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he guiding principle should be to design a seismic survey that will image the
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selected target in the most economical way for costs and time. Resolution parameters, such
as the frequency required to image the target, are starting design factors. Shallow horizon of
interest and deeper horizons may be interpretational needs; thus, the definition of the
representative horizons is the beginning of the design.
5.1.1 Near Surface layer: The velocity of the surface layer is used as a factor in
computing offsets and determining the effect of ground roll. Usually the weathered layer is
very low velocity because of exposure and erosion, but it may be quite complex and have
several layers of variant velocity. The velocity and maximum dip of each layer are initial
parameters. This information can be obtained in approximate form from existing well logs or
seismic data in the area. If the area is frontier area, then noise tests, experience, or geologic
theory can be the source of this information.
5.1.2 Shallow Layer: While the target layer is most important for imaging, a shallow
layer may be necessary for processing or interpretation. Good data in the shallow part is
needed to use the velocity analysis with confidence. The velocity Vs and the approximate
arrival time are the needed parameters. These parameters allow computation of depth of the
layer Zs by the familiar time-distance formula
5.1.4 Group Interval: Group Interval is the basic sampling on the earth’s surface by the
survey. It is the distance on the ground between receiver stations. Group interval represents
which largest spatial sampling shall prevent aliasing during migration:
5.1.5 Fresnel Zone: Fresnel zone (figure 7 (b)) is the smallest part of the reflector
making an unambiguous image of the individual event and is circular at zero offset but
elliptical with offset. Fresnel zone is given by:
5.1.6 Far Offset: Far offset is a function of the depth modified by the velocity field. The
far offset required should be computed first for the target horizon and then for the deep
horizon. The velocity of the surface layer is involved because of the initial angular influence
on the down going seismic waveform at the depth of the horizon. Once the maximum offset
is computed in combination with the near / offset, the group interval, the ideal parameters can
be evaluated within the framework of the available equipment.
where, Z is the depth of horizon, Vs is the velocity of the surface layer, and V the average
velocity to the target.
If the horizon is dipping, then the distance, Hmax should be extended by:
where H = offset distance, V= velocity at time Tz and Tz = arrival time of the event at H = 0.
When Tm exceeds 0.3, then data processing will probably form an automatic mute.
Too large on offset range for a given number of receiver stations may result in
inadequate fold for the shallow layer or even the target layer. On the other hand, if the offset
range is not long enough, accurate velocity analysis and the suppression of multiples during
the processing can be endangered.
5.1.7 Record Length: Part of the survey design is to determine the required sampling
rate in time and the record length is a function of depth and velocity of the deepest horizon.
Where Td = two-way arrival time of the deepest horizon of interest at the maximum offset
Tr = required record length in time, and
L = length in time of the longest processing filter.
Normally 200ms is adequate for the filter length. The extra time in recording is balanced
against the possible benefits from data from very deep horizons. Signal length becomes more
important when the source is vibratory in nature. Some allowance should also be made for
migration.
5.1.8 Sample Rate: The sampling rate in time is more or less standard, ranging from 2
to 4 ms depending on the resolution needed. The rule is
5.1.9 Group Interval and Field Equipment: The group interval possible with a
particular recording equipment given by
Where, S is the number of units of group interval in the source spacing and NC the number of
channels available.
5.1.11 Source Interval: The source interval in the distance between source positions.
The source interval is function of the desired fold coverage and the number of channels
available.
5.1.12 Source Power: There is a decision to be made in some cases on the source power.
For dynamite, the charge size in kilograms if the unit. For vibratory sources, the available
power (in pounds per square inch) is specified by equipment model. For instance, a large
vibrator can generate 50,000 psi. Marine sources such as air guns and water guns are defined
in terms of their volume and peak-to-peak strength. The power needed is function of target
depth and the environmental noise. As the earth has a natural attenuation, target depth is the
primary consideration. Noise is also involved since more power has the potential to generate
more noise.
