CFITES Vol 6 e

Canadian Forces
Individual Training
& Education System
CFITES
MANUAL OF INDIVIDUAL TRAINING AND EDUCATION — VOLUME 6
Conduct of
Instructional Programmes
A-P9-050-000/PT-006
DGPA Creative Services CS02-0153
2002-06 A-P9-050-000/PT-006
FOREWORD
A-P9-050-000/PT-006, Manual of Individual Training and Education, Volume 6, Conduct of Instructional
Programmes is issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff.
This publication is effective on receipt.
Suggestions for changes shall be forwarded through normal channels to National Defence Headquarters,
Attention: Director, Training and Education Policy (DTEP).
I
CONTENTS OF MANUAL OF INDIVIDUAL
TRAINING AND EDUCATION
The Manual of Individual Training and Education is a series of publications that provides guidance on the
implementation of the Canadian Forces Individual Training and Education System (CFITES). The series
consists of the following volumes:
Volume 1, CFITES — Introduction/Description, A-P9-050-000/PT-001
Volume 2, CFITES — Needs Assessment, A-P9-050-000/PT-002
Volume 3, CFITES — Analysis of Instructional Requirements, A-P9-050-000/PT-003
Volume 4, CFITES — Design of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-004
Volume 5, CFITES — Development of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-005
Volume 6, CFITES — Conduct of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-006
Volume 7, CFITES — Evaluation of Learners, A-P9-050-000/PT-007
Volume 8, CFITES — Validation of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-008
Volume 9: CFITES — Quantity Control in Individual Training and Education Programmes
Volume 10, CFITES — Managing Individual Training and Education in Projects, A-P9-050-000/PT-010
Volume 11, CFITES — Evaluation of Instructional Programmes
Volume 12, Canadian Forces Military Equivalencies Program (CFMEP), Prior Learning Assessment,
A-P9-050-000/PT-012
Volume 13, CFITES — Administration of Training Establishments and Programmes
Volume 14, CFITES — Resource Management in IT&E: Costing Model and Procedures
II
TT A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Part 1 INTRODUCTION Group-Paced Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .34
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Self-Paced Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Self-Directed Learning . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Overview of CFITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Instructional Technology . . . . . . . . . .35
Purpose of Conduct Phase . . . . . . . . . .2 Instructional Techniques . . . . . . . . . .36
Overview of Conduct Phase . . . . . . . . .2 Question Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Part 2 LEARNING Part 4 CONDUCT ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 On-the-Job Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Develop Instructor and Staff
Work Schedules at CF Units . . . . . . . .39
Developmental Process . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Unit OJT Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Enhancing Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Conducting OJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Personnel Roles and Responsibilities .42
Laws of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Ensuring Transfer of Learning . . . . . .11 Part 5 MONITOR LEARNING
Learner Progression and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Monitor Learner Progress . . . . . . . . . .44
Part 3 DELIVER INSTRUCTION Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Counsel Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Principles of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .13 Counselling Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Instructional Continuum . . . . . . . . . .14 Counselling Interview . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Behavior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Interviewing Technicques . . . . . . . . . .49
Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Counselling Approaches . . . . . . . . . . .51
Demonstration and Performance . . . .17 Progress Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Field Trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Part 6 MONITOR INSTRUCTION
Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 AND DEVELOP STAFF
Guided Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Monitor Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Interactive Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Standards Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Peer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Staff Indoctrination . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Problem-based Learning . . . . . . . . . . .21 Develop Instructional Staff . . . . . . . . .57
Role Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Instructor Development Programme . .57
Self-Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Monitor Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Seminar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Effective Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Instructor Monitoring Process . . . . . .60
Study Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Counsel Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Reviewing Evaluation Forms . . . . . . .63
Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Analyze Evaluation Forms . . . . . . . . .63
Conduct Distributed Learning . . . . . .29 Additional Feedback Options . . . . . . .63
Distributed/Distance Learning
Facilitation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
III
TT A B L E O F C O N T E N T S (CONT’D)
ANNEX A: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES . . . A1
ANNEX B: GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1
ANNEX C: SELF-PACED LEARNING . . . . . . . . . C1
ANNEX D: SAMPLE OJT GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1
ANNEX E: SAMPLE PRB CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . E1
ANNEX F: INSTRUCTOR
MONITORING FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . F1
ANNEX G: INSTRUCTOR
COURSE EVALUATIONS . . . . . . . . . G1
ANNEX H: LEARNER COURSE

EVALUATION FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . H1
IV
P A R T 1
M A N U A L O F I N D I V I D U A L T R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N — V O L U M E 6
II N T R O D U C T I O N
Background 1. Canadian Forces policy on Individual Training and Education (IT&E) states
that IT&E activities shall be conducted in accordance with the management
model known as Canadian Forces Individual Training and Education System
(CFITES). The Manual of Individual Training and Education provides guid-
ance on the application of the CFITES in a series of interrelated volumes,
each focusing on a different aspect of the system.
Purpose 2. This volume of the Manual of Individual Training and Education provides
guidance to CF staff or external instructors on the conduct of instructional
programmes.
Overview of CFITES 3. For an introduction to and description of the CFITES see Volume 1, CFITES
Introduction/Description. As shown in Figure 1 below, Conduct is the fourth
phase of the six-phase CFITES Quality Control model.
Figure 1: CFITES Quality Control Model
STRATEGIC
GUIDANCE
needs
assessment analysis design
development
conduct
operations evaluation
validation
1
P A R T 1
Purpose of 4. The purpose of the Conduct phase is to enable personnel to successfully

achieve the performance or education objectives (POs or EdOs) associated
Conduct Phase with a specific job and/or training and education requirement.
5. The output of the Conduct phase is personnel who have successfully attained
the essential skills, knowledge and attitudes detailed in the instructional
programme.
Overview of 6. The input to the conduct phase is the training plan that describes the learning
programme and the instructional materials that enable learners to achieve
Conduct Phase POs/EdOs.
7. The fundamental processes of the Conduct phase, which are described in
Parts 2–6 of this volume, are:
a. deliver instruction;
b. monitor learning; and
c. monitor instruction and develop staff.
8. This manual provides information to enable instructional staff to effectively
implement the learning strategies, methods and techniques specified in the
training plan. For a more complete understanding of the instructional design
process, this manual should be read in conjunction with Volume 4, Design
of Instructional Programmes and Volume 5, Development of Instructional
Programmes.
2
P A R T 2
LL E A R N I N G
Overview 9. The purpose of the Conduct Phase of the CFITES is to enable personnel
to successfully meet performance requirements through the delivery of
instructional programmes. Maximizing individual learning is integral to
this process.
Learning 10. Learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of the acquisition of
knowledge, skill or attitude (NATO Glossary, 1987).
Developmental 11. Learning is a developmental process that builds incrementally in layers as

knowledge increases and skills the learner performs become more complex.
Process For example, a pilot must understand the information an altimeter provides
before it can be applied in flight. This developmental building process is
depicted in the learning continuum for cognitive skills in Figure 2. As learners
progress they build on each level to achieve the next more complex cognitive
skill. To facilitate learning, delivery of the instructional programme should
flow from simple to complex.
Figure 2: Learning Continuum for Cognitive Skills (derived from Bloom, 1972)
Evaluate
Information
Synthesize
Information
Analyze
Apply
Information COMPLEX
SIMPLE Information
Interpret
Information
Recall
Information
3
P A R T 2
12. Most basic training programmes focus on the first three levels. In the initial
stage learners are introduced to new concepts and ideas. In Figure 2, this
level is identified as the recall information level of learning, and recalling
information or recognizing concepts are the types of activities an individual
is expected to perform. As these concepts are developed, the learner inte-
grates them into their existing knowledge base and begins to understand and
interpret the information. The learner is expected to be able to explain or
describe concepts. With this foundation, the learner begins to apply the con-
cepts in different situations and under different conditions. Solid develop-
ment of these first three cognitive skill levels generally produces competent
performance and meets most Canadian Forces (CF) qualification standards
(QS).
13. Advanced training, education and professional development programmes
target development of the higher-order cognitive levels, from application to
evaluation. Once the application level has been mastered, the learner can
expand skill and knowledge by examining information and breaking it down
to make meaning of it. Based on mastery of the analysis level, individuals
begin learning to consolidate information from various sources to find pat-
terns, solutions or meaning to a given problem. Finally, based on mastering
all other levels, the learner builds the critical thinking or assessment skills
required at the evaluation level. Each level builds upon the preceding level.
14. Due to the variety of IT&E activities required to meet CF requirements and
the wide range of related instructional programmes available to support these
activities, instructional staff must ensure the approach they employ enhances
the required learning. One cannot expect learners to generate solutions to
problems if they have been required only to memorize information in the
classroom and repeat it on a test. When learners must acquire lower level
skills such as remembering and understanding information appropriate
strategies include interactive lectures and self-study. However, as the com-
plexity increases and learners must apply knowledge to new or different sit-
uations, or break down and analyze information, strategies such as guided
discussions, role-plays, in-basket and similar exercises are required. If com-
plex synthesis and evaluation skills must be developed, strategies including
problem-based learning, role-play scenarios, case studies and simulation
are effective.
4
P A R T 2
15. This developmental process also applies to learning physical skills as

depicted in the learning continuum in Figure 3. Learners begin by mastering
simple discrete actions before proceeding to the next level where discrete
actions are combined in a series, usually with assistance or guidance. With
practice learners will eventually be able to perform a series of actions confi-
dently and competently. As is the case for cognitive skills, the learner must
master one level of learning before he or she can master the next level.
Performing drill is an example of a physical skill that increases in complexi-
ty from basic marching to advanced sword drill. Another example is diving.
Divers initially learn to breathe underwater in the pool. Next they learn to
operate the diving apparatus and respond to plodding signals. Once day/
night plodding has been mastered, learners dive around an underwater
course guided by a jackstay. Once competence has been attained, learners
move on to open water diving. With extensive practice, divers competence
increases and eventually they are able to dive with a partner, without
supervision.
Figure 3: Learning Continuum for Physical Skills (derived from Simpson, 1966)
Create
new ways to
Alter perform skills
complex skills
Perform when required
complex skills
Perform a proficiently COMPLEX
SIMPLE series of actions
Perform a proficiently
series of actions
with assistance
Perform a
discrete action
5
P A R T 2
16. Instructional staff must employ an approach appropriate for the level of
physical skill to be learned. For example, in general, the demonstration
performance method is appropriate for learning physical skills. However,
the model and coach method that provides learners with a model of perfor-
mance and guides them step by step with explanations, is appropriate for
mid level skills. It is important to note that instructors cannot expect learners
to perform until they have been provided an effective model of the required
performance. To enhance learning, the instructor must explain and demon-
strate each aspect of performance (e.g., the what, how, when, where and why
of a task). For more complex levels, structured experiences, and simulations
can enhance problem solving, troubleshooting and the development of
high-level complex skills.
17. To effectively enhance learning, instructional staff should ensure that the
method of instruction matches the type of learning required. Refer to Table 1
below for a quick reference of instructional methods appropriate for various
types of learning.
Table 1:Instructional Methods Appropriate for Learning Types
TYPE OF LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Recall Lecture, Self-Study
Comprehension Tutorial, Guided Discussion, Self-Study
Application Simulation, OJT
Analysis Case Study, Simulation, Games, Problem-based Learning
Synthesis Simulation, Case Study, Problem-based Learning
Evaluation Study Assignment, Case Study, Simulations, Problem-based Learning
Physical Skills Demonstration-Performance, Simulation, Tutorial
Attitude Behavior Modeling, Guided Discussion, Role Play Simulations
6
P A R T 2
18. The developmental building process that takes place during learning is often
a combination of cognitive and physical skills. For instance, to set up a desk
top computer learners must first have some knowledge of the components,
operating system and software suite. Another example is the developmental
learning process of learning to drive. The learner must first recall and under-
stand the rules of the road before they can apply them while driving. An
indication of the levels of learning that must occur before a person drives is
illustrated by reading the statements in Figure 4 from the bottom to the top.
Figure 4: Levels of Learning
Evaluate information and create new ways to perform
Alter complex skills when required — Based on incoming information or cues, make decisions
and alter actions accordingly. For example, when a car is out of control and coming towards
you, veer off the road (if safe to do so) out of the path of oncoming traffic to avoid collision.
Perform complex skills proficiently — Drive proficiently in more difficult driving

conditions such as heavy traffic, poor weather.
Synthesize information — Process multiple pieces of information in routine or unusual

situations, for example, in a situation where you have merging traffic.
Perform a series of actions proficiently — Drive confidently and proficiently.
Analyze information — Break down information in terms of what to do in

different situations.
Perform a series of actions with assistance — Start car and drive with coaching and
assistance from the instructor. Practice until proficiency increases.
Apply information — Apply information to various situations or contexts. (e.g., must

stop at red light, signal when turning) Follow rules and regulations.
Perform discrete actions — Turn on signal lights, headlights, and start engine.
Interpret Information — Understand rules of the road, road signs, car parts, emergency
procedures etc.
Recall Information — Recall the rules of the road, road signs, parts of the car etc.
7
P A R T 2
19. Most learners are only required to progress to the “alter complex skills when
required” level of learning. However, experts such as anti-terrorist and dan-
gerous goods drivers, would be required to progress further in the learning
continuum to critically assess information and create new ways to perform.
A similar process could be applied to the learning continuum of a pilot of a
ship or aircraft where performance at the expert level is ultimately required.
Enhancing Learning 20. Successful learning takes place in an active environment. At a minimum,
instructors must employ the following (derived from Gagne, 1992):
a. explain the lesson objective;
b. present material to stimulate learners;
c. stimulate recall of prior learning;
d. guide learners;
e. allow learners to perform; and
f. provide learners with feedback and guidance on their performance.
21. Although the approach employed to facilitate learning can vary extensively
depending on the complexity of the skills being learned, some strategies
enhance adult learning in general. Key strategies to enhance learning are
outlined in Table 2.
Table 2: Enhancing Adult Learning (derived from Knowles 1978, Moore 1999, Meier 2000)
TO FACILITATE ADULT LEARNING

Actively involve the learner Successful learning takes place in an active environment that requires
learner participation. Learning that can be applied to an activity such as
one that an individual is actually performing in the workplace is
particularly useful.
Provide a smorgasbord Use a variety of activities, tasks, methods and media. This increases the
of learning activities chance of appealing to a variety of learning styles and reaching all learners
(visual, touch, auditory).
Provide opportunities for Peer tutoring or group learning activities. Allow people to be both teachers
individuals to learn together and learners. High knowledge retention rates have been shown to occur
through group discussions, team projects and by having learners teach others.
Provide opportunities for the Give the learner some control over the learning process. When possible
learner to be self-directed by allow them to choose the sequence of completion or type of activity.
giving a choice of activities.
Draw on the learners’ Familiarize yourself with the background and work experience of the class
experiences. and allow them to provide information relevant to the teaching points
when possible.
Ensure the training Learning activities should be anchored to a larger task or problem.
is anchored. Authentic situations should be used in order to situate the learning and
facilitate transfer to the job.
8
P A R T 2
Learning Styles 22. Instructors should be aware of the individual learning styles he or she will
encounter in the classroom. Learning styles refer to a learner’s preferred
manner of learning knowledge, skills or attitudes. Knowledge of learning
styles can help the instructor to effectively employ a variety of instructional
methods and media (Hartman, 1995). Terms vary, however for illustration
purposes those described by Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1992)
are depicted below.
Table 3. Learning Styles & Instructional Methods
LEARNING STYLE & DESCRIPTOR RECOMMENDED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
Activists — Individuals who learn by Field trips, shop/laboratory work, role-plays, demonstration/
immersing themselves directly in a performance of tasks for Activists who like to experience
new experience. things.
Reflectors — Individuals who observe Brainstorming sessions, observation of films or actual tasks,
others and consider challenges from all recording/tracking information for Reflectors who like to
sides before acting or making decisions. observe and consider ideas carefully before leaving.
Theorists — Individuals who analyze their Lectures, papers, self-study for Theorists who like to
observations objectively, trying to create develop explanations and theories.
explanations and theories to explain them.
Practitioners — Individuals who Case studies, syndicate work, group exercises, and
prefer to apply new ideas readily, simulations for Practitioners who like to apply ideas.
with little reflection, and experiment
to solve problems.
Laws of Learning 23. A survey of textbooks on learning will not reveal a final or fixed set of laws,
principles, or rules of learning. For this reason, although the laws of learning
derived from Thorndike (1966) are sound, the list is necessarily arbitrary and
incomplete.
24. The Law of Readiness. To learn effectively, people must be physically,
mentally, and emotionally ready to do so. Instructors should look for
the following:
a. effective instructors understand the law of readiness and do their utmost
to ensure that these conditions are satisfied at the onset of any lesson. If
learners have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and proper motivation
for learning, they will make more progress and be more receptive to the
instructor than learners who lack this motivation;
9
P A R T 2
b. under certain circumstances, instructors can do little, if anything, to

