ORDER NUMBER EA-AB-1 [k ~~ ~ 3?

O no-wIt

A RCRA =T BAT ERIES LEAD-ACID A D NI-CAD

INTERNATIONAL AVIATION PUBLISHERS, INC.

TRAINING MANUAL

International Standard Book Number 0-89100-052-6 For sale by: International Aviation Publishers, Inc.

P.O. Box 36 1000 College View Drive Riverton, Wyoming. 82501-0036 Tel.: 1 (800) 443-9250

(307) 856-1582

Table of Contents

Preface , v

Introduction vi

l. Lead-Acid Batteries , ,1

A. Construction , ,., , 1

L Grid _ , , 1

2. Negative plate , , , " 1

3. Positive plate , , " 1

4. Separators , , 1

5. Ce.ll elements , , , 1

6 .. Container , , . , , , , . 1

7. Cell connectors , .. , 2

8. Cell covers and vents , , , 2

9. Battery terminals , 2

10. Electrolyte " , , ,2

B. Chemistry , " ' 3

L Discharging , , , .. , 3

2. Charging , , , , , , , 4

3. Condition of charge , , .. , 4

C. Battery Ratings , , , , " .. , 6

1. Voltage , , " 6

2. Capacity " , , " 6

D, Dry Charged Batteries , " 7

E. Battery Testing and Charging , , , 8

L Testing , , , .. , 8

2. Constant current charging , 8

3. Constant voltage charging , 9

II

F. Battery Installation and Servicing 10

II. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries , 12

A. Construction 12

1. Plaque 12

2. Positive plates 12

3. Negative plates 12

4. Core assembly 12

5. Separators 12

6. Cover and vent assembly 13

7. Case 13

8. Battery '.' 13

9. Terminal connectors 13

10. Electrolyte 13

B. Ni-Cad Chemistry 13

1. Charging 13

2. Discharging 13

3. Condition of charge 13

C. Thermal Problems , 14

D. Battery Servicing 14

1. Inspection in the airplane 14

2. Shop inspection 15

3. Overhaul 17

E. Special Equipment for Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 17

1. Installed equipment 17

2. Shop equipment 18

3. Installation 19

Summary 19

Glossary 20

Final Examination 23

IV

Preface

This book on Aircraft Batteries is one of a series of specialized study guides prepared for aviation maintenance personnel, to be used with a corresponding 35MM filmstrip and recorded tape cassettes.

This series is part of a programmed learning course developed and produced by the International Aviation Publishers, Inc. (lAP), one of the largest suppliers of aviation maintenance training materials in the world. This program is part of a eontinuing effort to improve the quality of education for aviation mechanics throughout the world.

The purpose of each lAP training series is to provide basic information on the operation and principles of the various aircraft systems and their components.

Specific information on detailed operation procedures should be obtained from the manufacturer through his appropriate maintenance manuals, and followed in detail for the best results.

This particular manual on Aircraft Batteries includes a series of carefully prepared questions and answers to emphasize key elements of the study. and to encourage you to continually test yourself for accuracy and retention as you use this book. A multiple choice final examination is included to allow you to test your comprehension of the total material.

Some of the words will be new to you. They are defined in the Glossary found at the back of the book.

The validity of any program such as this is enhanced immeasurably by the cooperation shown lAP by recognized experts in the field, and by the willingness of the various manufacturers to share their literature and answer countless questions in the preparation of these programs.

We are particularly indebted to the following companies - for generous use of their materials in the preparation of this book:

Marathon Battery Company Teledyne Battery Products Prestolite Battery Division Ray Electronics Company

It is the willingness of companies such as these and many others to share information on their products that makes these training series valid and valuable in the rapidly advancing technology of aviation maintenance.

If you have any questions or comments regarding this program, or any of the many other programs offered by lAP, simply contact the Sales Department, International Aviation Publishers, Inc .• P.O. Box 36, Riverton, WY 82501~0036; or call 1·800-443·9250 (in Wyoming or outside U.S. call 1·307 ·856·1582).

v

Introduction

Electrical Energy

Mechanical Energy

Chemical Energy

CHARGING

Mechanical ... Electrical ... Chemical
Energy Energy Energy DISCHARGING

Fig. 2 Energy transformation in an aircraft battery.

The aircraft battery has for years been thought of as an old hound dog who remains faithful regardless of his treatment. Today, with all of the sophisticated electrical equipment, air conditioning systems, and high current-demanding turbine engine starters, the old hound is starting to bite back, Battery troubles showing up today are not necessarily a result of changes in technology, but may be attributed to improper servicing of this new generation of high output batteries.

Aircraft storage batteries, as we all know, do not make electricity, nor do they really store electricity. They rather change electrical energy into chemical energy, and hold it in this state until it is needed. When needed. the chemical energy changes back into electrical energy and then into mechanical energy.

Two Types of Batteries

There are two types of aircraft batteries in common use today: lead-acid and nickel-cadmium. Both of these devices use positive and negative

plates in an electrolyte. The chemistry of the change between electrical and chemical energy is quite different. however. A good knowledge of both systems is important for you to extract the most from each type while avoiding the pitfalls of mixing servicing techniques.

Aircraft batteries do not supply electricity for the normal operation of electrical systems in flight; that is the function of the generator or alternator. The battery's purpose is to operate the starter, to supply power for intermittent electrical loads whose current demands exceed the output of the generator.

This book is arranged to present basic facts for you to read and digest. At intervals throughout the course, questions are asked for you to check your progress. Be sure to answer each question before going on to the next section, as much of the material builds on what has just been covered. Some of the words used will be new to you, so you will find them defined in the Glossary at the end of the book.

vi

A. Construction

1. Grid

A grid, cast of an alloy of lead and antimony, forms the framework for the active elements in the lead-acid battery. The antimony in the lead makes possible finer castings so there will be room for more active material. The open spaces in the grids are filled with the active ingredients. When electrical energy is generated, the current is carried outside the battery through cell posts welded to the outer frame of the grids.

2. Negative plates

The grids which serve as the negative plates have their openings filled with a dull gray, spongy mass of porous lead. This lead has a material, called an expander, mixed into it to keep it from contracting back into its dense form and losing the surface area needed for maximum battery capacity.

,.., n
+ -
11 VOLTS
~PlA 1£S PEfl CElL
11 POUNDS
2, AMPERE·HOUR
n n
+ -
11 VOLTS
17 PLATES PER CE II
71 POUNDS
sa AMPERE·HQUR Fig. 3 Plate area affects ampere-hour capacity - not voltage.

SECTION I

Lead-Acid Batteries

3. Positive plates

The grid of the positive plate is filled with a compound of lead peroxide. This is a chocolate brown crystalline substance, highly porous.

4. Separators

Negative and positive plates are assembled into cell elements. Between each pair of plates is a separator usually made of microporous rubber material, having vertical ribs next to the positive plate. This ribbing allows a greater volume of acid to be held in contact with the positive plates and improves the efficiency of the cell. A loose fiberglass mat is sometimes placed next to the positive plate to retard the loss of the lead peroxide after continued cycling ..

