable capacity (head and flow) for CT# 2 Investment required : Rs. 0.7 Million
Payback period : 16 months
It was recommended to verify the actual water pressure requirement and
accordingly initiate the steps either to reduce the water pressure or replace the
pumps with suitable head, resulting in an annual energy saving of 1.2 Million
kWh per year.

228 229
• Interconnection of RWTP # 1 and RWTP # 2 tanks and avoid the pump
operation
Filtered water is stored by the plant in two tanks. Both the tanks are at the same
ground level. Water is transferred from one tank to the other using a pump. It
was recommended to interconnect these two tanks at the bottom level to avoid
the operation of pumps and result in annual energy saving of 0.3 Million kWh.
Annual savings : Rs. 1.3 Million
Investment required : Rs. 0.5 Million
Payback period : 5 months
5.3 Energy Efficiency In Exploration Activity (Rigs)
Crude oil exploration is a very costly operation. The main equipment for
oil exploration is a drilling Rig.
Generally the Rig consists of the following machineries:
1 Main Derrick consisting of a drilling platform, cat walk platform and two
big pulleys. The upper pulley is called the Crown Block and the lower one
called Traveling Block, through which, the winch is moved by Draw
works. The Draw works may be electric driven or mechanical driven. The
Draw works drills the well with the help of drilling bits and shrouded
pipes.
2 DG Sets, which are the heart of the Rig supplying power during drilling as
well as Rig building phase.
3 Mud pumps for the circulation of mud during drilling and well formation
takes around 20 days. For offshore operation rig moves from one location to
another location either by towing or self propelled. Time taken depends on the
distance to be moved.
Spudding / Drilling phase: During this phase, almost all the machineries of the
Rig are run and this phase consumes the maximum energy in terms of HSD.
This phase continues for a period of about 100 to 120 days depending upon the
depth of the well.
Production Testing phase: During this phase, the samples of the well are tested
and then Rig is dismantled. This stage takes about 60 days.
5.3.1 Energy Consumption
Energy used in a Drilling rig is Electrical energy. This electrical energy is
produced using captive mobile power generation units. In very rare cases, grid
power is also used. The fuel for these power generation units is either HSD or
Natural gas.
The primary source of energy in a Drilling Rig is the Diesel Oil for DG sets.
Most of the DGs in the exploration rigs in India are old and de-rated and are
expected to consume higher fuel as compared to the design.
5.3.2 Basic Process Flow Diagram
SPUDDING

and as and when required.

4 Supercharger pumps to supply mud to the suction of mud pumps MUD
5 Desilter pump for the purpose of desilting from dirty mud coming out CIRCULATION DRILLING
from the well.
6 Desander pump for the purpose of removing sand from the dirty mud
coming out from the well
7 Air compressors to cater air to winch, clutch and Twin stop cam counter of if casing NO
Draw works. depth ok
8 Agitators for the purpose of mixing of mud
9 Shale shakers YES
10 Degasser
11 Fuel Tanks & Fuel pumps CASING
12 Eddy current Brake for control of Draw works
13 Bunker Lab for the testing of mud quality
14 Bunker housing CEMENTING
15 Cranes
16 For floating rigs - anchors or dynamic positioning system. For self
propelled drill ships - propulsion system. HERMETICALLY
SEALING
17 Water maker to produce drinking water on the rig
18 Cementing unit - to cement casing against formation.
19 Blow out preventor - to control well pressure. If target NO
depth ok
Total operation of the Rig consists of following three phases: YES

Rig building phase: During this phase, the skid mounted portable machineries STOP
are transported to the site by tailor trucks and are being installed. This stage
Figure - 5.1
230 231
5.3.3 Energy Management Plan
The measures identified may be short term, medium term or long term
requiring nil to high investments. Medium & Long term efforts are
structured and normally implemented without much efforts. One example
of long-term efforts is the replacement of outdated, energy inefficient DG
engines like D 399 by new energy efficient models like CAT 3516
requiring high investment of the tune of Rs 250 Crores.
However short term programs are basically voluntary and needs to be push
forwarded by:
• Awareness generation
• Leadership demonstration
• Top management support
A good energy management plan for a Rig should generally comprise of:
- Fuel consumption to be compared with specific energy generation.
- Proper log sheet for regular energy monitoring
- Instrumentation / software to facilitate energy logging and evaluation
of specific energy generation.
- Energy monitoring based on norms developed.
- Energy monitoring to be based on drilling depth and soil condition.
- Segregation of AC and DC loads and have power packs dedicated
to AC and DC operation.
5.3.4 Best Operation Practices in Rigs
Best Operating Practices (BOP) is referred to operating procedures and
good house keeping habits for reducing the wastage of energy, reducing &
preventing environmental pollution. The overall philosophy of BOP is to
conduct every day activity in more efficient, safe and environmentally
sound manner.
5.3.4.1 Efficient Operation of DG sets
• When the total running load during non-drilling days is small (in the range
of 50 KVA), a smaller rating ( say 63 KVA) DG set should be used during
non-drilling days
• Monitoring of specific energy generation ratio (SEGR). SEGR of a DG set
is a performance indicator, which is proportional to the extent of loading of
the set. At part load operation, the efficiency of the DG set drops with
consequent decrease in the SEGR value. Proper monitoring of SEGR will
help in conserving energy.
• Monitoring of Lube oil quality. The drain interval of lube oil specified by
the manufacturer is based on worst operating conditions and a high factor
of safety.
By follow of good operating and maintenance practices, there is a distinct
possibility that the condition of the lube oil remains good and usable even
after the specified period.
• Testing of lube oil for certain physicochemical properties like viscosity,
total base number, water content, insoluble build up etc, may extend the
drain interval for lube oil.
232
5.3.4.2 Efficient Operation of Mud Pumps
This is the single largest load on a Rig consuming 50 to 60% of total energy
consumed on a rig.
These have an operating pressure of 5000 to 7000 psi and hydraulic efficiency
is normally more than 90%.
Reciprocating Pump operates at constant efficiency levels and hence has
constant losses. Below are some general measures for energy conservation in a
mud pump operation:
• The biggest culprit for energy wastage in mud pump is idling during lunch
& shift changeover and higher discharge rate.
• Under loading of the prime mover is another fuel wasting situation.
• Suction starvation can cause performance loss and failure of pump.
• Entrained gas may reduce suction Efficiency
• Each pump should feed Separate Mud Processing Equipment.
• Mud temperatures of 660C can present critical suction problems
• A poorly designed discharge manifold can cause shock waves and
excessive pressure peaks
• Excessive solids can:
1) cause wears on drilling equipment
2) reduce ROP (Rate of Penetration)
3) cause a thick and permeable filter cake and fluid loss
4) cause unwanted pump exertion
5.3.4.3 Efficient Operation of Agitator
The following information must be known to properly size an agitator system:
• Tank and compartment dimensions
• Compartment shape
• Compartment duty (solids removal, testing, suction, storage, or pill/slug)
• Maximum mud density expected
• Coupling of multiple agitators to one motor
• Agitator & mud gun combination gives better agitation
5.3.4.4 Efficient Operation of Air compressors
• In a rig, compressed air is used for pneumatic control; start up operation of
DG sets etc.
• Regular maintenance should be undertaken as per schedule
• All air leakages must be plugged
• In many installations, the compressors are manually switched on/off at the
required pressure. Installation of automatic pressure switch with
predetermined setting can save wastage of energy.
• Use of automatic drain valve in the air receiver. By using the auto drain
valve, water would only be allowed to pass intermittently depending on
the water level in the air receiver, thereby minimising the wastage of
compressed air.
5.3.4.5 "Deep Trek" and Other Drilling R&D
The U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy kicked off the 'Deep
Trek' Program in 2002 to help develop high-tech drilling tools that industry
needs to explore the deeper deposits of hydrocarbons. The goal was to develop
a "smart" drilling system tough enough to withstand the extreme temperatures,
233
 pressures and corrosive conditions of deep reservoirs, yet economical enough horizontally.
to make the hydrocarbons affordable to produce. The projects include
advancing drilling performance, developing "smart" communication systems, e) The Microhole Technology
instrumentation, novel drill bits and fluids, and novel pipe systems that are able
The Microhole Technology drills small diameter boreholes (approximately
to withstand the severe temperatures (over 400oF) and pressures in deep two-inch diameter), using smaller sized equipments to complete microholes,
horizons. and advanced diagnostic tools to measure important reservoir characteristics.
These "smart" drilling systems can report key measurements - temperature, The cost reduction using this technology is estimated to be nearly one-half the
pressure, fluid content, geology, etc. - as a well is drilled. Sophisticated cost of traditional drilling rigs. The feasibility of microhole technology has
electronic systems can identify potential trouble spots on a real-time basis, been demonstrated by pioneering work conducted by Los Alamos National
allowing operators to make adjustments without interruption or costly work Laboratory (LANL) in collaboration with Maurer Technology. The team has
stoppages. successfully used coiled-tubing-deployed micro drilling to drill wells as small
as 1-3/4-inch in diameter and as deep as 800 ft.
5.3.4.6 Other Drilling Advancements
5.3.5 Energy Conservation Measures In Drilling Rigs
a) Mud Pulse
The heart of the drilling rig is the Power Packs i.e., the DG sets which are
It is the first system to transmit drill bit location by sending pressure pulses generating power for the entire Rig by using HSD in diesel engines .The
through drilling mud, which was developed by the US Energy Department and consumption of HSD in the DG sets varies between 500 lits per day to 2500 lits
Teleco, Inc. Today, this "mud pulse" measurement-while-drilling telemetry has per day depending upon the following factors:
become standard in the industry.
1. Location (formation type)
b) IntelliPipe 2. Drilling hole diameter
3. Drilling depth
A new technology system in downhole telemetry, sponsored by US DOE called 4. Health of the DG engines
IntelliPipe turns an oil and gas drill pipe into a high-speed data transmission 5. Pull out practice (operation of drillers foot, pull out time per pipe)
tool capable of sending data from the bottom of a well up to 200,000 times
The most important factor out of the above points is the health of the DG
faster than mud pulse and other downhole telemetry technology in common
engines. The health of engine plays the major role in the oil (HSD)
use today. Potential benefits include decreased costs, improved
consumption in the Rig. For example one of the Rigs operating in India in the
safety, and reduced environmental impacts from drilling.
north east part of India is being operated with maximum 3 nos. of DG sets for a
c) New drill bits drilling depth of about 2500 Meter and at the same time with almost same
formation and same drilling depth the other Rig is being operated with 4 nos. of
The polycrystalline diamond (PDC) drill bit, now the industry standard for DG sets (both the places the ages of the engines are almost same). The reason
drilling into difficult formations, is a Revolutionary new drill bit developed by for the same is better maintenance prevailing in the first site.
US Energy Department's research program. Scientists at the Energy
Department's Sandia National Laboratories have successfully developed a Good Maintenance Practices
"diffusion bonding" approach. More recently, Penn State University, working
Checking schedule
under an Office of Fossil Energy contract, developed a way to use microwaves
to harden the tungsten carbide of deep drilling bits, resulting in a 30 percent 1. Name of the parts Checking after
increase in strength.
Liner 200 Hrs
d) Advanced composite drill pipe materials (Carbon fiber) Piston 200 Hrs
Valve insert 24-36 Hrs
The drilling system of the future may also employ new advances in drill pipe Valve spring 24-36 Hrs
materials as a result of the Energy Department's research program. In mid Valve cover gasket 24-36 Hrs
2004, the Department announced the development of a new "composite" drill Water Valve 24-36 Hrs
pipe that is lighter, stronger and more flexible than steel, which could Valve Sheet 24-36 Hrs
significantly alter the ability to drain substantially more oil and gas from rock
than traditional vertical wells.

The carbon fiber drill pipe is likely to weigh less than half the
weight of steel drill pipe, and the lighter the pipe, the less torque and drag is
created, and the greater distance a well can be drilled both vertically and
234 235
Daily Checking advantage of this is that at a time 3 strands can be put together for drilling
operation. Hence the total time for drilling can be reduced considerably. But at the
Lube oil
Ø same time fuel consumption will increase during drilling phase because of
Radiator water & Radiator cap
Ø
additional load of electrical TOP DRIVE in place of conventional mechanical
Bearing condition (visually)
Ø
Rotary Drive. However overall energy saving is envisaged to be less in such rig
Belt
Ø
Leak of Fuel
Ø
operation due to less no of days required for drilling. As per GTO (Geo Technical
Oil
Ø Order) the total number of days envisaged was 368 days but as per actual status this
Air cleaner box indicator
Ø rig operation has been estimated to be 300 days that too including 45 days of idling
due to problem in the newly installed TOP DRIVE system.
Quality of Radiator water plays a very important role. If possible DM water may be
used and 20% coolant to be used along with the radiator water. This will ensure at Study Of Energy Consumption Pattern - Preceding Three Years
least 0.5 % saving of fuel (HSD) in DG engine Parameters YEARS
2002 - 2003 2003 - 2004 2004 - 2005
Fluid end part HSD (LT) Consumption 762098 1228036 147420
POL (LT) Consumption 14910 28560 1100
Name of the parts Checking after MTR DRILL 7869 4752 2335
kWh/MTR 352.53 940.67 134.76
Valve insert 24-36 Hrs TOTAL kWh 2774058 4470064 314673
SFC 0.2747 0.2747 0.468
Valve spring 24-36 Hrs
Valve cover gasket 24-36 Hrs
Rig was commissioned in March 2005 after total overhauling of DGs.
Water Valve 24-36 Hrs
Valve Sheet 24-36 Hrs Details Of DG Engines
Lube Oil Sr No Item DG 1 DG 2 DG 3 DG 4
GENERAL
1 Engine serial no. 2XJ00014 36Z02060 36Z01988 36Z01525
Lube oil selection and use plays an important role in the efficiency of DG engines
2 Peak Load (kVA) 600 600 600 600
Lube oil consumption tells about the health of engine. Appropriate specific
Ø Total Working hrs.
3 (Present Well) 276 276 276 276
lube oil consumption for D-399 Caterpillar engine is 0.5 lit/hr. If the oil
consumption goes higher than this value, engine needs attention. FUEL
4 Type of fuel HSD (Diesel) HSD (Diesel) HSD (Diesel) HSD (Diesel)
Lube oil to be changed after every 1000 Hrs (of course after checking the
Ø 5 Fuel Density 0.865 at 150C 0.865 at 150C 0.865 at 150C 0.865 at 150C
quality as mentioned below) Method of checking fuel Manual By Tank Dip Manual By Tank Manual By Tank Dip Manual By
6
Use 15 W-40 after talking to OEM, in place of SAE30 as recommended by
Ø quantity Dip Tank Dip
OEM. 17 Fuel Consumption of 991037 Lts
Present Well (as on
Condition monitoring may be started after every 250 Hrs with the help of
Ø 11.08.05 in Lts.)
portable analyzer kit (cost around Rs 35000/-)
Lube oil to be changed when the following conditions appear
Ø
SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption, lit/kWh) of DGs of the rig
• TBN (Total Base Number) : Variation of 50% of original value.
NO. OF DG SETS IN RIG: 04 (FOUR)
• Flash point : 50 Degree below the original value.
• Viscosity (centistokes) : 25 ± original value. ENGINE PARTICULARS
Present status (SFC) * Design parameter (SFC)
S.no. DG ID Make Model Engine sl. Capacity
Maintaining the condition of lube oil of DG set will ensure increased efficiency No. 25% 50% 75% 100% 25% 50% 75% 100%
of the engine and a saving minimum 0.5 % HSD consumption as compared to 1 DG 1 CATERPILLAR D 399 2XJ00014 1215 0.35 0.31 0.30 NA 0.324 0.2743 0.2617 0.2674

deteriorated lube oil. 2 DG 2 CATERPILLAR D 399 36Z02060 1215 0.37 0.325 0.329 NA 0.324 0.2743 0.2617 0.2674

3 DG 3 CATERPILLAR D 399 36Z01988 1215 0.34 0.31 0.30 NA 0.324 0.2743 0.2617 0.2674
Case Study 2: Energy Audit at an Onshore Drilling Rig
4 DG 4 CATERPILLAR D 399 36Z01523 1215 0.385 0.365 0.355 NA 0.324 0.2743 0.2617 0.2674
About The Rig

All the DGs / Alternators are totally overhauled during July/ August 2004 and put
back for use in THE RIG in March 2005. The Power Control Room (PCR) of the rig
is absolutely new and its make is National Oil Well (Model 2001). The rig is unique
as it is the only rig where Variable Frequency Driven TOP Drive system has been
implemented in place of Rotary Drive System for the first time in Assam Region. The
* Trials were taken by isolating DGs from the existing fuel oil system and using
half cut drum for supplying HSD fuel to DG set and recording the dip before and
after the trial.

236 237
Present Fuel Consumption Of DG Sets Estimation Of Saving Potential During Drilling Phase
SFC of DG 1 (at 35% loading) : 0.33 Basis:
SFC of DG 2 (at 35% loading) : 0.33
SFC of DG 3 (at 35% loading) : 0.345 1. Average SFC estimated at an average loading of 25% (including drilling and
SFC of DG 4 (at 35% loading) : 0.37 idling period) during the drilling phase at 1400-23 Rig = 0.4249 lit/kWh
SFC Curve of DG 1 (DG 1: 0.4219, DG2: 0.4295, DG3: 0.4269, DG4: 0.4212)
2. Average loading of DG set is increased to minimum 35% from the present
Actual vs Design SEC CURVE (% Loading of DG vs consumption of HSD) of DG average loading of 25% so as to decrease the average SFC from 0.4249 to 0
engine will give the clear picture about the health of DG set at a particular point of .3675 (DG 1: 0.36, DG2: 0.3675, DG3: 0.3825, DG4: 0.36)
time. More the gap between the actual and the design curve, more the aging of the 3. Monthly average kWh measured during the trial = 370800 kWh.
engine and more care is required in terms of maintenance.
Estimation:

SFC CURVE OF DG 1 Hence if the DGs are run at minimum loading of average 35% instead of average
0.5
25% loading monthly saving = 370800 (0.4249 - 0.3675) = 21284 lit
0.45 = 21.2 KL of HSD = Rs. 0.678 Million
SFC,LIT/KWHr

0.4
Savings Due To Installation Of One 125 kVA DG Set For Running During Rig
0.35 Building, Production Testing And Logging Operation And Simple Pay Back
0.3
Period.
0.25
Basis:
0.2
1. Load during day time : 60 kW
0.15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2. Load during night time : 90 kW
3. No. of days of duration for production testing and : 75
% LOADING
SFC(DESIGN) logging and Rig building phase
SFC(ACTUAL) 4. SFC with 125 kVA DG set with 75 % loading : 0.300 (at 75% load)
5. SFC with existing big DG with 10% loading during : 0.40
production testing, logging operation
Energy savings
Estimation For The Energy Saving
No Cost Option
1. Total Energy required during 75 days at day time = 75 (days) x 60 (kW) x 12 hrs
SL. DESCRIPTION SAVINGS POTENTIAL INVESTMENT PAYBACK
NO. (Rs. in lakhs) MONTHS = 54,000
KLOE / Rs. 2. Total energy required during 75 days at night time = 76 (days) x 90 x 12 = 81,000
MONTH (Million/
(Lakhs/m
month)
onth) Hence total energy required during 75 days = 54000 + 81000
1 Running of each DG at minimum loading 21.2 6.78
0.678 - Immediate of production testing, logging period = 135,000 kWh
of 35%
3. HSD consumption to generate 135,000 kWh of energy by big caterpillar engine with SFC
of 0.4 lit/KWhr at an average loading of 10% = 135,000 x 0.40
Medium Cost Option
= 54,000 lits of HSD
SL. DESCRIPTION SAVINGS POTENTIAL INVESTMENT PAYBACK 4. HSD consumption to generate 135,000 kWh of energy by 125 kVA DG set with SFC of 0.3
NO. (Rs. in lakhs) MONTHS lit/KWhr at an average loading min 75% =1,35,000 X 0.3
TOTAL Rs.
KLOE Millions
(Lakhs) = 40,500 lits of HSD
1 To install one no. of 125 KVA DG set to 13.5 4.32
0.432 8 22 months 5. Hence total saving of HSD = 54,000 - 40,500 = 13,500 lits
run during production testing, logging and
rig building phase = Rs. 0.432 Million

High Cost Option Pay Back Period For The Installation Of 125 kVA Smaller DG Set
SL. DESCRIPTION SAVINGS INVESTMENT PAYBACK 1. The investment required = 0.8 Million
NO. POTENTIAL (Rs. in lakhs) MONTHS
TOTAL Rs. 2. Savings expected = 0.432 Million
KLOE Millions
(Lakhs) (during 75 days of production testing logging)
1 To run DG at 50% load min. in stead of 45.6 14.59
1.459 9 22 months
25% by installing 4 nos. of APFC at the 3. Payback period = (0.8 / 0.432) x 12 = 22 months
PCR, 2 nos. of fixed capacitor bank at the
DBs of 1000 HP DC motor and to install 6
nos. of soft starters

238 239
Installation Of Capacitor Bank Total Saving = 45634 lit/kWh of HSD
= 45.6 KL/HSD = Rs 1.459 Million
The main problem of a drilling RIG is the power factor of power generated by the 5. The payback period for the above investment
DG engines. Due to sudden change of load in the RIG due various reasons the DC = 0.9 Million (investment) x 12 = 7 months
load of Draw works and mud pump (AC load of DG is getting changed to DC with 1.459 Million
the help of SCRs to supply DC power to Draw works and Mud pump). As the DC 5.4 Activities of Conservation of Oil and Gas in ONGC
load increases or decreases the power fluctuates from as low as 0.2 to 0.65 resulting
ONGC has taken many steps for conservation of energy. One of the examples of its
KVA demand (KW/PF) fluctuation. The poor factor actually force the electrical
long-term efforts is the plan for replacement of all D-399 engines by new energy
man in the RIG to run additional engines for safety factor so as to avoid black out
efficient engines model CAT 3516 at a cost of about Rs. 250 Crores. These CAT
situation. This results in poor loading of individual DGs resulting high
3516 engines are 5% more efficient.
consumption of HSD at poor loading.
5.4.1 Year wise consumption in ONGC
One solution for improving and sustaining the power can be installation of
automated power factor controller. But globally there is no instance for adopting Year 2006-07 2007-08
such APFC. However efforts can be made in this direction on experimental basis. 196440.7 215419.4
HSD in KL
Estimation Of kVAr Requirement For The Capacitor Banks Natural Gas in
MMSCM 1602.5 1739.6
Calculation of KVAR for APFC (for installation at the common outlet of all the
DGs) 5.4.2 Steps initiated to conserve Petroleum products
kVAr requirement = Maximum load (kW) [tan (cos-1 Ø 1) - tan (cos-1 Ø 2)]
Where Ø1 = 0.4 (av. PF of the system) ONGC's program of oil conservation is briefly summarized as below:
Ø2 = 0.7 (max. PF that can be achieved)
= 1250 [ tan (Cos-1 0.4) - tan (Cos-10.7)] (A) Action Taken In-house For Conservation
= 1250 [tan (66.42) - tan (45.57)]
= 1250 [2.29 - 1.02] a) Awareness Program is held every year under OGCF (Oil & Gas Conservation
= 1587 1600 Fortnight)
b) Seminar / Conference is organized for deliberation of issues on petroleum
Hence four nos. of APFCs of each 400 kVAr capacity in series can be put at the PCR conservation.
(Power Control Room) to improve upon the PF. c) ONGC Energy policy is already framed
d) Energy Conservation tips are continuously scrolled on ONGC's house portal.
Estimation Of Savings Potential By Improving The Power Factor (From 0.4 To e) E.C. Committee has issued two policies on conservation as under
0.7) And Reducing The kVA Demand Of The Rig • Use of Solar Water Heating Systems in ONGC
• Use of Energy Efficient Lighting System in ONGC
Basis: f) On line quiz being held every year for ONGC employees and their wards.
g) Three booklets are issued on conservation of Oil & Gas.
1. Existing avg. PF of Rig = 0.4 • Urja Udai
2. Improved PF of Rig after installation of APFCs and fixed type Capacitor Bank = 0.65 • Energy Conservation Techniques
3. Present average loading of DGs is 25% • Quest
Estimation For Saving h) A company wide training drive as "Energy Conservation Techniques
1. One DG can be stopped by reducing the peak demand from 1250 kW max Training" has been taken up with the help of PCRA for training about 20000
(3125 kVA) to 1925 kVA with the help of capacitor (Automated and fixed). By officials of ONGC.
this in extreme situation, instead of running 4 DGs (each DG can take care 970 i) All models of engines have been audited and corrected for their running
kVA max (80% of 1215 kVA limited to alternator). 2 DGs can cater the same efficiency.
load. j) 285 CAT D-399 Engines being replaced in phased manner by CAT D-3816
2. On the safer side if 3 DGs run in place of 4 DGs during the entire period of the Energy Efficient Engines.
rig operation, operation of 1 DG can be stopped. k) Solar Water Heating Systems of different capacity has already been installed
3. Considering stopping of one DG throughout the rig operation thereby on following locations in ONGC.
increasing the loading by around 25% (from 25% loading to 50% loading) the 1. 1300 Litres Per Day (LPD) at ONGC Guest House Tel Bhawan, Dehradun.
SFC can be reduced from 0.3220 to 0.3025 (refer actual SFC curves of DGs) 2. 9000LPD at ONGC Hospital Dehradun.
4. Considering the total power requirement of 2340200 kWh (estimated earlier) 3. 7200LPD at GT Hostel in ONGC Academy.
during the entire period of Rig Operation and a reduction of SFC by 0.0195 4. 7200LPD at ONGC Colony Dehradun.
lit/kWh.

240 241
 5. 800LPD at Officers Club ONGC Dehradun. • Use of Aluminium paint in all crude oil storage tanks to minimize
evaporation loss.
l) 50MW Wind Power Project has been installed in Gujarat, near Bhuj. With a • Use of Oil Soluble De-emulsifier (OSD).
saving potential of Rs. 29.86 Crores/Year. • Use of dual fuel (Natural Gas and Crude Oil as fuel) engine in Crude Oil
Dispatch Pumps in PS-1 & PS-2 since natural gas is available.
m) More then 200 Energy Audits Carry outs on the different ONGC Installations. • Regular & proper maintenance of Crude Oil Transportation Trunk/ Branch
Pipelines to minimize pumping power requirement. This is further reduced by
(B) Expected reduction in consumption (from major initiatives) treating the crude oil with flow improver chemical / heat treatment.
1. "Energy Conservation Techniques Training" 3- 5% • Water Clarification Plant and use of De-Oiler.
2. Solar Water Heating Systems in ONGC 5-10% • Retrieved from various pits and sumps.
3. Wind Power Projects 10-15% 5.5.2.2 Recovery of Condensate
4. By Energy Efficient Engines (Caterpiller) 14-17%
5. By Energy Efficient Engines (Cummins) 3-7% Total volume of condensate recovered during the year was about 65604 kL, which
in terms of money amounts to Rs. 13744 lakhs (approx.)
(C) Strategies for Conservation In Future
• By the operation of condensate recovery plant (CRP) at Moran, a total
II. Additional awareness program in the organization to be taken up. quantity of 3957 kL condensate recovered.
III. More policies of Energy Conservation are to be put up for application. • Condensate recovered from Duliajan field -61236 kL
IV. Additional Solar/Thermal systems to be installed on more areas. • Condensate recovered from Rajasthan project- 356 kL
V. Additional new Wind Power Plants to be set up in future.
VI. First time Geothermal Energy project to be taken up. 5.5.2.3 Conservation Of Natural Gas
VII. Replacement of inefficient equipments.
Reduction in natural gas consumption in COCP's at Duliajan and Moran
VIII. Tapping up waste heat recovery from exhaust of engines.
IX. Waste heat recovery from Engines Jacket Water/Radiator During the year, the crude oil of both OIL & ONGC was treated with Flow Improver
X. Solar Electric System
chemical instead of thermal conditioning and thereby the consumption of natural
XI. Ocean Energy
gas in COCPs at Duliajan has been reduced considerably and as a result the total
5.5 Energy conservation measures in Oil India Limited (OIL) saving of natural gas was around 6.84 MMSCM (amounts to Rs.218.8 lakhs
approx.) during the year 2007-08.
5.5.1 Present Level Of Energy Consumption By OIL(During 2007-08)
Reduction of Gas flare
Energy Unit Qty Eqvt.kWh Approx.
Monetary value The following steps were taken for the reduction of natural gas flare during
(Rs. in Lakh) 2007-08.
6
Crude Oil Consumed for kL 8069.00 78.269 × 10 1690.50
Transportation of OIL’s &
ONGC’s crude Oil to 1 Gas flare in Moran field has been reduced to 0.05 %.
refineries, etc.
6
2 A total of 1.1 MMSCM very low pressure gas (about 0.7 kg / cm2 stabilizer
Natural Gas (industrial & MMSCUM 370.07 4266.90 × 10 11842.24
domestic uses) gas which is normally being flared in many OCSs) is being utilized from
6
Diesel oil (HSD) (Drilling & kL 13397.64 107.964 × 10 4342.175 Moran OCS as domestic fuel in housing area.
W.O. operations, prime
mover operations, power
3 After commissioning of stabilizer compressor and water seal system at OCS-5,
generation, transport fleet, utilized 1.1 MMSCM low pressure stabilizer gas (0.7 kg / cm2) as housing
etc.)
L.D.O. kL 7.20 0.07 × 10
6
2.70
fuel which otherwise would have been flared.
Petrol kL 68.77 0.65 ×10
6
32.72 4 After commissioning of two nos. gas distribution pipeline to utilize associated
6
K.Oil kL 0.942 0.09 ×10 0.015 gas produced at Brekuri EPS and NKL/NKL QPS, resulted in reduced gas
Lube Oil kL 771.061 *** 652.93
Electricity kWh - 111.00 ×10
6
2053.50 flaring and saving of 2102500 SCM of natural gas.
TOTAL 4564.947× 10
6
20616.78 5 During the year 160392 SCM low-pressure gas (30 psig) of Deroi EPS sold
to Moran Gas Grid. When there is no demand of gas from Moran Gas Grid,
5.5.2 Various Measures Adopted By OIL For Conservation Of Energy 20892 SCM of 30 psig low pressure gas from Deroi EPS was diverted to
During The Year 2007-08 Moran GCS-2, which otherwise would have been flared.
6 Gas Holder: With the commissioning of the 30 psig Gas Holder the gas flaring
5.5.2.1 Conservation Of Crude Oil caused by surging effect of the gas lift has been restrained.
7 Setting of Flare Controller: Periodic (weekly) flare controller setting at 35 psig
A total quantity of 4431 kL of Crude oil has been saved/retrieved from different is being carried out to avoid flaring of 30 psig gas at various OCSs.
operational activities during the year under review by adopting the following
measures:
242 243
5.5.2.4 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
The SCADA project commissioned on 15 March 1998 is presently being used to
control the gas flare, accurate gas measurement, monitor consumption of gas as fuel
in both Oil Collecting Station (OCS) and Gas Compressor Station (GCS) and for
maximum utilization of produced gas, etc.
5.5.2.5 Conservation Of Diesel (HSD) And Petrol
Total quantity of about 406 kL (amounts to about Rs. 132 lakhs) of diesel has been
conserved during the year under review by adopting the following measures:
1 By installation of Gas Engine driven Crude Oil Dispatch (COD) pump in
place ofDieselEngine Driven Bowser loading pump at Barekuri EPS about
25.55 kL of HSD are being saved.
2 Eight nos. of work over wells were provided with electrical power from nearest
available source, resulted in saving of 9.6 kL of HSD.
3 Use of solar lighting at Tanot-GGS (Rajasthan) & Pilot Plant at Baghewala
(Rajasthan), resulted in saving of 2.84 kL of HSD
4 In pipeline operation 45 Nos. of old Dorman engines of generating sets having
fuel (HSD) consumption in the range 3.6 to 4.0 Ltr/Hr, at various repeater
stations have been replaced by Koel engines having fuel consumption rate of
2.6 to 2.8 Ltr/Hr., which resulted in saving of about 150 kL of HSD.
5 By using PDC Bits that cuts down the round trip time and resulting in reduction
of the rig hours consequently there is considerable reduction in HSD
consumption.
6 By adopting and continuing cluster-drilling techniques, consumption of fuel
(particularly HSD) is reduced considerably. Rig dragging were carried out at
five different locations whereby a rig was moved onto next cluster location
without any rigging down operation. This additionally eliminates rig
movements, which resulted in considerable saving in HSD consumption.
7 By adopting Horizontal Drilling technique, three full plus three part horizontal
well were completed. Production from a horizontal well is three times than of a
conventional well thereby saving in construction cost of two well as well as
considerable saving in HSD consumption.
8 By using motor driven hydraulic power unit instead of engine driven hydraulic
power unit for torque up casings during drilling operation resulted in
considerable saving in HSD consumption.
9 Minimized workover and swabbing operation wherever feasible by using Coil
Tubing Units (CTU) - Nitrogen Pumping Units (NPU). During the year
2007-08 total 129 nos. of work-over equivalent job were carried out by
deploying CTUs & NPUs, resulted in saving of 218.4 kL of HSD
10 By replacing diesel engine driven centrifugal pump by motor driven pump in
drilling rig for pumping gauging water, considerable amount of HSD was
saved.
244
5.5.2.6 Conservation Of Lube Oil
1 By using Lube oil analysis kit, carrying out Chemical analysis from time to
time and revising and setting up of lube oil standard, the lube oil consumption
has been optimized which in fact contributed to the conservation of lube oil.
The lube oil change period for caterpillar engine has been re-scheduled from
500 Hrs. (manufacturer's recommendation) to around 1000 Hrs. (OIL's
practice) without any adverse affect on the engine, which resulted considerable
saving of lube oil.
2. Due to use of improved quality of gland packing of the plungers of the injection
pumps in Water Injection operations the consumption of lube oil was reduced
considerably.
5.5.2.7 Utilisation Of Non-Conventional Energy
I. A total of about 244 nos. of Multi Access Radio Telephone (MART) terminals
were provided with Solar Photo Voltaic Panels to achieve energy saving and
cost reduction. By adopting these measures about 0.61 kL of HSD was saved
during 2007-08.
II. Use of solar lighting at TANOT Gas Gathering Station and at Pilot plant,
Baghewala resulted in saving of 2.84 kL of HSD.
References
1. Petroleum exploration and production activities, 2006-07, Directorate General
of Hydrocarbons, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, GoI
2. Annual Report (2007-08) of Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, GoI
3. World Energy Outlook 2007
4. TERI Energy Directory and Yearbook 2007
5. Statistical Abstract 2007-CSO
6. Report from Technical Services & Energy Conservation Cell of ONGC
7. Report from Technical Audit Department, OIL INDIA LIMITED
8. Energy Audit Reports of ONGC & OIL conducted by PCRA
9. BP Statistical Review, June 2008
10. PPAC Ready Recokner, April 2008
11. www.netl.doe.gov
12. www.fossil.energy.gov
245
Notes Chapter - 6
LPG Bottling Plants
6.1 Introduction

Over 100 million LPG consumers in the domestic sector in India are serviced
through a network of 9365 LPG distributors who are getting supply from 181 LPG
bottling plants located across the country. In 2007-08, India consumed a total of
about 1170 TMT of LPG which is around 10% of the consumption of total
petroleum products in the country. Out of the total LPG consumption during the
year 2007-08, almost 75% was used for cooking, 17% as auto LPG and the
remaining 8% for industrial use. Of the total supply of 11.7 Million Tonnes of LPG
during 2007-08, the indigenous production was 8868 TMT from crude oil and
natural gas fractionation (3:1). Imports by PSUs and private entrepreneurs
accounted for 2156 TMT and 673 TMT respectively.

LPG is transported from production installations i.e. Refineries, Fractionation

plants and Import terminals to the bottling plants through pipelines, Bulk LPG
Wagons or Bulk LPG Tank Trucks. This LPG, subsequently, is bottled in 19 Kg,
14.2 Kg and 5 Kg cylinders and is then delivered to commercial consumers and
individual households. Bottling operation of LPG is very critical, as LPG is a highly
inflammable product and the systems are required to be intrinsically safe. The
systems also require very comprehensive fire safety arrangements.

A typical LPG bottling plant has the following major energy consuming
equipment:-

1. LPG pumps
2. LPG compressors
3. Conveyors
4. Blowers
5. Cold repair facilities including painting
6. Air compressors and air drying units.
7. Transformer, MCC & DG sets
8. Fire fighting facilities
9. Loading and unloading facilities

Some of the LPG bottling plants use a comprehensive monitoring technique for
keeping track of energy / fuel Consumption on per tonne basis. PCRA's energy audit
studies in various LPG plants have found 20-25% energy saving potential in the
LPG Plant operations. The following are major energy conservation opportunities
in a LPG Plant:

6.2 Energy Conservation Opportunities in Air Compressors

Compressed air system is one of the most inefficient operation for conversion and
storage of energy. Typically, efficiency from start to end-use is around 10%. In any
compressed air system with a saving potential of upto 30%. This saving potential is
mainly, towards efficient compressed air generation system, efficient compressed
air transportation system, maintenance of optimum pressure levels and reducing
misuse and leakages.

247
6.2.1 Compressor Air Pressure Level On overhauling the compressor, the Annual saving in energy : 15120 kWh

In a bottling plant, compressed air is used as instrument air and service air. The Annual saving : Rs.71000.00
pressure level of 5 Kg/cm 2 is sufficient for all the operations in a bottling plant. Investment required : Rs.25000.00

The requirement of air pressure for various devices is as under: Payback Period : 4 months

Remote Operated Valve(ROV) - 5.0 Kg/cm2

Deluge valve - 3.5 Kg/cm2 6.2.3 Leakage of Compressed Air & Wastage:
Stopper/pushing/pulling of cylinders - 5.0 Kg/cm2
Avoiding leakage is the largest opportunity of saving energy in a compressed air
Instrumentation - 2.0 kg/cm2
system. The leakage in compressed air system in a plant can be quantified by
Painting gun - 4.0 kg/cm2
adopting the following process -
Hydrostatic testing of cylinders - 5.0 Kg/cm2
a) Raising the receiver pressure to the designed pressure and stopping the air
Case Study 1 : Air Pressure Level Optimization
usage with all intermediate valves open.
Brief b) Keeping the complete line including pneumatic circuit pressurised
c) Recording loading and unloading duration of the compressor
Air pressure level in the plant is fixed by setting the loading and unloading pressure
through pressure switch provided in Air Compressor. % leakage can be calculated by

Energy Savings % Leakage = Load Time x 100

Generally, the air pressure maintained in a LPG bottling plant is of the order of 6 to
6.5 Kg/cm2 Reduction in pressure levels by 1.25 kg/cm2 would mean saving of
12.5% in energy consumption and saving of another 15% in compressed air
consumption. For a plant having 1 carousel system requiring 150 CFM (27kW
motor load) compressed air and working 16 hours per day and 350 days per year,
savings of 12.5%: 19170 kWh worth Rs. 90000/- per year is possible. Additional
saving of Rs. 0.11 Million per year can be achieved through reduction in
compressed air consumption.
This is a no cost proposition, requiring minimal technical skill in re-setting of
pressure switches.
6.2.2 Performance test and measurement of output CFM of compressor:
Air compressors, specially reciprocating, suffer deterioration in performance over
a period of time, resulting in lower volumetric efficiency. The drop in volumetric
efficiency needs to be diagnosed and corrected at its earliest, so as to check the loss
of energy.
Case Study 2 : Measurement of output CFM
Brief
Assessment of volumetric efficiency can be done in-house with least
instrumentation support. Finding the volumetric efficiency dropping by more than
10%, should trigger for initiating major overhaul. Typical overhaul of a 150 CFM
Air Compressor would cost Rs. 25000/- approx.
Energy Savings
Load Time + Unload Time
Case Study 3 : Arresting the leakage in a Compressed Air System
Brief
Leakage of anywhere between 40% to 90% has been observed in compressed air
systems. Leakage can be arrested by conducting a leak test for identifying points of
leakages and plugging the same. Leakage reduction is a continuous process and
should be built into the system
Energy Savings
A reduction of 25% leakage in a typical 150 CFM system would mean saving of
over 37 CFM. Equivalent power saving would be 6 kW having implication of
33600 kWh, worth Rs. 157000/- per year for a 16 hour per day operation for 350
days per year system.
It does not really cost much to arrest leakage, whereas the saving potential is
very high.
6.3 Optimization of Power Supply System Billing and Demand Side
Management
Various equipment forming the power supply system in a bottling plant are
Transformers, Breakers, Switchgears, Changeover switches, PF controllers etc.
Licensed area being a notified intrinsically safe area, all these circuit elements of
the power supply system are installed outside the licensed area. Thus, the length of
transmission cables is longer compared to any other application and hence demand
side management becomes all the more important.

A 10% deterioration in volumetric efficiency in a 150 CFM system means, loss of

2.7 kW of power. For a 16 hour per day operation for 350 days in a year system, this
works out to 15120 kWh.
248 249
6.3.1 Transformers
Transformers are very efficient electrical equipment. However, losses are still an
issue in the transformers in a typical power transmission network.
Normally, two number of transformers are installed in a bottling plant with one
being stand-by and both are kept energised all the time so as to avoid any power
failure due to break down in transformer. However, keeping two transformers
energised (one being stand-by) is a wrong practice as the transformers are under
charged condition for 24 hours everyday and losses are incurred even if no power is
drawn from the transformer.
Typically, a 1500 kVA modern transformer having amorphous core has a no load
loss of 555 Watts. De-energisation may risk the transformer of moisture ingress.
However, moisture ingress can be avoided by following a sequential on/off
regime.
De-energising the transformer is not always the solution. At times load re-
distribution among transformers helps reduce load losses resulting in reduction of
overall loss. Typically no load losses of the transformer is of the order of 50% of
load losses. Thus, opportunity for saving Energy in a transformer system needs to
be assessed for the system as a whole. Implementation of the proposition involves
no investment and very little technical skill.
intelligent Maximum Demand Controllers, which keep check on maximum
demand by switching off and deferring non essential loads.
In two-part tariff system, Demand Charges are levied on the contract demand. The
Demand Charges have been found to be higher up to 20% of net electricity bill in a
Bottling Plant. The utility also levies penalty for exceeding contract demand. Thus
keeping maximum demand under control, pays through saving in demand charges.
6.4 PF Control
Power Factor is a measure of the quantum of Inductive load present in an electrical
system and also the extent of partial loading of these inductive loads. Utilities
(Electricity Supply Companies) give incentive for maintaining higher Power Factor
and the incentive may be upto 5% of the energy charges. Maintaining higher PF has
the following advantages :
i Keeps current under check and hence the I2R losses are reduced.
ii Saves transmission losses, in systems having longer cable lengths.
iii Power Utility companies pay incentive for maintaining higher PF.
iv Helps to keep maximum demand under check and hence lowers outgo
towards demand charges.
v Helps in keeping voltage drop lower and hence better voltage availability and
very less voltage imbalance to help save electricity.

Keep the standby transformer De-energised and load the two transformers Automatic Power Factor Controller (APFC) helps improve Power Factor and reach
alternately every fortnight. This will save ½ KW worth power having yearly saving near unity.
potential of 1/2X24X365 4381 kWh. This saving potential may be 7 times more if Case Study 4 : Improving and maintaining the Power Factor
Silicon Core Transformer is used and over 3 times more, if Low Loss Silicon Core
transformer is used. Brief

6.3.2 Demand Side Management Improving and maintaining the power factor from 0.93 to near unity by providing
additional capacitors having kVAh billing system.
Demand Side Management involves controlling various cost heads appearing in a
typical electricity bill, with a view to optimise electricity bill. The factors appearing Energy Savings
in electricity bill are Maximum Demand, Power Factor, Voltage Levels (HT/LT)
etc. All these factors can be kept under strict control, resulting in substantial saving Annual energy consumption = 227340 kWh
for units. Existing Average pf = 0.93
Annual consumption in KVAh = 227340 kWh / 0.93 = 244452 kVAh
Keeping Maximum Demand under control helps units save on demand charges, at On improving the power factor from 0.93 to 0.99 by installing required additional
the same time helps the utility by way of spare capacity. It is always advisable to capacitors
keep maximum demand under check. This issue becomes of paramount The same annual energy consumption in KVAh = 227340 kWh /0.99 =229636 kVAh
importance, where snap loads are there. Like in a bottling plant, fire water pumps Annual Saving of energy in KVAh = 229636 - 244452 = 14816 kVAh
Average unit rate is Rs 3.57 / kVAh
testing, service water pumping etc are not continuous loads and hence these jobs
Annual Saving in Rs = Rs 52893.00
can be done in off peak hours to save on maximum demand. It will also help in cases Cost of additional capacitors = Rs 10,000/-
where Time Of Day (TOD) tariff system exists. Equipment like Maximum Demand Pay back period = 3 months
Controller is used for keeping maximum demand under control through user
defined sequential switching off and on. Case Study 5 : Improving and maintaining the power factor from 0.92 to near
unity by providing additional capacitors for system having kWh
Average of the of time integrated load for every half an hour period is registered in billing system and having rebate of 0.5% for improvement in
the electronic meter for the entire month. The maximum value registered is PF by 0.01, on its energy charges.
considered to be the maximum demand. Maximum demand can be controlled by
monitoring number of energy consuming equipments, operated at any point of time
and also by improving Power Factor. Industries have started use of relay based

250 251
Energy Savings: Case Study 5 : Voltage optimisation for lighting through AVR

Annual energy consumption = 442040 kWh (i) Existing Average voltage level in daytime (10 hrs)= 230 V
Existing Average pf = 0.92
On improving the power factor from 0.92 to 0.99 by installing required additional Proposed voltage = 210 V
capacitors the improvement is by 0.07. Expected saving = 8.0%
The plant is eligible for a rebate of 3.5 % on its energy charges. Total approx. lighting load = 25 kW
Expected saving = 25 x 0.08
Annual energy charges @ Rs 4.09 / kWh = 442040 x 4.09 = Rs 1807944.00 = 2 kW
The rebate on energy charges = 3.5 % of Rs 1807944 Annual power saving = 2 kW x 10 hrs.x 300
Annual Saving = Rs 63278.00 = 6000 kWh
Cost of additional capacitors = Rs 50,000/- Annual monetary saving @ Rs 4.09 per kWh = Rs 24540
Pay back period = 10 months
(ii) Existing avg. voltage level in off peak hrs = 240 V (14 hrs)
The Demand control through scheduling of loads and also with the help of MDI Proposed voltage = 210 V
controller is a proven solution working in industrial applications and is very Expected saving = around 9%
reliable. Indian vendors are also available for the job. Reliable APFC and Total lighting load in off peak hrs = 125 kW
capacitors are very easily available and require little maintenance. The system may Expected saving = 125 kW x 0.09
= 11.25 kW
not work reliably and capacitors may fail, if harmonics are there in the system.
Annual power saving = 11.25 x 14 hrs. x 365 days
APFC with harmonic filter gives comprehensive solution for systems having high = 57487 kWh
harmonic distortions. Annual monetary savings = 57487 x 4.09
@ Rs 4.09 per kWh = Rs 2,35,122
6.5 Voltage Optimization
Energy savings
Typically, in a transmission system, voltage at the load end, reduces with reduction
in Power Factor or increase in current levels. Various loads, requiring electricity Net Annual saving potential = Rs. 235122+Rs. 24540= Rs. 259662.00
for its operation, are designed for a voltage of 415V. However, the voltage levels are Net investment in providing AVR = Rs. 190000
generally higher and reach upto 460V during late night. This gives an opportunity Payback Period = 9 months
to reduce voltage by upto 10%. A reduction in voltage by 10%, would give savings
of upto 1.5% in motors because lowering voltage increases loading level of motors 6.6 Energy Saving Opportunities in LPG Pumps
resulting in improvement in its efficiency. A 10% drop in voltage, also helps save
upto 15% in energy consumption in lighting loads LPG pumps consume around 14-15% power of the total plant consumption. These
pumps run continuously for 16 hours per day. Other pumps are service water pump,
There are two ways in which voltage control may be implemented - bore well pump, fire-fighting pumps, which are run as per requirement in the plant.

6.5.1 Voltage control through Tap Changer
Use of Tap Changer - The provision for tap changing is an inbuilt feature of
transformer / incomer system. Lowering the voltage through tap changing is the
most convenient way of reducing voltage levels. It involves no cost and it is very
convenient if the transformer has On Load Tap Changer (OLTC). Otherwise, every
tap change involves switching off power and then effecting tap change.
6.5.2 Voltage Control through AVR
Use of AVR - Automatic Voltage Regulators have emerged as a worthy solution.
AVR technology is very proven and very easily available. The advantage of having
an AVR is that one can have the desired voltage out put , say 3 phase, 415 V, 24
hours a day, irrespective of the incoming voltage. This is not possible in tap
changers. It immunes the system of voltage fluctuation and high voltages,
especially during late night hours. AVR is a very good proposition for exclusively
lighting load as the voltage levels are higher during night time when they are ON
and the percentage saving is more i.e 15% for 10% reduction in voltage.
The filling rate at carousel varies depending upon the number of cylinders filled in
the LPG bottling plant. This is controlled through return line (bypass) and is
operated based on pressure in the header. The system operating with throttled
valves or operated with bypass valves in partially open condition, leads to the
wastage of significant energy. This wastage of energy can be eliminated /
minimized by the following methods:
• By installing proper size pump
• By trimming the impeller of the pump
• By changing the speed of the pump through VSD
In the present system, the requirement of flow is not constant and it varies as per the
filling rate and bullet pressure. Keeping this operational constraint in view, flow
reduction through changing the speed of the pump by installing VSD with feedback
from discharge pressure/ flow will be the best option to minimize the energy
wastage.

252 253
Case Study 6 : Installation of Variable Speed Drive (VSD) Case Study 8 : Replacing HPMV Lamp fittings with metal Halide fittings

Brief Brief

For a typical bottling plant having one carousel, 1 pump having 50 kW motor and
96m head / 150 m3 per hour discharge is required to pump LPG from the storage
tank to the carousel. Energy can be saved by closing the bypass valve on the return
line and installing VSD on the motor of the pump to get the desired flow and
Pressure at the carousel.
About 186 nos of 125 W HPMV lamp fittings in various sheds can be replaced by 70
W Metal halide fittings in a phased manner whenever any of the items of luminary
goes out of order.
Energy Savings

Energy Savings Total energy consumption by 186nos, 125W HPMV = 186 x 125 x12x300
fittings, when operated for 12 hours for 300 days. = 83700 kWh/year
- Present power consumption by pump - 40 kW
- Pump suction pr. - 5-6 kg/cm2 Total energy consumption by 186 nos. 70W
- Pump discharge pr. - 10 - 12 kg/cm2 Metal Halide fittings = 186x 70 x 12 x 300
- Expected power consumption by pump with VFD - 30 kW = 46872 kWh/year
- Saving in power consumption - 10 kW Total kWh saving per annum = 36828 kWh
- Annual operating - 4200 hrs Monetary saving potential at Rs 4.09/ kWh = Rs 150636/year
- Annual Savings in kWh - 42000 kWh Total investment@ Rs 1000 per light = Rs 186000.00
- Annual savings @ Rs 3.675 per kWh - Rs 1,54,350 Pay back period = 15 months
- Investment required for VSD & - Rs 5,00,000
automation (for pressure transmitter, cable) 6.8 Energy Conservation Opportunity in LPG Compressor
- Payback period - 39 months
Contribution of LPG Compressor in the energy consumption pattern of a LPG
6.7 Energy Conservation in Lighting Bottling Plant is significant. LPG compressor is essentially a reciprocating
compressor like air compressor and the saving potential in air compressor more or
Significant amount of energy is consumed in Lighting application in a bottling less holds good for LPG compressors as well, except leakage. Thus, volumetric
plant due to operation during the night and also security requirement in very large efficiency assessment and corrective action thereof, happens to be a major energy
areas. The following saving opportunities exist in the lighting system in a LPG saving opportunity in LPG compressors.
bottling plant -
Operating practices contribute a lot to energy consumption. The higher the specific
Case Study 7 : Replacement of 96 T/Ls of 40 W (T12) (having electromagnetic pressure ratio, the higher is the energy consumption. Thus, the endeavour should be
chokes) operating in plant with 28W( T5) tubelights. to keep the specific pressure ratio as low as possible.

Brief
These are operated on an average for 12 hrs per day for 300 days in a year. the
electromagnetic chokes in itself consume about 13W per tube light.
Energy Savings
Total energy consumption by 96 nos. 40-Watt
tube lights with Electromagnetic chokes
for 12 hrs as mentioned above
Total energy consumption by 96 nos.28 W(T5)
tube lights
So, total energy saving
Monetary saving potential at Rs 4.09/ kWh
Total investment@ Rs 500 per tube light
Pay back period
In actual practice, discharge pressure of LPG compressor is made higher for
increasing bottling output or for hastening the process of LPG loading/ decantation.
However, all these practices have implication on Energy consumption.
6.9 Other Energy Conservation opportunities
1) Use energy efficient lamps and replace incandescent bulbs with Compact
= 96x (40 +13)x 300x 12 Fluorescent Lamp (CFL).
2) Use task lighting, as keeping the light source as close as possible to the work
= 18316 kWh/year place; as the light intensity decreases exponentially as the distance from the
= 96x28x300x12 light source to the task increases.
= 9677 kWh/year 3) Provide reflectors on the tube lights to enhance lumens/m2 (LUX), always keep
= 8639 kWh/year reflector clean.
= Rs 35333/year 4) Make effective use of daylight wherever possible.
= Rs 48000 5) Clean luminaries to increase illumination, normally 10 to 20 % light output
= 7 months reduces over a period of six months if not cleaned.
6) Improve colour & reflectivity of walls, ceilings to reduce lighting energy needs.
7) Whenever replacing a burnt out lamp, attempt should be made to replace it with
a more efficient lamp and the ordinary T/L fitting with an electronic ballast
fitting.

254 255
Electronic ballast consumes only 2 Watts in comparison to the electromagnetic
ballast which consumes around 13 Watts of electrical energy.
8) Use time clocks or daylight sensor control for outdoor lighting.
9) Train personnel to switch off the light whenever not required, posters as
reminders can be placed on the doors for this purpose.
10) Wherever LUX level is specified, it must be counter checked by LUX meter.
11) During breaks, the lights of a specific workplace should be switched off, for
which individual switches hanging at the worktable shall be helpful.
12) Interlocking of chain conveyor with cylinder washing pump.
13) Avoiding idle running of pump conveyor system.

References

1. PCRA Energy Audit Report, HPCL LPG Bottling Plant, Asauda Bahadurgarh
(Haryana), December, 2006
2. PPAC Ready Reckoner, Information as on 1.4.2008, Petroleum Planning &
Analysis Cell, MOP&NG, GOI New Delhi
3. Teri Energy Data Directory & yearbook 2007, TERI Press, New Delhi
4. World Energy Outlook, 2007, IEA Publication, Paris, France
5. Basic Statistics on Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas, 2006-07, Ministry of
Petroleum & Natural Gas, (Economic Division), GOI

256
 Chapter - 7
Marketing Terminals/ Depots
7.1 Introduction

The biggest challenge in the complete supply chain of Petroleum Products is to

reach out to almost-37000 retail outlets all over the country. Every element in this
value chain has to have unfailing reliability in all circumstances. Building this
reliability in the logistics is a marvel of supply chain management.

The products from refinery are transported to the secondary points called Depots
and Terminals through pipelines / wagons / tank trucks. The basic jobs undertaken
at these depots / terminals is warehousing, wherein receipt, storage and dispatch of
various products is accomplished. These secondary supply points are responsible
for maintaining supply lines to Retail Outlets and numerous Institutional
Customers.

Terminals/Depots mainly undertake pumping operations. Any energy conservation

initiative in Depots/Terminals should aim at improving energy efficiency in
pumping operations. PCRA has found energy conservation potential of upto 30% in
Depots/Terminals operation.

A Depot/Terminal uses the following energy intensive machinery for

accomplishing its operations:-

1. Pumps
2. DG Sets
3. Lighting
4. Air Conditioners
5. Miscellaneous Machinery

7.2 Energy Conservation Opportunities

The major energy conservation opportunities, identified by PCRA, during its

various energy audit studies are as per the following details:

7.2.1 Pumping System

From Energy Conservation point of view, the area of concern in a terminal / depot
operation is over sizing. The typical protocols for handling the problem of over
sizing in pumping operation needs to be customized to the terminal operation, as the
flow requirement here may vary over a wide range.

