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UNIT 8

RECTIFIER AND CHOPPER

OBJECTIVES
General objective : To understand the concept of a rectifier.
Specific objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to:
• Identify the power of an uncontrolled rectifier, semi-controlled rectifier, controlled rectifier and
chopper.
• Identify the uncontrolled rectifier and chopper circuit.

8.1 INTRODUCTION OF RECTIFIER

The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into pulsating
direct current (or pulsating direct voltage) is known as rectification. Rectification is
accomplished with the help of diodes. Circuits which provide rectification are called rectifier
circuits. Rectifier circuits can provide either half-wave rectification or full-wave rectification.

8.2 PRINCIPLE OF RECTIFIER

Assume a half-wave rectifier output is to be used to supply current to a load. The

output of the rectifier gives the expected half-cycle of sinusoidal output once every cycle
except that conduction of the rectifier diode is not allowed to begin at the start of the cycle but
after an angular measure of θ radians has occurred. The resulting current waveform is shown
in Fig. 8.2(a).

If the angle θ can be varied form 0 to Π /2 radiants (or even from 0 to Π radians) then
the mean value of current taken by the load can be varied as can the rms current to be
derived.

Fig 8.2(a) : Control of current to a load by variation of a firing angle θ.

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ACTIVITY 8A
8.1 Describe briefly a rectifier.
8.2 Draw the control of current to a load by variation of a firing angle θ.

FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 8A
8.1 The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into pulsating direct
current (or pulsating direct voltage) is known as rectification.
8.2 For this diagram, you should refer to input 8.2(a).

8.3 SEMI-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

For control of electric power or semi control power conditioning, the conversion of
electric power from one form to another is necessary and the switching characteristic of the
power device permit these conversions. The static power converter may be considered as a
switching matrix. The power electronics semi-control rectifier circuits can classified into two
types:
i. Diode rectifiers
ii. AC - DC converters (controlled rectifiers)

8.4 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

The result of half-wave rectification is illustrated in Fig 8.4 (a), and the circuit which
performs the rectification is drawn in Fig 8.4 (b). The ground symbol in 8.4 (c) is the reference
point for voltages referred to in the discussion which follows.

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.4 : Rectifying a 20 Vp-p sinusoidal waveform yields a + 9.3 Vp pulsating dc waveform.
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Fig. 8.4 (c) : Half-wave rectifier circuit

8.5 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

Full wave rectification can be provided with two diodes and a center-tapped transformer
as shown in Fig. 8.5 (a) , or it can be accomplished with four diodes and a nontapped
transformer (see Fig. 8.5 (b) ).

Figure 8.5.1(a) shows the direction and path of current flow for the ½ cycle when the
polarity of the transformer is as marked. Notice that only D1 is conducting and that only the top
half of the transformer is providing power. This is because D2 is reverse-biased.

During the second ½ cycle (see 8.5.1 (b) ), the polarities of the transformer windings
are reversed. Therefore, D1 is now reverse-biased and D2 allows the current to flow in the
indicated direction and path. Notice that current through R1 is in the same direction for each ½
cycle.

(a) During one half-cycle, D1 conducts and D2 is cutoff (reverse-biased)

(b) During the other half-cycle, D2 conducts and D1 is cutoff

(c)

Fig, 8.5 : Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer

Figure 8.5(b) shows a full-wave, bridge rectifier circuit. Notice that this circuit provides
twice as much dc voltage as does the previous full-wave circuit when both circuits use the
same transformer. The bridge rectifier circuit does not use the center tap of the transformer and
it requires four diodes.

During ½ cycle, two of the diodes in Fig. 8.5(c ) conduct and allow the full secondary
voltage to force current through load resistor R1. the remaining two diodes are reverse-biased
and thus prevent the diode bridge from short-circuiting the transformer secondary.
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Fig, 8.5(c ) : Full-wave, bridge rectifier

ACTIVITY 8B
8.3 Draw a Half-wave rectifier circuit.
8.4 Draw a Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.

FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 8B

8.3 For this section, you should refer to diagram half-wave rectifier circuit in figure 8.4(c).
8.4 The answer for full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.

