Computer

Technically, a computer is a programmable machine. This means it can execute a

programmed list of instructions and respond to new instructions that it is given
. Today, however, the term is most often used to refer to the desktop and laptop
computers that most people use. When referring to a desktop model, the term "co
mputer" technically only refers to the computer itself -- not the monitor, keybo
ard, and mouse. Still, it is acceptable to refer to everything together as the c
omputer. If you want to be really technical, the box that holds the computer is
called the "system unit."
Some of the major parts of a personal computer (or PC) include the motherboard,
CPU, memory (or RAM), hard drive, and video card. While personal computers are b
y far the most common type of computers today, there are several other types of
computers. For example, a "minicomputer" is a powerful computer that can support
many users at once. A "mainframe" is a large, high-powered computer that can pe
rform billions of calculations from multiple sources at one time. Finally, a "su
percomputer" is a machine that can process billions of instructions a second and
is used to calculate extremely complex calculations
Characteristics:
Speed, accuracy, storage, versatility, automation, diligence, reliabilty, conven
ience, flexibility
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memor
y, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of
heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
Computers are classified according to their data processing speed, amount of dat
a that they can hold and price. Generally, a computer with high processing speed
and large internal storage is called a big computer. Due to rapidly improving t
echnology, we are always confused among the categories of computers.
Depending upon their speed and memory size, computers are classified into follow
ing four main groups.
1. Supercomputer.
2. Mainframe computer.
3. Mini computer.
4. Microcomputer.
1. Supercomputer
Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was
developed in 1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the
complicated scientific problems. It can perform more than one trillions calculat
ions per second. It has large number of processors connected parallel. So parall
el processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer thousands of u
sers can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of
each user separately. Supercomputers are mainly used for:
Weather forecasting.
Nuclear energy research.
Aircraft design.
Automotive design.
Online banking.
To control industrial units.
The supercomputers are used in large organizations, research laboratories, aeros
pace centers, large industrial units etc. Nuclear scientists use supercomputers
to create and analyze models of nuclear fission and fusions, predicting the acti
ons and reactions of millions of atoms as they interact. The examples of superco
mputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205 and ETA A-10 etc.
2. Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger
than mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially
requires a very large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expen
sive to buy and operate. It can support a large number of various equipments. It
 also has multiple processors. Large mainframe systems can handle the input and
output requirements of several thousand of users. For example, IBM, S/390 mainfr
ame can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access then mainfra
me with terminals or personal computers. There are basically two types of termin
als used with mainframe systems. These are:
i) Dumb Terminal
Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type of termin
al uses the CPU and storage devices of mainframe system. Typically, a dumb termi
nal consists of monitor and a keyboard (or mouse).
ii) Intelligent Terminal
Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some processing opera
tions. Usually, this type of terminal does not have its own storage. Typically,
personal computers are used as intelligent terminals. A personal computer as an
intelligent terminal gives facility to access data and other services from mainf
rame system. It also enables to store and process data locally.
The mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web. The
mainframe computers are used in large organizations such as Banks; Airlines and
Universities etc. where many people (users) need frequent access to the same da
ta, which is usually organized into one or more huge databases. IBM is the major
manufacturer of mainframe computers. The examples of mainframes are IBM S/390,
Control Data CYBER 176 and Amdahl 580 etc.
3. Minicomputers
These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost
than mainframe. These computers are known as minicomputers because of their smal
l size as compared to other computers at that time. The capabilities of a minico
mputer are between mainframe and personal computer. These computers are also kno
wn as midrange computers.
The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government depa
rtments. Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are
designed to handle multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as serve
rs in network environment and hundreds of personal computers can be connected to
the network with a minicomputer acting as server like mainframes, minicomputers
are used as web servers. Single user minicomputers are used for sophisticated d
esign tasks.
The first minicomputer was introduced in the mid-1960s by Digital Equipment Corp
oration (DEC). After this IBM Corporation (AS/400 computers) Data General Corpor
ation and Prime Computer also designed the mini computers.
4. Microcomputer
The microcomputers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. Microproc
essor is used in this type of computer. These are very small in size and cost. T
he IBM s first microcomputer was designed in 1981 and was named as IBM-PC. After t
his many computer hardware companies copied the design of IBM-PC. The term PC-com
patible refers any personal computer based on the original IBM personal computer
design.
The most popular types of personal computers are the PC and the Apple. PC and PC
-compatible computers have processors with different architectures than processo
rs in Apple computers. These two types of computers also use different operating
systems. PC and PC-compatible computers use the Windows operating system while
Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system (Mac OS). The majority of mic
rocomputers sold today are part of IBM-compatible. However the Apple computer is
neither an IBM nor a compatible. It is another family of computers made by Appl
e computer.
Personal computers are available in two models. These are:
1. Desktop PCs
2. Tower PCs
A desktop personal computer is most popular model of personal computer. The syst
em unit of the desktop personal computer can lie flat on the desk or table. In d
esktop personal computer, the monitor is usually placed on the system unit.
Another model of the personal computer is known as tower personal computer. The
system unit of the tower PC is vertically placed on the desk of table. Usually t
he system unit of the tower model is placed on the floor to make desk space free
and user can place other devices such as printer, scanner etc. on the desktop.
Today computer tables are available which are specially designed for this purpos
e. The tower models are mostly used at homes and offices.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programm
ing language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only
solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, a
nd output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing device
s. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client,
the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of comput
ers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in compu
ters until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, a
llowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and
more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor st
ill generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was
a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still reli
ed on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbol
ic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in