At the terminal, the number of bays operating at any particular instance is changing
as a result of the change of flow requirement. Recirculation is the method of
Capacity Control on Pumps being employed at present. In this method, a part of the
product being pumped is recirculated back to the suction of the pump, to regulate
the flow of the loading terminals/ bays. This type of control is the most energy
inefficient, since only a part of the actual energy being consumed is useful and the
rest is lost in re-circulation.

257
The average working hours of the pumps observed at one of the terminals is as (ii) Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) for SKO Pump
follows:
In case of SKO (40 HP motor), the savings shall be on the same lines
SKO Pump- 5 hrs per day with 1 to 3 bays operating at a time (1500 hrs/annum)
MS Pump - 3 hrs per day with 1 to 2 bays operating at a time (900 hrs/annum) • Total Energy Saving per annum 14000/0.93=15053 kVAh
HSD Pump- 5 hrs per day with 1 to 3 bays operating at a time (1500 hrs/annum) • Annual Savings Rs 0.504 Lakhs (@Rs 3.35 per kVAh)
From each bay, one tank lorry is filled • Estimated Investments Rs 1.5 Lakhs
Case Study 1 : Installation of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) on HSD Pump • Payback period 36 months
Energy Savings
Brief
(iii) Operation by closing the bypass valve : By simply closing the return valve on
In order to eliminate / minimize the continuous Power losses in these systems, it is
the recirculation line, savings can be achieved.
suggested to install a variable frequency drive (VFD) on the Pumps. This would
enable the plant to control the flow through a feedback signal to the pump and vary Average kW saving observed in HSD, MS & SKO Pumps = 3 kW each
the RPM to exactly match the requirement. Expected annual running hrs of HSD and SKO Pumps = 1500 x2 =3000hrs
Average annual energy saving in HSD and SKO Pumps = 9000 kWh
With the installation of a Variable Frequency Drive, energy savings could be Expected annual running hrs of MS Pump = 900hrs
achieved by reducing the RPM of the pump and the subsequent reduction in the Average annual energy saving in MS Pump = 2700 kWh
power consumption per litre of material actually delivered. Total annual energy saving in HSD, MS & SKO Pumps = 11700 kWh

Energy Savings • Total Energy Savings per annum 11700/0.93=12581 kVAh

(i) Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) for HSD Pump of rated flow 2400 LPM • Annual Savings Rs 42146 (@Rs 3.35 per kVAh)
• Estimated Investments Nil
Material Operation Effective Power Drawn in kW Net Estimated Estimated
Flow (measured values) reduction working energy • Payback period Immediate
after At After in the hours of savings
bypass – present installing power the Pumps kWh When, no receipt of the product is taking place at TLF area and the pump is run
LPM (with by VFD drawn in per annum
pass kW with bypass closed, only churning of the product takes place; the pump being
open) centrifugal shall be able to bear the backpressure. In spite of this, the operator
If 1 bay in 825 11.6 3.6 8.0 1500 12000 should take care to avoid prolonged idle running of the pump
use (34.3%
HSD of 2400)
7.2.2 Illumination
If 2 bays 14 4.0 10.0 1500 15000
are in use 1250
HSD (52.08% Illumination in Depot / Terminal is basically required for safety reasons. Receipt
of 2400) operation is conducted during the night in locations receiving supply through
Avg 13500 Railway Wagons / Pipelines. However, illumination in the tank lorry filling Area,
Energy Savings tank farm area and the buffer area is provided through flame proof lighting fixtures.
The lighting is predominantly through high mast towers.
Ø
Energy Savings per annum 13500/0.93 = 14516 kVAh
=
The following case study has been taken from the actual study taken up by PCRA.
Ø
Monetary Savings per annum =
Rs 0.486Lacs (@Rs 3.35 per kVAh)

Ø
Estimated Investments Rs 1.3 Lacs
=

Ø
Payback period 33 months
=

258 259
Case study 2 : Replacement of 40W Tubelights having electromagnetic chokes Case Study 4 : Replacement of 100W Incandescent lamps by 15W Compact
by 36W T/L with Electronic chokes, assuming 0.8 as load factor Florescent lamps (CFL), assuming 0.8 as load factor:

Energy Savings Energy Savings

Total energy consumption by 77 nos. 100 Watt = (100)x 77 x 0.8

Total energy consumption by 131 nos. 40 Watt = (40+15)x 131 x 0.8 /1000
Tubelights with electromagnetic chokes, taking working = 5.76 kW
hours (12 hrs daily in 300 days). = 3600 hrs
= 20736 kWh/year
Total energy consumption by 131 nos. 36 Watt = (36 + 2) x 131x 0.8 x
tubelights with electronic chokes, taking working hours 3600
(12 hrs daily in 300 days). = 14337 kWh/year
So, total energy saving = 6399 kWh/year
taking pf as 0.82 = 7804 kVAh /year
monetary saving potential = Rs 27, 860.00/year
(@ Rs 3.57/kVAh)
Total investment @ Rs.400/- per choke = 400 x 131 = Rs.52400.00
Payback period = 23 months
incandescent lamps, taking working hours = 6.16 kW
(12 hrs daily in 300 days). = 3600 hrs
= 22176 kWh/year
Total energy consumption by 77 nos. 15 Watt CFL = (15) x 77x 0.8 x 3600
lamps, taking working hours (12 hrs daily in 300 days). = 3326 kWh/year
So, total energy saving = 18850 kWh/year
taking pf as 1.0 = 18850 kVAh /year
monetary saving potential = Rs 67294.00/year
(@ Rs 3.57/kVAh
Total investment = Rs 11,000
Payback period = 2 months
Case study 5 : Installing daylight sensor for controlling street lights and out side
lights, thereby saving 1hour of daily running, assuming 0.8 as load factor

Energy Savings
Case Study 3 : Replacement of 40W tubelights with electromagnetic chokes
by 28W T/L (T5), assuming 0.8 as load factor: Total energy consumption by 43 nos 250W sodium = (43x250 + 54x400 +
vapour lamps, 54 no 400W Sodium vapour = 10x250 + 42x160) x
Energy Savings lamp, 10 no 250W Mercury Vap lamp and 42 0.8
no 160W Mercury Vap Lamp , taking working = 33.26 kW
Total energy consumption by 131 nos. 40 Watt = (40+15)x 131 x 0.8 hours (1 hrs daily in 365 days). = 365 hrs
tubelights with electromagnetic chokes, = 5.76 kW = 12138 kWh/year
taking working hours (12 hrs daily in 300 days). = 3600 hrs So, total energy saving, taking pf as 0.82 = 14802 kVAh/year
= 20736 kWh/year Monetary saving potential = Rs 52843.00/year
Total energy consumption by 131 nos. 28 Watt = (28) x 131x 0.8 x 3600 (@ Rs 3.57/kVAh
tubelights (T5), taking working hours = 10564 kWh/year Total investment = Rs 5,000
(12 hrs daily in 300 days).
Payback period = 2 months
So, total energy saving = 10172 kWh/year
taking pf as 0.82 = 12405 kVAh /year 7.2.3 Energy Saving Opportunity in DG Sets
monetary saving potential = Rs 44,286.00/year
(@ Rs 3.57/kVAh) The loading of the DG set as shown in the Figure- 7.1, significantly influences the
Total investment @ Rs.700/- per retrofit = Rs.91700.00 fuel efficiency of a DG set. The associated losses due to operation of the DG set
below the optimum limit is reflected by significant increase in the specific fuel
Payback period = 25 months consumption. As can be seen from the curve, the generator should be loaded
between 65% to 85%. The loading beyond 85% does not give any extra efficiency,
but it decreases engine life.

260 261
 DG sets - Other recommendations:
700
(i) The DG set should be maintained properly and loading should be monitored so

Fuel Consumption kwh/litre of oil

600 as to achieve specific power generation of 3.80 units per litre,
500 (ii) Energy meters may be installed in the DG panels, to enable the plant to
400 monitor specific power generation of each of the DG set on regular basis.
300 (iii) It should be ensured that the single phase loads on the DG set should be
I nefficient range
200
Efficient range distributed appropriately so that the unbalance between the 3 phases is not
more than 10% of the total DG set capacity.
100
(iv) The lube oil consumption should not exceed 1% of fuel consumption.
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(v) DG room should be properly ventilated to achieve best results. The allowable
% Rated Load
temperature of inlet air is ambient ±5 0C. Arrangements should be made to
maintain required inlet air temperature, because for every 3 0C rise in inlet air
Figure - 7.1 Load Characteristics of DG Set temperature, there is 1% loss of fuel.
It is generally observed, that keeping the security lights on during nights is a 7.2.4 Optimization of Power Supply System Billing and Demand Side
security requirement. To keep the lights on, DG set is operated in case of power Management
failure. It is further observed that if only lighting load is served by the DG set, the
DG set becomes under loaded and hence the specific generation ratio of the DG set The Energy conservation opportunities mentioned above in the Bottling Plant
goes down drastically. section under the following heads hold good for terminal / depots as well:
It is suggested to have a smaller DG set to take care of lighting load only during a) Transformers
nights. b) Demand Side Management
c) Maximum Demand Control / PF Control
Case Study 6 : Improving the efficiency by overhauling of DG Sets d) Voltage Optimization
The specific power generation of two no. DG sets available in a terminal was References :
assessed as per the following details :
1. PCRA Energy Audit Report, IOCL Jodhpur Terminal, Jodhpur (Rajasthan),
Equipment Specific Power Generation Remarks
August, 2006.
(kWh/liter of fuel oil)
DG Set. - 1 (200 kVA) 2.9 At 41% of rated load 2. PCRA Energy Audit Report, IOCL Najibabad Depot, Najibabad (UP),
DG Set. - 2 (75 kVA) 2.5 At 51% of rated load
September, 2005.
The specific power generation of both the DG sets is very low, normally it should be
3. PCRA Energy Audit Report, HPCL Mathura Terminal, Mathura (UP), April,
> 3.8 units per litre of HSD. As can be seen from the table, the performance of 200
kVA DG set as compared with 75 kVA DG set is better. 2007.

Corrective measure in the form of major overhauling was undertaken. This resulted 4. PPAC Ready Reckoner, Information as on 1.4.2008, Petroleum Planning &
in improvement of specific power generation. The yearly consumption could be Analysis Cell, MOP&NG, GOI New Delhi
reduced from 17 kl per year to 11.75 kl per year resulting in savings of 5.25 kl HSD
worth Rs. 17,0000/- per year. 5. Teri Energy Data Directory & yearbook 2007, TERI Press, New Delhi

Monitoring of specific power generation and early detection of deviation would 6. World Energy Outlook, 2007, IEA Publication, Paris, France
help decide when to conduct major overhaul.
7. Basic Statistics on Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas, 2006-07, Ministry of
Major overhaul may include : Petroleum & Natural Gas, (Economic Division), GOI

(I) Calibration of fuel injection system

(ii) Setting of fuel discharge pattern
(iii) Removal of hot spots
(iv) Reduction of blow-by
(v) Replacement of cylinder liner/piston rings etc.
262 263
 Section 4
Energy Conservation
in
other Industry sectors
Chapter - 8
Ø Power Generation
Chapter - 9
Ø Iron and Steel
Chapter - 10
Ø Fertilizers
Chapter - 11
Ø Pulp and Paper
Chapter - 12
Ø Cement
Chapter - 13
Ø Sugar
Chapter - 14
Ø Aluminum
 Chapter - 8
Power Generation
8.1 Overview

Availability of quality and affordable power is one of the driving force for industrial
development. India is still lagging behind in terms of availability of quality,
uninterrupted, clean and affordable power. Available power cannot meet the
demand because of which the country experiences a perennial shortage of power.

However, scenario of high power demand may change significantly as a result of

implementation of energy efficiency measures across various sectors.

8.2 Installed capacity

The total installed capacity under the utilities in India increased to 143 GW (as on
30th April 2008) from 132 GW (as on 31st March 2007) representing an increase of
8.3%.

Table - 8.1: Installed Capacity As On 30th April, 2008

(in MW)

Thermal Nuclear Hydro Wind & Other Grand

Coal Gas Diesel Total Renewables Total

76299 14656 1202 92157 4120 35908 11125 143311

Source: CEA

8.3 Generation

The overall electricity generation in the country, which was 532.69 BU (Billion
Units i.e. Billion kWh) in 2002-03, has risen to 704.451 BU in 2007-08. The
increase over last year is 6.83%. The all India PLF (plant load factor) of thermal
utilities during 2007-08 was 78.61% as compared to 76.8% in 2006-07.

8.4 Power supply position

The country experienced an overall power shortage of 9.6% and peaking power
shortage of 13.8% in 2006-07. The situation deteriorated further in 2007-08, with
supply and peaking deficit rising to 9.8% and 16.6% respectively.

8.5 Potential For Energy Saving

Power cannot be generated; only converted from one form to another; what is
implied is the generation of some useful power at the expense of some other less-
convenient power. Power generation efficiency can be defined as "useful output
power divided by input power", but it is not rigorous enough since at least two
choices exist for the evaluation of input power: a) heat-equivalent power, and b)
work-equivalent power. Table 8.2 presents typical values of power generation
efficiencies using the raw input power, the most commonly used, although the net
input power criterion, i.e. the energy or available energy of the raw energy source,
gives a more sound measure of the 'technological efficiency' of the power plant.

267
 Table - 8.2: Power Generation Efficiencies Some of these latest technologies and measures available for efficiency
improvement are briefly described as under:
Energy source Typical Typical range
efficiency [%] 8. 5.1 Super Critical Power Plants
[%] New pulverized coal combustion systems utilizing supercritical and ultra-
Photovoltaic 10 5 -15 supercritical technology, operate at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures
Solar thermal 15 10 -25 and consequently achieve higher efficiencies than conventional PCF (Pulverized
Gas turbine 30 15 -38 Coal Fluidized) units and results in significant CO2 reduction. Supercritical steam
Spark Ignition I.C. Engine 30 25 -35
cycle technology has been used for decades and is becoming the system of choice
Nuclear 33 32 -35
for new commercial coal-fired plants in many countries. Recent plants built in
Steam turbine 33 25-39
Europe and Asia use supercritical boiler-turbine technology and China has made
Wind turbine 40 30 -50
this standard on all new plants of capacity 600 MWe and upward.
Compression Ignition 40 35 -49
I.C. Engine Case Study 1: Comparison between conventional process and supercritical
Fuel cell 45 40 -70 pressure steam generation process
Combined GT -ST 50 45 -60
Hydro electrical 85 70 -90 Conventional Process

1. Conventional steam pressure is around 170 kg/cm2.

The consumption of electricity by power plant auxiliaries and the efficiency of the
plants depend on factors such as unit size, level of technology, plant load factor, fuel
quality etc.
The auxiliary consumption in general varies between 3 to 6% for larger plants and
close to 10% for smaller captive power plants. Moreover, PCRA studies indicate
that the Energy savings in small size power plants varies between 6 - 10% of
auxiliary consumption.
The overall efficiencies of power plants with sub critical parameters fall in the
range of 35 - 39%, which can be improved to 45% using supercritical parameters
with conventional steam turbines. Using combined cycle mode, the maximum
efficiency can reach upto 50%.
Power plants are adopting several latest technologies to improve the efficiency and
operating practices. Some of the power plants are installed with multifuel
capabilities by design for flexibility to use different fuels depending on availability
and price and also to address environmental issues like NOx and SOx reduction.
The National Energy Map for India "Technology Vision 2030" report has identified
the following, as the preferred power generation technologies:
2. From the Rankine cycle T-S diagram it has been known that the higher
steam pressure & temperature produces the higher thermal efficiency, but
it has not been put into practice due to the technological limitation in
designing boilers and turbines.
New Process
1. In the new process, the steam pressure is raised to a super critical region
(higher than 246 kg/cm2), increasing thermal efficiency.
2. Consequently, the boiling of water to generate steam does not occur in the
boiler drum. As the water in the liquid phase directly shifts to the vapor phase,
therefore once - through boiler is required instead of the drum type boiler.
3. High temperature strength under high pressure was the problem
confronting the designing of the super heater, reheater, main steam valve
and turbine blades, etc. However, as high-temperature materials have
become available economically of late, the supercritical pressure generation is
now being widely adopted.

(1) Large Hydro 4. When the steam pressure is excessively high (300 kg/cm2 or higher), the
gross thermal efficiency does not increase much due to the increase of
(2) Refinery-residue-based IGCC (integrated gasification combined cycle)
power consumption by the feed water pump.
(3) Imported-coal based IGCC
(4) High-efficiency CCGT (combined cycle gas turbine) (H-frame gas turbine)
(5) Indigenous-coal-based IGCC
(6) Normal CCGT
(7) Ultra - Supercritical boiler
(8) Supercritical boiler
(9) Nuclear Fast Breeder Reactor based Power Plants.

268 269
 Process Comparison Up to an operating pressure of around 194 kg/cm2 in the evaporator part of the
boiler, the cycle is sub-critical. This means, that there is a non-homogeneous
Process New Process Conventional Process mixture of water and steam in the evaporator part of the boiler. In this case, a drum-
Steam Pressure More than 246 kg/cm2 169 kg/cm2 type boiler is used because the steam needs to be separated from water in the drum
Steam temperature 600/5600C 560/5400C of the boiler before it is superheated and led into the turbine. Above an operating
Turbine High pressure in 11 steps High pressure in 9 steps pressure of 225 kg/cm2 in the evaporator part of the boiler, the cycle is supercritical.
Medium pressure in 6 steps. Medium pressure in 6 steps. The cycle medium is a single-phase fluid with homogeneous properties and there is
Medium pressure Ni-Cr-Mc-Ti heat 12% Cr-Mc-V alloy steel no need to separate steam from water in a drum. Once-through boilers are therefore
rotor blade resistant alloy steel. used in supercritical cycles.
Pressure Strength Each unit of the boiler, high
pressure feed water heater The traditional coal-fired power plants are marked with emissions of
pumps needs to be made environmentally damaging gases such as CO2, NOx and SOx at alarmingly high
high pressure resistant. levels. Adoption of Ultra Supercritical (USC) power plants with increased steam
Minimum load 15% - 25% 15% temperatures and pressures significantly improves efficiency, reducing fuel
Change of load Fast response Ordinary response consumption and environmental emissions by a commensurate degree. Increase of
Frequent starts Suited Suited steam parameters from around 180 bar and 540oC-560oC to ultra supercritical
and stops condition of 300 bar and 600oC have led to efficiency increases from around 40% in
Starting-up loads Ordinary Ordinary 1980 to 43-47% in 2006. A further enhancement of thermal efficiency may be
Start and Stop Takes a long time Ordinary obtained by combining an advanced steam cycle plant with a gas turbine; in this
Thermal efficiency 1-2% higher - way efficiencies of over 60% are possible.
Facility cost 1.5 times higher for the 246 Standard.
kg/cm2 class. 8.5.3 New Generation Gas Turbines
Source: Japan Energy Conservation Directory
For years, gas turbine manufacturers faced a barrier, that for all practical purposes,
8.5.2 Ultra Supercritical (USC) Power Plants capped power generating efficiencies for turbine-based power generating systems.
The barrier was heat. Above 1260 oC, the scorching heat of combustion gases
There's nothing “critical” about supercritical. “Supercritical” is a thermodynamic caused metals in the turbine blades and in other internal components to begin
expression describing the state of a substance where there is no clear distinction degrading. Since higher temperatures are the key to higher efficiencies, this
between the liquid and the gaseous phase (i.e. they are a homogenous fluid). Water effectively limited the generating efficiency at which a turbine power plant could
reaches this state at a pressure above 221 megapascals (MPa). convert fuel into electricity.
The “efficiency” of the thermodynamic process of a coal-fired power plant The US Department of Energy's Fossil Energy department took on the challenge of
describes how much of the energy that is fed into the cycle is converted into turbine temperatures in 1992 and nine years later, two of its private sector partners
electrical energy. The greater the output of electrical energy for a given amount of produced "breakthrough" turbine systems that pushed firing temperatures to
energy input, the higher the efficiency. If the energy input to the cycle is kept
1426 oC and permitted combined cycle efficiencies that surpassed the 60 % mark -
constant, selecting elevated pressures and temperatures for the water-steam cycle
the "four-minute mile" of turbine technology.
can increase the output. Power plants operating at supercritical steam pressures are
termed as “Supercritical” power plants. Moreover, the advanced turbines achieved the higher firing temperatures while
actually reducing the amount of nitrogen oxides formed to less than 10 parts per
Supercritical power plants, due to their higher efficiencies, have significantly lower
million (NOx is a product of high temperature combustion).
emissions of pollutants such as fly ash and Oxides of Sulphur and Nitrogen than
sub-critical plants for a given power output. Among the innovations that emerged from the Department's Advanced Turbine
Systems program were single-crystal turbine blades and thermal barrier coatings
Table – 8.3: Average Efficiency Levels at Pulverised Coal-fired Power Plants
that could withstand the high inlet temperatures, along with new firing techniques
to stabilize combustion and minimize nitrogen oxide formation.
Plant Low efficiency High Super critical Ultra-
efficiency Supercritical H Series Turbines: 60% Efficient
Average 29 39 Up to 46 55 The H System of GE Power Systems was the first turbine to surpass the 60%
efficiency
levels % efficiency threshold, nearly five percentage points better than the prior best
Source: World Coal Institute
available system, in an industry where improvements are typically measured in
tenths of a percent.

270 271
G Series Gas Turbines: 58% Efficient
The Siemens Westinghouse engine has demonstrated a net efficiency of
approximately 58 percent in combined cycle application.
Case Study 2: Surface temperature measurement of steam distribution network
at a Gas Turbine Power Station
Brief
Insulation break in the networking of the steam pipeline and other appliances leads
to the loss of power production through Heat Recovery Steam turbine Generators
(HRSG).
At a Gas Turbine Power Station there are three steam turbines each of capacity 34
MW. Exhaust gases of gas turbine is used to produce steam, which is at temperature
of 510OC. The superheated steam from HRSG is sent to steam turbine to produce
power and condensate sent to the condenser. In condenser the temp is dropped from
125 to 560C, which is sent to Deaerator. This condensate is again sent to HRSG for
Steam Generation. Heat loss takes place from steam distribution network
components and is a direct loss of power.
Annual savings : Rs 14000 per year
Investment required : Rs 25000
Payback period : 22 months
8.5.4 IGCC Technology (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle)
An alternative to achieve efficiency improvements in conventional pulverized coal
fired power stations is through the use of gasification technology. IGCC plants use a
gasifier to convert coal (or other carbon-based materials) to Syngas, which drives a
combined cycle turbine. IGCC technology, using coal gasification, allows the
environmental benefits of a natural gas fueled plant and the thermal performance of
a combined cycle.
Coal is combined with oxygen and steam in the gasifier to produce the Syngas,
which is mainly H2 and carbon monoxide (CO). The gas is then cleaned to remove
impurities, such as sulphur and the Syngas is used in a gas turbine to produce
electricity. Waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered to create steam, which
drives a steam turbine, producing more electricity – hence, a combined cycle
system.
Case Study 3: Substitution of LDO By Coal Gasification in thermal power plant

Energy savings Brief

Sr. Description HRSG-3 HRSG-5 HRSG-6 Before Improvement After Improvement

1 A thermal power station does Producer gas, with a calorific value
Total length of insulation
break (m) 0.25 0.55 0.50
not have buffer stock of coal of 1100 kcal/m3 is generated in
2 Total area of insulation
for its boiler and therefore the indigenously designed plant. Producer
break/improvement temperature of the furnace gas at about 350 0 C is then led to
Required (m )
2
0.471 1.036 0.942 goes down. This problem is use point, which can be 50-150 m away.
3 presently solved by firing LDO,
Heat Loss Coefficient
2
(kCal/M /hr) 1805.17 4149.52 3663.50
which is a costly proposition in
4
view of increasing cost.
Total Heat Loss (kCal/hr) 850.24 4299.73 3451.02
Substitution of LDO by the
5 Steam Flow Rate in
Producer Gas can reduce cost
Pipeline (T/hr) 53.94 56.86 50.1
6 Total Heat Flow in the
incurred on LDO.
6
Pipeline(kCal/hr x 10 ) 187.6 198.0 173.5
7 Heat Loss% 0.0010 0.0021 0.0021 Energy savings
STG-2 STG-3 STG-3
8 Electrical Efficiency of Avg. expenses on the LDO are about = Rs 6, 01,942 per day
STG 13.59 8.20 8.20
8.20 Expenses on equivalent coal is = Rs 3,02,674 per day
9 kCal/kWh consumption by Thus, saving of about Rs 2,99,267 per day is achieved.
STG 6328.18 10487.810487.8 Annual savings : Rs 109 Million
10 Heat loss, kCal /hr 850.24 7750.757750.75 Investment required : Rs 30 Million
11 KWH Lossdue
kWh Loss dueto to Payback period : 4 months
insulation break
brake 0.134357 0.739025
0.739025
12 Working Hrs 694 582 582 8.5.5 High efficiency steam turbine blade
13 kWh Saving per Month 93.2 430.1 430.1
A steam turbine that provides a high thermal efficiency by adopting the latest blade
14 kWh Saving per Annum 1118.9 5161.3 5161.3
design theories, such as the laminar flow blade (Shrinked blade) with the cross-
15 Rs/kWh 2.23 2.23 2.23
16
section of the blade designed to cause the least turbulence to the steam flow, a nozzle
Annual saving in Rs 2495.20 11509.81
11509.81
with its tip twisted in consideration of the effect of the outer and inner walls on the
tip and the root of the blade (controlled vortex nozzle) and the multiple fin sealing
designed to prevent steam leak from the tip of the blade.
272 273
Case Study 4: High efficiency steam turbine blade The first stage comprising setting up of PHWRs and associated fuel cycle facilities
is already in the industrial domain. The technology for the manufacture of various
Brief components and equipment for PHWRs in India is now well established and has
evolved through active collaboration between the DAE and the industry. Twelve
Internal heat efficiency of a 500,000 kW-class high-technology steam turbine is
PHWRs are operating and two more 220 MWe PHWRs and two PHWRs of 540
2 - 2.5% (relative value) better than the conventional type. With the utilization rate
MWe rating are under construction. Construction of more such units is being
of 38%, energy saving is 3,500 kL/y in crude oil equivalent.
planned. As DAE gains experience and masters various aspects of the nuclear
Energy savings technology, performance of nuclear power plants is continuously improving.
Average capacity factor of nuclear power plants has steadily risen from 60% in
Annual savings : Rs 80 Million 1995-96 to 82.5% in the year 2000-01.
Investment required : Rs 160 Million
Payback period : 2 years The second stage envisages setting up of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) backed by
reprocessing plants and plutonium-based fuel fabrication plants. In order to expand
8.5.6 Nuclear Power Generation the nuclear power capacity in the country, fast breeder reactors are necessary. For
the second stager reactors, plutonium, due to its highest value of eta (the ratio of
The use of nuclear power for electricity generation commenced about 50 years ago
neutrons produced to neutrons absorbed) of all fissile materials, is used in the fast
in India. Today, nuclear power produces 3% of the country's total energy
generation. Expanding nuclear power is thus a matter of continuation of National breeder reactors (FBR). The current Indian programme in the 2nd stage starts with
strategies. More countries are embracing nuclear power as a part of their energy the well proven oxide fuel based FBRs and subsequently, at an appropriate stage,
mix and as their Global environmental responsibility. when all new necessary technologies have been developed & demonstrated,
metallic fuel based FBRs will be introduced. A 40 MWt, Fast Breeder Test Reactor
8.5.6.1 Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme (FBTR) has been operating at Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR),
Kalpakkam. FBTR has provided valuable experience with liquid metal Fast
The total energy content in the current known Indian nuclear resources is at least Breeder Reactor Technology and the confidence to embark upon construction of a
twenty times more than that of other non-renewable resources. With a view to 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). Detailed design, R&D and
utilize this huge resource for electricity generation, Department of Atomic Energy technology development of the PFBR is in advanced stage. Construction work on
(DAE) has been working on a three-stage nuclear power programme based upon this is expected to start in a few months. This will also be located at Kalpakkam near
closed fuel cycle. The three stages need to be executed sequentially. Chennai.
The three stages are: The third stage will be based on the Thorium-uranium-233 cycle. Uranium-233 is
obtained by irradiation of Thorium in PHWRs and FBRs. An Advanced Heavy
• Natural uranium fuelled Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) utilizing plutonium based fuel
• Advanced nuclear power systems for utilization of thorium (BARC) to expedite transition to thorium-based systems. The reactor physics
design of AHWR is tuned to generate about 75% power in Thorium, and to maintain
Work on the 1st stage is already on progress. The current Indian nuclear energy negative void co-efficient of reactivity under all operating conditions.
resource consists of 61,000 tonnes of Uranium (U235 & U238) and more than 225,000
8.5.7 Advanced Cogeneration Systems
tonnes of thorium (T 232). The Indian Nuclear power programme is based on closed
nuclear fuel cycle, in which the spent fuel of the first stage Pressurised Heavy Water Combined heat and power systems (CHP, also called cogeneration) generate
Reactors (PHWR) is reprocessed to obtain fissionable Plutonium. electricity (and/or mechanical energy) and thermal energy in a single, integrated
system. Conventional electricity generation is inherently inefficient, converting
Table - 8.4: Three stages in Indian Nuclear Power Programme
only about one third of a fuels potential energy into usable energy. Because CHP
captures the heat that would otherwise be rejected in traditional generation of
STAGE-I STAGE-II STAGE-III
FBRs TBRs electric or mechanical energy, the total efficiency of these integrated systems is
PHWRs
much greater than from separate systems. The significant increase in efficiency
-15 units -Operational since -30 kWth with CHP results in lower fuel consumption and reduced emissions compared with
operating. 1985 Operational- separate generation of heat and power. CHP is not a specific technology, but rather
-3 units under -Technology realised. -300 MWe under
construction -40 MWth FBTR are development
an application of technologies to meet end-user needs for heating and/or cooling,
-Scaling to 700 in operation -Power potential is and mechanical and/or electric power. Steam turbines, gas turbines, combined
MWe -500 MWe PFBR very large
-Power potential under construction
cycles, and reciprocating engines are the major current technologies used for power
10GWe -Power potential generation and CHP. Some basic overview of specific end-use applications of CHPs
530 GWe in varying capacity is as under:
Source : Department of Atomic Energy

274 275
Large scale (> 10 MW). Currently, most of the installed CHP plants have connected power plants, but their use in CHP unit can provide substantial energy
capacities over 20 MW. The future potential of large-scale conventional CHP savings.
systems is estimated at 48 GW. An increase in turbine-inlet temperature has led to
increasing efficiencies in gas turbines. Industrial-sized turbines are available with Fuel cells generate direct current electricity and heat by combining fuel and oxygen
efficiencies of 40 to 42%. in an electrochemical reaction. This technology is advancement in power
generation that avoids the intermediate combustion step and boiling water
The higher inlet temperature also allows a higher outlet temperature. The flue gas associated with Rankine cycle technologies or efficiency losses associated with gas
of the turbine can then be used to heat a chemical reactor, if the outlet and reactor turbine technologies. Fuel to electricity conversion efficiencies can theoretically
temperatures can be matched. One option is the so-called “re-powering” option. In reach 80-83% for low temperature fuel cell stacks and 73-78% for high temperature
this option, the furnace is not modified, but the combustion air fans in the furnace stacks. In practice, efficiencies of 50-60% are achieved with hydrogen fuel cells
are replaced by a gas turbine. The exhaust gases still contain a considerable amount while efficiencies of 42-65% are achievable with natural gas as a fuel. The main fuel
of oxygen, and can thus be used as combustion air for the furnaces. The gas turbine cell types for industrial CHP applications are phosphoric acid (PAFC), molten
can deliver up to 20% of the furnace heat. carbonate (MCFC) and solid oxide (SOFC). Proton Exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cells are less suitable for cogeneration as they only produce hot water as
Another option, with a larger CHP potential and associated energy savings, is “high byproduct. PAFC efficiencies are limited and the corrosive nature of the process
temperature CHP.” In this case, the flue gases of a CHP plant are used to heat the reduces the economic attractiveness of the technology. Hence, MCFC and SOFC
input of a furnace. High temperature CHP requires replacing the existing furnaces. offer the most potential for industrial applications.
This is due to the fact that the radiation heat transfer from gas turbine exhaust gases
is much smaller than from combustion gases, due to their lower temperature. Although PAFC fuel cell system is most commercially developed, MCFC and
SOFC offer the most potential in terms of efficiency. Stand-alone SOFCs have
The main difference is that, in the first type the process exhaust gases directly heat achieved efficiencies of 47%, and in combination with a gas turbine in a pressurized
feed, where the second type uses thermal oil as an intermediate, leading to larger system, efficiencies of 53% (LHV) have been achieved. Unfortunately, the
flexibility. In the first type, the exhaust heat of a gas turbine is led to a waste production costs of SOFCs are still high. A comparison of different fuel cell
recovery furnace in which the process feed is heated. In the second type the exhaust technologies is given below in table no 8.5:
heat is led to a waste heat oil heater in which thermal oil is heated. The heat content
of the oil is transferred to the process feed. The second type is more reliable, Table - 8.5: Comparison of different Fuel Cell Technologies
because a thermal oil buffer can be included.
AFC DMFC MCFC PAFC PEMFC SOFC
Medium scale (< 20 MW). Research aims at developing medium-scale gas Electrolyte Potassium Polymer Immobilized Immobilized Ion Ceramic
hydroxide membrane Liquid Liquid Exchange
turbines with high efficiencies. Current turbines of this size have efficiencies of Molten Phosphoric membrane
around 25%. Carbonate acid
o o o o o o
Operating 60-90 C 60-130 C 650 C 200 C 80 C 1000 C
Steam-injected gas turbines (STIG, or Cheng cycle) can absorb excess steam, e.g. temperature
generated due to seasonal reduced heating needs, to boost power production by Efficiency 45-60% 40% 45-60% 35-40% 40-60% 50-65%
injecting the steam in the turbine. Steam injection boosts the power output of the Typical Up to 20kW <10 kW >1 MW > 50 kW Up to 250 > 200 kW
Electrical kW
turbine. The size of typical STIGs starts around 5 MWe. Currently, over 100 STIGs Power
are found around the world, especially in Japan as well as in Europe and the U.S. Possible Submarines, Portable Power Power Vehicles. Power
Many industrial sites have excess low-temperature waste heat that is currently not Applications spacecraft applications stations stations Small stations
used due to a lack of suitable uses or due to poor economics. stationary
Source: www.fuelcellstoday.com
Pressure recovery turbines are an opportunity to recover power from the
decompression of natural gas or pressurised fluid lines on industrial sites. Recovery Case Study 5: Air cooler for gas turbine combustion air in a CHP plant
turbines can recover part of this energy by producing power.
Brief
Small scale (< 1 MW). For small scale industrial applications, the major • An unvented type gas turbine has a characteristic that as intake-air
developments are found in improved designs for reciprocating engines, fuel cells, temperature rises, the output drops.
micro turbines, and developments in integration of the unit in processes allowing • This is the main cause of the power drop in summer time of a combined steam
more efficient operation (e.g. tri-generation of power, heat and cooling or drying and gas turbine cycle power plant of a high thermal efficiency.
and other direct process applications, see above). Micro-turbines and fuel cells are • As a countermeasure for it, an air cooler using a spray nozzle utilizing latent
the most exciting developments in small-scale CHP technology. heat of water has been developed.
• When the dry-bulb thermometer (DB) indicates 300C and the wet-bulb
Micro turbines (25- 500 kW) are expected to have an efficiency of 26-30%. thermometer (WB) indicates 23.50C, relative humidity (RH) is 60%.
Although this is lower than the efficiency of power generation in large grid • In this case, cooling by water injection is performed with humidifying effect.
276 277
 As the result, DB temperature becomes 28.20C and WB temperature, 23.50C ii. Improvement of the fuel preparation and firing system
respectively. The inlet temperature decreases by 1.5 0C because of which the iii. Implementation of techniques for further reduction of the NOx emissions
output of gas turbine increases and thermal efficiency improves. iv. Improvement of particles collecting systems
v. Optimization of the existing fuel drying system or implementation of new
Energy savings effective drying techniques
vi. Replacement, rearrangement or resizing of heat exchange surfaces
Increase of output from combined plant (at temperature 30°C, relative vii. Supplementary heat exchange surfaces for further heat recovery from flue
humidity 60%): 12,000 kW gas
viii. Improvement of air preheating system
Reduction equivalent to crude oil consumption: 23,328 kL/year
Case Study 6: Rotating regenerative air pre-heater automatic seal gap controller Case Study 7: Operation method of increased temperature of main steam at
boiler outlet
Brief
Brief
A device to prevent air leakage in a rotating regenerative air preheater (hereafter
referred to as A/H) adopted in a medium to large capacity boiler. A method to improve thermal efficiency and to reduce fuel consumption by raising
the temperature of the main steam at the boiler outlet to 561°C (previously 541°C)
1) Air leakage occurs through the gap between the rotating part and the
stationary part of the A/H toward the gas side (ordinarily about 10%). Before improvement
2) The air leakage is caused by such factors as the radial seal at the high The following are the previous operational condition of the boiler and turbine.
-temperature side, radial seal at the low temperature side, and post and axial Temperature of main steam at the boiler outlet: 541°C
seal entrainment (residual air in the heat conductive elements). Temperature of main steam at the turbine inlet: 538°C
Vacuum of the condenser: 722mmHg
3) Air leakage from the radial seal at the high temperature side is the most Gross thermal consumption rate: 2,208kcal/kWh
conspicuous, accounting for 40 - 50% of the total air leakage. Thermal efficiency: 38.95%
Secondary superheater heat transfer area: 390 m2
Energy savings Secondary superheater tube material: SUS 321HTB

Air leak rate Forced draft power Heat recovery After improvement

Before installation 8.32% 3,097.6kW (Standard) 1) Improvement of thermal efficiency by increasing the temperature of the main
steam is evaluated by examining the T-S diagram of the Rankine cycle.
After installation 6.19% 3,038.6kW +903,000kcal/h 2) For increasing the temperature of the main steam, it is necessary to increase
Reduction rate 2.13% 59.3kW 96 liter/h (oil the heat transfer area, for which space is needed.
equivalent) 3) At the same time, high temperature corrosion resistance of the heat transfer
tube needs to be increased.
Annual savings : Rs.19.4 Million 4) Based on the above examination, it was decided to raise the temperature of
Investment required : Rs.15 Million t h e
Payback period : Less than12 months main steam to 561°C, and the following measures were implemented.
8.5.8 Renovation & Modernization · Temperature of main steam at the boiler outlet: 561°C (increased by
20°C)
Old power plants are modernized to keep up the operation of the equipment and its
efficiencies. The advantages of Renovation & Modernization are:
· Temperature of main steam at the turbine inlet: 556°C (increased by
18°C)
i. Enhancement of operational efficiency · Secondary superheater heat transfer area: 750 m2 (approx. twofold
ii. Improvement in Plant Load Factor (PLF)
increase)
iii. Meeting stringent environmental pollution control standards
iv. Extend plant life · Secondary superheater tube material SUS 347HTB
v. Capacity augmentation
5) The secondary superheating tube has been changed from the previous 1-loop
Following renovation and retrofitting techniques are mostly adopted by power
plants:
i. Steam turbine retrofitting (blades replacement and improvement of the
labryrinths' operation and turbine control system etc)
278 279
Energy savings · Losses via the off-gas
· Losses through unburnt fuel
The effect of this method applied to a 220,000 kW generation plant is shown below : · Losses through unburnt material in the residues, such as carbon in bottom
and fly ash
Load 220,000 kW (rated) Annual fuel saving · Losses via the bottom and fly ash from a DBB (Dry Bottom Boiler) and the
Gross thermal consumption rate 2,195 kcal/kWh Approx. 1,100 kL slag and fly ash from a WBB (Wet Bottom Boiler)
Thermal efficiency 39.23% (At a utilization rate of · Losses through conduction and radiation
Improvement of thermal efficiency 0.28%(absolute value) 30%)
8.5.9.1 Short-term Energy Efficiency Improvement projects for power plants
Annual savings(at an utilization rate of 30%) : Rs 25.52 Million
Investment required : Rs 47.2 Million i. Installation of online oxygen analyzer to improve combustion efficiency of
Payback period : 22 months Boiler
ii. Preventing air infiltration into boiler flue gas path particularly in waste heat
Case Study 8: Gas recirculating steam temperature control system recovery zone
iii. Installation of waste heat recovery system for boiler blow down
Brief
iv. Installation of LP steam air heater for FD fan air inlet to boiler
For the purpose of balancing the thermal absorption between the evaporation v. Optimization of operating breakdown voltage of ESP's
section of the boiler (mainly radiation heat in the furnace) and the superheating vi. Proper insulation of steam and condensate lines
section for the steam (mainly convective heat transfer in the superheater, reheater, vii. Proper and regular monitoring & replacement of defective steam traps
viii. Wetting of coal with higher fines percentage to avoid the segregation effect
and the economizer), boiler exhaust gas at the economizer outlet is recirculated by
ix. Installation of delta to star converters for lightly loaded motors
the recirculation fan to the bottom of the furnace. x. Use of translucent sheets to make use of daylight
xi. Installation of timers for switching on/off yard & outside lighting
Before replacement After replacement xii. Switching off transformers based on loading
Previously, the thermal absorption By the gas recirculation method, xiii. Optimization of TG sets operating frequency based on user requirement
balance would tilt toward the the amount of evaporated steam is xiv. Optimization of TG sets operating voltage
superheating section, and when the decreased (or increased), and the xv. Replacement of aluminum blades with aerodynamic FRP blades in cooling
temperature of the superheated steam temperature of the superheated towers
was in excess of the designated value, steam goes up (or goes down), as the xvi. Installation of Temperature Indicator Controller (TIC) for optimizing cooling
spray water was injected into the recirculation gas is increased (or tower fan operation based on ambient conditions
superheated steam to lower the decreased). As this adjustment is xvii. Minimizing compressed air leakages and optimization of compressed air
temperature(water spray steam made easily by adjusting only the network operating pressures
temperature control system). damper of the recirculation fan, it xviii. Segregation of service air and instrument air systems
As the water spray method would can be readily applied to various xix. Installation of VFD for cooling tower make up water pump with water basin
lower the boiler efficiency, this fuels such as heavy oil, crude oil, level control feed back
method was not thermally efficient. natural gas, etc. xx. Installation of VFD for DM water transfer pump
Boiler efficiency is lowered by 1 - 1.5%. xxi. Ensuring total closure of standby equipment dampers
The thermal absorption balance xxii. Reduction in RPM of Coal Handling Plant's Dust Extraction Blowers
depends on the kind of fuel used and
changes by converting the fuel. Case Study 9: Control of excess air by installing O2 monitoring system in
boiler of CPP system
Energy savings
Brief
Thermal efficiency Improvement by 0.48% in both SH and RH
Power cost Saving of power for the recirculating fan By monitoring the O2 level of 5-6 % of the flue gas on continuous basis, the input of
equivalent to thermal efficiency of 0.02% excess air level can be maintained, which shall help in regulating the heat loss to the
Total Improvement equivalent to thermal efficiency of environment.
0.5% (converted in fuel cost)
Before Improvement After Improvement
Annual savings (Boiler at 250MW class) : Rs 16 Million Presently, there is no indication By achieving 6% O2 by installation of
Investment required : Rs 20 Million of % O2 in flue gases of this boiler. monitoring systems (zirconium oxide
Payback period : 16 months Without this, optimization of online oxygen analyzer), following was
efficiency of boilers is not possible achieved:
8.5.9 Energy Efficiency Improvement through loss minimisation on continuous basis, especially Increase in boiler efficiency by 3.4%.
The operation of the steam generator requires continuous surveillance. The heat when BF gas and Mix gas Reduction in FD fan airflow by 60%.
losses from the steam generator can be categorised as: availability is changing. Reduction in ID fan flow by 60%.
280 281
Energy savings Energy savings
The following table summarizes the overall effect of O2 monitoring control. Energy savings by reducing the operating pressure to 7.5 kg/cm2 (cut-off pressure)
Effect of O2 control on boiler performance is as follows:
Parameter Existing Condition After installing O2 % Savings by pressure = (Present kW/100 CFM – kW/100 CFM at
monitoring & control reduction from9 kg/cm2 suggested pressure)/ Present kW/100
system to 7.5 kg/cm2 CFM
% O2 12.6 6 = (22.23 – 19.5) x 100/22.23 = 12.28%
Excess air, % 148 40 Savings in Compressor = Monthly Compressor kWh consumption x
Boiler efficiency, % 87 90.4 kWh consumption/month % Savings
3
FD fan airflow, Nm /h 118976 64392 = 110361 x 0.123
3
ID fan airflow, Nm /h 232590 149858 = 13574 kWh/month
Annual savings = 13574 x 12 = 162888 kWh
Annual hours of operation HP-4 boiler = 7690 hours = Rs. 3, 48,580 per annum
Average steam generation = 77.48 TPH (average during trials)
Annual saving in fuel Annual Savings : Rs 0.35 Million
= Steam flow x Enthalpy of steam x (1/Eff1 - 1/Eff2) x Annual running hours Investment required : nil
GCV of coal Payback period : Immediate
Where, Eff1 = Existing efficiency of boiler
Eff2 = Likely efficiency of boiler after modifications in control Case Study 12: Installation of Automatic Temperature Controller (ATC) for
GCV of coal is used to convert the fuel energy saved in terms of reduction in coal switching ON/OFF cooling tower fan
consumption for same total steam output of all boilers combined.
Annual saving in fuel input = 77.48 x 639 x (1/0.87 - 1/0.904) x 7690 Brief
3825
= 4303 tonnes per year Before Improvement After Improvement
Price of Coal = Rs. 1000/ tonne
Annual monetary saving = 4303 x 1000 = Rs. 43,03,000 It was observed that the operations If outlet cooling water temperature
Annual savings : Rs 4.3 Million of the Cooling Tower Fan installed is lower than the desired value,
Investment required : Rs. 5 Million on the Cooling Tower is not then natural cooling is sufficient.
Payback period : 13 months controlled based on the ambient This means that the cooling tower
climatic conditions vis-à-vis fans can be switched off by
Case Study 10: Use of Variable frequency drives on FD fans in place of temperature differential (delta T). installation of Automatic
existing Inlet vane control As a result, CT fan was operating Temperature Controllers during
Brief continuously without taking into this period.
account the inlet & outlet
Before Improvement After Improvement temperature variations.
The existing FD fan motors are For a flow reduction of about
45 & 85 kW rated at 415 V. Input 50%, reduction in power input to Energy savings
power of each fan is about 50 FD fans is 50% as compared to
and 68 kW. the existing IGV control. The % Savings by temperature control = 15%
power saved is 60KW.
Annual savings : Rs. 1.16 Million Total Cooling Tower KWh = 429.36 x 710
Investment required : Rs 0.5 Million consumption/month = 304845.6 KWh/month
Payback period : 6 months Savings in Cooling Tower Fan = 304845.6 x 0.15 x 12 KWh/annum
Electricity Consumption = 548722 KWh/Annum
Case Study 11: Reduction of cutoff pressure of air compressor
Annual savings in terms of Rupees = 548722 x 2.14
Brief = Rs. 1174265.25 per annum
Annual % savings in internal = 548722/(12 x 4.97 MU x 10^6)
Before Improvement After Improvement electricity consumption = 0.92%
The compressed air in gas-based As the application is basically for
Annual savings : Rs 1.174 Million
power plant is used for supplying instrumentation and plant air
Investment required : Rs 0.2 Million
to the instrumentation and plant requirement, the pressure was
Payback period : 2 months
air requirement and the pressure reduced from 9 kg/cm2 to 7.5 kg/cm2.
kept for cutoff is 9 kg/cm2.
282 283
8.5.9.2 Medium term Energy Efficiency Improvement projects for power Case Study 14: Replacement of fin fan cooler by water-cooled Plate Heat
plants Exchanger (PHE )

i. Installation of economizer / air pre-heater for Boiler Brief

ii. Installation of VFD for Condensate Cooling Water (CCW) pump and closed
loop control based on discharge header pressure Fin-Fan Cooler is used to cool GT Lube Oil, Turbine Legs, Atomized Air &
iii. Reduction of heat rate of gas turbines by optimizing NOx water injection Generator Air. Here the cooling is achieved by air-cooled heat exchanger. At a time
and arresting leakages through bypass dampers on average basis 4 fans operate per GT with a combined power consumption in 4
iv. Installation of Turbine inlet air cooling to increase power output of gas fans = 91.27 kW.
turbines
v. Installation of low excess air burners • In tropical climates, for normal cooling application water-cooling is more
vi. Installation of lower head fan for boiler ID fan energy efficient.
vii. Installation of Variable fluid coupling or VFD for condensate extraction • Air-cooling is convenient when an average ambient temperature drop is
pump below 20OC & ambience is relatively dust free.
viii. Utilization of flash steam from boiler blow down for de-aerator heating • Therefore it was recommended to replace Fin-Fan coolers by water-cooled
ix. Installation of capacitor banks for PF improvement PHEs.
x. Replacement of rewound motor with high energy efficiency motors
xi. Utilization of energy efficient lighting systems Energy savings
xii. Installation of LED panel lamps
xiii. Replacement of old and inefficient compressors with screw or centrifugal
compressors Before Modification After Modification
xiv. Replacement of V-belts with synthetic flat belts Energy being consumed by fin fan By replacing these with water cooled
cooler with average running of 4 fans PHE, there was a saving of 30.55 kW.
Case Study 13: Install VFD for boiler ID fans and PA fans was 91.27 kW per hour. Thus there was a total saving of 60.72
kW per hour or 9.62 lakhs units/year.
Brief

In a major captive power plant, three circulating fluidized bed combustor (CFBC) Annual savings : Rs 2.0 Million
were in operation. Each boiler has two ID fans and three Primary Air (PA) fans. Investment required : Rs 2.0 Million
Payback period : 12 months
Energy savings
Case Study 15: Replacement of Conventional T-8 tube lights with T-5 tube
lights with Electronic chokes in a power plant
Before Improvement After Improvement
Brief
All the fans had higher capacity Variable frequency drives were installed
& head by design and controlled for 6 nos of ID fans and 9 nos of PA fans The normal tube lights with conventional chokes consume about 54 W as compared
either by IGVs or Dampers to to control the speed of the fan with
meet the operating requirements. respect to operation of the boiler. The to the T-5 tube lights, which consume about 30 W. By replacing them with T-5 tube
lights, there is a saving of 24 W per light. The efficiency and the lux produced are
The estimated operating efficiency inlet guide vanes (IGVs) were kept fully better along with the longer life.
of the fans was in the range of 60% opened after the VFD was installed.
- 65% as against design efficiency The advantage of installing a variable Energy savings
of 80%. It was confirmed that the frequency drive for the boiler ID fans
fans were operating in an energy is as follows:
-
inefficient zone on the fan T –8 T -5
§ Energy saving
performance curve. § Precise control of parameters Wattage 54 Watt 30 Watt
Saving in Wattage - 54 – 30 = 24 Watt
Nos. in operation - 549
Annual savings : Rs. 6.0 Millions Hrs in operation - 10 hrs/day
Investment amount : Rs. 10.0 Million kWh saving per year - 30 x 10 x 549 x 12 x 24
Payback period : 20 months 1000
= 47434 kWh/ year
Annual saving in term of Rs - 47434 x 2.14
= Rs 1, 01,508

284 285
 Annual savings : Rs 0.1 Million Case Study 17: Convert Spreader Stoker Boilers to Fluidized Bed Boilers
Investment required : Rs 0.41 Million
Payback period : 48 months approx Brief

Case Study 16: Removal method of scale from inside condenser tubes

Brief

The ball cleaning method for removing scales deposited inside the condenser tube
becomes less effective as time goes by. The method introduced here is free from such
deterioration, and is able to restore and maintain the heat exchanging effectiveness
of the condenser as designed. The method involves use of 27 mm dia sponge balls
followed by plastic coat ball (G-ball) & then Corborundum ball (C-ball). Besides
cleaning is conducted once a week or when vacuum detoriates to 3mm Hg.

1) For removing scales deposited inside the condenser tube, cleaning with
sponge balls, 26mm diameter, was previously used. o 78% with this modifica
2) Sponge balls eventually lose their surface roughness, or become deformed,
and become unable to contact the inside wall closely. ulted in an annual coal s
3) Hard scales that cannot be removed by the sponge balls are gradually
deposited.
4) Soft scales consist of silica and organic substances, and hard scales consist of
manganese substances.
5) As a result, the vacuum of the condenser deteriorates from the original level
by about 5mmHg. Energy savings
Energy savings Annual savings : Rs. 10.50 Million
Investment amount : Rs. 27.0 Million
When applied to a 250 MW coal fired power plant (operating rate 82.2%): Payback period : 31 months

Before improvement After improvement Case Study 18: Reduction in stages in multistage pumps of LP and HP pumps
Deterioration of vacuum 6mmHg 1mmHg of Boiler Feed Pumps
Saving of fuel (under rated
— 0.65 ton/h Brief
output)
Reduction in number of stages of LP and HP pumps has led to reduction in head
Annual savings (operated for 300 days) : Rs 14.96 million
given by boiler feed pumps thus reducing the input power of the motors.
Investment required : Rs 0.12 million
Payback period : Less than 1 month • Selection of operating/design pressure of pumps is made broadly as
8.5.9.3 Long-term Energy Efficiency Improvement projects for power ` equal to working pressure plus margins considered safe at each level of
plants decision-making.

i. Reduction of one stage of feed water pump or installation of VFD with feed • Therefore, in the plant, control valves are provided and design values
back control to exactly match with system pressure are met with by throttling.
ii. Installation of VFD for Boiler ID/FD fans
Instead of throttling, if the number of stages is reduced, then the head developed is
iii. Installation of VFD for Boiler feed water pump
iv. Installation of CFBD boilers for efficient combustion as per the actual requirement, which reduces the input power of the motor.
v. Conversion to AFBC technology from chain grate/spreader stoker boilers
vi. Installation of high efficiency turbines
vii. Installation of Distributed control system (DCS) for plant operation and
monitoring

286 287
Energy savings Case Study 20: Gravity feeding of make-up water at PPCL, Delhi

Before Replacement
Boiler water handled for LP section
is 75 m3/hr and HP section is 367
m 3 /hr. Desired flow rates are
achieved by throttling the delivered
head of pump.
For LP Boiler: From 214 to 41 m
For HP Boiler: From 1440 to 756
Brief
After Replacement
LP Boiler feed pumps: Before Modification After Modification
The input power reduction by removal The cooling tower make up at Make up water is fed to CT basin
of stages = 48 kW Pragati Power Station is fed with under gravity instead of pumping it.
Annual Saving in kWh = 48 x 24 x 330 = one pump of discharge capacity of
Thus the make up pumps are kept as
3, 80,160 350m3/hr with 45 kW driving stand by and make up water is being
(Average working days per year = 330) motor.
fed due to gravity.
HP Boiler Feed Pumps: Onsite observation revealed the
The input power reduction by removal fact that the cooling tower basin is
of stages = 1316 kW well below source of make up
Annual Saving in kWh = 1316 x 24 x 330 water.
= 1, 04, 22,720
Energy savings

Annual savings : Rs 23.2 Million Net electrical energy saving of 45 kW

Investment required : Rs 3.6 Million
Payback period : 2 months Annual savings : Rs 1.5 Million
Investment required : Rs 0.1 Million
Case Study 19: Use of split mechanical seal in Condensate Extraction Pumps Payback period : One Month

Brief 8.10 Case Studies

Use of gland packing for sealing in pumps leads to the wastage of DM water at 1 ltr Case Study 21: Low-pressure operation of natural circulation boiler
per hour. If mechanical seal replaces the gland packing, then reduction in leakage
of DM water, reduction of downtime and reduction in maintenance cost takes place. Brief

Fuel-saving operation through minimizing the reduction of thermal efficiency

under low load operation of a natural circulation or forced circulation drum boiler.
Before Replacement After Replacement At a power plant relatively aged or the one operated to adjust the amount of power
generated (i.e., an adjustment thermal power plant), the following problems are
In case of gland packed CEP, almost By using mechanical seal on the CEP,
posed.
1 liter per hour of DM water is lost. the sleeve cost could be directly saved.
Due to the more wear & tear of sleeve Due to the mechanical seal installation 1) When operated for power adjustment, mainly during night, minimum load
in case of gland packed CEP, the on CEP, the pump runs for a longer
operation comes to around 40%.
sleeve is replaced frequently and time as compared to gland packed
hence this adds to more maintenance pumps where pump is required to be 2) When operated under minimum load at a constant pressure, there arise the
cost of the pump. stop regularly for replacing the gland following problems:
packing. This leads to save of down • Increased pressure loss due to the narrowed regulation valve of the
time and main power. turbine.
• Steam consumption of the steam turbine to drive the boiler feed water
Energy savings pump is not negligible from the point of the thermal efficiency of the
• In one year about 8760 liter of DM water gets leaked from one pump. plant.
• This is worth Rs. 123760 per year in terms of money
Energy savings
Annual savings : Rs 0.124 Million
1) Under low load operation, the gross thermal efficiency can be increased by
Investment required : Rs 0.13 Million
Payback period : 12 months 0.5 - 0.6% by reducing the pressure.