inspire readiness to learn. If outside responsibilities, interests, or worries
are weighing too heavily on a learner’s mind, if the schedule is over-
crowded, if personal problems seem insoluble, the learner will be unable
to develop an interest in learning. Health, finances, or family affairs can
overshadow a learner’s interest and desire to learn. Good instructors will
maintain a relationship with learners, which will enable them to detect
symptoms of these difficulties and attempt to alleviate them, so that the
learners can become ready for learning; and
c. under normal circumstances, well-conceived motivation, meaningful
review, and a well-defined aim at the beginning of each lesson will fulfil
the requirement of readiness.
25. The Law of Relationship. The law of relationship emphasizes the necessity
for learners to understand the relationship between new and old facts and
between ideas and skills. Learners must understand not only why they are
learning a particular sequence, but also how the sequence combines with
previous ones and where it fits in the overall curriculum. Instructors can
best satisfy this principle by linking the lesson to previous ones.
26. The Law of Effect. This law is based on the emotional reaction of the learners.
It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling and, conversely, is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling. Examples are:
a. an experience that produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion,
or futility in learners is naturally unpleasant. If instructors attempt to
teach beyond the learner’s level of understanding at an early stage, the
learner is likely to feel apprehensive and will not find the experience
satisfying; and
b. a violation of this principle can occur during fault analysis or debriefs
when instructors, in an attempt to be accurate, immediately emphasize
all the errors that were committed by learners. This negative approach
does not give the learner the necessary positive reinforcement to make the
experience satisfying. A much better method, which also contributes to
the principle of effect, is to point out the positive aspects of a learner’s
performance and then discuss the errors that were committed. Whatever
the learning situation, it should contain elements that positively affect the
learner and give some feeling of satisfaction. Every learning experience
will not always have positive results. However, the learner’s chance of
success will be increased if there is some sense of accomplishment and
the learning experience is pleasant.
27. The Law of Exercise. This law states that meaningful mental or physical
activity is essential if learning is to occur. Course members learn by applying
what they have heard or what has been demonstrated to them, and each time
they practice their learning continues and is strengthened. Oral questioning,
hypothetical problems, review, and/or practice are methods of satisfying
this law.
10
P A R T 2
28. The Law of Recency. Other things being equal, the last things learned are
best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed, time-wise,
from a new fact or understanding, the more difficulty he or she has in
remembering it. For example, it is sometimes easy to recall a telephone
number dialed a few minutes previously, but it is usually impossible to
recall an unfamiliar number dialed a week earlier.
29. The Law of Primacy. Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong,
almost unshakable impression. This means that what instructors teach must
be correct the first time. A faulty or inaccurate first demonstration may leave
a false impression that is difficult to change because poor examples have to
be unlearned in subsequent lessons.
30. The Law of Intensity. The law of intensity implies that learners learn more
from the real thing than from a substitute. For instance, learners learn more
from a vivid, dramatic or exciting experience than from a routine or boring
one, e.g., they will learn more about fire fighting by watching someone fight
a fire than by listening to a lecture on the subject. Therefore, instructors must
use their imagination and employ methods, which mimic reality.
Ensuring Transfer 31. Canadian Forces training establishments must prepare learners to function
on the job after they graduate. Training and the instructional method should
of Learning enable learners to transfer the lessons learned at the training establishment to
actual on-job situations. The training establishments should, therefore, attempt
whenever possible to simulate operational conditions during training.
32. However, a training establishment cannot provide all requirements such as a
real enemy or enemy equipment for the learner to engage and destroy. The
training establishment must, therefore, simulate the experience to ensure
that personnel learn the appropriate lessons. Further, the learners should
understand that while the enemy may react differently from the simulation,
the basic concepts remain valid.
33. The learner must be ready for learning before he or she can benefit from
training. Readiness refers to both the maturity and experience levels of the
learner and directly impacts transfer of learning. For example, sending an
individual to advanced training before they have consolidated what was
learned on basic is counterproductive to transfer. Learners must be given the
time and opportunity to learn and master skills so that skills are transferred
from the classroom to the job site.
34. Transfer of learning should be planned for before, during and after training to
ensure successful transfer takes place (Broad & Newstrom, 1992). Before the
learning activity, the instructor should:
a. ensure the learning activity is relevant and will meet the learner’s needs;
b. ensure learners are aware they will be required to apply new skills on job;
and
c. if possible, prepare supervisors to support the learner application of new
skills at work.
11
P A R T 2
During the learning activity, instructors should emphasize how this material
will be of benefit, ensure learners have the opportunity to practice new
skills and provide job aids to take back to the work place. After the learning
activity, support the transfer of learning by conducting regular course
evaluation and periodic validation to ensure training continues to match
job requirements.
35. The following factors influence the transfer of learning from training to the
actual operational conditions:
a. Environment. Maximize the similarity between the training environment
and the real job. Full motion simulators, artificially induced stress,
reduced visibility, night time operations and combat conditions can
enhance the training environment if they accurately mimic the operational
environment;
b. Realism. Use examples, models and training devices that relate to real
situations. Provide practical real life “hands on” under close supervision;
c. Materials. Select materials and learning aids that supplement and
enhance what is being taught; and
d. Communication. Fully explain how course objectives relate to the
operational task. Label and point out the main elements of a task. Ensure
that learners have mastered the general principles before moving on to
higher-level learning.
Learner Progression 36. Learners begin an instructional programme to learn new concepts and skills.
They progress by applying the knowledge and skills in various situations
and Development representative of the job and by reflecting on instructor feedback and direc-
tion, as well as by considering how they performed, and what to do differ-
ently next time. In the final stages of the programme, most learners will have
become more capable and as they gain further insight into the tasks they
must perform, they will begin to take more responsibility for monitoring and
improving their own performance. Learners who have developed to this
stage will require less step by step direction from instructors but will still
need coaching and cueing from the instructor to help them improve and
perfect skills.
12
P A R T 3
D
DELIVER INSTRUCTION
Overview 37. The delivery of instruction refers not only to the implementation of the
lesson guidance and instructional materials produced in the Development
phase, but also to the active participation of each learner. This section pro-
vides guidance on the effective use of various instructional strategies and
methods.
Principles of 38. In order to foster an environment that promotes participation and learning
the instructional staff must understand and apply the principles of instruc-
Instruction tion. The six mutually supportive concepts, in Table 4, are the heart of learn-
ing and instruction. Instructional staff should strive to apply these principles
in all lessons involving theory in the classroom or in practical situations.
Table 4: Principles of Instruction
PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUES
INTEREST The instructor should employ imaginative means to

People learn best when they are interested. provoke learner curiosity, while taking into account
Learning is most likely to occur if instruction is learner experience and interests. Providing material
engaging and gains and maintains the interest with enthusiasm and incorporating variety, realism
of learners. Motivated learners are the most and learner participation in instruction are techniques
interested and involved. to arouse and maintain learner interest. Motivate
learners by explaining why the specific topic of
instruction is important for them to know. Learner
involvement is critical to stimulating interest.
COMPREHENSION Techniques that can be employed to facilitate

People learn best when instruction starts at the comprehension include: posing questions to
appropriate level for the learner and proceeds at stimulate recall of previously learned concepts;
the rate of their comprehension and progression reviewing material; observing learners; posing
through material. The instructor must help to questions on concepts; allowing learners to
build the bridge between old and new information make their own logical connections (develop-
and/or to relate the old structure to the new by mental teaching); and giving assignments on
providing the context for the learning. material to be learned.
EMPHASIS Instructional materials can emphasize the teaching

People learn best when instruction supports and points by: presenting them in a step-by-step, logical
emphasizes the teaching points. The material to be manner; reviewing teaching points with learners in
learned must be presented to the learner and class; in homework assignments on material to be
emphasized in order to enhance retention. learned and by stating “this is important” or
“you need to know this”.
13
P A R T 3
Table 4: Principles of Instruction (continued)
PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUES
PARTICIPATION Learner participation can be incorporated into

People learn best when they participate actively instruction by: assigning reports, briefs, presentations
in the learning process. Meaningful learner and papers; posing questions; having learners
participation is essential to effective instruction. explain or demonstrate material in class; and holding
guided discussion and team, group or partner work.
Developmental questions keep learners involved.
ACCOMPLISHMENT Providing learning guidance and feedback is

People learn best when they receive a sense of essential in order to allow learners to acquire a
accomplishment from their performance. Effective sense of accomplishment. Positive reinforcement of
instruction provides opportunities for the learner to learner achievement and opportunities for success
feel a sense of accomplishment. Learners should must be provided by the instructor or incorporated
know what they must achieve, be advised of their into instructional materials. The learner should be
progress and realize satisfaction in achieving it. informed of their progress (What is done right/
wrong) and be provided remedial coaching
if needed.
CONFIRMATION Confirmation of learning can take place in class

Learning is most complete and enduring when through observation, end of lesson exercises,
instruction confirms that it has actually taken place. questions to the class and practice sessions.
The learner knows he/she has mastered the Assignments and tests can also be used to
required concepts and if not can seek assistance. confirm learning.
Note: The acronym “ICEPAC” is useful for remembering the above concepts and the learning/instruction
principles associated with each.
Instructional 39. There are many instructional roles staff members may perform, depending
on their experience and skill set. The various instructional roles and some
Continuum of the associated methods are provided in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Instructional Roles
CONTINUUM Instructor-led OJT Instructor Facilitated Facilitated Simulator Distance

OF Learning Learning Individual or Instructor Learning
INSTRUCTION Group- paced Instructor
Technology
METHODS Interactive Demonstration, Case Study, CBT, WBT, Modeling & Facilitation,
Lecture Application, Problem- based Multimedia Coaching Mail, WBT,
Demo & Coaching, Learning Learning Audio,
Performance Feedback & programmes Video and
Reflection Computer
Conference
14
P A R T 3
40. The instructional methods to be used during a lesson are identified in the
lesson specifications of the training plan. Instructional staff should be famil-
iar with and able to use a variety of different methods. The methods and
descriptions presented below are derived from Romizowski, (1992) and
Galbraith (1998). To become skilled at using a variety of instructional meth-
ods, instructors should consult the references listed in Annex A and complete
the Advanced Instructional Techniques course available through CFTDC.
Behavior Modeling 41. Behavior modeling is a form of demonstration. It is used to teach attitudinal
objectives and to develop interpersonal skills. This method allows the
learner to see the desired behaviors or skills first hand. Learners acquire
new behaviors by observing live or video models and then rehearsing the
behaviors. Behavior modeling is usually employed with smaller groups,
as each learner must rehearse the behavior as part of the learning process.
42. The instructor introduces the lesson by describing the what, why, when and
where of the topic. The instructor describes the skill in question and then
models both effective and ineffective behaviors verifying that learners have
clearly understood the procedures, before moving on. Next, the instructor
provides learners with a video or live presentation that sets the job context
and models effective and ineffective behavior in that setting.
43. Following the modeling session, the instructor discusses the behavior and
what learners should do during their practice session. Learners discuss and
practice modeling effective behavior on their own or with a partner. Then
each learner demonstrates the behavior while the instructor and the remain-
der of the class observes. The instructor provides feedback to the learners
and coaches them on their performance.
44. Learners reflect on the feedback and repeat the exercise. This process contin-
ues until learners master the behavior. Ideally, learners should be videotaped
so that they can observe their behavior and reflect on their performance and
the instructor feedback. Instructors should have learners try the behavior as
soon as possible in the lesson. Learners must be provided adequate time to
practice to allow them to master the behavior.
45. Techniques. Instructors must be able to demonstrate effective and ineffective
behaviors to employ this method even when a supporting video is used. It is
critical that the correct behaviors are accurately modeled, otherwise learners
may become confused and discouraged.
46. Instructors employing the behavior modeling method should be able to
provide detailed feedback to the learner on his or her performance. Correct
behaviors should be positively reinforced, and areas requiring improvement
identified.
15
P A R T 3
Case Study 47. In the case study method the instructor provides learners with the opportu-
nity to deal with a simulated, real life situation in the classroom. Learners
respond to the scenario related to the target performance, by examining
the facts and incidents of the case, to critically analyze data and develop
solutions.
48. The case study method is used to challenge learners to apply what they
know to a realistic situation. It allows learners to actively participate with
the instructor in applying the concepts or principles under study and to
foster problem solving, higher-level learning and respect of other opinions.
49. This method of instruction should be employed with smaller groups of rela-
tively mature learners. The primary objective is not to find a correct solution
to the problem posed, but to understand the principles involved.
50. To employ the case study method, prior to the lesson, the instructor should
verify that the case matches the experience level of the learners and select
a logical sequence in which to analyze the case. Adequate time must be
allowed to ensure that learners fully understand the case problem and
scenario. Learners can read the case in class or ahead of time.
51. To begin the lesson, the instructor should introduce the case and relate it to
the learners’ past experiences. The instructor should indicate how the lesson
fits into the course overall and how it will proceed. Learners should be
advised of the lesson objective and the approach that they are expected to
use to analyze the case. Learners should clearly understand whether there is
a specific view that they are expected to adopt when examining the case.
52. During the lesson, the instructor elaborates on each main point through
well-formed, pre-planned questions. For example, what are the facts,
assumptions, problems of the case, what is the cause of the problem, what
are the consequences. The instructor guides the class from issue to issue and
leads them to discuss critical points. When required, the class can be split
into smaller groups for discussion. In this situation the instructor must rotate
from group to group to verify that they understand the issues and to answer
learner questions.
53. To debrief the case, the instructor addresses the facts of the case. Where
small groups were formed the instructor asks each group to provide one or
two points relevant to the course. The instructor asks learners to provide
the points learned from the case. The instructor concludes by summarizing
the case, relating it to the principle to be illustrated and suggesting how the
principle applies in other situations.
54. Case Study Strategies. There are a number of strategies the instructor can use
to facilitate analysis of the case study. They include:
a. monitor learners who are not participating and try to draw them into the
discussion, starting with closed questions and then asking for an opinion
or comment on an issue;
b. ask stimulating questions when needed to promote thinking or guide the
discussion, e.g., What is the importance of that fact? Do we need to look at
additional facts or information? Is there another way of looking at it?;
16
P A R T 3
c. ask learners to respond to a question instead of responding yourself,