5. Cell elements

In the cell elements there will always be one more negative plate than positive, so the negative will be able to protect the more active positive plate, and prevent warpage by exposing both sides equally. A connector strap is welded onto each plate. The number of plates in an element has no influence on cell voltage, but the area relates to the ampere-hour capacity of the battery.

6. Containers

A high impact, molded case houses the cell elements to make up the complete battery. These cases have compartments for each cell. The bottom of the compartment is ribbed with four element rests, two of which support the negative plates, and two support the positive. This alternate support minimizes the possibility of internal shorting of the cell. A space exists below the plates in which any active material lost from them can accumulate without causing an internal short.

1

There are two basic types of containers for aircraft batteries: vented and unvented. Vented batteries are mounted in the airplane without a separate box. The vent connection is attached by a rubber hose to an air scoop outside the airplane. The air thus brought in carries the fumes from the battery through the sump jar where they are neutralized. Batteries without vent provisions must be installed in a suitably vented box..

D I RtcTION OF FUGH T

Fig. 4 Battery boxes are vented to the outside of the airplane by air forced through scoops. The exit vent incorporates a neutralizing solution in a sump jar.

7. Cell connectors

In many of the older batteries, cell posts stuck up through the cell cover and external connector straps were welded to these posts. The trend now is to connect the cells with a through-partition cell connector. This type connector provides a shorter path for the high current flow, and prevents the possibility of acid loss outside the battery. Corrosion is thus minimized.

8. Cell covers and vents

Cell covers with molded bushings for the terminal posts cover the individual cells and are sealed with a tar-like sealing compound. Later type batteries have a one-piece cover With only the positive and negative terminals protruding. An opening is provided in each cell for venting and servicing. Aircraft batteries may be subjected to extremes of attitude, and provision is made to prevent the loss of electrolyte when the battery is tipped. The filler caps have a lead weight activated valve, open when the battery is upright, but closed when the battery is tipped.

VENTING

LEAD

SPllL·PROOF VENTED FILLER PLUG WEIGHT

Fig. 5 A lead weight actuated valve allouis the filler plug to vent when upright, but seals when tipped.

9. Battery terminals

The battery terminals for aircraft batteries are located on the top or the side. The terminals are threaded, and normally have the battery cable secured with a wing nut. The polarity, (POS)and (NEG), is normally molded into the cover in raised letters. Side mounted terminals are usually fitted with a quick-disconnect connector in which the cables are attached to the battery with slip-on connections secured by pressure exerted by a hand screw.

Fig. 6 Battery quick disconnect terminal sockets in the connector slip over posts on the battery and are held in place by pressure exerted by the hand screw.

10. Electrolyte

The cell elements are completely covered with a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. This electrolyte enters into the chemical action and causes changes in the positive and negative plates and in the electrolyte itself. The condition of charge of a cell is indicated by the specific gravity of the elec-

2

®®

ELECTROLYTE

NEGATIVE PLATE

POSITIVE PLATE

Fig. 7 Chemical changes taking place during discharge.

trolyte. Normal electrolyte contains about 35% sulfuric acid (H2SO.) by weight. This produces a specific gravity of about 1.265 at 80 degrees F.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the active element in the negative plates?

2. What is the active element in the positive plates?

3. Which characteristic of a battery is determined by the number of plates in a cell, its voltage or its ampere-hour capacity?

4. What acid is mixed with water and used as an electrolyte in a lead-acid battery?

B. Chemistry

The lead in the grid of the negative plate and the lead peroxide in the positive plate change when a connection is made across the terminals of the battery. The electrolyte enters into this change, not only as a conductor, but as an active participant.

When a battery is constructed, four chemicals are

involved. Oxygen (02), hydrogen (H2), lead (Pb), and the sulfate radical (SO.). A radical is a group of chemical elements which act as though they were a single atom. This sulfate radical carries a negative charge and may be thought of as a negative ion.

1. Discharging

When a conductor is placed between the two battery terminals, electrons flow through the conductor from the lead plate to the lead peroxide plate. As the lead loses some of its electrons, a chemical change takes place. Sulfate radicals (SO.) from the electrolyte join some of the lead to form lead sulfate (PbSO.).

When the sulfuric acid loses its sulfate radical, the remaining hydrogen takes on oxygen from the lead peroxide. The electrolyte becomes water (H20), and the lead peroxide becomes lead (Pb). Sulfate radicals from the acid now unite with the lead on the positive plate and form lead sulfate there, also. Water forming in the electrolyte as the battery discharges lowers the concentration of sulfuric acid. A measure of its specific gravity is, therefore, a good indication of the condition of charge of the battery.

3

---- ELECTRONS -----I.~

POSITIVE PLATE

2. Charging

ELECTROL YTE

Fig. 8 Chemical changes taking place during charge.

When the active elements of both plates become lead sulfate, and the electrolyte is diluted, there is no more chemical energy to change to electrical energy. The battery is said to be discharged. The battery can be returned to a condition of charge by reversing the current flow.

A generator or other source of direct current is attached to the battery with its positive terminal to the positive plate. Electrons are forced into the battery at the negative terminal. This drives the sulfate radicals from both the positive and negative plates back into the electrolyte where they change the water back into sulfuric acid. Oxygen driven out of the water unites with the lead on the positive plate to fonn lead peroxide. The battery is back in its charged condition. The voltage of the charging source must be equal to the battery voltage plus the voltage drop (lR drop] caused by the internal resistance of the battery and the charging current. This voltage will force current to flow into the battery.

When the charge is completed, with the generator still holding a voltage across the battery, electrolysis will take place. The water is broken down

into its two component elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is liberated as a free gas at the negative plates and oxygen as a free gas at the positive plates. The gases formed on the plates tend to insulate them and increase the internal resistance of the battery. This causes the charging current to decrease if the voltage is held constant across the battery.

NEGATIVE PLATE

If a battery is allowed to sit for a period of time in a discharged condition, or if the electrolyte level is low for some time, the lead sulfate will harden and be difficult to convert back to lead and lead peroxide. A battery in this condition is said to be sulfated. It may be possible to remove this hardened sulfate by a constant current charge until there is no rise in specific gravity for a two hour period, then charge at 10% of the normal rate for sixty hours. If this does not restore the battery to a condition of full charge, it should be discarded.

3. Condition of charge

The electrolyte changes its density, the relative amounts of acid and water, as the condition of charge changes. It is possible, therefore, by knowing how much acid is in the electrolyte to know

4

the condition of charge of the battery. An instrument known as a hydrometer is used to determine this condition.

fIIll y C~AAG£D

lOW STATE Of C~AAGE

OISCHARGEG

Fig. 9 A hydrometer measures the specific grauity of the electrolyte. This relates to the condition of charge of the battery.

A small weighted float having a long stem and a numbered scale is held in the enlarged tube of a syringe. Electrolyte is pulled up in this tube where its density is indicated by the level the float rides in the liquid. The number opposite the level of electrolyte is its specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the electrolyte to the density of pure water.