(a) During one half-cycle, D1 conducts and D2 is cutoff (reverse-biased)

(b) During the other half-cycle, D2 conducts and D1 is cutoff

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8.6 INTRODUCTION OF CHOPPER.

A dc chopper is the equipment that can be used as a dc transformer to step up or step

down a fixed dc voltage. The chopper can also be used for switching- mode voltage regulators
and for transferring energy between two dc resources. However, harmonics are generated at
the input and load side of the chopper, and these harmonics can be reduced by input and
output filters.

8.7 PRINCIPLE OF CHOPPER.

A chopper can operate on either fixed frequency chopper or variable frequency. A

variable-frequency chopper generates harmonics of variable frequencies and a filter design. A
fixed – frequency chopper is normally used. A chopper circuit uses a fast turn off as a switch
and requires commutation circuitry to turn it off. The circuits are the outcome of meeting
certain criteria: (1) reduction of minimum on-time limit, (2) high frequency of operation, and (3)
reliable operation.

8.8 TYPE AND BASIC OPERATION OF CHOPPER FUNCTION CIRCUIT

The development of alternative switching (e.g., power transistors, GTO s), the
applications for type and circuit of choppers are limited to high power levels and especially, to
traction motor control. Some of chopper type and circuit used by traction equipment
manufactures are discussed in this section.

8.8.1 IMPLUSE-COMMUTATED CHOPPERS

The impulse-commutated chopper is a very common circuit with two thyristors

as shown in figure 8.8(a) and is also known as a classical chopper. At the beginning
of operation, thyristor T2 is fired and this causes the commutation capacitor C to
charge through the voltage Vc , which should be supply voltage Vs in the fist cycle.

The plate A becomes positive with respect to plate B. The circuit operation
can be divided into five modes, and the equivalent circuits under steady-state
conditions are shown in Fig. 8.8(b).

We shall assume that the load current remains constant at a peak value Im
during the commutation process. We shall also redefine the time origin, t = 0, at the
beginning of each mode.

Mode 1 begins with T1 is fired. The load is connected to the supply. The
commutation capacitor C reverses also its charge through the resonant reversing circuit
formed by T1, D1, and Lm.
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Fig. 8.8(a): Impulse – commutated chopper.

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Fig. 8.8(b): Mode equivalent circuit.

8.8.2. IMPULSE-COMMUTATED THREE-THYRISTOR CHOPPERS

The problem of undercharging can be remedied by replacing diode D1 with

thyristor T3, as shown in Fig. 8.8(c). In good chopper, the commutation time, tc, should
ideally be independent of the load current. tc could be made less dependent on the
load current by adding an antiparallel diode Df across the main thyristor as shown in
Fig. 8.8(c) by dashed lines. A modified version of the circuit is shown in Fig. 8.8(d).,
where the charge reversal of the capacitor is done independently of main thyristor T1
by firing T3 . There are four possible modes and their equivalent circuits are shown in
Fig. 8.8(e).

Fig. 8.8(c) : Impulse – commutated three-thyristor chopper.

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Fig. 8.8(d): Impulse-commutated chopper with independent charge reversal.

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Fig. 8.8(e): Equivalent circuits.

8.8.3. RESONANT PULSE CHOPPERS

A resonant pulse chopper is shown in Fig. 8.8(f). As soon as the supply is

switched on, the capacitor is charged to a voltage Vc through Lm, D1, and load. The
circuit operation can be divided into six modes and the equivalent circuits are shown in
Fig. 8.8(g).

Fig. 8.8(f): Resonant pulse chopper.

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Fig 8.8(g): Equivalent circuit for modes.

ACTIVITY 8C

8.5 Describe briefly the chopper.

8.6 Draw the circuit and explain briefly the operation of a chopper type impulse commutated.

FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 8C

8.5 The chopper is the equipment that can be used as a dc transformer to step up or step down a
fixed dc voltage. The chopper can also be used for switching- mode voltage regulators and for
transfered energy between two dc resources.