when possible;
d. record learners’ points on a chalk board (also give each group a flipchart
for group work); and
e. summarize the discussion to assist learners to refocus and progress
when necessary.
Demonstration and 55. Demonstration is a method of instruction where the instructor, by actually
performing an operation or doing a job, shows the learner what to do, how
Performance to do it and through explanations brings out the why, where and when it is
done. Sometimes referred to as coaching and modeling. It is used to:
a. teach manipulative operations or procedures;
b. teach trouble-shooting;
c. illustrate principles;
d. teach operation or function of equipment or tools;
e. teach teamwork;
f. set standards of quality; and
g. teach safety procedures.
56. Performance. Performance is a method in which the course member learns
by doing, i.e., is required to perform under controlled conditions the opera-
tion, skill or movement being taught. It is used to:
a. teach manipulative operations or procedures;
b. teach operation or function of equipment;
c. teach team skills; and
d. teach safety procedures.
57. In practice, the Demonstration and Performance methods are used together
when teaching skills. Learners observe the performance of the target task and
rehearse it under controlled conditions.
58. Techniques. Instructors using the demonstration and performance method
must be highly skilled in the procedures to be demonstrated. Learners must
be shown the correct procedures. Providing an effective demonstration
requires careful planning. Prior to the lesson, the instructor ensures that
the task has been broken down into small sequential steps. If necessary,
the instructor should rehearse the lesson prior to delivery to ensure the
procedures are accurate and clear. The instructor also prepares all materials
in advance and organizes the class so all can see.
17
P A R T 3
59. The instructor begins by introducing the lesson, identifying what learners
will be able to do at the end, where this skill can be applied and why it is
important to learn. During the lesson, the instructor explains each step and
then demonstrates each step reiterating the critical components. In larger
groups it may be helpful to provide a handout outlining the steps for learners
to follow. Learners practice the task step by step under supervision. The
instructor provides assistance or re-demonstrates as necessary. The instructor
may also pose questions to the learners throughout the demonstration to
ensure they understand the steps. Practice under supervision continues until
the learner masters the skill. Mastery may require practice beyond class time
depending on the complexity of the task and the level of the learner.
60. Allowing learners to practice as early as possible and positively reinforcing
everything learners do correctly enhances learning. The Demonstration and
Performance method can also be used to support an explanation of a theory
or concept (e.g., physics — heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects).
Field Trip 61. The field trip is a planned learning experience in which learners observe
“real life” operations that illustrate what was discussed or learned in the
classroom. It is realistic and brings relevance to instruction. The field trip
is used to:
a. reinforce and clarify classroom learning;
b. inject variety into the training situation;
c. permit learners to view operations or equipment which cannot easily be
shown in the classroom; and
d. set a realistic context for learning.
62. The field trip requires careful planning to ensure it enhances classroom
learning. Prior to the trip, the exact operation or equipment that learners will
observe must be specified. Details such as transportation, safety or security
considerations and whether members of the field unit will be available to
demonstrate the use of equipment should be pre-arranged.
63. If learners will be allowed to manipulate equipment, appropriate procedures
should be pre-arranged and presented to the learners. During the presenta-
tion, learners can rotate through the demonstration, while others observe or
look at other materials. Learners may be grouped and given access to equip-
ment if careful supervision is not warranted or if additional personnel are
available to supervise them on the job site. Planning the field trip will ensure
instructional goals are achieved and that control of the learning situation is
maintained.
64. The Field Trip can be valuable to enhance motivation, demonstrate the
relevance of material being taught and facilitate transfer to the workplace.
18
P A R T 3
Game 65. A game is a method employed to allow learners to practice behaviors under the
conditions of the game. Games include conflict, rules and in some cases teams
and winners and losers. Games are motivating for learners and can transfer well
to the job.
66. Games are used with one or more individuals to practice skills associated with
a social system or human interaction. The game must instruct some type of skill
such as applying strategies or principles. Normally steps or procedures are
repeated allowing learners to develop skills.
67. Before employing this method the instructor must explain the game and rules.
During the game instructors should ensure that the game is played in the man-
ner expected.
68. Games can inject variety into the classroom but it is critical that the game sup-
port learning of course material, for example, games allowing learners to practice
language, recall terms, recognize equipment parts, and use strategies in games of
tactics.
Guided Discussion 69. Guided Discussion is a method in which learners are guided in steps to reach
instructional objectives by drawing out their opinions, knowledge, experience
and capabilities, and by building on these to explore and develop new material.
Learners discuss issues to expand their knowledge of the subject. It is used to:
a. develop imaginative solutions to problems (e.g., through brainstorming);
b. stimulate thinking and interest and secure learner participation;
c. emphasize main teaching points;
d. supplement lectures, reading or laboratory exercises;
e. determine how well learners understand concepts and principles;
f. prepare learners to apply theory or procedure;
g. clarify or review points;
h. determine learner progress and the effectiveness of prior instruction; and
i. foster attitudinal change.
70. This method of instruction is employed with a small group of 4 -12 persons
seated in a circular or horseshoe fashion to facilitate discussion. Reading materi-
al should be provided to learners in advance so that learners are familiar with
the concepts that will be discussed.
71. To conduct a guided discussion, an instructor should introduce the topic and
scenario, outline the main discussion points, state the what, where and why of
the lesson and create an open environment.
72. During the body of the lesson the instructor poses open lead-off questions to
guide the discussion towards the aim. Conducting a guided discussion requires
skills in order to recognize digression and tactfully redirect discussion using
rephrased questions, comments or summaries. Encouragement of learner discus-
sion is essential by inviting members to talk, using follow-on questions and
resolving conflict.
19
P A R T 3
73. The instructor concludes the lesson by reviewing all the main points con-
tributed by both the learner and instructor and relating points back to the
lesson aim.
74. The guided discussion is relevant and meaningful to the learner if it is
designed to meet their needs. It stimulates thinking and can result in higher
levels of retention due to extensive learner participation.
Interactive Lecture 75. The interactive lecture is a formal or semi-formal presentation in which the
instructor presents a series of events, facts, principles, etc and learners listen
and participate by asking or responding to questions and commenting. It is
efficient and standardized. It is used to:
a. orient learners and generate interest;
b. introduce a subject or give an overview;
c. give direction on procedures;
d. present basic or background material;
e. introduce a demonstration, discussion or performance;
f. illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts; and
g. review, clarify, emphasize or summarize.
76. The interactive lecture can be employed with groups as large as forty.
However, the larger the group the more difficult to build in lecture inter-
activity. Prior to the lesson, the instructor considers issues that could arise
and prepares examples and explanations to deal with them. The instructor
practices lecture delivery and prepares material.
77. During the lecture, the instructor pays attention to learner feedback such as
facial expressions, body language and alertness. If learners appear unsure it
is best to deal with the problem before proceeding by asking if anyone has
questions or posing questions to the class. Learner involvement can be pro-
moted by: providing an outline of the lecture’s main points; citing relevant
comparisons, reasons, examples, statistics and testimonials (CREST); mixing
surprising or interesting points with dryer material to stimulate learners;
identifying problems the material is relevant to; and incorporating other
methods after 20 minutes of lecture such as a video. Discussion or handout
completion can improve learner attention during the second part of
the lecture. The instructor concludes by summarizing key points and
re-motivating learners.
Peer Learning 78. During peer learning, structured materials are provided to learners who then
teach their peers. This method is motivational and is used to facilitate:
a. team building;
b. recall of facts; and
c. comprehension of concepts.
20
P A R T 3
79. Peer learning results in increased learning and retention rates for both learn-
ers receiving and providing instruction. Those acting as learners benefit from
the individual instruction and those acting as instructors benefit from
preparing and developing instruction.
80. Peer learning can consist of advanced learners assisting individual learners,
learners leading group discussions and learners having the opportunity to
play both the learner and the instructor. It is most valuable to have learners
play both roles if possible. Instructors should pair stronger and slower learn-
ers allowing the stronger learner to instruct or coach skills first. Then they
can switch allowing both to have the benefit of extra practice and providing
instruction. Peer learning increases learner participation and motivation.
The quality of instruction must be assured.
Problem-based 81. Problem-based learning is a method that facilitates the learning of principles
and concepts by having learners work on solving a problem drawn from the
Learning work environment. It is often used to develop critical thinking skills.
82. This method is usually conducted with small groups of 5 to 7 learners or
with pre-established teams. Instructors prepare carefully constructed prob-
lems that will serve as the learning stimulus. Problems must be as realistic
as possible so that learners can relate it to their work.
83. During the lesson, learners analyze the problem and work towards solving it.
Instructors facilitate learning by posing questions to get learners thinking and
talking (e.g., What are the clues, facts and any guesses about the problem and
it’s causes? What other information is needed?). The instructor should ensure
that all learners participate, because discussion is key to learning, but they
should try not to influence decisions. Instructors may also challenge learners
thinking by questioning learners without leading them to the correct answer
(e.g., What does this mean? What are the implications?).
84. Instructors using this method must be experienced in facilitating learning
and coaching learners. Instructors should refer to the coaching section in this
manual for detailed information on the coaching process.
Role Play 85. In this method, learners play defined roles in a scenario designed to reflect
the conditions of the target performance. It allows learners to:
a. learn through practicing what they will have to do on the job;
b. learn by imitating others’ behavior;
c. learn from the feedback of others; and
d. learn through practice and reflection on each role play they participate in.
21
P A R T 3
86. Role-playing exercises are methods of interaction in which learners play out
and practice realistic behaviors by assuming specific roles and circum-
stances. They are used to represent a social system or interpersonal process
in miniature so that the learner can practice making the responses to various
situations that are similar to those he or she will encounter on the job. Role-
play is often used for language training, attitudinal objectives and to develop
human interaction skills. It is realistic and promotes cooperative learning.
87. The instructor begins the lesson by clearly explaining the objective of the les-
son (what, where, when and why). It is critical to explain that role-playing is
a learning process and learners are not expected to play their roles perfectly
from the start. This will help to put learners at ease.
88. The instructor must clearly explain each role the learners will play. This
is followed by a demonstration of the role-play either on video or through
a live performance by instructional staff. Learners are paired or grouped
together and the role-plays are cycled through. The instructor does not
interfere during the role-play unless learners require cues or assistance,
or a safety issue arises.
89. Following each role-play, the instructor debriefs the learner on his or her
performance. Correct behaviors should be positively reinforced, and areas
requiring improvement identified. Ideally, the role-play will have been
videotaped so that learners can watch their performance and reflect on
it and the constructive feedback provided by the instructor to improve
performance.
90. Techniques. Instructors should be able to accurately demonstrate the skills
being acquired during the role-play to assist learners if necessary. Instructors
employing role-play should be able to coach learners and provide them with
detailed feedback on their performance.
Self-Study 91. Self-study is a method of self-instruction using printed and/or audio-visual

or computer-based media, often presented through computer assisted learn-
ing (CAL) or programmed instructional packages (PIPs) to be completed prior
to, during, or following a course. Learners receive instructional materials
containing built in feedback and work through them independently. It is
used to:
a. provide remedial or make-up instruction for late arrivals, absentees or
transients;
b. maintain previously learned skills which are not performed frequently
enough;
c. accelerate or enrich learning of advanced learners;
d. provide common knowledge and skill background for learners prior to
onset of course;
e. provide review and practice of knowledge and skills; and
f. permit learning by those who cannot attend a course.
22
P A R T 3
92. Self-study can provide staff with needed time to prepare for instruction
while learners complete individual activities. However, this method does
require considerable lead-time to prepare material especially if they are
technology-based.
93. Prior to the self-study session, the instructor should confirm that required
materials and resources are available and prepare any additional handouts
or instructions.
94. The instructor must provide clear direction to the learner on what they have
to do and allow them the opportunity to pose questions or raise concerns.
Depending on the complexity of the activities and the maturity of the learn-
ers, an instructor should check in with learners to ensure they are progress-
ing and provide assistance as necessary. Some self-study materials enable
learners to skip material they already know and progress at their own pace.
Seminar 95. The Seminar is a tutorial arrangement involving the instructor and a small
group, rather than an instructor and individual. It is meaningful and realistic
to learners when focused on learner needs. It is used to:
a. provide general guidance for a group working on an advanced study,
problem, or research project;
b. exchange information on techniques and approaches being explored by
members of study or research group; and
c. develop new and imaginative solutions to problems under study by the
group (e.g., through brainstorming).
96. Often learners will have prepared research or study materials on a topic,
given by the instructor, prior to the seminar. The instructor introduces the
lesson identifying the topic and how the seminar will proceed.
97. One or more learners present the information they have gathered and their
findings and insights to the class. Following the presentations the instructor
leads a discussion of the findings. The instructor may use other strategies
during the seminar such as brainstorming or syndicate work to further study
findings, solve problems and exchange information. Through discussion
the instructor leads learners to draw conclusions from the information
under study.
98. Following the discussions, the instructor closes the lesson by highlighting
the major conclusions that have been drawn from the findings.
99. Techniques. Instructors conducting seminars should be competent and
knowledgeable in the subject area. To ensure the seminar method is effective
the instructor should prepare the problem, project, or topic of study and give
it to learners in advance of the lesson. The instructor should also consider
the strategies he or she will use during the seminar. Approaches could
include learner presentation and class discussion or learner presentation,
class brainstorming and discussion or learner presentation, syndicate work
and discussion.
23
P A R T 3
100. The seminar is best used as part of the developmental learning process.
Some type of related individual activities should follow it, as it can be diffi-
cult to evaluate individual learner progress during a seminar. Being familiar
with the guided discussion method may assist instructors using the seminar
as it relies heavily on discussion.
Simulation 101. Simulations are used to provide instruction of complex skills using a dynam-
ic representation of a system or the actual equipment and the job environ-
ment. A simulator is an apparatus built to run the simulation. Simulations
are context specific and realistic and facilitate transfer of learning to the job.
102. Simulation provides learners with situated learning and practice. The simu-
lation may not exactly duplicate actual physical skills but should effectively
duplicate conceptual tasks. Instructors should employ simulations so that
learners learn how a system or device works while avoiding danger or other
limitations of the real environment (e.g., access to equipment, weather,
operations).
103. Complex skills must be progressively developed. Instructors should provide
learners with simple scenarios or problems at the beginning and gradually
build up to more complex situations as the learners’ skills advance. Instructors
may be able to stop simulations to provide direction or explanations and
slow down or speed up the process to facilitate learning. It is through
specific, constructive feedback and coaching from instructors that learners’
skill will develop.
104. Simulations can be developed in a variety of forms. For example, the in-basket
exercise is a type of simulation in which learners respond to a variety of
memorandums, directives, and messages that recreate a job specific scenario.
Interruptions, emergencies, and random events are usually factored into the
exercise. The in-basket method is effective for developing decision-making
and prioritizing skills.
105. Techniques. Instructors must provide coaching, guidance and constructive
feedback to learners on their performance during simulation. Instructors are
referred to the section titled Coaching in this manual for detailed guidance
on the coaching process that should be employed to enhance learning during
a simulation.
24
P A R T 3
Study Assignment 106. Study assignment entails the assignment of the study of books, periodicals,
manuals or handouts, and/or the review of audio-visual materials; the com-
pletion of a project or research paper, or prescribes problems and exercises
for the practice of a skill. It can:
a. orient learners to a topic prior to classroom or laboratory work;
b. set the stage for a lecture, demonstration or discussion;
c. provide for or capitalize on individual differences in ability, background
or experience through differentiated assignments;
d. provide for the review of material covered in class or to give practice; and
e. provide enriching material.
107. Providing learners with study assignments facilitates learning by covering
concepts in greater detail and by allowing instructors to assess individual
learner progress. Study assignments are helpful to all learners and especially
those experiencing difficulty.
108. Techniques. Study assignments require instructor preparation time in
advance for development of materials and instructions. To ensure out of class
assignments are effective the instructor must provide clear direction, verify
that work is completed and provide detailed feedback to the learner.
Tutorial 109. Tutorial is a method of instruction in which an instructor works directly

with an individual to ensure the successful completion of learning activities.
It is customized to meet the learner’s needs. It is used to:
a. teach highly complex skills and operations, or operations involving
danger or expensive equipment; and
b. provide individualized remedial assistance.
110. The tutorial is a highly motivating method of instruction as it provides one-
on-one individualized instruction. The instructor begins by introducing the
lesson (what, when, where, why) and delivering information in much the
same manner as he or she would with a small group. However, there is much
more time for one-on-one interaction as the learner absorbs the material.
111. During the tutorial the instructor is able to adapt to the learner and use
instructional strategies that will meet the learner’s needs. For example, some
learners respond more quickly to visual representation and diagrams than
written text. Others may catch on quicker by discussing how something
works to fully understand it. Often a tutorial will involve several strategies
depending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of the learner.
112. Tutorials are ideal for providing remedial help or instructing complicated or
dangerous procedures. This method of instruction does require extensive
time to conduct depending on the number of learners.
25
P A R T 3
113. Techniques. To effectively use the tutorial method instructors should be able
to determine any difficulties that the learner is experiencing and respond to
them. Instructors should be able to recognize whether the learner responds
better to hands on experiences, discussions, visual or text materials and use
this to provide them with the appropriate learning experience if they are
experiencing difficulty. A knowledge of a variety of instructional methods
and strategies will assist the instructor using the tutorial method.
Note: OJT is an instructional method; however, it is addressed separately
because it is implemented in the unit versus the training establishment
or learning center.
Coaching 114. Coaching consists of aspects of the performance and demonstration method
of instruction but is more learner centered and developmental. The instruc-
tor, based on his or her knowledge of the individual learner, asks the learner
questions which will lead them to take the next appropriate step in the pro-
cedure or take a different direction altogether. The instructor’s role as a coach
is to draw the learner’s attention to critical elements of the task execution.
This is especially important when learners lose their train of thought or
focus. The instructor must assist the learner to get back on track and contin-
ue with the task. Questions to the learner to assess his or her thinking and
situational awareness under these conditions should be clear, concise and
require short responses so that the flow of the task or operation is not dis-
rupted. Instructors must be constantly monitoring the learners’ performance
to determine what they are doing correctly, as well as areas requiring
improvement and how to correct them. The coaching sessions require
a thorough debrief to complete the experiential learning cycle.
115. Coaching in Simulators. Instructional simulators are increasingly being
employed for the development of complex skills such as piloting aircraft,
ships, submarines and operating combat vehicles. As indicated in Table 1,
the coaching method is employed to assist learners to develop skills in simu-
lators. Coaching in this context is situated in the environment and is normal-
ly one to one or one to small group.
116. Coaching a learner in a simulator or the real environment is normally
conducted in three stages consisting of briefing, monitoring and
debriefing as described in Figure 6.
26
P A R T 3
Figure 6: Coaching in Simulators (Derived from McCarthy and Easby, 1983)
BRIEFING
• The learner should initially be put at ease and advised of the aim of the simulation session and any
relevant background. This step serves to engage the appropriate mental model of the task under
development.
• The instructor should then explain and demonstrate each component of the task emphasizing the critical
elements. Large tasks should be broken down into smaller tasks so that it can be taught in smaller
chunks. Exactly what is being done at each component of the task should be demonstrated and
described as well as why it is performed that way. Questions from the learner are encouraged to
ensure they understand what to do.
• Immediately prior to the simulation session the instructor reviews the main points of the task and
confirms that the learner is ready.
MONITORING
• This stage consists of performance and observation, preferably using a standard checklist. The learner
performs the task while the instructor closely monitors to see that it is carried out correctly and to note
corrections the learner must make. The learner should be allowed to carry out the task. The instructor
must keep track of what the learner is doing and use brief questions to assess his or her thinking or
keywords to cue or help the learner to proceed to the next component.
DEBRIEFING
• Before providing feedback, the instructor examines the learner’s performance to determine what was
done properly and what areas are weak, and to determine why the problem is occurring. Then the
instructor can provide precise constructive feedback on strengths and the weaknesses, and also advise
the learner how to correct the problems using explanation and demonstration. It is preferable to focus
on correcting two to three major problems in each run rather than every minor error because too much
feedback will overwhelm and de-motivate the learner.
• The debrief must be a positive learning experience, so the instructor should put the learner at ease and
present a positive, supportive attitude. The instructor should begin by summarizing the learner’s overall
performance.
• Instructors should take the time to address the components of the task that were performed well in order
to reinforce the correct behavior, instill confidence and motivate the learner. As the session continues
the instructor identifies and analyzes two to three problem areas providing clear explanations of what
was done incorrectly. The instructor should encourage the learner to participate in analyzing his or her
performance of the task by posing guiding questions. The instructor provides guidance on how to cor-
rect deficiencies and suggestions to improve performance.
• The instructor concludes by summarizing strong points, reconfirming what will be done to correct the
two to three major problems addressed and by re-motivating the learner.
27
P A R T 3
117. Coaching and Performance Cycle. Learners must be allowed the opportunity
to learn the critical components of the task first and then gradually perfect the
smaller elements. The instructor should focus on two to three major problems
to improve each run-through instead of every minor error as this will over-
whelm and de-motivate the learner. As the coaching and performance cycle
continues, the learner will master the major components of the task. Then
minor deficiencies can be addressed and fine-tuned.
118. With adequate practice, through coaching using the developmental learning
process, the learner will have acquired the critical thinking and complex skills
needed to perform the larger task. The learner can then continue to hone these
skills to the required standard by being provided the opportunity to practice
under a variety of conditions.
119. Coaching Abilities. Instructors employing the coaching method in instruction-
al simulators or the real work environment need to be able to focus on each
learner as an individual in order to cue the learner, ask questions that require
them to assess a situation and determines what to do next. The instructor
must be familiar with each learner’s background and progress in order to ask
questions that will lead the learner to think of the next step and guide them
through the performance of tasks. This requires careful planning on the part
of the instructor as they must develop questions that will force learners to
critically think and assess what they are doing. Different cues and questions
may be needed for different learners at various stages of development.
120. When coaching learners the instructor should:
a. guide the learner as to what to think about and look for;
b. make the practice as realistic as possible while explaining the differences
between training performance and operational performance;
c. focus the learner’s attention on cues and actions and add supplementary
feedback, as required, to develop the learner’s performance;
d. appraise the learner’s performance by identifying the significant tasks
required and by recognizing the standard of performance achieved by the
learner; and
e. keep a record of significant points in the learner’s performance for the sub-
sequent debriefing.
121. An essential part of effective coaching is skilled intervention. It can be verbal,
non-verbal or mechanical. To intervene effectively, the instructor should
consider:
a. Why am I intervening?
b. How should I intervene?
c. When and how often should I intervene?
d. What will be the effect on the learner?
e. What will be the effect on me?
f. Should I give remedial instruction?
g. Should I suspend the exercise or take positive control?
28
P A R T 3
Conduct Distributed 122. Distributed learning (DL) is the delivery of standardized training, education
or professional development using multiple media and technologies when
Learning and where it is needed. DL does not necessarily involve a physical distance
between the learner and instructor or occur outside the confines of the resi-
dent training establishment or campus. The dispatch of instructors from a
training establishment to a unit or another location to conduct training on
behalf of a training establishment fall within the realm of DL. DL also con-
sists of print-based correspondence courses, CBT on CD ROM and online or
web-based training. DL must support the learners and their learning require-
ments. For most effective learning DL planners must strive to balance the
demands of work and study. Although there may be exceptions, the distrib-
uted portion of required CF courses will as a rule, occur on duty time, during
normal day-time working hours. For further information on course schedul-
ing, refer to Volume 5, Development of Instructional Programmes.
123. DL can be based on a hybrid design solution. It can form part of an instruc-
tional strategy in combination with a portion of a classroom-based course.
Bringing portions of a course to the learner is becoming a more prevalent
option, as advances in technology increase the variety of instructional activi-
ties and resources that can be offered at a distance. Hybrid training has the
potential to decrease overall training and education costs while providing
some flexibility in when and where learners complete their studies. For
example, DL allows individuals to complete some of their studies from their
home unit and the remainder at a training establishment. In rare cases, DL
may be employed for an entire course if an instructor and interaction are
used to enhance the technology or paper based instruction.
124. DL Settings. DL can take place in a variety of settings depending on the