The electrolyte used in lead-acid aircraft batteries is concentrated sulfuric acid (H2S0~), having a specific gravity of 1.835, diluted with pure water to a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.275 at 80 degrees F. When the specific gravity of the electrolyte has been reduced by discharging to about 1.150, there is not enough chemical strength to further change the lead into lead sulfate, and the battery is said to be discharged.

Charging the battery will cause the sulfate radical to leave the plates and combine with the water to reform sulfuric acid. When the battery is fully charged the specific gravity will be about 1.275.

The temperature affects the density of a liquid. so a temperature correction must be applied to the electrolyte specific gravity before it is completely meaningful. When the electrolyte is cold, it is more dense than standard, and this increased density could be erroneously interpreted to be

caused by the condition of charge. Conversely. electrolyte temperature above standard would cause the liquid to be less dense and could indicate a state of charge below its true condition. For this reason, it is extremely important when taking a reading of specific gravity to know the temperature of the electrolyte. Some of the better hydrometers have a thermometer built into the instrument. With others. the temperature must be taken with a separate thermometer and a correction applied. Table 1 shows the correction to apply.

TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Electrulyle Temperature Currection Pulnts
DC OF Add ur Subtracl
60 140 +24
55 130 +20
49 120 +16
43 110 + 12
38 100 + 8
3J gO + 4
21 80 0
2J 10 - 4
15 60 - 8
10 50 -12
5 40 -16
- 2 30 -20
- 1 20 -24
-13 10 -28
- 18 - 0 -32
-23 - 10 -36
-28 - 20 -40
-35 - 30 -44 Table I

As you see it is 0.004 point for every ten degrees Fahrenheit (F) that the temperature varies from the standard of 80 degrees F. For example. an electrolyte having a specific gravity of 1.240 at 100 degrees F would have a corrected specific gravity of 1.248. We find this by the fact that the electrolyte is twenty degrees warmer than the standard of 80 degrees F. and is therefore less dense by 0.008 gravity points. 1.240 plus 0.008 equals 1.248.

QUESTIONS:

5. What forms on the plates of a discharged battery?

6. Does the specific gravity of a battery increase or decrease as the battery discharges?

7. What is the name of the instrument or device used to measure the specific gravity of a battery electrolyte?

8. What is the specific gravity of a fully charged battery?

9. What is the specific gravity of a discharged battery?

10. If the specific gra vity of a battery is 1.190 at 60 degrees F, what is its corrected specific gravity?

C. Battery Ratings

1. Voltage

The voltage of a lead-acid aircraft battery is determined by the number of cells. For instance, a battery having six cells, and an electrolyte with a specific gravity of 1.265 will have an open circuit voltage of 2.10 volts per cell or 12.6 volts. The physical size of lhe cell or the number of plates, makes no difference in this voltage. The difference is in the capacity, or the amount of current which can be drawn from the battery. Capacity is a function of the amount of active material in the plat.es, the plate area, and the volume of acid. As the battery discharges, lead sulfate forms on both plates. The sulfate, having a high resistance, opposes current flow, and causes the internal resistance of the battery to go up. The increased resistance causes an increasingly high voltage drop under discharge, so that the closed circuit voltage of the battery decreases as the discharge continues. For all practical purposes, a battery may be considered discharged when its voltage drops to 1.75 volts per cell.

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\ \ OPE~ CIACUI'
, VOLTADr~ -
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~ CLnSED CI~CUFT
YOLT~GE
:


J' TIlliE IN HOURS

Fig. 10 Discharge characteristics of a typical lead-acid battery at the five-hour rate.

2. Capacity

Capacity is expressed in ampere-hours. One ampere-hour is a flow of current of one ampere for one hour, two amperes for one half hour. or any combination of current and time equal to the rated capacity. Since the rate at which the current is drawn from the battery determines the amount which can be drawn, to be meaningful a specific discharge rate must be indicated. The standard rating for aircraft batteries is the five hour discharge rate. The five hour rating is the ampere-hour capacity of the battery at a current flow which would cause the battery voltage to drop to 1.75 volts per cell at the end of five hours. If the battery is discharged at a rate greater than this. the voltage will drop to the cut-off value, then after sitting for a while will rise. This is because the more rapid discharge does not allow fresh acid to come in contact with the plates, and they become sulfated. As fresh acid replaces the diluted acid in contact with the plates, the battery voltage will come back up.

To indicate the capacity of the battery for engine cranking, two other ratings, a twenty minute rating and a five minute rating, are sometimes given. You will notice from the typical rating chart of Table 2 that the product of the time and current for these ratings is considerably less than that of the five hour discharge rate. This is because at these higher rates of discharge, the outside of the plates will become discharged, while the inside is still in a condition of charge. Batteries designed for high discharge rates normally have a larger number of thin plates than batteries designed for lower rates. The increase in plate area gives the battery a lower internal resistance and therefore allows a higher discharge rate without an excessive closed circuit voltage drop.

Baltery Plain Five Hour Twenty Minule Five Mlnule

Vollage Per Cell RIle Rale Rale·

(amp. hrs.) (amps) (amp. hr.) (amps) (amp. hr.)

66

11

12

35

22

180

15

24

31

BO

9

10.3

6.7

17

·The ballery Is considered 10 be diScharged al the liVB minule rale when the ~IDsed circuil vollage drnps \0 1.2 vDlls psr cell.

AMPERE RATINGS OF A TYPICAL AIRCRAFT BATIERY SHOWING THE DECREASE IN AMPERE-HOURS AS THE CURRENT FLOW IS INCREASED

Table 2

6

QUESTIONS:

11. What is the open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead-acid cell?

12. What happens to the voltage of a cell as the lead-acid battery discharges?

13. What is meant by the five hour rating of a battery?

14. Which discharge rate would produce the greatest number of ampere-hours: the five hour rate. the twenty minute rate. or the five minute rate?

D. Dry Charged Batteries

Batteries shipped from the manufacturer in a wet charged condition must be maintained in a state of charge. Care must be taken to see that they are not allowed to discharge. or to get low on electrolyte. This places an inconvenience on the supplier and presents problems in warehousing. To make battery storage and shipping less difficult. almost all new aircraft batteries sold today are in a dry charged state. When the battery is manufactured. the plates are fully charged or formed. They are then thoroughly dried and the battery is assembled. The complete battery is sealed to prevent the entry of air or moisture. and is kept in this condition until placed in service.

To activate a dry charged battery. the seals are removed from each cell and the electrolyte furnished with the battery is poured in. This electrolyte is sulfuric acid and water with a specific gravity of 1.265. Fill each cell to the level specified in the battery specifications. The battery can be placed in service immediately, but it will have considerably less than its rated capacity, and will change its electrolyte level in a short time. For best results, a boost charge or freshening charge is recommended.

Allow the battery to sit for an hour and check the level of electrolyte in each cell; readjust if necessary with fresh electrolyte. Charge the battery at a rate specified by the manufacturer until the specific gravity does not show any change in three consecutive checks taken at one hour intervals. The specific gravity of the electrolyte of the fully charged battery should be between 1.260 and 1.285. If it is not within this range it should be adjusted. If it is too high, draw out some of the

electrolyte and replace it with water; if it is too low. replace some of the electrolyte with that having a higher specific gravity. A retest of the specific gravity must not be made until the battery has been on charge for at least an hour to thoroughly mix the electrolyte.