words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time,
such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computer
s that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic dr
um to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy indu
stry.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generati
on of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, call
ed semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of compu
ters.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation c
omputers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a
central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became a
ccessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their pr
edecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of i
ntegrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first gene
ration filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 40
04 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the ce
ntral processing unit and memory to input/output controls on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple i
ntroduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began t
o use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth g
eneration computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld dev
ices.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still
in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, t
hat are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is
helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molec
ular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to
come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond
to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Hardware
Refers to objects that you can actually touch, like disks, disk drives, display
screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips. In contrast, software is untouc
hable. Software exists as ideas, concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance
Input device
A hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices
a computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact wit
h it, much like a TV. Below is a listing of different types of computer input de
vices.
Digital camera
Joystick
Keyboard
Microphone
Mouse
Scanner
Web Cam
Joystick
A peripheral input device that looks similar to a control device you would find
on an arcade game at your local arcades. A computer joystick allows an individua
l to easily navigate an object in a game such as navigating a plane in a flight
simulator. The image to the right of this text is an image of the Logitech Freed
om 2.4 joystick and is an example of what you would expect most computer joystic
ks to look like.
One of the main input devices used on a computer, a PC's keyboard looks very si
milar to the keyboards of electric typewriters, with some additional keys. Below
is a graphic of the Saitek Gamers' keyboard with indicators pointing to each of
the major portions of the keyboard.
Mouse
A hardware input device that was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963, who at t
he time was working at the Stanford Research Institute, which was a think tank s
ponsored by Stanford University. The mouse allows an individual to control a poi
nter in a graphical user interface (GUI). Utilizing a mouse a user has the abili
ty to perform various functions such as opening a program or file and does not r
equire the user to memorize commands, like those used in a text-based command li
ne environment such as MS-DOS. To the right is a picture of a Microsoft IntelliM
ouse and is an example of what a computer mouse may look like.
The Mouse was originally referred to as an X-Y Position Indicator for a Display
System. Xerox later applied the mouse to its revolutionary Alto computer system
in 1973. However, because of Alto's unfortunate success, it was first widely use
d in the Apple Lisa computer. Today, the mouse is now found on virtually every c
omputer
Webcam
A camera connected to a computer or server that allows anyone connected to the I
nternet to view still pictures or motion video of a user. The majority of webcam
web sites are still pictures that are frequently refreshed every few seconds, m
inutes, hours, or days. However, there are some sites and personal pages that ca
n supply streaming video for users with broadband.
The image to the right is a picture of the Logitech Quick Cam Express and an exa
mple of what a webcam may look like. Today, most webcams are connected to the US
B or Firewire port on a computer.
There are millions of webcams around the world that allow you to view other peopl
e, places, and even events. If you're interested in looking at webcams, click he
re to open a search for webcams.
If you're looking to chat with other webcam users live a great site with millions
of other webcam users is Stickam.
Parents with children should be aware of the potential dangers of children and we
bcams. Additional information about protecting children from harmful material on
the Internet can be found on document CH000526.
 See document CH000890 for additional information about users without webcams view
ing users with webcams.
Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image and/or text and conver
t it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read and/or display the scann
ed object. A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB, Firewire, Parallel
or SCSI port.
See our scanner help page for additional help and information on computer scanner
s
The Optical Mark Reader is a device the "reads" pencil marks on NCS compatible s
can forms such as surveys or test answer forms. If that all seems overly technic
al to you, just think of it as the machine that checks multiple choice computer
forms. In this document The Optical Mark Reader will be referred to as the scann
er or OMR. The computer test forms designed for the OMR are known as NCS compati
ble scan forms. Tests and surveys completed on these forms are read in by the sc
anner, checked, and the results are saved to a file. This data file can be conve
rted into an output file of several different formats, depending on which type o
f output you desire.
The OMR is a powerful tool that has many features. If you are using casstat (gra
ding tests), the OMR will print the number of correct answers and the percentage
of correct answers at the bottom of each test. It will also record statistical
data about each question. This data is recorded in the output file created when
the forms are scanned. You ll find out more about the data file and output formats
available later on in this document.

Primary storage devices:

RAM
Random-access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a form of computer d
ata storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored d
ata to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random). The word random thus refers t
o the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless
of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece
of data.
By contrast, storage devices such as magnetic discs and optical discs rely on th
e physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices,
the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies bas
ed on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM mem
ory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. Man
y other types of memory are RAM, too, including most types of ROM and a type of
flash memory called NOR-Flash.
ROM
Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage media
used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cann
ot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distr
ibute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unl
ikely to require frequent updates).
In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid st
ate ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, an
d thus can never be modified. However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash
EEPROM can be erased and re-programmed multiple times; they are still described
as "read-only memory"(ROM) because the reprogramming process is generally infre
quent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit random access writes to ind
ividual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, economies of scale
and field-programmability often make reprogrammable technologies more flexible
and inexpensive, so mask ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007[update].