2) When the low-pressure operation was applied to the minimum load

(75,000kW) operation at a 350,000kW generation unit, consumption of
C-grade heavy oil was saved by 291kl per year

288 289
Case Study 22: Reduction of starting-up time of cold plant Case Study 24: Avoiding Unnecessary Pumping for CT make up water

Brief Brief

When starting up a power plant after a long shutdown (a cold plant), energy loss in
starting up is reduced by reducing the starting-up time by omitting/shortening certain
steps like turbine warming time, hot water cleaning of turbine before start-up.
Energy savings
Before Improvement After Improvement
The conventional starting-up The starting-up time is reduced by 4 hours
schedule of a cold plant requires and 45 minutes (from 29 hours to 24 hours
29 hours in total. and 15 minutes) by ommitting/shortening.
In the starting-up time, a long Certain Step: viz turbine warming time,
time is required for warming up not water cleaning of turbine before start
the turbine. up making it possible to start supplying
electric power earlier than before.
Combustion of light oil in the boiler for
starting up can be saved by 38kl per one
starting-up. Saving per year, which
depends on the number of starting up per
year, cannot be stated definitely. With
increasing operation of the adjustment
thermal power plants, which have frequent
stops and starts, there are significant
savings by this operation method
Before Improvement After Improvement
Make up water comes to first filter Elevation of the filter and channel is
on sand bed gravity filter. Output above cooling tower basins. Thus,
of filters is received in the storage passing water directly from the
tank through channels. From channels to cooling tower basin has
underground storage tank,water eliminated pumping.
is pumped to cooling tower basin.
Pump is consuming 31 kW All the power 31 kW could be saved
with direct piping. An auto control
valve was however provided to stop
flow if the level of the basin went up
to basic requirement.
Energy savings
Annual savings : Rs 0.525 Million
Investment required : Rs 0.9 Million
Payback period : 21 months
Case Study 25: Attaining proper vacuum in condenser by providing spray
pond for steam ejector
Brief

Case Study 23: Separate type heat pipe exchanger Before Improvement After Improvement
In a Power House, attaining Spray pond can be created rather than
Brief required vacuum at condenser cooling tower, which is a costly
was a recurring problem. Reason proposition. Saving results due to
Before Improvement After Improvement for this appears to be dirt, soft reduced steam consumption in ejectors.
scaling material or plastic in the
When wet-type desulfurization is To solve these problems, a heat
incoming water.
applied to a power generation boiler, exchanger utilizing heat pipes is
some problems are caused such as; installed which reheats the treated
insufficient diffusion from the stack exhaust gas through the heat Energy savings
and occurrence of white smoke exchange with the inlet gas to the
(white steam), because treated gas is desulfurization equipment.
discharged from the stack as moisture- Required flow = 200 m3/hr
saturated gas at 52 - 56°C Head at inlet of economizer = 950 + 50 + 100 = 1100 m WC
Estimated power at 60% efficiency = (200 x 9.8 x 1000 x 1100)/ (3600 x
1000 x 0.6) = 998 kW
Energy savings Existing Power consumption = 1182 kW
Savings kW = (1182 – 998) = 184 kW
1) Release of SOx and dust is less than an after-burner system.
At CEP side, potential (130 -54) = 76 kW
2) Low running cost and high reliability.
3) In comparison with the after-burner system, burner fuel cost can be saved by Saving in monetary terms is (184 + 77) = 260 kW x 3.59 x24 x 330
= Rs 75 lakhs
20 - 35 litre/kWh.
4) With a 500MW class of boiler, saving of approximately 15000 kl/year is
Annual savings : Rs 7.5 Million
possible.
Investment required : Rs 3.6 Million
Annual savings : Rs 3.45 million Payback period : 6 months
Investment required : Rs 1.75 million
Payback period : 6 months
290 291
References

1. Power Scenario at a Glance - CEA - May 2008

2. Kakodkar, Anil; "Evolving Indian Nuclear Programme: Rationale and
Perspective"' Indian Academy of Science, Bangalore, July 2008
3. LBNL - 54828: Emerging Energy Efficient Technologies in Industry case
studies of selected technologies - May 2004
4. Coal Meeting the Climate Challenge: Technology to reduce GHG emissions;
World Coal Institute.
5. Annual Report (2006-07) of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), GoI
6. Report of the working group on Power for 11th Plan (2007-12)
7. Report of the working group on R&D for the Energy Sector for the
formulation of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12)
8. Report of the working group on new and renewable energy for 11th Five Year
Plan (2007-12)
9. "Clean Coal Technologies for Developing Countries", World Bank Technical
paper no. 286, Energy Series, E. Stratos Tavonlareas & Jean- Pierre
Charpentierre, 1995
10. National Energy Map of India: Technology Vision 2030
11. CII - IREDA Publication: "Investors Manual on Energy Efficiency".
12. LBNL - 62806; World Best Practice Energy Intensity Value for Selected
Industrial Sectors, February 2008.
13. LBNL - 57293; Assessment of Energy use and energy savings potential in
selected industrial sector in India, August 2005.
14. TERI Energy Directory and Yearbook 2007
15. Statistical Abstract 2007-CSO
16. Annual Report, NPCIL
17. Japan Energy Conservation Directory
18. Yadav, R.K., "Energy and water conservation in cooling water system of
Thermal Power Station: A Case Study of Pragati Power Station", 9th
Greentech Global Environment Conference 2008, Goa, Page 237-281
19. BP Statistical Review, June 2008
20. www.iea-coal.co.uk
21. www.energymanagertraining.com
22. www.fuelcells.com
23. www.fuelcelltoday.com

292
 Chapter - 9
Iron & Steel Industry
9.1 Introduction

Steel plays an important role for the development of infrastructure in the growing
economy. With the economic growth rate of 8% - 9%, during the last few years, the
demand for steel has touched new heights. In fact, with opening up of the economy
in the early nineties, country experienced rapid growth in steel making capacity.
Large integrated steel plants set up in private sector and capacity expansion of
public sector plants has contributed to making India the 5th largest global crude steel
producer in the year 2006. India is expected to become the second largest producer
of steel in the world by the year 2015.

9.2 Present Capacity & Growth Potential

Data relating to production, consumption, import & export of finished steel (alloy
& non-alloy) and crude steel from the year 2002-03 onwards is given in table 9.1
below:-

Table 9.1: Production, Consumption, Import, Export of Finished steel &

crude steel production.
(in million tonnes)

2002- 2003- 04 2004 – 2005- 2006- 2007-08

03 05 06 07 (April –
December)*
Finished Steel Production 37.166 40.709 43.513 46.566 52.529 40.117
including Consumption 30.677 33.119 36.377 41.433 46.783 36.992
Alloy Steel Import 1.663 1.753 2.293 4.305 4.927 5.325
Export 4.517 5.207 4.705 4.801 5.242 3.850
Crude Steel Production 34.707 38.727 43.437 46.460 50.817 39.608

*Provisional
(Source : Annual Report of Ministry of Steel, GoI, 2007-08)

The projected total demand of finished steel by the end of XIth plan (i.e. year
2011-12) is 70.34 million tonne and production of crude steel is 80.23 million
tonne. These figures of demand and production are likely to increase to 90 million
tonne and 110 million tonne respectively by the year 2019-20.

9.3 Iron & Steel Manufacturing Process

The two main routes for the production of steel are :

• Production of primary steel using iron ore and scrap

• Production of secondary steel using only scrap.

9.3.1 Steel Production from Iron Ore

Steel production at an integrated steel plant involves the following four basic
steps i.e,

i. Production of coke and sinter / pallets from iron fines - Material preparation
ii. Reduction of iron ore in blast furnace-Iron making

293
 iii. Processing of molten iron to produce steel -Steel making products produced & energy efficiency measures adopted by the plants. The details
iv. Steel forming and finishing. of specific energy consumption by the Indian steel plants (GJ/ tcs) is given in table 3
below:-
In addition, the alternative route of iron making is Direct Reduction of Iron Process
(DRI) Table 9.3: SEC of Indian Steel Plants (GJ/ tcs)
9.4 Production of Crude steel in India through different processes Plant 2006-07
Traditionally, Indian steel industry were classified into Main Producers (also Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP) 28.53
referred to as the integrated iron & steel plants for example SAIL (Steel Authority
Durgapur Steel Plant (DSP) 29.58
of India Ltd.) plants, Tata Steel and Vizag Steel / RINL (Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd.)
and the Secondary Producers. However, with the coming up of larger capacity Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP) 33.39
Steel making units, of different process routes, the classification has been 29.66
Bokaro Steel Plant (BSL)
charcterised as Main Producers & Other Producers. Other Producers comprise
of Major Producers namely Essar Steel, JSW Steel and Ispat Industries as well IISCO Steel Plant (ISP) 34.26
as large number of Mini Steel Plants based on Electric Furnaces and Energy SAIL (as a whole) 29.95
Optimising Furnaces. Besides the steel producing units, there are a large number of
Sponge Iron Plants, Mini Blast Furnace units, Hot & Cold Rolling Mills & RINL 27.32
Galvanising/Colour Coating units which are spread across the different states of the TATA Steel 28.07
country. The following table 9.2 highlights the contribution of the private and
public sector in crude steel production in the country: JSW Steel 25.52
(Source : Annual Report of Ministry of Steel, GoI, 2007-08)
Table 9.2: Sectorial Production of Crude Steel
(in million tonne) The major energy consuming process in iron making are coking, sinter making &
2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 blast furnace. They consume about 61.3% of the total energy. The slabbing mill, and
Public Sector 15.8 16.0 17.0 17.0 hot strip mill together with others account for 36.5% energy consumption. The
Private sector 22.9 27.5 29.5 33.8
TOTAL PRODUCTION 38.7 43.5 46.5 50.8 table 9.4 gives the major portion of energy consumption in iron making.
% Share of public sector 40.0 36.6 36.5 33.5
Table 9.4 : Major portion of energy consumed in iron making
(Source: Annual Report of Ministry of Steel, GOI, 2007-08)

9.5 Energy Consumption in Steel Plants Process Energy consumed % of total energy
6
10 kCal/tonne CS
9.5.1 Energy Intensity
Coking 1.033 11.5 61.3% in iron
Iron & Steel industry in India is highly energy intensive. Major energy inputs in the Sinter making 0.967 10.7 making
Blast furnace 3.519 39.1
sector are coking coal, non-coking coal, coke & electricity.
BOF (LD) 0.202
2.2 2.2% in steel
Energy demand in this sector is expected to be nearly 28% of the total industrial making
Slabbing mill 0.483 5.4
energy demand in 2030, which is roughly between 20-22% at present. The demand Hot strip mill 1.080 12.0
36.5% in rolling
for coal in steel sector is expected to grow by 5.2% per year (upto2030) and natural Cold rolling mill 1.025 11.4 and others
Other 0.91 7.7
gas demand to grow by 6% a year. The electricity demand in the same period is (including losses)
likely to grow 8% per year. Total 9.000 100.0

9.5.2 Energy Consumption (Source : Handbook of Energy Conservation by H. M. Robert & J. H. Collins)

The specific energy consumption in Indian Steel plants is quite high. It ranges
between 25.5 GJ/ tcs to 34.2 GJ/ tcs (tonne of crude steel). On an average, the SEC
(Specific Energy Consumption) is 30 GJ/ tcs in India, which is almost double of the
World's best plants. There is variation of specific energy consumption in different
steel plants. This is mainly because of different processes, quality of coal, types of

294 295
The details of specific energy consumption by process in an Indian Steel Plant is Slabbing mill (per tonne of ingots)
given in table 9.5 below:
Electricity (kWh) 45 - 0.112 -
Table 9.5 : Specific Energy Consumption
BFG (M³) 450 - 0.371 -
Energy in heat values Total 0.483
Qty. of energy (106 kCal)
Description Net energy consumed per tonne of CS 0.483
consumed Produced
consumed Produced Hot strip mill (per tonne of slabs)
Coke oven (per tonne of coke) Electricity (kWh) 150 - 0.375 -
Coal (tonne) 1.489 - 10.423 - COG 140 - 0.574 -
BF coke (tonne) - 1.0 - 7.000
BFG (M³) 420 - 0.366 -
Electricity (kWh) 27 - 0.067 -
Steam (kg) - 50 - 0.043
COG (M³) 208 416 0.853 1.706
Total 1.315 0.043
Steam (kg) 100 - 0.087 -
Net energy consumed per tonne of slab 1.272
Coke breeze (kg) - 150 - 1.050
Net energy consumed per tonne of CS 1.080
Crude tar (kg) - 40 - 0.034
Cold rolling mill (per tonne of CR coils)
Total 11.430 9.790
Net energy consumed per tonne of BF coke 1.640 Electricity (kWh) 250 - 0.625 -
Net energy consumed per tonne of CS Steam (kg) 250 - 0.219 -
(at coke rate of 700 kg and HM ratio of 1.033
900 kg) COG 70 - 0.287 -
Sinter plant (per tonne of sinter)
BFG (M³) 210 - 0.183 -
Coke breeze (kg) 100 - 0.700 -
Total 1.314 -
Electricity (kWh) 100 - 0.250 -
Net energy consumed per tonne of CRC 1.314 -
COG (M³) 20 - 0.082 - Net energy consumed per tonne of CS 1.025
BFG (M³) 50 - 0.043 - (Source :Handbook on Energy Conservation by H.M. Robert & J.H. Collins)
Total 1.075 -
9.6Energy Efficiency in Steel Industry in India
Net energy consumed per tonne of sinter) 1.075 -
Net energy consumed per tonne CS (at sinter
rate 0.967
In the journey of progress, the Indian Steel Industry has taken significant steps in
of 1000 kg and HM ratio of 900 kg) improvement of productivity, conservation of natural resources, Research and
Blast furnace (per tonne of hot metal) Development, import substitution, quality upgradation and environment
Coke (kg) 700 - 4.900 -
management. Some notable developments are:
Electricity (kWh) 30 - 0.075 - 1. Introduction of Stamp Charging and Partial Briqueting of Coal Charge (PBCC)
BFG (M³) 1000 2500 0.870 2.075 for production of metallurgical coke - in this process, it has been made possible
Steam (kg) 160 - 0.140 - to replace part of the metallurgical coal requirements by non-coking/ semi-
Total 5.985 2.075 coking coal, with higher strength of the coke and less emission.
Net energy consumed per tonne of HM 3.910
2. Installation of energy recovery coke ovens - in order to meet the power
Net energy consumed per tonne of CS 3.519 requirements as well as to reduce emission.
(at HM ratio of 900 kg)
Steel melting shop (per tonne of ingots) 3. Use of non-coking coal in iron making - processes such as Corex have now been
Electricity (kWh) 40 - 0.100 - introduced in some of the steel plants to produce hot metal by predominantly
Steam (kg) 25 140 0.022 0.122 using non-coking coal. Coal Dust/ Pulverised Coal Injection System has been
COG (M³) 20 - 0.082 -
introduced in several blast furnaces to partially substitute Coke. In addition,
there has been large scale growth of sponge iron units based on non-coking coal.
Oxygen (M³) 70 - 0.120 -
Total 0.324 0.122
Net energy consumed per tonne of CS 0.202

296 297
4. Use of Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) / Sponge iron in steel making-earlier, only
scrap could be used as a feed material in electric arc furnaces. With growing
scarcity of scrap, a replacement could be found in the form of DRI produced
from iron ore with reformed natural gas/ non-coking coal as reluctant.
5. Use of hot metal in electric arc furnaces - setting up of Basic Oxygen Furnace is
capital intensive and successful only at a large scale.
9.6.1 Directory of ENCON measures by the Indian Steel Industry
In Indian steel industry, the specific energy consumption ranges from 25.5 GJ/ tcs to
34.2 GJ/ tcs, depending on the process & product produced. Average SEC of Steel
Industry in India is 30 GJ/ tcs as compared to 26 GJ/ tcs of US & 18 GJ/ tcs of Japan.
Over the years, a number of energy conservation measures have been taken by each
plant.

6. Adoption of continuous casting - The first solidified form of steel in the melting A Important energy conservation
shops used to be ingots. With the advent of continuous casting in late seventies implementation are listed below :
and now the adoption of thin slab casting has resulted in energy saving. Today the
continuously cast steel output is 66%. 1.
7. Reducing coke consumption in blast furnaces and improving productivity - 2.
Indian blast furnaces used to consume as high as 850 kilograms of coke per tonne
of hot metal and Blast Furnace productivity were hovering at less than one tonne 3.
per cubic meter per day. Introduction of modern technologies and practices viz. 4.
high top pressure, high blast temperature, pulverized coal injection, attention on 5.
6.
burden preparation & distribution, and higher use of sinter in place of lumps have
resulted in reduced coke consumption and improved productivity. Today, coke
7.
rate in some of the blast furnaces is less than 500 kg/ tonne hot metal &
productivity exceeding 2 tonne per cubic meter per day. 8.
8. Enhancing steel quality - Earlier the steel making furnaces used to complete the
9.
steel making within the furnaces itself. With the introduction of modern steel
10.
making technologies/practices and secondary refining technologies such as 11.
ladle metallurgy, vacuum degassing etc., it is now possible to produce steel of
much lower inclusion and much lower content of oxygen, nitrogen and 12.
hydrogen. The ladle furnace technology has also made it possible to cut down the 13.
steel making time in converters or Electric Arc Furnaces and enable to produce
steel of low sulphur and phosphorus content.
14.
9. Efforts to reduce energy consumption and emissions - Iron and Steel making
involves energy intensive processes. The international norm of energy
consumption is 4.5 to 5 Giga calories per tonne of crude steel. With setting up of
modern equipments and beneficiation of raw materials, Indian Steel plants have 15.
been able to achieve energy consumption at the level of 6.5 to 8.5 Giga calories
only. Further, steps are being taken to achieve much lower energy consumption 16.
and corresponding lower Green House Gas (GHG) emissions by the end of 11th
Five Year Plan. With the growth of steel industry, increasing attention is being 17.
paid to environment management. Steps such as afforestation, installation of 18.
pollution control equipments etc. are likely to abate the pollution emanating
from steel industry. Further, the Indian iron and steel industry is now taking the 19.
advantages of Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol
thereby reducing pollution and energy consumption. 20.
21.
22.
23.
schemes implemented/under
Fabrication and erection of thyrister control for 800 tonnes shear in
Blooming and Billet mill (BSP).
Installation of energy efficient dry fog dust suppression system in Blast
Furnace stock house (BSP).
Installation of side burner in Furnace of Rail Mill (BSP).
On-line sealing of steam blast and gas leakage (DSP).
Insulation of steam lines and other hot surfaces (DSP).
Commissioning of alternate Blast Furnace gas line for Blast Furnace stoves
(RSP).
Steam impingement on sinter bed introduced in both the strands of Sinter plant
(RSP).
Commissioning of vapour absorption chiller in Coal Chemicals Department
(RSP).
Change over from 9-2 pushing series to 5-2 pushing series(BSL).
Resumption of coal dust injection in Blast Furnace after capital repair (BSL).
Installation of 18 kW motors in place of 24 kW motors in 92 nos. of bases in
Annealing Line of Cold Rolling Mill (BSL).
Installation of electronic belt weigh feeder at coal handling bunker (IISCO).
Conversion of four stroker type boilers at Power House from coal firing to
By Product Gas firing thereby reducing the coal consumption in power
generation (TISCO).
Increased recovery of LD gas from a level of 37 Normal cubic metre per tonne
of crude Steel to a level of 56 Normal cubic metre per tonne of crude Steel. The
recovered LD gas is mixed with BF gas for utilisation at Power Houses
(TISCO).
Installation of variable frequency drive to reduce electrical energy
consumption (TISCO).
Increase in high top pressure at E Blast Furnace, thereby increasing the blast
furnace productivity and reduction in blast furnace coke rate (TISCO).
Installation of Top Recovery Turbine at H Blast Furnace (TISCO).
Modification in LD gas network to recover additional LD gas from another
LD Shop (TISCO).
Split blowing at Blower Houses to reduce steam consumption for blast furnace
blowing (TISCO).
Introduction of COREX Technology for Iron Making (JSW).
The first 1.2 MTPA non-recovery coke ovens with stamp charging and co
-generation of 85 MW waste heat power (JSW).
Main gates and street lights are replaced by solar lights (JSL).
Installation of air-preheaters in waste heat recovery boilers (JSPL).

298 299
24. Installation of dual fired boiler (1×63 TPH) substituted coal by Blast Furnace
Gas partially (JSPL).
25. Installation of non-recover type, environmental friendly coke oven
plant(JSPL).
26. Replacement of petro-fuel by producer gas (JSPL).
27. Introduction of metallurgical coke fines in Electric Arc Furnace by coke
injector as cheap substitute of CPC (JSPL).
28. Waste heat recovery boilers (WHRB) installed to utilise sensible heat of off-gas
of DRI-Kilns to generate extra electrical power emission (JSPL).
29. Other conventional energy saving measures adopted are :
a) LD Gas recovery,
b) 100% Continuous Casting,
c) Highest hot charging of slabs,
d) Coal injection in Blast Furnaces,
e) High Hot blast Temperature in stoves
9.7 Details of the World's Best Processes
9.7.1 Blast Furnace- Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Route
During the ironmaking process, sintered or pelletized iron ore is reduced using coke
in combination with injected coal or oil to produce pig iron in a blast furnace.
Limese is added as a fluxing agent. Reduction of the iron ore is the largest energy-
consuming process in the production of primary steel. The best practice blast
furnace is a modern large scale blast furnace. Fuel injection rates are similar to
modern practices found at various plants around the world. The highlights of the
process are given below :-
Blast Furnace and BOF
• Fuel injection rate approx. 125 kg/t hot metal
• Oxygen is used for enrichment
• Pressurized operation for blast furnace at four bar
• Power recovery using Top Gas Power Recovery Turbine (wet type)
• Heating efficiency of hot gas stoves is maintained at around 85% using
staggered parallel operation of 3 to 4 stoves per furnace.
• Scrap input typically 10% - 25% in BOF Process
• BOF gas and sensible heat recovery
Coke Plant
• Electrical exhausters are installed
• VFDs for motors and fans
• Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ) saves additional 1.44 GJ/t (49 kgce/t) coke
(kgce = kilograms coal equivalent)
Sinter Plant
• Coke and breeze is used as fuel and gas as ignition furnace fuel
• Moving Grate technology is used
• Waste heat recovery from sinter exhaust cooler
300
9.7.2 Smelt Reduction - Basic Oxygen Furnace Route
Smelt reduction processes are the latest development in pig iron production and
omit coke production by combining the gasification of coal with the melt
reduction of iron ore. Energy consumption is reduced because production of coke
is abolished and iron ore preparation is reduced.
Currently, the COREX process (Voest-Alpine, Austria) is commercial and
operating in South Africa, South Korea and India, and under construction in China.
The COREX process uses agglomerated ore, which is pre- reduced by gases
coming from a hot bath. The pre-reduced iron is then melted in the bath. The process
produces excess gas, which is used for power generation, DRI - production, or as
fuel gas.
The best practice values for the COREX plant are based on the commercially
operating plant at POSCO's Pohang site in Korea. The plant coal consumption
is around 100 kgce/t (Kg Coal Equivalent), 75 kWh/t (9.2 kgce/t) hot metal
electricity and 526 Nm3/t hot metal of oxygen. It exports offgases with an energy
value of 13.4 GJ/t (457 kgce/t) hot metal.
9.7.3 Direct reduced Iron (DRI) - Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Route
DRI, Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI), and iron carbide are all alternative iron making
processes. DRI, also called sponge iron, is produced by reduction of the ores below
the melting point and has different properties than pig iron. DRI serves as a high-
quality alternative for scrap in secondary steelmaking.
In the EAF steelmaking process, the coke production, pig iron production,
and steel production steps are omitted, resulting in much lower energy
consumption. To produce EAF steel, scrap is melted and refined, using a strong
electric current. DRI is used to enhance steel quality or if high quality scrap is scarce
or expensive. Several process variations exist using either AC or DC currents, and
fuels can be injected to reduce electricity use.
The best practice EAF plant is state-of-the-art facility with eccentric bottom
tapping, ultra high power transformers, oxygen blowing, and carbon injection. The
furnace uses a mix of 60% DRI and 40% high quality scrap. The high DRI charge
rate limits the feasibility of fuel injection. The best practice excludes scrap
preheating, although this is used in large scale furnaces.
The best practice DRI-scrap-fed EAF consumes a mix of 60% DRI and 40%
scrap. It consumes 530 kWh/t (65 kgce/t) liquid steel for the EAF and 65 kWh/t
(8 kgce/t) liquid steel for gas cleaning and ladle refining, as well as 8 kg/t liquid steel
of carbon. Installing a scrap preheater reduces power use in the EAF by 40 kWh/t
(4.9 kgce/t) liquid steel, reducing total electricity use to 555 kWh/t (68.2 kgce/t)
liquid steel.
9.7.4 Scrap - Electric Arc Furnace Route
In the EAF steelmaking process, the coke production, pig iron production, and steel
production steps are omitted, resulting in much lower energy consumption. To
produce EAF steel, scrap is melted and refined, using a strong electric current.
Several process variations exist, using either AC or DC currents and fuels can be
injected to reduce electricity use.
301
The EAF is equipped with eccentric bottom tapping, ultra high power transformers,
oxygen blowing, full foamy slag operation, oxy-fuel burners, and carbon
injection.
The "best practice" DRI-scrap-fed EAF consumes 100% scrap. It consumes 409
kWh/t (50.3 kgce/t) liquid steel for the EAF and 65 kWh/t (8 kgce/t) liquid steel for
gas cleaning and ladle refining, as well as 0.15 GJ/t (5.1 kgce/t) liquid steel of
natural gas and 8 kg/t liquid steel of carbon. Installing a scrap preheater would
reduce power use in the EAF by 70 kWh/t (8.6 kgce/t), reducing total electricity
use to 404 kWh/t (49.6 kgce/t) liquid steel.
Finishing
Finishing is the final production step, and may include different processes
such as annealing and surface treatment. The best practice final energy intensity
for batch annealing is steam use of 0.173 GJ/t, fuel use of 0.9 GJ/t and 35
kWh/t of electricity, equivalent to 1.2 GJ/t (41.0 kgce/t). Best practice energy use
for continuous annealing is assumed to be equal to fuel use of 0.73 GJ/t, steam use
of 0.26 GJ/t, and electricity use of 35 kWh/t, equivalent to final energy use of 1.1
GJ/t (or 38.1 kgce/t). Continuous annealing is considered the state-of-the-art
technology, and therefore assumed to be best practice technology.

9.7.5 Casting
Casting can be either continuous casting or thin slab/near net shape casting. Best
practice continuous casting uses 0.06 GJ/t (2.0 kgce/t) steel of final energy. Energy
is only used to dry and preheat the ladles, heat the tundish, and for motors to
drive the casting equipment. Thin slab/near net shape casting is a more
advanced casting technique which reduces the need for hot rolling because products
are initially cast closer to their final shape using a simplified rolling strand
positioned behind the caster's reheating tunnel furnace, eliminating the need for a
separate hot rolling mill. Final energy used for casting and rolling using thin slab
casting is 0.20 GJ/t (6.9 kgce/t) steel.
9.7.6 Rolling & Finishing
Hot Rolling
While the data describes best practices in energy efficiency for key processes, the
integration of these individual technologies is key to obtain the full benefits of these
technologies. For example, combined heat and power would increase the
efficiency of steam supply for the described processes, while by-product
energy flows may also be used more efficiently by implementing more efficient
technologies (e.g. use of blast-furnace gas in a combined cycle instead of a boiler).
Tables 9.6 and 9.7 below summarize the Energy Intensity Values of the Best Plants
based on International Iron & Steel Institutes (IISI) Eco Tech Plant & All Tech
plants in U.S.
Table 9. 6 : Summary of World Best Practice "Final Energy Intensity Values"
for Iron & Steel Sector
Iron and Steel Unit GJ/t kgce/t
Technological Process

Rolling of the cast steel begins in the hot rolling mill where the steel is heated and Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace –Thin Slab Casting steel 14.8 504.5
Slab Casting
passed through heavy roller sections to reduce the thickness. Best practice values Smelt Reduction – Basic Oxygen Furnace – Thin Slab steel 17.8 606.4
Casting
for hot rolling are 1.55 GJ/t (53.0 kgce/t), 1.75 GJ/t (59.6 kgce/t), and 1.98 GJ/t Direct Reduced Iron – Electric Arc Furnace – Thin Slab steel 16.9 576.2
(67.5 kgce/t) of steel of final energy for rolling strip, bars, and wire, respectively. Casting
Scrap - Electric Arc Furnace – Thin Slab Casting steel 2.6 87.5
The best practice values assume 100% cold charging, a walking beam furnace
with furnace controls and energy efficient burners, and efficient motors. Hot Source : LBNL; Environment Technologies Division; Feb'2008 by WorrellE., Price L., Neelis M.,
Galitsky C., Nan Z.)
charging and premium efficiency motors may further reduce the rolling mill energy
use. Table 7 : Summary of World Best Practice “Primary Energy Intensity
Values” for Iron & Steel Sector
Cold Rolling
Iron and Steel Unit GJ/t kgce/t
The hot rolled sheets may be further reduced in thickness by cold rolling. The coils
are first treated in a pickling line followed by treatment in a tandem mill. The best Technological Process
practice final energy intensity for cold rolling is 0.09 GJ/t (3.0 kgce/t) steam, fuel Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace– Thin Slab Casting steel 16.3 555.1
use of 0.053 GJ/t (1.8 kgce/t) and electricity use of 87 kWh/t (10.7 kgce/t) cold
rolled sheet, equivalent to 0.47 GJ/t (13.7 kgce/t) cold sheet. Smelt Reduction – Basic Oxygen Furnace– Thin Slab Casting steel 19.2 656.8

Direct Reduced Iron – Electric Arc Furnace – Thin Slab Casting steel 18.6 635.8

Scrap - Electric Arc Furnace – Thin Slab Casting steel 6.0 205.1

(Source : LBNL; Environment Technologies Division; Feb'2008 by Worrell E., Price L., Neelis M.,
Galitsky C., Nan Z.)

9.8 World's Best Practices of Energy Efficiency

Some important measures of energy conversation in different processes taken by
Steel Industry Internationally are highlighted in this section.

302 303
• Sintering process
• Heat recovery from hot pallets is utilized to generate low temperature
steam, which is used in turbo blower.
• Waste heat is recovered from cooler boiler
• VFD is used for speed control of dust collecting blower and boiler water
feed pump
• Steam vapour is used for preheating the sinter.
• Complete heat balance is done in the sintering process.
• Coking process
• Coal is converted to coke by nitrogen injection process
• Coke dry quenching (CDQ) is done and the steam and CO gas is
recovered.
• Moisture in coke is controlled by tube type dryer utilizing low temperature
steam recovered in CDQ.
• Sensible heat of gas (CO) recovered from CDQ is used to generate steam,
which is used in turbo - blower or moisture control equipment.
• Moisture is reduced from 8% - 10% to 5% - 7% to increase the density.
About 5°C difference moisture control in coal increases the productivity
directly by +5%.
• Exhaust gas heat is recovered from coke oven.
• Complete heat balance of coke oven is done.
• Blast furnace and Iron making process
• Electric power conservation of dust collector and blower by use of VFD.
• High temperature and pressure of dust collector is used for generating
power by top gas pressure recovery turbine (TRT).
• Waste heat is recovered from hot stove and it is used for heating
combustion air.
• Granulated slag waste heat recovery is done.
• Reuse of dust as raw material in blast furnace (reduction in energy
consumption in 0.4%).
• Prevention of molten iron temperature drop by using torpedo car.
• Complete heat balance of blast furnace and hot stove is done.
• Gas recovery from converter is done.
• Continuous casting instead of ingots (transport without re-heating).
• Rolling Process
• In re-heating furnace, the following are energy conservation measures:
• Extraction of slab at low temperature.
• Improvement of heat pattern
• Computer aided furnace temperature control.
• Proper upkeep of recuperator
• Improvement of heat transfer through proper design
• Optimisation of combustion air fan capacity
• Hot direct rolling through continuous casting
• Complete heat balance of reheating furnace
• In hot rolling process, the following energy conservation measures are
adopted:
• Increase productivity by improvement of coiler and strip cooling
• Replacement of plunger pump (de-scaling pump).
• Waste water heat recovery
• In cold rolling process, the following energy conservation measures are
adopted:
• Optimisation of motor cooling fan capacity
• Replacement of plunge pump (de-scaling pump).
• In annealing process, the following energy conservation measures are taken:
• Air and fuel preheating
• Continuous annealing and process line.

• DRI Process

• Optimization of fixed carbon / iron (C/Fe) in the range of 0.40 -0.42.

• Consistency in ash percentage of coal.
• Modification of equipments and reduction in motor rating.
• Optimization of operating parameters.
• Use Proper capacity shell air fan.
• Control in Carbon percentage in char (By-product) by efficient
combustion.
• Control of Carbon % in fly ash through better combustion in After Burning
Chamber.
• Effective, Efficient & Close monitoring of operating parameters.

• Steel Melting Process

• Exhaust gas heat recovery from torpedo car and ladle.

• Heat recovery from converter slag.
• LD Converter Gas (Linz and Donawitz) sensible heat recovery.
304 305
The summary of the technological ENCON measures is diagrammatically shown in
Fig. 9.1 below
Iron making process
Technology
Improvement in segregated
charging of sintering materials.
Coal drying and moisture control
equipment for coke oven.
Coke dry quenching
Exhaust heat recovery system for
sintered ore cooling equipment.
Sensible heat recovery from main
exhaust gas of sintering machine.
Automatic combustion control of
coke oven.
Blast furnace operation control
system.
Blast furnace hot blast valve
control system.
Blast furnace burden distribution
control.
Technol ogy
Hot charging and direct rolling
mill.
Channel induction furnace for
cast iron melting.
Ferroalloy furnace for
effective energy utilization.
Heating furnace with
regenerative burners.
High performance heating
furnace.
Recovery of sensible heat
from skid cooling water in
heating furnace.
Descaling pump (conversion
to plunger pump)
Operation Improvement of
heat treatment furnace.
Figure 1 : Iron & Steel : Production Process and Energy Saving Technology
Source : Directory of Energy Conservation Technology in Japan: ECCJ)
9.9 Energy Efficient Technologies being used in Iron & Steel Industry in
Japan
Steel making process Rolling Process Case Studies for different sections are given below for different areas of Iron &
Steel Production to finishing and general utilities including Centralized Power
Plant (CPP) in an integrated Iron & Steel Plant.
9.9.1 Case Studies in Iron Making Area
Case Study 1 : Coal drying and humidity control equipment for coke oven
Brief
It is the equipment which reduces the humidity in the coal to be charged into a coke
oven by heating in order to reduce fuel consumption in the coke oven. It reduces the
heat consumption for carbonization and utilises a large amount of non-coking coal.
The charging amount of coal in a coke chamber is increased, and coke quality is
Technology Technology improved by the increased density of coal charging.
DC arc furnace with water cooled furnace
wall.
Pulverized coal Productivity is increased by about 5.9% when the water content is reduced by 2.9%.
injection for blast Continuous casting machine.
furnace. High frequency melting furnace.
BF top – pressure Channel induction furnace for cast iron
Fuel consumption in the coke oven is reduced by heating the coal and reducing the
recovery turbine. melting.
humidity. Mainly, steam is used for heating coal.
Ferroalloy furnace for effective energy
utilization.
Hot stove exhaust heat recovery equipment.
Before Improvement After Improvement
BOF exhaust gas recovery device (including
sealed BOF)
BOF gas sensible heat recovery apparatus.
Water Content in coal 7% - 11% 6%
Raw material preheater for electric arc
furnace.
Heating furnace with regenerative burners.
Energy Saving
Ladle heating apparatus with regenerative
burners.
Energy saving: 40,000-80,000 kcal/t-coal (18,000 kcal/t-coal per 1% of
Energy saving operation of electric arc
water-content reduction).
furnace.
Investment amount : Rs 800 Million for charge coal of 3,200 kt/year
Annual Savings : Rs 400 Million
Payback Period : 2 years
Technology
Continuous annealing line.
Case Study 2 : Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ)
Convection heating type heat
treatment furnace for wire rod
coil. Brief
Low temperature forge welded
pipe production method. This improvement is to use equipment which cools red hot coke produced in a coke
High efficiency gas separation
oven by exchanging heat with inert gas in a sealed vessel, and recovers the heat as
apparatus. steam or electricity.
Centralized energy Coke production consumes 7-8% of the whole energy consumed in an integrated
management. (Energy centre) steel plant. About 45% of it is the sensible heat of red heat cokes coming out of coke
ovens. Conventionally the red heat cokes which have the temperature of 1,000-
1,200°C, are cooled by water spray, and the sensible heat is dissipated into the
atmosphere. Coke dry quenching is to recover this waste heat by performing heat
exchange with inert gas such as combustion exhaust gas in a sealed vessel, heating
the gas to about 800°C, and generate steam by a boiler
Before improvement After improvement
Reduction of energy Base 291 x 103
consumption kcal/T pig
306 307
(Specification: Coke treating capacity 150t/h, Coke temperature 1200°C, boiler Investment amount : Rs 800 Million
efficiency 80%, BF coke ratio 480kg/t-pig) Annual Saving : Rs 200 Million
Payback period : 4 years
Energy Saving
Case Study 5 : Sensible heat recovery from main exhaust gas of sintering
Investment amount : Rs 2.3 Billion machine
Annual Savings : Rs 0.813 Billion
Payback period : 3 years Brief

Case Study 3 : Automatic combustion control of coke oven
Brief
Program heating adjusts and optimizes the heating condition in each coking
chamber in accordance with the state of coal carbonization. It saves energy by
reducing coking energy consumption. It also improves the coke quality.
In a sintering machine, fine iron ore is mixed with fine coke, powdered limese, etc.,
heated, and agglomerated into sintered ore, which is used as a blast furnace raw
material. In this improvement, the main exhaust gas heat recovery and circulation
process was adopted in addition to the cooler exhaust heat recovery. The main
exhaust gas, which was previously dissipated into the atmosphere once its heat was
recovered, is now returned back to the sintering machine, further enhancing the
heat recovery efficiency.

1) Measurements are carried out on the flue temperature, generated In this process, using the waste heat boiler, the heat is recovered from the gas of the
gastemperature, red-heat coke temperature, exhaust gas composition, etc. temperature of about 380°C exhausted from the sintering machine, and then the gas
2) Electric valve controllers are installed on each of the existing adjusting cocks is returned back to the sintering machine. By this method, the heat recovery is
at the branches of the gas and air distribution piping, and the drafting pressure increased by about 30% and at the same time, emission of NOx, SOx, etc., into the
regulating waist dampers. atmosphere is reduced.
3) Combustion in each chamber is separately controlled in accordance with the
Energy Saving
conditions of the charged coal (charged volume, moisture content, etc.) and the
operation (target time to finish heating, etc.). Reduction in crude oil equivalent: 8,430 kL/y Reduction of 30,000 kcal/t-sinter at
4) The operation control system is integrated, which covers heating pattern sinter production of 2,600,000 t/year.
control, air-fuel ratio control, program heating, charge scheduling, etc.
Investment amount : Rs 160 Million
Energy Saving Annual Saving : Rs 60 Million
Payback period : 3 years
Amount of carbonization energy reduced: 40,000 kcal/ t-coal at coke production of Steam generation from boiler is 10 t/h
1,500 kt/ year.
Case Study 6 : Improvement in segregated charging of sintering materials
Investment amount : Rs 160 Million
Annual Saving : Rs 60 Million Brief
Payback period : 3 years
This is an improvement of the charging device in the sintering process. By uniformly
Case study 4 : Exhaust heat recovery system for sintered ore cooling equipment charging the materials along the width of the sinter bed and optimizing the size
segregation along the height, the yield and quality are improved, resulting in energy
Brief saving.

In this, the red-heat sintered ore, just after sintering, is air- cooled in the cooler. The improvement of segregated charging is to optimize the size distribution along
Sensible heat of hot exhaust gas from the cooler is recovered. the height of the sinter bed.

Sintered ore discharged from the sintering machine has the temperature of 500-
750°C, and cannot be transported directly to the blast furnace. Therefore, the air-
cooling-type cooler is installed at the exit of the sintering machine. The sensible
heat of the high-temperature part (250 - 450°C) of the cooler exhaust gas is
recovered as steam. The power generation system using low-volatile flon-based
medium (florinol) has been developed and put to practical use.
By this, the permeability increases, and the quality of the sintered ores in the upper
layer is improved, resulting in the overall yield improvement.
Further, the return ores are reduced. Accordingly, the coke consumption is reduced
and the energy saving effect is achieved.
Energy Saving

Energy Saving Before improvement After improvement Crude oil equivalent

Specific coke Base (-) 2.8 6,600 kL/y
Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 3,500 (kL/y) consumption (kg/T-
sinter)
Reduction in calorific value : 60,000 kcal/t-sinter
Coal addition rate (%) Base (-) 0.54 1,200 kL/y

308 309
 Investment amount : Rs 75 Million energy by preheating combustion air and fuel gas for a blast-furnace hot stove by
Annual Saving : Rs 40 Million utilizing the sensible heat of combustion waste gas exhausted from the hot stove.
Payback period : 2 years
1) There are two types: one has separate heat exchangers for heat receiving
Case Study 7 : Pulverised Coal Injection (PCI) system for blast furnace: and heat radiating, and heat medium is forced to circulate between the
two; the other uses a regenerative heat exchanger and directly preheats
Brief
combustion air
This is a technology to inject pulverized coal directly into a blast furnace through 2) When preheating fuel gas, the type which has the heat exchangers
tuyeres in place of using coke. Energy to produce cokes (coking energy) is reduced. completely separated is advantageous in view of safety, because fuel gas
does not come in contact with high-temperature gas, and there is no
• Pulverized coal is injected into a blast furnace through tuyeres by a pulverized danger of explosion.
coal injection device.
• The type, size, etc. of pulverized coal injected differs by injection device and Energy Saving
blast furnace.
• By improving the equipment and operation technology, injection of 50-200 Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 9,700 kL/y
kg/t-pig is now possible, resulting in a large energy saving. Reduction of 30,000 kcal/s-t at crude steel production of 3,000 kt/y
(40 - 50% of the sensible heat of waste gas is recovered)
Energy Saving Investment amount : Rs 200 Million
Annual Saving : Rs 70 Million
At the pig iron production of 3,000 kt/year, Payback period : 3 years
Reduction in crude oil equivalent: 19,460 kL/year at pulverized coal injection
of 100 kg/t-pig, plus longer coke-oven life. Case Study 10 : Blast furnace hot blast valve control system
Reduction of energy consumption per tonne of pulverized coal: 600,000 kcal/t-
coal, coal injection 300,000 t-coal/year Brief
Investment amount : Rs 1.25 Billion
Annual Saving : Rs 0.4 Billion To improve the circumferential balance, hot blast control valves and their control
Payback period : 3.1 years system were adopted to individually control the hot blast flow rate at each of the
tuyeres, hence saving energy.
Case Study 8: BF Top-Pressure Recovery Turbine (TRT)
The continuous control in accordance with the furnace condition was done with the
Brief help of hot blast control valves. Also, change in the fuel rate injection could be made
possible.
A device which utilizes the furnace top gas pressure of a high pressure blast furnace
for generating electric power by driving gas turbine. Energy Saving
The pressure of the BF gas (B gas) generated in a blast furnace is 2-3kg/cm2 at the
furnace top in high-pressure operation. In order to effectively utilize this gas in the
downstream processes, conventionally its pressure was reduced by the septum
valve after the dust was removed.
Energy saving
Reduction in crude oil equivalent
Reduction in SOx, NOx
Investment amount
:
:
:
:
4,300 kL/y
47%
Rs 80 Million
]
134,000 kcal/t For Production
3000 kt/y.

Annual Saving : Rs 20 Million

A top-pressure recovery turbine (TRT) utilizes this pressure and temperature, and Payback period : 4 years
recovers them as electricity by a gas turbine.
9.9.2 Case Studies in Steel Making Area
Energy Saving
Case Study 11 : Continuous Casting Machine
Reduction in crude oil equivalent:29,000 - 39,000 kL/y at power generation of
18 MW and hot metal production of 3,000 kt/y, wet type. Brief
Investment amount : Rs 600 Million
Annual Saving : Rs 360 Million The continuous casting machine achieves large energy saving by eliminating some
Payback period : 1.7 years of the process steps. Molten steel is continuously charged into the mold. It is
control-cooled from outside, and withdrawn as it is solidified from the surface and
Case Study 9 : Hot stove exhaust heat recovery equipment formed into semis. This machine eliminates the ingot casting, soaking, and slab or
billet rolling, and achieves large reduction in fuel and power consumption.
Brief

This is the equipment which improves the combustion heat efficiency and saves

310 311
Energy Saving which are getting larger and it can collect the combustion gas as well.
2) The recovered gas has the CO content of more than 60% and the heating
Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 25,940 kL/y value of about 2,000 kcal/Nm3. It can be used as the fuel for boilers, rolling
Reduction of 200,000 kL/t-steel at production of 1,200,000 t/year. mills, and power generation plants.
Investment : Rs. 32.5 Million for casting capacity of 3) Recently, the sealed-type OG method has been developed and is getting
1,200,000 t/year widely used, where the section between the furnace throat and the skirt is
Annual Saving : Rs 203 Million by energy saving and
sealed during refining, in order to reduce the recovery loss of BOF gas.
Rs 813 Million by yield improvement
Payback period : 2 months It has following advantages compared with the combustion-type exhaust
Case Study 12: High frequency melting furnace gas treatment method:

Brief a) It is compact.
b) The construction cost is low.
1) Frequency and power are selected, and the high frequency induction current, c) The operation cost is low.
with enhanced current density which is 2 ~ 5 times higher than that of the low b) The efficiency of dust collection from the exhaust gas is high.
c) Recovered gas can be used as a clean fuel of a negligible sulfur content.
frequency method, is generated. This current generates heat by internal
resistance of the material, and performs melting. Energy Saving
2) Steel and alloy steel are melted by the resistant heat generated by the induction
current that flows in the steel itself. Recovered energy from BOF exhaust gas is 2,00, 000 - 2,70,000 kCal per tonne
3) Nonferrous metals and nonmetals are heated and melted by the conduction of crude steel. The increased amount of BOF exhaust gas recovery by the
heat from the induction heating element such as graphite and metallic sealed-type OG method is about 20,000 kcal per tonne of crude steel.
crucibles.
Investment amount : Rs 800 Million ( BOF capacity 250 t/h)
Energy Saving The investment per unit BOF capacity (t/charge) is Rs 4 Million.
Comparison of High-frequency and low-frequency melting furnaces Case Study 14 : Ladle heating apparatus with Regenerative burners
Furnace capacity: 3t Low-frequency High-frequency Energy-saving effect Brief
Melting furnace Melting Furnace

Specific consumption 719 630 12.3% Large Energy is saved by incorporating Regenerative burners into the apparatus to
(kWh/t) heat the refractories of a ladle which receives molten steel. It also prolongs the life
Melting speed (kg/h) 910 1550 Total production of a plant: of the ladle refractories.
Increase by 19.5%
A Regenerative burner system comprises of a pair of burners which burn alternately
Electricity (kW) 750 1500 Annual Electricity savings : Rs 3.6
Million for a determined time period and function as a exhaust duct while not burning. The
heat of the high-temperature exhaust gas is stored in the regenerator installed just
after the burner, and the stored heat is used for preheating the combustion air.
Investment amount : Rs 40 Million
Annual Saving : Rs 4 Million year by energy saving and Rs 8
Before After Remarks
Million by quality improvement Improvement improvement
Payback period : 3 – 4 years
Fuel consumption during heating 200 120
Fuel
Case Study 13 : BOF Exhaust gas recovery device (including sealed BOF) (Nm3 /h)
saving
of 56%
Fuel consumption during soaking 70-80
Brief (Nm3 /h) 200

Exhaust gas generated during a BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace) refining process is Refractory life of ladles Base case 10% extension
high-temperature gas containing mainly CO. A large volume of gas is generated
intermittently. Energy of BOF exhaust gas is recovered and utilized.
Energy Saving
1) For cooling and dust removing of BOF gas, there are two types of systems: Fuel saving of 56% corresponds to monthly consumption of 573 x 106 kcal.
combustion type (full-boiler type, half-boiler type) and non-combustion
Increase of electric power consumption by auxiliaries : 23.9 x 106 kcal per month.
type (OG type) In the past, the combustion-type gas recovery system was
Investment amount : Rs 10 Million
the mainstream. At present, the non-combustion type recovery system is
Annual Saving : Rs 4 Million
mainly used due to the fact that small-sized facilities can cope with BOFs
Payback period : 2.5 years (excluding the refractory life extension)
312 313
Case Study 15 : DC Arc Furnace with water cooled furnace wall When fine chromium ore is agglomerated and calcined into pellets by the annular
furnace and the pellets are charged to the electric furnace in place of fine chromium
Brief ore, permeability in the furnace increases, which increases the heat exchange rate
among charged materials, and decreases specific power consumption. Exhaust gas
Large energy saving is achieved in an arc furnace which melts and refines ferrous from the furnace is used as a fuel of the burner for pellet calcination. Excess gas is
materials such as steel scrap by changing its power source from the conventional converted into steam, and steam purchase from outside is reduced.
3-phase alternating current (AC) to the direct current (DC).
Energy Saving
a. The largest advantage of the DC arc furnace over the 3-phase AC arc furnace
is that it can melt the materials uniformly. Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 12,570 tonnes/y.
b. In the DC arc furnace, the metal is melted and agitated by the electric current When applied to 7 electric furnaces of more than 10,000 KVA each, reduction
flowing through it and the magnetic field. in crude oil equivalent is 87,990 tonnes/y.
c. By adopting the water-cooled furnace wall, high-efficiency operation is Investment amount : Rs 400 Million
achievable Annual saving : Rs 100 Million
d. Furnace maintenance materials are reduced. Payback period : 4 years
Energy Saving. Case Study 18 : Raw material preheater for Electric Arc furnace
1) Reduction in Specific power consumption : 5-10%. Brief
2) Specific electrode consumption reduction : 40-50%.
In this system, the heat efficiency of the electric arc furnace is improved by utilizing
Investment amount : Rs 400 Million the sensible heat of high-temperature exhaust gas from the electric furnace to
Annual Saving : Rs 100 Million preheat the scrap. Hence, its electric power consumption is reduced.
Payback period : 4 years
1) With the 1-power-source 2-furnace method, the furnace itself is used for
Case Study 16 : Channel Induction Furnace for cast iron melting preheating the scrap instead of a scrap-charging bucket. While one
furnace melts charged material, the other preheats the scrap. Scrap is
Brief
heated to a higher temperature than by bucket preheating.
Induction furnaces are two types: crucible type and channel type. The channel type 2) With the shaft-furnace method, scrap is preheated in the shaft furnace
is more widely used because of its higher overall heat efficiency. It can perform installed above the furnace
continuous operation and save energy. Energy saving can be achieved by
Energy Saving
conversion to channel type.
Before improvement After improvement
Energy Saving
Exhaust Gas Temp. 500-1000°C 150-400°C
Before improvement (crucible- After improvement (channel-
type) type)
1. Power efficiency 60% - 80% 95% - 97% Reduction of specific power consumption : 60,000-80,000 kcal/t (20% of the
2. Overall efficiency 55% - 65% 75% - 85%
3. Specific power consumption High Low total heat of the electric- furnace
4. Need of heel Not needed Needed
5. Intermittent operation Arbitrarily possible Principally 2 shifts or continuous exhaust gas is utilized.
operation Electric power saving : 25-50 kwh/t-s
Investment amount : Rs 40 Million Shortening of the steelmaking time : 5-8 min./charge
Annual Saving : Rs 12 Million Investment amount : Rs 400 Million
Payback period : 4 years Annual Saving : Rs 100 Million
Payback period : 4 years (in the case of a 150t/charge furnace )
Case Study 17 : Ferroalloy furnace for effective energy utilization
9.9.3 Case Studies in Rolling / Finishing of Steel
Brief
Case Study 19: Hot Charging and direct rolling mill
The electric furnace for smelting HC-FeCr (high-carbon ferrochromium) refines
Brief
chromium ore using coke as a reducing agent. However, as the ratio of fine
chromium ore increased in recent years, permeability in the electric furnace
High-temperature semi-finished materials (slab, bloom, or billet) just after
decreased, and specific consumption of electric power and coke increased. The
continuous casting (CC) is charged into the heating furnace with the temperature
system described here reduces energy consumption for producing HC-FeCr and
maintained as high as possible, thus reducing the fuel consumption at the heating
recovers the combustible exhaust gas.
314 315
furnace. Further, by improving the measures for preventing the temperature drop of Cooling time reduced by approx. 3 hours
the semis after CC, the semis are directly sent to the rolling mill without going Fuel saving : 25%
through the heating furnace, eliminating the heating process and substantially Investment amount : Rs 80 Million
reducing the fuel consumption. Annual saving : Rs 20 Million
Payback period : 4 years
Energy Saving
Case Study 22 : Low temperature forge welded pipe production method
Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 16,200 kL/t Reduction of 50x103 kcal/t by
coupling direct rolling with hot Brief
charging at rolling of 3,000 kt/y. Electro-magnetic induction heating (an edge heater) was introduced in forge-
Investment amount : Rs 200 Million welded pipe production, and the temperature of steel hoops at the exit of a
Annual Saving : Rs 100 Million continuous heating furnace was reduced from the previous high temperature
Payback period : 2 years (1300°C) to 1200°C, the edge being locally heated. Accordingly, specific fuel
Case Study 20 : Descaling pump (conversion to plunger pump) consumption of the heating furnace was reduced

Brief 1) The automatic control system is introduced to control the edge to the
constant temperature (an electro- magnetic induction heating method).
A descaling pump is used to apply high – pressure water jet to remove the scale 2) A seam cooling device is installed to eliminate the temperature difference in
during steel rolling operation. In order to reduce power consumption, various the circumference direction of pipes. The prevention of beading and
measures were taken, such as pressure and flow rate reduction. To achieve further bending is made possible.
power saving, the turbine pump was converted to the plunger pump. 3) The forge welding roll in the mill has a motor driven screw down mechanism
to control the forge welding stress.
Since high-pressure jet is applied intermittently in short duration, a plunger pump,
which can perform no-load operation at a low pressure, significantly saves power Energy Saving
consumption during the time when high-pressure water jet is not applied.
Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 7,500 kL/y
Energy Saving Reduction of energy consumption :115 x 103 kcal/t at the production of 50,000t/m.
Investment Amount : Rs 500 Million
Before After improvement Savings/
improvement Improvement Annual Saving : Rs 160 Million
Power Loaded 1930 kW 1890 kW 40 kW Payback period : 3.5 years
consumption Unloaded 1210 kW 180 kW 1030 kW
Annual energy consumption 9456 MWh/y 3948 MWh/y 5508 MWh/y Case Study 23 : Energy saving operation of Electric Arc Furnace
Reduction in crude oil equivalent 1,338 kl/y

Investment amount : Rs 80 Million
Annual saving : Rs 30 Million
Investment payback : 2.5 years at 2750 L/min x 175 kg/cm2 x 1 unit
Case Study 21 : Convection heating type heat treatment furnace for wire rod coil
Brief
To shorten the time required for annealing of wire rod coils a forced circulation fan
was installed. The outside of the wire rod coils is heated by the radiation from the
radiant tube heat source as well as by the convection heat transfer by the forced
circulation fan installed at the top cover. Hot air is forced into the inside of the coils
by the fan. It passes through among the individual strands of the coils, and heats up
the coils. Forced convection heat transfer by the fan improves the heat transfer
efficiency, shortens the treatment time, and saves energy. At the time of cooling, an
indirect gas cooler is employed for rapid cooling, instead of the radiant tubes.
Energy Saving
Heating time reduced by approx. 2.5 hours
316
Brief
An example of the operation improvement which targets at the reduction of
electric power consumption of small and medium size electric arc furnaces is as
follows :
1) Use of a basic melting furnace
- Electric arc furnaces are divided into two types by the lining refractories
they use: acidic furnace (MgO-based refractories) and basic furnace (SiO2 -
refractories). The acidic furnace merits because of low power consumption
and short melting time. On the other hand, it has a difficulty in removing
harmful elements such as P and S, and therefore it has the limitation in the
types of steel it can produce.
- One of the furnaces was remodeled to an acidic type to deal with return
scrap which contains relatively smaller amounts of P and S, and power
saving was achieved.
2) Shortened melting time by eliminating intermediate analysis
- Earlier, for the purpose of checking the compositional specification in the
arc furnace, composition analyses were performed four times: at melt down,
at oxidation finishing, at the intermediate time, and in the ladle. It was
317
 confirmed that the elimination of the intermediate analysis does not cause Case Study 26 : Control of excess air by installing O2 monitoring system in high-
quality problems. The elimination shortened the melting time by about 5 pressure boiler of CPP in a steel plant.
minutes, and saved energy consumption by about 20 kWh/t.
Brief
Energy Saving
Presently, there is no monitoring of O2 in flue gases of this boiler, which is used, in
3
Annual energy consumption : 2,460 x 10 kwh captive power plant of steel plant. Without this, optimization of efficiency of boilers
Annual Reduction in crude oil equivalent : 600 kL is not possible, especially when quality of coal and boiler load is also changing.
Investment amount : Rs 4 Million
Annual Saving : Rs 4 Million By continuous monitoring & controlling the excess air & maintaining the % O2
Payback period : 1 year below 6%, the efficiency of boiler can be improved from 79.1% to 83.5%. Further
improvement of boiler efficiency is possible by taking care of the unburnt carbon
9.9.4 Case Studies in General Utilities and CPP in ash.
Case Study 24 : Heating furnace with Regenerative burners Energy Saving
Brief The following table summarizes the overall effect of O2 monitoring & control effect
on boiler performance :
A regenerative combustion system uses a pair of Regenerative burners, in each of
which a burner for combustion and a regenerator for heat storing are incorporated.
Parameter Existing condition After installing O2
Each of the pair is used for combustion and heat storing alternately. It is a highly
monitoring & control
efficient combustion system which can recover more than 85% of the waste heat. A system
system is so constructed that one burner performs combustion and the exhaust gas %O2 13.7 6
from the combustion is led to the opposite side burner. Excess air, % 189.6 40
Boiler efficiency, % 79.1 83.5
Energy Saving FD Fan airflow, Nm 3 /h 264607 127558
ID fan airflow, Nm 3/h 317528 153069
Reduction of specific fuel consumption : 10-30%.
Investment amount : Rs 12 Million per pair of burners
Annual hours of operation HP-1 boiler = 4350 hours
Annual Saving : Rs 4 Million Average steam generation = 73.6 TPH (average during trials)
Payback period : 3 years Annual saving in fuel input =
5,000 x 103 kCal/piece
Combustion volume :

Case Studies 25 : Recovery of sensible heat from skid cooling water in heating
( )
Steam flow x Enthalpy of steam x 1 - 1 x Annual operating hours
GCV of coal Eff1 Eff2

furnace Where Eff1 = Existing efficiency of boiler, Eff2 = Likely efficiency of boiler after
modifications in control
Brief
Annual saving in coal = 73.6 x 639 x (1/0.79 – 1/0.84) x 4350 tonne
Skid beams in a heating furnace are cooled by passing water through their insides.
3825
Previously the cooling water was sent to a cooling tower and circulated. This = 3563 tonnes
improvement is to supply pure water as cooling water in place of previous industrial (Price of Coal : Rs. 1000 per tonne)
water, and recover the heat as steam of 12 kg/cm2.
Annual Saving : Rs 3563 x 1000 = 3.56 Million
The inner temperature of the furnace is about 1300°C. Skid beams are used as heat Investment amount : Rs 0.5 Million
transfer tubes of a boiler. A steam – water separation drum is installed outside the Payback period : 2 month
furnace, where steam is generated, recovering the heat.
Case Study 27 : Use of variable frequency drives on FD fans and ID fans in
Energy Saving place of existing inlet

Recovery amount of steam : 9 t/h x 12 kg/cm2 Brief

Annual Recovered heat in crude oil equivalent: 23,000 kL at operation of 7900 tonne
Investment amount : Rs 750 Million It was recommended to install VFDs in FD & ID fans for energy saving. After
Annual Saving : Rs 280 Million implementing the O2 monitoring system as explained above, the following
Payback period : 3 years operating parameters observed on FD and ID fans on boiler – 1 are given below :

318 319
 Before improvement After improvement
Energy Saving
Rating of FD fans kw) 275x2 250x2
Rating of ID fans (kw) 310x2 250x2 Annual energy saving : 93,6000 kWh
FD fan air flow (Nm3/h) 264607 127558 Annual Saving : Rs 1.872 Million
ID fan air flow (Nm3/h) 317528 153069
Investment amount : Rs 1.5 Million
Payback period : 10 months
Energy Saving
References
Assuming 25% time operating each at 60%, 70%, 80% and 90% of rated flow,
energy savings are calculated as shown below: 1. IEA, World Energy Outlook 2007.
2. International Iron & Steel Institute Brussels Statistical Handbook.
Annual Saving per fan= 2,20,000 kWh/ year : Rs 0.55 Million 3. Directory of Energy Conservation Technology in Japan, prepared by New
Total energy cost saving for 4 nos. fans : Rs 2.2 Million Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization, The Energy
Investment : Rs 6 Million ( for 4 nos. motors): Conservation Centre, Japan.
Payback period : 3 years 4. Annual Report of Ministry of Steel, 2007-08, GoI.
5. The Energy Data Directory Yearbook, TEDDY, 2007.
Case Study 28: Reduction of number of stages of pump from existing 7 stages to 5 6. World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values for Selected Industrial Sectors
nos. stages (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), Environmental
Energy Technologies Division; by Ernst Worrell, Lynn Price, Maarten
Brief Neelis, Christina Galitsky & Zhon Nan.
7. Energy Use & Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Steel Sector in Key
By reducing the number of stages of feed pumps (2 nos) from 7 stages to 5 stages, Developing Countries by Lynn Price, Dian Phylispsen, Ernst Worrell;
there will be a drop of head by 30 kg/cm2, which is still higher than the rated one by Energy Analysis Dept., Environmental Energy Technologies Division,
15 %. This will reduce the power by about 400 kw. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
8. International Iron & Steel Institute (IISI) Brussels-Energy use in Steel
Energy Saving Industry.
9. Future Technologies for Energy-Efficient Iron & Steel Making-Annual
Before improvement After improvement Review of Energy & Environment.
No. of stages of pumps 7 5
10.Alternate Iron making update- Iron & Steelmaker; by Mc Aloon T.P.
Head (mwc) 750 450
Power input (kw) 1900 1500
11. National Commission on Energy Policy report
Pump efficiency (%) 72 72 www.energycommission.org/.
Flow (m3/h) 490 490 12.Potentials for Improved use of Industrial Energy & Materials ; Thesis
Ph.D, Utrecht Univ.
Annual Saving : 32,00,000 KWh (at 8000 hrs. operation) 13. Emerging Energy Efficient Technologies; Worrell E., Price L., Galitsky C.
Annual monetary saving : Rs 8 Million 14.The Steel Industry in India-Iron making & Steel making; by Chatterjee A.
Investment amount : Rs 1.2 Million 15. Handbook of Energy Conservation (Vol-2) by H.M. Robert & J.H. Collins
Payback period : 1 month 16.websites : www. worldsteel.org/steeldatacentre/countries 1998.htm
www.worldsteel.org/steeldatacentre/lgcountry.htm.
Case Study 29 : Installation of appropriate/ smaller capacity CW pumps in CPP
of steel plant
Brief
At present, the throttling valves are used to throttle the flow upto 50 %. By installing
the pumps of smaller capacity, a lot of power can be saved.

