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6.013 Electromagnetics and Applications

Spring 2009

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 VECTOR OPERATORS ∇, ×, •
Vector: A = xˆ A x + yA
ˆ y + ẑA z
Vector Dot Product: A • B = A xB x + A yB y + A zBz = |A||B|cos θ
xˆ yˆ ẑ A B
Vector Cross Product: A × B = det A x Ay A z = |A||B|sin θ
θ
Bx By Bz
= xˆ ( A yBz − A zBy ) + yˆ ( A zBx − A xBz ) + ẑ ( A xBy − A yBx )

“Del” (∇) Operator: ∇ = xˆ ∂ + yˆ ∂ + ẑ ∂

∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Gradient of φ: ∇φ = xˆ + yˆ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂A x ∂A y ∂A z
Divergence of⎯A: ∇•A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
xˆ yˆ ẑ
“Curl of A”: ∇ × A = det ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z
Ax Ay Az
L3-1
 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ∇•, ∇×
∇i D is the “divergence of the vector field⎯D”
Gauss’s divergence theorem: ∫v (∇i A)dv = ∫∫s (Ain̂)da
Gauss’s Law, Differential Form: ∇ • D = ρ
ρ
∫v (∇iD)dv = ∫∫s ˆ da = ∫ ρ dv
(Din)
v D
∇ × E is the “curl of the vector field⎯E”
Stokes’s theorem:
∫c Eids = ∫∫A (∇ × E)in̂ da
∂B
Faraday’s Law, Differential Form: ∇ × E = − E
∂t B
∂B
∫c Ei d s = ∫∫A ( ∇ × E) in̂ da = − ∫∫A ∂t inˆ da = ∫c Eids
L3-2
 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Integral Form: Differential Form:
∫∫ S D • n̂da = ∫∫∫ V ρ dv ρ ∇ •D= ρ
D

D = εE, B = μH ∫∫ S B • nˆ da = 0 0 ∇•B=0
B
0
∂
∫ E • ds = − ∂t ∫∫A B • n̂da E ∇ × E = - ∂B
c ∂t
B

∇ × H = J + ∂D
0 H
• = • + ∂
∫ H ds ∫∫A J n̂ da
∂t ∫∫A D • nda
ˆ ∂t
c J D
⎯E Electric field [volts/meter, V m-1]
⎯H Magnetic field [amperes/meter, A m-1]
⎯B Magnetic flux density [Tesla, T]
⎯D Electric displacement [ampere sec/m2, A s m-2]
⎯J Electric current density [amperes/m2, A m-2]
ρ Electric charge density [coulombs/m3, C m-3]
L3-3
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS: VACUUM SOLUTION
Constitutive
Gauss‘s Law Relations
∂B
Faraday’s Law: ∇ × E = − ∂t ∇•D = ρ D = εoE
Ampere’s Law: ∇ × H = J + ∂D ∇•B = 0 0 B=μ H
0 ∂t
o

EM Wave Equation:
Eliminate H : ∇ × ( ∇ × E ) = −μo ∂ ( ∇ × H)
∂t
Use identity: ∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ ( ∇ • A ) − ∇ 2 A
2
Yields: ∂ ∂
∇ ( ∇ • E ) − ∇ E = −μo ( ∇ × H) = −μoεo E
2
0 ∂t ∂t 2
∂ 2E
1 2
EM Wave Equation ∇ E − μ o εo =0
2
∂t
Second derivative in space ∝ second derivative in time,
therefore solution is any f(r,t) with identical dependencies on r,t
∂ 2 ∂ 2 ∂ 2
1
Laplacian Operator: ∇ • ( ∇φ ) = ∇ φ = (
2 + + )φ
2 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
L3-4
 WAVE EQUATION SOLUTION
Many are possible ⇒ Try Uniform Plane Wave (UPW), ≠ f(x,y)
2
2 ∂ E =0
Example: Try: E = ŷ Ey(z) in ∇ E − μ o ε o
2
0 0 ∂t
2 2 2
2
⇒ ∇ Ey = ( 2 + ∂ ∂ + ∂ )E y
2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ Ey
2
∂ Ey
2

Yields: − μ ε =0
∂z ∂t
2 o o 2

Trial solution: Ey(z,t) = E+(t – z/c); E+(arg) = arb. function of (arg)

Test solution: c-2 E”+ (t – z/c) - μoεo E”+(t – z/c) = 0 iff:
1
c= ≈ 3×108 [m s-1] in vacuum (velocity of light)
μo εo

E+(t – z/c) propagation

The position where arg = 0

moves at velocity c
z
0 z1
z = t = 0 ⇒ arg = 0 arg = 0 at t1 = z1/c
L3-5
UNIFORM PLANE WAVE IN Z-DIRECTION
Example: Ey(z,t) = E+(t - z/c) [V/m]
Func(arg) = Func*[(-c)(arg)] = Func*(z – ct)

E.G.: Ey(z,t) = E+ cos[ω(t – z/c)] = E+ cos(ωt – kz),

where k = ω/c = ω μo εo

To find magnetic fields:

Faraday’s Law: ∇ × E = − ∂B ⇒⎯H = - ∫(∇ ×⎯E)μo-1 dt
∂t
xˆ yˆ ẑ
∇ × E = det ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z = −x̂∂E+ cos ( ωt − kz ) ∂z
0 0
Ex Ey Ez = - x̂ kE+sin(ωt – kz)
0 0

⎯H = x̂∫(k/μo)E+sin(ωt – kz) dt = - xˆ(E+/ηo)cos(ωt – kz)

k = ω μ oεo , ηo = μ o / εo

L3-6
 UNIFORM PLANE WAVE: EM FIELDS
EM Wave in z direction:
E ( z,t ) = ŷE+ cos ( ωt − kz ) , H ( z,t ) = −xˆ (E+ ηo ) cos ( ωt − kz )

x
H ( z,0 )

E ( z,0 )
z

y
Electric energy density
Magnetic energy density
z

Linearity implies superposition of n→∞ waves, all θ,φ

L3-7
ELECTROMAGNETIC AND OTHER WAVES
A “wave” is a fixed disturbance propagating through a medium
A,B B
wave velocity
0 z
A
A,B energy density
null

0 z

Medium A B A energy B energy

String stretch velocity potential kinetic

Acoustic pressure velocity potential kinetic
Ocean height velocity potential kinetic
Electromagnetic H E magnetic electric

L3-8
Role of Maxwell’s Equations and Fields

Sources
Observable Reality
q ⎯J(x,y,z) [A/m2]
ρ(x,y,z) [C/m3]
Observer
Maxwell’s
Equations ⎯E,⎯H⎯v
⎯f [N] q

Lorentz Force Law: f = q(E + v ×μoH)

The fields⎯E,⎯H and the displacement and flux densities⎯D,⎯B permit

division of electromagnetics into the Maxwell and Lorentz equations

L3-9