The amount of energy generated in a shot hole is proportional to the quality of
dynamite. It is well known that an explosive source in a cylindrical enclosure generates
pressure waves and shear waves of both polarizations.
5.1.13 Line Location and Orientation: The geometry of the survey is not
independent of the target. The location, direction, and length of the lines are important
considerations in the survey design. Dip lines for instance, are favored over strike lines.
Some of basic concepts generally accepted for lines locations/orientations are:
• The lines should, when possible, be perpendicular to fault planes. Since
definition of the fault plane is best on the seismogram when the lines are
perpendicular to the plane.
• Line ties are important to interpretation. When there is existing seismic data
nearby, new lines are planned in such a manner that they can be ties with the
existing data. One very helpful ties is to a well. The closer the line can
approach the well, the more useful the tie of the seismic data to the well log.
• When there is no conflict with other needs, lines should be planned to
minimize elevation and terrain problems. Sometimes a small shift in the line
location can avoid a troublesome obstacle.
Figure 7(a) shows the Surface Geometry and Sub surface Nature and Behavior of 2D
Layout.
3D Survey Design Basics
6.2.1.1 Offset: The imaging of shallow target and deep horizons still requires certain offset
of source and receiver. An approximation to the required offset for a given horizon is very
simple and used often when surveys are designed in the field:
Offset = depth of the horizon.
New factors include the fact that the offset may now be measured at an angle and the depth is
now that of a plane rather than a line.
6.2.1.2 Fold: The fold required for noise suppression is a function of the S/N conditions.
This translates in 3D to the number of traces in a bin. Because of the extra focusing by
migration and the flexibility of binning, fold can be less than required in 2D surveys. Field
tests or existing 2D seismic data can yield an estimate of the needed fold for the 3D survey.
6.2.1.3 Frequency: The temporal frequency required is not much different from that of
2D surveys. The rules for the resolution of layer of given thickness are best determined by
modeling. The general rule is that the resolution of a thin bed requires it to be sampled twice
within a quarter wavelength of the highest frequency. As a field approximation, the
maximum frequency expected:
6.2.1.4 Objectives of the Survey: The most important information is defining the
objectives of the survey. Although this seems a rather obvious comment, many times the
objectives of the survey except for the aerial extent and approximate spatial sampling are not
part of the input to design. Requirements of good fold on a shallow reference layer or a deep
reflection for survey are clearly stated.
6.2.1.5 Migration Aperture: When the beds are dipping, the extent of the survey must
be increased by:
D = Z tan θ
where, Z = depth,
θ = dip
6.2.1.6 Seismic Data Input: The most useful direct input is existing seismic data. The
seismic sections give information abut many of the design parameters such as noise, source
power, weathering problems, and general structure.
Field records and final stack should be checked for environmental and source
generated noise conditions. The array design should be studied for possible use in the 3D
survey. There are areas where neither source nor environmental noise is a problem, which
greatly simplifies the survey design and makes the whole project less expensive. Type of
source, the power used in either surveys, quality of reflections at depth, frequency content of
shallow data are some of the key factors in deciding the source power to be used. If extensive
static corrections made during processing indicate problems in the near surface, this should
be noted on the survey design. The design of the survey can reduce processing problems in
many cases.
6.3.1 Bin size: For 3-D data the bin is the basic building block for the rest of the survey.
Bin size depends on target size, spatial resolution needed, and economics. The traces when
their subsurface reflection point falls with in the bin, are treated as a CDP, and corrected and
summed to represent that bin position by a point. A bin can be any size but rectangles and
squares are the popular. The basic sampling theorem applies to the bin.
6.3.2 Source line spacing: The bin size will, however, allow more design calculations
if the fold and number of channels on the equipment are known .