Particulars TG-4 TG-5

Design cooling water flow requirement for 3
6800 m /hr 3
6800 m /hr
condensers
Cooling water flow rate at present 3
5340 m / hr 5188 m3/ hr
(combined for two pumps)
Rated flow rate of the proposed individual 3500 m3/ hr 3500 m3/hr
pump
Actual power drawn by two pumps at present 725 kW 700 kW

Estimated power drawn by each pump 327 kW (654 kW for 327 kW (654 kW for
two pumps) two pumps)
Reduction in the power drawn 71 kW 46 kW
Combined efficiency of the proposed pump/ 70% 70%
motor

320 321
Notes Chapter - 10
Fertilizer
10.1 Introduction

The Indian fertilizer industry made a very humble beginning in 1906, when the first
manufacturing unit of Single Super Phosphate (SSP) was set up in Ranipet near
Chennai with an annual capacity of 6000 Tonnes of Rock Phosphate (P2O5). The
Fertilizer & Chemicals Travancore of India Ltd. (FACT) at Cochin in Kerala and
the Fertilizers Corporation of India (FCI) in Sindri in Bihar (now Jharkhand) were
the first large sized fertilizer plants set up in the forties and fifties with a view to
establish an industrial base to achieve self-sufficiency in food grains.
Subsequently, the Green Revolution in the late sixties gave an impetus to the
growth of fertilizer industry in India and the seventies and eighties witnessed a
significant addition to the fertilizer production capacity. However, there has not
been any substantive addition to fertilizer production capacity during the last 15
years.

10.1.1 Production of Fertilizers

Production of Urea, which was 186 lakh Tonnes in 2002-03, increased to 201 lakh
Tonnes in 2005-06 and further to a record level of 203 lakh Tonnes in 2006-07.
Production of Diammonium phosphate (DAP), however, declined in 2006-07 at 47
lakh Tonnes after reaching a peak at 52 lakh Tonnes in 2002-03, mainly because of
feedstock problems and shift of phosphatic capacity towards production of
complexes. Decline in production of phosphatic fertilizers has been due to
constraints in availability of phosphoric acid and high prices of sulphur.
Requirement of Muriate of Potash (MOP) is met fully by imports. The production
of Urea, DAP and complexes during the last five years and during the current year
up to December 2007 are given below: -

Table 10.1

(In lakh Tonnes)

Product 2002- 03 2003–04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08
Urea 186.21 190.38 202.39 200.85 202.71 198.39
DAP 52.36 47.09 51.72 45.54 47.13 42.11
Complexes 48.61 45.07 52.59 67.65 73.13 58.33
Source: FAI and Department of Chemicals & Fertilizers

10.1.2 Installed Capacity

As on 31 March 08, the country has an installed capacity of 122.84 lakh Tonnes of
nitrogen and 58.59 lakh Tonnes of Phosphate. Presently, there are 59 large size
fertilizer plants operating in the country manufacturing a wide range of
nitrogenous, phosphatic and complex fertilizers. Out of these, 31 (as on date 28 are
functioning) units produce urea, 19 units produce DAP and complex fertilizers, 2
units produce Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) & Ammonium Chloride and the
remaining 10 units manufacture ammonium suplhate as product. Besides, there are
about 78 medium and small- scale units in operation producing SSP. The sector -
wise installed capacity is given in the table below: -

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 Table 10.2 it serves as a major input to electricity generation and provides the preferred fuel
input to many other industrial processes.
Sector-wise & Nutrient - wise Installed Capacity Of Fertilizer
Manufacturing Units as on 31.03.2008 10.2.2 Phosphatic fertilizers

(In lakh Tonnes) For production of phosphatic fertilizers, most of the raw materials have to be
imported. India has no source of elemental sulfur, phosphoric acid and rock
SNo. Sector Nitrogenous Phosphatic
phosphate. Some low-grade rock phosphate is domestically mined and made
Capacity %Share Capacity %Share
1 Public 35.92 29.24 3.87 6.60 available to rather small- scale single super phosphate fertilizer producers. Sulfur is
2 Cooperative 31.69 25.80 17.13 29.24 produced as a by-product by some of the petroleum and steel industries.
3 Private 55.23 44.96 37.60 64.16
10.2.3 Ammonia production
Total 122.84 100.00 58.59 100.00
Source: FAI and Department of Chemicals & Fertilizers The most important step in producing ammonia (NH3) is the production of
hydrogen, which is followed by the reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen. A
10.1.3 Per Capita Consumption number of processes are available to produce hydrogen, differing primarily in type
of feedstock used. The hydrogen production route predominantly used worldwide
The per capita consumption of fertilizer of agricultural population in India, which
is steam reforming of natural gas. In this process, natural gas (CH4) is mixed with
was a meager 1 kg in the early 50's, has increased substantially to about 32.7 kg in
2004-2005. water (steam) and air to produce hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). Waste heat is used for preheating and steam production, and part of
The per capita fertilizer consumption of agricultural population in different the methane is burnt to generate the energy required to drive the reaction. CO is
countries is highlighted in the table below: further converted to CO2 and H2 using the water gas shift reaction. After CO and
CO2 is removed from the gas mixture ammonia (NH3) is obtained by synthesis
Table 10.3 reaction. Another route to produce ammonia is through partial oxidation. This
process requires more energy (up to 40-50% more) and is more expensive than
Country Fertilizer Consumption Fertilizer Consumption steam reforming. The advantage of partial oxidation is high feedstock flexibility; it
(kg Per capita)* (kg/ha)**
32.7
can be used for any gaseous, liquid or solid hydrocarbon. In practice partial
India 108.4
China 52.9 289.1 oxidation can be economically viable if used for conversion of relatively cheap raw
Japan 438.9 363.0 materials like oil residues or coal. In the partial oxidation process, air is distilled to
Egypt 78.4 555.1 produce oxygen for the oxidation step. A mixture containing among others, H2, CO,
Bangaladesh 23.1 197.6 CO2 and CH4 is formed. After desulfurization CO is converted to CO2 and H2O. CO2
Pakistan 42.7 146.2
France 2492.0 210.5 is removed, and the gas mixture is washed with liquid nitrogen (obtained from the
Russian Federation 131.8 14.4 distillation of air). The nitrogen removes CO from the gas mixture and
UK 1814.7 305.2 simultaneously provides the nitrogen required for the ammonia synthesis reaction.
USA 3463.0 113.5
World 59.7 101.0
*of agricultural population ** of arable land and land under permanent crops
10.3 Energy Profile

Source: FAI and CII-IREDA
10.2 Raw Material Profile
The basic raw materials for the production of fertilizers are ammonia for
nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphate for straight phosphatic fertilizers, and potash for
potassic fertilizers. Out of the three fertilizer types, production of ammonia is most
energy and resources intensive.
10.2.1 Nitrogenous fertilizers
Domestic raw materials are available only for nitrogenous fertilizers. For the
production of urea and other ammonia-based fertilizers, methane is the major input.
Methane is obtained from natural gas/ associated gas, Naphtha, fuel oil, low sulfur
heavy stock (LSHS) and coal. Of late, production has switched over to use of
natural gas, associated gas and Naphtha as feedstock. Out of these, associated gas
is most hydrogen rich and easiest to process, due to its lighter weight and fair
abundance within the country. However, demand for gas is quite competitive since
Production of nitrogenous fertilizers is highly energy intensive. Ammonia is used as
the basic chemical in the production of nitrogenous fertilizer. Production of
ammonia itself involves almost 80% of the energy consumption in the
manufacturing processes of a variety of final fertiliser products. Therefore,
ammonia is considered a key intermediate for determining the overall energy
efficiency of fertiliser production. Besides air as the source of nitrogen, the
ammonia-manufacturing process have choice of using raw materials such as water,
natural gas, naphtha, fuel oil, coal, coke oven gas. Natural gas is the best feedstock
for ammonia production. However, the use of natural gas in India for urea
production is constrained due to its scarce availability.
Better feedstock and process technologies, together with improved operation and
maintenance practices, retrofitting, and so on have resulted in significant amount of
energy savings during ammonia production. The average specific energy consumption
for ammonia production in India has improved significantly from 57.35 Giga Joules
(GJ)/tonne in 1985-86 to 37.53 GJ/tonne in 2007-08. The average energy consumption of
25% of the most efficient Indian ammonia plants is 32.7GJ/tonne in 2007-08.

324 325
10.3.1 Energy Intensity Hence, efficient production of Ammonia has greatest impact on Specific Energy
Consumption.
The fertilizer industry is one of the major consumers of hydrocarbons. The
fertilizer sector accounts for 8% of total fuels consumed in the manufacturing The specific energy consumption comparison of Indian fertilizer industry with
sector. Energy costs account for nearly 60 to 80% of the overall manufacturing cost. the World and China is as follows:
The absolute energy consumption by this sector has been estimated at 628 million
GJ annually. The specific energy consumption per ton of urea varies between 21.59 Table 10.5(a)
GJ for the most efficiently operating plant to 52.38 GJ for the most inefficient plant Specific Energy Consumption by Feedstock Type (GJ/tonne NH3)
during 2007-08. Energy intensity in India's fertilizer plants has decreased over
Feedstock based India India Best World World China
time. This decrease is due to advances in process technology, better stream sizes of Plants Average (Improvement Potential) Average Best Average
urea plants and increased capacity utilization. (2001) (1998) (2000)
Gas based plants Ammonia 36.5 30.3 TCL Babrala 36.6 28.0 36.7
(17%)
Energy is consumed in the form of natural gas, associated gas, Naphtha, fuel oil,
Urea 26.5 22.5 TCL Babrala 25.8 20.9 26.3
low sulfur heavy stock and coal for process. LDO, LSHS, HFO and HSD are also (15%)
used in diesel generators. Large fertilizer plants generate part of their own power Naphtha based plants Ammonia 39.9 34 CFCL Kota 38.7
through cogeneration mode in Turbo Generator (TG) sets, while smaller plants (15%)

depend exclusively on purchased power or power from DG sets. With the ever- Urea 29.1 24.3 CFCL Kota 28.3
(16%)
increasing fuel prices and power tariffs, energy conservation is strongly pursued as
FO based plants Ammonia 58.4 47.9 GNFC
one of the attractive options for improving the profitability in the Indian fertilizer (18%) Bharuch
industry. Urea 40.5 31.3 GNFC
(23%) Bharuch
The feedstock mix used for ammonia production has changed over the last decade.
The choice of the feedstock is dependent on the availability of feedstock and the Note: The urea figures include the embedded energy in the production of ammonia
Source: LBNL
plant location.
Table 10.5(b)
The shares of feedstock's in ammonia production are as follows:
Feedstock-wise Capacity and Energy Consumption in
Table 10.4 Operating Ammonia Plants
Feedstock Energy Consumption (GJ/Tonne)
Feedstock 1997-1998 2007-2008 Ammonia
Ammonia Urea
Urea
Natural Gas 60.4 % 78% Gas 35.54 24.99
Naphtha 41.23 30.01
Naphtha 21.2% 11% Fuel Oil 49.06 33.45
Fuel oil 15.0% 11% Total 37.55 26.33
Source: FAI Source: FAI

The shift towards the increased use of natural/associated gas and Naphtha is
beneficial as this feedstock is more efficient and less polluting than heavy fuels like
fuel oil and coal.
The production of phosphatic fertilizer requires much less energy than nitrogenous
fertilizer. Depending on the fertilizer product, energy consumption varied from
negative input for sulfuric acid to around 1.64 GJ/tonne of fertilizer for phosphoric
acid. For sulfuric acid the energy input is negative since more steam (in energy
equivalents) is generated in waste heat boilers than is needed as an input.
10.3.2 Specific Energy Consumption (SEC)
Ammonia is the intermediate product in Urea production. Out of total energy
consumed for the production of Urea, 80% is consumed in Ammonia production.
Hence, efficient production of Ammonia has greatest impact on Specific Energy
Consumption.
10.4 Potential for Energy Efficiency Improvement
The biggest drawback of the Indian fertilizer industry is its reliance on non-natural
gas-based plants. If we consider only the natural gas based plants, Indian plants
compare favorably with international practices (Table 10.5a). The figures in
brackets are the improvement potentials if plants were to reach best practices
available in India. The highest energy saving potential is observed with fuel oil
based plants.
The best practice energy intensity worldwide is 28 GJ/Tonne of ammonia, and is a
result of auto-thermal reforming technology process. Auto thermal reforming
process is a mixture of partial oxidation and steam reforming technology.
According to the European Fertilizer Manufacturing Association (EFMA), two
plants of this kind are in operation and others are at the pilot stage.
Tata Chemicals owns and operates one of the more energy-efficient plants for the
production of ammonia and urea in India with an energy intensity of 30.3 GJ/Tonne
of ammonia and 22.5 GJ/Tonne of urea. These energy intensity values are among

326 327
the lowest recorded internationally. Manufacturing facilities at Babrala comprise
an ammonia plant of 1520 TPD and a urea plant of 2864 TPD capacity which were
implemented and commissioned in December 1994. Even though the plant
currently uses natural gas, it has been designed for full flexibility in the use of
natural gas and naphtha as a feedstock and fuel.
When only natural gas-based plants are considered, India appears to maintain very
competitive plants compared to the world average (Table 10.5a). However with
latest changeover of number of plants from naphtha to natural gas, India has now
80% ammonia capacity based on natural gas as of 2007.
India's national average figures of specific energy consumption for ammonia plants
are close to the world average but there is wide variation in energy consumption of
various plants. It varies from 32 GJ/Tonne to 63 GJ/Tonne with a weighted average
of 37.55 GJ/Tonne. This wide variation is mainly because of the operation of
Naphtha & fuel based plants, which have higher energy consumption than gas-
based plants. In a competitive environment, with energy cost representing between
60% to 80% of total production cost depending on the type of plant, companies will
be compelled to gradually switch over to natural gas in order to have an energy
consumption per ton of output closer to world average and become more
competitive in the international market.
10.4.1 Categories of Energy Efficiency Improvement
Over the past 30 years, induced by major technological improvements and by a
better energy management, the energy used to produce each ton of ammonia has
declined by 30 to 50%. Technology-wise, three different process stages can be
distinguished where energy improvements are possible:
Steam reforming phase: This is the most energy intensive operation, with the
highest energy losses. Different methods are available to reduce losses that occur in
the primary reformer, viz., installing a pre-reformer, shifting part of the primary
reformer load to the secondary with installation of a purge gas recovery unit, and
upgrading the catalyst to reduce the steam/carbon ratio. It is possible to reduce
energy losses by 3-5 GJ/Tonne of NH3.
CO2 removal phase: The removal of CO2 from the synthesis gas stream is normally
based on scrubbing with a solvent. A reduction of the energy requirement for
recycling and regeneration of the solvent can be achieved by using advanced
solvents, pressure swing absorption or membranes. Energy savings are in the order
of 1 GJ/Tonne of NH3.
Ammonia synthesis phase: A lower ammonia synthesis pressure reduces the
requirement for compression power, and also reduces production yield. Less
ammonia can be cooled out using cooling water so more refrigeration power is
required. Also the recycling power increases, because larger gas volumes have to be
handled. The overall energy demand reduction depends on the situation and varies
from 0-0.5 GJ/Tonne of NH3. Another type of catalyst is required to achieve the
lower synthesis pressure. Furthermore, adjustments have to be made to the power
system and the recycle loop.
Additionally, energy price escalation and growing concerns regarding pollution
have intensified the attention on energy conservation at all levels. Improving
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energy efficiency does not necessarily require investment and can result from a
better balancing of energy flow along the process. The optimization of operations
and maintenance practices, by reducing waste heat and capturing excess heat to
channel it back into the system, allows a better energy distribution and constitutes
major energy efficiency improvements.
Some plants in India have realized considerable energy savings by increasing
awareness at all levels in the plant, monitoring energy consumption during
production, and identifying potential energy-savings opportunities
Some Technologies that can be adopted by fertilizer plants for energy efficiency
improvement are briefly described below:
10.5 Technologies & Measures for Energy Efficiency Improvements
10.5.1 Haldor Topsoe Exchange Primary Reformer (HTER-p) (Ammonia
Production)
Technology Description
HTER-p is introduced reforming section in ammonia plant to reduce size of the
primary reformer and at the same time reduce the HP steam production. HTER-p is
a new feature, initially developed for use in synthesis gas plants. In ammonia plants
this is operated in parallel with the primary reformer, and that is why the name is
HTER-p. The exit gas from the secondary reformer heats the HTER-p, and thereby
the waste heat normally used for HP steam production can be used for the reforming
process down to typically 750-850oC, depending upon actual requirements. The
technology was implemented in a synthesis gas plant in South Africa in the year
2003.
Advantages
Operating conditions in the HTER-p are adjusted independently of the reformer in
order to get the optimum performance of the primary overall reforming unit. In this
way, up to around 20% of the natural gas feed can by-pass the primary reformer.
10.5.2 Uhde Dual Pressure Ammonia Technology (Ammonia Production)
Technology Description
At present, reducing the cost of plant by increasing the plant capacity is a major
thrust in conventional ammonia process. To overcome the constraints in increasing
the plant capacity beyond 2000 metric tons per day, Uhde has developed Dual
Pressure technology. Dual Pressure process focuses on the de-bottlenecking of the
conventional synthesis loop. A synthesis reactor has been introduced at an
intermediate pressure level in the synthesis gas loop, which makes synthesis, and
separation of ammonia possible in between compressor casing and the synthesis
gas volume flow to the high-pressure loop is significantly reduced.
Advantages
The production can be raised by about 65%. Gives a superior hydrogen yield.
Energy consumption is reduced by up to 4%. Cost of production is reduced by 10%
to15%.
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10.5.3 Megammonia (Ammonia Production)
Technology Description
The Megammonia technology is designed in the year 2003 jointly by M/s Lurgi and
M/s Ammonia Casale for large scale production capacity of 4000 TPD Ammonia.
Using natural gas, steam and air as feedstock, following five principal steps as
below produces ammonia:
i. Air separation: 95% oxygen and 99.99% pure nitrogen is produced from air.
ii. Catalytic Partial Oxidation: Desulphurised natural gas, after addition of steam
is first preheated in a fired heater and then reformed over a nickel oxide catalyst
to CO, H2 and CO2 following partial oxidation.
iii. CO-Shift: Reformed gas is passed through two beds of conventional HT shift
catalyst (Copper promoted Iron / chromia based) in series to convert remaining
CO to H2 and CO2.
iv. Gas Purification: CO2 is removed by absorption in cold methanol and other
impurities like CO, CH4 and Ar are removed by washing the gas with liquid
nitrogen.
v. Ammonia Synthesis: The extremely high purity of ammonia synthesis gas
results in higher conversion of gas per pass, lower circulator duty and lower
refrigeration duty.
Advantages
Reduction in the capital cost by 18-20%. Operating cost is expected to be lower
around 12 -15% over the most advanced conventional technology. CO2 emission is
expected to reduce by around 30% as compared to other conventional technologies.
10.5.4 HydroMax Technology (Ammonia Production)
Technology Description
Alchemix Corporation U.S.A developed the Hydromax technology. The
technology is used for production of hydrogen using either relatively cheaper coal
or using inexpensive fuels like municipal waste, biomass and petroleum coke etc. in
presence of metal like iron. The technology involves a two-step process. In the first
step, steam reacts with molten iron to form iron oxide and hydrogen and in the
second step, iron oxide is reduced back to pure metal by adding carbon. Iron simply
acts as a carrier for oxygen. In both steps, hydrogen production and reduction of
iron oxide back into iron occur in the same reactor at the same temperature of
1250°C.
Advantages
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen are produced in separate compartments and do not require
CO2 removal system. Cost of production is almost four times less than Steam Methane
Reforming (SMR) production cost. Emission of greenhouse gases is 34% less than SMR
process.
330
10.5.5 Feedstock conversion from Naphtha to Regassified Liquified Natural
Gas (R-LNG) in Ammonia-Urea plants
Technology Description
The type of feedstock has a major influence on energy consumption in an
Ammonia-Urea plant. Hydrogen to carbon ratio increases as we move from liquid
hydrocarbons (Naphtha, FO, LSHS, etc.) to gaseous hydrocarbons (Natural Gas).
Besides, associated impurities namely sulphur, etc. are present only in traces in the
case of gas. With the steep rise in the cost of liquid hydrocarbons in the last five-to-
six years, Ammonia- -Urea production from liquid hydrocarbons plants has become
very costly. Most significant difference between Naphtha and Natural Gas based
Ammonia plants are in the Desulphurization Section. Since gas does not contain
much sulphur unlike in Naphtha, hence pre-desulphurization section need not be
operated. Other important aspect is in the hydrogen to carbon ratio, which is high in
case of gas. As a result, less steam is consumed in the reforming section and less CO2
is generated. After the reforming section, plants operating on Naphtha or gas are
identical except in the quantum of generation of CO2.
Advantages
Natural gas is ideal feedstock for ammonia production. It has several advantages
besides being cheaper and easy to handle. It allows easy and shorter start up of the
plant, thereby lesser unproductive consumption. The burners choking phenomena
is completely solved and CO2 emission from furnace has reduced. Plant also runs
trouble free and the catalyst life is also increased
10.5.6 Carbon Dioxide Recovery (CDR) Plant
Technology Description
With the steep rise in the cost of liquid hydrocarbons, Ammonia -Urea production
from liquid hydrocarbons plants has become very costly. As major disadvantage of
RLNG conversion is lesser CO2 production due to lower C/H ratio in RLNG as
compared to Naphtha. CO2 generated with lean RLNG is not adequate to convert
total Ammonia produced to Urea. One of the possible options to overcome this
problem is the recovery of CO2 from flue gas from various furnaces. CDR plant is
basically a low pressure CO2 removal section in which CO2 present in flue gases is
absorbed & then regenerated to produce CO2 having 99.93 % purity. CO2 recovery
from flue gases is a new concept in fertilizer industries.
Basic steps involved in CDR plant are:
a) Flue gas Pretreatment
b) Low pressure CO2 absorption in special solution KS-1
c) CO2 regeneration
d) CO2 compression to desired level
Advantages
Though regeneration energy is very high in comparison to that of any normal CO2
removal section of ammonia plant, the cost effectiveness of the plant is very
attractive because of the use of costlier Naphtha (as feed to balance the CO2 for Urea
331
production) shall be stopped completely. There is substantial reduction in CO2
Emission as well.
10.5.7 Parallel S-50 Converter
Technology Description
The S-50 converter is a single bed radial flow converter, which is added
downstream of the main converter to increase the ammonia conversion and at the
same time improve the steam generation.
Advantages
The converter allows ammonia synthesis loop to operate at lower pressure with
increased conversion per pass.
10.5.8 Conversion of Single Stage GV System to 2-Stage GV System for CO2
Technology Description
Ammonia is manufactured by steam reforming of natural gas. During the process,
CO2 is formed in the gaseous mixture and the same is removed from the gaseous
mixture in the CO2 Removal Section designed by M/s. Giammarco Vetrocoke (GV)
of Italy. The process gas containing CO2 enters the CO2 absorber where major
amount of CO2 is absorbed in the lower portion of Absorber in semi-lean GV
solution. Rest of the CO2 is absorbed in top portion of Absorber in lean GV solution.
The process gas, with around 300 ppm of CO2, leaves the Absorber from top.
The main feature of original single stage GV system are (1) Absorption by only lean
GV solution and (2) Stripping only in one Regenerator. The heat of regeneration is
provided by vapours generated in GV Reboilers heated by Process gas and live LP
steam. Full quantity of GV solution is sent to flash tank after GV Reboilers to
remove maximum amount of vapour and CO2. This lean GV solution goes to GV
Absorber in two parts, the hot solution to the middle to absorb major amount of CO2
and cold GV solution to the top of GV Absorber to absorb the residual CO2.
The main features of the modified 2-stage GV process are (1) Absorption by lean &
semi lean solutions in GV absorber (2) High pressure & low-pressure stripping in
HP Regenerator and LP Regenerator. The heat of Regeneration is provided by
vapours generated in GV Reboilers heated by Process gas, steam generated in LP
Steam Boiler heated by process gas and live LP steam. Partially regenerated GV
solution (Semilean Solution) from Regenerators goes to GV Absorber to the middle
to absorb major amount of CO2 and strongly regenerated cold GV solution (Lean
Solution) to the top of GV Absorber to absorb the residual CO2.
Advantages
The features result in better absorption of CO2 in Absorber and lower energy
consumption for regeneration of the solution in Regenerators. Major benefits of the
modification are:
• Reduction of CO2 slip through Absorber by around 600 ppm, which has resulted
in:
332
• Higher availability of CO2 for urea production.
• Decrease in hydrogen consumption in Methanation Section.
• Decrease in LP steam consumption in CO2 Removal System from 38 T/hr to
15 T/hr.
• By this, an energy saving of around 1GJ/Tonne of ammonia can be achieved.
10.5.9 LTS Guard Reactor & BFW Preheater
Technology Description
The reformed gas from Reforming Section flows to HT Shift Convertor after
cooling in HP Waste Heat Boiler from 988oC to 380oC. The carbon monoxide
content of the process gas is reduced from 12.96% to 3.46% in HT Shift Converter
through shift reaction, which takes place in the reactor in presence of Iron-chromia
catalyst. Process gas temperature of around 444oC at the outlet of HT Shift
Convector is reduced to around 210oC by heat recovery in a Waste Heat Boiler and
Boiler Feed Water Preheater.
Installation of a new LT Shift Guard Reactor before LT Shift Converter reduces the
CO slippage from the Shift Conversion Section. The CO slip gets considerably
lowered with the LT Shift Guard in line. Lower CO slip in turn, results in additional
Ammonia production due to reduction in the consumption of hydrogen in
Methanator. Considerable energy saving can be achieved by installation of a BFW
Preheater down stream of the new LT Shift Guard Reactor.
Advantages
Reduction of CO slip through Shift Conversion Section by around 300 ppm. This
gives higher availability of CO2 for urea production. Hydrogen consumption in
Methanation Section can also be considerably decreased. Installation of the BFW
Preheater results in considerable energy savings.
10.5.10 The Poolcondenser concept (Urea Production)
Technology Description
The Poolcondenser concept is introduced to de-bottleneck very large capacities
indeed. In case a stripping plant is considered in urea plants, the Poolcondenser is
installed with a parallel-operated stripper. Conventional urea plants are revamped
by using this concept to change the plant into a stripping unit. In this way the plant
capacity is increased and the utility consumption is decreased drastically. The
Poolcondenser is a horizontal high-pressure vessel in which reaction volume and
condensing including retention time, which is needed to produce urea, is already in
this Poolcondenser. The technology is implemented at PIC in Kuwait.
Advantages
Very large capacities are de-bottlenecked.
10.5.11 Modified trays in Urea reactor
Technology Description
Due to advancement in technology and current fertiliser scenario, it is necessary to
333
upgrade the plant equipments to reduce energy consumption. One new 10.6 Case Studies
development is new modified tray design for Reactor in place of conventional
design. Installation of these modified trays have further improved plug flow and Case Study 1: Installation of a Pipe Reactor in Complex Plant
reduced back mixing in the reactor and hence conversion of Ammonium Carbamate
Brief
to Urea in the Reactor is enhanced.
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement After Improvement
Advantages In a phosphatic fertiliser complex, The plant replaced the existing tank reactor with a pipe
producing Ammonium sulphate and reactor.
Conversion efficiency in Reactor is increased with considerable saving of medium Mono-ammonium phosphate, the The implementation of this project resulted in operation of the
phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid and reactor at higher concentration. The outlet of the reactor was
pressure steam per tonne of production. Materials of construction of new trays are ammonia are reacted in a tank directly inserted into the granulator. Hence the concentration
more corrosion resistant and have more life as compared to material used for reactor to produce a melt of 85 % of the melt was maintained at about 95 %, as against < 85
conventional trays. solids. % earlier. The increase in concentration of the melt reduced the
drying requirement in the dryer. The furnace oil consumption
came down from 20 liters/ton of product to 5 liters/ton of
10.5.12 Use of Advanced Process Control (APC) with Distributed Control product.
System (DCS)
In control theory, Advanced process control (APC) is a broad term composed of Energy savings
different kinds of process control tools, often used for solving multivariable control Annual savings : Rs. 21.0 Million
problems or discrete control problem. APC are often used for solving multivariable Investment amount : Rs. 80.00 Million
control problems or discrete control problem. APC makes it possible to control Payback period : 45 months
multivariable control problems. Since these controllers contain the dynamic
relationships between variables, it can predict in the future how variables will Case Study 2: Replacing Reformer Tubes with Tubes of HPNb Material
behave. Based on these predictions, actions can be taken now to maintain variables Stabilised with Micro-Alloys
within their limits. APC is used when the models can be estimated and do not vary
too much. Normally an APC system is connected to a distributed control system Brief
(DCS). The APC application will calculate moves that are send to regulatory Before Before Improvement
Improvement After Improvement After Improvement
controllers. Historically, the interfaces between DCS and APC systems were In a 357 TPD Ammonia plant The Reformer tubes were replaced with ‘modified HPNb materials
dedicated software interfaces. Nowadays the communication protocol between involved in production of Urea stabilised with micro-alloys’ with higher Chromium & Nickel and
and other Phosphatic fertilisers, stabilised with Niobium (25 % Chromium, 35 % Nickel, 1.5 %
these system is managed via the industry standard Object Linking and Embedding the reformer tubes were made of Niobium and traces of Zirconium).
(OLE) for process control (OPC) protocol. conventional material with 25 %
Chromium & 20 % Nickel. The replacement of the reformer tubes with modified superior
material resulted in the following benefits:
Advantages • Reduction in thickness of tube from 20 mm to 10 mm
• Increase in internal diameter of tubes from 100 mm to 120 mm
The key advantages of APC with DCS are: –it aided in packing additional catalyst to the extent of 35 %
• Increase in capacity of the plant by 15 %
• Reduction in Reformer tube skin temperature
• Safer plant operations
The above benefits together resulted in reducing the energy
• Avoiding unnecessary plant trips consumption for production of Ammonia by 0.63 GJ / Tonne of
• Better plant performance and maximized production Ammonia.

10.5.13 Simulation of Absorption and Desorption Columns for CO2 Removal Energy savings
Annual savings
Technology Description Investment amount
Payback period
A computer programme has been developed which simulates the performance of an
absorption column for CO2 removal by using chemical solvents such as DEA Case Study 3: Modernisation of the Ammonia Converter Basket
promoted carbonate solution. The computer predictions have been validated by
using industrial column data from fertilizer industries. In addition, another Brief
computer program has also been developed to simulate the performance of steam Before Improvement
Before Improvement
desorption of bicarbonate solution for solvent regeneration in the CO2 removal In a 357 TPD Ammonia plant, the
systems of fertilizer plants. Ammonia converter basket had a system.
conventional axial type basket. This needed
an operating synthesis loop pressure of 300
Advantages bar. The catalyst used was Topsoe supplied of
10 mm size with a pressure drop of 5 bars.
The modeling equations are rigorous as they take into account point to point The conversion per pass was around 16 %.
In 1992, the bottom exchanger developed a
variation of all important transport and physical parameters, heat effects, gas and leak, leading to further reduction of ammonia
liquid temperature profiles, enhancement in gas absorption due to mass transfer conversion and increased loop pressure. The
with chemical reaction, etc. total production loss was around 30 %.
: Rs. 15.0 Million
: Rs. 50.0 Million
: 40 months
After ImprovementAfter Improvement
The converter basket was modified to an axial-radial type
The replacement of the old axial type converter basket
with the modern axial-radial system resulted in the
following benefits:
• Loop pressure reduced to 250 bar – reducing
compression energy
• Lower pressure drop in converter beds – 3 bar as
against 5 bar before
• Higher Ammonia production (a b o u t 10 TPD)
The above benefits resulted in the reduction of energy
consumption by 1.47 GJ / Tonne of Ammonia

334 335
Energy savings Annual savings : Rs. 9.80 Million
Investment amount : Rs. 22.00 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 20.0 Million Payback period : 27 months
Investment amount : Rs. 50.00 Million
Payback period : 30 months Case Study 6: Replacement of Air Inter-coolers in the Ammonia Plant

Case Study 4: Installation of Waste Heat Boiler (WHB) at the Inlet of LTS Brief
Converter in Ammonia Plant
Brief Before ImprovementBefore Improvement After Improvement
After Improvement
In a 1,00,000 ton per annum capacity Ammonia plant, the air The inter-coolers for the compressor
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement After Improvement
requirements of the Ammonia converter were being met by two was replaced with finless tubes and
In an Ammonia plant, the Low A Waste Heat Recovery Boiler (WHRB) was installed to numbers of oil lubricated 4 stage reciprocating compressors. The laid in a vertical fashion.
Temperature Shift Converter (LTSC) was reduce the temperature of the gases entering the LTSC to compressors were provided with inter-coolers with finned tubes The replacement of horizontal fin
designed to operate at a inlet about 210°C. and were laid in a horizontal fashion. The oil in the air from type cooler with vertical finless
temperature of 238°C. The installation of the WHRB resulted in the following
benefits:
cylinders used to plug the gap between the fins and reduce the coolers resulted in reduction of exit
• Reduction of LTSC inlet temperature to about 210°C heat transfer. The exit air from the inter-cooler used to be at 55 air temperature to around 45°C.
and generation of 2 TPH of steam at 14 kg/cm2 – 58°C as against the design of 42°C. The capacity of the There was a reduction of power to
• Prolonged life of LTSC catalyst subsequent stages was getting reduced leading to loss of Ammonia the extent of 45 kW.
• Increased process efficiency – Resulting in higher production.
Ammonia production by 0.9 % (a b o u t 3 TPD)
The above benefits resulted in the reduction of energy
consumption by 0.34 GJ / Tonne of Ammonia.
Energy savings
Energy savings
Annual savings : Rs. 0.85 Million
Annual savings : Rs. 8.20 Million Investment amount : Rs. 2.00 Million
Investment amount : Rs. 4.50 Million Payback period : 28 months
Payback period : 7 months
Case Study 7: Routing of Ammonia Vapours from Urea Plant to Complex
Case Study 5: Installation of Make-up Gas Chiller at Suction of Synthesis Plant
Gas Compressor at Ammonia Plant
Brief
Brief
The compressor is the heart of nitrogenous fertiliser plant and is used for various Before Improvement
Before Improvement After ImprovementAfter Improvement
In a Urea & Phophatic fertiliser complex, The system was modified as below:
purposes such as compressing the synthesis gas, air, re-cycle gas and ammonia. ammonia is compressed from vapour to liquid § Ammonia was compressed to only 6 kg/cm2 in
The compressor capacity is also one of the important parameters controlling the form by compression to 19 kg/cm2 in two the Urea plant.
capacity of the plant. reciprocating compressors and then condensed § The hot vapours were exported from the Urea
while in the other part of the plant, the liquid to the complex plant.
The implementation of this project resulted in the
Hence, the design of the compressor and its effective utilisation is essential for Ammonia (about 6 TPH) at 0°C was drawn
following benefits:
from the storage spheres and vapourised at 6
achieving higher production and lower energy consumption. • Reduction of electrical energy consumption for
kg/cm2 . Both these operation demand energy in compression of Ammonia in the Urea plant.
the form of electricity for compression and steam • LP steam saving in the Complex plant
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After ImprovementAfterImprovement for vapourisation. The above benefits resulted in the reduction of energy
A ammonia fertiliser complex producing 900 tons per The plant installed a vapour absorption refrigeration
consumption by 6 lakh units per year and 2000 T of
day of Urea was operating at about 920 TPD of system with LP steam for cooling the synthesis gas. LSHS.
ammonia production. The synthesis gas was entering The implementation of this project resulted in a saving
the compressor at about 39°C. of 117355 GJ per year, which amounted to 0.38 GJ /
Tonne of ammonia Energy savings
Energy savings Annual savings : Rs. 4.00 Million
The implementation of this project resulted in the following benefits Investment amount : Rs. 0.50 Million
Payback period : 2 months
Parameter Units Before After Case Study 8: Replacement of Pellet Type Catalyst with Ring Shaped Catalyst
Implementation Implementation in Sulphuric Acid Plant
Ammonia Production TPD 920 944
Syn. gas temperature °C 39 13
Syn. gas compressor speed RPM 13,142 13,071

336 337
Brief Case Study 11: Optimisation of Vacuum Pump Operation

Before Improvement
Before Improvement
In a sulphuric acid plant, wh ich was a part of
the larger fertiliser complex plant, pellet shaped
V2O5 catalyst was being used. The plant was
frequently facing problems of dust accumulation
and increase in pressure drop. Additionally the
plant had to be shut down once every six months
for screening and re-charging the catalyst.
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment amount
Payback period
After Improvement After Improvement
The pellet shaped catalyst was replaced with ring
shaped catalyst of the same material composition.
The replacement of the pellet type catalyst with ring type
catalyst resulted in the following benefits:
• Reduction in the pressure drop build up of the
converter
• Reduction in the load of the main air blower
• Shut down (for screening and recharging catalyst)
frequency reduced from two per year to once per year
The above benefits resulted in the reduction of energy
consumption by 900 tonne of LSHS and additional
production of 10,000 tonne of sulphuric acid per year
: Rs. 7.80 Million
: Rs. 40.0 Million
: 62 months
Brief
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement
After Improvement
In a phosphatic fertiliser unit, which is part of a During a maintenance stoppage of the plant, the
bigger fertiliser complex involved in production leakages were arrested and a trial was taken to
of3 complex fertilisers, a long belt filter was operate the filter with one vacuum pump. The trial
being used for final filtration of the slurry of was satisfactory and the operation of one vacuum
silica and AlF3. Two vacuum pumps of 500 m3/h pump per filter was made into a standard operating
capacity and 0.3 kg/cm2 vacuum were being used procedure.
for creating vacuum. One of the vacuum pumps
was being operated with valve throttling. The power saving was about 15 kW, which annually
The detailed study of the system revealed the amounted to 1,20,000 units
following: (8000 hrs/year operation)
· There were leaks in the vacuum line joints
close to the belt filter.
· The capacity of the vacuum pump was
reduced due to uneven wearing of the
pump

Case Study 9: Installation of High Efficiency Turbine for Air Blower in

Sulphuric Acid Plant Energy savings
Brief Annual savings : Rs. 0.37 Million
Investment amount : Minimal
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement
After Improvement
In the sulphuric acid plant (1200 TPD capacity) of a The single stage turbine was replaced with a new
Payback period : Immediate
huge fertilizer complex, the sulphur furnace blower multi-stage steam turbine of higher efficiency. The
was driven by a single stage turbine operating improvement in efficiency was about 15 % Case Study 12: Coating of Pump Impeller and Casing with Composite Resins
between 35 kg/cm2 and 3.5 kg/ cm2. The turbine resulting in reduction of steam consumption by
had a specific steam consumption of 16.9 tons per about 3 TPH, even when operating at higher load.
MW. The turbine was consuming about 27 TPH of Brief
steam during normal operation. There was also a The implementation of this project resulted in the
mis-match of LP steam generation and saving of about 3 TPH of steam (35 kg/cm2).
requirement, resulting in an average venting of
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement
After Improvement
LP steam (pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2) of about 4 TPH. In aa sulphuric
sulphuric acid
acid plant
plant of
of 600
600 TPD
TPD capacity,
capacity, The casing of the pump was coated with epoxy resin
In
there were
there were 44cooling
cooling water
water pumps
pumps ofof2700 3
2700mm3/h coating.
Energy savings /h capacity
capacity andand
5050m mhead
headdriven
driven by
by aa 500
500 kW
kW
Consequent to the coating the efficiency of the
motor. The The pumps
pumps were
were operating
operating atat an pump had improved and there was a reduction of
motor. an
Annual savings : Rs.9.60 Million efficiency of 64.5 %, consuming about 430 kW. about 16 kW in the power consumed by each pump.
efficiency of 64.5%, consuming about 430 kW. The total saving was about 0.13 million units.
Investment amount : Rs.15.0 Million
Payback period : 19 months
Case Study 10: Installation of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) for Sulphur Energy savings
Pump
Annual savings : Rs. 0.7 Million
Brief Investment amount : Rs. 0.5 Million
Payback period : 9 months
Before Improvement After Improvement Case Study 13: Installation of Hydraulic Turbine in the CO2 Removal Section
In the sulphuric acid plant (1200 TPD capacity) The steam turbine was replaced with a motor of
of a huge fertiliser complex, the sulphur pump 22 kW with a variable frequency drive. There
was being driven by a steam turbine with inlet were two pumps and one was operated Brief
steam at 35 kg/cm2. The pump was of 10.2 m3/h continuously. The replacement was done for
capacity and 265 m head and was being one of the pumps and other turbine driven
controlled by re- circulation. Also, the turbine pump was kept as a stand-by. Before Improvement
Before Improvement After ImprovementAfter Improvement
driving the pump was a small one consuming a In a particular nitrogenous fertiliser plant of A Hydraulic Power Recovery Turbine (HPRT) was
maximum of about 0.7 TPH of steam. Since the The implementation of this project resulted in about 1,00,000 tons per year capacity, the aqueous installed to recover the pressure energy being lost across
quantity of steam was less, the exhaust was let the saving of about 0.4 TPH of steam. The motor mono ethanol amine (MEA) process was being used the valve.
out into the atmosphere. installed along with VSD was consuming for CO2 removal. This MEA absorbed in the CO2 The implementation of this project resulted in reduction of
about 15 kW absorber which is at a 2 the load on the steam turbine driving the lean MEA pump.
pressure of 24 kg/cm, ,
enters the CO2 stripper operating at a lower The steam saving on the steam turbine amounted to 2.5
TPH of high-pressure steam, which annually amounted
Energy savings pressure of around 0.4 kg/cm2. This pressure to about 600 tons of LSHS. The reduction in specific
reduction is effected through a pressure- reducing energy consumption amounted to about 0.06 Gcal /
Annual savings : Rs. 0.75 Million valve. Tonne of ammonia.
Investment amount : Rs. 0.50 Million
Payback period : 8 months
338 339
Energy savings Case Study 17: Re-use of Condensate Streams from Different Locations

Annual savings : Rs. 3.80 Million Brief

Investment amount : Rs. 1.10 Million
Payback period : 4 months In the CO-shift reaction 50 T/hr of water is consumed from the saturated gas
generated by gasification. Grey water circuit of carbon extraction unit supplies
Case Study 14: Replacement of steam ejectors with vacuum pumps this water. Also about 20 Tonne/ hr of water is required to blow-down from the grey
water drum to maintain chloride and TDS in the system. This 70 Tonne/ hr of water
Brief requirement is met by make-up of BFW or condensate to grey water drum as per
design. This being very high consumption of BFW the use of waste streams
Before Improvement
Before Improvement After Improvement After Improvement
In one of the complex fertilizer-manufacturing units, All the five steam ejectors in evaporator section
available was thought of and the following streams were identified and connected
there were five evaporators for concentration of were replaced with water ring vacuum pumps. with grey water circuit.
phosphoric acid. The evaporators were operated The steam saved by replacement was equivalent to
under vacuum using 2-stage steam ejectors. These about 7.5 TPH of 27- k g / cm2 pressures. This can 1. Urea plant hydrolyser effluent : 30 Tonne/ hr is recycled to grey water drum
ejectors consume about 1.5 TPH each of 27- generate additional power equivalent to about 50 units/
kg/cm2 pressure steam. ton of steam, thereby offsetting equivalent power through a control valve. The contaminants limits are fixed at 100-ppm
drawn from the grid ammonia and 50 ppm urea.
2. Formic acid plant : 10 Tonne/ hr condensate of stream is taken to grey water
Energy savings drum by pump.
3. Methanol plant : 20 Tonne/ hr condensate containing about 5 ppm methanol is
Annual savings : Rs. 10.00 Million diverted to grey water drum.
Investment amount : Rs. 7.50 Million
Payback period : 9 months Energy savings

Case Study 15: Re-processing of Purge Gas for Ammonia-fertiliser
Brief
Before Improvement
Before Improvement
The 10,000 TPA methanol plant based on natural
gas reforming is designed with a purge of 5, 000
Nm3/ hr from methanol synthesis section, which is
used as a part of fuel in reformer. The purge stream
is having 70 percent of hydrogen, which is having
low heating value.
Case Study 16: Reprocessing of CO waste gas for ammonia/ methanol
After Improvement After Improvement
Productive use of this stream containing about 3,500
Nm3/ hr available hydrogen was thought of to produce
ammonia. The compatibility of the stream was
established in ammonia plant upstream of rectisol wash
unit after boosting the pressure from 54 to 75 bars by
using a recycle compressor. After implementing the
scheme, ammonia production could be increased to the
tune of 40 T/ day on consistent basis.
Also part of purge gas is reprocessed to pure
hydrogen after installing pressure swing absorption
unit. The hydrogen is supplied for producing aniline
(20,000 TPA) at54 54
BARBAR
Load on DM water and BFW system is reduced by about 60 Tonne/ hr giving
considerable savings.
Case Study 18: Installation of modified trays in Urea reactor
Brief
A major plant had modified the old Reactor trays of 11 & 21 units of Urea Plant-I
with new design trays .M/S Snamprogetti, Italy (technology supplier for Urea
Plant) have developed a new modified tray design for Reactor. In place of 10 Nos. of
identical sieve trays of conventional design (each having 363 nos. holes of 8 mm
each on square pitch), 15 Nos. trays of modified Snamprogetti design have been
installed. Each set of 5 new trays has 1922, 1281 & 941 holes of 8 mm dia. each on
triangular pitch. Installation of these modified trays have further improved plug
flow and reduced back mixing in the reactor and so conversion of Ammonium
Carbamate to Urea in the Reactor is enhanced.

Brief Energy savings

A stream of gas generated in gasification unit, containing mainly CO + H2 is used
for 50,000 TPA acetic acid plant. This gas stream is purified to remove impurities of
CO2 and H2S, followed by CO enrichment. This 99.5 percent pure CO is used for
production of acetic acid. In the process of CO enrichment, a waste CO + H2 stream
is generated. The hydrogen of this stream is reprocessed in nitrogen wash unit for
enhancing ammonia production as in-built feature. However, CO content of the
stream is lost in tail gas stream of nitrogen wash unit.
Saving of around 30 kg of medium pressure steam (24 ata) per tonne of fertliser
produced has been achieved due to increased reactor efficiency. Material of
construction of new trays is 2-RE-69, which is more corrosion resistant and shall
have more life as compared to SS 316 LM material used for conventional trays.
Energy Saving Achieved: 0.0063 GJ/Tonne of urea.
Case Study 19: Conversion from Naphtha to R-LNG as feedstock

Energy savings Brief

A scheme to use this stream in methanol plant is made which will spare hydrogen for A major plant initiated the task of executing RLNG conversion along with Energy
increasing ammonia production by 7 TPD. Saving Project. As the availability of indigenous natural gas was limited, the only
possible alternative was to go for RLNG which was to be sourced from outside
andmade available to the unit as per the requirement. The unit held discussions with

340 341
the concerned parties and finally an agreement was reached between the gas 12. LBNL - 62806; World Best Practice Energy Intensity Value for Selected
supplier and the unit for gas supply. A separate 140 KM pipeline was laid from Industrial Sectors, February 2008
Thulendi of District Rai Barelly to the Unit from the existing HBJ gas pipeline. 13. LBNL - 54828: Emerging Energy Efficient Technologies in Industry case
studies of selected technologies - May 2004
Energy savings 14. National Energy Map of India: Technology Vision 2030
15. Report of the working group on Power for 11th Plan (2007-12)
• Easy and shorter start up of the plant, thereby lesser unproductive consumption
16. Report of the working group on R&D for the Energy Sector for the formulation
• No burners choking problem
of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12)
• Reduced CO2 emission from furnace
17. BP Statistical Review, June 2008
• Trouble free running of plant 18. http://fert.nic.in
• Increased life of catalyst 19. www.energymanagertraining.com
Case Study 20: Installation of Carbon Dioxide Recovery (CDR) Plant 20. www.faidelhi.org
21. www.eeii.org.in
Brief

A major unit has installed a Carbon Dioxide Recovery (CDR) Plant, to recover CO2
from flue gases of Ammonia plant primary reformer furnace. The capacity of the
plant is 450 TPD of CO2 and M/s MHI, Japan has provided the basic engineering
for it. M/s TICB was engaged as turnkey contractor for detail engineering,
procurement, erection and commissioning. CDR plant is basically a low pressure
CO2 removal section in which CO2 present in flue gases is absorbed & then
regenerated to produce CO2 having 99.93 % purity.

