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National Weather Service Training Center
Hydrometeorology & Management Division
Application of Adult Learning Concepts
to Training
November 1996
1. Introduction
Most of us remember sitting in a lecture listening to an instructor telling us about some subject for an hour or so, taking a
short break, and then continuing the lecture for another hour or so. How well did we learn the material covered during
this lecture? How much of this material do we remember today? The most likely answer to both questions is "little".
The situation just described did not take into consideration "how adults learn". The purpose of this paper is to describe
adult learning concepts, relate these concepts to practical adult training, and discuss how lessons can be structured to
make good use of adult learning concepts.
2. Adult Learner Classification
A study of adult learners grouped the participants into three broad classification patterns:
GoalOriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek education in order to accomplish a specific goal or clearcut
objective.
The knowledge, skill or attitude learned by these adult learners must be put to use immediately. The learner has a clear
cut purpose for seeking training and is highly motivated to learn and complete the training. Individual training sessions
may be relatively short but are everrecurring during the learner's life time.
ActivityOriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek the educational activity for reasons having no connection
with the announced purpose of the educational activity.
For these adult learners education, in many instances, is used as an escape mechanism. There is often a socioemotional
need that is satisfied by attending training. The professional student also falls into this category. Just completing an
educational or training activity and obtaining a certificate is important in and of itself.
LearnerOriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek knowledge "for the sake of knowledge" or purely for the
desire to know.
The adult learners tend to be avid readers. They possess a continuity and range of experience that makes participation
more than the sum of its parts. Education is a constant, not a continuing activity for these individuals.
Any one adult learner will fall into all of these categories at some time during their life. Where he/she is at any one
moment depends upon the type of training, perhaps the time of day the session is offered, if attendance is required, the
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cost, and other factors.
3. Adult Learning Concepts
The description of adult learning concepts varies somewhat from author to author but there are many commonalities.
Listed below are seven adult learning principles based on a combination of those given by Knowles (1990), Mitchell
(1993), and Pike (1994). The adult learning principles as outlined by these authors are given in Appendix A.
a. Adults need to know why they should learn something and must be ready to learn.
b. An adult learner's experience is a valuable resource for additional learning.
c. Adult learners tend to focus on lifecentered, taskcentered, or problemcentered learning activities.
d. Adult learners learn best when they practice, perform and work with new knowledge, skills and attitudes.
e. Adult learners learn easiest what they have some familiarity with.
f. Adult learners favor different senses for learning.
g. Adult learners like to be selfdirecting and see their own progress during a learning experience.
4. Application to Training
How can these adult learning principles be applied to training sessions? Let's examine each one separately.
Adults need to know why they should learn something and must be ready to learn. This principle tells us that we need
to provide a practical reason why the trainee should pay attention to the lesson. This reason must be stated at the
beginning of the lesson, as part of the introduction, and relate the lesson content to their job. As will be mentioned in the
section on lesson structure, the introduction to lesson is the most important part of a lesson. As an instructor you need to
set the stage for the entire lesson in the first five minute. Similarly, adults need to recognize that there is a gap between
what they know and what they need to know. With recognition comes a readiness to fill that gap through a learning
activity.
An adult learner's experience is a valuable resource for additional learning. If trainees have some experience with the
lesson topic, it is good to have them share these experiences with the rest of the group. Because these experiences may
be different from your experience, both you and the other students learn something new. Rejecting an adult learner's
experience is equivalent to rejecting the adult as a person. This sharing process also helps to establish a good learning
environment and enhances the "readiness to learn" mentioned in the first principle.
Adult learners tend to focus on lifecentered, taskcentered, or problemcentered learning activities. This principle
tells us that adults want get something practical from their training sessions. That is, they want to be able to take what
they learn back to their job or their personal life and use it as soon as possible. This statement tells us that if concepts and
principles are discussed, they should be followed by practical exercises or case studies that illustrate the concept or
principle.
Adult learners learn best when they practice, perform and work with new knowledge, skills and attitudes. Retention
and understanding of new knowledge, skills and attitudes is best accomplished by using them over and over. There is a
limit to the number of times something can be repeated during a lesson, but if a new ideas can be used and repeated
through practical exercises or case studies, the probability of retention and understanding goes up.