8.6 Impulse-commutated choppers circuit operation can be divided into five modes, and the
equivalent circuits under steady-state conditions are shown in Fig. 8.6(a), (b) and (c),. We shall
assume that the load current remains constant at a peak value Im during the commutation
process. We shall also redefine the time origin, t = 0, at the beginning of each mode. Mode 1
begins with T1 is fired. The load is connected to the supply. The commutation capacitor C
reverses also its charge through the resonant reversing circuit formed by T1, D1, and Lm.
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Fig. 8.6(a): Impulse – commutated three-thyristor chopper.

Fig. 8.6(b): Impulse-commutated chopper with independent charge reversal.

Fig. 8.6(c ): Equivalent circuits.

8.9 SKETCHING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE WAVE

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There are no fixed rules for designing or sketching of copper circuit and the design
varies with the types of circuit used. The designer has a wide range of choice and values of
LmC components are influenced by the designer’s choice of peak resonant reversal current, and
peak allowable voltage of the circuit. The voltage and current ratings LmC components and
devices is left to the designer based on the considerations of price, availability, and safety
margin. In general, the following steps are involved in the design:

a. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.

b. Determine the equivalent circuits for the various modes.
c. Determine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
d. Evaluate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the devices.
A chopper with a highly inductive load is shown in Fig. 8.9(a). The load current ripple is
negligible (∆ I=0). If the average load current is Ia, the peak load current is
Im=Ia + ∆ I= Ia The input current, which is of pulsed shape as shown in Fig 8.9(b).

Fig. 8.9(a) : Input current waveform of chopper

The wave forms for currents and voltages are shown in figure 8.9(b). In the following
analysis, we shall redefine the time origin t=0 at the beginning of each mode.
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Fig. 8.9(b) : Chopper waveforms

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Fig 8.9(c): Equivalent circuit for modes.

Mode 1 begins when main thyristor T1 is fired and the supply is connected to the load.
This mode is valid for t = kT.

Mode 2 begins when commutation thyristor T2 is fired. The commutation capacitor

reverses its charge through C, Lm, and T2.

Mode 3 begins when T2 is self-commutated and the capacitor discharges due to

resonant oscillation through diode D1 and T1. Assuming that the capacitor current rises linearly
from 0 to Im and the current of thyristor T1 falls from Im to 0 in time tx.

Mode 4 begins when current through T1 falls to zero. The capacitor continues to
discharge through the load at a rate determined by the peak load current.

Mode 5 begins when the freewheeling diode Dm starts conducting and the load current
decays through Dm. the energy stored in commutation inductance Lm and source inductance Ls
is transferred to capacitor C.

Mode 6 begins when the overcharging is complete and diode D1 turns off. The load
current continues to decay until the main thyristor is refired in the next cycle. In the stedy-state
condition Vc = Vx.

8.10 DEFINITION OF MARK SPACE RATIO (TIME RATIO CONTROL)

The sequence of events within the frequency counter is controlled by the time ratio
base, which must provide the timing for the following events: resetting the counter , opening the
count gate, closing the count gate, and storing the counted frequency in the latch. The resetting
of the counter and storing the count are not critical events as long as they occur before and
after the gate period, respectively. The opening and closing of the count gate, on the other
hand, determine the accuracy of the frequency counter and are very critical in its timing.
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Since the accuracy of the frequency counter depends directly on the accuracy of the
time ratio base signal, the time base is driven from a accurate crystal controlled (e.g; oscillator).
This element of the time base is typically a temperature compensated crystal oscillator
operating at several megahertz. A crystal oven could be used to supply a similar accuracy,
except that the oven require the application of power to provide the correct frequency and is
available for use immediately after power-on. Fig. 8.10(a) shows a simplified diagram of
temperature-compensated crystal oscillator.

Fig, 8.10(a) : Block diagram of a temperature-compensated crystal oscillator

8.11 COMPARING STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN CHOPPER DOWN.

A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to an ac transformer with a continuously

variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, it can be used to step-down or step-up a dc voltage
source.

8.11.1 PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP OPERATION

A chopper can be used to step-up a dc voltage and an arrangement for step-up

operation is shown in Fig. 8.11(a).