Energy savings

• Cost effectiveness of the plant is very attractive because the use of costlier
Naphtha as feed to balance the CO2 for Urea production shall be stopped
completely. This offsets higher conversion costs.
• Reduced CO2 Emission

References

1. Annual Report 2007-08, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizer, Department of

Fertilizers, GoI.
2. Technology Assessment Report - Fertiliser Sector: Fertiliser Association of
India
3. "Energy Efficiency Gains in Indian Ammonia Plants Retrospect and
Prospects", Sachchida Nand, Manish Goswami; 2006 IFA Technical
Symposium, 25-28 April 2006, Vilnuus, Lithuania.
4. LBNL - 57293; Assessment of Energy use and energy savings potential in
selected industrial sector in India, August 2005.
5. Indian Journal of Fertilizers, Vol - 4, No.9, September 2008 (ISSN 0973-1822)
6. Compendium of Workshop - "Adoption of Energy Efficient process
technologies & practices and implementation of Energy Conservation Act
2001 in Fertilizer Sector" by BEE at New Delhi on 1st September, 2008.
7. TERI Energy Directory and Yearbook 2007
8. LBNL-41846: India's Fertilizer Industry: Productivity and Energy Efficiency;
Katja Schumacher and Jayant Sathaye; Earnest Orlando Lawrence Berkley
National Laboratory, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, July
1999
9. Statistical Abstract 2007 - CSO
10. CII - IREDA Publication: "Investors Manual on Energy Efficiency".
11. Japan Energy Conservation Directory

342 343
Notes Chapter - 11
Pulp & Paper
11.1 Introduction

The Indian pulp and paper industry is over a hundred years old. First mill in the
country was commissioned in 1812 in Serampur (W. Bengal). Over the years, the
installed capacity has grown from a paltry 0.15 million tonnes in the early fifties to
the present level of 8.3 million tonnes.

However, the growth of the industry has been uneven and as a result, the Indian
paper industry is a mix of large integrated plants based on wood based raw material
and medium and small size paper plants based on waste paper. The capacities of the
mills range from 500 tonnes/annum to 2.0 lakh tonnes/ annum.

There are about 700 units, which manufacture pulp, paper, paperboard and
newsprint paper, out of which nearly 570 are in operation. The total installed
capacity is nearly 83 lakh tonnes out of which 11 lakh tonnes are lying idle due to
closure of many units.

Based on the raw material utilized, the paper units can be classified into three broad
categories as:
• Wood based (Bamboo, hardwood etc.)
• Agro-based (Bagasse, jute, rice & wheat straw)
• Waste paper based

The Indian scenario on production of paper and paperboard, import and export
during the last 4 years is given below in Table 11.1

Table 11.1 : Installed Capacity, Production, Import & Export of Paper

(In Lakh Tonnes)
Year Installed Production Imports Exports
Capacity
2004-05 74.0 58.90 1.95 2.70
2005-06 76.0 59.00 2.85 2.92
2006-07 78.0 61.40 3.47 3.39
2007-08 78.0 41.58 0.64 N.A.
(Upto November, 2007) (upto May,
2007)
(Source: CPPRI & CMIE)

11.2 Manufacturing Process

A variety of processes are in use in the paper industry depending on the type of raw
material used and the end product desired. Among these, Kraft (Sulphate) process,
Semi-Mechanical process and Sulphite process are the most popular ones. In the
Indian pulp and paper industry, the Kraft process dominates the wood/bamboo
pulping. Paper making essentially consists of following stages:

• Preparation of pulp
• Stock preparation
• Sheet formation & water removal

345
11.2.1 Preparation of pulp 11.2.1.3 Bleaching Process

11.2.1.1 Wood preparation
Hard wood logs are debarked by wet or dry process depending upon the size of the
logs handled. Small diametric logs are debarked by dry process by friction. In wet
process, debarking of larger logs of wood is done by drum or pocket barkers.
Hydraulic barking uses high-pressure water jets to separate bark and log. Energy
requirement for friction barking is lower than that for hydraulic barking. In India,
most of the mills are not doing debarking as they receive either debarked wood or
use them with bark due to difficulty in debarking of some hardwoods. The logs are
chipped to size suitable for pulping using chippers. Dise and drum chippers are used
for chipping. The oversized chips are rechipped, as under sized chips are rejected.
11.2.1.2 Pulp making
Predominantly, pulp making is done either by mechanical or chemical means. In
mechanical process, the wood is reduced to small particles by rubbing against huge
grindstones revolving at high speeds. Groundwood mechanical process is the most
commonly used and most of the Newsprint paper production is undertaken through
groundwood pulp process. In India, chemi - mechanical pulping (CMP) is done by
only one newsprint paper mill. In CMP, the wood chips are subjected to a mild
chemical treatment prior to mechanical separation using a refiner. In the chemical
process, the cellulose fibers of the wood are separated from the non-cellulose
components by chemical action.
Three primary chemical processes are in use, viz., Kraft or sulphate (alkaline),
Sulphite (acidic) and Neutral Sulphite Semi Chemical (NSSC). As mentioned
earlier, all large Pulp & Paper mills in India use the Kraft sulphate chemical process
for pulping. In this process, the raw material (almost any kind of wood - soft or hard)
is cut and chipped to produce chips of 0.5-1" size. These chips are fed into digesters,
reacted with white liquor (80:20 NaOH and Na2S) and steamed for about two to
three hours at high temperature and pressure (162 - 168 oC and 7-8 kg / cm2 ).
Digesters may be batch or continuous type, the latter offering advantages such as
increased throughput, reduced labour and better energy utilization. Continuous
digesters are also very useful in agro fiber pulping. Many mills using agro residue
use Pandia Continuous Digesters. The pulp is then washed to make the pulp free
from soluble impurities and removal of black liquor through usual 3 or 4 stages of
counter current washing using rotary drum filters. The washed pulp is sent for
bleaching to increase the brightness of the pulp and the dilute black liquor is sent to
evaporators. The treated pulp then goes for stock preparation. The black liquor after
concentration is fired in recovery boilers. The residue "green liquor" is treated with
lime to get white liquor for reuse.
Pulp when it comes from digester, contains residual coloring matter. This
unbleached pulp may be used for making heavy wrapping paper or bags. However,
paper to be used for printing, writing or paper which is to be dyed, must first be
bleached. The main object in bleaching is to remove residual lignin from the wood
pulp fibers as well as to destroy or remove remaining colouring matter. Now a days,
various bleaching agents are used to bleach the pulp like chlorine, chlorine dioxide,
hydrogen peroxide, oxygen & calcium hypo chlorite
11.2.2 Stock preparation
Stock preparation is undertaken to give the pulp various desired qualities through
refining. It is mostly accomplished in either double disk or conical refiners. A more
vigorous and special type of refiner, known as Jordan, is used in mechanical pulp
preparation method, in which a conical plug rotates in conical shell. The stock then
undergoes addition of sizing, filling, and coloring agents. A final screening &
centricleaning is carried out prior to paper making for removing the contaminants as
they may lead to defects in paper.
11.2.3 Sheet formation & water removal
The feed to the paper machine consists of combination of refined pulp together with
additives, such as fillers and wet end chemicals, having requisite stock consistency.
Either Fourdrinier or cylindrical mould machines form the above feed into a sheet.
Mills producing cultural and newsprint paper use high-speed fourdrinier and twin
wire sheet formers. Mills producing packaging paper & board mainly use
cylindrical mould machines. At wet end of paper machine, water is first removed by
gravity, then by suction, then by pressing the sheet and lastly by drying by steam
heated cylinders.
11.3 Per Capita Consumption
The per capita consumption of paper in the different parts of the world are depicted
below:
Figure - 11.1
Per Capita Consumption (kg/year)
350
300
250
200
150
100

In Soda process, which is mostly used for pulping of agricultural residues, Sodium 50

Hydroxide (NaOH) is the main cooking chemical. Other cooking parameters are 0
India Indonesia China Thailand Brazil Japan USA UK
almost same as Kraft process.
Source : CII - IREDA & CPPRI

The Indian per capita consumption of paper is 7 kg, in comparison to the Asian
average of 21 kg, World average of 55 kg and US average of 331.7 kg. So the Indian
pulp and paper industry has got a tremendous growth potential estimated at about
8% per year.
346 347
11.4 Energy Profile The specific energy consumption comparison of Indian paper industry vis-à-vis the
international trends is as follows (Table -11.2):
The share of energy costs in the total manufacturing cost is close to 25%. Coal and
electricity are the two major energy sources used in the paper production. Other Table 11.2: Comparison of Specific Energy Consumption
fuels, such as low sulphur heavy stock (LSHS), furnace oil, etc. are also used to fire
boilers. Light diesel oil (LDO) and high-speed diesel (HSD) are also used for Parameter Units Norm Indian Mills International Mills
captive power generation in diesel generator sets in plants. The Steam and Steam MT/ MT of FNP Avg. 11-14 6.5-8.5
Best 7.5 6.0
Electricity generated by energy facilities as shown in figure 11.2 are used by various Power KWh/ MT of FNP Avg. 1500-1700 1150-1250
production facilities. Steam and electricity consumption per tonne of paper is 11-15 Best 1200-1300 900-1000
tonnes and 1500-1700 kWh respectively in Indian mills. The total specific energy Water m3/ MT of FNP Avg. 150 50
Best 75 25
consumption of Indian pulp and paper industry ranges from 31 to 52 GJ (Giga
Total energy GCal/ MT of FNP Avg. 52 28
joules) per tonne of product, which is roughly double the norms compared to North Best 31 18
American and Scandinavian units. The overall energy conservation and utilization
efficiency in Indian Pulp & paper mills is very low compared to mills in developed Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI
countries.
The typical break-up of steam and power of the various Indian mills vis-à-vis the
It shows that there is immense potential of energy savings in this sector. international mills is shown in Table 11.3 (a) & (b):
Table 11.3 (a) : Consumption of Section wise Steam consumption
Figure - 11.2: Conversion & Utilisation of Energy in Paper Industry
(MT/MT of FNP)
Section Indian Mills International Mills
Digester 2.50-3.90 1.9-2.3
Bleach Plant 0.35-0.40 0.20-0.25
Evaporator 2.50-4.00 1.50-2.30
Paper Machine 3.00-4.00 0.70-2.00
Soda Recovery Plant 0.50-1.10 0.30-0.50
Total 11.0 - 14.0 6.5 - 8.5
Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI
Boiler
Evaporator
Chemical Recovery Table 11.3 (b) Comparison of Section wise Power Consumption (kWh/MT
Paper Machine
Bleaching
of FNP)
Digestor
Stock Preparation
Screening/centricleaning
Section Indian Mills International Mills
Washing Digester 58-62 43-46
Raw material Preparation
Bleach Plant 88-92 66-69
Source: CPPRI Paper Machine 465-475 410-415
Soda Recovery Plant 170-190 127-135
The energy consumption pattern varies according to type of raw material and the Stock Preparation 275-286 164-172
technology used by a particular mill. Utilities & Others 246-252 160-165
Chippers 112-128 92-98
11.5 Energy Intensity Washing & Screening 145-155 116-123
Total 1500-1700 1150-1250
The paper industry is highly energy intensive and is the sixth largest consumer of
commercial energy in the country. Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI
11.6 Energy Saving Potential
Large paper plants generate part of their own power through cogeneration, while
smaller plants depend exclusively on purchased power. The various energy conservation studies conducted by PCRA and feedback
received from the various industries through questionnaire survey and plant visits
The energy cost, as a percentage of manufacturing cost, which was about 15% a few indicate an energy savings potential of 20%.
decades earlier is presently about 25%. This is mainly due to the increase in energy
prices. This is equivalent to an annual savings potential of about Rs.3000 million. The
estimated investment required to realize this savings potential is Rs.5000 million.
The expenditure on energy ranks only next to the raw material in the manufacture of
The pulp and paper industry has an attractive cogeneration potential of over 100
paper. With the ever-increasing fuel prices and power tariffs, energy conservation is
MW, in addition to the existing cogeneration plants.
strongly pursued as one of the attractive options for improving the profitability in
the Indian pulp and paper industry.

348 349
11.6.1 Major factors affecting energy consumption in paper mills • Other Factors

The major factors that affect energy consumption in the Indian pulp and paper - Type of river water pumping system and overall water consumption
industry are: - Levels of instrumentation
- Extent of utilisation of variable speed drives, such as, variable frequency
• Low level of capacity utilisation drives (VFD), variable fluid couplings (VFC), DC drives, dyno -
• Quality and type of paper produced drives etc.
• Number and multiplicity of machinery
• Paper machine renewability and down time Apart from the above factors, optimized operation and proper maintenance are also
• Finishing losses very important for energy efficiency.
• Boiler type & pressure levels
• Level of cogeneration 11.6.2 Target specific energy consumption figures
• Power generation
The overall specific energy consumption norms for large integrated paper plants,
Section-wise details of factors, which affect energy efficiency, are given below: producing writing and printing paper, using 100% chemical bleached pulp and
operating on sulphate process, should be as highlighted below:
• Type of raw material preparation section
- Type of chippers/ cutters • Steam = 9.00 MT/MT of finished paper
- Type of conveying system • Power = 1300 kWh/MT of finished paper
• Water = 100 m3/MT of finished paper
• Digesters system
The break-up of the target specific steam, specific power and specific water
- Type of pulping technology (RDH and extended dezincification consumption figures in the different sections of the plant are given in table 11.4 (a),
preferred using oxygen dezincification) 11.4 (b) and 11.4 (c)
- Installation of blow heat recovery
- Optimal bath liquor ratio Table 11.4 (a): Specific Steam Consumption break-up (MT/MT of FNP)

• Washing section Section Steam

Pulping & washing 1.2
- Utilisation of advanced washers, such as, flat belt wire washers, double Bleaching 0.4
wire press, DD washer and Twin drum washer Black Liquor Evaporation 2.4
Chemical recovery boiler 0.8
• Screening section
Recausticising & Lime kiln 0.5
- Installation of advanced screening equipment Paper machine 2.0
Deaerator 1.4
• Stock Preparation Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI

- Type of refiners
Table 11.4 (b): Specific Power Consumption break-up (kWh/ MT of FNP)
- Type of centri-cleaners (use of low pressure drop centri- cleaners reduce
the pumping power consumption) Section Power
Chippers 30
• Paper machine
Digester house 55
Washing and Screening 105
- Type of press
Bleaching plant 105
- Percentage moisture after press section
Stock preparation, Paper m/c and Finishing 500
- On-line moisture control Power boilers 170
- Type of hood system Intake well + Water treatment plant 60
- Type of siphon for condensate removal Recovery (Evaporator, recovery boiler, causticisers and 175
lime kiln)
• Evaporation section Effluent treatment plant 60
Lighting and workshop etc. 50
- Type of evaporator and number of stages Total 1300
- Steam economy achieved (minimum should be 6) Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI
- Extent of condensate recovery

350 351
 Table 11.4 (c): Specific water consumption break-up (100 m3/MT of FNP) 11.7.2 Waste heat recovery from waste sludge in pulp and paper industry

Section Water Technology Description

Pulp Mill 30
An efficient technology for processing of sludge including waste-to-energy aspect
Paper machine 20 and energy recovery has been developed by University Department of Chemical
Boilers incl. WTP and Cooling tower 30 Technology, Mumbai and Paper & Pulp Technology Department, Sant Gadgebaba
Chemical recovery area 10 Amaravati University, Amaravati. The retrofit has been realized in two stages. The
Miscellaneous 10 waste sludge is burnt in a multiple hearth incinerator with a fluidized bed chamber.
Total 100 The different stages of retrofit, can be characterized as “waste-to-energy”, where
heat from flue gas is utilized for generating the steam, drying the sludge, pre-
Source: CII-IREDA & CPPRI
heating air for combustion & fluidization and water preheating for steam
11.7 Technologies for Energy Conservation generation. Off-gas cleaning system consists of a filter for particulate removal and a
three-stage scrubber system is attached for cleaner stack.
11.7.1 Recovery of Chemicals from Spent Liquor Obtained from Counter
Current Washing of Unbleached Pulp Advantages
Technology Description
• The technology is favourable both economically and environmentally.
The chemical recovery systems (evaporators, recovery boilers etc.) are an integral
part of any large integrated paper plant. The black liquor can be fired in the soda 11.7.3 Seven Effect Free Flow Falling Film (FFFF) Evaporator
recovery boilers to generate steam. The sodium salts recovered in the process is
reused in the digesters. The installation of such chemical recovery systems in the Technology Description
medium size paper plants is generally considered financially unattractive.
Installation of Fluidized Bed Reactor to recover chemicals in medium size paper Multiple effect evaporators are installed in the liquor line between the brown stock
plant offers an attractive option. The reactor recovers chemicals from spent liquor washers and the soda recovery boiler to efficiently remove large amounts of water
and converts them into sodium carbonate pellets. These pellets are commercially from the liquor, so that, the recovery boiler produces steam from this liquor
sold, resulting in additional revenue generation. economically. The multiple effect evaporator is fed black liquor at 12-14% solids
concentration and concentrated to 40-55% solids. Most of the paper plants use the
Advantages short tube or long tube vertical evaporators, having five to seven effects, the first
two effects being contained in one evaporator body. The latest trend among the large
• Recovery of Chemicals (Sodium Carbonate) from spent liquor results in integrated paper plants is the installation of free flow falling film evaporators. They
saving of power and savings of chemicals like Urea and DAP in the effluent are characterised by higher steam economy and better operational performance.
treatment plant.
Case Study 1: Recovery of Chemicals from Spent Liquor Obtained from Counter Advantages
Current Washing of Unbleached Pulp in a Medium Size Paper Mill
• The installation of 7-effect FFFF evaporator resulted in achieving steam
Brief economy of 6 tons of water evaporation per ton of steam.

Before Improvement
In an agro-based medium size paper
plant, the spent liquor obtained from
the counter current washing of
unbleached agro-pulp, was getting
mixed with wastewater and let out to
effluent treatment plant. This
increases the load on the effluent
treatment plant, as it is not possible to
bring down the Sodium ratio in the
effluent.
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment Required
Payback period
After Improvement
A chemical recovery plant, to recover the
chemicals from spent black liquor, obtained
from the counter current washing of the
unbleached agro-pulp, was installed.
The following benefits were achieved on the
installation of chemical recovery system:
• Chemical recovery (Sodium
Carbonate)
• Savings in power at the effluent
treatment plant
• Savings in Urea and DAP at the
effluent treatment plant
: Rs. 6.2 Million
: Rs. 12.6 Million
: 24 months
352
Case Study 2: Installation of Seven Effect Free Flow Falling Film (FFFF)
Evaporator
Brief
Before Improvement
A large integrated paper plant had a
conventional quintuple effect short tube
vertical evaporator system for the
concentration of black liquor. The black
liquor flow rate was about 2500 m3/h.
The steam economy achieved was 2.8
tons of water evaporation per ton of
steam. These evaporators had frequent
operational problems, leading to increase
mechanical down time. Also the chemical
losses were more due to the frequent
water boiling.
353
After Improvement
The latest 7 - effect free flow falling
film evaporator, was installed in
place of the conventional short tube
vertical evaporator.
The installation of 7-effect FFFF
evaporator resulted in achieving a
steam economy of 6 tons of water
evaporation per ton of steam. A net
saving of about 9700 MT of low-
pressure steam was achieved as a
result of this modification.
Energy savings to ensure better heat transfer. Steam soot blowers do this normally. The steam
consumption of the steam soot blowers is very high and results in drop in efficiency
Annual savings @ Rs. 3.00 per kg of steam : Rs. 29.1 Million of the boilers. Replacing steam soot blowers with Sonic (Acoustic) blowers, offers
Investment required : Rs. 36.9 Million a viable option for reducing steam consumption and maintenance cost.
Investment required : 15 months
11.7.4 Use of Variable Frequency Drives (VFD's) in Washer Drum Drives Advantages

Technology Description • Savings in steam consumption

One step in paper manufacturing process is washing of pulp to remove free soluble
impurities and black liquor, thereby recovering maximum amount of spent
chemicals. The washing is done using rotary drum washers driven by variable
speed systems to achieve desired speed variation, according to the throughput of the
plant. The dyno-drives used for the purpose, though have lesser maintenance
problems, are inefficient at lower speeds. The variable frequency drives (VFDs) are
more efficient at lower/all speeds and require lesser maintenance, in comparison to
the dyno-drive.
Advantages
• VFDs are more energy efficient at all speeds and enable precise control of speed.
Case Study 3: Replacement of Dyno-drives with Variable Frequency Drives
(VFD's) in Washer Drum Drives
Brief
• Less maintenance cost
11.7.6 Conversion to Fluidised Bed Boilers
Technology Description
The paper plant is a major consumer of thermal energy in the form of steam. This
steam requirement is met by a battery of boilers fired by a solid fuel (coal) and also
partly by the Soda Recovery Boiler (SRB) in the integrated plants. In the older
paper plants, the conventional stoker boilers were in use. These boilers gave higher
unburnts in ash and lower thermal efficiency. The latest trend is to install the
fluidized bed boilers or conversion of the existing chain / spreader stoker boilers.
The Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) boiler also enables the use of saw dust,
which is generated in the chipper house.
Advantages

The contents of the digester, after cooking, are blown down to a blow tank. The • Coal having high ash content / low calorific value can be used
blown pulp is then washed, to remove the dissolved lignin and chemicals. Usually, • Biomass fuels can also be used
washing is practiced in counter current fashion, involving 3 or 4 stages of washing, • Lesser unburnts in ash
using rotary drum washers. The washed pulp is then sent for bleaching and further • Higher thermal efficiency
processing. The rotary drum washers are operated under vacuum, utilizing a
barometric column. These drum washers are driven by a variable speed system, to Case Study 4: Conversion of Spreader Stoker Boilers to Fluidised Bed Boilers
achieve the desired speed variation, according to the throughput of the plant.
Brief

Before Improvement After Improvement

In one of the old integrated
paper plant, the washer drum
drives were fitted with dyno-
drives. The washers were
operating at 50 - 60% of the
rated speed for majority of the
time. The dyno-drives are very
inefficient at lower speeds.
The dyno-drives of the washers were replaced
with variable frequency drives (VFD's).
The replacement of dyno-drives with VFD's
resulted in a net reduction in power
consumption. The net power saving achieved
was 36,024 units/year (equivalent of 5.23 kW).
The other major advantage is, the precise speed
variation, which can be achieved.
Before Improvement
A large integrated paper plant had
four numbers of spreader stoker
boilers, operating to meet steam
requirements of the plant.
The steam generation was only 14
TPH, as against the design rating of 30
TPH. The boiler efficiency achieved
was only 65 per cent.
After Improvement
Two of the four spreader stoker boilers
were converted to fluidized bed
combustion boilers. This conversion to
fluidized bed combustion boilers enabled
the use of sawdust, which is generated in
the chipper house.
Steam generation - 27 TPH
Efficiency - 78%
Coal Saving - 9239 T

Energy savings Energy savings

Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 0.16 Million per year. Annual savings @ Rs. 1.25/kg of coal : Rs. 11.5 Million
Investment required : Rs 0.25 Million Investment required : Rs. 27.0 Million
Payback period : 19 months Payback period : 28 months.

11.7.4 Sonic Soot Blowers in Place of Steam Soot Blowers for Coal Fired Boilers 11.7.7 Conversion of MP Steam Users to LP Steam Users to Maximize
Cogeneration
Technology Description
Coal fired boilers are installed to meet the steam requirements of the paper plant. Technology Description
The boiler water tubes get frequently coated with soot deposits, as a result of
combustion of coal in coal-fired boilers. The cleaning of tubes has to be carried out The paper industry is a major consumer of power and steam. In all the integrated
plants and in a few medium sized plants, the co-generation system is installed to
354 355
meet the power and steam needs of the plant simultaneously. The paper plant should
make every effort to increase the co-generation power to the extent possible. The
generation of power from the turbine depends on the pressure level of the
extraction. The lower the pressure, the higher will be the generation of power per
unit of steam extracted. Hence, efforts should be made to replace the HP
(HighPressure) / MP (Medium Pressure) steam with LP (Low Pressure) steam to the
highest extent possible.
Advantages
• Increase in co-generation power.
11.7.8 Deinking Process
Technology Description
Stringent guidelines for environmental protection and the social obligations of
providing a clean environment is forcing paper mills to explore alternate raw
materials and cleaner technologies for long term survival. Deinking process has
emerged very promising in these aspects. Old Newsprints (ONP) and Old
Magazines (OMG) form the raw materials for deinking. The process involves
detachment of ink from the surface of the fibre and its removal through washing and
floatation. Unit operations in deinking include Pulping, Screening, Floatation, Fine
Cleaning, Slot Screening, Thickening, Dispersing, Bleaching & Final Storage. The
waste paper is slushed with warm water and chemicals like Hydrogen peroxide,
caustic, soaps etc. in the pulper and cleaned through "Contaminex" followed by HD
cleaners before feeding to Floatation cell. The main task of floatation cell is to
improve the cleanliness and brightness of the pulp stock. Air in the form of very fine
bubbles is sparged through the stock. The ink particles stick to the air bubbles and
float. The stock from floatation is pumped to the centri-cleaners for fine screening
and further thickened in a Disk Filter. The stock is dewatered in a screw press to a
consistency of 28% for final storage. Hindustan Newsprint Ltd. (Kerala) has
successfully implemented this technology.
Advantages
• Lesser energy and water consumption, less pollution.
11.7.9 Pressure screens
Technology Description
The function of a pressure screen in a paper machine thin-stock recirculation
system is to remove shives (fiber bundles) and other large, hard contaminants from
the furnish. Conventional pressure screens use baskets with either slots or holes to
admit the fibrous "accepts" flow and reject the contaminants. Slotted screens
usually have a sculptured pattern that helps fibers to become aligned and pass
through the screen. Pressure screens are equipped with various types of rotors to
continuously redisperse any fibers that start to accumulate on the screen surface.
Because fibers can pass through a slotted screen individually, but not as fiber flocs,
papermakers sometimes choose to add retention aids ahead of pressure screens in
order to achieve a favorable balance of formation uniformity and adequate
retention of fine particles.
Advantages
• Reduced energy consumption, investment costs and improved cleaning
efficiency.
356
11.7.10 Installation of Refiners (DDR/TDR)
Technology Description
In paper manufacturing process after thorough washing, bleached pulp is collected
in a storage tank and finally pulp is refined through DDR (Double Disc Refiners)
and TDR (Tri Disc Refiners) to make pulp suitable for paper making and to impart
better fiber bonding condition which improves the physical strength of the paper.
Installation of TDR in place of DDR is observed to give fine quality refining and is
energy efficient. The technology has been successfully installed in ITC,
Bhadranchalam.
Advantages
• Energy saving of about 150 kW can be achieved.
11.7.11 Black Liquor Recycling in Agro Based Mills
Technology Description
In the agro based mills, although chemical recovery system has been installed in
few mills, but due to unfavourable properties of black liquors, the chemical and
thermal recovery efficiencies are much lower than in wood based mills. One of the
major constraints while processing the agro-based liquors in the chemical recovery
section is the low solids concentration of the weak black liquors in comparison to
the wood/bamboo liquors. This results in substantial quantities of additional steam
requirements during black liquor evaporation in the chemical recovery to remove
that extra quantity of water present in the agro based black liquors. Recycling of
black liquor during pulping results in improved black liquor solids concentrations.
In the recycling process certain portion of the fresh water is replaced with the black
liquor during cooking of the agro based raw materials.
Advantages
• Improves the pulp yield by 1.0-1.5%, without bringing about any significant
change in kappa values (A measure of the amount of lignin remaining in pulp
after cooking) of the pulp.
• The net energy savings per tonne of pulp varies form 13-72 tonnes steam per
day for a 100 tpd mill depending on the rise in solids concentrations.
• Black liquor recycling can be practiced in mills using wet cleaning systems by
using improved dewatering devices.
11.7.12 High Capacity Chippers in the Chipper House and Mechanical
Conveying in Place of Pneumatic Conveying.
Technology Description
Mills installed before 1980's have many small capacity disc chippers and the wood
chips are transported from the chipper house located at the ground floor to the top of
the digester house (at a height of about 12-15 m) for pulping operations.
Conventionally, the chips were being transported pneumatically. The pneumatic
conveying, though simple and easy to install, consumes more energy. Mechanical
conveying is more energy efficient and consumes only about 25-30% of energy
consumed by pneumatic conveying. Installation of a high capacity drum chippers
belt conveyor can be taken up in those plants where the horizontal distance between
the digester and chipper is sufficiently large. In case, if the horizontal distance is
less and the inclination of conveying required is more, then a belt conveyor will not
be suitable. In such cases, modified systems such as the crated belt conveyors can
be installed.
357
Advantages as a bleaching agent is causing concern as this produces dioxin and other
chlorinated organic compounds, which contributes to AOX (absorbable organic
• Lower specific power consumption halides) in the recipient streams. In the technology developed in IIT, Delhi, an
• Mechanical feeding, leading to higher throughput enzyme prepared from a thermophilic fungus has been shown to act as an effective
• Uniform Chips size. pre-bleaching agent on soft and hard woods. The level of chlorine was reduced by
15%. AOX release was also less. Pilot scale runs have been planned in collaboration
Case Study 5: Installation of High Capacity Chippers in the Chipper House
with two paper mills.
Brief
Advantages
The recent technological advancements have led to the development of high
capacity chippers. These chippers are provided with mechanical feeding • The level of chlorine was reduced by 15% and lower AOX release was
mechanisms, enabling consistent feed to the chipper and high throughput from the demonstrated.
chippers. This results in lower specific energy consumption of the chippers.
11.7.15 High-Efficiency River Water Turbine Pumps for Raw Water Intake
Before Improvement After Improvement
A 750 TPD plant had 5 numbers of Two numbers of high capacity drum chippers Technology Description
older, low capacity disc chippers in having lower specific energy consumption (about 7
operation, with specific energy kWh/ tonne) were installed in place of the earlier 5 Water is an essential commodity for pulp & paper industry, from both energy and
consumption of 12 kWh/tonne. numbers of the chippers. environmental point of view. The overall water consumption of the Indian pulp and
paper industry varies from 125 to 175 m3/ton of finished paper (depending on the
Energy savings product) in large integrated paper plants.
Annual savings @Rs.4.5/kWh :Rs. 5.9 Million Advantages
Investment required :Rs. 24.0 Million
Payback period :49 months. • Efficiency of 87% possible.
• Reduction in pumping power.
11.7.13 Dry Mechanical boosters in place of steam ejector
Case Study 6: Installation of High-Efficiency Turbine Pumps for Raw Water
Technology Description Intake
Steam ejectors find wide use in vacuum pumping applications such as in Vapour
Brief
extraction, Chemical processing, Evaporative Cooling, Vacuum distillation,
Vegetable oil de-odourization, Vacuum Refrigeration, Drying etc. In spite of the Water is an essential commodity for the pulp & paper industry from both energy
fact that steam ejectors have poor overall efficiency and relatively high-energy and environmental point of view.
consumption, they are popular in vacuum applications because of their simplicity
and ease of operation. Dry Mechanical Vacuum Booster offers an efficient The overall water consumption of the Indian pulp and paper industry varies from
replacement to steam ejector, for most of the applications as they overcome major 125 - 175 m3/ton of finished paper (depending on the product) in large integrated
drawbacks associated with steam ejectors. paper plants.
Advantages
Before Improvement
• Mechanical Vacuum Boosters are more energy efficient.
In one integrated paper plant, six pumps were installed at the raw water intake well
• Minimum of auxiliary equipment is needed; unlike for steam ejectors, which to meet the raw water requirements of the entire plant. The pumps were of the
need large condensers, cooling towers, re-circulation pumps etc.
following specification:
• Mechanical Vacuum Boosters are dry pumping system and don't give rise to
water and atmospheric pollution.
Three Pumps Three Pumps
• Startup time for mechanical booster is very low, making them ideal for Batch 3
process operation where immediate startup and shut down is essential for Capacity = 772 m /h Capacity = 522 m3/h
energy conservation. Head = 35 m WC Head = 35 m WC
• Operating costs for mechanical vacuum systems are low, resulting in Motor rating = 25 HP Motor rating = 75 HP
extremely short payback period. Design efficiency = 86.5% Design efficiency = 80%
11.7.14 Xylanases as Pre - Bleaching Agents During Paper Making
On detailed analysis of the pumps, it was observed that the three 125 HP pumps
Technology Description were operating very close to the design efficiency. On the other hand, the two 75 HP
pumps were operating much below their best efficiency points. The design
Concern for environment-friendly technologies has lead to refocusing on the efficiencies were not being achieved, on account of ageing and wear out of
chemical route of paper bleaching in pulp and paper industry. The use of Chlorine impellers.
358 359
The total power consumption (measured by a common energy meter) of the 5 Case Study 8: Utilisation of Bamboo Dust along with Coal Firing in the Coal
pumps in operation, before modification, was on an average 8000 units per day. Fired Boilers

After Improvement Brief

Three new high-efficiency, 125 HP turbine pumps were installed, in place of the old Coal is used conventionally as the basic fuel for combustion in the boilers for steam
generation. The steam requirements of the entire plant are met by steam generated
75 HP turbine pumps. Substantial energy savings can be achieved by the in these coal-fired boilers. This is supplemented by steam generation from the
installation of high efficiency turbine pumps. soda recovery boilers.
After the installation of new high efficiency turbine pumps for raw water intake, the
Before Improvement After Improvement
total power consumption (measured by a common energy meter) of the four pumps
in operation was on an average about 7000 units/day. In an integrated paper plant, two Chipper dust was used to supplement the coal firing
coal-fired boilers met the majority of on a continuous basis except during the rainy
Energy savings the steam requirements of the entire season, due to the higher moisture content in the
plant.There was lot of bamboo dust chipper dust. .
generated in the chipper house, With the use of bamboo dust as supplementary
There was a net reduction in power consumption by an average of 1000 units/day
which was being sold-off to outside fuel to the coal firing in the coal-fired boilers, there
(equivalent to 41.7 kW). was a net annual reduction in coal consumption
parties.
by 3312 MT.
Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/ kWh = Rs. 1.6 Million
Investment required = Rs. 1.5 MIllion Energy savings
Payback Period = 1 month
Annual savings @ Rs. 1.25/kg of Coal : Rs. 4.14 Million
11.8 Case Studies Investment Required : Minimal
Payback period : Immediate
Case Study 7: Replacement of Suction Couch Roll by Solid Couch Roll in the
Paper Machine Case Study 9: Installation of Centralised Compressed Air System

Brief Brief

The paper machine performs the important function of converting the low A centralized compressed air system has a single large / multiple number of
consistency pulp to dry paper. The water removal is initially done by high-speed compressors at one location. On the other hand, a decentralised compressed air
drainage, suction through flat vacuum boxes, suction couch & mechanical presses system has multiple numbers of compressors, distributed over various locations.
and drying in steam cylinders. Centralised compressor system is preferred in cases where a large capacity
requirement is needed at identical pressure levels.
The latest paper machines have been installing the modern presses and reducing
the load on the steam drying section. Another project, which has been taken up by Before Improvement After Improvement
some of the plants, is the replacement of the suction couch with the solid couch.The A large integrated paper plant had two The old compressed air pipelines were
concept of this project is based on utilising the method, which removes the compressed air units catering to the replaced with new pipelines, to reduce the
maximum quantity of water, with the least quantity of energy. This is particularly compressed air requirements of the entire leakage losses and line friction losses.
applicable to plants based on long fibre agro-pulp, which have a low drainage. plant. These units were located at two Further, the compressors were located at one
different locations (decentralized). central location for ease of operation and
The decentralized system necessitates the maintenance.
Before Improvement After Improvement operation of multiple compressor units. There was a substantial reduction in the
This leads to increase in both power leakage losses and significant savings of
In a medium size agro-based paper plant, the The suction couch roll was replaced by consumption and mechanical power. There was a net reduction in power
major portion of water from the wet end is a solid couch roll for the efficient maintenance problems. consumption by 53 kW
removed by suction couch roll. The moisture removal of moisture in the wet end of
removal is effected by a vacuum pump of 200 the paper machine.
kW rating. This is a highly energy intensive Energy savings
process.
The operation of the 200 kW vacuum Annual savings @ Rs.4.5/kWh : Rs. 2.0 Million
The quantity of water removed by the suction
couch is very low and the energy consumption pump was completely avoided with the
implementation of this proposal.
Investment required : Rs. 1.0 Million
was disproportionately high. Payback period : 6 months

Energy savings Case Study 10: Installation of Heat of Compression (HOC) Air Dryers

Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5 / kWh : Rs. 7.6 Million Brief

Investment required : Rs. 2.0 Million Compressed air is an important utility in process and engineering industries.
Payback period : 3 months Instrumentation applications require dry air. Any moisture present in the
360 361
compressed air will condense at the point of utilisation causing damage to the Energy savings
instrumentation valves. Drying of compressed air is achieved through various
methods. However, the latest trend is to install heat of compression (HOC) dryers. Annual savings @ Rs. 3.00/kg of steam : Rs. 0.9 Million
Investment required : Rs. 2.4 Million
Heat of compression dryer is a major technological improvement, having the Payback period : 32 months
following distinct advantages:
Case Study 12: Installation of Extended De-lignification Pulping Process
• Utilizes the heat in compressed air for regenerating the desiccant instead of Conventional Pulping
• Electrical heaters are eliminated
• No purge air losses Brief
• Low atmospheric dew point is achieved depending on the desiccant used.
Before Improvement After Improvement In a large integrated paper plant, the digester house had conventional vertical
stationary digesters, having a combined capacity of 250 Tons of BD pulp/day.
A large integrated paper and board plant An HOC dryer was installed alongside the
had compressed air requirements of about existing dryer and utilised for drying of The plant replaced the conventional vertical digesters with 3 new digesters of 80-
112 m3/ min. About 50 m3/min of the compressed air. The desiccant used was tons/ day of BD pulp capacity, based on rapid displacement heating pulping
compressed air was being dried using activated alumina, which can give an process.
heater reactivated (lambda) type air dryer. atmospheric dew point of - 40°C.
The heater was rated for 32 kW heating Power savings achieved on account of the Before Improvement After Improvement
capacity. The purge air loss in the dryer was elimination of heater operation was 0.075 Steam consumption
Million kWh/yr. Also, compressed air losses
1.42 tons / ton of FNP 0.70 tons / ton of FNP
about 10% of the total quantity of air being
dried. This type of air dryer in addition to were totally avoided, as there are no purge Batch time 6 hours (avg. time) 4 hours (avg. time)
being highly energy intensive, also leads losses in HOC dryers with savings of 0.08 Kappa number 21-22 12-13
to substantial quantity of compressed Million kWh/yr. Yield 45.3% 46%
air losses.
Washing loss 16 kg/ ton of pulp (as sodium 10 kg/ ton of pulp (as sodium
Energy savings sulphate) sulphate)
Black liquor conc. 14.2% 16%
Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 0.7 Million
Investment required : Rs. 1.48 Million Ash retention 7% 10%
Payback period : 25 months Paper breakage 3.3% 1.5%
Case Study 11: Installation of Blind Drilled Rolls (Dri-Press Rolls) instead of
Conventional Press Rolls in Press Section of Paper Machine The reduction in chemical consumption was about 50%.
Brief Energy savings
The press section has a very important role in the drying process and hence, steam Annual savings : Rs. 140 Million
consumption of paper machine depends upon the extent of mechanical dewatering. Investment required : Rs. 500 Million
Many of the old paper plants, in general, have conventional press rolls for de-
Payback period : 42 months
watering. This led to non-uniform moisture removal, which in turn affected the
throughput through the system. This resulted in very high specific steam Case Study 13: Improved Paper Machine Design to Improve Production
consumption in the paper machine.
The recent technological advancements in water removal and increased runability Brief
of paper machines have led to the development of the blind-drilled rolls (or Dri-
Press rolls). The success of a paper mill is determined not only on the basis of quality and
Before Improvement After Improvement quantity of paper produced, but also on productivity. Efficiency of paper machine
In a large integrated paper plant, the press The plant replaced the conventional press plays a vital role in achieving runability and hence, productivity.
section had the conventional press roll. The rolls with blind-drilled rolls in the two paper
dryness achieved with the press roll was machines in phases.
about 40-42%. Before Improvement
The dryness with blind-drilled rolls (for
This system had the following writing & printing paper) improved to 44- In an agro-residue based paper mill, renewable agro-waste, such as, wild
disadvantages:
• Lower throughput 46%, as compared to 40-42% with grasses and straws were being used for making high quality writing & printing
• Increased de-watering conventional press rolls, thereby, achieving paper.
requirement 2-6% improvement in dryness.
This results in equivalent savings of 307 A critical study was conducted to modify its paper machine to improve its
• Higher downtime due to higher
breakages at wet end Tonne of steam consumption. Besides, there efficiency in terms of quality and productivity.
• Higher purging requirements was tremendous improvement in machine
• High specific steam consumption run ability.

362 363
 After Improvement Case Study 15: Use of lighting voltage controller to reduce lighting energy
consumption
The plant team applied various modifications, right from head box to dryer part
in paper machine. Brief
The details of the modifications are as follows:
• Energy efficient rotary showers installed in head box, in place of stationary Before Improvement After Improvement
showers A paper manufacturing plant has a connected The plant lighting voltages were at a
• Wire circuit provided with an additional roll to improve wrap on FDR (Felt lighting load of nearly 370 kW. This consists of level, which could be brought down
Drilled Roll) fluorescent fittings, HPSV, HPMV & CFL lamps further. The installation of lighting
for plant, office and area lighting. The lighting voltage controllers, of different kVA, on
• Motor used for wire return roll removed. Diameter of dandy rolls increased load is fed from 3.3 kV bus by 4 nos. of LT each DB brought down the lighting
to 1200 mm to increase speed of paper machine, enhance production and transformers. These transformers have lighting consumption by 20%. The output
provide for watermarks loads apart from other loads. Each transformer is voltages were set at 210 V.
• Ceramic tops installed in place of HDPE tops in paper machine connected to a Lighting circuit Distribution box. 4 No. of DB lighting circuits had a total
The total actual load varies between 300 to 350 power consumption 338 kW. After
• Suction pick-up roll modified to suction cum BDR (Blind Drilled Roll) to kW during night. Meters are fitted at each DB to installation, total power consumption
avoid shadow marking and ensure better sheet dryness measure power consumption. The voltage levels came down to 275 kW with an annual
• Speed difference between wire and pickup roll reduced, resulting in at lighting DBs vary between 225 & 240 V. total energy savings of 0.245 Million
improved life of pickup felt life kWh.
• SLDF (Spiral Linked Drier Fabric) screen replaced with woven screen for
better sheet flatness and prevent screen marking Energy savings
• Static current remover installed between calendar and pope reel
Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 1.1 Million
Investment required : Rs. 1.2 Million
Energy savings Payback period : 13 months

Annual Savings
Investment required
Payback period
Case Study 14: Replacement of metallic blades with Fibre Reinforced Plastic
(FRP) blades in cooling towers
Brief
Before Improvement
A well-known paper manufacturing
company had one centralized cooling
tower consisting of 3 cells. The cells are
fitted with fans having aluminium
blades. The 3 cells of the cooling tower
operate continuously. The fans are fitted
with 55 kW motors. Metallic blades are
heavy & consume more power.
Energy savings
: Rs. 18.3 Million
: Rs. 5.0 Million
: 3 months
After Improvement
Replacement of aluminium blades with
lightweight FRP blades reduced the load on
cooling tower fan motors & brought down
energy consumption. With 3 nos of fan, total
power consumption was 124.3 kW. After
replacement, power consumption reduced to
98.7 kW with an annual total energy savings
of 0.197 Million kWh.
Case Study 16: Replacement of desiccant (adsorption) type dryer with
refrigerated dryer in compressed air systems
Brief
Before Improvement
A paper manufacturing plant has 5 reciprocating
compressors. The compressed air is generated at
7.4-7.6 kg/cm2g. The compressed air in the plant
is used primarily for instrumentation needs. The
compressed air is needed to be dry for this usage
and a desiccant type dryer was in use at the plant.
The disadvantage with the desiccant type dryer
is that energy is needed to drive off the moisture
adsorbed by the desiccant. Though a much lower
dew point (dryer air) can be obtained by this type
of dryer, in this case, the dryer was over designed
to provide much drier air than needed and was
consuming energy unnecessarily.
kW/1000m3/h: 20.7
Dew Pt. oC: -20
Purge: 10-15%
After Improvement
The dryer was replaced with a
refrigerant type dryer, which
consumes much less energy, as there
is no desiccant to be dried.
In the refrigerant type dryer, the air
stream is cooled to nearly 0oC. In the
process, it loses moisture to
maintain the dew point.
kW/1000m3/h: 2.9
Dew Pt. oC: 2 - 10
Purge: Nil
Energy savings per hour by
replacement of dryers: 37.75 kWh
Operating annual hours: 8000
Annual energy savings: 3.02 lakh
kWh

Annual savings @ Rs.4.5 / kWh : Rs. 0.9 Million

Investment required : Rs. 1.52 Million Energy savings
Payback period : 20 months
Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 1.4 Million
Investment required : Rs. 1.0 Million
Payback period : 9 months

364 365
Case Study 17: a) To conserve the electrical and thermal energy Case Study 19: Replacement of 4" pipeline by 6" pipeline for supplying Hot
Water to Wood Brown Stock Washers
b) To reduce the cost of production to compete and survive in the
paper manufacturing field. Brief
Brief Before Improvement After Improvement
In Pulp Mill Brown Stock Washers (BSW) were used Since the volumetric flow rate
Before Improvement After Improvement for washing the cooked pulp. For this purpose hot increased, the pressure drop was
It is observed that the paper machine The "Kakati" vacuum pumps were water is used. Two pumps were provided each with also higher in the 4” line. A 6”
efficiency can further be improved to get purchased and replaced. The driving motor the rating of 30 kW - one in service and the other as line replaced the 4” line and the
more production with less power was also replaced from 75 HP to 50 HP. standby for supplying hot water to the washers. The pressure drop was reduced. The
consumption per tonne of paper. wash water was supplied through 4” pipeline. As same quantity of water could be
Flowbox of the paper machine was pulp production increased from 100 TPD to 140 handled by single pump since the
a)The Vacuum pump used in the paper pressurized. The production of paper TPD, more quantity of water was required for pump had the required capacity.
machine was found to be less increased from 33 MT/day to 40 MT/day washing. To maintain the production level, both the There was a power saving of
e f f i c i e n c y a n d m o r e p o w e r and power consumption was reduced pumps were put into operation consuming about about 11.5 kW
consuming. drastically from 720 kWh/MT to 640 34 kW.
kWh/MT.
b)The water consumption was seen to be in Energy savings
the higher side in the pulp mill. A new Thickener in the pulp mill was
c)The used steam in the paper machine installed. It was found that the 5 HP motor Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 0.43 Million
coming out after passing through a was stopped due to recycling of thickener Investment required : Rs. 0.19 Million
series of dryer cylinders was found to be water.
have more heat value for reuse. Payback period : 5 months
The vent out steam from dryer A “Forbes Marshall" make Thermo
cylinder was measured as 600 compressor system was installed. It was Case Study 20: To down size Saveall Shower Water Pump impeller in MF
kg/hour. found that the steam consumption came
down drastically from 2.6 MT/Tonne of Machine
paper to 2.2 MT/Tonne of paper.
Brief
Energy savings
Before Improvement After Improvement
Increase in productivity : 33 MT/day to 40 MT/day MF 3 Paper Machine has a Polydisc Saveall for The performance curves of the
recovery of fillers and fines in the water and reuse of pump were studied and it was
Power Consumption reduction : 720 kWh/MT to 640 kWh/MT. excess white water. The Polydisc Saveall has discs found that the required duty
Steam Consumption reduction : 2.6 MT/Tonne of paper to 2.2 mounted with synthetic wire mesh that needs to be conditions could be achieved by
MT/Tonne of paper. cleaned with high-pressure water. For this purpose a installing a lower diameter
separate high-pressure pump is used. It was found impeller.
that the high-pressure pump was oversized, as the It was found that by replacing the
Case Study 18: Revamping of Paper Mill with new machinery, retrofitting & system head was lower than the design head of the impeller a saving of about 12 kW
capacity enhancement pump. This resulted in throttling of the valve at the could be achieved.
delivery by about 35% to achieve the required flow
Brief rate and pressure.
Before Improvement After Improvement
Specific energy consumption of a Pulp Mill capacity enhanced to 300 TPD. Specific Energy savings
200TPD plant was 16.44 % of energy consumption improved to 14.93% of total mill
total mill power consumption. consumption, a saving of 34.96 lakh units.
Annual savings @ Rs. 4.5/kWh : Rs. 45 Million
High effluent treatment load and Free Flow Falling Film (FFFF) black liquor Investment required : Rs. 0.1 Million
high consumption of resources. evaporators of 125TPH water evaporation capacity
was installed. Payback period : 3 months
Low steam economy in
Evaporator. Soda recovery boiler of 625 TPD solid firing capacity References
was installed.
Use of elemental chlorine for New effluent free R8 process chlorine dioxide 1. Annual Report - 2007-08, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Department of
bleaching which is not generation plant of 7 TPD capacity was installed.
environmental friendly and a Industrial Policy & Promotion, GoI.
power guzzler technology. Recausticizing and limekiln of 130TPD lime 2. LBNL - 62806; World Best Practice Energy Intensity Value for Selected
production capacity was installed.
Industrial Sectors, February 2008.
Energy savings 3. Statistical abstract - CSO
Annual savings : Rs. 516 Million
Investment required : Rs. 2030 Million 4. CII - IREDA Publication: "Investors Manual on Energy Efficiency".
Payback period : 46 months
366 367
5. Compendium of 'Energy Efficiency Workshop in Paper & Pulp Sector" by
BEE on 3rd September 2008 at Shaharanpur, U.P.
6. TERI Energy Directory and Yearbook 2007
7. Japan Energy Conservation Directory
8. LBNL - 54828: Emerging Energy Efficient Technologies in Industry case
studies of selected technologies - May 2004
9. LBNL - 57293; Assessment of Energy use and energy savings potential in
selected industrial sector in India, August 2005.
10. National Energy Map of India: Technology Vision 2030
11. Report of the working group on Power for 11th Plan (2007-12)
12. Report of the working group on R&D for the Energy Sector for the
formulation of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12)
13. BP Statistical Review, June 2008
14. www.energymanagemetnraining.com
15. www.cppri.org.in
16. www.eeii.org.in

368
 Chapter 12
Cement Industry

12.1 Introduction

India is the world's second largest cement producer after China, accounting for
about 6% of the world's production. Annual per-capita consumption of cement in
India is around 150 Kg, which is much lower than the global average of 270 kg.
Cement is one of the core industries, which plays a vital role in the growth of the
nation. Limestone and coal being the basic materials for cement manufacturing,
India has the requisite quantity of cement grade limestone deposits, backed by
adequate reserves of coal. India also has the requisite technical expertise to
produce the best quality of cement with the most energy efficient processes. Many
Indian companies have attained high levels of energy efficiency in their plants,
which are comparable to international benchmarks.

For a variety of applications, various types and grades of cement are used. The most
common types of cement are Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Portland
Pozzolana Cement (PPC) and Portland Slag Cement (PSC). Indian cement industry
produces various types of cements such as OPC, PPC, Portland Blast Furnace Slag
Cement (PBFSC) or PSC, oil-well cement, rapid hardening - Portland cement,
sulphate - resisting portland cement & white cement. In the year 2007-08, OPC
production accounted for about 25% of the total production, while the blended
cements, PPC & PSC accounted for 66% & 8% of the production respectively.

12.2 Present Capacity & Growth

India has 142 large & 200 mini cement plants. The total installed capacity of large
cement plants in India is around 198 million tonnes per year & that of mini cement
plants is 11 million tonnes. The cement production from large plants in the year
2007-08 was 168 million tonnes. The capacity utilization of cement plants in India
is about 85%.

12.3 Manufacturing Process of Cement

Cement production involves the chemical combination of calcium carbonate

(limestone), silica, alumina, iron ore and small amounts of other materials.
Cement is produced by burning limestone to make clinker and the clinker is blended
with additives and then finely ground to produce different cement types. Desired
physical and chemical properties of cement can be obtained by changing the
percentages of the basic chemical components i.e. CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SiO2,
etc..
Cement is manufactured from Limestone and involves the following unit
operations:
• Mining
• Crushing
• Raw meal grinding
• Pyro-processing
• Cement grinding
• Packing & dispatch
368 369
Raw Materials Preparation
Raw material preparation involves crushing of the quarried material, further raw
grinding and blending the materials. The specific electrical energy consumption in
raw materials preparation accounts for a significant part of overall electrical energy
consumption.
Fig 12.1: Block Diagram of Cement Industry - (Dry Process Precalciner Process)
Limestone
Purchased
Coal
(Source : Investors Manual for Energy Efficieny, EMC, CII & IREDA)
Mining
The major raw material for cement manufacture is limestone, which is mined in
open cast mines in the quarry and then transported to the crusher.
Crushing
The mined limestone is conveyed to the crusher through dumpers/ropeways/belt
conveyors. The material is then crushed in the crusher to a size of about 25-75 mm.
The crushing is done in two stages in the older plants while in the modern plants
normally single stage crushing is done. The typical crushers used are jaw
crusher and hammer crusher.
Raw meal grinding
The crushed limestone is grounded into fine powder in the dry condition. The
Vertical Roller Mill (VRM) is comparatively more energy efficient than ball mill
consuming only 65% of the energy consumption of the ball mill. The ball mill
along with a pre-grinding system such as roll press is also used in some of the
plants with very hard and abrasive limestone.
Pyro-processing
This takes place in the kiln system. The kiln is a major consumer of both the
electrical and thermal energy in a cement plant. The calcination of limestone and
the conversion into clinker takes place in the precalciner and kiln respectively.
370
Cement grinding
The clinker which is produced in the kiln is then grounded along with about 5%
Gypsum to produce OPC. Ball mills have been generally used for grinding in
cement plants in India either alone or in combination with roller press systems. In
some of the recently installed plants, the VRM has been installed. The other types of
cement such as PPC and PSC are also produced by grinding clinker with fly-ash and
blast furnace slag respectively.
12.3.1 Clinker Production Process Technology
Clinker production is the most energy-intensive step, accounting for more
than 80% of the energy used in cement production. Produced by burning a
mixture of materials, mainly Limestone (CaCo3), Silicon Oxides (SiO2),
Aluminum, and Iron Oxides, clinker is made through three processes :
• Dry process ~ 97 % of the production
• Semi-Dry process ~ 1% of the production
• Wet process ~ 2% of the production
The Cement Industry today comprises mostly of Dry Suspension Preheater and
Dry-Precalciner plants and a few old wet process and semi-dry process plants. Till
late 70's, the Cement Industry had a major share of production through the
inefficient wet process technology. The scenario changed to more efficient large
size dry process technology since early eighties. In the year 1950, there were, only
33 kilns out of which 32 were based on wet process and only one based on semi-dry
process. Today, there are 162 kilns in operation out of which 128 are based on dry
process, 26 on wet process and 8 on semi-dry process. Basic principle of precalciner
kiln is shown in figure 12.2:
Fig 12.2: Pre-Calciner Kiln
(Source : Understanding Cement; Website : thecementkiln.mhtml)
371
The energy used in the above three processes is given in table 12.1 below newer technologies and had thus remained at intermediate technology level. Also,
the level of technology is not same at all the plants built during the same period.
Table 12.1: Energy Consumption
Majority of the cement plants in the country are in the capacity range of 0.4 to 1.0
Item Wet Process Dry Suspension Dry Pre - Calciner MTPA. These were set up more than 15-20 years ago and were based on the latest
Process Process technology available at that time. Since then, numerous developments have taken
Heat Consumption
1250 –1450 800 – 950 680 – 770 place in the cement manufacturing technology.
(kcal / kg clinker)
Power Consumption
(kWh/tonne of 100 – 115 100 - 105 70 – 95 Though some of the old plants have been modernized to a limited extent by
cement) retrofitting the new technologies, substantial scope still exists for adopting
Source: Handbook of Energy Conservation by H.M. Robert & J.H. Collins state-of-the-art technologies and bringing the old plants at par with world-class
plants in terms of productivity, energy efficiency and environment friendliness,
12.3.2 Technology Status of the Industry leading to cost competitiveness.
A comparison of the status of the modernization in equipment and also the Moreover, the emission norms are likely to become more stringent in future and at
technologies absorbed or implemented by the Indian cement industry alongwith the same time, the cement plants will be required to utilize waste derived raw
status of Global Technology is as under: materials and fuels to a large extent. The modifications of old plants to comply with
these future requirements will also become inevitable. Therefore, there is a need to
Table 12.2: Status of Technology
carry out a comprehensive assessment of all the earlier generation plants in the
Low Technology Plants Modern Plants Global Technology country to identify the extent of modernization required to improve their all round
Plant Size, TPD 300-1800 3000-6000 6000-12000
Mining & Material Conventional Computer aided Computer aided
efficiency and enable them to meet the future criteria of viability, competitiveness
Handling and compliance with regard to energy consumption enabling them to comply with
Crushing Two stage Single stage In-pit crushing &
conveying
the provision of the Energy Conservation Act 2001.
Conveying of Limestone Dumpers/Ropeway/ Belt conveyors Pipe conveyors, Belt
Tippers conveyors 12.3.4 Future Modernization Needs of the Indian Cement Industry
Grinding Ball Mills with / without VRM’s Roll Presses with VRM’s, Roll Presses, Horo
conventional classifier dynamic classifier Mills with dynamic
Although the industry has largely set up plants with energy efficient equipment,
classifier
Pyro Processing Wet Dry Dry there are areas which require further improvements
Semi Dry - 5/6 stage - 6 stage preheater
Dry preheater - High Efficiency Cooler • Appropriate pre-blending facilities for raw materials
- 4 stage preheater - High - Multi Channel Burner
- Conventional cooler Efficiency Cooler - Co-processing of • Fully automatic process control and monitoring facilities including auto
- Single channel burner - Multi Channel Burner WDF samplers and controls.
- Co-generation of
power • Appropriate co-processing technologies for use of hazardous and non
- Low NOx/SO2 hazardous wastes
emission
technologies
• Interactive standard software expert packages for process and operation
Blending & Storage Batch-Blending Silos Continuous Blending silos - Continuous control with technical consultancy back-up
Blending
- Multi-Chamber Silos
• Energy efficient equipment for auxiliary/minor operations
- Dome silos • Mechanized cement loading operations, palletization/shrink wrapping
Packing & Despatch Bag - Bag - Bulk • Bulk loading and transportation, pneumatic cement transport
- Bulk - Palletizing & Shrink
Wrapping • Low NOx/SO2 combustion systems and precalciners
Process Control Relay Logic / Hard Wired / - DDC - DDC • Co-generation of power through cost-effective waste heat recovery system
PLC - Fuzzy Logic expert - Neurofuzzy expert
system system • Horizontal roller mills (Horo Mills) for raw material and cement grinding
Energy consumption 90-100 kWh/t cem. 75-85 kWh/t cem. 70-80 kWh/t cem. • Advanced computerized kiln control system based on artificial intelligence
level 900-1000 kcal/kg cl. 700-800 kcal/kg cl. 680-725 kcal/kg cl
(Source : NCB) 12.4 Specific Energy Consumption in Cement Plants
12.3.3 Upgradation of Technology of Low Technology Cement Plants Cement industry is highly energy intensive. The main source of energy is coal,
followed by electricity. Energy accounts for almost 40% of the total manufacturing
The technological spectrum in the industry is very wide. At one end of the spectrum
cost in some of the cement plants whereas Coal accounts for 15%-20% of the total
are the old wet process plants, while at the other end, are the new state-of-the-art
cost.
technology plants presently being built by the Industry. In between these two
extremes, are the large number of dry process plants built during the period 1965- The industry's average consumption in 2006-07 for dry process plants was 730
90. These plants could not fully modernise or upgrade side by side with advent of kcal/kg clinker thermal energy and 77 kWh/tonne cement electrical energy. It is

372 373
expected that the industry's average thermal energy consumption by the end of 11th 12.5 Energy Efficiency measures adopted by Indian Cement Industry
Five Plan (Year 2011-12) will come down to about 710 kcal/kg clinker and the
average electrical energy consumption will come down to 75 kWh/tonne cement. 12.5.1 General Measures

The best thermal and electrical energy consumption presently achieved in India is
685 kcal/kg clinker and 71 kWh/tonne cement which are comparable to the best
figures of 650 kcal/kg clinker and 65 kWh/tonne cement in a developed country
like Japan.
The improvements in energy performance of cement plants in the recent past have
been possible largely due to
• Retrofitting and adoption of energy efficient equipment
• Better operational control and Optimization
• Upgradation of process control and instrumentation facilities
• Better monitoring and Management Information System
• Active participation of employees and their continued exposure to energy
conservation efforts etc.
The Indian Cement Plants have achieved a high level of energy efficiency. The
escalating costs of cement manufacturing over the years and increasing competitiveness
have resulted in a focused approach by the cement industry in India to maximise
the operational efficiency with respect to retrofitting of energy efficient
equipment/systems, technology upgradation, process optimisation, effective
maintenance management and above all, energy management including energy
monitoring and energy audit. The comprehensive approach adopted by the Govt. of
India, the National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB) and Cement
Manufacturers Association (CMA) has resulted in significant reduction in specific
energy consumption levels in cement plants.
NCB energy audit studies carried out in 36 Cement Plants during last five years
indicated potential savings ranging from 4 to 210 kcal/kg clinker and 0.78 to 27
kWh/tonne cement. The estimated cost savings ranges between Rs 47 lakhs for 600
tpd plant to Rs 945 lakhs per annum for 4300 tpd for plant.