Adult learners learn easiest what they have some familiarity with. This principle tells us that we should start with
something familiar to the student and expand into new areas as the lesson progresses, eventually arriving at the objective
of the lesson. The idea of building on established knowledge and skills is important. Lesson material must be sequenced
properly to make this happen.
Adult learners favor different senses for learning. Studies have shown that some adults are visual learners, some are
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auditory learners, some are kinesthesic (or handson) learners, while other learn best through some combination of these.
This fact means that an instructor should use a variety of delivery methods to ensure that all learners' optimum learning
medium is used at some point during the lesson.
Adult learners like to be selfdirecting and see their own progress during a learning experience. It would be nice to
allow students to select the topics they would like to have in a course. This approach, however, is not practical in most
cases. Nevertheless, instructors need to recognize and respect the learners' need for selfdirection. In many cases,
instructors become facilitators rather then teachers. They must also avoid "talking down" to students. Similarly, adult
learners like to feel that they are learning something during a training session. This feeling can be achieved through
exercises and short oral reviews intermingled throughout the lesson. These exercises and short quizzes challenge students
and allow them to check their ability to understand the material. These type of activities also allow the instructor to see if
students have gained some understanding of the topic.
5. Adult Attention Span and Retention
Research studies have suggested that the average adult can "listen with understanding" for approximately 90 minutes,
and "listen with retention" for approximately 20 minutes. The length of the latter observation varies somewhat with the
intelligence level of the individual. Generally, the lower the intelligence level, the shorter is the "listen with retention"
period.
Pike (1994) suggests the 90/20/8 rule: "No module we teach ever runs more than ninety minutes, the pace is changed at
least every twenty minutes, and we try to find a way to involve people in the content every eight minutes."
Retention can also be increased with redundancy. The idea of overview, teach, and review, when built into a lesson's
structure, helps students retain material longer. Pike (1994) cites a study that concludes that "if people were exposed to
an idea one time, at the end of 30 days they retained less than 10 percent. But if they were exposed to an idea six times,
with interval reinforcement, at the end of 30 days they retained more than 90 percent. Interval reinforcement means that
an idea was presented once and then reviewed perhaps ten minutes later, an hour later, a day later, three days later, a
week later, two weeks later, three week later."
For a given lesson, the concept of "interval reinforcement" cannot be carried out to its fullest extent, but the overview,
teach, review approach does provide some of this redundancy and should increase overall retention. If the material from
one lesson can be reinforced or used in later lessons, all the better.
6. Lesson Structure
Let's take the ideas just discussed and establish some rules that can be applied to a lesson's structure.
a. Each lesson should have an introduction that includes an attention getter, an selfintroduction (if necessary), the lesson
topic, a motivational statement, a list of lesson objectives, and a lesson overview. Appendix B provides a more detailed
discussion of what can be covered in an introduction.
b. The method of delivery should be changed every 15 to 20 minutes.
c. Lessons should be designed to include some type of student participation approximately every eight to ten minutes
during the lesson.
d. Numerous exercises and case studies should be used to illustrate new ideas and to practice application of these ideas to
jobcentered tasks.
e. Lesson material should be structured so that it moves from easy material to difficult material or from the known to the
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unknown.
f. Oral reviews or short exercises should be used during lesson segments to check for understanding of lesson material.
g. Each major point in the lesson should be covered three times: once in the lesson overview (part of the introduction);
once during the body of the presentation; and once during the lesson consolidation. The consolidation is discussed in
detail in Appendix C.
7. An Example
Let's apply the above rules to a lesson on Mesoscale Convective System (MCS) Propagation. The outline below
illustrates how a lesson plan might look with these ideas included. See if you can identify the application of the seven
rules listed in Section 5 in the various sections of the lesson.
I. Introduction ( 5 minutes )
Flip on the overhead with an appropriate cartoon
Welcoming statement
Selfintroduction (also listed on the board)
Statement of the lesson topic (also listed on the board)
Motivational statement on the importance of "MCS Propagation"
Statement of lesson objective (and main conclusions of
the lesson)
Overview of the lesson content (list main topics on the board)
[ distribute handout ]
Statement of ground rules (when to ask questions, lesson
length, etc.)