When switch SW is closed for time t1, the inductor current rises and energy is
stored in the indicator, L. if switch is opened for time t2, the energy stored in the
inductor is transferred to load through diode D1 and the inductor current falls.

Assuming a continuous current flow, the waveform for the inductor current is
shown in Fig. 8.11(b). For values of k tending to unity, the output voltage becomes
very large and is very sensitive to changes in k, as shown in Fig. 8.11(c).
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(a) Step-up arrangement

(b) Current waveform

(c) Output voltage

Fig. 8.11: Arrangement for step-up operation

8.11.2 PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN OPERATION

The principle of operation can be explained by Fig. 8.11(d). When switch SW

is closed for time t1 , the output voltage Vs appears across the load. If the switch
remains off for a time t2 , the voltage across the load is zero.

The waveforms for the output voltage and load current are also shown in Fig.
8.11(e). The chopper switch can be implemented by using a (1) power BJT, (2) power
MOSFET, (3) GTO, or (4) forced-commutated thyristor.

The practical devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 5 V, and for
the sake of simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor
devices.
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(d) Circuit

(e) Waveforms

Fig. 8.11: Step-down chopper with resistive load

ACTIVITY 8D

8.7 Explain the steps involved in chopper circuit design.

8.8 Explain briefly what is the difference between chopper step-up and chopper step-down.

FEEDBACK TO ACTIVITY 8D
8.7 The following steps are involved in the design:
i. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.
ii. Determine the equivalent circuits for the various modes.
iii. Determine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
iv. Evaluate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the devices.
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8.8 The different are:

Chopper Step-Up
When switch SW is closed for time t1, the inductor current rises and energy is stored in
the indicator, L. if switch is opened for time t2, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to
load through diode D1 and the inductor current falls

Figure 8.8(a): Step-up arrangement

Chopper Step-Down
When switch SW is closed for time t1 , the output voltage Vs appears across the load. If
the switch remains off for a time t2 , the voltage across the load is zero.

Figure 8.8(b): Step-down arrangement

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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Question 8-1

a. Briefly describe a rectifier.

b. Briefly describe the principle behind a rectifier.
c. Draw the control of current to a load by variation of a firing angle θ.
d. Draw the Half-wave rectifier circuit and waveform.
e. Draw the Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.

Question 8-2

a. Briefly describe the type of choppers.

b. Briefly describe the principle behind a choppers.
c. Draw the control of current to a load by variation of circuit and waveform of one type of
coppers.
d. Draw the circuit and waveform for step-up chopper.
e. Draw the circuit and waveform for step-down chopper.

FEEDBACK TO SELF-ASSESSMENT
Answer 8-1

a. The process of converting alternating current (or alternating voltage) into pulsating direct
current (or pulsating direct voltage) is known as rectification.
b. Current to a load by variation of a firing angle θ.

c. Half-wave rectifier circuit.

(a) (b)
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( c)
Rectifying a 20 Vp-p sinusoidal waveform yields a + 9.3 Vp pulsating dc waveform.

d. Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer

(a) During one half-cycle, D1 conducts and D2 is cutoff (reverse-biased)

(b) During the other half-cycle, D2 conducts and D1 is cutoff

e. Full-wave, bridge rectifier

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Answer 8-2
a. Type of Choppers;
i. Impluse-commutated choppers
ii. Impulse-commutated three-thyristor choppers
iii. Resonant pulse choppers
b. Principle of choppers;
i. Impluse-commutated Choppers
The impulse-commutated chopper is a very common circuit with two thyristors
as shown in figure 8.2(a) attached, and is also known as a classical chopper. At the
beginning of operation, thyristor T2 is fired and this causes the commutation capacitor
C to charge through the voltage Vc , which should be supply voltage Vs in the fist cycle.
The plate A becomes positive with respect to plate B. The circuit operation can be
divided into five modes, and the equivalent circuits under steady-state conditions are
shown in Fig. input 8.8(b). We shall assume that the load current remains constant at a
peak value Im during the commutation process. We shall also redefine the time origin, t
= 0, at the beginning of each mode. Mode 1 begins with T1 is fired. The load is
connected to the supply. The commutation capacitor C reverses also its charge
through the resonant reversing circuit formed by T1, D1, and Lm.