instructional strategies employed and the resources available. DL can be
conducted in the workplace in the form of CBT on standard office computers
with either CD-ROM or Internet access. Portable, self-contained instructional
packages, such as paper-based materials, e-books or CD-ROM, can be used
at home or whatever location the learner chooses. Learning Career Centres
(LCC) or selected facilities with the required equipment may be used to
provide desktop and videoconferencing or a virtual classroom.
125. It is essential that learners receive the time allocated to complete distance-
learning materials without interruptions to perform work related duties,
because intrusions will adversely affect the learner’s progress. This may
necessitate establishing learning contracts between the learners and their
supervisors in the workplace, which identify learning requirements and
specify periods of time allocated to complete learning. In some instances,
learners may choose to complete activities at a location where they are
certain they will not be interrupted such as a LCC.
29
P A R T 3
126. Synchronicity. DL may be synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous

learning environments the instructional material is provided to learners and
discussion is conducted in real time through some direct communication
medium. Advantages of this type of interaction include:
a. motivation generated by a group activity;
b. presence in the tone and nuance of individual contributions;
c. feedback provided during consensus building; and
d. the challenge for each learner in maintaining the group’s pace in the
discussion.
127. In asynchronous learning environments learners obtain instructional materials
and interact and exchange materials with the instructor and other learners
through various media at different times. This type of DL affords:
a. flexibility for individual responses;
b. time for reflection before responding; and
c. situated learning while in the workplace or accessing the web resources.
128. DL Considerations. DL is selected as the instructional strategy for the delivery

of an objective in the training plan. The selection of a DL technology is based
principally on the learners and the content. The needs, media, preferences,
and geographical dispersal of learners also affect the choice of DL technology.
129. Depending on how much guidance the training plan provides, there are
many considerations the instructor should examine before conducting DL.
Some of these factors are outlined in Figure 7.
130. When conducting distributed learning, the instructor should:

a. devise and, if necessary, employ contingency plans. These plans are to
accommodate any interruptions in the delivery of DL. Anticipate as many
“what ifs” as possible. Advise learners who to contact if technology fails
and what to do instead if the problem can’t be solved;
b. provide distance learners with all necessary information because learners
do not have the face-to-face contact to ask and are not always able to lis-
ten to responses to other learners’ questions. Detailed directions about
how the course will run, learning objectives, available learning resources,
expectations of the learners, assignments, tests, contacts and a schedule of
learning activities should be provided. Lack of information will lead to
learner frustration;
c. create an environment that will foster participation and interaction
between the learners, instructor and content. The instructor can help
learners to feel comfortable by having them introduce themselves, encour-
aging participation by responding to learner comments, praising relevant,
courteous discussion and by incorporating collaborative learning events
in the programme. Using emoticons (different variations of happy faces)
can help express emotions (Broadbent, 2001);
30
P A R T 3
Figure 7: Distributed Learning Considerations
DL CONSIDERATIONS
Have you planned for interaction between the instructor and learners and amongst learners,
such as participant discussions or group activities, and how will these activities be conducted?
How will access to the instructor and/or tutors be provided? How often will interaction between
instructor/tutor and learners be required and how will it occur?
What are the learners’ preferences for instructional resources? Do they have access to necessary
equipment and instructional materials?
Have you provided for access to a help desk operator to assist learners to navigate and access
the technology?
Have you received training in monitoring and facilitating online discussion?

Are you comfortable completing these tasks?
Are facilitators available to promote questions and discussion at various sites, if required?
Have you established procedures and timeframes for feedback on assignments and tests?
How will this be done in minimum time?
Will the DL be synchronous (all learners at the same time) or asynchronous (learners at different times)?
Do learners prefer to respond in real time or after reflection? Are time zones a factor and
how will they be dealt with?
Can learners attain the terminal learning behavior? Are learners able to satisfactorily demonstrate
performance related to the objectives at a distance if this is the case?
d. ensure that learner support is adequately provided in accordance with the

training plan. In addition to support provided by the instructor in moderating
discussion and facilitating learning activities, it is vital to offer the following
types of learner support:
i. administrative support to include registration, prior learning assessment,
funding allocation, and records keeping. Certain types of delivery tech-
nologies require technical support to bring all learners online for the
discussion;
ii. technological support is also needed to help learners install plug-ins
and related applications; and
iii. personal support involves counselling and advising such as assisting
learners to develop independent study and time management skills.
The intent is to maximize the number of learners completing the training.
e. maintain learner interest by keeping the course interactive, varying the type
of media and instructional activities. Using different instructional strategies
and delivery technologies, as outlined in Figure 8 can add variety to the
learning experience.
31
P A R T 3
Figure 8: DL Instructional Strategies
DL INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
One-to-one: Online Resources One-to-one: E-mail
Virtual Field Trip Learning contract

Online search Apprenticeships and Internships
Self-paced WBT
Online references
One-to-many: Presentation Many-to-many: Conferencing
Virtual classroom Simulation or game

Role Play
Case Study
Group Discussion
Project
131. Distance learning is a sub-set of distributed learning. Staff employed in either

role requires the same facilitator expertise. Therefore, personnel tasked to
conduct distance or distributed learning should attend the Distance Learning
Instructor course offered at CFTDC to provide them with some of the tool
sets they will require prior to performing these duties. Employed in such a
role, the instructor directly facilitates the learning process by:
a. directing and planning learning activities;
b. facilitating asynchronous online discussion, by acting as a guide versus a
presenter, to maximize interaction between learners;
c. facilitating synchronous discussion by posing questions, inviting partici-
pation, re-directing questions similar to conducting a classroom guided
discussion;
d. generating discussion with thought-provoking questions;
e. providing learner support to ensure learners overcome any hurdles in
becoming active learners;
f. responding to questions;
g. clarifying teaching points; and
h. managing course administrative issues.
Distributed/Distance 132. Effectively facilitating the learning process is critical in distance learning
because the cues that both the instructor and learners have in a face-to-face
Learning Facilitation environment are absent (derived from Abel, 2000; Flottemesch, 2000).
Skills
32
P A R T 3
133. Listening. Learner confusion or inattentiveness is not easily detected unless

the learner offers this information. The instructor must listen carefully
to learner comments and queries to assess their comprehension or pose
questions to the group when minimal discussion is occurring.
134. Creativity. Instructors may have to change their approach or activity if they
perceive learner difficulty or disinterest. The instructor should be able to
use various strategies to enliven a lesson, clarify concepts or challenge
learners. Changing the approach to syndicate work, brainstorming, or
problem solving can regain learners’ attention. Recommendations to change
the lesson specification should be made if the instructional method overall
is deemed inappropriate.
135. Engagement. The instructor can motivate and stimulate learners by incorpo-
rating strategies to engage the learner. The instructor should aim to elicit
learner participation in approximately one-third of the duration of a
synchronous lesson and up to half of the instructional time for asynchronous
distance learning. Some strategies include:
a. asking learners to summarize material covered in an individual presenta-
tion;
b. asking learners to share experiences, explain concepts and build meaning
with others;
c. asking learners to analyze and manipulate content in some way;
d. posing open-ended topics for discussion and interpretational questions to
the class;
e. incorporating small group activities that require learners to interact
amongst themselves;
f. holding discussions based on material or a topic provided prior to the
lesson; and
g. encouraging interaction amongst learners outside of class time and normal
online discussions through study/research groups or the completion of
projects.
136. Guidance. The instructor must be able to effectively guide learners through
the DL process just as he or she would guide learners in a traditional class-
room. Due to the separation of the learner from the instructor and possibly
all other learners, it is essential that the instructor provide guidance that
allows learners to know where they are in the overall progression of the
course. In traditional instruction, the instructor might begin by saying
“last period we left off discussing…” and close with “ next period we will
…”. Incorporating this type of guidance, conducting review periods part way
through a course and presenting organizers for lessons and the course over-
all, will help learners in a DL environment to remain situated in the learning
process.
137. Technology. Instructors should have the basic technological skills required to
effectively conduct distance learning, and they should be able to provide
assistance to learners on how to use technology to complete course activities.
33
P A R T 3
138. To be effective, DL must support and meet the needs of the learners. The
instructional strategy for DL, or the DL portion of a course, must be based
on the learning that participants require, the characteristics and location
of the learners, the developmental learning process and whenever possible
interaction to reinforce learning. Considering these factors, and effectively
employing technology, and the learning activities and strategies will enhance
the DL process and learner success.
Group-Paced 139. During group-paced instruction, learners as a group complete the instruction-
al activities as sequenced in the course timetable. Group-paced instruction is
Instruction essential for some types of learning such as:
a. complex skills where input from others enhances learning (e.g., conducting
investigations, applying ethics, evaluating grievances etc);
b. skills that will be performed with others and where teamwork will be
required on the job (basic and occupational training, e.g., drill, piloting
an aircraft or ship);
c. skills that have specific security access or safety concerns; and
d. attitudinal objectives such as the development of team spirit;
Self-Paced Learning 140. During SPL, learners complete the instructional activities listed in the course
timetable, but not necessarily at the same speed or in the same sequence. Each
(SPL) learner follows the instructional programme and completes instructional activ-
ities at their own pace and rate of learning. The best self-paced materials lead
the learner through steps or learning experiences that avoid boredom, but
ensure that the required standard is reached before advancing to the next
step. Since they progress at different speeds, learners begin and finish at
varying times.
141. The SPL instructional programme guide should provide all the guidance,
direction and materials that the learner needs; however, less complex pro-
grammes can direct the learner to consult with the instructor or tutor, where
necessary for demonstrations, multimedia materials, help and testing. The
ideal SPL programme leads the learner through the instructional activities
in response to the learner’s needs directing the learner to more or less detail
in response to their progress.
142. SPL uses a variety of methods from paper-based to multimedia, computer
based training (CBT) or web based training (WBT). It is conducted in a train-
ing establishment or through distributed learning when appropriate. When
conducting SPL, the instructor is the manager of the learning environment
and acts as a facilitator of the learning experience. Since learners will be at
different stages of learning, the number of learners an instructor can manage
depends on the complexity of subject matter, and whether the training is
theoretical or hands-on.
34
P A R T 3
143. Due to the time and cost involved in designing self-paced programmes, not
all training should be considered for SPL. Considerations for the use of SPL
are detailed at Annex C.
Self-Directed Learning 144. Self-Directed Learning (SDL) is an individualized strategy used to improve
performance; it requires the learner to make decisions about what they need
(SDL) to learn to improve job performance and initiate activities to meet those
learning goals. When selected for use in CF training and education it requires
structure and organization to ensure the learner achieves the learning out-
comes. SDL is learner centered and flexible, and it is most appropriate for
professional development activities. It should only be employed for learners
who have attained the inquiry skills to identify their learning needs and
initiate and complete activities with a minimum amount of direction and
SDL should only be employed when appropriate for the skills that must
be attained. For example, SDL is not recommended where training and
education and the subsequent job require teamwork.
145. SDL can be implemented in the classroom or through distributed instruction.
SDL can be paper-based, multimedia, CBT, CD-ROMS, web-based, video,
audio, or computer conferencing, or a combination of methods. Instructor or
tutor support for learners is recommended to facilitate success. The instructor
should:
a. advise the learner on how to identify their needs;
b. assist the learner to determine starting point for learning;
c. encourage learners to set objectives and evaluation criteria and
to formalize learning activities into a learning contract; and
d. assist learners with locating resources.
Overall, the instructor should manage the learning experience fostering a
partnership with learners on the objectives, activities and evaluation method
for their chosen learning activities.
Instructional 146. Group-paced or individual technology-based instructional materials, such as

CBT, WBT and multimedia, should provide a learning situation that cannot
Technology be provided in print or as easily in the classroom. These technologies should
engage and interact with the learner in a meaningful way.
147. Facilitated individual or group-paced technology, where an instructor is
present, is often conducted in a laboratory or learning centre and ranges from
individualized to instructor led. Individualized CBT, WBT and multimedia
provide learners the opportunity to work at their own pace (e.g., SPL). It also
allows instructors to spend time with individual learners to meet their needs.
35
P A R T 3
148. Similar to classroom based instruction, the instructor should provide the
group or individual learner with an explanation of:
a. where this instruction fits into the overall programme;
b. how the information is relevant and its importance;
c. the related PO, enabling objective (EO) or lesson objectives;
d. an overview of the basic computer skills required;
e. instructions on how to start, proceed through and exit the programme;
f. the location of any help or mapping files that can assist the learners’
progress; and
g. learner assignments and evaluation measures.
With learners who are new to the system begin the first lesson slowly. Allow
them the opportunity to browse around the lesson and links to get the feel of
the programme. It may be helpful to give unskilled learners a demonstration
example of the courseware or walk them through the lesson on the network
or with slides. During the lesson, the instructor should actively monitor
learner progress and be available to respond to learner queries. Handouts,
advance organizers, and job aids can also be used to assist the learner and
supplement the technology-based instruction. The distance learning princi-
ples, detailed in this manual, can also generally be applied to computer-
mediated instruction.
Instructional 149. The effective delivery of the lesson material is of prime importance if the
instructor is to gain and hold the attention of the class. An instructor may
Techniques have a well-prepared lesson plan and still fail to get the objective across to
the learners, not because of what was said, but rather because of weaknesses
in the way the material was presented. A number of factors and techniques
to address them apply to instruction in general.
150. Nervousness. Almost every instructor may feel ill at ease during the first few
moments of the class. Advance preparation and organization of the room
layout, materials, and equipment will provide a sense of greater control to
instructors. Practicing lessons before delivery and keeping a positive attitude
will also help to reduce nervousness.
151. Participation. Learners do not automatically come alive with interest and
enthusiasm when they enter a classroom. To motivate learners to become
attentive and interested, the instructor must try to incorporate motivational
strategies in the instruction. To draw learner attention try speaking conversa-
tionally and showing interest in the subject and the class, using new and
unexpected approaches, changing the pace and emphasizing the relevance
of material to learners. To elicit learning ask learners to summarize or map
out how concepts relate, vary review of concepts (pictorial, oral, written)
and change activities when learner attention is drifting.
36
P A R T 3
152. Gestures/Movement. Body movements, hand gestures, facial expression, and

posture can be highly expressive aids to delivery. They can make the differ-
ence between an effective presentation and a dull, uninspiring one. However,
any physical attitude, mannerism or movement that is distracting can hinder
learning. Movements and gestures should be natural and purposeful.
153. Speech. Speech, also, is an important “tool” for helping to make lesson
presentations effective. If, however, an instructor speaks too softy, too quickly
or in a monotone, learners can tune out and lose interest. An instructor
should speak clearly and distinctly, at an appropriate rate.
Note: Preparation of effective lesson plans, learning support, visual and
print-based instructional materials enhance the learning process. For further
information on the preparation of instructional material, refer to Volume 5,
of this series, Development of Instructional Programmes.
Question Technique 154. To ensure that learners have a clear understanding of questions, and the
answers given, instructors should consider how to pose questions as well
as how to respond to answers, as outlined in Table 5.
Table 5: Question Technique
POSING QUESTIONS HANDLING ANSWERS
Ensure you have the full attention of the class and Encourage individuals to answer.
ask a question relevant to what is being taught and
learners’ experience.
Allow learners time to form answer. Avoid repeating answers.
When using a direct question, indicate which Give credit for answers.
learner will answer (after you have posed
the question).
Listen carefully to the answer, allowing the learner Confirm the correct response and explain why it is
time to answer fully. correct. If the answer is not complete, emphasize
what is correct and use it to move on to the
correct answer to minimize learner discomfort. It may
be possible to clarify the response by rewording the
question and providing additional information.
Ensure all learners are participating not just Never waffle. If an answer is wrong the instructor
favorites, front rows, extroverts, or those who must say so in a manner that does not embarrass
get correct answers. the learner. Confusion regarding the correct answer
must be eliminated. Perhaps reword the question and
explain why the answer is wrong.
Note: The development of questions is addressed in detail in Annex G of Volume 5, Development of