II. Body of the Lesson
A. Segment 1: Definitions ( 10 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Define MCS
Characteristics of an MCS
Types of MCSs, including MCC
[ oral quiz using overhead slides ]
Show satellite images to illustrate MCS types and
ask students what they are seeing
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
B. Segment 2: MCS Propagation ( 20 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ question for students
list answer on flip chart board ]
How do you determine which way thunderstorms move?
Link to MCS movement
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Definition of propagation
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Emphasis on "most active portion"
Illustration of "most active portion"
Four types of propagation
Vector relationship of wind direction, MCS movement,
and propagation
[ exercise on vector relationship ]
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
C. Segment 3: Merrit and Fritsch ( 5 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
850300 mb thickness and movement
Where to find thickness chart
[ oral quiz using overhead slides ]
Show 850300 mb thickness and ask about
expected movement
Show actual example
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
D. Segment 4: Juying and Scofield (15 minutes)
[ segment introduction ]
[ discuss features of four propagation types from
student handout ]
Satellite, surface and upper air features of:
Slow forward propagating MCSs
Fast forward propagating MCSs
Regeneration MCSs
Backward propagating MCSs
[ oral quiz and illustration using overhead slides ]
Show actual examples of propagation types
Ask students before each example how they will move
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
E. Segment 5: Funk and Moore ( 10 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Funk result
Moore's synoptic environment summary
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
F. Segment 6: Case Study ( 10 minutes )
[ short case study to bring everything together ]
[ concluding comments on the case study ]
III. Consolidation ( 5 minutes )
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Restatement of the main points of the lesson
Restatement of the motivational need for this information
Bridge to the next lesson
8. Concluding Remarks
This lesson has reviewed adult learning concepts and developed a series of rules that apply these concepts to typical
adult training sessions. It is important to incorporate these ideas into a lesson during the design of that lesson. It takes
time and effort to do this but the payoff, improved student understanding and retention, is worthwhile.
References
Knowles, Malcom, 1990: The Adult Learner, The Neglected Species. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 292 pp.
Mitchell, Garry. 1993: The Trainer's Handbook, The AMA Guide to Effective Training, 2nd Edition. AMACOM, New
York, 423 pp.
Pike, Robert W., 1994: Creative Training Techniques Handbook, Tips, Tactics, and HowTo's for Delivering Effective
Training. Lakewood Books, 197 pp.
Review Questions and Exercises
Use the following questions to review the content of this lesson.
(1) Match the following adult learner classification with one of its characteristics:
_____ GoalOriented A. Avid reader.
_____ ActivityOriented B. Clearcut objective.
_____ LearnerOriented C. Socioemotional fulfillment.
(2) Which of the following items are characteristic of adult learners? [ more than one answer possible ]
Adult learners ...
_____ Don't care why they need to learn something
_____ Have topicrelated experiences to share with other students
_____ Tend to focus on lifecentered learning activities
_____ Learn best when they practice new skills
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_____ Learn new material easily
_____ Learn best by listening
_____ Like to direct their own learning
(3) The average adult can "listen with understanding" for approximately _______ minutes.
(4) The average adult can "listen with retention" for approximately _______ minutes.
(5) During a lesson, the pace should be changed at least every _______ minutes.
(6) During a lesson, students should be involved with the lesson content every _______ minutes.
(7) If a student is exposed to an idea one time, at the end of 30 days that student will retain less than _______ percent.
(8) Interval reinforcement is best described as:
A. Restating an idea three times during a 3hr lesson.
B. Repetition of an idea over an extended period of time to increase retention.
C. Placement of extra chairs at every third desk in every fourth classroom.
D. Replacement of 50 percent of every lecture with structured exercises.
(9) Which of the following apply adult learning concepts to a lesson? [ more than one answer possible ]
_____ A motivational statement in the lesson introduction
_____ A 50 minute lecture
_____ Minimal student involvement with lesson content
_____ Numerous exercises and case studies
_____ Lesson material moves from the known to the unknown
_____ There are no checks for understanding during a lesson
_____ Major points are mentioned three times during each lesson
[ Answers to the review questions are found in Appendix D ]
Complete the Following Exercise
Consider a lesson you have taught recently and outline how the seven rules described in Section 6 can be integrated into
that lesson?