Various energy audit studies have estimated that at least 5 to 10% energy saving is Major factors identified for higher energy consumption are
possible in both thermal & electrical consumption through adoption of various
• High preheater exit gas temperature (25-50oC higher)
energy conservation measures. It is estimated that the saving of 5 kcal/kg of thermal
• High preheater exit gas volume (0.1-0.4 NM3/kg cl. higher)
energy and 1 kWh/t cement of electrical energy will result in total savings of about
• High pressure drop across preheater (upto 200 mmWG higher)
Rs 6 Million per annum in a 1 Million tonne plant. The average energy consumption
• High moisture in fine coal (upto 5.8%)
values by process for Indian cement plants vs the best world practice is given in
• Incomplete combustion of coal (CO - upto 1630 ppm)
Table 12.3 below:
• False air infiltration in kiln and mill circuits (upto 20%)
Table 12.3 : Average and Best Practice Energy Consumption Values for • Low heat recuperation efficiency of grate cooler (55-60%)
Indian Cement Plants by Process. • High cooler air exhaust temperature (upto 100oC higher)
• High clinker temperature (upto 175oC against 90-100oC)
• Low efficiency of major process & cooler fans (<65%)
Process Unit India World • Under-loading (<50% kW loading) of motors resulting in low operating
Average Best Practice efficiency
Raw Materials Preparation The potential savings identified in few plants are given in table-12.3 below :
Coal mill kW h/t clinker 8 2
Table 12.3: Potential Savings Identified
Crushing kW h/t clinker 2 1
Raw mill kW h/t clinker 2 2 Potential savings
Plant Kiln(s) capacity (tpd)
Clinker Production and process (kwh/ton clinker) Thermal energy Electrical Energy Annual Savings
kcal/kg cl kWh/t CEM Rs Lakhs
Kiln & cooler kcal/kg of clinker 77 6 1 1200 tpd, 6-ST, RSP Calciner 35 0.78 98
Kiln & cooler kW h/t clinker 2 2 2 3800 tpd, 4-ST, PH & ILC 13 4.43 269
3 3225 tpd, 5-ST, Double String Precal (Pyroclone) 38 2.11 289
Finish Grinding 4 300 tpd, 4-ST Preheater 210 27 239
5 6000 tpd, 6-ST, Double String Precal 32 1.30 445
Cement mill kW h/t cement 3 2 6 1800 tpd, 5-ST, PH & ILC 60 6.50 408
Miscellaneous 7 2500 tpd, 4-ST, SLC Calciner (F L SMIDTH) 40 9.56* 512
8 1215 tpd, 4-ST Preheater 45 14 350
Utilities: mining & kW h/t clinker 1 1 9 2400 tpd, 6-ST, Double String Preheater & 22 5.68* 295
Precalciner (Pyroclone)
transportation 6 . 10 3850 tpd, 5-ST PRECALCINER 68 5.98 588
11 4000 tpd, 4-ST ILC Precalciner 11 5.52 336
Utilities: packing house kW h/t cement 1 1 13 70 5.40 895
3700 tpd, 5-ST, PC
Utilities: misc. kW h/t cement 2 1 14 2400 tpd, 5-ST, ILC PC 36 4.95 287

Total Electric kW h/t cement 9 7

• kWh/t Clinker
(Source: Cement Manufacturer's Association 2003; Worrell 2004)
(Source : NCB)

374 375
Some of the energy efficiency measures implemented in different cement plants
in India are:
(i) Operational Control and Optimisation
Process optimisation, load management and operational improvement
generally involve marginal financial investment and yet found to have produced
encouraging results in energy saving. The different aspects explored in this
direction are :
• Plugging of leakages in kiln and preheater circuit, raw mill and coal mill
circuits
• Reducing idle running of equipments
• Installation of Improved insulating bricks/blocks in kilns and preheaters
• Effective utilisation of hot exit gases
• Optimisation of cooler operation
• Optimum loading of grinding media/grinding mill optimisation
• Rationalisation of compressed air utilization
• Redesigning of raw mix
• Installation of capacitor banks for power factor improvement
• Replacement of over-rated motors with optimally rated motors
• Optimisation of kiln operation
• Changing from V-belt to flat belt
(ii) Energy Efficient Equipment
Use of energy efficient equipment gives very encouraging results even at the
cost of some capital investment. More and more plants are now going for these
available energy saving equipment to improve the energy performance of the units.
The energy efficient equipment being used by the cement industry are :
covering the need for drying energy, there is still waste heat available which can be
utilized for electrical power generation thereby making additional power available
and reducing CO2 emission.
The cement industry is yet to adopt the cogeneration technology due to various
technical, financial and institutional barriers. Recently, a model demonstration
project has been jointly implemented by New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organisation of Japan (NEDO), and Govt. of India under Green Aid
Plan (GAP). The system has been installed on a kiln of 4550 tpd clinker capacity
with 4 stage suspension preheater and precalciner. The exhaust gas flow through
preheater (PH) boiler is of the order of 3,60,750 Nm3/hr at 340oC whereas through
Air Quench Cooler (AQC) boiler, it is 1,96,000 Nm3/hr at 360oC. The power
generated is of the order of 7700 kW at 6.6 KV. The installation cost of the system is
around Rs 84 crores. The economic efficiency analysis indicates reduction of :
• 56.07x106 kWh of power purchased - Rs 24 crores
• Fossil fuel consumption of 14517 tonnes/year
• CO2 emission of about 45098 tonnes/year
Case Study 1 : Installation of High Efficiency Dynamic Separator for Raw Mill
Brief
In a million tonne dry process pre-calciner plant, the existing static separator of
the VRM was replaced with a new cage type dynamic high efficiency
separator.
There was an increase in the output of the Mill, finer product and reduction
in the specific power consumption of the Mill. Additionally, the Mill vibration
also got reduced resulting in trouble free operation.

• Slip Power Recovery System The Power Saving amounted to 2.5 units/tonne of Raw meal or 3.0 units/tonne of
• Variable Voltage & Frequency Drive cement
• Grid Rotor Resistance Energy Saving
• Soft Starter for Motors
• High Efficiency Fans Annual Energy saving : Rs 1.8 Million kWh
• High Efficiency Separators Annual Savings : Rs 270 Million
• Vertical Roller Mill Investment : Rs 300 Million
• Pre-Grinder/Roller Press Simple payback : 13 months
• Low Pressure Preheater Cyclones
Case Study No. 2: Savings in Electrical Energy by increasing Kiln String Cyclone
• Multi-channel Burner
Diameter from 5.4 Mts to 6.6mts
• Bucket Elevator in place of pneumatic conveying
• Fuzzy Logic/Expert Kiln Control System Brief
• Improved Ball Mill Internals
• High Efficiency Grate Cooler Parameter Before After Saving/Improvement
Implementation Implementation
(iii) Waste heat recovery for cogeneration of power
Cyclone dia. (m) 5.4 6.6
In case of dry process cement plants, nearly 40 percent of the total heat input is Pressure drop 115 86 ( - ) 29
rejected as waste heat from exit gases of preheater and cooler. The quantity of heat (MMwg)
lost from preheater exit gases ranges from 180 to 250 kcal/kg clinker at a Energy consumption 750 722 ( + ) 28
kWh
temperature range of 300 to 400oC. In addition, 80 to 130 kcal/kg clinker heat is lost
Kiln output (TPD) 6281 6597 ( + ) 316
at a temperature range of 200 to 300oC from grate cooler exhaust. The waste heat
has various applications such as drying of raw materials and coal, but even after
376 377
Energy Saving Case Study No.5: Installation of new correct head pump for raw mill slurry
transfer to Silo
Energy Savings : 28 kWh
Annual Savings : Rs 0.88 Million Brief
Investment : Rs 2.2 Million
Suppose that there are 3 raw mills, out of which 2 to 3 are in normal operation.
Payback period : 2.5 years
Limestone slurry from the raw-mill section is pumped to the low-grade silos. There
Case Study No. 3: Optimisation of Crusher Output are two slurry pumps of different capacities to meet the carrying capacity
requirements.
Brief
The specifications of the two slurry pumps are as follows
The average output of Crusher is 205 TPH. The major constraints were the
capacities of belt conveyor from Primary crusher to secondary Crusher. Description Head Capacity
The feed was restricted due to spillage taking place at the belts. It was possible to Smaller capacity pump 20 m -
increase the width of the belt and speed after changing the gear boxes. Larger pump capacity(54 KW) 40 m 175 m 3 / h
The capacity of belt was increased from 200 TPH by enlarging the belt size and
The large pump is operated, when 2 raw mills are in operation, while the smaller
gearbox.
pump is in operation, when for 1 raw mill is in operation. On comparing the two
Energy Saving pumps, it is evident that the larger pump is designed with a higher head. The
maximum head required for the slurry pump is :
Parameter Before After Saving/Improvement
Implementation Implementation Silo Height : 16 m
Output of crusher 205 235 ( + ) 30 Pit Height : 4m
(TPH) Line loss : 3m
Energy 2.1 1.8 ( - ) 0.3 Additional height : 2m
consumption kW h /
tonne It is recommended to install new correct head pump for slurry transfer from raw
Annual saving (Rs.) - - ( + ) 66000 mill to LG silos, using the existing pump as standby.
Actual head required for pump : 4 m (Pit height) + 16 m (Silo height) +
Case Study No.4: Replacement of the Air-lift with Bucket Elevator for Raw-meal 2 m (Additional height) + 3 m (Line loss)
transport to the Silo = 25 m (Say 30 m )
Brief With one mill in operation & smaller pump started - head is only 20m. With 2 or
3 mills, bigger pump is operated & here the head is very high.
The air-lift was replaced with a bucket elevator. The air-lift was retained to meet the
stand-by requirements. Capacity required with 3 mill
Operation = 175 m3/h (Same as existing)
The implementation of this project resulted in reduction of power from 140 units for
the air-lift to 40 units for the Bucket elevator. The air to be ventilated from the silo Maximum power consumption = 175 m3/h x 30m x 1.69 kg/m3)
also got reduced with the installation of the mechanical conveying system. The 102 x 3.6 x 0.70 pump x 0.85 motor
silo top fan was downsized to tap this saving potential. = 40.61 (Say 41 kW)
Annual Savings = (54-41) kW x 8000 kWh x Rs. 2.26/kWh
Low energy consumption (25 - 30% of Pneumatic conveying) = Rs 0.235 Million
Reduction in power consumption of silo top dedusting system Energy Saving
Energy Saving Annual savings : 0.235 Million
Investment required (for new pump & motor) : 0.120 Million
Annual Energy Saving : 0.68 Million kwh
Pay back period : 6 months
Annual Savings : Rs 2.24 Million
Investment : Rs 5.4 Million Case Study No.6 : Replacement of Existing Cyclones with Low Pressure
Simple payback : 29 months Drop (LP) Cyclones

378 379
Brief Compressor Timings Power consumption
Implementation methodology & time frame: The top cyclone was at a height of Load (S) Unload (S) Load (kW) Unload (kW)
nearly 106 metres. The implementation of this project involved removal of the Cement Mill 90 16
existing cyclone and fixing of the new LP cyclone. 111 24
D-Pump 72 18
The replacement lead to an increase in the output of the Kiln, reduction in pressure Average unload = 17 %
drop of the pre-heater, reduction in Kiln section power consumption and
reduction in Kiln specific thermal energy consumption. The comparison of the
Energy Saving
conditions and the energy consumption before and after installation of the LP
cyclones are as below: Savings in power consumption : 3.1 kWh
Annual savings : Rs 0.1 Million
Energy Saving
Investment : Negligible
Payback period : Immediate
Parameter Before After Benefits
Implementation Implementation Case Study 8 : Variable Speed Fluid Coupling for Cooler ID Fan and
Clinker Production (TPD) 2650 2850 ( + ) 200 replacement with lower capacity motor
DP across Top Cyclone Brief
(mmWg) 100 – 125 70 – 90 ( - ) 30-35
Kiln section Power 30 28.5 ( - ) 1.5 A Variable Fluid Coupling (VFC) was installed for the Cooler ID fan. The hood
(kWh/T) draught was maintained by varying the speed through the VFC. The existing 315
Heat Consumption (kcal/kg) 830 810 ( - ) 20 kW, 750 rpm & 6.6 kV motor was replaced with a 230 kW, 750 rpm & 6.6 kV
motor.
Annual Savings : Rs 2.4 Million There was a drastic reduction in the power consumed by the Cooler ID fan. The
Investment : Rs 2.2 Million comparison of the conditions and the power consumption before and after
Payback period : 11 months installation of the VFC are as below:
Case Study 7: Derating Compressors to optimize the unload power consumption Energy Saving
Brief Power consumption with damper control : 123 kW
Power consumption with VFC : 76 kW
The Filteration plant instrument compressor is observed to unload for 22% of Energy saving : 47 kW
time. Power consumption measurements indicate that the load power consumption Annual Energy saving : 0.384 Million kWh
is 22 kW and the unload power consumption is 7 kW. Annual Savings : Rs 1.15 Million
The cement mill D-pump compressor was found to unload for 17% of time. The load Investment : Rs 0.5 Million
and unload power consumption was measured to be 111 kW and 24kW. Payback period : 5 months

It was recommended to derate cement mill D-Pump compressor & filtration plant Case Study 9: Delta Start Star Run Operation of Dust Collector
instrument compressor by 10%. The compressor drives were belt driven and Brief
derating was carried out by changing the pulley size suitably.
i) The Dust Collectors are installed in the cement plant for collection of dust
Compressor Timings Power consumption emission. The dust collector is provided with the filter bags and blower motor. The
dust is collected in the bags and prevented from going in the air to control air
Load (S) Unload (S) Load (kW) Unload (kW) pollution.
Filtration plant 69 17
Instrumentation ii) It was observed during analysis of drive loading that the Dust Collector motor
Compressor 71 23 22 7 was operating below 50% loading. The loading on the motor has been reduced due
Average Unload = 22 % to optimization of dust collector and pipelines bends. The starting torque
requirement of the equipment is high hence Delta start and star run arrangement
was suggested to reduce the power consumption.

380 381
iii) The Delta start and star run operation of the motor was technically viable, as Energy Saving
the motor will operate in equipment safe operation and energy saving mode. The
star operation of the drive will reduce the loading of the motor with reduction in Annual energy saving : 0.46 Million kWh
copper losses and improvement in the efficiency of the motor. The PLC logic was Annual Savings : Rs 1.5 Million
prepared to start the motor in delta mode and shifting to star mode when full speed Investment : Rs 2.5 Million
was pick up by the motor. The financial implications are nil, as no capital Payback period : 20 months
investment needed.
Case Study 11: Installation of Variable Frequency Drive for MFC Fluidizing Air
Energy Saving Blower
kW SAVING Brief
Sno. Perticulars Before After
Modification Modification Saving
(A) The Blower used for fludisation air is of the following specifications - 165 m3/hr
13.46 flow, 1000 mm WC pressure rise and 40kW motor rating - for supplying fluidizing
1 Operation Delta mode Star mode 20
10.46
air. The actual power consumption of the fan is 37 kW.
2 Power Intake /Hr.
a) Load Current
b) Power Factor
20.9 AMPs
0.93
15.4 AMPs
0.98
The suction area of the fan is about 70% closed and the inlet guide vane is
c) Voltage 400 Volts 400 Volts controlled to the extent of 70% open. This indicates that the rated flow is much
d) Power (1.73 xVxIxP.F) 13.46 kWH 10.46 kWH
higher that actual requirement.

3 Saving in KW 13.46 10.46 3 kw

After installing the VFD, open the suction area fully and gradually reduce the rpm
0
DELTA STAR
till the discharge pressure is the same as before. Subsequently, open the
IGVcompletely to 100% open position and further reduce the speed of the blower
Case Study 10 : Variable Frequency Drives for Cooler Fans till the pressure difference across the blower is maintained at present values.
Blower specification (WC) : 165 m3/h, 1000 mm
Brief Motor Rating (kW) : 40
Four cooler fans were installed with Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs). Energy Saving
There was a drastic reduction in the power consumed by the Cooler fans. The
power saving in the fans is on account of Energy savings : 0.3 x 37 kW = 11.1 kW
Annual savings : Rs 0.37 Million
• Saving in the energy lost across the dampers Investment : Rs 0.35 Million
• Increase in the operating efficiency of the motor. The efficiency of the Payback period : 11 months
motor depends on the V/f ratio. In the case of the VFD, the voltage is
varied to maintain the V/f ratio at the designed value. Hence, the Case Study 12 : Replacement of Existing Cooler I Grate with High Efficiency
efficiency of the motor is maintained at a higher level even at lower Cooler System
loading of the motor.
Brief
The comparison of the conditions and the power consumption before and after
installation of the VFDs are as below: The plant replaced the I grate with high efficiency cooler system. This was done to
increase the capacity of the Cooler and also improve the thermal efficiency
of the system. Additionally the following capacity upgradation measures were also
Equipment Rating (kW) Power Power Saving implemented simultaneously :
consumption consumption through
beforeVFD after VFD VFD • Increasing the height of the Calciner
Fan – IA (kW) 75 45 32 13
• Installation of high efficiency classifier for both Raw mill and Coal
Mill
Fan – IB (kW) 75 44 30 14 • Conversion of the existing two fan system to three fan system
Fan – IC (kW) 110 68 54 14 • Installation of high efficiency nozzles for GCT
Fan – IC (kW) 110 59 44 15 On account of the capacity upgradation projects the capacity of the Kiln increased
from 2800 TPD to 3000 TPD. The installation of the high efficiency Cooler
Total Saving - 57 resulted in reduction in the Cooler air quantity and cooler exhaust air
(kW)

382 383
quantity. There was also an improvement in the steady operation of the Kiln, m3/min of flow 500 mm pressure rise with a motor rating of 470 kW. The measured
better quality and lower temperature Clinker. The over-all benefits achieved are power consumption of this fan is 270 kW.
as below:
The Recirculation fan flow was controlled by damper . This indicated the excess
Energy Saving capacity/head availed in the fan. The damper opening was observed to vary from
45% to 80% depending on the separator output.
Parameter Before Implementation After Implementation Savings/Improvement
At 80% of the damper opening (the normal maximum damper opening), the damper
Clinker Production TPD 2800 3000 ( + ) 200
3
is observed to offer a pressure drop of 18.9%. This indicates that 18.9% of the power
Cooler air Nm /kg 2.6 2.1 ( - ) 0.5
3
consumed by the fan is lost across the damper.
PH outlet air Nm /kg 1.475 1.444 ( - ) 0.031
Clinker Temperature C
0
180 120 ( - ) 60 The capacity of the fan cannot be permanently derated because the capacity of the
PH outlet Temperature 0 C 370 336 ( - ) 34 fan needs to be varied with time.
PH loss kCal/kg 217 1
19 ( - ) 26
It was concluded that good energy saving potential exists by installing a speed
Cooler & Clinker loss kCal/kg 131 120 ( - ) 11
control device and varying the speed of the fan.
Radiation loss kCal/kg 69 65 (-)4
Heat Consumption kCal/kg 780 745 ( - ) 35 Hence, it was required to install a Grid Rotor Resistance (GRR) control to the
recirculating fan and vary the capacity as required. The damper must be fully
Annual Savings : Rs 12 Million opened once the GRR is installed to the recirculating fan. Damper position of
Investment : Rs 29 Million recirculation fan varies from 45% to 80% opening based on the separator output.
Payback period : 30 months
At 80% damper opening, damper loss is calculated
Case Study 13: Usage of High Efficiency Crusher as a Pre-grinder before the
Damper loss = -320 - (-390)
Cement Mill
-20 - (-390)
Brief = 18.9%
Actual power consumption = 270 kW
The plant installed a Horizontal Impact Crusher (HIC) of 300 TPH capacity
(including recirculation). The HIC was to act as a pre-grinder and perform the Install a GRR and vary the speed of the fan instead of the damper position.
initial size reduction before the Mill. The HIC had a three deck-vibrating screen to Measured Savings, after considering GRR's power consumption (kW) : 51.
separate and return the coarse material back to the HIC. The coarse was sent
Energy Saving
to the HIC back by gravity while the fines were conveyed to the hopper
through a belt conveyor. The fines from the hopper can be later fed to the Mill Savings in power consumption (kW) : 30
through a belt conveyor. Thus the HIC and the Mill were made independent so that Annual savings : Rs 0.64 Million
the operation of one does not affect the other. Investment : Rs 0.5 Million
Payback period : 10 months
Energy Saving
Case Study 15: Reducing the Speed of Cement Mill's Dust Collection Fan
Increase in capacity from 125 TPH to 175 TPH
Reduction in power consumption from 29.0 units to 25.7 units per tonne of Brief
O P C - 4 3
Annual Savings : Rs 15 Million A Cement Mill's dust collection fan was observed to operate with damper control.
Investment : Rs 40 Million The damper was open to the extent of about 40%. Pressure measurements before
Simple payback : 32 months and after the damper and at the fan delivery indicated that the pressure drop across
the damper is about 73%. The motor rating of this fan is 22 kW and the measured
Case Study 14: Installation of Grid Rotor Resistance (GRR) Control and varying power consumption of the fan is 17 kW.
the Speed of the Recirculation Fan
The pressure loss of 73% across the damper indicates that nearly three-fourth of the
Brief power consumption of the fan is lost across the damper.
The Cement mill is a close circuit mill. The recirculation fan in the cement mill Good potential for energy saving exists by reducing the speed of the fan.
draws air from Separator through Cyclone. The recirculation fan is rated for 3800

384 385
Reduce the speed of the fan by 30%. The speed reduction should be done in stages Table 12.5: 'Primary Energy Intensity Values' for Cement Plants following
of 10% each. This fan being a belt driven equipment, the speed reduction could be World Best Practice.
carried out by pulley size reduction.
Cement Unit GJ/t Kgce/t
Loss across damper = -48-(-175) (All measurements in mmWC) = 73 % Portland Cement t Cement 3.4 115
-1-(-175) Fly Ash Cement t Cement 2.5 84
Energy loss = 0.73 x 17 kW = 12.4kW Blast Furnace Slag Cement t Cement 2.1 73
By reducing the speed of the fan by 30%, 50% savings in energy Consumption is (Source : World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values; LBNL; Worrell E., Price L., Neelisy
Galitsky C.)
possible.
12.7 Other Best Practices of Energy Efficiency in Cement Industry
Energy Saving
Some of the best ENCON practices being used in cement industry Internationally
Savings in energy consumption : 8.5 kW
are:
Annual savings : Rs. 66,000
Investment : Rs. 10,000/- i) Raw Material Preparation
Payback period : 2 months
• Mechanical conveyors, in place of pneumatic conveyers, which consume 2
12.6 Energy Consumption in Cement Plants - World's Best Practice kwh/t less energy for dry process.
• On line analysers used for raw mix control.
The specific energy consumption of cement plants in developed countries like
• Gravity type homogenizing silos (or continuous blending & storage silos)
Japan is 650 kcal/kg of clinker as thermal energy and 65 kwh / tonne of cement as
reduce power consumption by 0.9 - 2.3 kWh/t raw material.
electrical energy. This is mainly because of advanced technologies, process
• Reduction in compressed air losses by plugging of leakages in slurry
designs and best energy efficiency practices adopted. The 'World's Best Practices
blending & homogenizing (wet process).
represent the most energy efficient processes that are in commercial use in at least
• Replacement of tube mill by a wash mill in wet process leads to reduction in
in one location, worldwide. The Energy Intensity values are defined as:
electricity consumption by 5-7 kWh/t.
(i) "Final Energy Intensity Values", i.e. the energy used at the production facility • High efficiency vertical roller mills in place of balls mills, saves energy of
6-7 kWh/t raw material.
(ii) "Primary Energy Intensity Values" i.e. the sum of energy used at the production • A multi variable controller in vertical roller mills to maximize the total feed
facility, plus the energy used to produce electricity consumed at the facility. while maintaining a target residue and enforcing a safe range of trip-level
vibration. The throughput increases by 6% and SEC reduces by 6% or 0.8
The process in cement plant based on the energy consumption can be divided into 1.0 kwh/t of raw material.
following parts: - • Using high efficiency classifiers or separators, the material stays longer in
a) Raw materials preparation (limestone & fuels). the separator, leading to shaper separation, thus reducing over - grinding &
b) Clinker making (fuel use & electricity use) saving 8% of electricity.
c) Additive drying
d) Cement drying ii) Fuel Preparation
e) Other energy uses (quarrying, auxiliaries, conveyers and packing)
- Installation of roller presses for coal grinding in place of conventional
The World Best Practice Values based on the above processes for 'Final Energy' and
grinding mills.
'Primary Energy' are given in tables 12.4 & 12.5 for Portland Cement, Fly Ash
Cement and Blast Furnace Slag Cement respectively. iii) Clinker Production
Table 12.4: 'Final Energy Intensity Values' for Cement Plants following World
a) Wet Process :
Best Practice.
• Wet process conversion to semi-dry process through slurry gas driers.
Cement Unit GJ/t *kgce / t Evaporation energy is reduced to half in this process, reducing fuel
Portland Cement t Cement 2.9 100 consumption by 1 MBtu/t clinker.
Fly Ash Cement t Cement 2.0 70 • Wet process conversion to semi-wet process by installing filter press to
Blast Furnace Slag Cement t Cement 1.7 57 reduce moisture content to about 20% of the slurry and obtain a paste,
*kgce = kg of coal equivalent ready for extrusion into pellets.
(Source : World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values; LBNL; Worrell E., Price L., Neelisy
Galitsky C.)

386 387
 • Wet process conversion to dry process production by installing multi - v) Plant-wide measures
pre heater / pre - calciner. Fuel saving of upto 2.9 MBtu/ ton can be
achieved. • Preventive maintenance of the plant.
• Use of High - Efficiency Motors & Drives.
b) Dry Process pre-heater Kilns : • VFDs for clinker fans, fans in kiln, cooler, pre heater, separator and mills.
• Reduction is losses in compressed air system.
• Low pressure drop cyclones for suspension pre - heaters can save 0.6 - 0.7 • Energy Efficient lighting.
kWh/t clinker for each 50mm WC (Water column).
• Heat recovery from the kiln exit gases for co-generation, either by 12.7.1 The energy efficiency measures in 'Dry Process Cement Plants' in US
installing direct gas turbines that utilize the waste heat (top cycle) or by
installing waste heat recovery boiler system that runs a steam turbine Energy Efficiency Measures in Dry Process Cement Plants are summarized in table
system (bottom cycle). Power generation may vary from 10 to 23 kWh/t 12.6. The estimated savings and payback periods are averages for indication, based
on the average performance of the U.S. cement industry (e.g. clinker to cement
clinker, saving electrical energy of 20 kWh/t clinker.
ratio). The actual savings and payback period may vary by project, based on the
• Dry process conversion to multi - stage pre - heater by installing multi specific conditions in the individual plant.
stage suspension pre heating (4 or 5 stage) reduces heat loss and thus
increases efficiency. Kiln length is also shortened by 20% to 30%, Table 12.6 : Energy Efficiency Measures in Dry Process Cement Plants
thereby reducing radiation losses.
• Conversion of Long Dry Kilns to multi - stage pre heater / pre calciner Energy Efficiency Measure Specific Fuel Specific Estimated
kiln can save 1.2 MBtu / tonne clinker. Savings Electricity Payback Period
Savings (1)
c) Other measures : (MBtu/tonne (kWh/tonne (years)
Fuel Preparation:
Clinker Making Roller Mills - 0.7 – 1.1 N/A (1)
• Advanced process control through online analyzers to recover heat from Energy Management & Control Systems 0.10 – 0.20 1.2 – 2.6 1–3
Seal Replacement
kilns (e.g. 'fuzzy logic' or 'ABB LINKman' control system) to save 2.5% - Combustion System Improvement 0.02 - <1
5% energy and reduce NOx emissions by 20%. Indirect Firing 0.10 – 0.39 - 2–3
• Gyro - thermal technology for kiln construction system improves gas
Optimize Grate Cooler 0.09 – 0.31 - 1
flame quality while reducing NOx emissions. Conversion to Grate Cooler 0.06- 0.12 0 – (-1.8) 1–2
• Oxygen enrichment in the kiln to increase production capacity. Heat Recovery for Power Generation 0.23 -2.4 1–2
• Upgradation of pneumatic seals at the kiln inlet and outlet reduces false air Low-pressure Drop Suspension Preheaters - 18 3
penetration as well as heat losses.
• Use of better insulating refractories with high temperature insulating
lining reduces kiln shell heat losses thereby saving 0.1 - 0.34 Btu/ton fuel
use.
• Use of high efficiency AC variable frequency drives in place of DC drives Finish Grinding
for rotating the kiln. Energy Management & Process Control - 0.8 – 3.21.6 <11
• Use of VFD in kiln fan reduces 40% of energy. Improved Grinding Media in Ball Mills > 0.5 - 1
• Replacement of rotary or shaft coolers by Reciprocating Grate coolers in
the cooling of clinker and efficient heat recovery (almost by 65%) saves
about 8% of the fuel consumption in the kiln. Plant Wide Measures - 1.7 – 6.0 > 10 (1)
• Optimization of heat recovery by using reciprocating grate coolers for large Preventative Maintenance 0.04 0–5 <1
High Efficiency Motors - 0–5 <1
kilns (upto 10,000 tpd) for recovery of sensible heat upto 1.4 MBtu/t. Adjustable Speed Drives - 5.5 – 7.0 2- 3
Optimization of Compressed Air Systems - 0–2 <3
iv) Finish Grinding

• Process control and management of Grinding mills. Product Change

Blended Cement 1.21 -15 <1
• Advanced grinding concepts by installing high pressure roller presses. Limestone Portland Cement 0.30 3.0 <1
• Use of high efficiency classifiers increases production by 20% to 25% and Use of Steel Slag in Clinker (CemStar) 0.16 - <2
reduces 8% electricity. Low Alkali Cement N/A Immediate
Reduced Fineness of Cement for Selected 0.16 – 0.4 0 – 14 Immediate
• Improved wear grinding materials such as chromium steel can be installed -
Uses
for grinding media. Potential savings 5% to 10%.
Notes: Payback periods are calculated on the basis of energy savings alone.
(Source : Energy Efficiency Improvement Opportunities for Cement Making; An Energy Star
Guide; LBNL; by Worrell E., Galitsky C.)

388 389
12.8 Energy Efficient Technologies being used in Cement Plants in Japan
Case Study 16: Cement clinker burning process
(a) Adoption of suspension preheater (SP)
Brief
This modification represents installation of a facility to effectively dry and
preheat the feed previously blended in the raw material blending section
using the flue gas stream from the kiln. This improvement has achieved
marked energy saving compared with the conventional wet process.
1) The exhaust gas from the kiln in the dry burning process is about 10500C.
Formerly, the sensible heat of this flue gas was partly recovered by exhaust
gas boiler for power generation.
2) The new facility represents a modification which instead directly recovers the
sensible heat for drying and preheating the kiln feed.
3) The Suspension preheater is a multistage cyclone and the temperature of
these gas at he outlet of cyclone was 3500 -3800c.
Energy Saving
(1) Energy saving effect of the suspension preheater (Production: 4,000 t/D)
2) The roller mill mechanism is primarily to crush coal between the disc table
and rolls which are pressed hydraulically onto the table.
3) Ground coal is fed upward to the classifier placed above by the hot air blown
into the mill from below. Coal is dried while it is being brought upward by
the hot air.
Use of the vertical roller mill can reduce specific consumption of electric power by
20 to 25 percent compared with the conventional combination of tube mill and
separator.
Energy Saving
Investment amount : Rs. 250 Million for 20 tonne/hour size
Improvement Effect : Reduction of SEC by 20% - 25%
(c) Adoption of high-efficiency quenching cooler
Brief
This modification represents adoption of a high-efficiency quenching cooler. The
high-efficiency quenching cooler rapidly cools burned clinkers from the kiln by air
to improve the cement quality. At the same time the air heated by the burned
clinkers is used as combustion air for kiln burner to achieve energy saving.
Modification: Modification into high-efficiency cooler with the capacity of 5,000
tonne / day

Savings / Improvement Note Energy Saving

Energy saving effect of clinker cooler

Specific heat recovery
kcal/(t-clinker)
Annual total heat
recovery kcal/y
Crude oil equivalent
(kL/y)
400 to 500 x 103 Av. 450 x 103
Savings /Improvement
594 x 109 Operation: 330 D/y Heat recovery rate 56.9% to 62.3% (Increased)
Specific heat consump tion for cement 20.5 (Reduced)
264,000 (kcal/kg)
Crude oil equivalent (kL/y) 2,240 (reduction)

(2) Productivity of burning process will be improved.

Equipment modification cost : Rs. 20 - 80 Million
Capacity of the kiln: one series of 4,000 tons/day facilities (raw materials Reduction of SEC : 2.8%
preparation through burning to finishing) Case Study 18 : Cement production finishing section :
Investment : Rs 1.2 Billion Brief
(b) Adoption of vertical roller mill for coal crushing The present case installs a vertical roll crusher of high grinding efficiency as a pre-
grinding crusher in the step previous to the ball mill, the finishing grinder of
Brief
cement. Crushing clinkers before they are fed into the ball mill of high power
Formerly, combination of a tube mill and a separator was used mainly for crushing consumption, the efficiency of the ball mill was increased because its load was
greatly reduced and the specific electric power consumption was significantly
coal. Nowadays, highly efficient vertical roller mills capable of crushing and
saved.
drying coal, and classifying crushed coal have been com- mercialized. As a result,
significant reduction of specific electric power consumption has been achieved.

1) Moist coal is fed either from the top or side to the rotating table of the
vertical roller mill.
390 391
A mixture of clinkers and gypsum was crushed by the compression and shear force
between the table and three rollers, the latter being hydraulically pressed onto the
former.

Energy Saving

Before improvement After improvement Savings / Improvement

Production capacity(t/hr) 107 160 1.5 times (increase)
Specific electric power consumption 36 29 7 (19% reduction)
(kWh/t)
Electric power consumption* 32,400 26,100 6,300 (reduction)
(MWh/y)
Crude oil equivalent (kl/y) 1,531 (reduction)

Note: * Production : 3,000 tonnes/day at 300 days/year operation

Investment amount : Rs. 250 Million for a 100 tonne / hour grinder
Reduction in SEC : 19%

References

1. IEA, World Energy Outlook 2007.

2. Directory of Energy Conservation Technology in Japan, prepared by
New Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization, The
Energy Conservation Centre, Japan.
3. Investors Manual for Energy Efficiency, EMC, CII & IREDA..
4. Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
5. NCCBM (National Council for Cement & Building Materials).
6. Portland Cement Association : Innovations in Portland Cement; Shokil
IL, PCA.
7. Energy Management Policy-Guidelines for Energy Intensive Industry in
India, Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
www.bee-india.com/aboutbee/Action %20 Plan/ 05. tal, html.
8. Energy Efficiency Improvement opportunities for Cement making : An
Energy Star Guide for Energy & Plant Managers. Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory; Ernst Worrell & Christina Galitsky.
9. Assessment of Energy use & Energy Saving Potential in Selected Industrial
Sectors in India (Ernest Orland Deptt. Of Environmental Energy
Technologies Division; by Jayant Sathaye, Lynn Price, Stephane delaPue
can & David Fridley.
10. Energy Efficiency Programmes & Policies in the Industrial Sector in
Industrialised Countries, Berkelay, LBNL.
11. Indo-German Energy Efficiency & Environment Project (IGEEP);
India.com/aboutsee/implementation/designated/
12. Statistical Pocket Book, India, 45th Edition, 2006-07, Central Statistical
Organisation; www.mospi.gov.in.
13. Website : www.ibef.org/artdisprirew.aspx art
14. Handbook of Energy Conservation by H.M.Robert & J.H. Collins.

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 Chapter 13
Sugar
13.1 Introduction

India has been known as the original home of sugar and sugarcane. Indian
mythology supports the above fact as it contains legends showing the origin of
sugarcane. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane next to Brazil.

Apart from sugar, the sugar industry produces certain by-products, which can be
used for production of other industrial products. The most important by-product is
molasses, which is utilized for production of chemicals and alcohol. In addition, the
other important by product is bagasse. It is mainly utilised as a captive fuel in the
boilers but it is also used as a raw material in the paper industry.

13.1.2 Number of Sugar Factories

There were 608 installed sugar factories in the country as on 31.12.2007. The
sector-wise breakup is as follows:

Table 13.1

Sector Number of factories

Cooperative 317
Private 229
Public 62
TOTAL 608 *
* This Includes closed sugar factories also
Source: Department of Food & Public Distribution

13.1.3 Production of Sugar

During the sugar season 2007-2008, production of sugar is estimated at about 270
lakh tonnes as against the production of 280 lakh tonnes during the previous season
2006-2007.

Table 13.2: Production of Sugar

(Lakh Tonnes)
1997- 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006-2007
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 (Provisional)
128.44 154.52 181.93 185.10 184.98 201.32 139.58 130.00 193.21 280.00
Source: Department of Food & Public Distribution

13.2 Energy Profile

The energy requirements in a sugar mill are in the form of steam for process
heating/turbo drives and electricity for running various drives. The sugar industry
has the unique advantage of utilizing a captive fuel-bagasse, to meet its energy
requirements. However, depending upon various factors like fibre content in the
cane, quantity of juice, type of clarification process and evaporation effects, type of
prime movers (steam driven or electric driven) etc., some sugar mills produce a

392 393
small quantity of surplus bagasse while others are deficient by a small quantity.
These mills, therefore, have to depend in a very limited way on external fuels like
fuel oil, LSH, coal etc to supplement their energy requirements. Likewise, some
sugar mills during the season can produce a little surplus power while others would
be deficient in power by a small margin and hence the dependence on grid power is
minimal.
Energy consumption in sugar plants depends on various factors such as its capacity,
steam generation parameters, vintage, equipment used etc. Analysis of the energy
consumption pattern in the sugar mills reveals that there exists significant scope for
improving the energy efficiency in the Indian Sugar Industry. The major reason for
the high energy consumption in the industry is the presence of large number of old,
small capacity sugar mills which have not invested much over the years in
modernizing or upgrading various process equipment. Apart from improving the
end use efficiency in the plants, the other most promising energy conservation
measure for the industry is to set up high-pressure cogeneration systems. This not
only has the potential of opening up additional revenue streams for the sugar plants
by way of sale of electricity, it can effectively contribute in reducing the ever
widening gap between demand and supply of electricity in various power deficit
regions in the country.
13.2.1 Energy consumption in Sugar Industry
Table 13.3
Specific Electrical Energy consumption 30 units/tonne of cane with electric
motors & DC Drives
24 units / tonne of cane with diffusers
Specific Thermal Energy steam consumption 38% on cane
Source: CII-IREDA
The energy consumption in Indian sugar mills range from 0.7 to 0.87 GJ/ tonne of
cane against a world average of 0.5 to 0.6 GJ/Tonne of cane crushed.
13.2.2 Energy efficiency in sugar industry
Energy efficiency in sugar industry offers the following benefits:
• In plants having cogeneration facility and where the state utility is able to
purchase additional power generated from sugar plants, any improvement in
energy efficiency levels of the plant results in increased export to the grid.
This reduces the equivalent reduction in power generation from fossil fuel
based power plants. This has a significant reduction in carbon emissions.
• In plants having cogeneration facility, but the state utility is not ready to
purchase power, improvement in energy efficiency in the plant results in
saving in bagasse. This either could be exported to other sugar plants, having
cogeneration facility with state utility ready to purchase power, or can be sold
to paper plants.
• In plants, which do not have cogeneration facility, energy efficiency directly
results in reduced power demand from the state utility. This results in higher
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profitability to the plant as well as significant reduction in GHG emission.
These plants, however, are very few in number.
The Indian sugar industry offers good potential for energy saving. The estimated
energy saving potential in the Indian sugar industry is about 20%. This offers
potential of about 650 MW of electrical energy.
13.3 Sugar Manufacturing process
The sugar manufacturing process normally comprises of juice extraction, juice
clarification, evaporation, crystallization, centrifuging, drying, and packing.
Steam generation using bagasse as the fuel and electricity generation, mostly
through backpressure turbines forms an important part of any sugar factory.
13.3.1 Juice Extraction
The juice extraction plant consists of cane handling, cane preparation and milling
sections.
a) Cane handling
Cane is brought mainly by trucks, trollies and bullock carts to the mill. The
load is first weighed on a weighing bridge. The sugarcane is mechanically
unloaded by a grab type attachment. A truck tippler is also sometimes provided
to unload cane, facilitating loading of the sugar cane on to the cane carrier.
b) Cane Preparation
The sugarcane after delivery to the cane carrier is levelled in the leveler before
it is fed to the cutter. The cutter shreds the cane to smaller sizes and prepares it
for the fibrisor where the cane is converted to a pulp-like mass.
c) Milling
The prepared cane is passed through a milling tandem composed of four to six
three-roller mills. The juice is extracted from the cane by squeezing under high
pressure in these rollers. Extraction is maximised by leaching the disintegrated
exposed cane with weak juice and make-up water in a counter current system.
In the sugar industry, this leaching system is called "imbibition".
Mixed juice, which is a mixture of juice extracted normally from the first and
second stage milling is fed to the next production stage. The fibrous matter or
bagasse', which is left after milling, is used as a fuel for steam generation.
13.3.2 Juice clarification
The purification of juice involves (a) juice heating (b) sulphitation (c) clarification
and (d) filtration.
The mixed juice from the mills is heated in raw juice heater(s). The common
process employed in most of the mills in India is Double Sulphitation process. The
heated juice is treated with chemicals like milk of lime and sulphur dioxide gas in a
juice sulphiter. Various dissolved impurities in the mixed juice are precipitated
out. The impurities precipitated are separated to obtain clear sparkle juice in
clarifiers. Muddy juice, which settles at the bottom, is filtered in vacuum filters and
the filtrate is recycled back to the system. The retention time in the clarifiers is
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about 2-3 hours and this invariably results in an appreciable temperature drop.
Hence the juice is again heated to obtain a temperature of about 1050C.
13.3.3 Evaporation
The juice is concentrated from 15 Brix to around 60 Brix in a multiple-effect
evaporator. The vapours are bled from evaporators for juice heating in various
heat exchangers and for boiling of massecuite in vacuum pans. This is the major
steam consuming section of plant.
13.3.4 Crystallisation
Crystallisation is an important unit operation, which in sugar industry is known as
Pan boiling. Major part of the crystallization process is done in most of the sugar
plants in batch type vacuum pans. A mixture of the molten liquid and crystals,
known as "massecuite" is then transferred to crystallizers where the process is
completed by cooling the mass under stirred condition.
13.3.5 Centrifuging
The massecuite from the vacuum pans is sent to the centrifuges, where the sugar
crystals are separated from molasses. These centrifugal machines can be batch
type or continuous type. There are separate centrifugal machines for `A' type, `B'
type and `C' type massecuites. The molasses separated out from this section is a
useful byproduct, which is an excellent raw material for distilleries.
13.3.6 Drying, grading and packing
The moist crystals obtained from centrifugal machines normally contain about
15-20% surface moisture. They are dried in traditional dryers, graded according
to crystal sizes and then packed in bags.
13.4 By-products
The main by-products from any sugar industry are: (i) bagasse (ii) molasses and
(iii) filter cake.
Bagasse: Bagasse is an important by-product of sugar. It is rich in cellulose fibre
and can be used as a major substitute raw material in the paper and pulp industry,
replacing wood and bamboo thus reducing deforestation. Costly imports of pulp
and waste paper can be avoided thus conserving the outflow of foreign exchange.
Bagasse has also been suggested as a base material for cattle feed after mixing
with molasses in varying proportions. The other important product, which can be
manufactured from bagasse, is furfural, which is a very versatile chemical with
good potential for commercial usage. Presently, almost all the sugar mills utilize
this bagasse as an in-house fuel in boilers for steam generation. Number of mills
are now planning to utilise the bagasse efficiently in high-pressure boilers for co
generating electricity for export to the grid/neighboring units.
Molasses: Molasses, the other important by-product, is a storehouse of organic
chemicals. Industrial alcohol is produced from molasses, which in turn can be
used to manufacture chemicals like ethyl benzene, lactic acid, tartaric acid, citric
acid, diethyl phthalate, etc. Industrial alcohol can be used as a fuel extender as a
substitute to the scarce petroleum products.
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Filter cake: When cane juice is clarified and filtered, the resulting cake is known
as filter mud or filter cake. It contains most of the colloidal matter precipitated
during clarification and has around 63% organic matter. This cake is of great
manurial value and is mostly taken by the growers in their own transport after
delivering cane to the factory, for use in the fields.
13.4.1 Co- Gen in Sugar Mills
The sugar industry by its inherent nature can generate surplus energy in contrast to
the other industries, which are only consumers of energy. With liberalization and
increased competition, the generation and selling of excess power to the electricity
boards, offers an excellent source of revenue generation to the sugar plants. This is
referred to as commercial cogeneration and has been only marginally tapped in our
country.
The sugar plants have been adopting co-generation right from the beginning.
However, the co-generation has been restricted to generating power and steam
only to meet the operational requirements of the plant. Only in the recent years,
with the increasing power demand and shortage, commercial cogeneration has
been found to be attractive, both from the state utility point of view as well as the
sugar plant point of view.
The sugar plant derives additional revenue by selling power to the grid, while the
state is able to marginally reduce the 'demand-supply' gap, with reduced
investments.
13.5 Technologies & Measures for Energy Efficiency Improvements
Various technologies for energy efficiency improvement are discussed briefly.
Some of these technologies are already in use in India while many are in the
development phase or not yet commercialized in India. Besides these
technologies, one very important step, Indian sugar mills can adopt is to produce
smaller sized sugar instead of bolder sugar grains. Simply because of the bolder
grain size, 2 to 3% more energy is consumed by the industry.
13.5.1 Improved reliability, economics of steam and power generating
systems with film forming polyamines
Technology Description
Corrosion and scaling in boilers and turbines continue to pose problems in
maximizing steam and power generation at a minimum cost. The corrosion
products (iron and copper oxides) coming with the condensate cause heat insulating
deposits in boilers resulting in failures, loss of efficiency, frequent cleaning and
increased cost of operations. Traditionally, multiple chemicals like phosphates
hydrazine or sulfite have been used to reduce the corrosion and scaling but due to its
major drawbacks a " film barrier approach" has been gaining increasing acceptance.
It utilizes the film forming properties of aliphatic amines on divalent wet metal
surfaces. Organic formulations containing film-forming amines, combination of
neutralizing amines, dispersants and complexing agents provide much superior
protection to the metal surfaces in boilers and turbines against corrosion scaling and
carryover. The selection of the types of amines to be used, is determined by the
properties such as vapor/liquid distribution ratio, dissociation constant, basicity,
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etc. The product has been applied in sugar mills in India for more than five years.
Advantages
• Complete protection against corrosion and scaling.
• Clean and scale free surface.
• No cleaning of boilers/turbines required for years.
• Simplified dosing and monitoring.
• Flexibility in operation, as film stable over a pH range of 4 to 11.
• Cost saving due to improved heat transfer and reduced blow downs.
13.5.2 Direct production of white sugar in a cane sugar mill
Technology Description
An economical process is disclosed for the direct production of white sugar from
clarified juice. Juice from a cane sugar mill, or sugar beet juice, is first contacted
with hydrogen peroxide, before passing through granular activated carbon. The
juice is then passed through cationic and anionic resins to remove inorganic
compounds, colorants, and other impurities. Then the juice may be concentrated
and sugar crystallized. White sugar is produced directly, without the need for an
intermediate raw sugar crystallization.
Advantages
• The process does not require membrane separation and involves adsorption of
colour and other impurities using granular activated carbon and ion exchange
resins.
• Chemical regeneration of the carbon is utilized, which enhances the
attractiveness of the process.
13.5.3 Mini Sugar Plant (Khandsari plants)
Technology Description
The sugarcane is fed to the cane carrier provided with Cutters. Sugarcane is
chopped into pieces and conveyed to the sugarcane mill. Juice is extracted by
crushing unit, screened and collected in raw juice tank and pumped into
sulphitation towers. Lime and compressed sulphur-di-oxide gas is mixed with
juice. After sulphitation, juice is discharged into cracking bels for single boiling
where non-sugars become precipitated from the cracking bel. Juice is pumped into
settling tank. The heavy precipitated mud and other impurities settle down at the
bottom and clear juice is discharged from the valves of the settling tanks and flows
by gravity to boiling bels. The muddy juice from the bottom of the settling tanks is
discharged in mud tank and is forced into filter press by means of a mud pump.
Filtered juice also goes to the juice boiling bels and mud cake is retained in the press
and removed when the press is opened. Clear juice from settling tank and filter
press is boiled in open pan juice boiling bels and concentrated. The syrup thus
formed is sent manually to crystallizers. Proper crystallization takes place in 48 to
72 hours. After washing, sugar is taken out of centrifugal machine and dried. First
quality sugar is dried, graded and bagged. Molasses, which come out of centrifugal
machine, is reboiled in Molasses Boiling Bels and sent to crystallizers. The process
of crystallization, centrifuging, drying and bagging is repeated to obtain second
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quality sugar and final molasses. Molasses is a by-product in the process and can be
used as raw material for alcohol industries.
Advantages
• In non-sulphitation plants, suphitation processing equipment is eliminated
from the process.
13.5.4 Sugar-cane waste conversion into char
Technology Description
The Appropriate Rural Technology Institute (ARTI), India, at pune has developed a
charring process for converting sugar-cane trash into high-value char. Dried leaves
of sugar cane, or sugar-cane trash, resist biodegradation and cannot be used either as
cattle fodder or as a raw material for making compost. The innovative process is
especially suitable for handling large amounts of loose biomass at high speeds and
on a continuous basis. Char obtained by this process can be converted into
briquettes easily by a variety of well-established briquetting methods. The eco-
friendly oven-and-retort type kiln from ARTI is constructed using bricks and mud.
The oven is loaded with a retort (1 kg capacity) filled with sugar-cane trash and a
fire is lit below the oven using some of the trash itself as fuel. As the retort heats, the
trash inside is converted to char and the pyrolysis gas escapes from a hole in the lid
of the retort. A cast-iron grate separates the firebox of the chulha and the retort
inside the oven. The retort is loaded upside down in the oven so that the pyrolysis
gas passes into the firebox and burns, thereby generating additional heat for
charring. Moreover, as the pyrolysis gas is used in the kiln itself, venting or flaring
is prevented.
Advantages
• The kiln has a conversion efficiency of 30 per cent and operates as a
continuous-batch process.
13.5.5 Quintuple 3rd effect vapour for sugar melting
Technology Description
In a multiple effect evaporator, vapour bleeding in the later bodies will bring steam
economy. But extensive use of this vapour is presently limited to first two bodies
due to low temperature of vapours and high scaling patterns in later bodies.
With the installation of condensate flashing system, vapour generation in individual
bodies is being augmented by flash vapor in condensate and hence requiring less
evaporation. This is leading to more vapours to condenser, as waste. To avoid this,
extensive use of vapour of the third body in a quintuple effect evaporator is planned.
With increase in pressure of exhaust steam used at first body of evaporator, the
pressure conditions of individual bodies changed to higher side matching with the
pressures of quadruple effect.
Navbharat Ventures has initiated a project replacing vapour of the second body
being used at pan floor and SJ1 heating with vapour of the third body. There is no
financial requirement as the same vapour line is used to draw vapour from the third
body of quintuple effect evaporator to utility points. Steam saving achieved through
extensive use of vapour from third body by converting evaporator system in to
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quintuple from quadruple is upto 3.5%.
Advantages
• Reduction in steam consumption
13.5.6 Condensate flashing system
Technology Description
Cane contains about 70% of water. This water is extracted along with juice in
milling by adding some more water to the cane bagasse, which is called imbibition.
Mixed juice is required to be heated up to 102oC to stall microbiological action on it
and to increase the rate of reaction with chemicals (lime and SO2 gas) added. When
concentrated by separating water content in multiple effect evaporation, the vapor
condensate takes away heat utilized for heating, often into drain. As was the case of
reducing pressure in bodies of multiple effect evaporators in sequence enabling use
of vapor for boiling in the subsequent bodies, it is proper to use flash heat in hotter
vapor condensates, in subsequent bodies by circulating the condensate
sequentially. SEDL (Spray Engineering Devices Ltd.) has improvised the design of
the flash vessel for heat recovery from condensate of evaporator, pans and surface
contact heaters.
Haidergarh Chini Mills, Barabanki (UP), with help of SEDL has installed a
Condensate Cigar along with Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE) at the evaporator station
to utilize the waste heat of excess condensate by using flash vapour. Further, PHE
facilitated to recover extra heat going along with exhaust condensate to boiler feed
water tank. This has stopped the usages steam, which was required for super
heating the wash water (up to 115º C) during centrifugal operation.
Advantages
• It reduces the steam consumption in the boiling house by 2.0- 3.0% on Cane
depending on the operating conditions of the Boiling House.
• It improves the water management of the Plant.
• Space requirement is less due to its compact size and alignment.
• The sparge tube entry for condensate helps in proper diffusing of condensate
and hence improves the efficiency for flashing.
• Easy to maintain, trouble free, reliable and long life due to stainless steel
construction.
13.5.7 Film Type Sulphur Burner
Technology Description
Sugar juice clarification (purification) process requires sulphur dioxide as a
clarification and bleaching agent. It is produced from expensive (imported) sulphur
in the conventional tray type batch burners, in Indian sugar factories, which are
inefficient, resulting in high processing cost, poor clarification and poor sugar
quality. The new "film type sulphur burner" which was tried at Upper Doab Sugar
Mills, Shamli in collaboration with M/s. Digital Utilities (India) Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, produces SO2 with consistent quality, high efficiency, low consumption and
well regulated operation made possible by the new 'film burning' concept and
requisite automation. The film type sulphur burner technology has been adopted in
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more than 64 sugar factories all over India. The system consists of Sulphur Melter,
Variable Flow Sulphur Pump, Sulphur Furnace with Checkered Refractory Bricks
and refractory lining. SO2 cooler and instrumentation and control system for control
of Sulphur feed, combustion air feed etc. The Molten Sulphur flows from top of the
furnace downward forming a thin film on the refractory bricks. The film burns
efficiently in contact with air to produce SO2. SO3 formation is negligible.
Depending on the temperature of the furnace, 6-9% SO2 can be obtained in the exit
gases. Operation of the burner is controlled in accordance with process demands i.e
SO2 quantity and quality, sulphur feed rate etc. through use of instrumentation and
control system etc .
Advantages
• Extremely steady burning, with capacity variation 70- 300 kg/hr,
• Zero sublimation and minimal SO3 generation,
• Optimum sulphur consumption,
• Burning rate variation without any change in concentration,
• Compatible to automation for juice sulphitation & pH control,
• Maintenance free, long life and zero pollution
13.5.8 Bagasse Drier
Technology Description
This is a novel concept of drying bagasse as well as controlling the air pollution.
Bagasse Drier is a unique device wherein the hot flue gases are mixed with the wet
bagasse from mills. This wet bagasse gets dried up and accumulates all the ash and
unburnt carbon with it. This dried bagasse with all the unburnt and ash is fed into the
boiler. Thus it acts in two ways. One it dries the wet bagasse there by increasing the
system efficiency and saving bagasse. Second, it acts as pollution control device
and reduces the SPM of the flue gas. DSCL sugar, Rupapur implemented this
technology in the year 2005-2006.
Advantages
• Improved efficiency with better pollution control.
13.5.9 Planetary Gearbox for crystalliser
Technology Description
The mill drive and transmission of its power to mills is an important area of the
sugar factory in respect of investment and maintenance cost and energy saving. The
conventional mill drive of the present day consists of either DC motor or steam
turbines. These drives are operated at about 1000/5000 rpm whereas the power
developed by the prime movers is required to be transmitted to the mills at less than
5 rpm. Therefore, a set of high speed and slow motor gear trains is used to achieve
the eventual operating speed and the power requirement at the mill. These drives are
not only cumbersome occupying huge space but also needs high maintenance and
operating cost. The sugar industry has been in search of an efficient and compact
alternative to the above inefficient system. Planetary gearbox is an energy efficient,
cost effective compact alternative to the conventional drive comprising of gear
trains and also hydraulic drive. EID Parry has successfully replaced the existing
worm wheel reduction system with the planetary gearbox arrangement for all
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crystallizers under its energy saving schemes for the year 2005-2006.
Advantages
• Improved efficiency resulting in energy savings
13.5.10 Advanced bagasse based cogeneration
Technology Description
Cogeneration is broadly defined as the coincident generation of useful thermal
energy and electrical power from the same input fuel. Any process plant requiring
steam for process, the pressure of steam required for most of the process
applications being low, holds very good potential for cogeneration of power. Sugar
plants are particularly interesting applications for cogeneration, since bagasse, one
of the by-product from the mill, is available almost at no cost as feed stock to fuel
the steam generators of the cogeneration plant. The sugar manufacturing process
requires a large quantum of thermal energy in the form of steam and also the bulk of
the steam required for the processing is needed at low pressure i.e. in the range of
2.0 to 2.5 bar (atm). However, to date, sugar plants had limited power and heat
generation to meet only their own in-house demands, which is called as an
incidental cogeneration, and hence their existing energy potentials had not been
fully exploited. The advanced cogeneration system, aims at significantly
improving the overall energy efficiency of the sugar factory, enabling the plant to
generate surplus power. The surplus power could be exported to the electricity grid,
which can generate additional financial resources for the plant. Energy efficiency
and the export of power to the grid is made feasible by the employment of high
pressure and high temperature steam cycles and by the utilization of the surplus
bagasse to produce more steam and hence more electricity. Thermodynamically,
energy recovery from the Rankine cycle is more dependent on the steam inlet
temperature than the pressure and the higher the inlet steam temperature; higher
will be the cycle efficiency. However, the practically attainable limits of
temperatures are influenced by the metallurgy of the boiler tubing, piping and the
turbine components and the complexity of the creep fatigue interaction for the
materials at higher temperatures. Temperatures up to 400oC require use of ordinary
carbon steel and beyond 400oC, low-grade alloy steels are employed. Above 500oC,
the requirements with regard to the material selection are stringent and expensive.
Above 550oC, the requirements are very stringent and prohibitively expensive. It is
extremely important that the selection of temperature is done keeping in mind the
nature of industry, and the experience gained in that industry. The sugar factories
employ cogeneration system of 480oC and 65 bar (atm). With the technological
advancement, some sugar plants in India implemented the advanced cogeneration
system of 515oC and 105 bar (atm) pressure for increasing energy efficiency and the
financial profitability.
Advantages
• High efficiency of the plant as well as reduced cost of energy (heat and electricity)
• Increased power reliability and quality
• Increased financial profitability of the plant
• Reduced emissions.
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13.5.11 Wet Cell Gasification
Technology Description
Bagasse has traditionally been burned in boilers to help fuel the operations for sugar
mills. The problem with burn boilers, particularly older burn boilers is their outputs,
not only of useful process heat, but pollution. The burn boilers also require dry
feedstock, as very wet feedstock will choke the boiler. Slag and residue forming on
boiler tubes and the system can also pose a challenge for consistent operations. The
wet cell gasification technology is generally far cleaner than burning or burn
boilers. The EWC (Ecology Wet Cell) gasification unit is a two-stage updraft
gasifier. In the first stage, the biomass is gasified in a starved oxygen environment.
In the second stage, the producer gas is consumed in a powerful double vortex
combustor producing 100,000,000 (one hundred million) Btu per hour of heat at
approximately 1010oC. The temperature has been successfully varied for particular
applications to as high as consistent 1204oC. Where there is a large amount of waste
or biomass by products and agricultural residue this robust gasification to heat
system can provide a very useful solution. This gasification unit can also handle
human and animal waste mixed in with biomass, a very fibrous materials that cause
real problems with other feed systems.
Advantages
• Produces large volume of heat effectively and reliably for various applications
• Running on a combination of biomass sources.
13.5.12 Mechanical Vapour Compression (MVR) technology to recover low-
pressure waste steam
Technology Description
Thermal separation processes such, as evaporation and distillation are energy
intensive. The need for reducing energy costs has led to multi-effect plants, then to
thermal vapour compression and finally to the use of mechanical vapour
compression systems. In mechanical vapour compression, positive displacement
compressions or multi-stage centrifugal compressors are generally used to raise the
pressure and temperature of the generated vapours. Since mechanical compressors
do not require any motive steam, all vapours can be compressed to elevated
pressure and temperature, eliminating the need for a subsequent recovery system.
The energy supplied to the compressor constitutes the additional energy input to
vapours. After the compression of the vapour and its subsequent condensation
through transfer of heat to process fluid, the hot condensate leaves the system,
which can be used as feed water/liquid for boilers. The technology was developed
in the year 2005.
Advantages
• Low specific energy consumption.
• High performance co-efficient.
• Gentle evaporation of the product due to low temperature differences.
• Reduced load on cooling towers.
• Simple process for operation and maintenance.
Taking the ratio of cost of steam-generation of the equivalent cost of electrical
403
energy as 1:3, the MVR gives economic effect of 17/3 =5.66. The capital cost,
installation and operation costs are much lower.
13.5.13 Mill Drives (AC/DC)
Technology Description
DC mill drives are used in most sugar plants in India to drive the milling tandem
with four to five 500-1000 HP drives. This is in vogue in most of the plants now with
conversion of turbo-steam drive to electrical drive with cogeneration of power for
export being the order of the day. However, the new development of using AC drive
instead of DC drive has the following advantages.
Advantages
• Efficiency of AC motor is higher than DC motor
• Low maintenance cost than DC motor
• Less harmonics than DC motor
• Overall power saving of 3-5% is possible with AC drive for milling tandem in
place of DC drives.
13.5.14 Adoption of Falling Film Evaporator
Technology Description
The steam consumption of sugar factory, mainly depends upon the system available
for the concentration of juice. Adoption of falling film evaporator at the evaporator
station, offers better steam economy. Falling film evaporator is usually a
conventional 1-1 exchanger designed to operate vertically. The liquid solution
enters from the top at such a rate that the tubes do not flow full of liquid, but instead,
liquid descends downwards along the inner walls of the tubes as a thin film. Vapour
evolved from the liquid is carried downwards with the liquid, and leaves from the
bottom of the unit. Since a large number of mills are planning to increase their
installed capacities, one of the cost effective ways to achieve the dual objective of
better steam economy and increase of throughput in the evaporator section would
probably be to add a first evaporator as a falling film evaporator. The concentrated
juice from this evaporator body, which can be falling film evaporator, can thus be
fed to the existing evaporator setups to continue further evaporation.
Advantages
• Reduced steam consumption
• High heat transfer rates.
• Increased throughput of the evaporator
• Minimal internal pressure drop.
13.5.15 Vertical Continuous Vacuum Pan for Massecuite Boiling
Technology Description
After concentration of juice in multiple effect evaporators, the subsequent process
to turn the thick juice into crystal form is accomplished in the vacuum pans. The use
of batch type vacuum pans in most of the mills results in considerable fluctuations
of steam consumption and irregular sugar quality. It results in variation in syrup
brix of about 4-4.5 Bx. The batch pan boiling destabilises the continuous process in
404
other stations and imbalances steam balance of the plant. The use of fully auto-
controlled continuous pan has many advantages over the conventional batch pans.
It helps in maintaining a steady consumption of vapours thus eliminating the
problems associated with fluctuating vapour flows. Accordingly, there will not be
any variations in the syrup brix. This ensures the uniform functioning of the
evaporator station, and also boiler steam generation. This system automatically
manages the steady conditions for development and uniform growth of crystals
eliminating the uncertainties of human operational errors.
Advantages
• Reduction in steam consumption eliminates the fluctuations in the vapour
demand thus steadiness of operation is achieved.
• Reduction in boiling point elevation avoids heat injury and colour formation.
• Maximum exhaustion of mother liquor.
• No fines and conglomerates.
13.5.16 Low Pressure Extraction (LPE) System
Technology Description
The conventional methods of juice extraction suffer from drawbacks of high power
consumption, high maintenance costs and require skilled operators. The new LPE
system is an efficient alternative, which utilizes combination of solid-liquid
extraction and conventional milling technology at low hydraulic pressures. Further,
it is not dependent on operator's skill. The system uses perforated rollers in modules
of 2. A total of 8 modules (16 rollers) were used during the trial runs. Hydraulic
pressure of 110 bar is used. Due to perforations in the rollers extracted juice is
quickly drained out. Re-absorption of juice is negligible. The system is driven by
electric motors and operation is automatically controlled. The system was
successfully commissioned in 1999 for commercial use. Commercial plant at a
capacity of 5000 TCD commissioned at Shree Renuka Sugars in 2006.
Advantages
• Low capital cost (about 60%)
• Low power consumption to the extent of 35%
• Extraction comparable to 4-mill system (about 95%)
• Low maintenance cost
• No special skills required
• Very low retention time
• No chemical control.
13.5.17 Membrane filtration for Sugar Manufacturing
Technology Description
The conventional method of manufacturing produces sugar with high sulphur
content. That is also brown in colour due to which it does not attract many takers in
the export market. Membrane filtration is the process for production of sulphur free,
refined quality sugar without going through conventional refining. In this process,
high temperature tolerant polymeric membrane modules are employed for
sugarcane juice clarification for production of high quality sugar. These membrane
modules are capable of withstanding continuous exposure to hot juice without any
405
visible signs of deterioration. The pilot plant was successfully commissioned and Case Study 2: Energy conservation projects at a major unit at Villupuram
operated at Simbholi Sugar mills in 2000-2001.
1. Replacement of Low-pressure cogeneration system with High-pressure
Advantages cogeneration system:

Greater Sugar recovery since less sugar loss in molasses Brief

Sparkling clear sugar cane juice with purity higher (by 0.9 units), reduced juice
colour (by about 50%)
Shorter juice boiling times and faster crystal growth rates increase productivity
Easy to integrate, install and scale up with limited space requirement
Easy to operate with minimum maintenance requirement.
The cogeneration set up had three low-pressure boilers providing steam to the
process and turbine generators. Historically the factory has not exported any
power to the grid. It was decided to install high-pressure cogeneration system. The
configuration of the system is as follows

13.6 Case Studies Boilers Turbines

Case Study 1: Energy Conservation Achievements at a Major Sugar Industry 1 x 120 TPH, 87 kg/cm2 1 x 22 MW

Brief The plant was commissioned during June 2005. After captive consumption the
surplus power has been fed to the State grid.
During the period 2006-2007, the unit implemented 15 energy conservation projects
with an investment of Rs.17.2 Million achieving a saving of Rs. 7.742 Million. Energy Savings
Energy Savings
Surplus power exported to grid 15 MWh
The major energy conservation projects are presented below: -
Power exported to State grid for the year 2005-06 40.1 Million kWh
Project Description Annual Investment Payback Revenue from power export /for the year 2005-06 in Million Rs 125.3
Savings (Rs. (Rs. Million) Period Actual investment in Million Rs 80
Million) (months)
Payback Period 8 months
Quintuple 3rd A new sugar melter for B & C sugar was 1.171 1.082 11
effect vapour designed in -house to utilize quintuple 3 rd
for sugar effect vapour instead of exhaust steam 2. Replacement of Eddy current drive with Variable frequency drive for Cane
melting carrier & Rake carrier:
Plate heat Installing the plate heat exchanger 0.643 0.270 5
exchanger for enabled heating turbine condensate along Brief
turbine with DM water make -up from 40 0C to
condensate 980C with qui ntuple 3 rd effect vapour The speed control of the cane carrier and the rake carrier were accomplished by
heating avoiding use of LP steam
Avoiding FFE Juice transfer scheme was modified and 0.1113 Nil Immediate eddy current drives. The eddy current drives were replaced with energy efficient
transfer pump resulting head difference was utilized to variable frequency drives.
completely avoid 15 kW juice transfer
pump at falling film evaporator Energy Savings
Quintuple 1st It is general practice to use MP steam for 0.1098 Nil Immediate
effect vapour heating air in fluidized bed sugar dryer.
Energy consumption /day with Eddy current drive 2160 kWh
for FBD The project utilized the same heat
sugar dryer exchanger with quintuple 1st vapour as Energy consumption/day with VFD's 1680 kWh
air heating heating medium to heat FD air Energy savings/day 480 kWh
Quintuple 1st Replaced usage of MP steam heated 0.072 0.042 7
Annual Energy savings 86400 kWh
effect vapour condensate with Quintuple 1st effect
condensate as vapour condensate for washing sugar Excess revenue generated Rs in Million 0.26
superheated crystals in batch centrifugals
wash water
Clear juice in Clear juice is utilized to the possible 0.084 0.065 9 3. Replacement of slat type bagasse conveyor with belt conveyor:
place of hot extent at pans, continuous centrifugals
condensate and melter replacing the use of hot Brief
process condensate. Thus reduced
evaporation load A 45 kW slat conveyor was being used to convey bagasse from the mills to the
Pipe line to The vapour from soda boiling are being 0.263 Nil Immediate cogeneration power plant material handling system. A 15 kW belt conveyor
utilize soda- effectively utilized for process heating by replaced this slot type conveyor
boiling vapour mixing them with the vapour of the main
stream, instead of venting to atmosphere
as a normal practice
406 407
Energy Savings available for different spraying applications. Most of them aim to give a water
spray the form of a hollow cone. A good spray nozzle should be of simple design,
Slat conveyor Energy consumption /day 756 kWh high capacity and high efficiency. Of the various types of spray nozzles, the conical
Belt conveyor Energy consumption/day 360 kWh jet nozzles have been found far superior on all the above parameters. Hence, the
Energy savings/day 396 kWh recent trend among the new sugar mills is to install the conical jet nozzles, to
Annual Energy savings 71280 kWh achieve maximum dispersion of water particles and cooling.
Excess revenue generated Rs in Million 0.214 kWh

Case Study 3: Install diffusers in lieu of milling tandem Before Improvement After Improvement
Brief In a 4000 TCD sugar mill, the The spray pond system was modified
cooling system consisted of a spray and conical jet nozzles were installed to
Installation of milling tandem is practiced conventionally in sugar plants in India. achieve mist cooling. The material of
pond. There were 5 pumps of 75 HP
Milling is highly power and labour oriented equipment. The present trend is to construction of the conical jet nozzles is
rating operating continuously, to PVC, which enables better nozzle
adopt diffusion as an alternative to Milling, considering several advantages achieve the desired cooling
diffusion offers over milling. configuration achievement. The cooling
parameters. The materials of achieved with the mist cooling system
construction of the spray nozzles was about 31 - 32 °C (i.e., a sub-cooling
Before Improvement After Improvement of 2 - 4 °C was achieved). This resulted
were Cast Iron (C.I).
A new sugar mill initially decided to The mill was later on opted for the The maximum cooling that could be in avoiding the operation of one 75 HP
pump completely.
adopt milling in tandem diffuser and it was installed by design achieved with the spray pond was
about 34 - 35 °C. The better cooling water temperatures,
Energy savings maintained steady vacuum conditions in
the condensers thus minimising the
frequent vacuum breaks, which
Reduction in power consumption : 2.88 Million units occurred in the condensers.
(Considering an average crushing of 500 TCD
for an operating season of 180 days)
Energy cost saving : Rs. 8.0 Million / season Energy savings
(Considering power export cost of Rs. 2.75 / kWh)
Annual savings : Rs. 0.32 Million
Case Study 4: Utilisation of Exhaust Steam for Sugar Drier and Sugar Melter Investment required : Rs. 0.50 Million
Brief Payback period : 19 months

Case Study 6: Installation of Regenerative Type Continuous Flat Bottom High

Before Improvement
In this 2500 TCD sugar mill, medium
pressure steam at 7.0 kg/cm2, generated
by passing live steam at 42 kg/cm2,
through a pressure reducing valve
(PRV), was being used for sugar drying
and melting
After Improvement Speed Centrifugal for A - Massecuite Curing
Exhaust steam generated by passing live steam
through the turbine was available at around 1.2 Brief
kg/cm2. The exhaust steam was utilised in place of live
steam for sugar melting (blow-up) and sugar drying.
Replacement of live steam with exhaust steam in these
two users increased the cogeneration by about
35 units, which could be sold to the grid. Before Improvement After Improvement

One of the 4000 TCD sugar mills, The regenerative type of braking system
Energy savings had DC drives for their flat bottom was installed for the entire flat bottom
high speed centrifugal of 1200 kg/h high speed centrifugal used for
Annual savings : Rs. 0.2 Million
capacity used for A - massecuite A - massecuite curing.
Investment required : Rs. 0.02 Million separation. These centrifugal had One of the most important
Payback Period : 2 months the conventional type of braking characteristics of a regenerative
Case Study 5: Installation of Conical Jet Nozzles for Mist Cooling System system, with no provisions for braking system in an electric centrifugal
recovery of energy expended during is that, it permits the partial recovery of
Brief changeover to low speed or the energy expended, during the
discharging speed discharge cycle.
The spray pond is one of the most common types of cooling system in a sugar mill. In
a spray pond, warm water is broken into a spray by means of nozzles. The
evaporation and the contact of the ambient air with the fine drops of water produce
the required degree of cooling. There are many types of nozzle configurations
408 409
Energy savings Case Study 8: Installation of 30 MW Commercial Co-generation Plant

The regenerative braking system recovers about 1.34 kW/100 kg of sugar Brief
produced, during the discharge cycle and feeds it back into the system. Hence, the
net power consumption of the centrifugal with the regenerative braking system is Before Improvement After Improvement
A 5000 TCD sugar mill in Tamilnadu The old boilers and turbine were
only 0.66 kW/100 kg of sugar produced. operating for about 200 days in a year replaced with high- pressure boilers and
had the following equipment: a single high capacity turbine. The new
Case Study 7: Installation of Jet Condenser with External Extraction of Air Boilers turbine installed was an extraction-cum-
2 numbers of 18 TPH, 12 ATA condensing turbine. A provision was also
Brief 2 numbers of 29 TPH, 15 ATA made, for exporting (transmitting) the
1 number of 50 TPH, 15 ATA excess power generated, to the state
grid. The mill steam turbines, were
The evaporators and pans are maintained at low pressures, through injection water Turbines replaced with DC drives. The details of
pumps. These are one of the highest electrical energy consumers in a sugar mill. 1 number 2.5 MW the new boilers, turbines and the steam
The multi-jet condenser, which are presently used in the sugar plants, do both the 1 number 2.0 MW distribution are as indicated below:
1 number 1.5 MW Boilers
jobs of providing the barometric leg, as well as removing the non-condensables. 2 numbers of 70 TPH, 67 ATA
Mill drives Multi-fuel fired boilers
6 numbers 750 BHP steam turbines
Before Improvement After Improvement 1 number 900 BHP shredder turbine Turbines
1 number of 30 MW turbo-alternator set
One of the sugar mills with an The jet condensers with external The plant had an average steam (Extraction-cum-condensing type)
installed capacity of 2500 TCD had extraction of air system were installed. consumption of 52%. The power
the multi-jet condensers for the There was a significant drop in water requirement of the plant during the Mill drives
creation of vacuum and consumption in these condensers, in sugar-season was met by the internal 4 numbers of 900 HP DC motors for mills
condensation of vapours, from the spite of an increase in crushing capacity generation and during the non- season 2 numbers of 750 HP DC motors for mills
vacuum pans and evaporator. There (average maximum crushing of 4800 from the grid. The plant went in for a 2 numbers of 1100 kW AC motors for
were 11 injection water pumps of TCD). This resulted in reduction in the commercial co-generation plant. fibrizer.
100 HP rating, catering to the number of injection water pumps in Energy savings
cooling water requirements of these operation.
condensers. These pumps were
designed to handle an average The new injection water pumping system Enhancement in power generation : 9 MW to 23 MW.
maximum crushing capacity of 3200 includes - 5 nos. of 100 HP pump and 1 Surplus power generation for exporting to the grid : 14 MW
TCD. no. of 250 HP pump. Thus, there is a net
reduction in the installed injection water
pumping capacity of about 350 HP (30%
reduction). The actual average power Annual savings : Rs. 204.13 Million
consumption also has registered a
significant drop of nearly 180 kW, which Investment required : Rs. 820.6 Million
amounts to an annual energy saving of Payback period : 48 months
5,18,400 units (for 120 days of sugar
season). Case Study 9: Replacement of Steam Driven Mill Drives with Electric DC Motor

Brief
Energy savings
Before Improvement
Annual savings : Rs. 1.30 Million
Investment required : Rs. 2.53 Million A 5000 TCD sugar mill had six
Payback period : 24 months numbers of 750 HP mill turbines and
one number of 900 HP shredder
turbine. The average steam
consumption per mill (average load
of 300 kW) was about 7.5 TPH steam
@ 15 Ata. The steam driven mill
drives had an efficiency of about
35%, in the case of single stage
turbine and about 50%, in the case of
two-stage turbines.
After Improvement
The plant team decided to replace the
steam driven mills with electric DC
motors, along with the commissioning of
the cogeneration plant. These drives
have very high efficiencies of 90%.
Benefits of electric DC drives for mill
prime movers
• Increased drive efficiency
• Additional power export to grid
The power saved (850 kW/mill) by the
implementation of this project, could be
exported to the grid

410 411
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment required
Payback period
Case Study 10: Installation of an Extensive Vapour Bleeding System at the
Evaporators
Brief
Before Improvement
In a typical 2500 TCD sugar mill, the quintuple
effect evaporators were in operation. The specific
steam consumption with such a system for a 2500
TCD sugar mill is about 45 to 53 % on cane,
depending on the crushing rate.
The typical vapour utilisation system in the
evaporators comprises of:
• Vapour bleeding from II- or III- effect for
heating (from 35 °C to 70 °C) in the raw
(or dynamic) juice heaters
• Vapour bleeding from I- effect for heating
(from 65 °C to 90 °C) in the first stage of the
sulphited juice heater
• Exhaust steam for heating (from 90 °C to
105 °C) in the second stage of the sulphited
juice heater
• Exhaust steam for heating (from 94 °C to
105 °C) in the clear juice heaters
• Exhaust steam for heating in the vacuum
pans (C pans)
However, maximum steam economy is achieved, if
the vapour from the last two effects can be effectively
utilised in the process, as the vapour would be
otherwise lost. Also, the load on the evaporator
condenser will reduce drastically.
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment required
Payback period
: Rs. 62.37 Million
: Rs. 42.00 Million
: 9 months
After Improvement
The plant upgraded by installation of the
extensive vapour utilisation system at the
evaporators. The extensive use of vapour
bleeding at evaporators was adopted at the
design stage itself in this case. This has
resulted in improved steam economy.
However, to ensure the efficient and stable
operation of such a system, the exhaust
steam pressure has to be maintained
uniformly at an average of 1.2 - 1.4 kg/cm2.
In this particular plant, this was being
achieved, through an electronic governor
control system for the turbo-alternator sets,
in closed loop with the exhaust steam
pressure. Whenever, the exhaust steam
pressure decreases, the control system will
send a signal to the alternator, to reduce the
speed. This will reduce the power export to
the grid and help achieve steady exhaust
pressure and vice-versa.
The specific steam consumption achieved
(as % cane crushed) is: 41% on cane
Thus, the specific steam consumption (% on
cane) is lower by atleast 7%. This means a
saving of 3.5% of bagasse percent cane (or
35 kg of bagasse per ton of cane crushed).
: Rs. 11.00 Million
: Rs. 6.50 Million
: 8 months
412
Case Study 11: Installation of Variable Speed Drive (VSD) for the
Weighed Juice Pump
Brief
Before Improvement
In a 2600 TCD sugar mill, there was a
weighed juice pump operating continuously
to meet the process requirements.
The pump had the following specifications:
• Capacity: 27.77 lps
• Head: 45 m
• Power consumed: 23 kW
The flow from the weighed juice tank was not
uniform.
Moreover, the pump was designed for
handling the maximum cane-crushing rate.
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment required
Payback period
Case Study 12: Installation of Thermo-compressor for use of Low Pressure
Steam
Brief
Before Improvement
In a typical 4000 TCD sugar mill in
Maharashtra, the turbine exhaust steam at
0.40 kg/cm2 was continuously vented out. The
quantity of the steam vented, amounted to
about 6300 kg/h. There were no process users
in the sugar mill or the distillery, which could
utilise this exhaust steam of 0.40 kg/cm2. The
distillery required 10 TPH of steam at 1.5
kg/cm2. A separate boiler was meeting the
steam requirements of the distillery. The sugar
mill boiler met any additional requirement of
steam. In both the cases, steam was generated
at 8 kg/cm2 and reduced to 1.5 kg/cm2 through a
pressure-reducing valve.
Energy savings
Annual savings
Investment required
Payback period
413
After Improvement
Variable Frequency Drive was installed for the
weighed juice pump and resulted in the following
benefits:
• Consistent and steady flow to the juice heaters
• Improved quality of sulphitation, as the juice flow
was steady
• Reduced power consumption by an average of 11
kW (a reduction of about 30 - 40%).
: Rs. 0.24 Million
: Rs. 0.25 Million
: 12 months
After Improvement
A thermo-compressor system was installed, for
reusing the turbine exhaust steam, in the distillery.
The resultant MP steam saved in the distillery, was
passed through the power generating turbines, for
generation of additional power.
The resultant 1.5 kg/cm2 steam obtained by thermo-
compression of exhaust steam, was directly used in
the distillery. This reduced the passing of high/
medium-pressure steam through the pressure-
reducing valve.
: Rs. 6.0 Million
: Rs. 2.0 Million
: 4 months
Case Study 13: Installation of Hydraulic Drives for Mill Prime Movers Energy Savings

Brief • Reduction (10 - 20%) in steam consumption as mentioned below:

Steam consumption (kg/ ton of massecuite)

Before Improvement After Improvement
Identity With batch Vacuum pan With continuous Vacuum pan
One of the sugar mills had the following mill The plant teams had plans to increase the
A - massecuite Not available Not available
drive configuration: cane crushing capacity to 4000 TCD. The
For 6 mill system- 600 BHP rating steam inherent disadvantages of the steam turbines B - massecuite 242 229
turbine x 3 nos. (2 mills driven by a single steam can be overcome, especially after the
turbine) proposed increase in cane crushing rate, by C - massecuite 354 313
For 4 mill system - 600 BHP rating steam the installation of hydraulic drives.
turbine x 2 Nos. (2 mills driven by a single steam The modified 4-mill system was provided
turbine) This configuration was designed to with a hydraulic drive of 600 kW rating.
cater to the initial installed capacity of 2500
TCD. Annual savings : Rs. 19.26 Million
Investment required : Rs. 100 Million
Payback period : 63 months
Energy savings

The net installed power consumption reduced from 0.895 kW/TCD (for average
crushing of 2500 TCD) to 0.509 kW/TCD (for average crushing of 4800 TCD). References
1. Annual Report 2007-08 Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public
In addition, very stable operating conditions (constant crushing) are being Distribution, GoI.
achieved, at almost negligible maintenance costs. 2. The Indian Sugar Industry Sector Road map 2017; KPMG in India
3. CII - IREDA Publication: "Investors Manual on Energy Efficiency".
Case Study 14: Install nozzle governing system for multi jet condensers
4. Stasticial Abstract 2007- CSO
Brief 5. LBNL - 62806; World Best Practice Energy Intensity Value for Selected
Industrial Sectors, February 2008.
6. TERI Energy Directory and Yearbook 2007
Before Improvement After Improvement
7. LBNL - 57293; Assessment of Energy use and energy savings potential
A 6750 TCD Plant was consuming 1150 A nozzle governing system was introduced for in selected industrial sector in India, August 2005.
kWh of Power at Cooling & Condensing controlling the water flow to the condenser. There
System was a substantial reduction in power consumption of 8. Japan Energy Conservation Directory
the injection water pumps. The power consumption of 9. LBNL - 54828: Emerging Energy Efficient Technologies in Industry
injection with pumps reduced from 1150 units/ton to
450 units/ton.
case studies of selected technologies - May 2004
10. National Energy Map of India: Technology Vision 2030
Energy savings 11. Report of the working group on Power for 11th Plan (2007-12)
12. Report of the working group on R&D for the Energy Sector for the
Annual savings : Rs. 19 Million per year formulation of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12)
Investment required : Rs. 5 Million 13. Report of the working group on new and renewable energy for 10th
Payback period : 3 months Five Year Plan (2007-12)
14. BP Statistical Review, June 2008
Case Study 15: Installation of Fully Automated Continuous Vacuum Pans for 15. www.indiansugar.com
Curing 16. www.eeii.org.in
17. www.energymanagertraining.com
Brief
18. www.avantgarde-india.org
Energy savings

Before Improvement After Improvement

In a 6000 TCD plant,batch vacuum
pans were installed for A-
massecuite and B- massecuite and
continuous vacuum pans for C-
massecuite curing.
Consequent to the capacity
upgradation to 8000 TCD, continuous
vacuum pans were installed for A-
massecuite, B- massecuite and C-
massecuite curing.

414 415
Notes Chapter 14
Aluminium Industry

14.1 Introduction

India has the fifth largest reserves of Bauxite in the world, the main raw material for
making Aluminium. The per capita Aluminium consumption in India is only 1.6 kg
as against 8 kgs in China and 30 kgs in developed countries. The World's average
per capita consumption of Aluminium is about 10 times of that of India. The
demand of Aluminium is expected to grow by about 9 percent per annum from the
present consumption levels. India is a net exporter of Alumina and Aluminium
metal. Four Aluminium plants in the country i.e., NALCO (National Aluminium
Company Ltd.), HINDALCO (Hindustan Aluminium Company Ltd.), MALCO
(Madras Aluminium Company Ltd. & BALCO (Bharat Aluminium Company Ltd.)
account for the entire production of Aluminium in the country.

14.2 Present Capacity & Growth Potential

The total installed capacity of Aluminium is about 3% of the global capacity. The
installed capacity in 2006-07 of Alumina & primary Aluminium was about 3.02 MT
& 1.18 MT (Million tonnes) respectively. The production of Aluminium from 2004-
05 to 2006-07 is shown in figure 14.1 below :

Fig - 14.1 : Production of Aluminium

(Source : The Energy Data Directory & Yearbook, Teddy, 2007 & individual company websites)

14.3 Aluminium manufacturing process

Primary Aluminium process consists of four stages :

I. Mining of Bauxite
II. Refining of Bauxite ore to produce Alumina (Bayer's process)
III. Smelting of Alumina to produce Aluminium (Electrolysis process)

417
 • Soderberg system
• Pre-baked system
IV. Casting & Rolling
14.3.1 Alumina Refining (Bayer's Process)
Alumina is the basic raw material for production of Aluminium and is obtained
from Bauxite, a mineral containing upto 60% in the form of mono/trihydratec.
The Bayer process is the most economical route for production of Alumina, used
throughout the world. The production of Alumina from Bauxite is carried out
through the Bayer route, an extractive hydro- metallurgical process which belongs
to the alkaline group of processes.
Alumina production process consists of crushing and grinding of Bauxite with
caustic liquor in ball/rod mills. The slurry after desilication is pumped into large
tanks/autoclaves/tubes for digestion at 110°C to 300°C depending upon the
mineralogy of Bauxite. The digested slurry is diluted and classified in thickeners.
The overflow (Aluminate liquor) is pumped for controlled filtration and underflow
containing red mud is washed / filtered and disposed to red mud pond. The filtered
Aluminate liquor is cooled to 50-85°C in plate heat exchanger/flash tanks and
pumped to precipitation tanks with addition of seed hydrate and retained for 30-75
hours with finishing temperature of 40-55°C depending on the type of Alumina
to be produced. The precipitated hydrate slurry is classified and the coarser part
(under flow) is filtered and washed to obtain the product hydrate and the fine part is
recycled as seed hydrate. The hydrate containing 10-20% moisture, is calcined in
rotary kilns/stationary calciners at 1000°C -1200°C to obtain calcined
Alumina. Generally two tonnes of Bauxite is required to produce one tonne of
Alumina.
Figure 14.2 shows the flow diagram of the Bayer Process & Figure 14.3 shows the
material balance for the production of one tonne of Alumina.
Fig 14.2 : Bayer's Process for production of Alumina
418
Bauxite
49 %
Al203
2247 kg
CaO 39 kg
Na2Co3 74 kg
Water 921 litre
ALUMINA REFININGS
90.9 %
EFFICIENT
RED
MUD
1963 kg
Alumina
1000 kg
Fig 14.3 : Material balance for production of one tonne of Alumina
(Source : Investors Manual for Energy Efficiency; EMC; CII & IREDA)
14.3.2 Smelting of Alumina to Aluminium (Electrolysis process)
Alumina is the main input for the production of Aluminium through electrolysis
process. The Aluminium metal is produced through electrolytic reduction of
calcined Alumina, based on the process invented by C.M. Hall of USA and P.L.T.
Heroult of France. However, there are two technologies used in smelting process
i.e., Pre-baked system & Soderberg system.
The Pre-baked technology uses multiple anodes in each cell, which are pre-baked in
a separate facility and attached to rods to suspend the anodes in the cell. New
anodes are exchanged for spent anodes, i.e. anodes butts, recycled into new anodes.
This technology is more prevalent in industries. The Soderberg technology uses a
continuous anode which is delivered to the cell (pot) in the form of paste, which
bakes in the cell itself.
In the Electrolysis process, Alumina is dissolved in fused electrolyte bath of cryolite
at operating temperature ranging from 920oC to 970oC. Under the influence of high
intensity direct current, Alumina gets dissociated to Aluminium and Oxygen ions in
the electrolytic cells. Gases evolved are cleaned to recover the valuable fluorides
and reduce the concentration of noxious contaminants before discharge to the
atmosphere. Molten Aluminium is tapped from the bottom of electrolytic cells and
cast into ingots, billets, etc. for conversion to semis. On an average, it takes 15.7
kWh of electricity to produce one kg of Aluminium from Alumina.
Thereafter, Aluminium semis covering flat and non-flat products are produced
utilizing the processes of DC casting, continuous casting, extrusion, hot and cold
rolling. Generally about two tonnes of Alumina is required to produce one tonne of
Aluminium. Material balance for producing one tonne of Aluminium from
Alumina is shown in Figure 14.4 :
419
 The technologies adopted both in India & abroad are same but they differ in energy
efficiencies as some of the units in India are still using self-baking anodes,
99 % (Soderberg technology) instead of multiple pre-baked anodes. 40% of the
Alumina
Both Carbon installed capacity in India is based on Soderberg technology, whereas 60% of it has
Make-up Anode
43 kg switched over to the new more efficient pre-baked technology. The Aluminium
plants have set a target of 1-2% reduction in SEC in the next 5 yrs. High electrical
Electrohytic
energy saving potential exists in the smelter section for the production of
Reduction Aluminium. The major energy consumption in the Aluminium refining process
(Bayers's process) are the digestion and calcination stages. About 30% of the total
energy consumption is utilized in digestion process, whereas calcination consumes
Gas
1340 kg about 32% of the total energy. Typical energy consumption in different stages is
Molten
Aluminium given in the Table 14.1 :

Table 14.1: Typical Energy Consumption in Bayer's Process

Blending Flux Process Energy (GJ/t) % of total Energy

C 12 etc Consumption
Slag Preparation 0.37 2.3
(Al=Al203) Digestion 4.79 29.5
Al Settling / Washing 0.65 4.0
INGOTS Precipitation 1.06 6.5
1000 kg Evaporation 4.3 26.5
Calcination 5.07 31.2
(Source : Energy Requirements for Aluminium Production )

Fig 14.4 : Material balance for production of one tonne of Aluminium
(Source: Investors Manual for Energy Efficiency, EMC, CII & IREDA)
14.4 Energy Consumption in Aluminium Plants
14.4.1 Energy Intensity
Coal, furnace oil and electricity are primary energy inputs for Aluminium
production. Coal is primarily used to generate steam, which is used in the process
while fuel oil is mainly used in calcination of Alumina and various furnaces in
fabrication plants. Electricity is the major energy input in Aluminium production
and is considered to be a prime factor in determining economics of Aluminium
production. Energy accounts for nearly 40% of Aluminium production costs for
metal. Hence, all primary metal producers have installed their own captive power
plants to have uninterrupted power supply for their use. Aluminium has a long
working life and can be easily recycled. Recycling would require less energy i.e.,
about 5% of the total energy required to manufacture primary Aluminium from
Bauxite.
As compared to the production of other metals, Aluminium industry is most energy
intensive consuming energy to the tune of 80 GJ/tonne (including smelting) of
metal, whereas Copper and Zinc production consumes 20 GJ/tonne and 15
GJ/tonne of energy respectively.
14.4.2 Specific Energy Consumption
The specific energy consumption in Indian Aluminium plants is quite high. It
ranges between 75.6 GJ/t - 83.2 GJ/t (including smelting) for primary Aluminium.
The specific energy consumption in smelting of Aluminium is 15000 - 16500 kWh
per tonne. The operating efficiency in terms of energy consumption is only 40%,
which theoretically should be about 5990 kWh per tonne of Aluminium metal.
420
14.5 Energy Efficiency measures undertaken in Aluminium Plants in India
Most of the plants have implemented a number of energy conservation measures in
the past and have specific plans to implement a few in the near future. Major energy
conservation measures implemented during the last three years in this sector are
given below:
14.5.1 Aluminium Refining
Medium term projects
• Installation of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) controlled burners in
furnaces.
• Installation of Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) for spent liquor pump
feeding to evaporator
• Installation of VFD for red mud pond feed pump
• Installation of VFD for filtered aluminate liquor pump
• Installation of seal pots for condensate recovery in digesters, evaporators,
HP and LP heaters
• Installation of VFD for spent liquor pump feeding to Plate Heat Exchanger
(PHE)
• Optimizing the operation of filter feed pumping system
• Optimizing the operation of the slurry pumps in precipitation area
• Optimizing excess O2 % in kiln by continuous monitoring
• Avoiding air infiltration in kiln by continuous monitoring
• Avoiding air infiltration in kiln flue gas exhaust line
421
 • Replacing red mud filter vacuum pumps with new high efficiency vacuum
pumps
• Utilizing the standby body in evaporator and increasing the steam economy
Long-term projects
• Installation of de-super heaters for better heat transfer and steam saving in
Aluminium refining.
• Installation of energy efficient screw compressors.
• Installation of liquid vapour hydro cyclone in evaporation feed flash tank
to avoid caustic entrainment to the hotwell water and facilities.
• Installation of thermo-compressor to recover flash steam from pure
condensate tank in evaporator section.
• Segregation of pick-up and drying zone vacuum in red mud filters
• Sweetening the digestion process by adding Gibbsitic Bauxite having
higher solubility in downstream of higher temperature digestion circuit.
• Installation of technology upgraded recuperator in place of shell type in
melting furnace.
14.5.2 Aluminium Smelter
Medium term projects:
• Installation of data acquisition system
• Installation of thyristor control in coke conveying vibrators in carbon plant
• Installation of correct size cooling water supply pump for rectifier cooling
• Installation of screw conveyor and avoiding the operation of a centrifugal fan
in Carbon plant.
• Installation of variable frequency drive for fire hydrant pump
• Installation of variable fluid coupling for scrubber fans
• Reducing external bus-bar voltage drop across bypass joints and across rod
to stud joints
• Improvement of insulation of sidewalls of the pots to minimize the heat loss
due to convection and radiation
Long term projects
• Conversion of the Soderberg technology to the Pre Baked Cathode
Technology in the pots
• Installation of point feeding in the Aluminium pots
• Coating of cathode surface of electrolytic cells with Titanium Boride (TINOR)
• Replacement of hot tamping mix with cold tamping mix
• Installation of variable fluid coupling for scrubber ID fans and avoiding
damper control
14.6 Case Studies of Energy Conversation in Indian Aluminium Plants
Case Study 1 : Energy Conservation in Mining area
Brief
Selection of mining equipment is the thrust area for energy conservation in a mine.
The NALCO mine is a highly mechanized mine operated with different types of
suitable equipment. All the major HEMM (Heavy Earth Moving Machinery) are
422
diesel operated only. NALCO has introduced Trench concept of mining with
staggered movement of faces following the mineralized thickness enabling
economical extraction of ore. Selective extraction of contaminated ore at the
bottom layer is another important feature of this method of mining. Each trench is
mined in two distinct phases: Mass mining of bauxite up to a depth of 10 m by front
end loader and dumper combination and selective mining of the remaining bauxite
in contact with the wall in the 2nd phase by hydraulic back hoe shovel and dumper
combination.
HSD accounts for over 90% of the power cost of the mine and 7 % of the total mining
cost, and the management had initiated lot of action in this area. PCRA had
conducted the Energy Audit for the HEMMs deployed at this mine.
Energy Savings:
1. Recycling of hydraulic and transmission oil, contribute an annual saving of
Rs 4.2 Million. It was proposed to adopt 'Electrostatic Liquid Cleaner in
series with Vaccum Dehydration Machine' with a meager investment of
Rs 0.4 Million. Annual consumption at the present production level is 35 kL
of Hydraulic Oil and 50 kL of Transmission Oil.
2. Recycling of engine oil : The total annual consumption level is to the tune of
3000 kL. By recycling, Rs 1.4 Million can be saved, in addition to improving
upon the engine efficiency.
3. Use of Mineral Water in radiators: An amount of Rs 0.57 Million can be
saved annually by replacing the present system of using industrial water in
radiators alongwith high value coolants.
4. Installing Load Cell in each Dumper : By installing load cells the percentage
productivity of the dumpers when loaded by loaders can be improved and
quantified. It has been observed that there has been wide variation at times
in the percentage loading into the dumpers. By installing load cells in 14 nos.
of 50Tonne dumpers, a total saving of Rs 0.34 Million can be achieved.
Investment in installing load cells will be about Rs 1.2 Million and payback
period is 3 years.
5. Construction of RCC road in permanent haul roads : This can generate a
saving of Rs 1.7 Million due to improvement in engine life, fuel saving, better
tyre life etc. Investment is Rs 14 Million.
6. Additive dosing in HSD: A total saving of Rs 0.57 Million can be achieved
through improvement in efficiency of diesel operated HEMMs like dumpers,
dozers, drills, loaders.
7. Performance improvement in blasting : Less generation of oversize boulders
result in better productivity of loading and dumping machineries. This also
improves productivity of the crusher due to less jamming, uniform feeding,
resulting in better electrical motor life.
Some of the other Energy Conservation Initiatives undertaken by the mine are :
• Variable Frequency Drive in Crusher and conveying system
• Semi-Mobile Crusher Conveyor system
As part of their 6.0 Million Tonnes expansion plan NALCO management had
approved commissioning of 'Semi-Mobile Crusher Conveyor' system. M/s
ThyssenKrupp of Pune will execute the work at a cost of over Rs 1 Billion. This
423
will further reduce HSD consumption of the mine and the total energy bill, since this
system will reduce the hauling length of the Dumpers. Thermo
Compressor
Motive Steam Evaporator or
Case Study 2 : Improved Energy through slotted anode 14-15 kg/cm2 LP header

Brief 3 TPH Flash

Steam
A mixture of computational and physical modelling techniques helps conserve
energy by improving slotted anode designs, making aluminium reduction cells PCT
Steam Plant
more efficient. The project was taken up by engineers in their plant. The reducing of
0.10 volt / pot has the potential of saving 325 kWh / t (at 94% current efficiency) &
also enhance production of aluminium. In this system, the voltage saving was done Fig 14.5 : Installation of thermo-compressor for recovery of flash steam
by modifying the anode to 'slotted anode' to reduce bubble resistance. The slots
were cut width-wise. Energy Savings

Energy Savings Quantity of steam recovered : 3 TPH

Annual Savings : Rs 5.48 Million
1. Saving of 0.105 volts / pot led to the energy saving of 341 kWh/t aluminium. Investment : Rs 3 Million
2. Total Power saving is 116.62 million kWh per year. Payback period : 7 months
3. Increase in potline amperage led to increase in smelter production of 8155
MT/yr. Case Study 5 : Installing seal pot system for condensate recovery
4. GHG reduction by 357 kg CO2 / MT or 122104 t CO2 /year @ smelter
Brief
capacity of 342000 MT & emission factor as 1047 gm/kwh based on IAI
guidelines. The latest trend is to replace steam traps with seal pots wherever steam
consumption is more than 1 tonne per hour. Seal pots were installed for condensate
Annual Saving : Rs. 434 Million (energy saving plus production increase)
recovery in the following equipment:
Investment : In-house design & modification.
Payback Period : Immediate a) Digesters
b) Evaporators
Case Study 3 : Installing variable frequency drive for spent liquor pump feeding
c) HP heaters & LP heaters
to evaporator
Energy Savings
Brief
Steam saved : 250 Kg/hr.
Variable frequency drive (VFD) with feed back control for the spent liquor feed
Annual Savings : Rs 0.45 Million
pump to new evaporator was installed. Reduction in power consumption of about
Investment : Rs 0.75 Million
400 units/day was achieved.
Payback period : 20 months
Energy Savings
Case Study 6 : Optimizing excess O2 in kiln by continuous monitoring
Annual Savings : Rs 0.18 Million
Investment : Rs 0.45 Million Brief
Payback period : 30 months
Online oxygen analyser was installed and the % of oxygen level in the flue gas
Case Study 4: Installing thermo-compressor and recovering flash steam from is continuously monitored. The combustion air supply to the kiln is controlled
pure condensate tank in evaporator section and percentage oxygen of 3% is maintained in the flue gas.

Brief Energy Savings

Thermo compressor was installed to recover the flash steam from the pure Increase in combustion efficiency (%) :2
condensate tank and the recovered steam is sent to low pressure steam Annual Savings : Rs 2.95 Million
header. Investment : Rs 0.7 Million
Payback period : 3 months
The motive steam used is about 18-20 TPH at a pressure of 12 kg/cm2.
The schematic diagram of the modified system is shown in figure 14.5 below
424 425
Case Study 7 : Replacing old Horizontal Stud Soderberg (HSS) cells with Table 14.2 : World Best Practice "Final Energy Intensity" Values for
modern point feeder prebake cells Aluminum Production (values are per metric tonnes aluminium).

Brief Primary Secondary

Aluminium Aluminium
It was proposed to revamp the entire system by installing modern point feeder pre- kgce*/t GJ/t kgce/t GJ/t
bake (PFPB) cells. The proposed system require energy consumption of about Alumina Production Digesting (fuel) 414 12.1
(Bayer) Calcining Kiln (fuel) 223 6.5
990 million kWh/year to produce 29500 tonnes/year of aluminium.
Electricity 48 1.4
Anode Manufacture Fuel 35 1.0
The specific energy consumption for producing one tonnes of Aluminum (Carbon) Electricity 7 0.21
during electrolysis would be 14 kWh/kg (Electrical Energy). AluminumSmelting Electricity 1671 49.0
(Electrolysis)
Energy Savings Ingot Casting Electricity 12 0.35

Increase in energy efficiency of retrofit prebake cells :10% Total 2411 70.6 85 2.5
GHG emission reduction : 50% * kgce= kilograms of coal equivalent
Water consumption reduction : 30% (Source: World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values for selected Industrial Sectors; LBNL; by
Reduction in specific consumption of raw materials - Coal tar pitch, Worrel E., Price L., Neelis M., Galitsky C. & Nan Z.)
aluminium fluride and petroleum coke.
Table 14.3 : World Best Practice "Primary Energy Intensity" Values
Annual Savings : Rs 84 Million
for Aluminum Production (values are per metric tonnes aluminium).
14.7 Energy Consumption (World's Best Practice)
Primary Secondary
Aluminium Aluminium
The specific energy consumption of Aluminium plants in key developed countries
kgce/t GJ/t kgce/t GJ/t
ranges between 70.5 GJ/t - 73 GJ/t for primary Aluminium. However, considering Alumina Production Digesting (fuel) 414 12.1
the best processes in one of the best plants in the World, the SEC is 70.6 GJ/t of (Bayer) Calcining Kiln (fuel) 223 6.5
primary Aluminium. The specific energy consumption in smelting of Aluminium
Electricity 145 4.3
is 14000 - 14500 kwh per tonne. This is because of the best energy efficiency Anode Manufacture Fuel 35 1.0
measures adopted. The 'World's Best Practice Values' for Aluminum production (Carbon) Electricity 22 0.64
are given in table 14. 2 & 14.3 below. These values consist of : AluminumSmelting (Electrolysis) Electricity 5064 148.4

Ingot Casting Electricity 36 1.06

(i) Final Energy Intensity Values, i.e. Energy used at the production facility.
(ii) Primary Energy Intensity Values, i.e. sum of the energy used at the Total 5940 174.0 259 7.6
production facility plus energy used to produce electricity consumed at
the facility. Note: Primary energy includes electricity generation, transmission, and distribution losses of 67%.
In this assessment, the energy used for Bauxite extraction is not included because it (Source: World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values for selected Industrial Sectors; LBNL; by
depends on the ore deposit characteristics. Also, the secondary Aluminium Worrel E., Price L., Neelis M., Galitsky C. & Nan Z.)
production is based on melting and reshaping scrap Aluminium.
14.8 World Best Practices for Energy Efficiency in Aluminum Industry
Table 14.2 provides best practice final energy intensity values for the process
steps for primary Aluminium production along with the best practice energy Considerable developments have taken place in the process for production of
intensity value for secondary Aluminium production. Table 14.3 provides primary Alumina, Aluminium and semis in the developed countries. Some of these are given
energy values for these two Aluminium production processes. below :
14.8.1 Alumina Plants

• Use of rod mills with classifiers for wet grinding of Bauxite.

• Adoption of tube digestion system in order to achieve improved digestion
yield.
• Adoption of Alcoa combination process for digestion and extraction of
Trihydrate as well as Monohydrate Alumina.
• Adoption of direct filtration technology to separate the red mud directly
downstream the digestion under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature.

426 427
 • Liquor purification system for removal of carbonates and organic matters. Annual saving : Rs 1.8 Million(@65Kg. /hr. production rate & 1600 hrs./yr.
• Improved mechanical agitation system for precipitators. Operation & holding time of 2 hrs./day)
• Adoption of special disc filters for filtration of seed and product hydrate. Investment : Rs 2 Million
• Adoption of multistage falling film evaporation systems in place of Payback period : 13months
conventional single stage system.
• Installation of stationary calciners in place of conventional rotary kilns. Case Study 9 : Installation of a small capacity variable pump for keeping
• Adoption of dry disposal system of red mud. hydraulic pressure
• Automation and computerized process control systems for better
Brief
operation of the plants.
Even when pressure oil was not needed for the pressure-oil system, the main pump
14.8.2 Aluminum Smelters
of the hydraulic unit was operated in order to compensate leaks. Instead, a small-
• Improvement in electrolyte bath chemistry to minimize re-oxidation of capacity pump is installed to compensate leaks. The main pump operation requires
metal. 11 kW of electric power whereas, the small-capacity pump operation requires only
• Improvement in Alumina feeding system by adopting point feeding for 3.7 kW.
proper distribution of Alumina in the electrolyte.
Energy Savings
• Improvement on magnetic field characteristics through bus-bar network
redesign for stable metal pad. Energy Savings (kW) : 7.3
• Increase in the current efficiency by accurate control of process parameters. Annual saving : Rs 0.2 Million
• Possibility of lowering anode current density by increasing the anode size. Investment amount : Rs 0.2 Million
• Replacement of monolithic cathode lining with prebaked cathode blocks Payback: period : 1 year
for better cell life.
Case Study 10 : Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) control of pumps
14.8.3 Semis Production and fume blowers, and flow rate reduction of by-pass circuit
• New processes like CONFORM extrusion and hydro-static extrusion for Brief
improved extruded products.
In a rolling schedule, the time ratio between the rolling operation and the set-up
14.9 Energy Efficient Technologies being used in Aluminum Plants in operation is 3:2. The conventional method was as follows:
Japan
1) Coolant pumps and fume blowers were operated continuously.
Case Study 8 : Immersion melting plating furnace 2) During the set-up, output of the coolant pumps was returned to the
coolant tank through the bypass by switching the 3-way valve. However,
Brief
power consumption in the set-up time was greater than that in the rolling
A conventional furnace indirectly heats the metal in a vessel made of steel from operation.
outside through the vessel bottom or side wall. An immersion melting furnace is an
The following measures were taken:
energy-saving type furnace which heats the metal directly with a combustion-
heating immersion tube. The furnace has a combustion-heating immersion tube 1) The numbers of revolutions of the coolant pumps and fume blowers are
integrated with a special gas burner made of ceramic, a temperature sensor, and controlled in accordance with the rolling schedule by introducing the
specially-designed furnace- temperature control device. VVVF apparatus.
2) Power consumption by the coolant pumps during the set-up time is reduced
Energy Savings
by throttling the valve of the bypass circuit to the coolant pumps.