If you should prefer to mix your own electrolyte. you may do this by mixing battery quality concentrated sulfuric acid with pure water. As sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of 1.835. bat· tery electrolyte with a specific gravity of 1.265 may be prepared thus: mix one part. by volume, of acid with three parts. by volume. of pure water. Distilled water should be used if possible. but any water that is colorless and odorless, and known to be free of minerals is acceptable. If it is necessary to mix electrolyte, it should be done with extreme caution. These precautions must be observed:

1. Be sure to use eye protection and protect your clothes with a rubber apron, and your hands with rubber gloves.

2. Use only glass. plastic. or earthenware containers for the acid.

3. When mixing the electrolyte. slowly pour the acid into the water. stirringconstantiy. Never pour water into acid. When acid and water are mixed. considerable heat is generated. Since acid is heavier than water, the two liquids will mix and distribute this heat throughout the entire container. If water is poured into the acid. it will remain unmixed. and all of the heat generated will be concentrated on the top of the acid. The water will then boil and splatter acid out of the container.

4. If any acid is spilled, neutralize it immediately with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water, or with ammonia.

5. If any acid is splashed into the eyes, flush with lots of clear water and get to a doctor immedia tely.

6. Do not use the freshly mixed electrolyte until it has cooled to at least 90 degrees F.

QUESTIONS:

15. What must be done to a dry charged battery to put it into service?

7

16. If you mix battery electrolyte. should you pour the water into the acid, or the acid into the water?

17. What should be done if battery acid is splashed into your eyes?

E. Battery Testing and Charging

A discharged battery may be put back into a charged condition by passing electrical current through it in a direction opposite that of the discharge. For aircraft batteries two common methods of battery charging are used. Constant voltage charging is that method used with the generator system of an aircraft. With this method, a constant voltage somewhat above its open circuit voltage, is placed across the battery. This restores the charge to the battery in a relatively short period of time. The constant current method is usually done in the shop and requires considerably longer time than the constant voltage method. Here, current flows into the battery at a low and controlled rate. In order to maintain a constant current as the condition of charge changes, the voltage of the charger must be raised as the charge progresses. Before putting a battery on either type of charge, its condition should be determined by a cell test.

1. Cell test

The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best measure of the condition of charge of a battery, but the measurement of cell voltage will tell the condition of the individual cells. This test, of course, cannot be performed on batteries having internal cell connectors.

a. Check the electrolyte level of each cell and adjust as necessary.

b. Apply a load of about 150 amperes for three seconds. If the battery is in the airplane, crank the engine for about three seconds. (Watch out for the propeller.)

c. Apply a load of about 10 amperes for one minute. The taxi light should give this drain if the battery is in the airplane.

d. With the 10 ampere load applied, measure the voltage across each cell with a low range voltmeter capable of reading voltages within 0.05 volt.

The readings can be interpreted as:

U) 1.95 volts across every cell and all cells within 0.05 volt of each other-the battery is good and fully charged.

(2) Some of the cells are below 1.95 volts, but all are within 0.05 volt of each other-the battery is good but needs to be charged.

(3) Any cell reads more than 1.95 volts and there is a difference of more than 0.05 volts between cells-a cell is defective.

(4) All cells are below 1.95 volts-the battery is too low for testing. It should be charged and then tested.

e. Check the electrolyte with a hydrometer if this test shows the battery to be good.

Fig. 11 Low range voltmeter {or reading individual cell voltage.

2. Constant current charging

In order to force charging current into a battery, the voltage of the charging source must be higher than the battery voltage. The voltage of a discharged battery is low, and therefore does not require as high a voltage for charging as is required when the battery is more fully charged. The battery manufacturer specifies the amount of current to use for a constant current charge. This is based on the number of plates in each cell. A rule of thumb for constant current charging that will

8

keep you safe if no maximum is given is to use no more than 7% of the ampere-hour rating of the battery. For example, a 35 ampere-hour battery should be charged at a rate of no more than 2-1/2 amperes.

As the charge continues and the battery voltage increases, it will be necessary to increase the voltage of the charger to keep the current constant at the desired rate. The temperature of the battery should be monitored to be sure that the cell temperature does not get above 125 degrees F. As long as the outside of the battery does not become excessively warm to the touch, this condition has most probably not been reached. If this temperature should be approached, decrease the charging rate. As the electrolyte gets warm, it expands, and bubbles form on the plates, causing the electrolyte to be forced out of the cell. When a battery is charging, it is important that the caps on the cells be loosened and left in place. This allows for gassing and expansion of the electrolyte. As the charge continues, the chemical changes taking place in the cell change the electrolyte into a more dense acid solution as it removes the sulfate radical from the plates. Water will decompose by electrolysis, and free oxygen and hydrogen will be released at the plates. A battery is considered to be fully charged when three consecutive hydrometer readings taken an hour apart show no change in specific gravity, and all of the cells are gassing freely.

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FULL CKARGU

Fig. 12 Battery voltage rise on charge.

3. Constant voltage charging

The generator system in an aircraft provides a constant voltage charge to the battery. With this system, the generator is regulated to have a

voltage output slightly higher than the battery voltage. This allows the generator to overcome both the battery voltage and its internal resistance. Outside temperature dictates the voltage at which the regulator should be set. Table 3 shows the relationship between temperature and voltage for both a 12 and a 24 volt system.

Ambient 12 Voll 24 Volt
Temperalllre 8attery 8aUery
6soF 14.1 to 14.9 28.2 to 29.8
80°F 13.9 to 14.7 27.8 to 29.4
10SGF 13.7 to 14.5 27.4 10 29.0
, 25°F 13.5 to 14.3 27.01028.6
'45°F 13.4 to 14.2 26.8 10 28.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR SETTING VARIATIONS WITH AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

Table 3

The charging circuit used in aircraft has both a current and a voltage limit. Figure 13 illustrates the way a battery is charged with a constant voltage system. When the engine is started, the battery is in a partially discharged condition from operating the starter, and its voltage is represented by point A. The generator charges the battery at a rate limited by the current limiter, or by the maximum output of the alternator, point B. The maximum current flows until the battery voltage reaches that limited by the voltage regulator, point C. The charging current now drops until the battery is fully charged. Point D represents the fully charged battery in the airplane with the generator operating at the output allowed by the voltage regulator. When the engine is shut down, the battery voltage will drop to its normal open circuit voltage, point E.

I l

1

.I

Fig. 13 Current vs. condition of charge for a constant voltage charge.

9

Constant voltage battery chargers are used in some shops to provide boost charges to batteries. A fast charge cannot return a discharged battery to a fully charged condition, but it can replace enough charge to allow the battery to start the airplane and complete its charge from the airplane's electrical system.

Any time a battery is charged, hydrogen and oxygen gases are liberated. Hydrogen and oxygen form a highly explosive mixture, and special care must be exercised to be sure that the charging area is adequately ventilated, and no sparks are generated in this area. The charger must be OFF when a battery is connected and when it is disconnected.