Instructional Programmes.
37
P A R T 4
C
CONDUCT
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
On-the-Job Training 155. On-the-Job Training (OJT) is an instructional strategy that may be identified
in the QS/TP for the delivery of specific POs or EOs. OJT is individual
training that is conducted on the actual job site at an operational unit.
A supervisor or skilled worker delivers and monitors the instruction by
demonstrating new skills, observing performance and giving feedback.
OJT is highly structured and should include an OJT guide as well as a
series of planned application and practice sessions leading to a formal
performance check.
156. During the Design Phase, when OJT is selected as a strategy, the Environmental
Command/Group Principal and the unit concerned must have agreed to host
the OJT. OJT must also have been identified as either a Unit or MA-funded
activity. Unit-funded OJT is conducted as a part of daily operations and is a
unit cost funded through the unit’s business plan. Unit-funded OJT should
have little to no immediate impact on unit or operational effectiveness and
additional personnel or resource requirements should be minimal. During
OJT, a learner may be required to achieve objectives that involve improving
skills that have already been learned, or to perform tasks with reference to
job aids. The learner performs tasks on-the-job under the supervision of
skilled workers who will verify that the required standard of performance
for the objective has been met.
157. MA funded OJT is also conducted in the job environment but requires the
unit to provide learning opportunities beyond the scope of those available in
daily operations. In this case, the unit will have to provide specific opportu-
nities for learners to attain objectives and as a result there is an impact on
operational effectiveness. For example, when system administrators must
take time away from their primary duty of maintaining a system to provide
OJT to learners on how to troubleshoot, assemble and disassemble equip-
ment, there is a significant impact on the unit. For this reason, the MA funds
personnel and resources required to conduct this OJT or may direct that it be
incorporated as training support in the unit’s budget.
158. The MA or their designated training establishment is responsible for the
design and development of OJT material and for providing the unit with the
instructions, performance checks, records, guides and contacts associated
with conducting and reporting the specific OJT. OJT is an appropriate
instructional strategy when:
a. skills can only be acquired over time with practice;
b. skills cannot be safely performed until the learner is highly proficient; and
c. the training establishment cannot support the training due to its location
and climate, or complexity.
38
P A R T 4
159. The unit is responsible for conducting OJT, assessing learners and documenting
whether or not the objectives were attained in the learner’s On-the-Job
Performance Record (OJPR). The unit reports the results of the OJT back to
the training establishment responsible for the training programme. The training
establishment enters the results on the individuals’ record and awards the
qualification upon successful completion of all POs in the programme.
Note: OJT should not be confused with on job experience (OJE). OJT is selected
as an instructional strategy for tasks that were deemed to require training at
a Qualification Standards Writing Board (QSWB). OJE is a justification for
no-train decisions during a QSWB at the task analysis stage. In this case a
task is deemed to not require training because it is very simple, known by
most learners and/or easily mastered through typical job experience under
the observation of a supervisor.
Develop Instructor and 160. OJT may be selected as the instructional strategy for one or more POs during
the Design phase. In this case, learners must attain those objectives through
Staff Work Schedules performance on the job at a unit. During OJT, supervisors must provide skilled
at CF Units workers to assist learners, monitor progress, and verify that objectives have been
met. To successfully complete OJT, the candidate must be able to perform all
required tasks and objectives IAW the operational standards detailed in the
appropriate QS.
Note: Where the term instructor is used in the OJT context, it refers to the
skilled worker(s) who is responsible for coaching and monitoring the
OJT candidate.
Unit OJT Schedule 161. The MA and CF training establishment that delivers the instructional programme
provides units with the instructions, checks, records and contacts associated
with conducting OJT. A sample OJT guide is provided at Annex D. In prepara-
tion, the unit is responsible for developing a unit OJT schedule that will identify
the number of personnel from one or more occupations that they will be hosting
and the designated skilled workers to support this training. Figure 9 illustrates a
sample table that may be developed, based on the OJT tasking from the MA and
unit strength, to identify and plan for OJT requirements. Based on this table,
where a 1:1 ratio is required, it is readily apparent that there are only 6 MSE OP
qualified Sgts to oversee 9 learners requiring OJT at the QL 6A level.
Figure 9: OJT Requirements
MOC UNIT STRENGTH OJT REQUIREMENTS
Cpl/Pte MCpl Sgt WO MWO QL 4 QL 6A
MSE OP 30 6 6 2 1 17 9
Vehicle Tech 18 5 2 1 0 11 1
Note: The table used to identify and plan for OJT requirements may vary depending on the environment and
whether other activities such as unit/operational training are addressed at the same time. Regardless of the
table or factors included, the aim is to identify unit strength and OJT requirements to plan for staff workload.
39
P A R T 4
162. From this information a Unit OJT schedule can be developed indicating when
personnel from various occupations will be completing OJT. Staff members will
be required to demonstrate skills, assist learners, monitor progress and verify
that objectives have been met. When planning workload one assumes a work-
day or shift of 8 hours; however, calculations are based on 6.75 hours per day
because of other work related administrative routines. Scheduling unit OJT may
be more difficult if the unit operates on shift work (e.g., on board ships, air traf-
fic control towers). Learners may have to be assigned to various shifts of differ-
ing lengths to practice tasks. In any case, the same concept applies; OJT should
be scheduled only during a portion of the shift, because staff will have to take
care of other administrative tasks and duties during a portion of their shift.
Conducting OJT 163. The number of learners and MOCs are identified in the training requirements
table. From this a Unit OJT programme can be developed. The particular OJT
programme needed by each unit will depend upon a number of factors includ-
ing the number of learners, the variety of occupations, the nature of the POs,
the equipment required and the operational tasking of the unit.
164. Each EO or PO must be examined to determine the best training approach.
Having learners rotate through one or more jobs can provide some training.
Other training will require formal lessons or one on one tutoring. In cases
where there are many skills and knowledge to be learned, numerous candidates
or heavy operational commitments, the unit may decide to run a course instead.
Even when a course is not warranted, the unit may have to stage learning
opportunities to allow learners to apply knowledge or manipulate equipment.
165. OJT builds directly on the content that has been learned in the classroom,
and increases competence by allowing learners to apply knowledge and skills.
In this case the learner performs the actual job tasks under supervision or with
reference to job aids, in order to improve skills and meet the performance
standards.
166. Learners must be provided instruction (e.g., modeling and coaching) on how to
perform the tasks and achieve the objectives. As with all types of instruction
the strategies to facilitate adult learning and the principles of instruction
should be applied.
167. The goal of OJT is to facilitate learning as the individual applies information
and/or progresses through various tasks. The key steps of OJT are:
a. instructor preparation;
b. instructor presentation or demonstration (What, How, When, Where & Why);
c. learner application and practice;
d. instructor coaching and debrief (feedback); and
e. learner reflection (What worked? What didn’t? Why? What will I do next
time?).
40
P A R T 4
168. Instructors must prepare learning materials in the appropriate classroom or

worksite prior to the OJT process. The OJT process is depicted in Figure 10.
Figure 10: OJT Process
The instructor begins by explaining to the learner what to do, and how to do it and
why carrying out a task in a particular manner is important. The conditions under
which (when and where) the task might be performed should also be elaborated
on if appropriate.
The instructor should then demonstrate how to perform the task explaining each
component or step as it is completed.
If the learner does not have questions the instructor will have the learner tell him
what to do and the instructor will perform the task again.
Finally, the learner attempts to do the task under supervision (initially describing the
steps). As this is a learning experience, the learner should not be expected to
perform a task perfectly right away.
The instructor coaches the learner and provides feedback on what went well
and areas to improve. Coaching should be done in a supportive and
non-critical manner.
The learner reflects on the experience and instructor feedback.

What went well? What didn’t? Why? What will I do differently next time?
169. Steps four through six may need to be repeated, forming a loop until the learner
can perform the task competently. This may require several practice sessions
over a period of days or weeks that allow for learner reflection on how they are
performing and whether they require additional information and/or practice
time. Learners must be provided with practice opportunities because practice
and coaching contribute to improved performance and retention of knowledge
and skills. Personnel providing instruction must provide constructive and
timely feedback to learners clearly explaining what should be done differently,
why and how to do it correctly. The amount of practice needed to perform a
task will vary depending on the complexity of the task. In some cases, to
achieve the objectives, smaller tasks will have to be mastered before they
can be combined and practiced as a more complex task.
Note: In addition to following the OJT process, instructors should use the
strategies to facilitate adult learning addressed in Part 1 and the coaching
strategies discussed in Part 3 of this manual.
41
P A R T 4
170. All personnel instructing learners should be trained in basic instructional

techniques and be comfortable coaching learners. As some OJT will consist
of formal lessons the full range of other instructional methods can be
employed for OJT whenever they are appropriate for the desired learning.
Peer learning is one method in particular that may be used to reinforce learn-
ing. This method allows people to be both teachers and learners. Each learn-
er teaches another the skills that he/she has just mastered. The learner must
have mastered the skills to the required standard before being allowed to
teach. The additional practice and review of skills, required to teach another,
enhance the skills and knowledge of the individual who is teaching. High
retention rates have been shown to occur by having learners teach others.
The use of peer learning must always be preceded by instruction from a
qualified instructor or supervisor.
Note: Peer instruction cannot be used to replace instruction by unit staff who
are fully qualified practitioners in the field.
Personnel Roles and 171. Resources are required to coordinate, supervise and conduct a successful
unit OJT programme. The personnel who will fill the following roles should
Responsibilities be identified to ensure they receive training and preparation required to
fulfill the OJT responsibilities.
172. Commanding Officer (CO). The CO is responsible for all aspects of the Unit
OJT programme, including:
a. directing the scheduling and management of the OJT programme;
b. recommending (or in exceptional circumstances, granting) the award of
qualifications; and
c. ensuring compliance with OJT guidance and policy.
173. OJT Coordinator. The OJT Coordinator is responsible for coordinating and
monitoring all OJT on behalf of the CO and creating an OJT schedule. In the
case of shift work, the OJT supervisor must coordinate input and feedback
from coordinators for each occupation under training.
174. OJT Section Head. The OJT Section Head is responsible for:
a. explaining that the OJT supervisors’ role is to provide time, equipment,
instruction and guidance to the learner while the primary responsibility
on the individual learner is to progress;
b. counseling learners regarding the implications of OJT, and any time
limitations affecting career progression;
c. monitoring overall learner achievement by reviewing OJPRs;
d. investigating deficiencies in the OJT programme and initiate corrective
action;
e. coordinating job rotation and special training for which resources are not
readily available;
f. advising immediate supervisor about OJT progress and problems;
42
P A R T 4
g. ensuring UERs are properly maintained and that the results of the OJT are
recorded; and
h. via the unit CO, forwarding completed OJPRs to the training establishment
responsible for the training programme when all tasks have been success-
fully completed so that a qualification can be awarded.
175. OJT Supervisor. The OJT Supervisor is responsible for:
a. conducting OJT and/or tasking skilled workers who will conduct OJT;
b. evaluating learner performance, administering PCs and, when the stated
standard has been achieved, signing off the task in the master copy of the
OJPR;
c. monitoring learning and achievement by having learners perform tasks
from performance checks at random; and
d. forwarding completed OJPRs to the OJT Section head.
176. Staff facilitating OJT require specialized training. It is recommended that all
staff engaged in instruction of any kind, complete the Basic and Advanced
Instructional Techniques courses and those supervising OJT complete the
Instructor Supervisor course.
43
P A R T 5
M
MONITOR LEARNING
Purpose 177. The purpose of monitoring learning is to ensure that learning is taking place
and where it isn’t to identify problems and remedial strategies. Monitoring
learning is the responsibility of all instructional and standards staff and
instructor-supervisors.
Monitor 178. Instruction improves when instructional staff monitors the response of learn-
ers to the instructional activities and takes remedial action when required.
Learner Progress Instructional staff monitor factors such as:
a. achievement of EOs/POs;
b. number of re-writes;
c. test scores;
d. motivation; and
e. attrition.
179. Instructional staff can monitor learning through observation and conversa-
tion with learners and other staff. Verbal comments or behaviors indicating
low morale, unmotivated or unhappy people indicate that a problem exists.
Informal discussion between the instructional staff and learners and amongst
instructional staff alone can help identify and resolve problems.
180. The instructor is responsible for providing an environment that is conducive
to learning. To do so, the instructor should value the contribution of all
learners, reinforce positive behaviors such as cooperation with fellow learn-
ers and instructional staff. Instructors must be able to resolve disagreements,
draw attention to the merits of differing opinions and maintain control of the
classroom. To promote an environment that enhances learning, instructional
staff must be able to recognize and effectively deal with learner difficulty
and potential or actual problem behavior. A sample of possible learner
behaviors and how instructors should deal with them is detailed in Table 6.
44
P A R T 5
Table 6: Learner Behavior and Solutions
LEARNER BEHAVIOR SOLUTIONS
QUICK LEARNER Provide this learner with more advanced work

The learner who consistently grasps concepts quickly
and finishes work first could become disruptive if Ask this learner to help others who require help
he or she begins to feel bored and unchallenged.
QUIET LEARNER Begin by asking the learner a few questions that

The learner who rarely participates due to shyness, require short answers. Occasionally ask more detailed
fear, self-consciousness or an introverted nature questions. Determine the learner’s interests and
should be gradually included in the lesson. encourage him or her to speak.
HELPFUL LEARNER If the learner is truly a generous person, explain in

This learner is eager to help and agrees with private that his or her behavior is appreciated but
everything the instructor says. could be misinterpreted by classmates.
If it is possible that the learner is trying to extract the

favor of the instructor, advise the class (don’t single
anyone out) that only merit will determine success.
MONOPOLIZER Pose questions to this learner that require only brief

This learner is always ready to express their views or yes or no answers.
and can end up monopolizing the lesson.
CRITICAL LEARNER Listen to the learner’s problems and satisfy them if

The learner who consistently finds fault with the possible. If not possible, admit there are areas to be
content or method of instruction can be challenging. improved and ask for suggestions and solutions.
Advise the learner that you would be happy to discuss
these issues outside of scheduled class time.
KNOW IT ALL Determine if the learner is knowledgeable or simply

The learner who considers himself or herself an vying for attention. Allow the learner to answer some
authority on any topic being discussed and questions. Appeal to his or her sense of fair play to let
disrupts the class. other learners respond.
DISTRACTER Recognize the type of questions that appear to relate

The learner who attempts to get the group off topic. to the lesson but will actually veer off topic.
The learner may do this to avoid revealing that
he or she has not completed an assignment or Acknowledge that the question does not relate to the
to avoid a difficult subject. topic but offer to discuss after the lesson.
45
P A R T 5
181. Instructors must be able to deal with learners who become frustrated because
they are experiencing difficulty. In some cases, learners may cope with feel-
ings of frustration or failure by displaying defensive behaviors. Some of the
common behaviors, known as defense mechanisms, are described in Table 7:
Table 7: Defense Mechanisms
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
RATIONALIZATION
When learners cannot accept the true cause of their behavior they may react by rationalizing their actions
and substituting excuses for reasons. The learner will actually believe the excuses and consider them to be
plausible and reasonable.
FLIGHT
When situations become very frustrating learners may react by taking flight or trying to escape the situa-
tion mentally or physically. Learners may lose focus, daydream or cease to pay attention to escape.
Learners may also develop ailments or symptoms that will allow them to be absent from the class.
AGGRESSION
Angry or frustrated learners may exhibit overt or indirect aggressive behavior. Learners may ask irrelevant
questions, refuse to participate, and disrupt classroom activities. When a learner shouts, bangs materials or
doors their anger and frustration is evident.
RESIGNATION
In this case, learners become so frustrated that they give up, lose interest and accept defeat. Learners may
feel there is no point in working further because they have been unable to master the material so far.
182. The instructor should minimize the onset of frustration by monitoring it and
helping learners to deal with frustration. Providing learners with strategies to
improve their performance and overcome difficulties can help learners cope
with frustration. Instructors should teach learners both when and how to use
the following learning strategies:
a. organizing strategies can be used to identify the main concepts or ideas in
a lesson or text. Information can be grouped or classified (e.g., similar, dif-
ferent, prior to, part of, or following the main process) to help the learner
understand complex data or processes;
b. bridging strategies can be used to relate ideas or concepts to prior
knowledge or lessons that have just been taught;
c. mapping strategies can be used to provide a visual representation of
concepts. The learner can draw pictorial representation of ideas and
their relationship through network or spatial maps;
d. rehearsal strategies can be used to memorize course material. Rehearsal
involves reviewing material over and over and then checking to see if
you have learned it. To rehearse material learners can also make notes
or summarize information;
46
P A R T 5
e. mnemonics is a strategy that can be used to memorize a string of digits or

words by grouping or coding information. This may entail using first letter
coding to create a memorable word or sentence or other meaningful
groupings to aid recall, e.g., the term ICEPAC, used earlier; and
f. learners can be instructed to use imagery to visualize and form a mental
picture of pieces of equipment or the steps in a procedure.
183. Strategies the instructor can use to help learners achieve their goals are
described in Table 8.
Table 8: Helping Strategies for Learners
ADVISE LEARNERS OF EXPECTATIONS

Learners need to know what is expected of them. The instructor should provide an overview of the course,
the approach, and expectations as well as the EOs and POs they must achieve. Once expectations have
been established instructors must be consistent to avoid any confusion. Instructors should also advise learners
of their progress and give them adequate notice of examinations, assignments, and other requirements.
IDENTIFY AND CLARIFY MISCONCEPTIONS

The instructor should ask learners about their experience and existing knowledge and whether the new mater-
ial being taught appears to contradict this. By doing so the instructor may be able to relate new concepts to
prior knowledge to enhance learning and clarify misconceptions that can cause learners to make errors.
ACTIVELY INVOLVE THE LEARNERS

By actively engaging the learner in activities instead of simply delivering information the instructor can
enhance the learning and achievement of goals. Learners must process information and make sense of it
themselves for learning to truly take place. By requiring learners to summarize material, explain concepts,
discuss ideas and reflect on problems the instructor is actively engaging them and enhancing their learning.
CONSIDER LEARNERS AS INDIVIDUALS

Learners have unique personalities and different learning needs and styles. Some learners will readily
request assistance and discuss difficulties while others will not. Some learners learn best from interacting
with people, others through reading or listening while others may learn best by seeing visual depictions of
a concept or manipulating objects. When possible the instructor should consider the learner’s personality
and learning style when trying to help them to achieve goals.
PROVIDE CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM

It is extremely frustrating for a learner to be advised that their performance is unsatisfactory but to not know
why. Instructors must provide criticism constructively by clearly identifying what aspect of a performance is
incorrect and what exactly the learner must do differently. The instructor can also ask the learner to identify
their own mistakes and explain how they made the error. The learner should be provided the opportunity
to explain how to perform the task correctly and be given opportunity to practice the correct procedure.
ADMIT ERROR OR LACK OF INFORMATION