Fig. 8.2(a): Impulse – commutated chopper.

ii. Impulse-commutated three-thyristor choppers

The problem of undercharging can be remedied by replacing diode D1 with

thyristor T3. In good chopper, the commutation time, tc, should ideally be independent
of the load current. tc could be made less dependent on the load current by adding an
antiparallel diode Df across the main thyristor. A modified version of the will charge
reversal of the capacitor is done independently of main thyristor T1 by firing T3 .

iii. Resonant pulse choppers

A resonant pulse chopper as soon as the supply. It is switched on, the
capacitor charges to a voltage Vc through Lm, D1, and load. The circuit operation can
be divided into six modes and the equivalent circuits are shown in explanation input at
figure 8.8,(e) and (f): Resonant pulse chopper and equivalent circuit for modes.
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c. Current and waveform of chopper

The voltage and current ratings LmC components and devices is left to the designer
based on the considerations of price, availability, and safety margin. In general, the following
steps are involved in the design:

i. Identify the modes of operations for the copper circuit.

ii. Determine the equivalent circuits for the various modes.
iii. Determine the currents and voltages for modes and their waveforms.
iv. Evaluate the values of commutation components LmC that would satisfy the devices.
A chopper with a highly inductive load is shown in Fig. 8.9.1a. The load current ripple is
negligible (∆ I=0). If the average load current is Ia, the peak load current is
Im=Ia + ∆ I= Ia The input current, which is of pulsed shape as shown in Fig 8.9.1b.

Fig. 8.9.1: Input current waveform of chopper

For the reference of the copper waveform, you can see figure 8.8.(g) and consider as that
figure in the explanation below.

Mode 1 begins when main thyristor T1 is fired and the supply is connected to the load.
This mode is valid for t = kT.

Mode 2 begins when commutation thyristor T2 is fired. The commutation capacitor

reverses its charge thgrough C, Lm, and T2.

Mode 3 begins when T2 is self-commutated and the capacitor discharges due to

resonant oscillation through diode D1 and T1. Assuming that the capacitor current rises linearly
from 0 to Im and the current of thyristor T1 falls from Im to 0 in time tx.

Mode 4 begins when current through T1 falls to zero. The capacitor continues to
discharge through the load at a rate determined by the peak load current.
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Mode 5 begins when the freewheeling diode Dm starts conducting and the load current
decays through Dm. the energy stored in commutation inductance Lm and source inductance Ls
is transferred to capacitor C.
Mode 6 begins when the overcharging is complete and diode D 1 turns off. The load current
continues to decay until the main thyristor is refired in the next cycle

d. Principle of step-up operation

A chopper can be used to step-up a dc voltage and an arrangement for step-up

operation is shown in Fig. 8.11.1(a). When switch SW is closed for time t1, the inductor current
rises and energy is stored in the indicator, L. if switch is opened for time t2, the energy stored in
the inductor is transferred to load through diode D1 and the inductor current falls. Assuming a
continuous current flow, the waveform for the inductor current is shown in Fig. 8.11.1(b). For
values of k tending to unity, the output voltage becomes very large and is very sensitive to
changes in k, as shown in Fig. 8.11.1(c).

(b) Step-up arrangement

(b) Current waveform

(c) Output voltage

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Fig. 8.11.1: Arrangement for step-up operation

e. Principle of step-down operation

The principle of operation can be explained by Fig. 8.11.2(a). When switch SW

is closed for time t1 , the output voltage Vs appears across the load. If the switch
remains off for a time t2 , the voltage across the load is zero. The waveforms for the
output voltage and load current are also shown in Fig. 8.11.2(b). The chopper switch
can be implemented by using a (1) power BJT, (2) power MOSFET, (3) GTO, or (4)
forced-commutated thyristor. The practical devices have a finite voltage drop ranging
from 0.5 to 5 V, and for the sake of simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of
these power semiconductor devices.

(a) Circuit

(b) Waveforms

Fig. 8.11.2: Step-down chopper with resistive load