The temperature of the battery affects, to a great extent, the amount of current the battery will accept from a regulated, constant voltage charging source. Cold electrolyte has a high resistance which increases the internal resistance of the battery. Figure 14 illustrates this. At 80 degrees Fa half charged battery will accept 25 amperes from a 14.4 volt source, while at 0 degrees F it will accept about two amperes. Most aircraft voltage reo gulators compensate for temperature effect, and increase their output voltage when cold, and reduce it when hot. This is a partial compensation at best, however, as it does not sense battery temperature.

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Fig. 14 Charge rate for a given voltage varies with the battery temperature.

QUESTIONS:

18. Is an aircraft generator system a constant voltage or a constant current charging system?

19. What must be done to a battery charger to maintain a constant current while charging a battery?

20. What would be a safe current to use on a constant current charge of a 40 ampere-hour battery?

21. What should you do if a battery on a constant current charge becomes overheated?

22. How can you tell when a battery on a constant current charge is fully charged?

23. What limits the maximum amount of current an airplane generator can put into a battery on a constant voltage charge?

24. Which type charge, constant voltage or constant current, is used to put the maximum chargeintoa battery?

25. If an airplane is to be operated in extremely cold weather, should the generator voltage be adjusted higher or lower than for operating in moderate temperature?

F. Battery Installation and Servicing

35

Anything done to the airplane by an A&P technician must be done according to approved data. Servicing aircraft batteries is especially true in this regard. Replacement batteries must be of an approved type, and all servicing must be done according to good practices and techniques.

Battery boxes must be located in areas approved by the aircraft manufacturer, and must be suitably vented. Vent sump jars contain a pad saturated with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and water. This solution neutralizes the battery fumes so they will not cause corrosion of the airframe where they vented overboard. The battery must be secured in its box in such a way that it cannot vibrate or chafe. Rubber or wood spacers are used to shim the battery in some boxes.

Corrosion around a battery installation is of real concern. Any corrosion on the box should be thoroughly removed and the finish touched up

10

with acid resistant paint. This usually has a rubber or asphaltic (tar) base. Battery cables and terminals should be cleaned of all corrosion and the terminals thinly coated with vaseline or light grease.

The battery should be inspected at regular intervals to be sure it has sufficient water. The electrolyte should cover the plates and come up to the level indicated by the built-in electrolyte level indicator. Continued charging will cause the loss of some water. When the liquid level is low. add only water. Electrolyte should never be added for normal battery servicing; it should be added only if some has been spilled. Distilled water is recommended. but any colorless. odorless water having no minerals is adequate. Caution should be taken to be sure the battery is not overfilled. When the battery gets warm on charging. the water expands and can be forced out into the battery box where it will cause corrosion.

When installing or removing a battery, take special care that an electrical spark is not caused by the wrench shorting the battery out to the structure. To prevent this. always remove the ground cable first. and install it last.

A lead-acid battery is not likely to freeze if it is maintained in a good state of charge. Never add

Specillc Freezing Point
Gravity °C OF
1.300 -70 -90
1.275 -62 -80
1.250 -52 -62
1,225 -37 -35
1,200 -26 -16
1.175 -20 - 4
1.150 -15 + 5
1.125 -10 + '3
1,100 - 8 + 19 FREEZING POINT OF LEAD-ACID BATTERY ELECTROLYTE WITH VARIOUS SPECIFIC GRAVITIES

Table 4

water to a battery if it is going to be subjected to freezing temperatures before it has a chance to be mixed with all of the electrolyte by charging. Table 4 gives the freezing point of electrolyte with various specific gravities.

QUESTIONS:

26. What solution is used in the vent sump jar for a lead-acid battery?

27. What type paint is used around the area of a battery box?

28. What type water is approved for aircraft batteries?

29. When a battery is installed. which cable should be attached first: the ground cable or the hot cable?

11

SECTION II:

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

Nickel-cadmium batteries have come into popularity in the past few years because of their ability to accept high charge rates, and to discharge at equally high rates without the voltage drop associated with lead-acid batteries. These batteries can operate in temperatures ranging from -65 degrees to 165 degrees F, but, naturally, the extremes of this range limit the output of these batteries.

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Fig. 15 Discharge voltage related to percentage of charge for a typical nickel-cadmium battery.

A. Construction

1. Plaque

The base of the nickel-cadmium battery is its plate material or plaque. Powdered nickel is fused or sintered about a fine mesh nickel screen to form an extremely porous material. This plaque is formed into plates.

2. Positive plates

Plaque is impregnated with nickel hydroxide, electrochemically deposited within the pores to form the positive plates.

8. Negative plates

Cadmium hydroxide is electrochemically deposited in the pores of plaque to form negative plates.

CONNECTlKG SURFACE

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Fig. 16 Typical nickel-cadmium cell.

4. Core assembly

Nickel tabs are welded onto one corner of each plate. and these plates are assembled into a core assembly. Terminals are welded to the tabs of both the positive and negative plates.

5. Separators

Positive plates are meshed with negative plates to form a stackup. Between these plates is in-

12

terlaced a multi-layer separator consisting of continuous strips wider than the plates are tall in order to completely insulate them. The entire stackup is bound with a plastic binder to form a compact assembly.

6. Cover and vent assembly

A cover and vent assembly is attached to the plate stackup W provide a foundation for the cell. The filler cap can be removed for electrolyte servicing. but when in place it serves as a vent for the gases liberated on charging.

7. Case

A polystyrene or nylon (polyamid) case houses the cell. The separator extends all the way to the bottom of the case for rigidity.

8. Battery

Unlike the lead-acid battery. the cells of a nickelcadmium battery are individual units, and may be serviced individually. Individual cells in their plastic cases are assembled into 12 or 24 volt batteries. These batteries are housed in epoxy coated steel cases. Twelve-volt batteries use nine or ten cells, while twenty-four volt batteries have either nineteen or twenty cells.

9. Terminal connectors

Either Cannon or Elcon connectors are used for the larger batteries. These are both slip-on connectors held in close contact by pressure from a hand screw. Wing nut connectors are used on the smaller batteries.

10. Electrolyte

A 30% by weight solution of potassium hydroxide jKOH) and pure water serves as the electrolyte for nickel-cadmium batteries. Since this electrolyte serves only as a conductor and does not enter into the chemical changes, as it does with a lead-acid battery. its specific gravity does not change with the condition of charge of the cell. The specific gravity is about 1.24 to 1.30 at 80 degrees F.

Potassium hydrox.ide is a strong alkali, or base, and can do as much damage to your skin, eyes, or clothing as acid. If any of this electrolyte is spilled, it may be neutralized with a solution of boric acid and water, or with vinegar.