Learners can sense when an instructor is covering up an error or does not really have the answer.
To maintain credibility, instructors should admit when they have made an error or do not know the
answer but promise to find out and get back to the group later.
47
P A R T 5
Motivation 184. Motivation is a force that directs people to work towards a goal. Most learn-
ers are motivated to pass their courses so that they can succeed on the job.
To help learners remain motivated, instructors can emphasize how the mate-
rial will benefit them and strive to keep instruction varied and interesting.
Strategies (derived from Keller, 1987) to incorporate motivation into daily
instruction include:
a. instilling confidence in learners by providing opportunities to succeed.
The developmental process discussed earlier is particularly effective in
achieving this end;
b. sustaining the learner’s attention by actively engaging learners;
c. explaining to learners why material is relevant to them now and in the
long term; and
d. recognizing and reinforcing learner achievement in order to foster a
personal sense of satisfaction.
Counsel Learners 185. There are times when learners require assistance to deal with difficult
situations, learning or personal problems. Effective counselling can help
learners to solve a particular problem and develop the ability to solve
personal problems themselves in the future. It is important to find the
cause of the inappropriate behavior and solve the underlying problem.
186. Some of the underlying problems that may be encountered during
counselling include:
a. problems pertaining to rank, promotion, job assignment, etc;
b. personal problems such as attitude, attendance, alcohol or drug abuse;
c. family or personal relationships (financial difficulties, personal conflict,
moral dilemmas);
d. personality conflict or harassment issues;
e. peer, supervisor or instructor problems;
f. learning difficulties; and
g. excessive stress.
187. Limitations. Instructor supervisors and skilled instructors are able to counsel
learners on difficulties with progress, motivation, study habits and discipline.
However, if it is determined from the counselling session that a more serious
underlying problem exists such as alcohol, drug, family, financial, physical
or mental health or aptitude problems then the learner will require assistance
from a specialist in the appropriate area. These problems must be forwarded
through the chain of command to the CO so that services can be sought from
base, formation or command resources.
188. To be effective, instructional staff must have a clear understanding of their
roles as counsellors and basic counselling skills. Basic counselling skills’
training is provided on the Instructor Supervisor course offered at CFTDC.
48
P A R T 5
Counselling Practices 189. In order to be effective counsellors must employ certain practices. Successful
counsellors recognize the value of these practices and maintain their skill
levels. Some of the practices that allow a counsellor to meet the learner’s
needs are:
a. preparation prior to the interview enhances the session’s overall success.
Review all information about the situation and prepare a counselling
approach and plan. The counsellor should bring notes or an interview
guide into the session to assist them through the counselling process;
b. displaying patience and genuine interest reassures the learner that the
counsellor wants to help them;
c. communicate skillfully by encouraging learners to speak openly and
listening carefully to understand what they are trying to say;
d. show respect for confidentiality. The counsellor should only discuss the
issues raised in the counselling session with those who have an absolute
need to know; and
e. share responsibility. The idea is for the counsellor to assist the learner to
take responsibility for solving the problem. If the learner is involved in
developing the solutions he or she will be more motivated to follow
through and succeed.
Counselling Interview 190. The purpose of any counselling interview is to solve a problem. The objec-
tive of the interview is to obtain facts, information, and feelings to help a
learner to identify and solve problems that are affecting his achievement.
Interviewing 191. Employing effective interviewing techniques can help to identify the issues
affecting the learner and effectively conduct the counselling session. These
Techniques techniques include:
a. Attentiveness. Demonstrating attentiveness to the learner indicates that
you are genuinely interested in helping them to solve their problem.
Verbal encouragement and body language such as sitting with arms by
your side versus crossed, making eye contact versus gazing around the
room are important cues to the learner that you are open and focused
on them;
b. Questioning Technique. Using open questions such as “What did you do
to prepare for this exam?” provides the learner with the opportunity to
respond with a wide range of responses versus closed questions such
as “Did you study for the exam?” which result in a single yes or no
response. Probing questions such as “Do you think the extra work
assigned was fair?” allows learners to express their thoughts and feelings
about a situation;
c. Minimal Encouragers. Verbal words such as “yes, or go on” or nodding
gestures encourage learners to continue with what they are saying.
Remaining silent and listening carefully will help draw out the learner’s
perspective on their problems;
49
P A R T 5
d. Paraphrasing. This involves interpreting and summarizing the learner’s

statement, and clarifying what they have said. For example, when the
learner states “I was up until midnight working on my assignment and fell
asleep” the interviewer might respond with “so, you did not have enough
time to complete the assignment?” to confirm what the learner means.
This method can also be used to reflect the learner’s feelings;
e. Summarizing. Summarizing what has been discussed at certain points
during the interview can be helpful to refocus and clarify the situation.
It reviews the issues discussed and ensures that there is agreement on
the issues.
Table 9: Counselling Interview
STAGE GUIDELINE
PREPARATION Prepare the plan. Gather information about the learner by reviewing the course
file. Clarify the situation to determine the learner’s problem and what steps have
been taken.
Prepare the setting. Select a location that is private and conducive to communica-
tion. Arrange furniture and schedule time to ensure there won’t be interruptions.
Establish a comfortable atmosphere. Welcome the learner and put him or
her at ease by using a pleasant tone and offering them a seat. State the purpose
of the interview. If the learner initiated the interview they should explain why they
have asked for the counselling session. The environment should be conducive to
trust and two-way communication.
EXPLORATION Encourage communication. Listen to the learner and encourage him or her to
express their ideas, concerns and feelings by asking open-ended questions. Keep
the discussion going by summarizing what has been said and listen attentively in
order to understand the learner’s view of their problem and possible solutions.
INTEGRATION Provide more information. The counsellor provides information from the learner’s
file, and encourages them to explore the problem further.
Identify learner misperceptions. Through discussion ensure that the learner
sees all sides of the problem without providing him or her with judgements or solutions.
Explore alternatives. Integrate the information and suggestions provided by the
counsellor with learner views. Encourage the learner to use new insights to clarify
the situation and evaluate alternatives when solving the problem.
ACTION Summarize Outcomes. The counsellor summarizes the agreed upon course of
action and what the learner and counsellor are responsible to do. The learner
summarizes the course of action to which he or she has committed.
Close the interview. Ease the learner out of the session by stating you will follow-up
when appropriate. Encourage the learner to approach you in the future to communi-
cate concerns and initiate small talk to signal that the counselling session is over.
Follow-up. Update the learner’s file with the agreed course of action.
Schedule a follow-up interview.
50
P A R T 5
Note: Leading questions which force the learner into a no-win situation such
as “when are you going to start taking this course seriously?” should not be
used during the counselling session because they put the individual on the
defensive, which defeats the purpose of the interview.
192. The counselling session is a helping interview that usually proceeds through
the four stages as detailed in Table 9.
Counselling 193. There are three basic approaches to counselling: directive, non-directive and
participative. Although they are very rarely used in pure form, instructors
Approaches should be familiar with each approach so they can employ whatever mix is
required to fit the situation. Each approach is described in Table 10.
Table 10: Counselling Approaches
DIRECTIVE
The counsellor describes the problem and suggests a solution to the learner. The counsellor determines a
solution based on his or her experience and knowledge of the learner’s behavior and training records.
The counsellor encourages the learner to accept the solution to the problem. This approach may be used
in the case of safety violations or disciplinary problems.
NON-DIRECTIVE
The counsellor encourages the learner to express feelings, concerns and problems. The counsellor clarifies
and summarizes the situation in a non-judgmental manner encouraging the learner to come up with his or
her own solution. This method may require additional time for the learner to determine their problem and
a solution because the counsellor provides minimal assistance and direction. The intent is to have the
learner realize the problem and propose solutions.
PARTICIPATIVE
The participative approach is a structured combination of the directive and non-directive methods.
It provides greater flexibility as both the learner and counsellor work together to identify and solve problems.
194. Instructors should avoid using exactly the same counselling approach with
every learner because they do not react the same way in similar circumstances.
Therefore, every counselling situation should be tailored to meet the learner’s
specific needs. When determining which approach to use the counsellor
should consider the:
a. nature of the problem;
b. personality of the learner;
c. environment; and
d. situation at the training establishment or unit.
51
P A R T 5
195. Participative Approach. The participative approach is most often employed

as it allows both the counsellor and the learner to fully participate in the
process. Although the counsellor takes the lead, the learner is actively
involved in determining any corrective actions and is therefore more
committed to the solution.
196. The participative counselling approach is highly structured. It requires the
counsellor and learner to engage in a six-step process aimed at helping the
learner to resolve problems and correct his or her shortcomings. Each step
and the associated procedures of the participatory counselling session are
described in Table 11.
Table 11: Particpitative Counselling Approach
STEPS PROCEDURES
Communicate shortcomings Document and advise the learner of his or her shortcomings.
Advise the learner of the requirement to address shortcomings and,
if necessary, explain the possible consequences of not doing so.
Explore possible corrective Invite the learner to provide reasons, if aware, for his or her
actions shortcomings and to describe all corrective actions already taken
to deal with them.
Ask the learner to identify other possible actions to address their
shortcomings. Provide the learner with suggestions of other corrective
actions and discuss the pros and cons of each possible remedial
action together.
Obtain learner commitment to Ask the learner to propose the best course of actions to correct
the remedial action plan (RAP) shortcomings from those discussed.
Constructively review the proposal and offer advice as necessary.
Ask the learner to provide a realistic due date for completion of the
RAP and for his or her commitment to completing the RAP as per the
proposed timeline.
Oversee progress on RAP Ensure necessary assistance or resources are available to the learner.
Regularly review the learner’s progress toward goals and
provide encouragement and praise.
Help the learner to make mid-course corrections to RAP where needed.
Communicate success or Assess whether the learner is achieving RAP goals.

failure of the RAP
Document the success or failure and advise the learner.
Recommendations Recommend follow-up action such as continuing training with or

without further counselling or cease training.
52
P A R T 5
197. Non-Directive Approach. In non-directive counselling, learners are encour-

aged to freely express positive and negative feelings in an attempt to explore
and understand themselves and their problems and concerns. The counsellor
creates a non-judgemental atmosphere by summarizing what the learner says
but avoiding offering any praise or blame.
198. This approach might be best employed when a learner is dealing with per-
sonal issues that he or she needs to talk out such as peer or family conflict,
harassment, death, marital break up etc. in order to ensure these issues do
not affect his or her performance. The non-directive counselling approach
consists of six steps as outlined in Table 12.
Table 12: Non-Directive Counselling Approach
STEPS PROCEDURES
Explain the approach Explain to the learner that he or she will be helped in working out
problems but will not be provided with the answers.
Encourage free expression Encourage the learner to express their feelings about the problem
such as guilt, fear, anger, indecision and concerns. Do not advise
or persuade the learner that they are right or wrong.
Clarify and accept Respond to the learner’s feelings instead of the facts or content
negative feelings of the discussion.
Re-state and clarify the learner’s feelings without expressing
judgement. Accept the feelings expressed without commenting
on whether the learner is right or wrong.
Recognize and accept After negative feelings have been expressed, allow the learners to
positive feelings build on tentative, more positive reactions. Do not provide approval
or blame.
This stage of the session should be used to gain insight into the
learner’s personality and the source of the problem.
Clarify choices Ask the learner to clearly identify all possible courses of action
while refraining from recommending a particular course of action
to them.
Allow the learner to develop Encourage the learner to weigh each possible solution.
an action plan
Allow the learner to work towards developing his or her own
solution to the problem.
53
P A R T 5
199. Directive Counselling. The directive counselling approach is the opposite of

the non-directive approach. In a directive counselling session, the counsellor
takes the lead role and provides advice, direction and suggestions to the
learner.
200. This approach is appropriate when learners are less mature and require
assistance and direction. It may also be used to deal with disciplinary
problems. The four steps and procedures of the directive counselling
approach are outlined in Table 13.
Table 13: Directive Counselling Approach
STEPS PROCEDURES
Define the problem Identify and analyze the problem and its source.
Pose questions to the learner to clarify the problem.
Explore possible solutions Ask the learner to describe how he or she has or is currently
coping with the problem.
Suggest a number of possible solutions.
In a disciplinary problem, the solution is not discussed,
rather it is directed.
Guide the learner and direct If a non-disciplinary issue, ask the learner to choose the solution
the best solution that appeals most to him or her and guide the learner to the
solution and future plan of action.
Follow up the plan of action. Seek the learner’s commitment to the plan.
Provide support to the learner as he or she carries out the plan.
Note: Counselling sessions involving discipline may involve mainly one-way discussion from counsellor to
learner and the atmosphere may be quite tense. Nevertheless, the focus should be on problem solving.
Progress Reviews 201. When counselling has not been successful, some form of progress review is
initiated. Various options exist from the informal to the formal.
202. Progress Review (PR). The PR is an informal review process that is initiated
when counselling has not been successful in resolving problems. During a
progress review the learner meets with his or her instructors and a supervisor
to examine performance deficiencies. The deficiency is discussed with the
learner to determine if remedial training can solve the problem. If it is deter-
mined that some form of remedial training cannot address the problem and
cease training (CT) action is considered, the learner should be referred to
a formal training review board to determine the most appropriate course
of action.
54
P A R T 5
203. Independent Review Board (IRB). The IRB involves a staff level review of
the learner’s file and progress to date. The purpose of the IRB is to ensure
that the learner has received fair treatment. Any extenuating circumstances
or training deficiencies/inconsistencies are immediately resolved. The board
may still recommend remedial training or counselling or other corrective
action. When the IRB concludes it does not have the authority to address a
problem such as a voluntary withdrawal or severe substandard performance,
then a PRB will be conducted.
204. Progress Review Board (PRB). The PRB also referred to as a Training Review
Board (TRB) is held when there are significant decisions to make regarding a
learner’s future development. The outcome of a PRB may be: continuation
with remedial training, recourse or cease training. The PRB is a formal and
intensive process during which board members will review all pertinent
information and interview staff and learners, as required. If there are signifi-
cant problems, such as demonstration of unsuitability, unsafe attitudes, or
cheating, staff may go directly to PRB without going through IRB. Wherever
the possibility of CT is considered, a PRB is required. The following docu-
ments must be made available to the board:
a. Learner’s Personnel File (if available);
b. Learner’s UER (if available);
c. Training File;
d. Evaluation Forms/Exam Results; and
e. Instructor notes or other relevant information;
205. At the same time, the learner must also have the opportunity to review all
the information that the board is considering, talk to staff or fellow learners if
desired, and prepare any materials that they wish to present to the decision-
making body. The learner must have the opportunity to present counter argu-
ments and to provide any supporting evidence, including witnesses to the
board, if desired. After the review board has completed its assessment, the
learner is advised of the findings and recommendations. Since time is often
an issue in training reviews, file reviews and interviews may be concurrent.
On completion of the board, the CO reviews the findings and recommenda-
tions and determines or approves the final course of action. A sample PRB
checklist is provided at Annex E.
55
P A R T 6
M
MONITOR INSTRUCTION
AND DEVELOP STAFF
Monitor Instruction 206. The aim of monitoring instruction is to improve learning. Training establish-
ment staffs are responsible collectively to ensure that the training environ-
ment promotes learning. Areas such as instructor performance, learner
achievement, support and administration are monitored to ensure the train-
ing establishment’s goals are met in an effective and efficient manner. Both
standards personnel and instructor-supervisors play a key role in ensuring
that learning takes place by monitoring the delivery of instruction.
Standards Staff 207. Standards staff assess whether learning is taking place on an ongoing basis by:
a. auditing instruction to ensure the content and emphasis of the material
is in accordance with the intent of the training plan. Where staff are not
content Subject Matter Experts (SME), standards must designate other
personnel to perform this function;
b. auditing instruction to confirm the adequacy and appropriate use of
instructional materials and training aids as directed in the training plan
and lesson plan as required;
c. monitoring learners and their files;
d. administering or monitoring the administration of performance checks or
tests to ensure they are conducted as directed;
e. preparing, administering and analyzing learner course evaluations; and
f. reviewing instructor course evaluations.
Staff Indoctrination 208. New instructional staff require a form of indoctrination. Instructors and
standards staff in particular should be given a period of indoctrination that
covers but is not limited to the following topics:
a. the six phases of the CFITES Quality Control System. Familiarization with
CFITES Manuals of Individual Training Volumes 4, 5 and 6 the Design,
Development and Delivery of Instructional Programmes is essential;
b. training documentation, such as qualification standards and plans,
and how to go about submitting a change to these documents;
c. the role of the standards organization and the difference between
instructor monitoring and training plan compliance;
56
P A R T 6
d. adult learning principles, facilitating learning, assessment and evaluation,

as well as counselling individuals with learning problems and training
review board procedures;
e. course reporting procedures;
f. training records management;
g. procedures for requesting instructional materials that support learning
such as training aids, equipment, interactive courseware, and testing
materials; and
h. briefings on any physical requirements, harassment, equity and other
issues deemed relevant by the CO.
Note: Many of these requirements can be met by ensuring that instructors
and standards staff complete the necessary CF Instructor Training courses
available through the CFTDC, or MA sponsored programmes co-coordinated
by the unit TDO and delivered on site. Recommended courses include
Basic and Advanced Instructional Techniques, Instructor Supervisor,
and the Training Manager course.
Develop 209. Effectively managing instructors improves both instruction and learning.
Instructors should be provided with opportunities to improve their instruc-
Instructional Staff tional and classroom management skills. Instructor-supervisors are responsi-
ble to develop well-trained and skilled instructors. The development of a
skilled instructor takes time. Supervisors can develop instructors by imple-
menting an instructor development programme that focuses on instructional
improvement.
210. To implement a successful instructor development programme the supervisor
should ensure the instructor received indoctrination and advise them of:
a. the importance of their instructional duties, their influence on learning
and the instructional team;
b. the content of the instructional programme and the instructors responsi-
bilities; and
c. the main components of the development programme.
Instructor 211. The essential components of an effective instructor development programme

are outlined in Figure 11.
Development
Programme
57
P A R T 6
Figure 11: Instructor Development Programme
FORMAL TRAINING
As a minimum, supervisors should measure potential instructors against the requirements for successful
completion of Basic Instructional Techniques offered by CFTDC or an MA designated alternative. It is
recommended that instructors attend the CFTDC Advanced Instructional Techniques when time permits.
Depending on the technology involved, instructors may require additional training in facilitating distance
learning and multimedia. In this case, instructors should attend CFTDC courses such as Interactive
Courseware Design, Distance Learning Instructor and Distance Learning Technologies for Managers.
OJT
An OJT programme for instructional staff consists of having the new instructor sit in on the delivery of a
lesson (various types of lessons over time). On its conclusion, the techniques and method employed step
by step throughout the lesson and why it is important to conduct it in that manner should be explained.
If there are components of the lesson that the new instructor should master, such as the manipulation of
complex equipment, this skill should be taught using the OJT process, described in Part 3 of this manual,
until the task is mastered. The instructor should be encouraged to rehearse the delivery of the lesson prior
to actually conducting the lesson with learners. OJT of this scope for every lesson may not be possible
but providing it once for each different type of instructional strategy significantly enhances the instructor’s
abilities to perform in the classroom. Instructors should be given time to master procedures and methods
such as modelling and coaching.
TEAM TEACHING
Team teaching entails pairing an experienced instructor with a new instructor in the classroom. The instruc-
tors trade off teaching but both remain in the classroom for all lessons. The new instructor can learn by
observing the experienced instructor and receiving guidance on how to approach the lessons he or she
teaches. The experienced instructor should not correct the new instructor in front of learners (unless safety
issues are involved). Team-teaching also serves as a reward or break for the experienced instructor.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS

It is suggested that professional development sessions consist of a day or afternoon every month during
which some or all of the instructional staff is brought together. Instructional staff or personnel from other
training establishments or external agencies may provide sessions. Topics consist of presentations about
instructional methods, group-learning techniques, and emerging technologies. Standards or instructional
staff might share methods and strategies they have found to be effective in the classroom. Syndicate exer-
cises requiring instructional staff to find solutions to a problem, brainstorm new ways of maintaining learn-
er interest and participation etc. Syndicate problem solving sessions might ask instructional staff to address
something they have found difficult, how they dealt with it and ask for suggestions from other group mem-
bers on alternate ways to deal with a particular situation. The results of syndicate work should be shared
with the larger group at the end in order to maximize the benefits of the professional development activity.
JOB AIDS
Job aids are extremely useful for new instructors when using equipment for the first time. Step by step
procedures for the use of CBT, multimedia, web-based training, simulators, and various forms of distance
learning such as video conferencing, learning management systems are valuable. A sample of possible
technical problems, possible solutions and who to contact for help can also be of assistance.
58
P A R T 6
Figure 11: Instructor Development Programme (continued)
RECOMMENDED READINGS
Extensive resources are available that address learning and instruction. Providing instructional staff with
access to these resources or excerpts from them empowers staff to learn more in areas of interest or need.
MONITORING & COUNSELLING

At a minimum, standards and instructional supervisors should monitor instructional staff once per course,
and more often if required or when multiple methods are used, e.g., classroom, simulation, in field or at sea.
Monitor Instructors 212. In order to develop instructors, the instructor supervisor is responsible to
monitor the instructor in the classroom or other training sites (field, ship,
simulator) and provide counselling to recognize and reinforce effective
performance and identify and correct any problems before they become
serious and jeopardise the instructional programme.
213. The development of instructional skills can take place only when the
instructor has the opportunity to instruct under supervision and receive
feedback on their performance. When the processes of monitoring and coun-
selling are handled effectively, the instructor has the opportunity to improve
his or her performance. Monitoring and counselling must focus on instructor
development and improvement and be based on mutual respect between the
instructor and supervisor.
214. A monitoring and counselling programme based on mutual respect can be
fostered when:
a. the instructor and supervisor agree on the specific skills and practices that
characterize effective instruction;
b. the supervisor frequently monitors lessons to verify that the instructor
uses these skills/practices and meets to discuss them afterwards;
c. the instructor and supervisor agree on areas for improvement; and
d. the instructor and supervisor develop a specific plan for improvement
together.
Note: Peer monitoring to help fellow instructors to identify areas that could
be improved is a valuable source of continuous improvement if staff choose
to participate.
59
P A R T 6
Effective Monitoring 215. In order to be as objective as possible, standards and instructor supervisors
must have specific criteria to look for when observing a lesson. General
criteria include:
a. Has the instructor made the lesson relevant?
b. Is the instructor actively involving the learner?
c. Is the instructor applying the principles of instruction?
d. Has the instructor prepared the room and materials?
e. Is the instructor responding appropriately to learner comments and
questions?
216. Other criteria may be based on the content and the specific instructional
strategy employed such as coaching in simulators, OJT and various types
of distance learning. Sample monitoring guides are provided at Annex F.
Instructor Monitoring 217. Instructor monitoring consists of gathering information on an instructor’s

abilities, skills and performance in the classroom. The instructor monitoring
Process process consists of preparing for monitoring and actually observing the les-
son. The first step is to advise the instructor well in advance that the lesson
will be monitored, and reminding them that the purpose is to give feedback
to improve instructional skills.
218. Preparation. The instructor-supervisor must be well prepared in order
to observe the lesson and effectively assess the instructor’s performance.
This preparation consists of researching the areas outlined in Figure 12.
Figure 12:Research Areas
INSTRUCTOR BACKGROUND
Review the instructor’s file to determine the instructor’s experience, qualifications relevant to instruction and
notes from any previous monitoring and counselling sessions.
LESSON SPECIFICATION
Review the lesson specification and determine how the lesson fits into the instructional programme by
examining the lessons that precede and follow it. Consider different approaches to delivering the lesson
based on the teaching points, ratio of theory to practice and learner activity.
LEARNERS
Determine the overall makeup of the class by examining their experience and progress in the instructional
programme. Consider the types of activity preceding and following this lesson that might affect learner
performance or attitudes. Check to see if there have been any reported discipline problems in class.
60
P A R T 6
219. Observation. The instructor-supervisor must make every effort to carry out
the monitoring and counselling process by presenting the positive aspects of
the instructor’s role such as opportunities to:
a. pass on their expertise to new members of their occupation; and
b. further develop their own military skills and knowledge.
220. To ensure the observation of a session is conducted as smoothly as possible,
the instructor-supervisor should follow the steps detailed in Figure 13.
Figure 13: Observation Guidelines
BEFORE THE LESSON

Greet the instructor and request a copy of their lesson plan. Reassure the instructor that the purpose of
monitoring is to help instructors to develop their abilities.
If possible, choose an observation point that is not in the direct line of sight of the learners or instructor.
Verify that the room has been appropriately arranged and training aids are available and in position.
DURING THE LESSON

Observe the instructor’s actions and learners’ response during the lesson. Identify whether the instructor
uses approved instructional techniques and principles of instruction.
Use a monitoring guide to help you record behaviors. Focus on observable behaviors. Take descriptive
notes and cite specific examples.
Do not make assumptions or judgements. Do not interfere with the lesson unless there is an emergency or
safety violation.
AFTER THE LESSON

Thank the instructor and ask him or her how they felt the lesson went and any areas they would like
to change to improve it. Respond to the instructor’s self-evaluation, and provide a clear and concise
evaluation of the lesson, specifying the strengths and less effective areas of performance. If required,
offer to assist the instructor to improve his or her performance.
If the lesson was poorly conducted or the instructor does not seem aware of the deficiencies then the
supervisor should set up a time for a counselling interview to discuss ways to improve the instructor’s
performance. Set a time for the interview to be held within the next couple of days.
61
P A R T 6
Counsel Instructors 221. The purpose of the instructor counselling session is to help the instructor to
improve his or her skills. During the session, the supervisor reinforces the
strengths of the instructor’s performance and assists him or her to find solu-
tions to areas requiring improvement. The basic steps for the preparation,
conduct and follow-up of a counselling session are outlined in Table 14.
Table 14: Instructor-supervisor counselling session steps
Review notes and file Review notes recorded during the monitoring session and the
instructor’s file to determine future developmental needs.
Prepare notes for List the instructor’s strengths during the lesson and how they
the session contributed to achievement of the instructional objective.
List deficiencies in performance and how they detract from
the achievement of goals.
Develop specific action plans to assist the instructor to improve
performance.
Prepare the setting Select a site for the session that is conducive to two-way conversa-
tion. Try to establish a relaxed and confidential atmosphere.
Begin the session Welcome the instructor and try to put him or her at ease by
explaining the purpose of the session.
Discuss instructor Pose questions that encourage the instructor to discuss what he or
performance she remembers doing during the lesson. Ask the instructor to identify
any areas that they could improve and what he or she might do
to improve them. Assist the instructor to develop solutions where
necessary.
Highlight the effective areas of the instructor’s performance
and how this contributed to the achievement of the instructional
objectives.
Conclude the session Ask the instructor to summarize effective and ineffective aspects
of his or her performance and how he or she plans to make
improvements. Seek a commitment from the instructor to improve
performance and offer to assist if appropriate.
Follow-up Immediately, write a full summary of the counselling session for

the instructor’s file. Then plan further monitoring and counselling
sessions to continue the instructor development process.
Note: In the case where the material presented by the instructor is more up to date than the lesson
specifications, standards personnel must ensure changes are made to the training plan. If the changes
impact the qualification standard, the proposed changes must be forwarded to the Managing Authority
for approval.
62
P A R T 6
Reviewing 222. Evaluation forms for both the learners and instructors may be used to gather
information on a course. Instructor course evaluations and learner course
Evaluation Forms evaluations generally consist of a series of questions that can be used by
instructional supervisors and standards personnel to evaluate and improve
courses. Questions generally address:
a. course content;
b. instructional techniques;
c. instructional methods;
d. learning aids;
e. instructor performance;
f. learning environment;
g. testing; and
h. administration.
Analyze 223. Data from evaluation forms should be gathered over several courses. As the
data accumulates, the results can be analyzed to identify trends. Analysis
Evaluation Forms of the course evaluation data is dependant on the form and questions used.
However, in the simplest manner, data can be tallied for each closed question
for each course. Over time, recurring lower ratings or negative responses to
specific questions will become apparent. The identification of a trend where,
for example, 75% of learners over the last three courses have responded that
they are having difficulty with a specific topic will indicate that there is a
problem in this area. Instructional staff can then take steps to improve it.
Sample questions for instructor and learner course evaluation forms are
provided in Annex G and H.
Additional Feedback 224. Feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process should be supported
through other means than course evaluation forms. Simply observing and
Options listening to learners comments can provide valuable information on morale,
frustration levels and difficulties encountered. Depending on the maturity of
the learners and the type of course scheduled discussion periods between
learners and instructional staff can identify and resolve problems.
Note: Personnel should refer to Volume 11, Evaluation of Instructional
Programmes, for further guidance on evaluation.
63
A N N E X A
R
REFERENCES AND
RESOURCES
Departmental A-PD-050-001/PF-001 Flight Instructor’s Handbook, 15 January 2001
References A-P9-000-003/P1-002 Conduct of OJT, 19 July 1978
4500-1 (DGRET) On-Job-Training (OJT) Study Report, 25 September 1989
Manual of School Operations,
5671-1 (DRET 6-2-2) 12 Feb 99
5671-1 (DRET 6-2-2) 8 Feb 99
OJTP Resource Management Support Clerk — 836 Journeymen (QL5) Admin
CFTDC Distributed Learning Instructor (DLI) Online Courseware
Departmental Canadian Forces Training Development Centre Distributed Learning Workshop,

31 August 2001.
Resources
Canadian Forces Training Development Centre Courses, CFB Borden,
Basic Instructional Techniques
Advanced Instructional Techniques
Instructor Supervisor
Interactive Courseware Design
Distance Learning Technologies
External References Berge, Z.L. (1995). Facilitating Computer Conferencing: Recommendations from
the Field. Educational Technology, 35(1).
Black, D. (1998). Live and Online: A WBT Primer. Training and Development,
September 1998.
Bloom, B.S. and D.R. Krathwohl. (1972). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay.
Broad, M.L. and Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of Training: Action Packed
Strategies to Ensure High Payoff from Training Investments. Don Mills, Ontario:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Broad, M.L. & Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of Training: Action packed
strategies to ensure high payoff from training investments. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Broadbent, B. (2001). Essential resources for online instructors. The Training
Report, Sept/Oct 2001.
A1
A N N E X A
Fisher, T.D. Self-Directness in Adult Vocational Education Students: Its Role In

Learning and Implications for Instruction. Journal of Vocational and Technical
Education, Vol 11, No. 2.
Flottemesch, K. (2000). Building Effective Interaction in Distance Education:
A Review of the Literature. Educational Technology, May-June.
Gagné, Robert M. et al. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design, Fort Worth, TX:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gibbons, A.S., Fairweather P.G., Anderson, T.A., and Merrill, M.D. Simulation
and Computer Based Instruction: A Future View. In C.R. Dills and A.J.
Romizowski (Eds.) (1997). Instructional Development Paradigms. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 769-804.
Hartman, V.F. (1995). Teaching and learning style preferences: Transitions through
technology, VCCA Journal 9, no 2 Summer. 18-20.
Honey, R. & Mumford, A. (1992). The manual of learning styles. Maidenhead, UK:
Peter Honey.
Huang, H. Instructional Technologies Facilitating Online Courses. Educational
Technology, July-August 2000.
Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, AF Handbook 36-2235,
Volume 5, 30 May 1998.
Kaufman, R., Watkins, R., and Guerra, R. (2001). The Future of Distance Learning:
Defining and Sustaining Results. Educational Technology, May-June 2001.
Keller, J.M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instruction
design. Journal of Instructional Development. 10(3), 2-10.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Knowles, M.S. (1984). Andragogy In Action. San Francisco, California:
Jossey-Bass Inc.
Legassie, R.L. (2000). A Hierarchy of Training Technologies. Delta info, Winter
2000, Vol 6 No.1.
Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J., and Reigeluth, C.M.(1992). Instructional Design Strategies
and Tactics, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
McCarthy, J., and Easby, M. (1983). Training RAF instructors in the skills of brief-
ing, monitoring and debriefing, using microteaching methodologies. In A. Trott,
H. Strongman, and L. Giddens (Eds.) Aspects of Educational technology, Vol XVI.
London, UK: Kogan Page.
Meier, D. (2000). The Accelerated Learning Handbook. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Melnychuk, M.F. (2001). Web Based Training Instruction Guide: From Design to
Delivery, Master of Education Project.
Millie, A. (2000). Soldiers As Distance Learners: What Army Trainers Need To
Know. Futures Training Division. US Army Headquarters Training and Doctrine
Command, Fort Monroe, Virginia.
A2
A N N E X A
Moore, D.P. (1999). Facilities and learning styles. School Planning and
Management. 38, 22-31.
Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). A New Paradigm of ISD? Educational Technology,
May-June.
Seels, B.B., (1995). Instructional design Fundamentals, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Simpson, J.S. (1966). The Classification of Educational Objectives, Psychomotor
Domain, Office of Education Project No. 5-85-104, Urbana IL, University of
Illinois.
Spitzer, D.R. (2001). Don’t Forget the High-Touch with the High-Tech in Distance
Learning. Educational Technology, March-April 2001.
Sabiston, P. (2000). An Inquiry Into The Criteria That Identify Quality Adult
Web-Based Learning, Royal Roads University, Master of Arts Project.
Thorndike, D.L. (1966). Human Learning, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T.
Press.
Weiss, R.P. Memory and Learning. Training and Development, October 2000.
Yi, J.A. (1999). A Proposed Instructional Design Method for On-the-Job Learning,
ISPI Conference presentation, March 1999.
A3
A N N E X B
GG L O S S A R Y
Asynchronous An asynchronous learning environment is one in which interaction between
teachers and students takes place intermittently, not simultaneously, such
Learning Environment as through links to HTML content or email, news or discussion groups.
(source: DDLS/DLN).
Education Activities which aim at developing the knowledge, values and understanding
required in general, rather than knowledge and skill relating to a specific field
of activity (NATO Glossary, 1987). Education provides a base of knowledge
and intellectual skills upon which information can be correctly interpreted
and applied.
Distance Learning Any form of learning in which the teachers and students are separated by time,
location, or both. In the DND context, distance learning is a sub-set of Distributed
Learning. It involves the delivery of standardized training, education or profes-
sional development using multiple media and technologies when and where
needed. It may involve learner-instructor interaction in both real time (synchro-
nous) and non-real time (asynchronous). It may involve self-paced asynchronous
learner instruction without benefit of access to an instructor. In all instances it
involves a physical separation between the learner and instructor and usually
occurs outside the confines of the resident training establishment or campus.
Distributed Learning The delivery of standardized training, education or professional development

using multiple media and technologies when and where it is needed. It may
involve learner-instructor interaction in both real time (synchronous) and non-real
time (asynchronous). It may involve self-paced asynchronous learner instruction
without the benefit of access to an instructor. It does not necessarily involve a
physical distance between the learner and instructor or need occur outside the
confines of the resident training establishment or campus. The dispatch of
instructors from a training establishment to a unit or another location to conduct
training, or the hiring of qualified instructors in other locations to conduct the
training on behalf of a training establishment fall within the realm of Distributed
Learning.
B1
A N N E X B
Group-paced Structured learning in which participants work as a group to complete

instructional activities as sequenced in the course timetable.
instruction
Individual Training Individual training and education includes all activities that provide knowledge
and skills to individual members and that normally result in a qualification being
and Education (IT&E) conferred upon the member.
Instructional Strategy The combination of media, methods, and environment used in the delivery
of IT&E.
On-the-Job Training Unit or MA funded training that enables personnel to learn tasks while on the job.
A supervisor or facilitator demonstrates the skills, observes the learner’s perfor-
(OJT) mance and provides feedback as required. Supervisors must certify that the learner
has performed to the minimum specified standard and passed the PO.
Learning Learning is the individual creation of knowledge and change in behavior as a

result of experience. It is a lifelong, continuous process; that is, it does not stop
at the end of a course or activity but continues as it is applied on the job in
various contexts.
Lesson Plan A lesson plan is a guide, used by instructors, to ensure that instruction follows a
specific, goal oriented plan. An instructor lesson plan is developed, based on a
lesson specification, by the instructor who will teach the lesson.
Master Lesson Plan A Master Lesson Plan (MLP) may be developed for use by any instructor and
held on file at the training establishment. MLPs are helpful when there is a
high turnover of staff or frequent changes to Qualification Standards/Plans and
little time for instructors to amend lesson plans.
Progress Review A progress review board is an administrative review of a candidate’s suitability

for continued training and education. It is also referred to as a Training Review
Board (PRB) Board (TRB).
Self-Directed SDL is a strategy used to improve performance; it requires the learner to make
decisions about what they need to learn to improve their job performance and
Learning (SDL) initiate activities to meet those learning goals.
Self-Paced Structured learning in which participants access content, selecting when, where
and how to study (source: DDLS/DLN).
Learning (SPL)
B2
A N N E X B
Synchronous A real-time, instructor-led online learning event in which participants are logged
on at the same time and communicate directly with each other. Students and
Learning teachers may use a whiteboard to see work in progress and share knowledge.
Environment Content can also be delivered using audio or video conferencing, internet
telephone and two-way live broadcasts of lectures to students in a classroom
(source: DDLS/DLN).
Training Activity that aims to impart specific skills or knowledge and/or inculcate appro-
priate attitudes (NATO Glossary, 1987). Individual Training as used in the CF
refers to the provision of technical and procedural knowledge and skills required
in the performance of assigned duties (IT/PD MF).
B3
A N N E X C
S
SELF-PACED LEARNING
(SPL)
Due to the time, special skills and cost involved in designing SPL, not all training
should be considered for this methodology. SPL is most suitable when:
a. skills are not team oriented;
b. skills are usually performed by the individual alone;
c. course content, equipment, skill level, location and learner population
will remain essentially constant in nature;
d. one hundred or more learners will attend the training each year; and
e. facilities, equipment and staff can be dedicated to the conduct of
self-paced learning;
The disadvantages and advantages should also be considered before employing