Appendix A
Adult Learning Principles
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Study #1
Knowles, Malcom, 1990: The Adult Learner, The Neglected Species. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 292 pp.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children
Andragogy: the art and science of teaching adults
Pedagogy Andragogy
1. The Need to Know .
Learners only need to know what the teacher Adults need to know why they need to learn
teaches. something.
2. Learner's SelfConcept .
Teacher's concept of the learner is that of a Adults have a selfconcept of being responsible
dependent personality. for
their own decisions, i.e., selfdirecting.
3. The Role of the Learner's Experience
.
The learner's experience is of little worth as a
resource for learning. For many kinds of learning the richest resource
for
4. Readiness to Learn learning resides in the adult learners themselves.
Learners become ready to learn if they want to pass .
and get promoted.
Adults become ready to learn those things they
need to know or be able to do to cope effectively
5. Orientation to Learning with their reallife situations.
Learners have a subjectcentered orientation to
learning; they see learning as acquiring subject Adults are lifecentered (or taskcentered or
matter content. problemcentered) in their orientation to learning.
6. Motivation
Learners are motivated to learn by external .
motivators.
While adults are responsive to some external
motivators, the most potent motivators are
internal pressures (e.g. job satisfaction, self
esteem, quality of life)
Study #2
Mitchell, Garry. 1993: The Trainer's Handbook, The AMA Guide to Effective Training, 2nd Edition. AMACOM, New
York, 423 pp.
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1. People learn only what they are ready to learn.
2. People learn best what they actually perform.
3. People learn from their mistakes.
4. People learn easiest what is familiar to them.
5. People favor different senses for learning.
6. People learn methodically and, in our culture,
systematically.
7. People cannot learn what they cannot understand.
8. People learn through practice.
9. People learn better when they can see their own progress.
10. People respond best when what they are to learn is
presented uniquely for them. Each of us is different.
Study #3
Pike, Robert W., 1994: Creative Training Techniques Handbook, Tips, Tactics, and HowTo's for Delivering Effective
Training. Lakewood Books, 197 pp.
Pike's Laws of Adult Learning
Law #1: Adults are babies with big bodies
"As adults we bring a lot of experience to our training programs."
Law #2: People don't argue with their own data.
You tend to believe what you say.
Law #3: Learning is directly proportional to the amount of fun you are having.
"I'm referring to the sheer joy of learning that can come from involvement and participation."
Law #4: Learning has not taken place until behavior has changed.
"In training, it's not what you know but what you do with what you know that counts."
"If we want people to do things differently, we must provide them with many opportunities to be comfortable accepting
new ideas in a nonthreatening environment."
Law #5: Fu Yu, Wu Yu, Wzu Tu Yu
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"It's when you can pass what you've learned on to someone else that I, as a trainer, know I've really done my job."
Appendix B
Lesson Introduction
The "Introduction" is the most important part of a lesson. It sets the stage for the rest of the lesson and prepares the
students for learning. Lets examine some the things that might be included in a lesson introduction.
Attention Getter: * When a class starts the students are usually milling around, chatting with someone, or even nodding
off at their desk. You need to get their attention and divert them from the frivolity of the moment. This may be as simple
as a clap of the hand, a loud "Please take you seat", "ringing a cow bell", or turning on the overhead with an appropriate
cartoon. The objective is to get them to focus their attention on you, so that you can start the lesson. Follow this action
with a little small talk to set a relaxed atmosphere in the room. (Talk about the weather?)
Introduce Yourself: * Even if the students know you, it is good practice to introduce yourself the first time you meet with
a group. You may want to tell them a little about yourself and your Weather Service background.
Topic: * Always start a new training session with a brief explanation of what the session will cover. This opening will
help the student focus attention on the topic at hand.
Motivational Statement: * Students are frequently tuned to WIIFM when a class starts, the very personal What's In It
For Me station. A motivational statement at the beginning of a lesson helps them tune into the lesson topic instead. It
tells the student why the lesson is important to them, what benefit they will get from the lesson, and why they should pay
attention during the lesson. Through motivational statements, a trainer sells the lesson to the students. Motivational
statements can be often critical to the overall success of a lesson, particularly if students question their need to be there.