QUESTIONS:

30. What is plaque?

31. What is the active material on the positive plates?

32. What is the active material on the negative plates?

33. Of what material are separators made?

34. How many cells are used in a twenty-four volt battery?

35. What electrolyte is used in a nickel-cadmium battery?

B. Nt-Cad Chemistry

1. Charging

When a voltage is applied W the battery with such polarity that the positive terminal of the SOurce goes to the plate having the nickel hydroxide (positive), and the negative goes to the plate with the cadmium hydroxide (negative), oxygen is driven from the negative plate, leaving metallic cadmium. The nickel hydroxide on the positive plate accepts this oxygen and becomes more highly ox.idized. The charge continues until all of the oxygen is removed from the negative plate and only cadmium remains. Gassing of the cells occurs near the end of the charge when the water in the electrolyte is decomposed by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas is released at the negative plate and oxygen at the positive. This gassing causes the loss of some of the water in the electrolyte. When the battery is fully charged, electrolyte is driven from the plates and will be the highest in the cell.

2. Discharging

When a load is connected across the battery, electrons leave the negative plate and enter the positive, and oxygen is driven from the positive plate to be recovered by the negative. During discharge, the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates. and the level drops in the cell.

3. Condition of charge

One of the characteristics of a nickel-cadmium battery is its constant voltage up to almost the

13

point of complete discharge; another is the fact that the electrolyte does not enter into the chemical changes which cause the charge. Because of these two facts, there is no simple way to determine the condition of charge of the battery. The only way to know exactly how much charge it has, is to know how many ampere-hours of charge have been put in.

QUESTIONS:

36. What happens to the positive plate when the battery is charged?

37. What happens to the negative plate when the battery is charged?

38. How can you tell how much charge is in a nickel-cadmium battery?

C. Thermal Problems

The desirable characteristics of being able to discharge at a high rate, and to accept a charge at an equally high rate gives the nickel-cadmium battery a characteristic which is equally undesirable. The nickel-cadmium battery has a very low internal resistance, and its voltage and this resistance vary as an inverse function of temperature. This means an increase in cell temperature will cause a decrease in voltage and internal resistance.

The temperature rise that triggers thermal problems can come from heat generated by a fast discharge, from high ambient temperatures in a poorly vented installation, or from a breakdown of the separator material. If the cellophane becomes perforated, oxygen can migrate from the positive plate to the negative. It will there unite with the cadmium to generate enough heat to decrease the internal resistance to a dangerous point.

Batteries installed in most airplanes are subjected to a constant voltage charging source, the generator. These generators have a high current producing capability.

Turbine starters require a lot of electrical energy. The battery provides this. and it usually does it without much strain. If the start has been difficult, a high current has been taken from the battery for a prolonged period of time. The battery, especially the center cells, gets warm. These cells,

being warmer than the other cells, have a lower voltage and a lower internal resistance. When the engine starts and the generator gets on the line, a high current is put back into the battery. Normally as this current is put back into the battery it will drop off rapidly as the battery regains its charge, but if some of the cells are unbalanced because of temperature, the current continues to rise, causing more heat. This rise in temperature causes a further rise in current, and a condition develops in which the battery accepts all of the charging current the source is capable of producing. This condition is known as a thermal runaway, and can cause so much heat that the battery may explode. This problem causes operators to look on nickel-cadmium batteries with mixed emotions.

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Fig. 17 Current flow related to time resulting in thermal runaway of discharged battery charged with a constant voltage source.

QUESTIONS:

39. What is meant by a thermal runaway?

40. What causes a thermal runaway?

D. Battery Servicing

1. Inspection in the airplane

Unlike the lead-acid battery which is usually forgotten except for an occasional check for corrosion and electrolyte level, a nickel-cadmium battery should be carefully monitored for its condition. The Federal Aviation Administration has issued a requirement for inflight monitoring capability for nickel-cadmium batteries. Any unusual temperatures encountered, or any high or low current or voltage indications on the

14

cockpit instruments serve as a warning flag for the A&P to carefuJly check the battery.

The battery container should be free of any contamination. The ventilation system should be clear and operating. The pad in the sump jar should be saturated with a boric acid solution. At least every fifty hours. if everything is going right. and more often if trouble has been reported. the battery should be inspected for indication of spewed electrolyte, as indicated by a white powder on the top of the battery. This powder is potassium carbonate which is formed where the electrolyte has combined with carbon dioxide.

All cell connectors should be checked for indication of looseness. The level of the electrolyte should be checked. This can be done only if the condition of charge of the battery is known. and any adjustment should be made only in the shop. Checking and adjusting electrolyte level is covered in another part of this text.

QUESTIONS:

41. What is used in the vent sump jar to neutralize the electrolyte fumes from a nickel-cadmium battery?

42. Should water be added to these batteries in the airplane or in the shop?

2. Shop inspection

Every aircraft manufacturer using nickelcadmium batteries has a recommended service time for the battery. This is based on hours of flight time or number of engine-start cycles. The frequency of this out-of- the-airplane inspection is based on the severity of load placed on the battery. Airplanes having parallel starting circuits place a far lighter load on the batteries than airplanes using series starting circuits.

A typical service sequence consists of:

a. Washing the battery: check the vent caps to prevent water entering the cells. and flush the top of the battery with tap water. Remove any deposits by scrubbing with a nylon or other nonmetallic bristle brush. Air dry the battery thoroughly.

b. Check for leakage current: any conduction between the cell terminal and the case of the

battery can cause the battery to self discharge. Rather than checking for voltage between the case and the cells, it is better to check for current flow existing between these two points. A voltage could exist and yet cause no excessive current. Set the range of a good multi-meter to the highest current scale (usually around 500 milliamperes). Place the positive lead on the positive terminal of the battery and the negative lead on the battery case, and check for current. Decrease the ranges until an indication of current is found. Any leakage of more than 100 milliamperes is excessive, and the battery should be disassembled and cleaned.

c. Charge the battery: use a constant current charger or special battery charger/analyzer. and charge the battery at its five hour rate until it reaches the voltage recommended by the manufacturer. For a typical 19 cell battery, this would be 30 volts, or 1.58 volts per cell. If a constant voltage charger is used. it must be adjusted to the value recommended by the manufacturer. which is normally about 1.5 volts per cell. A battery is considered to be fully charged. by a constant voltage charger when the charging current tapers off and stabilizes.