6.3.4 Number and length of the receiver lines in the template: The problem
is to be determine the number of receiver lines possible with the template. The number of
lines is constrained by the required maximum offset which sets the length of the lines. The
maximum offset found in the preliminary 2-D calculations or 3-D modeling is a function of
deepest horizon to be imaged. The field estimate is that the maximum offset should be a little
greater than the depth of the deep horizon, but exact formula include dip. The target
parameters are the number and length of the receiver lines. The source line shift is an
adjustable variable. The second constraint is the number of channels available with the
equipment.
6.3.5 Determining the template movement: Usually the field people prefer to
roll along the direction of receiver lines. The increment is at the source line spacing. At the
end of the coverage in in-line direction the next swath would be done in same manner
incremented in the source direction and continued until the coverage was completed.
6.3.6 Estimation of nominal fold: Stacking fold is the number of field traces that
contribute one stack trace. Fold controls the signal to noise ratio. Fold should be decided by
looking at previous 2-D and 3-D surveys in the area.
6.3.6.1 In-line fold: For an orthogonal straight-line survey, in-line fold is defined
similarly to the fold on 2-D data. The formula is as follows:
In line fold = ___( no. of receivers x station interval )__ .
2 x Source interval along the receiver line
(or)
In line fold = ( number of receivers x receiver interval )
2 x Shot line interval
6.3.6.2 Cross-line fold: Similar to the calculation of in-line fold, the cross-line fold is:
Cross line fold = source line length _.
2 x receiver line interval
6.3.6.3 Total Fold: The total 3D nominal fold is the produce of in-line fold and cross-line
fold:
Total nominal fold = ( in-line fold ) x ( cross-line fold).
6.4 Land 3D Layouts: Numerous layout strategies have been developed for land 3D
surveys. One has to establish which features are important in the area of the survey in order
to select the best design option.
6.4.1 Full fold 3-D: A full fold 3D survey is one where source points and receiver
stations are distributed on an even two-dimensional grid with station spacings equal to the
line spacings. The grids are offset by one bin size. A full fold 3D survey has outstanding
offset and azimuth distributions as long as one can afford to record with a large number of
channels. All other 3D designs are basically subsets of such full-fold surveys, and the
designer has to decide which aspects of a 3D design are absolutely necessary and which can
be compromised.
6.4.2 Swath: The swath acquisition method was used in the earliest 3D designs. In this
geometry Source and receiver lines are parallel and usually coincident. While source points
are taken on one line, receivers are recording not only along the source line but also along
neighboring parallel receiver lines, creating swath lines halfway between pairs of source and
receiver lines. The offset distribution in all occupied bin lines is excellent. However
inadequate sampling in the cross-line direction makes this design a “poor man’s 3-D”,
because many bins are empty. The azimuth mix is very narrow and depends on the number of
live receiver lines in the recording patch and the line spacing. Most companies prefer to have
the source points at the half-integer positions. Parallel swaths are sometimes considered on
land when severe surface restrictions exist, or when costs have to be minimized. The
operational advantages are attractive, but are achieved at the cost of a poor azimuth mix and
poor cross-line sampling.
6.4.3 Orthogonal: Generally, source and receiver lines are laid out orthogonal to each
other. Because the receivers cover a large area, this method is sometimes referred to as the
patch method. This geometry is particularly easy for the survey crew and recording crew, and
keeping track of station numbering is straightforward. In an orthogonal design, the active
receiver lines form a rectangular patch surrounding each source point location creating a
series of cross spreads that overlap each other. This technique allows more surface area to be
acquired prior to receiver stations moves.
This method is easy to lay out in the field and can accommodate the extra equipment
and roll along operation. Usually all the source points between adjacent receiver lines are
recorded. Then the receiver patch is rolled over one and the process is repeated. The azimuth
distribution for the orthogonal method is uniform as long as wide recording patch is used.
Figure 8(a) shows a 3D layout and the subsurface nature while figure 8(b) shows the
3D cable layout used by GP “Y”.