Relationship to Job: It is good to relate the lesson to the student's job and how the student will use the material covered
in the lesson. This can often be done by weaving the relationship into the motivational statements.
Link to Other Lessons: In the same way the lesson is related to a student's job, the lesson should be linked to other
lessons.
Objectives and Overview: * Always state the lesson objectives at the start of a lesson. The lesson goal and objectives
define what the lesson will focus on. When properly phrased, objectives clearly define the outcome of the training and let
the student know what will be expected of him/her. Objectives are a natural bridge to the content of the lesson. An
overview of the lesson topics can be used as the first tell 'em step, i.e., tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em. Here is an
excellent opportunity to highlight the main points of the lesson.
Structure and Timing: Explaining the structure and timing of the training session will help students better prepare
themselves psychologically for the lesson. Explain how the session will be presented, how much time will be spent on
various topics, what will be expected from the students, whether there will be handouts or whether they need to take
notes, etc. Include anything that will help the student be more comfortable during the training session.
Ground Rules: Ground rules include such things as safety rules and questions. Students like to know whether they may
ask questions during the lesson or whether they are expected to wait for a break or the end of the lesson.
Jargon, Acronyms, Technical Language: Every discipline has its set of jargon, acronyms, and technical terms. Some of
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these terms may need to be defined up front or an acronym list handed out at the start of a class. In any case, ensure that
students know that they may interrupt you and ask for an explanation of unfamiliar terms as terms arise during class.
Finished Product: Depending upon the content of the lesson, it is sometimes useful to show the students what they are
working toward, be it finished product or an example of the lesson goal.
PreTest: If there is a need to confirm the student's level of knowledge or skill on the lesson material, the end of the
"Introduction" is a good place to conduct a pretest.
The items marked with a "*" should be included in every introduction. The sequence presented above is also the
recommended sequence for including these items in the introduction. A good introduction will take no more than 5 to 10
minutes.
Appendix C
Lesson Consolidation
When the lesson is finished it is time to review what was covered during the lesson and bring the lesson to an explicit
conclusion. There needs to be a break between lessons so that individual topics can be properly started and stopped.
Listed below are some of the things that a typical "Consolidation" section contains.
Summary: A final summary should be used to draw together everything that has been said during the lesson. Key points
from the lesson should be emphasized, significant questions raised by the student can be highlighted, application of the
lesson material to the student's job could be mentioned, and any challenges that the lesson offers to the students can be
stated.
Level of Achievement: The lesson objectives should be restated and compared to what was covered in the lesson. This
process reinforces the original purpose for the lesson.
Praise: If good progress has been made during the lesson or difficult tasks were completed quickly, praise this above
average performance.
Reinforce the Motivational Message: Restate the motivational message that was stated at the beginning of the lesson.
Show again why the lesson was important to the student.
Look Forward to the Next Session: If there is another lesson to follow, offer a "bridge" from the current lesson to the
next one. This bridge will help with program continuity and keep adjoining lessons in context.
Do Not Introduce New Material: The consolidation portion of a lesson is a concluding section for a lesson and new
material should not be introduced.
Do Not Ask Questions to Test Understanding: If a test or evaluation section is used during the lesson, do it prior to the
consolidation section. Use the consolidation section to tie up loose ends and bring the lesson to closure, not to "test" the
students.
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Appendix D
Answers to the Review Questions
(1) GoalOriented: B
ActivityOriented: C
LearnerOriented: A
(2) The X'd items are characteristic of adult learners:
_____ Don't care why they need to learn something
__X__ Have topicrelated experiences to share with other students
__X__ Tend to focus on lifecentered learning activities
__X__ Learn best when they practice new skills
_____ Learn new material easily
_____ Learn best by listening
__X__ Like to direct their own learning
(3) 90 minutes
(4) 20 minutes
(5) 20 minutes
(6) 8 minutes
(7) 10 percent
(8) B
(9) The X'd items apply adult learning concepts:
__X__ A motivational statement in the lesson introduction
_____ A 50 minute lecture
_____ Minimal student involvement with lesson content
__X__ Numerous exercises and case studies
__X__ Lesson material moves from the known to the unknown
_____ There are no checks for understanding during a lesson
__X__ Major points are mentioned three times during each lesson
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