110 CUMUIT UIUTf D IV
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Fig. 18 Charging current on a constant voltage charge.

d. Adjust the electrolyte: when the battery is fully charged. its electrolyte will be its highest in the cells. Measure the electrolyte

15

at this time. It should be at the level recommended by the manufacturer, which is somewhere around 114" above the top of the plates. If this measurement is not taken immediately after the charge is terminated. the level will drop and the proper level will be somewhat lower. Adjust the electrolyte level as required, using only distilled water. No potassium hydroxide should be added, as only water is lost in the electrolysis which occurs when the battery is fully charged.

e. Discharge the battery: the only way to accurately determine the true state of charge of a nickel-cadmium battery is to discharge it and measure its ampere-hour capacity. Connect the battery across a load bank and discharge it at the one or two hour rate until an average voltage is reached of 1.0 volt per cell. Note the time. If this discharge time is less than 70% of the time specified by the manufacturer for this particular rate, there is an indication that the capacity of the battery has decreased and a further discharge or equalization is required.

f. Deep cycling: a battery can lose some of its capacity if one or more of the cells is out of balance with the others, To remedy this

Fig. 19 CeU shorted for complete discharge in deep-cycle servicing.

situation the battery must be completely discharged, allowed to remain in this condition for a given period of time, and then charged back to 140% of its ampere hour capacity with a constant current charge. This is called equalization of deep cycling. Continue to discharge the battery at a lower rate than before, until the individual cell voltage is down somewhere around 0.2 volts. When this voltage is reached, the cell is considered to be completely discharged. Each cell is then individually short circuited with a shorting strap. The cells should be shorted while the load is applied to prevent sparking at the cell posts. It may be necessary to short the last few cells in the battery with one ohm, two watt resistors to prevent arcing when the short is applied. Allow the battery to sit for three to eight hours in this shorted condition to allow all of the cells to reach a completely discharged condition.

g. Recharging: after the rest period, the battery is placed on a constant current charge at its five hour rate, for seven hours. This will put 140% of its rated ampere-hour capacity into the battery. In the last five minutes of charge, the voltage of each individual cell is measured. Any cell not having a voltage somewhere between 1.55 and 1.80 volts at a temperature between 70 and 80 degrees F is considered faulty and must be replaced.

h. Final check: before the battery is returned to service, a final check is made of the torque of all the intercell connection hardware, the level of the electrolyte, and leakage current between the cells and the case. Any time a battery is serviced, a complete record should be made of the battery condition. This record will enable you to spot troubles before they become serious. The record should contain such items as: condition of the case and the individual cells, tightness and condition of the intercell connectors, the electrolyte level and the amount of water added to each cell, the voltage of each cell at the end of the charge, and mention of hot spots or conditions to note on subsequent inspections.

QUESTIONS:

43. What determines the frequency at which a

16

nickel-cadmium battery should be brought. int..o t.he shop for complete servicing?

44. How much leakage current between the cells and the case is considered excessive?

45. What instrument is used to check leakage current?

46. What should be the cell voltage when a battery is charged to check its capacity?

47. Is the level of the electrolyte highest in the cell when the battery is fully charged or when discharged?

48. What happens to the electrolyte level of a fully charged nickel-cadmium battery when it sits after the charge is completed?

49. What should be done to a 40 ampere-hour battery if it will take only 25 ampere-hours of charge'?

50. What is meant by deep cycling?

51. After deep cycling. how much charge is put back into a battery?

52. What is the purpose of shorting the cells in the battery during a deep cycling operation?

53. What is done to prevent arcing when shorting the last few cells?

54. When recharging a 25 ampere-hour battery after deep cycling, how long should a five ampere charge be applied?

55. After the final charge, when the cell voltage is checked, what should be done to a cell having a voltage of 1.83 volts?

3. Overhaul:

If a nickel-cadmium battery has been serviced in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and still does not pass the capacity test, it may be possible for the battery to be overhauled by the manufacturer. Overhaul of a nickelcadmium battery consists of a complete discharge and disassembly. All of the plates are scrubbed clean and dried with hot air. The battery is completely inspected and reassembled, using new separator material. It is identified as

an overhauled unit and is tested to about 90% of the capacity requirements of a similar new battery. The cost of an overhaul is somewhere around one-half the price of a new battery.

E. Special Equipment For Nickel-Cadium Batteries

1. Installed equipment

Nickel-cadmium batteries with their possibility of thermal problems require careful monitoring in flight. The FAA has issued a requirement for equipment to be installed in aircraft using this type of battery for engine or A.P.U. starting to warn the flight crew of impending problems. These warning devices may be of either the temperature, current, or voltage sensing type.

a. Temperature sensing system: one of the more simple temperature monitoring devices uses a temperature sensor to measure the temperature of a central intercell link. When the temperature of this link reaches 140 degrees F. a warning light on the panel illuminates to tell the pilot a problem exists. and that he should take the battery off of the generator line. If the temperat.ure rises to 160 degrees F. a second light comes on telling the pilot that he does have a problem and should land as soon as possible. A more complex system gives the pilot a direct readout of the battery temperature and activates a warning light when the intercell temperature reaches 150 degrees F.

Fig.20 A warning light indicates a cell temperature of 150 degrees F.

Fig. 21 Complete servicing of nickel-cadmium batteries requires a special type of battery charger.

b. Current sensing system: another warning device works on the principle that a thermal problem cannot exist if the charging current is monitored closely. The pilot is unable to detect a dangerous condition by monitoring the normally installed load meter, so an automatic warning device senses the current through a shunt in the charging circuit and flashes a warning to the pilot when the charge exceeds a predetermined amount.

c. Voltage sensing system: a third type of warning device operates on the principle that a dangerous thermal problem cannot exist if all of the cells are balanced voltagewise. A continual sampling of the voltage of all of the cells is taken and a warning flashed to the pilot if any cell falls outside of a minimum and a maximum voltage range. This sampling is done at approximately four second intervals. If more than one cell is out of tolerance, the flashing becomes more

rapid. To back up this system, a temperature sensor is placed between the central cells of the battery to warn the pilot of an over-temperature condition.

2. Shop equipment

Servicing nickel-cadmium batteries requires special attention and some special equipment. Most important of all, it requires separate facilities from lead-acid servicing. The electrolyte and fumes of the lead-acid batteries are exactly opposite the alkaline electrolyte of the nickelcadmium batteries, so there must be no mingling of the two. Tools used for servicing lead-acid batteries are considered contaminated and should not be used with nickel-cadmium batteries.

QUESTIONS:

56. What three types of monitoring devices are used to keep check on the condition of a

18

nickel-cadmium battery in flight?

57. Why should nickel-cadmium batteries be serviced in an area remote from that used for lead-acid batteries?

Chargers for both batteries may be of the constant voltage or the constant current type. Nickelcadmium batteries, however, require a more sophisticated machine. Any shop servicing nickelcadmium batteries should have a charger/analyzer. This special type charger has a built-in timer for controlling the charge and discharge cycles, load banks for discharging, and voltage monitors for the entire battery and for individual cells. The Ray Electronics charger/tester also has the capacity of placing a simulated starter load on the battery and monitoring the voltage of each cell during this current drain. Also, built into this tester is an internal shorting circuit whereby each cell may be individually shorted while attached to the tester.

3. Installation

The advantage of light weight for its high discharge capability has prompted some aircraft operators to replace the lead-acid battery with the nickel-cadmium battery. Whenever this is done. the battery box and surrounding area should be specially treated to prevent contamination. The compartment should be thoroughly washed and neutralized with ammonia or bicarbonate of soda. and the entire area painted with alkaline resistant varnish. All traces of acid corrosion must be removed. The entire vent system. including the sump jar, should be completely cleaned and neutralized or replaced. The sump pad should be replaced with one saturated with a 3% solution of boric acid and water. The physical size and weight difference between the lead-acid and nickel-cadmium battery may require a new battery box attachment, and will require a new weight and balance computation.

When making any alteration of this nature, be sure all of the requirements of the airplane manufacturer are met and the proper alteration records are made.