Before After Saving / Energy savings

Improvement Improvement Improvement
Specific energy Reduction of power consumption by VVVF control : 2 Million kWh/year
consumption 2500 700 1800 Reduction of power consumption by throttling the
(kCal/kg) bypass valve : 1.2 Million kWh/yr
Holding energy Annual Saving : Rs 2 Million
consumption 62,000 23,000 39,000
(kCal/kg) Investment : Rs 4 Million
Payback period : 2 years

428 429
Case Study 11 : Improvement of thermal efficiency for rapid aluminium melting Annual saving : Rs 10 Million
furnace Investment : Rs 28 Million
Brief Payback period : 3 years

Approximately 30% reduction of unit requirement of energy has been achieved Case Study 13 : Improving Operation by reduced number of revolutions of
through measures as : circulating fan
• mixing of molten metal Brief
• burner combustion control
• controlling the molten metal temperature A circulating fan of a soaking pit was constantly operated at 100% of the number of
• controlling furnace pressure revolutions from the start to the end of the operation. Energy saving is realized by
• installation of recuperator. the improvement of operation, where the number of revolutions of the circulating
fan is reduced.
Energy savings
Following two points are found by controlling the number of revolutions of the
Conventional iron After improvement Saving/ circulating fan:
melting furnace (immersion type Improvement
holding furnace) 1) Reducing the number of revolutions of the circulating fan for a few hours
Energy unit 50 (100%) 22 ( 44%) 28 after the start of heating does not change the heating time.
requirement
(kcal/kg) 2) Reducing the number of revolutions of the circulating fan after the end of
soaking gives no effects on material temperature.
Yield (metal 7 (100%) 2 (29%) 5
loss) Energy saving
( kg/T)
From start to 3 hours : 70 kW to 35 kW
Energy savings After end of soaking : 56 kW to 28 kW
Energy savings (kL/yr.) : 184 Annual saving : Rs 2 Million
Annual saving : Rs 16 Million Investment : Rs 2.8 Million
Investment : Rs 24 Million Payback period : 1.5 years
Payback period : 1.5 years
Case Study 14 : Heat loss improvement of energy saving type electric holding
Case Study 12 : Regenerative burner type aluminium melting furnace furnace
Brief Brief
This improvement is to use a highly efficient furnace for melting aluminium. The This is an example of improvement of heat loss at electric holding furnaces used
furnace employs oil or gas fired regenerative type burners and reduces the specific near the casting machine following the melting work of aluminium alloy ingot.
fuel consumption by more than 30 % compared with a conventional melting Although individual energy consumption is not large, it has a huge effect
furnace. Operating condition of furnace is 40 T/charge, 4 charges/day & 300 considering that a number of electric holding furnaces have been already installed.
days/yr.
Energy savings Energy savings

Conventional Regenerative melting Effect Before After Saving/

melting furnace furnace Improvement Improvement Improvement
Waste heat recovery Recuperator Regenerative substance
method (alumina ball) - Electricity
consumption 156,000 42,000 114,000
Combustion air 0
200 C on average
0
800 C on average
temperature Increase by 6000C amount (kWh/y)
Air ratio 1.2 on average 1.1 on average Reduced
Crude oil saving - -
Waste heat recovery ratio 15.1 % 68.2 % Increased by 53.1% amount rate (kL/y) 28
Specific fuel 3
682 x 10 kCal/t 3
478 x 10 kCal/t
3
204 x 10 kCal/t
consumption (30% reduced)
Heat efficiency 40.2 % 57.5 % Increased by 17.3% Annual saving : Rs 0.8 Million
Reduction in crude oil 1,058.6 kL/year Investment : Rs 2 Million
equivalent Payback period : 2.5 years
430 431
Case Study 15 : Improvement of operation of hot air circulation fan for the e) Provision of dry scrubbing system for gas cleaning and recovery of fluorides.
Aluminium annealing furnace f) Computerisation of baking furnace firing system.
Brief 14.10.3 Semis
This is an example of remodeling the operation pattern of the hot air circulation fan a) Electromagnetic casting of slabs and billets.
of an annealing furnace for aluminium coil heat treatment to contribute to energy b) Hot top casting of billets with air-slip process.
saving. The coil annealing furnace is a batch type electric furnace. Without
replacing the existing motor, a frequency converter has been installed in the control (ii) Rolling
board of the fan motor. a) Thin strip casting with cold rolling.
Energy Savings b) Introduction of automatic gauge, flatness and crown control systems.
e) Improved design features for heat treatment furnaces.
Before After Saving /
improvement improvement Improvement (iii) Extrusion
Production volume 29,568 29,616 48 (increased) b) Introduction of efficient heat treatment (Air & Water quenching on run-out
(t/y) table).
Electric power 1,502,904 1,284,400 218,504 (reduced)
consumption (kWh/y) d) Installation of combined direct/indirect extrusion press.
Electric power unit e) Installation of Confirm extrusion process.
50.8 43.4 7.4 (reduced)
requirement (kWh/t)
References:
Reduction converted 53
into crude oil (kL/y) 1. 'Technology Evaluation in Aluminum Industry' by Department of
Scientific & Industrial Research-2006.
Annual saving : Rs 1.6 Million 2. Directory of Energy Conservation Technology in Japan, prepared by New
Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization, The Energy
Investment : Rs 2.5 Million
Conversation Centre, Japan.
Payback period : 1.5 years
3. Investors Manual for Energy Efficiency, Energy Management Centre, CII
14.10 Directory of ENCON Measures with expected benefits & IREDA.
4. Energy Management Policy -Guidelines for Energy Intensive Industry of
14.10.1 Alumina India, Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
5. Websites : http://www.qal.com.au/
a) Replacement of existing rotary kilns with stationary calciners. : http://www.mam.gov.tr/
b) Adoption of tube digestion system for dissolution of predominantly 6. The Energy Data Directory & Yearbook, TEDDY, 2007
monohydrate Bauxites. 7. World Best Practice Energy Intensity Values for Selected Industrial
Sectors (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory),
c) Removal of impurities from plant liquor. Environmental Energy Technologies Division; by Ernst Worrell, Lynn
d) Adoption of dry disposal of red mud. Price, Maarten Neelis, Christina Galitsky & Zhon Nan, 2008.
e) Use of Variable Speed Drives for major process pumps and large motors 8. A book on Life cycle Assessment of Aluminum - Inventory Data for the
in the plant. Worldwide Primary Aluminum Industry, International Aluminum
Institute.
f) Provision of mechanical agitation or improved air agitation system in 9. Energy Requirements in Relation to Prevention & Re-use of waste
precipitation unit. streams. Report : Aluminum, Worrell, E. & de Beer J, 2006.
g) Modernization of process control system in plants. 10. A book on Process Heating in the Metals Industry by Flannagam J.M.
11. A book on Energy Requirements for Aluminum Production : Historical
14.10.2 Aluminium Perspectives, Theoretical Limits & New opportunities by Choate W.T.,
Green J.A.S.
a) Improvement in cell design 12. Electrolytic Production of Aluminium, Electrochemistry Encyclopedia,
b) Redesigning of bus bar arrangement. Electrochemical Technology Corpn., Beck T.R.,
c) Provision of improved Alumina transportation system. (http:// electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-a01-al-prod.htm)
13. IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2007.
d) Provision of mechanized and automated cell operations.

432 433
 Section 5
Climate Change
Chapter - 15 Impact of climate change in India
Ø
 Chapter 15
Impact of Climate Change in India
15.1 Introduction:

A sustainable energy future would mean society's energy needs are met using
resources that are available to us over the short, medium & long-term basis. At the
same time, it would mean producing and utilizing all these energy resources in a
way that minimizes adverse impact on the environment and maximizes economic &
social benefits. Creating a sustainable energy future is a significant challenge,
because of :

• Surging energy demand driven by population growth and economic

development
• Environmental impact of energy production and consumption, particularly
those associated with Green House Gas (GHG) emissions
• Concern about security of supplies

It is the rapid pace of industrialization during the last 70 years, that has contributed
immensely to the surge in energy demand, increased emissions and Global
warming leading to climate change.

15.2 Global Warming:

Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth's
near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century. The average global air
temperature near the Earth's surface increased by 0.74 ± 0.18°C (1.33 ± 0.32°F)
during the last hundred years ending 2005. Climate model projections summarized
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicate that average
Global surface temperature is likely to rise further by 1.1 to 6.4°C (2.0 to 11.5°F)
during the twenty-first century. The climate model further projects that, "most of the
observed increase in Globally averaged temperature since the mid-twentieth
century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-made)
Green House Gas concentrations" via an enhanced greenhouse effect.

15.3 Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere:

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared
radiations by atmospheric gases warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. As
can be seen from figure -15.1, the monthly CO2 measurements display small
seasonal oscillations in an overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum is reached
during the Northern Hemisphere's late spring and declines during the Northern
Hemisphere growing season as plants remove some CO2 from the atmosphere.
Existence of the greenhouse effect as such is not disputed. Naturally occurring
greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33°C (59°F), without which
Earth would be uninhabitable. On Earth, the major greenhouse gases are water
vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect (not including clouds),
carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9-26% methane (CH4), which causes 4-9% and
ozone, which causes 3-7% green house effect. The concern is how the strength of
the greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the atmospheric
concentrations of some greenhouse gases.

437
 15.3.1 Attributed & expected effects of Green House Gases :
Fig 1 : 15.1 Increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). since 1960
Although it is difficult to connect specific weather events to Global warming, an
increase in Global temperatures may in turn cause broader changes, including
glaciers retreat, arctic shrinkage and worldwide sea level rise. Changes in the
amount and pattern of precipitation may result in flooding and drought. There may
also be changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Other
effects may include changes in agricultural yields, addition of new trade routes,
reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions and increases in the range of
disease vectors. One study predicts 18 to 35% of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant
species would be extinct by 2050, based on future climate projections.

15.3.2 Carbon Footprint

The carbon footprint is a measure of the impact our activities have on the
environment and in particular climate change. It relates to the amount of
greenhouse gases produced in our day-to-day lives through burning of fossil fuels
for electricity generation, heating and transportation etc.
The carbon footprint is a measure of all greenhouse gases we individually produce
(Source :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/globalwarming)
and has units of tonne (or kg) of carbon dioxide equivalent.

Human induced anthropogenic green-house gases emissions are from activities The pie chart below shows the main elements which make up the total of a typical
like: person's carbon footprint in the developed world. A carbon footprint is made up of
- Energy production from fossil fuels the sum of two parts, the primary footprint (shown on the right side of the pie chart)
- Industrial activities and the secondary footprint (shown on the left side of the pie chart).
- Transport
- Construction Fig. 15.2 : Carbon Footprints
- Agriculture
- Land use change & deforestration Share of public
Home-gas, oil and coal
15%
services
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of the 6 GHG gases accounted in terms of Financial service 12%
their CO2 equivalent are given in Table - 15.1 3%
Home-electricity
Recreation & leisure
12%
14%
Table - 15.1 House-buildings and Private transport
fumishings 10%
Gas GWP 9%
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 1 1 Car manufacture & Public transport
Methane (CH4) 21 21 delivery Food & drink 3%
7% 5%
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 310310 Clothes and personal Holiday flights
6%
Hydro-fluoracarbons (HFC) 11700
11700 effects
4%
Perfluorocarbon (PFC) 9500
9500
Sulphur Hexaflouride (SF6 ) 23900
23900 Secondary Footprint Primary Footprint
Source : www.unfccc.com Source : www.carbonprint.com

The present atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about 385 parts per million (ppm)
by volume. Future CO2 levels are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil
fuels and land-use change. The rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic,
sociological, technological and natural developments, but may be ultimately
limited by the availability of fossil fuels. The IPCC special report on 'Emissions
Scenarios' gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios, ranging from 541 to 970 ppm
by the year 2100. Fossil fuel reserves are expected to be sufficient to reach this
level and continue emissions past 2100 as well.
i. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the
burning of fossil fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation.
We have direct control of these.
ii. The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the
whole lifecycle of products we use - those associated with their manufacture and
eventual breakdown. To put it very simply, the more we buy the more emissions will
be caused on our behalf.

438 439
15.4 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is
an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the 'Earth
Summit', held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The treaty is aimed at
stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
On June 12, 1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC, that upon ratification
committed signatories' Governments to a voluntary "non-binding aim" to reduce
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases with the goal of "preventing
dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth's Climate System." These actions
were aimed primarily at industrialized countries, with the intention of stabilizing
their emissions of greenhouse gases at 1990 levels by the year 2000.
Since the UNFCCC entered into force, the parties have been meeting annually in
Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate
change. The last COP i.e. COP 14, was held from Dec. 01-12, 2008 at Poznan,
Poland.
15.4.1 Annexure I, Annexure II Countries & Developing Countries:
Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups:
• Annex I countries (industrialized countries)
• Annex II countries (developed countries which pay for costs of
developing countries)
• Developing countries (also known as non- Annex I countries)
Annex I countries agree to reduce their emissions (particularly carbon dioxide) to
target levels below their 1990 emissions. If they cannot do so, they must buy
emission credits or invest in conservation projects. Annex II countries, that have to
provide financial resources for the developing countries, are a sub-group of the
annex I countries consisting of the OECD members, without those that were with
transition economy in 1992.
Developing countries have no immediate restrictions under the UNFCCC. This
serves three purposes:
• Avoids restrictions on growth because pollution is strongly linked to
industrial growth, and developing economies can potentially grow very fast.
• They cannot sell emissions credits to industrialized nations to permit them to
over-pollute.
• Money and technologies are readily available from the developed countries
in Annex II.
Developing countries are not expected to implement their commitments under the
convention unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology and
this has lower priority than economic and social development in dealing with
poverty. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries, when
they are sufficiently developed.
The list of Annex I, Annex II & Non - Annex I countries is available on website of
UNFCCC. (http://unfccc.int/)
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15.4.2 Kyoto Protocol:
The Kyoto Protocol adopted by the 3rd Conference Of Parties (COP) on 11th December
1997 in Kyoto (Japan) and entered into force on 16th February 2005, is an international
agreement linked to the UNFCCC. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it
sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries including the European Union for
reducing Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. These amount to an average of five
percent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that, while the
Convention encouraged industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the
Protocol commits them to do so. Recognizing that developed countries are
principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the
atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol
places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but
differentiated responsibilities". 183 Parties of the Convention have ratified the
Protocol till date.
15.4.3 The Kyoto Mechanisms
Under the Treaty, countries must meet their targets primarily through national
measures. However, the Kyoto Protocol offers them an additional means of
meeting their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms. The Kyoto
mechanisms are:
• Emissions trading - known as "the carbon market"
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
• Joint implementation
The mechanisms help stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their
emission targets in a cost-effective way. The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an
important first step towards a truly Global emission reduction regime that will
stablise GHG emissions and provide the essential architecture for any future
international agreement on climate change.
By the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, a new
international framework needs to be negotiated and ratified that can deliver the
stringent emission reductions, the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) has clearly indicated are needed.
15.4.4. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
To help countries meet their emission targets and to encourage the private sector
and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction efforts, negotiators of
the Protocol included three market-based mechanisms - Emission Trading, the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation
The CDM defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol allows emission-reduction or
emission removal projects in developing countries to earn Certified Emission
Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. These CERs can be
traded and sold and used by industrialized countries to meet a part of their emission
reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
441
The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions,
while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their
emission reduction limitation targets. The projects must qualify through a rigorous
public registration and issuance process designed to ensure real, measurable and
verifiable emission reductions that are additional to what would have occurred
without the project. The mechanism is overseen by the CDM Executive Board,
answerable ultimately to the countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
In order to be considered for registration, a project must first be approved by the
Designated National Association (DNA). Public funding of CDM project activities
must not result in the diversion of official development assistance. Operational
since the beginning of 2006, the mechanism has already registered more than 1133
projects and is anticipated to produce CERs amounting to more than 2.7 billion
tonnes of CO2 equivalent in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol,
2008-2012.
15.4.5 CDM eligibility:
For a project to be considered for CDM, it should fulfill the following eligibility
criteria:
• The project must be in non - annexure 1 countries.
• The projects to reduce / eliminate emission than the usual measures taken
to achieve the same objective (e.g. use of biomass / windmill in place of
coal to generate electricity).
• Participation in CDM is voluntary
• The project contributes to the Sustainable Development of the host
country, i.e. the country where the project is being implemented. The
sustainable development indicators are:
• Social well-being.
• Economic well-being.
• Environmental well-being and
• Technological well-being.
• The project results in real, measurable and long term benefits in terms of
climate change mitigation, i.e. to assist in environment friendly
technology transfer, generate investment in developing countries and
promote sustainable development.
• The emission reduction must be 'Additional' to any reduction that would
have occurred without the project .
To satisfy the "Additional" criteria, the project:
• Should have started after the year 2000.
• Should not be the only alternative consistent with current laws and
legislations.
• Should not be the most lucrative investment option
• Is not a 'common practice', i.e. 'Business As Usual' (BAU)
The above additional criteria have an impact on CDM registration.
442
15.4.6 Stakeholders in CDM project:
The various stakeholders in CDM project are:
• The project developer: for project design, implementation and emissions
monitoring. This includes the industry, CDM consultant and
implementing agency.
• The Host Country's Designated National Authority (DNA): who would
approve the project based on national sustainable development objectives.
In India, the DNA is Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF).
• The Designated Operating Entities (DOE): for Validation against CDM
rules and Verification &Certification of actual emissions in terms of
tonnes of CO2 reduction.
• The Executive Board of UNFCCC: for issuance of Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs) certificate.
The total time required from the date of conception of the project to issuance of
CERs is normally 90-100 weeks.
15.4.7 Scale of CDM projects :
All the CDM projects in developing countries (non-annexure I countries) can be
categorized into:
i. Small Scale Projects
ii. Large Scale Projects
Small Scale project are those which are eligible for fast-track procedures (including
simplified baselines) provided by the CDM Executive Board and monitoring requirements.
The various categories of Small Scale projects are:
•Type I : Renewable Energy Projects with a maximum output capacity upto
15 MW
•Type II : Energy Efficiency improvement projects, which reduce energy
consumption on the supply and / or demand side, upto 60 Gwh per
year annually
•Type III : Other project activities that both reduce emissions by sources and
that directly emit less than 60, 000 tonnes CO2 equivalent annually.
The projects which do not fall under Small Scale projects are categorized into large-
scale projects.
The number of approved 'Methodologies' for CDM projects by the EB of
UNFCCC upto March 2008 are:
• For large-scale projects = 80
• For consolidated projects = 19
• For small-scale projects = 38
15.5 Indian Scenario on Climate Change :
India's per capita CO2 emissions are very low, at just over one tonne in 2005,
compared to 11 tonnes in the OECD countries. They are about half those of the
developing countries on an average. However, the emissions are expected to rise by
almost 60% by the year 2015. In 2005, India had released about 1.1 Gt of CO2,
which is 4% of the world total. It is estimated that by 2030, per capita emissions in
443
India are projected to double, but still these will be well below those of the OECD Table 15.2 : The energy sector CO2 emissions in the baseline scenario * (Tg CO2)
countries. * Tg - Terra gms.
1990 2010 2020
India signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in August, 2002. Since India is Baseline 532 1555 2308
exempted from the framework of the treaty, it is expected to gain from the protocol Coal 327 895 1336
in terms of transfer of technology and related foreign investments. Following the Oil 178 553 777
Gas 27 107 198
principle of common but differentiated responsibility, India maintains that the (Source : CDM Implementation in India; The National Strategy Studies, MOEF & TERI)
major responsibility of curbing emissions rests with the developed countries, which
have accumulated emissions over a long period of time. However, the U.S. and 15.5.3 Clean Development Mechanism in India
other Western nations assert that India and China will account for most of the
emissions in the coming decades, owing to their rapid industrialization and India has given host-country approval for 969 CDM projects as of July 2008.
economic growth. Renewable energy, including the renewable biomass, accounted for the largest
number of projects (533), followed by energy efficiency (303). Very few projects in
15.5.1 The Indian climate-friendly initiatives the forestry (6) and municipal solid waste (18) were included, despite their large
potential. The expected investments in these 753 projects (if all go on stream) is
The GHG intensity of the Indian economy in the year 2000, in terms of the about Rs. 1,06,900 crores.
purchasing power parity, is estimated to be little above 0.4 tonne CO2 equivalent
per 1000 US dollars, which is lower than that of the USA and the global Of the 969 projects, 347 projects have been registered by the Multilateral Executive
average. The Indian Government has targeted around 8-9% GDP growth rate per Board (CDMEB). India accounts for about 32% of the world total of 1133 projects
annum for 2007-12 to achieve its development priorities. In order to achieve these registered with the CDM EB till July 2008, followed by China, 22%, Brazil, 13%,
developmental aspirations, substantial additional energy consumption will be and Mexico, 10% (Source: UNFCCC). About 493 million Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs) are expected to be generated until 2012 if all these host-country
necessary and coal, being the largest domestic energy source, would continue to
approved projects in India go on stream. As of July 2008, 173 million CERs had
play a dominant role. Since GHG emissions are directly linked to economic been issued to projects worldwide, of which India accounted for 26.17%, CERs
growth, India's economic activities will necessarily involve increase in GHG (39.33 million), China, 35.22%, Korea, 15.73% and Brazil, 12.99%.
emissions from the current level. The CO2 equivalent emissions from India are
set to increase up to 3000 million tonnes by 2020. Any constraint will hamper The type of CDM projects registered in India are given below:
the economic development.
Fig 15.3 : Type of registered CDM projects in India
The GHG emissions in the years 1990, 1994 and 2000 increased from 988 to
1228 to 1484 million tonnes respectively and the compounded annual growth
rate of these emissions between 1990 and 2000 has been 4.2 per cent. A comparison
of the Indian emissions with some of the largest global emitters, indicates
that the absolute value of Indian emissions is 24% of the US, 31% of China
in 2000. The Indian per capita emissions are only 7% of the US, 13% of Germany,
14% of UK, 15% of Japan, 45% of China and 38% of global average in 2000.
The Indian GHG emissions are projected to increase by almost two times with
respect to the 1990 emissions in 2020.

15.5.2 GHG mitigation potential in India:

The National strategy study for CDM implementation in India conducted by TERI
has made projections of CO2 emissions in India in different sectors of economy and
the mitigation potential thereof. The ALGAS (Asia Least-Cost Greenhouse Gas
Abatement Strategy) study, made projections for sectoral GHG emissions from
India for the period 1990-2020 in order to identify the key areas for developing an (Source : Institute of Global Warming Environmental Strategy)
abatement strategy for the country. The energy sector projections for India are
Some cross-cutting challenges in CDM implementation in India are listed below:
summarized in Table 15.2. The baseline scenario represents the most likely
situation. Rather than projecting past trend, it includes some carbon abatement • The projects from India are generally small. Of the 347 projects registered
technologies and energy efficiency improvements that are likely to occur in the with the CDM EB till July 2008, more than 60% are small-scale projects (in
future, irrespective of the concerns for CO2 emission reduction. terms of the protocol definition).

• The portfolio is dominated by unilateral projects, i.e. the investors are Indian
parties, employ locally available technologies and use domestic financial
resources. While this has provided a significant impetus to local innovation,
444 445
 CDM has not led to the technology transfer from industrialized to developing Table 15.3: India's perspective plan for electric power during the 11th Plan period
countries as envisaged by the Protocol.
Power generation Thermal (coal NG/LNG/di Nuclear Hydro (MW) Total (MW)
• Industrialized countries have not participated significantly in project financing and lignite) esel (MW) (MW)
(MW)
and the project risks are mostly taken up by the host countries. Installed capacity 75002 NG:14692 4120 35209 141080
• Insurance companies in general have shown little interest in CDM projects, as on Jan. 2008 Diesel :
1202
which is unfortunate since they can catalyze carbon trading by providing risk Addition of capacity 39488 15531 7980 22580 74724
and financial analysis skills. till March 2012
• There is much subjectivity in the multilateral CDM process and divergent Total capacity as 114490 31425 12100 57789 215804
on March 2012
interpretations are given by different designated operating entities (DOEs) (Source : Ministry of Power, GoI)
accredited by the CDM EB.
• High transaction costs prevent the small-scale sector (in the Indian definition) The future capacity additions in the power sector are expected to be largely in the
from participating in CDM. thermal sector with coal being the predominant and cost effective fossil fuel in the
• In the absence of an International Transactions Log (ITL), there is lack of country.
reliable information in the carbon market on CDM transactions.
This being the case, the emission of GHGs from the power sector are likely to
Despite the above, there is encouraging response from Indian entrepreneurs to the increase significantly in the future. Any strategy for mitigation of emissions of
CDM across different sectors. GHGs from the power sector would center around improvement in efficiency of the
fossil fuel-based power plants by technology upgradation both for the existing
15.6 GHG mitigation in different Sectors in India: plants as well as for the plants to be established in future. The potential
technologies that can be adopted are:
Based on the targets and plans of the Government of India regarding capacity
additions in power and renewable energy sectors and the energy efficiency and i. Pulversied Fluidized Bed Combustion ( PFBC)
technological upgradation being adopted by different industries, the GHG ii. Supercritical & Ultra-supercritical (SC&USC) power plants
mitigation potential in key sectors, till the first commitment period i.e., till 2012 has iii. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power plants
been estimated and presented in Figure 15.4. iv. Underground coal gasification (UGC) technology
v. Coal cleaning technologies
Fig 15.4 : GHG mitigation potential in key sectors till 2012 vi. Renovation & Modernisation (R&M) of existing power plants.

15.6.1.1 GHG Mitigation options in Thermal Power Plants

The present energy mix in India for electricity generation is shown in table-15.4:

Table 15.4 : % Energy use for Power Generation

Source Percentage %
Coal 55
Hydropower 26
Oil and gas 10
(Source : CDM Implementation in India; The National Strategy Study by MOEF & TERI) Wind and solar power 6
Nuclear Power 3
15.6.1 GHG mitigation in Power Sector (Source : National Action Plan on Climate Change, GoI)

The power generation efficiency in India is very low by international standards.
India's power sector is one of the most CO2 intensive in the world. Coal based
thermal power stations emitted on an average, 943 grams of CO2 per kwh of
electricity produced in 2005-more than 50% higher than the world's average. The
total emissions of CO2 from power plants in 2005 were 659Mt, nearly 60% of the
total CO2 emissions in India.
The installed generation capacity of India is 1,41,080 MW as of Jan. 2008, yet there
are peaking shortages of 12.2% and energy deficit of 8.8%. The Government of
India has set a target of 215804 MW power generation capacities by March 2012
(Table 15.3), requiring a capacity addition of 74724 MW in the next four years.
At present, fossil fuels which account for 65% of the total power generation are
responsible for most of the GHG emissions. During the 11th Five-Year Plan, utility-
based generation capacity is expected to increase by 78,000 MW. A significant
proportion of this increase will be thermal - coal based. While the new investments
in the thermal power sector, which are substantial, have high efficiencies, the
aggregate efficiency of the older plants is low. In addition, high ATCL (Aggregate
Technical and Commercial Loss) in power transmission and distribution is an area
of key concern.
There are three ways of lowering the emissions from coal based Thermal Power Plants:
(i) Increasing efficiency of existing power plants;
(ii) using clean coal technologies (relative emissions are 78% of conventional
coal-thermal)

446 447
(iii) switching to fuels other than coal. These measures are complementary and
not mutually exclusive.
Another option that has been suggested is carbon capture and sequestration
(CCS). However, feasible technologies for this have not yet been developed and
there are serious questions about the cost as well as permanence of the CO2
storage repositories.
Approximately 5000 MW out of total installed capacity of coal based thermal
plants have low capacity utilization of less than 5%, as well as low conversion
efficiency. As per the Govt. plan, during the 11th Plan, these units would be retired,
and during the 12th Plan period, an additional 10,000 MW of the least efficient
operating plants would be retired or reconditioned to improve their operating
efficiency.
(i) Efficiency Improvements
Significant efficiency improvements and CO2 reductions can be achieved as the
existing fleet of power plants are replaced over the next 10-20 years with new,
higher efficiency supercritical (SC) and ultra-supercritical (USC) plants. A one-
percentage point improvement in the efficiency of a conventional pulverised coal
combustion plant results in a 2-3% reduction in CO2 emissions, depending on the
level of efficiency prior to the change. Some of the efficiency improvements efforts
are:
(a) Renovation and modernization (R&M)
Renovation and Modernization (R&M) of power plants can improve the efficiency
and reduce GHG emissions at a lower cost without additional infrastructure
requirement. However, constraints of the nature of resources, lack of public and
government determination and the absence of stringent environmental laws have
always acted as a barrier towards the move. The Accelerated Power Development
Programme (APDP) of the Ministry of Power, launched in 2000/01, provides
financial assistance to the States for undertaking R&M programmes and also for
strengthening of T&D (Transmission and Distribution) network.
In a recent study undertaken by TERI, for the Ministry of Power, two
technological options were considered and examined in the context of CDM,
viz., adoption of super critical power plants and the R&M of existing plants.
(b) Transmission & Distribution loss reduction:
In India, average T&D losses have been officially indicated as 25% of the electricity
generated. The major reasons for high technical losses in India include overloading
of the distribution system, haphazard transformations, improper load management,
inadequate reactive compensation and poor quality of equipment used in the rural
as well as suburban areas. Thefts and pilferages also account for a substantial part of
the high T&D losses.
It is estimated that the upgradation of the agricultural distribution system can
reduce the distribution losses in the sector by 5% to 6%, equivalent to an annual
energy saving of 6.75 billion units.
(c) Demand-Side Management
Demand-Side Management (DSM) represents a revolutionary approach for
planning the electric utilities. Essentially, it broadens the scope of planning to
integrate the customer's needs and desires with the utility's goal. DSM activities
448
can be put under two broad categories (i) Energy Conservation and (ii) Load
Levelling.
Energy Conversation include:
(a) Mass awareness / education to conserve energy.
(b) Development and spread of highly energy efficient products / appliances and
(c) Enhanced utilization of untapped energy sources.
Load leveling amounts to promotion of load level management through the use
of regenerative systems.
(ii) Clean Coal Technologies
(a) Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Combustion (PFBC)
PFBC is a clean and efficient technology for coal-based power generation which
can increase the efficiency of plants up to 43% in a combined cycle arrangement.
PFBC technology has the ability to burn low quality fuels. The CO2 reduction from
per unit of power supplied at busbar using PFBC, over the conventional technology
is estimated to be 0.18 kg. Replacing a conventional plant of 500 MW capacity with
a PFBC plant will result in estimated CO2 reduction of 0.58 MT (million tonnes) a
year.
(b) Supercritical (SC) & Ultra-supercritical (USC) Technology
New pulverised coal combustion systems, utilising supercritical and ultra-
supercritical technology, operate at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures
and consequently achieve higher efficiencies than conventional PCF units resulting
in significant CO2 reductions.
In India, three 660 MW SC units are under construction. India has announced plans
for a series of 4000 MW 'ultra-mega' power projects in future. Research and
Development is under way to improve energy efficiency of ultra-supercritical units
from the existing 45% to around 50%.
(c) Integrated gasification combined cycle power plant (IGCC)
In IGCC Power Plants, coal is combined with oxygen and steam in the gasifier to
produce the syngas, which is mainly H2 and carbon monoxide (CO). The gas is then
cleaned to remove impurities, such as sulphur and the syngas is used in a gas turbine
to produce electricity. Waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered to create steam
which drives a steam turbine, producing more electricity. Hence, it is a combined
cycle system.
The efficiency of the IGCC power plant is the product of the gasification system
efficiency and combined cycle efficiency. These plants are expected to have a net
efficiency of 46%, compared to an average of 36% for existing plants. Although,
IGCC technology is more efficient and environmentally less polluting than
ordinary pulverized coal plants, its application requires high investments compared
to conventional pulverized coal technology.
It is estimated that IGCC technology will result in CO2 emission reductions of 0.25
kg/KWh. Replacing a 500 MW conventional plant with an IGCC plant will result in
CO2 emission reduction of 0.69 MT. The proposed IGCC power plant will reduce the
emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx and SPM (Suspended particulate matter). It will also
reduce solid waste disposal by nearly 70% compared to direct coal-fired plants.
449
(iii) Switching to fuels other than coal Depending upon the application, the various renewable energy technologies can
be broadly classified into three groups.
(a) Natural Gas based Power Plants
Natural gas based power generation is cleaner than coal-based generation as CO2 • Grid-connected power generation.
emissions are only 50% compared to coal. Besides, natural gas can be used for • Off-grid power generation and
electricity generation by adopting advanced gas turbines in a combined cycle • Renewable energy projects for thermal energy and mechanical use.
mode. Introduction of advanced class turbines with inlet temperature in the range
12500C-13500C has led to combined cycle power plant efficiency of about 55% Considering an additional capacity addition of 10,000 MW by 2012, as projected by
under Indian conditions. Many such plants are in operation in India. With the the MNRE and power generation from various other applications, the cumulative
discovery of significant reserves of natural gas in the KG basin, setting up of more GHG abatement potential from grid-connected RE (renewable energy) power
combined cycle natural gas plants is an attractive GHG mitigation option in India. projects, up to 2012 has been estimated. The PLF considered for biomass, wind,
small hydro and Waste To Energy (WTE) are 80%, 25%, 35% and 70%
(b) Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) respectively. Out of the annual capacity addition in the Waste To Energy (WTE)
sector, around 80% is assumed to come from MSW (municipal solid waste) and
UCG is a method of injecting air or oxygen into a coal seam to support an in-situ methane from the sewage liquid waste.
gasification process. This process converts the unmined coal into a combustible
gas, which can be brought to the surface to be used for industrial heating or power The cumulative GHG abatement potential up to 2012 from RE power projects is
generation. Current UCG projects are relatively small-scale, but if the process can 154 MT and from the MSW to energy about 65 MT. The investment required to
be developed as a reliable, large-scale source of coal syngas, it could also implement RE projects to the tune of an additional capacity of 10,000 MW by 2012
potentially be used to feed capital intensive plants producing hydrogen, synthetic is estimated to be about 9628 million USD.
natural gas or diesel fuel. UCG in combination with CCS is also recognised as a
potential route to carbon abatement from coal. 15.7 GHG mitigation in Industrial Sector :
(c) Coal Cleaning
During the year 2005, Industry sector in India accounted for about 13% of the total
Coal cleaning reduces the ash content of coal by over 50%, resulting in less waste, CO2 emissions. As per the National Strategy Study on CDM implementation in
lower sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions and improved thermal efficiencies, leading to India conducted by TERI, the CO2 emissions from the industrial sector can be
lower CO2 emissions. While coal preparation is standard practice in many countries, broadly categorized into two heads: (a) emissions due to fuel combustion in the
in India, if a greater proportion of this coal were cleaned, there is the potential for industries and (b) process related emissions. Of the total CO2 emissions from the
thermal efficiency improvements of at least 2-3% extending up to 4-5%. industry in 2005, nearly 60% were accounted for due to energy use only.
A number of technologies have been developed to control particulate emissions
and are widely deployed in both developed and developing countries. These are : The process related emissions are the result of non-energy related activities that
result in the emission of CO2. Cement and Steel industry, accounted for nearly 75%
• Electrostatic precipitators of the total process related CO2 emissions. The other major processes that result in
• Fabric filters or baghouses CO2 emissions are soda ash use, ammonia production, lime production and
• Wet particulate scrubbers processes in the ferroalloys industry.
• Hot gas filtration systems.
15.6.1.2.GHG mitigation through Renewable Energy Power Plants: Detailed analysis of the industrial energy-use pattern reveals that around 65% of the
total energy consumption in the industrial sector is accounted for by seven sectors
The renewable energy technologies offer a centralized as well decentralized supply namely (1) cement (2) pulp and paper (3) fertilizer (4) iron and steel (5) textiles (6)
side options. With policy initiatives, financial and infrastructural support from the aluminum and (7) chemicals and petrochemicals. In addition to these sectors, there
Ministry of New Renewable Energy (MNRE), many of the renewable energy are a few energy intensive sub-sectors operating under the small scale, where
technologies have reached near commercialization stage. The status of different energy cost accounts for a major share of the operating cost. Some of the examples
renewable energy technologies and their respective potential is given in Table 15.5. of energy intensive small-scale industries are ceramics & glass, foundry, forging,
brick manufacture, and lime kilns etc.
Table 15.5 : Potential and achievements for renewable energy technologies
Source / system Approximate Cumulative physical Proposed during
Energy efficiency programs across all industry sectors hold the promise for cost-
potential achievements XIth Plan Period effective CO2 abatement, as a large number of plants in India operate well below the
(as on 30.9.06)
Wind energy 45000 MW 6070 10,500
world energy efficiency standards. The CO2 mitigation projects in the industrial
Small hydro power 15000 MW 1850 1400 sector could be broadly grouped under four major heads.
Biomass power/ cogeneration 19500 MW 1039 1700
Waste-to-energy 1700 MW 35 400 (a) Sector-specific technological options,
Biomass gasifiers 76 N/A
Solar photovoltaic systems 2.74
2.74 50
(b) Cross-cutting technologies,
Solar water heating (collector 140 million 1.5 million s.q.m. 10 million (c) Fuel- switch options, and
area) sq.m sq.m (d) Recycling and use of secondary materials.
Biogas plants (nos.) 12 million 3.9 million 2 million
Improved cook stoves (nos.) 120 million 33.9 million as on 31.3.04 N/A

(Source : Report on working group on New & Renewable Energy for XI Plan, GoI)
450 451
Figure 15.5 below gives a general classification for the types of projects that • Control of excess air by installing O2 monitoring system in high-pressure
could be considered under the above four heads. boiler of CPP in a steel plant.

Fig 15.5: CO2 mitigation options: Energy-Efficient technologies in industry sector Environment Management measures by Steel Industry in India
• Commissioning of wastewater recycling projects at plants and townships
Large industries
Cross-cutting to utilize treated water for green belt development.
Adoption of · Cement
energy-efficient technologies • Commissioning of incinerator to incinerate waste organic materials.
· Fertilizer • Utilisation of 100% slurry in pellet and sinter plant.
technologies · Iron and Steel • Technology upgradation and revamping in acid recovery plant, to ensure
· Textiles continual improvement in emissions levels.
· Pulp and paper • Provision of High Efficiency Venturi Scrubbers in Hot Briquetted Iron
Fuel-switch
options Small-scale (HBI) plant to control emission of particulate matter. (This also helps in
industries recovery of iron ore fines and its reuse after pelletization).
· Foundry • Installation of Central Vaccum De-dusting System for control of emission
Recycling and use of Particulate Matter (PM).
of secondary · Brick kilns
· Glass • Use of low NOx generating burners in natural gas/ liquefied natural gas /
materials Naphtha based Power Plants for control of emission of Oxides of
· Others
Nitrogen.
15.7.1 Cement 15.7.3 Aluminum

GHG mitigation potential in the cement sector lies in bringing down specific power
consumption and specific thermal energy consumption. There lies a large scope for
improving energy efficiency in the relatively older installation. The possibility for
energy saving in different plants varies from 10% to as high as 30%. In addition,
there also exists about 160 MW of cogeneration potential in the Indian cement
industry.
The energy efficient technologies which can reduce CO2 emissions in cement
production are:
(a) Large Scale rotary kilns in place of vertical kilns for clinker production.
(b) Dry process in place of wet process.
(c) Pre-calcination technology.
(d) Pre-heating
(e) Use of Clean energies from biomass wastes.
(f) Use of fly-ash as substitute of clinker.
15.7.2 Iron and steel
Most of the emissions from the steel industry are related to processes such as
quenching, gas recovery, casting and rolling. In addition, the use of different types
of furnaces and fuels also determines the extent of emissions. During the year 2005,
Carbon dioxide emissions from steel production were responsible for 7% of total
emissions in India. While CO2 intensity tc/tonne from the steel sector in India is
comparable to China, it is much higher compared to Brazil, Mexico and South
Africa.
Energy Saving and GHG Emissions Reduction Technologies in steel sector :
• Coal drying and humidity control equipment for coke oven.
• Sensible heat recovery from main exhaust gas of sintering machine.
• Exhaust heat recovery system for sintered ore cooling equipment.
• Pulverised Coal Injection for blast furnace.
• BOF exhaust gas recovery device (including sealed BOF).
• Ladle heating apparatus with regenerative burners.
• Recovery of sensible heat from skid cooling water in heating furnace.
The Aluminum manufacturing process is electrical energy intensive. The major
energy saving opportunities in this sector lie in the switchover to gas suspension
calciners as against rotary kilns and waste heat utilization in converting the smelters
from Soderberg systems to pre-baked systems. The other operational improvements
include current efficiency improvements and reduction in operating voltage.
Energy Saving and GHG Emissions Reduction Technologies in Aluminum
sector :
• Improvement of operation of hot air circulation fan for the Aluminum
annealing furnace
• Replacement of existing rotary kilns with stationary calciners.
• Adoption of tube digestion system for dissolution of predominantly
monohydrate Bauxites.
• Redesigning of bus bar arrangement.
• Provision of mechanized and automated cell operations.
• Provision of dry scrubbing system for gas cleaning and recovery of
fluorides.
• Improved design features for heat treatment furnaces.
• Installation of combined direct/indirect extrusion press.
15.7.4 Fertilizer
Of the four types of fertilizers-nitrogenous, phosphate, potash, and complex
fertilizers, the nitrogenous fertilizer production is highly energy intensive and is
one of the largest consumers of petroleum-based fuels. Many of the older
ammonia/urea manufacturing plants use liquid fuels (naphtha, furnace oil) as the
feedstock but in newer plants, natural gas is the preferred feedstock.
The Indian fertilizer industry has witnessed many changes in the feedstock and
technology during the last few decades, resulting in substantial reduction in the
overall energy-use efficiency. However, by switching over from fuel oil/naphtha to
natural gas and by adopting other energy conservation schemes, potential for CO2
mitigation exists in older plants.
Energy Saving and GHG Emissions Reduction Technologies in Fertilizer sector:

452 453
15.7.4.1 Megammonia (Ammonia Production)
Operating cost is expected to be lower by around 12 -15% over the most advanced
conventional technology. CO2 emission is expected to reduce by around 30% as
compared to other conventional technologies.
15.7.4.2 HydroMax Technology (Ammonia Production)
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen are produced in separate compartments and do not
require CO2 removal system. Cost of production is almost four times less than
Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) production cost. Emission of greenhouse gases
is 34% less than SMR process.
15.7.4.3 Feedstock conversion from Naphtha to NG in Ammonia-Urea plants
Natural gas is ideal feedstock for ammonia production. It has several advantages
besides being cheaper and easy to handle. It also allows easy and shorter start up of
the plant, thereby lesser unproductive consumption. The burners choking
phenomena is completely solved and CO2 emission from furnace has reduced. Plant
also runs trouble free and the catalyst life has also increased
15.7.4.4 Installation of Carbon Dioxide Recovery (CDR) Plant
Though regeneration energy is very high in comparison to that of any normal CO2
removal section of ammonia plant, the cost effectiveness of the plant is very
attractive because the use of costlier Naphtha (as feed to balance the CO2 for Urea
production) shall be stopped completely.
15.7.4.5 Conversion of Single Stage GV System to 2-Stage GV System for CO2
The system designed by M/s. Giammarco Vetro Cokes, Italy, results in better
absorption of CO2 in absorber and lower energy consumption for regeneration of
the solution in regenerators. Major benefits of the modification are reduction of CO2
slip through absorber by around 600 ppm, which has resulted in higher availability
of CO2 for urea production, decrease in hydrogen consumption in methanation
section and decrease in LP steam consumption in CO2 removal system from 38
MT/hr to 15 MT/hr. Energy saving of around 1GJ/MT of ammonia can be achieved.
15.7.4.6 Other options
• Installation of a Parallel S-50 Converter
• Installation of modified trays in Urea reactor
• Use of Advanced Process Control (APC) with Distributed Control System
(DCS)
• Installation of Waste Heat Boiler (WHB) at the Inlet of LTS Converter in
Ammonia Plant
• Installation of Make-up Gas Chiller at suction of Synthesis Gas
Compressor at Ammonia Plant
• Installation of High Efficiency Turbine for air blower in Sulphuric Acid
Plant
• Re-processing of purge gas for Ammonia fertilizer
15.7.5 GHG mitigation of Industrial gases
In the industrial gases category, the options considered are HFC (Hydro Fluoro
Carbon) waste stream incineration, and N2O (nitrous oxide) emission reduction.
HFC 23, a GHG under the Kyoto Protocol, is inevitably generated as a by-product
454
in the production of Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon (HCFC22). HFC 23 is used in a
specific fire fighting application, ultra low temperature application and in the
processing of semi-conductors, but the volume of use is limited. The Gujarat
Fluorochemcials Ltd, in its HCFC production plant is introducing thermal
oxidation of HFC 23, the by-product of HCFC 22, as a CDM project.
N2O emission reduction is possible through thermal and catalytic destruction
processes in adipic acid production. A N2O emission reduction project from India is
under the consideration of Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF).
15.8 GHG mitigation in Transport Sector
The transport sector in India accounts for 8% of India's CO2 emissions. This share
is likely to grow to 13% in 2030 with rapidly rising transport demand, particularly
after 2015 as vehicle ownership increases. The share of transport in total CO2
emissions in 2015 was 31% in US and 24% in European Union, which is much
higher than India. Though theoretically, a very attractive sector in terms of
mitigation, individual projects might be too large-scale for CDM and include such
activities as engine modifications, road-to-rail modality shift, replacement of
2-stroke by 4-storke two-wheelers and greener fuels eg. Compressed natural gas
(CNG) etc.
Mitigation of GHG emissions in the transport sector can be achieved through the
combination of various measures. There needs to be attractive transportation
options that include energy-efficient automobiles, motorized two-wheelers,
efficient and affordable public transport, minicars, 4-stroke engines in two-
wheelers and setting fuel efficiency norms and labeling of Motorised Vehicles etc.
In addition to this, policies should address externalities caused by vehicles like,
drivers to face the full social cost of their use through permits and fees to enter
cities, parking fees, road tolls and in general, raising public awareness. Finally, the
government should attempt to make available to users, an alternative to fossil fuel
consuming vehicles by subsidizing bicycles, linking rail and bus services and
rewarding the car sharing programmes. The studies list a number of mitigation
areas including BOV (battery-operated vehicle), MRTS (mass rapid transport
system), CNG bus, CNG car, and the efficient two-wheelers. In two Asian Institute
of Technology (AIT) case studies on Delhi and Mumbai, mitigation options
analysed are CNG for buses and cars, shift from 2-stroke to 4-stroke two-wheelers
and BOVs.
15.9 GHG mitigation in Residential, Commercial and Institutional Buildings
Sector
According to the study conducted by IPCC, Global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
from residential, commercial, and institutional buildings are projected to grow
from 1.9 Gt C/yr in 1990 to 2.9 Gt C/yr in 2010, 3.3 Gt C/yr in 2020, and 5.3 Gt C/yr
in 2050. While 75% of the 1990 emissions are attributed to energy use in Annex I
countries, only slightly over 50% of global buildings-related emissions are
expected to be from Annex I countries by 2050.
Energy-efficiency technologies for building equipment like : Improvements in the
building envelop (through reducing heat transfer and use of proper building
orientation, energy-efficient windows and climate-appropriate building albedo)
with paybacks to the consumer of five years or less have the economic potential to
reduce CO2 emissions from both residential and commercial buildings of the order
of 20% by 2010, 25% by 2020 and up to 40% by 2050.
455
A significant means of reducing GHG emissions in the buildings sector involves
more rapid deployment of technologies aimed at reducing energy use in building
equipment (appliances, heating and cooling systems, lighting and all plug loads,
including office equipment) and reducing heating and cooling energy losses
through improvement in building thermal integrity. Other effective methods to
reduce emissions include urban design and land-use planning that facilitate lower
energy-use patterns. Improving the combustion of solid biofuels or replacing them
with a liquid or gaseous fuel are important means for reducing non-CO2 GHG
emissions.
15.10 Other GHG Mitigation Options :
15.10.1 Energy Labeling Programme for Appliances
An energy labeling programme for appliances was launched in 2006 and
comparative star-based labeling has been introduced for fluorescent tube-lights, air
conditioners, refrigerators, and distribution transformers. The labels provide
information about the energy consumption of an appliance and thus enable
consumers to make informed decisions. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)
has made it mandatory for refrigerators and air conditioners to display energy
efficiency labels. The standards and labeling programme for manufacturers of
electrical appliances is expected to lead to significant savings in electricity.
15.10.2 Energy Conservation Building Code
An Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was launched by BEE in May
2007, which addresses the design of new large commercial buildings to optimize
the energy demand based on their location in different climate zones. Commercial
buildings are one of the fastest growing sectors of the Indian economy, reflecting
the increasing share of the services sector in the economy. Nearly one hundred
buildings are already following the code. Compliance with the code has been
incorporated into the mandatory environmental impact assessment requirements
for large buildings. It has been estimated that if all the commercial space in India
conform to ECBC norms, energy consumption in this sector can be reduced by 30-
40%. Compliance with ECBC norms is voluntary at present but it is expected to
soon become mandatory.
15.10.3 GHG mitigation in Municipal Waste :
Though MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) projects are often seen as low-hanging
fruits, ideally suitable for early CDM projects, none of the reports investigate this
area in great detail. Arguably, the validity of projects generated in this areas is
dependent on the absence of legislation mandating the flaring of landfill gas. There
is also the possibility, that even in metropolitan areas, waste is not compacted
enough to generate the anaerobic conditions needed for optimal methane
generation.
Methane emissions in India, have their origins mainly from livestock (42%), paddy
cultivation (23%) and biomass burning (16%). The attributable 10% emissions, to
waste is more easily measureable and thus provides the easiest baseline estimation
for CDM projects. The hotspots for methane generation from MSW disposal are
above all the metro-districts of Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Calcutta, Delhi,
and Greater Mumbai (Garg and Shukla 2002).
456
15.11 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) :
15.11.1 Principles
Maintaining a high growth rate is essential for increasing living standards of the vast
majority of people and reducing their vulnerability to the impacts of climate change.
In order to achieve a sustainable development path that simultaneously advances
economic and environmental objectives, the National Action Plan for Climate
Change (NAPCC) will be guided by the following principles:
• Protecting the poor and vulnerable sections of society through an
inclusive and sustainable development strategy, sensitive to climate
change.
• Achieving national growth objectives through a qualitative change in
direction that enhances ecological sustainability, leading to further
mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions.
• Devising efficient and cost-effective strategies for end use Demand Side
Management.
• Deploying appropriate technologies for both adaptation and mitigation of
greenhouse gases emissions extensively as well as at an accelerated pace.
• Engineering new and innovative forms of market, regulatory and
voluntary mechanisms to promote sustainable development.
• Effecting implementation of programmes through unique linkages,
including with civil society and local government institutions and through
public-private-partnership.
• Welcoming international cooperation for research, development, sharing
and transfer of technologies enabled by additional funding and a global
IPR regime that enables technology transfer to developing countries under
the UNFCC.
15.11.2 Summary of eight National Missions of NAPCC:
There are Eight National Missions, which form the core of the National Action Plan,
representing multi-pronged, long-term and integrated strategies for achieving key
goals in the context of climate change. While several of these programmes are
already part of our current actions, they may need a change in direction,
enhancement of scope and effectiveness and accelerated implementation of time-
bound plans.
(i) National Solar Mission
India is a tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and
in great intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy
source. Photovoltaic cells are becoming cheaper with new technology. There are
newer, reflector-based technologies that could enable setting up megawatt scale
solar power plant across the country. Another aspect of the Solar Mission would be
to launch a major R&D programme, to enable the storage of solar power for
sustained, long-term use.
(ii) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal mandate for the
implementation of the energy efficiency measures through the institutional
mechanism of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the Central Government
and designated agencies in each state. A number of schemes and programmes have
been initiated and it sis anticipated that these would result in a saving of 10000 MW
by the end of 11th Five Year Plan in 2012.
457
(iii) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
A National Mission on Sustainable Habitat will be launched to make habitat
sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, management
of solid waste and modal shift ot public transport. The Mission will promote energy
efficiency as an integral component of urban planning and urban renewal. In
addition, the Mission will address the need to adapt to future climate change by
improving the resilience of infrastructure, community based disaster management,
and measures for improving the warning system for extreme weather events.
Capacity building would be an important component of this Mission.
(iv) National Water Mission
A National Water Mission will be mounted to ensure integrated water resource
management helping to conserve water, minimize wastage and ensure more
equitable distribution both across and within states. The Mission will take into
account the provisions of the National Water Policy and develop a framework to
optimize water use by increasing water use efficiency by 20% through regulatory
mechanisms with differential entitlements and pricing.
(v) National Mission for sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
A Mission for sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system will be launched to evolve
management measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan glacier and
mountain eco-system. This will require the joint effort of climatoglogists,
glaciologists and other experts. We will need to exchange information with the
South Asian countries and countries sharing the Himalayan ecology.
(vi) National Mission for a Green India
A National Mission will be launched to enhance eco-system services including
carbon sinks to be called Green India. The Prime Minister has already announced a
Green India campaign for the afforestation of 6 million hectares. The national
target of area under forest and tree cover is 33% while the current area under forests
is 23%.
(vii) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
The Mission would develop strategies to make Indian agriculture more resilient to
climate change. It would identify and develop new varieties of crops and especially
thermal resistant crops and alternative cropping patterns, capable of withstanding
extremes of weather, long dry spells, flooding, and variable moisture availability.
(viii) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
To enlist the global community in research and technology development and
collaboration through mechanisms including open source platforms, a Strategic
Knowledge Mission will be set up to identify the challenges of, and the responses
to, climate change. It would ensure funding of high quality and focused research
into various aspect of climate change.
15.11.3 Implementation of Missions
Each Mission will be tasked to evolve specific objectives spanning the remaining
years of the 11th Plan and the 12th Plan period 2012-13 to 2016-17.
458
Building public awareness will be vital in supporting implementation of the
NAPCC. This will be achieved through national portals, media engagement, civil
society involvement, curricula reform and recognition / awards.
15.11.4 Institutional Arrangements for Managing Climate Change Agenda
In order to respond effectively to the challenge of climate change, the Government
has created an Advisory Council on Climate Change, chaired by the Prime Minister.
The Council has broad based representation from key stake-holders, including
Government, Industry and Civil Society and sets out broad directions for National
Actions in respect of Climate Change. The Council will also provide guidance on
the domestic agenda and review of the implementation of the National Action Plan
on Climate Change including its R&D agenda.
The Council would also provide guidance on matters relating to international
negotiations including bilateral, multilateral programmes for collaboration,
research and development.
References
1. Annual Report of Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF), 2007-08, GoI
2. IPCC Technical Paper VI; Climate Change & Water ; June 2008.
3. 'Coal Meeting the Climate Change', Technology to reduce GHG emissions,
World Coal Institute.
4. 'National Action Plan on Climate Change'; Prime Ministers' Council on
Climate Change; GoI.
5. CDM Implementation in India; The National Strategy Study; MoEF & TERI.
6. 'Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the Steel Sector in Key
Developing Countries' by Lynn Price, Dian Phylipsen, Ernst Worrell.
7. GHG Inventory Information ; India's Initial National Communication, GoI.
8. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from India: A perspective; Subodh Sharma,
Bhattacharya, Amit Garg, PMC:, MoEF.
9. Report on Working Group on National Action Plan for Operationalising Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM); Planning Commission, GoI.
10. Integrated Energy Policy; Planning Commission, GoI.
11. IEA, World Energy Outlook 2007.
12. Report on Working Group on R&D for the Energy Sector, XI Plan; Office of
the Principal Scientific Adviser to GoI.
13. Maarland et al., 1999
14. Lynn, Ernst, and Dian 1999
15. NATCOM 2004
16. Report on working group on New & Renewable Energy for XI Plan.
17. IEACCC 2003a
18. Institute of Global Environment Strategies (IGES)
19. Asia Least-Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy
20. Websites : http://www.unfccc.com
www.iges.or.jp
www.carbonyatra.com
www.globalwarming.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNFCCC
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/global_warming
http://cdm.unfccc.int.statistics/index.html
http://cdm.unfccc.int/statistics/registeredprojbyscalepiechart.html
http://cdm.unfccc.int.statistics/methodologies/approvemethpiechart.html
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7h.html
459
 PCRA publications
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