SPL. Disadvantages include:
a. some reorganization of the administrative routine will be needed to
accommodate the independent starting and finishing times;
b. instructors must be thoroughly prepared for their different role as a
manager and facilitator of the learning process;
c. analysis of the training requirement and design and development of the
programme can be lengthy and costly, depending on the complexity of the
training; and
d. development of group or team spirit is difficult.
None of these disadvantages is insurmountable if analysis shows that self-pacing

would be the best way to provide the IT&E programme.
C1
A N N E X C
There are also many advantages to SPL. They include:

a. the instructional programme can commence for an individual learner
whenever he or she is available and ready. Waiting for class-size groups is
not necessary. Learner flow through the course can be made smoother;
b. instructors are relieved of the presentation of information that can be
readily learned through other more appropriate methods, and can focus
on providing more individual assistance and guidance based on the
learner’s needs;
c. consistently high quality presentations can be given by various multimedia
means;
d. generally, fewer sets of training equipment are needed, since learners use
them at different times. Courses that have bottlenecks, caused by limited
pieces of equipment may be more efficiently conducted if self-pacing were
used. This method allows learners to progress through the same course
content by alternative routes, thus avoiding their having to wait for access
to particular aids or equipment;
e. learners are encouraged to be more responsible for their own learning and
often work harder to finish early;
f. training time is often shortened because of the careful analysis, design and
development needed for self-paced development;
g. if the learning materials are complete, the instructional programme may
be conducted through distributed instruction instead of the learner being
brought to the training establishment;
h. learners can review any part of the course at any time; and
i. temporary groups can be formed and dissolved as required.
C2
A N N E X D
S
SAMPLE OJT GUIDE
PART 1 1. Aim. The aim of training resulting from this OJT guide is to prepare personnel
to perform their job in their occupation or specialty.
2. Units will use this OJT guide as the primary authority governing the content,
organization, and conduct of the OJT required to attain {specific name}
occupation or specialty qualification.
3. Copies of the On Job Performance Record (OJPR) may be produced locally
from the master copy contained in this guide.
4. OJT Supervisor Responsibilities. The OJT Supervisor is responsible to:
a. conduct OJT and/or task skilled workers to conduct OJT;
b. evaluate learner performance, administer PCs and, when the stated stan-
dard has been achieved, sign off the task in the master copy of the OJPR;
c. monitor learning and achievement by having learners perform tasks from
performance checks at random; and
d. forward completed OJPRs to the OJT section head.
5. Each learner shall be issued a copy of the OJT guide to ensure they are
knowledgeable of the objectives they must attain during OJT.
PART 2 6. Training Overview. The supervisor, or designate conducting OJT, should

be familiar with the OJT process as detailed in Volume 6 of the Manual of
Individual Training, Conduct of Instructional Programmes A-P9-050-000/PT-
006. OJT is conducted in accordance with the OJT guide (instructions and
checks) provided to the unit by the training establishment.
7. The supervisor (also referred to as the instructor) conducts training using the
following six step OJT process:
a. The instructor begins by explaining to the learner what to do, and how to
do it and why carrying out a task in a particular manner is important. The
conditions under which (when and where) the task might be performed
should be elaborated on if appropriate;
b. The instructor should then demonstrate how to perform the task explaining
each component or step as it is completed;
c. If the learner does not have questions the instructor will have the learner
tell him what to do and the instructor will perform the task again;
d. Finally, the learner attempts to do the task under supervision (initially
describing the steps). Since this is a learning experience, the learner
should not be expected to perform a task perfectly right away;
D1
A N N E X D
e. The instructor coaches the learner and provides feedback on what went
well and areas to improve. Coaching should be done in a supportive and
non-critical manner; and
f. The learner reflects on the experience and instructor feedback. What went
well? What didn’t? Why? What will I do differently next time?
Note: Steps d, e and f may need to be repeated until the learner masters
the skill.
PART 3 8. Assessment. The standard of performance required for each PO or EO and

the conditions under which the objective is to be performed are specified
in Part 5.
9. Should learners fail any Performance Checks, they will be given the opportu-
nity to practice further under the guidance of his/her supervisor and retake
those particular Performance Checks at a later date. Should the learner fail a
previously failed Performance Check, she or he will be subject to a review
process (as specified in the TP).
10. A copy of the OJPR is shown in Annex A. The On Job Performance Record
Sheet is a summary of all the PO/EOs required for completion of OJT. When
the learner has met the standards for an objective, the applicable line in the
OJPR sheet shall be completed.
11. After all the objectives have been attained, the OJPR is forwarded, via the
unit CO, to the training establishment responsible for the training programme
so that a qualification can be awarded.
PART 4 12. Special Considerations. Any limitations, special considerations etc, that are
particular to this OJT should be addressed here.
D2
A N N E X D
PART 5 All POs and EOs from the QS should be included in full in Part 5 —
those conducted through OJT must be clearly identified
PO 401
1. Performance. Conduct Tactical Operations
2. Conditions. Given: …
3. Standard
EO 401.01
1.
2.
3. …
(OJT) EO 401.02
1.
2.
3. …
EO 401.03
EO 401.04
PO 402
(OJT) EO 402.01
EO 402.02
Note: The design of an OJPR will be influenced by the type and length of OJT
required for the instructional programme. The basic components of an OJPR are
shown in the sample provided below.
D3
A N N E X D
ON-THE-JOB
______________________________ __________ ___________________________
PERFORMANCE RECORD Name and Initials Rank Service Number
______________________________ ___________________________
Unit Training Start Date
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. One copy of this OJPR will be made up for each learner beginning On-the-Job
Training (OJT). The learner’s supervisor shall maintain it. A duplicate copy
shall be made for the purpose of recording and reviewing individual progress
and retained by the learner.
2. As the member completes each listed EO and PO to the required standard,
his or her immediate supervisor shall sign and date the applicable item on
both copies of the OJPR.
3. When the OJPR shows that the learner has successfully completed all POs,
the following action will be taken:
a. the OJT supervisor or subject matter expert (SME) for a particular skill
will forward completed OJPRs to the OJT Section Head; and
b. via the unit CO, the OJT Section Head forwards completed OJPRs to the
training establishment responsible for the training programme so that a
qualification can be awarded.
PROGRESS REVIEW:
OJPR SME SIGNATURE DATE
PO 401
PO 407
EO 407.1
EO 407.2
I certify that this member has completed training to the standards stated in the
POs of the (applicable) QS.
______________________________ __________ ___________________________

Name Rank Date
D4
A N N E X E
S
SAMPLE PRB CHECKLIST
PROGRESS REVIEW ACTION ITEM LEARNER’S INITIAL/DATE
BOARD (PRB)
CHECKLIST 1. Name of learner _________________________ __________________________
2. Reason for PRB__________________________ __________________________
(To be retained on 3. Date and time of PRB ____________________ __________________________
Training File) 4. Date and time learner advised ____________ __________________________
5. PRB Summary Sheet reviewed by learner __________________________
6. Training File reviewed by learner __________________________
7. Evaluation Forms/Exam results
reviewed by learner __________________________
8. Divisional notes reviewed by learner __________________________
9. Unsigned CF377 (Course Report)
reviewed by learner (if applicable) __________________________
10. Learner’s Personnel File
(available/unavailable) reviewed __________________________
11. Learner’s UER (Reg Force only)
(available/unavailable) reviewed __________________________
If unable to action any of the above Action Items or if the learner declines the
opportunity to review any of the above Action Items, a note identifying the
Action Item(s) and the reasons why are to be made below.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
OPI’s signature/date
E1
A N N E X F
IIMNOSNTIRTUOCRTI NO GR F O R M S
Instructor monitoring consists of gathering information of an instructor’s abilities,
skills and performance in the classroom. Instructor monitoring forms, such as the
small-scale sample below, are used to assist instructor supervisors and standards
staff to perform this task as objectively as possible.
LEVEL
ELEMENTS YES SOME NO NI D SK ES COMMENTS
PREPARATION
Classroom arranged in advance
Instructional materials prepared
Learning aids and equipment available
INTRODUCTION
Explains relevance of the learning (what, where, why)
Describes lesson approach
Creates positive learning environment by:
• Stating class control; Expectations of the learner; and
• Encourages trust and involvement (e.g., Here to learn)
LESSON ACTIVITY
Introduces activity and links to prior learning
Covers teaching points
Applies principles of instruction (ICEPAC)
Listens actively
Uses verbal support to develop teaching points (CREST)
Responds to learner questions and body language
Encourages learners by responding positively
Provides clear explanations
Manages conflict
CONCLUSION
Revisits weak areas
Highlights main points
Encourages learner comments and observations
Relates the lesson to the larger context
Re-motivates learners
Timings Appropriate
F1
A N N E X F
Based on their observations instructor-supervisors and standards staff indicate

whether a behavior was fully observed, partially or not at all using the Yes, Some
and No columns in the sample above. In addition, the performance level column
can be used to indicate the instructor’s level of skill using the following scale:
NI — Needs improvement
D — Developing
SK — Skilled
ES — Exceeds Standard
The method of instruction may, to some extent, impact on the criteria that will be
observed. For example when observing instructors coaching learners in simulators
a monitoring form such as the sample that follows might be used. In this sample
the elements pertain to coaching learners. In this sample, only the needs improve-
ment (NI) and skilled (SK) levels of instructor performance are included.
F2
A N N E X F
ELEMENTS YES NO NI SK COMMENTS

LEARNER BRIEF
Presented learner with clear objectives, tasks and instructions
Confirmed learner understanding of key points
through questions
Provided acceptable answers to learner questions
Confirmed preparation and readiness for the
objectives/tasks
TASK EXECUTION
Maintained adequate control (as necessary)
Coached learners (as necessary — not controlling) by:
• Guiding the learner as to what to think about
and what to look for
• Focusing the learner’s attention on important events
and adding supplementary feedback as necessary
to develop the learner’s performance
• Measuring achievement so as to develop and
improve the learner’s abilities
• Keeping a record of significant points for the
subsequent debriefing
• Appraising the learner’s performance
• Thoroughly understood the type and
standard of performance sought
LEARNER DEBRIEF
Provided appropriate environment for debrief
Reassured learner prior to debrief
Questioned learner prior to debriefing in order to
draw out the learner’s self-assessment
(i.e. provided the learner with opportunities
to consolidate what they have learned)
Addressed the learner in an appropriate manner
Covered points of improvement emphasizing only
2-3 major problems for immediate improvement
Ensured learner comprehension of improvement points by
permitting the learner to take notes, asking the learner to
repeat points, posing confirmation questions and
seeking commitment
Guided and motivated the learner to further development
Provided examples of expected performance
Provided feedback on what the learner did correctly
DEBRIEF OF OTHERS (e.g., TEAM, IF APPLICABLE)
Reassured learners prior to debrief
Questioned learners prior to debriefing
Addressed learners in an appropriate manner
Covered points of improvement emphasizing only 2-3
Ensured learner comprehension of improvement points
Gave examples of expected performance
Provided feedback on what the learner did correctly
F3
A N N E X G
IICNOSUTRRSUEC TEOVRA L U A T I O N S
Instructor course evaluations generally consist of a series of questions that can
be used by instructional supervisors and standards personnel to evaluate and
improve courses. A sample of the types of questions that may be used include:
1. Is it necessary to update the TP? If so, cite specific examples and recommen-
dations for change.
2. Was a suitable lesson plan available? If not, please indicate recommended
changes.
3. What learning aids did you use for this course? Were they satisfactory?
If not, why?
4. Were the required references available? If not, specify those missing.
5. Were there any problems with the classroom?
6. Were there any scheduling problems?
7. Was the time allocated to instruct sufficient?
8. Did you have sufficient time to correct exams?
9. How much time did you require to prepare your lesson plans?
10. Was course preparation time sufficient?
11. Were there any exams that need to be modified? If yes give specific examples.
12. Were the exams a reflection of material taught in class or
in reference materials?
13. Were checklists available and accurate?
14. Was the material you presented new to the learners?
If not, where was the material first presented?
15. Were the learners suitably prepared or trained to begin this phase of training?
16. Did any learners approach you for extra help?
17. What would you do to improve the course?
G1
A N N E X H
LLE EV AA RL UN AE RT I OC NO UFROSREM S
One method of obtaining feedback from learners about their perceptions of a
course is through a course evaluation form. Course evaluation forms often ask
learners to assess specific lessons and the course overall using rating scales.
A section for comments and open-ended questions is usually included.
A sample course evaluation form is provided below.
Part 1 COURSE EVALUATION FORM

Please review the lessons listed below and indicate on the scale to the right
whether you thought the topic was covered:
1. Very poorly 2. Poorly 3. Adequately 4. Well 5. Very Well
PO 401 MONITOR INSTRUCTION 1 2 3 4 5
Review of principles of instruction and instructional techniques
Lesson on monitoring a lesson
Presentation on preparing for monitoring
Video lessons used for practicing monitoring
Debrief by instructor on monitoring video lessons
PO 402 COUNSEL INSTRUCTOR AFTER MONITORING 1 2 3 4 5
Lessons on counselling
Practice counselling interview
Debrief by course instructor on counselling interview
H1
A N N E X H
Part 2 OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

1. What additional topics would you like to see on the course?
2. What topics do you consider not relevant to the course or
to your future employment as an Instructor Supervisor?
3. What topics did you find difficult or hard to understand?
4. What parts of the course did you find boring or hard to tolerate?
5. What parts of the course were particularly valuable?
6. What suggestions do you have for improving the course?
Thank you for completing the evaluation form. Any additional comments can be
provided below.
H2
NOTES
NOTES

CFITES Vol 6 e

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CFITES Vol 6 e

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Canadian Forces

Part 2 LEARNING Part 4 CONDUCT ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

ANNEX A: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES . . . A1

ANNEX C: SELF-PACED LEARNING . . . . . . . . . C1

ANNEX D: SAMPLE OJT GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1

ANNEX E: SAMPLE PRB CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . E1

ANNEX H: LEARNER COURSE

Figure 1: CFITES Quality Control Model

Purpose of 4. The purpose of the Conduct phase is to enable personnel to successfully

Developmental 11. Learning is a developmental process that builds incrementally in layers as

15. This developmental process also applies to learning physical skills as

Table 1:Instructional Methods Appropriate for Learning Types

TYPE OF LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Recall Lecture, Self-Study

Comprehension Tutorial, Guided Discussion, Self-Study

Application Simulation, OJT

Analysis Case Study, Simulation, Games, Problem-based Learning

Synthesis Simulation, Case Study, Problem-based Learning

Evaluation Study Assignment, Case Study, Simulations, Problem-based Learning

Physical Skills Demonstration-Performance, Simulation, Tutorial

Attitude Behavior Modeling, Guided Discussion, Role Play Simulations

Figure 4: Levels of Learning

Evaluate information and create new ways to perform

Perform complex skills proficiently — Drive proficiently in more difficult driving

Synthesize information — Process multiple pieces of information in routine or unusual

Perform a series of actions proficiently — Drive confidently and proficiently.

Analyze information — Break down information in terms of what to do in

Apply information — Apply information to various situations or contexts. (e.g., must

TO FACILITATE ADULT LEARNING

Table 3. Learning Styles & Instructional Methods

LEARNING STYLE & DESCRIPTOR RECOMMENDED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD

b. under certain circumstances, instructors can do little, if anything, to

Table 4: Principles of Instruction

INTEREST The instructor should employ imaginative means to

COMPREHENSION Techniques that can be employed to facilitate

EMPHASIS Instructional materials can emphasize the teaching

Table 4: Principles of Instruction (continued)

PARTICIPATION Learner participation can be incorporated into

ACCOMPLISHMENT Providing learning guidance and feedback is

CONFIRMATION Confirmation of learning can take place in class

Figure 5: Instructional Roles

CONTINUUM Instructor-led OJT Instructor Facilitated Facilitated Simulator Distance

c. ask learners to respond to a question instead of responding yourself,

Self-Study 91. Self-study is a method of self-instruction using printed and/or audio-visual

Tutorial 109. Tutorial is a method of instruction in which an instructor works directly

Figure 6: Coaching in Simulators (Derived from McCarthy and Easby, 1983)

124. DL Settings. DL can take place in a variety of settings depending on the

126. Synchronicity. DL may be synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous

128. DL Considerations. DL is selected as the instructional strategy for the delivery

130. When conducting distributed learning, the instructor should:

Figure 7: Distributed Learning Considerations

Have you received training in monitoring and facilitating online discussion?

d. ensure that learner support is adequately provided in accordance with the

Figure 8: DL Instructional Strategies

One-to-one: Online Resources One-to-one: E-mail

Virtual Field Trip Learning contract

One-to-many: Presentation Many-to-many: Conferencing

Virtual classroom Simulation or game

131. Distance learning is a sub-set of distributed learning. Staff employed in either

133. Listening. Learner confusion or inattentiveness is not easily detected unless

Instructional 146. Group-paced or individual technology-based instructional materials, such as

152. Gestures/Movement. Body movements, hand gestures, facial expression, and

Table 5: Question Technique

POSING QUESTIONS HANDLING ANSWERS

__ _