SUMMARY:

Whether the battery be of the simple lead-acid type or of the more exotic nickel-cadmium, the service it demands is the same: the best and most professional within the state of the art. As with anything else in aviation. information furnished by the manufacturer is the final word. Charge rates and techniques mentioned in this book are general and should be so considered. Specific data furnished by the manufacturer always takes precedence over general information. If you follow the manufacturer's service instructions implicitly. you will get the best service from his equipment.

19

Glossary

This glossary of terms is to give a ready reference to the meaning of some of the words with which you may not be familiar. These definitions may differ from those of standard dictionaries, but are in line with standard shop usage.

acid A chemical substance which will react with alkaline material to form a salt and accept electrons from the alkali.

acid resistant paint A paint used on battery boxes holding lead-acid batteries. It usually has a rubber or tar base.

alkali A chemical substance which will react with an acid to form a salt and will give up electrons to the acid material.

alternator An engine driven device for producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, I t differs from a generator in that it produces current in its fixed windings and is essentially self limiting in the amount of current it can produce.

ampere A measure of electrical current flow.

ampere-hour A measure of the capacity of a battery. It is the product of the amount of current flow, and the time in which this amount can flow,

ampere-hour capacity The amount of electrical energy a battery can produce. This capacity is dependent on the rate at which this energy is released.

AP.U. The commonly used abbreviation for auxilliary power unit. This is a self contained motor-generator carried in the airplane to generate power for ground operation and starting the main engines.

battery A device made up of a number of individual cells, used to store electrical energy by converting it into chemical energy.

battery charger/analyzer A special power supply which converts alternating current into direct current for charging batteries. This is a special device with timer, load bank, and monitoring equipment for complete servicing of aircraft batteries.

bicarbonate of soda Common baking soda.

It is used as a neutralizing agent for spilled battery acid.

boost charge A constant voltage charge applied to batteries installed in airplanes to restore their charge sufficiently to start the engine,

Cannon connector A trade name for a connector used to attach the battery to the aircraft electrical system. It is a high current connector in which the cables are held onto the battery by pressure applied by a hand screw.

chemical energy Energy stored in chemicals due to their attraction to, or reaction with, other chemicals.

constant current charge A method of charging a battery in which the voltage is adj usted as the charge progresses to keep the current constant,

constant voltage charge A method of charging a battery in which the voltage across the battery remains constant. The current will be high at the start of the charge, but tapers off to a low value as the charge progresses.

corrosion A chemical action caused by dissimilar metals acting in the presence of an electrolyte. It shows up around battery boxes as a white powder on the metal surface and actually eats the metal away.

current This is actually the flow of electricity.

Technically it is electrons that flow, but more commonly this is called current flow. Current flow is measured in amperes.

20

deep cycling A treatment of nickel-cadmium batteries in which the battery is completely discharged, the cells shorted out and allowed to rest. The battery is then recharged to 140% of its ampere-hour capacity.

density Mass of material per unit volume. It is commonly expressed in terms such as pounds per cubic foot, or per cubic inch.

decomposing This is a term that describes material such as water being broken down into its basic elements by the process of electrolysis.

dry-charged battery The common way of shipping a lead-acid battery. The battery is fully charged, drained, and the cells are washed and dried. The battery is sealed until it is ready to be put into service. Electrolyte is added and the battery given a freshening charge, making it ready for service.

Elcon connector A trade name for a special terminal for aircraft battery installation, similar to the Cannon connector. This is a slipon type connector. held in place with pressure from a hand screw.

electrical energy Energy possessed by a substance or device because of a difference in electrical pressure. This can exist because of electromagnetic or electrostatic forces.

electrolysis A process by which a substance is reduced to its basic elements by the action of electricity.

electrolyte A liquid lor gaseous) chemical that enters into or aids a chemical action between other elements.

electron A small negative charge of electricity.

It is the flow of electrons that does the work when a conductor connects points of unequal electrical pressure.

equalization The process of restoring all of the cells of a nickel-cadmium battery to a condition of equal capacity. All cells are discharged, shorted out, and allowed to rest. The battery is then said to be equalized and ready to receive a fresh charge.

five-hour rating The ampere hour rating of a battery which will discharge the battery in five hours. This is the most commonly used rating for aircraft batteries.

five-minute rating A rating of the ampere-hour capacity of batteries, normally used to indicate the capacity of a battery for high current drains such as starting current.

freshening charge The charge given a drycharged battery to bring it up to its rated capacity.

generator A mechanical device consisting of a conductor being turned in a magnetic field used to produce electricity by electromagnetic induction.

hydrogen One of the basic elements. It is a gas generated when batteries are being charged. It often it appears as Hi. because there must be two atoms of hydrogen to form one molecule of free hydrogen gas.

hydrometer A device used to measure specific gravity of a liquid. It consists of a weighted float with a long stem in the enlarged glass tube of a syringe. Electrolyte is pulled up into the tube and the float rides vertically on the surface of the liquid. The amount submerged is a function of the density of the liquid. The number on the stem opposite the liquid level is the specific gravity of the liquid.

internal resistance The resistance of the battery itself, to the flow of current. It causes a voltage drop proportional to the amount of current flow.

ion An atom or radical which is unbalanced electrically and therefore possesses a positive or negative charge.

leakage current The amount of current that flows from the battery terminals to the battery case through any moisture or contamination on top of the battery.

load bank A heavy resistor used to discharge a battery.

negative An accepted name for the terminal of a battery or power source from which the electrons flow.

21

oxidized Combined with oxygen.

oxygen One of the basic elements. In the free gas state it is always 03 because two atoms of oxygen must combine to form one molecule of oxygen gas.

plaque The base for plates of nickel-cadmium batteries. It is powdered nickel, formed under heat and pressure onto a close mesh nickel screen.

polymid A translucent plastic material commonly called nylon. It is used to make cell cases for nickel-cadrnium batteries.

polystyrene A transparent plastic used to make cell cases for some nickel-cadmium batteries.

positive An accepted. name for the battery or power source terminal where the electron flow enters.

sintered metal A porous material made up by fusing powdered metal under heat and pressure.

specific gravity The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of pure water.

sulfate radical A combination of chemical elements which act as though they were only one atom. In this case the SO, radical behaves in the chemical action of battery charging or discharging as though it were only one element.

sulfated The condition of plates in a discharged lead-acid battery. The lead has turned to lead sulfate. If allowed to remain for a long period of time, this sulfate will become impossible to remove by normal charging action.

sump jar A small jar in the vent line of a battery box containing a pad, wet with a chemical such as bicarbonate of soda or boric acid. Fumes given off by the battery as it charges are neutralized by this material.

twenty-minute rating The ampere-hour rating of a battery in order to discharge it in twenty minutes.

unbalanced. ceU A condition in a nickel-cadmium battery in which one cell has discharged more than the other cells in the battery.This is the initial step in a thermal problem.

volt A measure of electrical pressure.

22

FINAL EXAMINATION

Aircraft Batteries

STUDENT __

4. When a dry charged battery is to be activated, which procedure is not considered advisable?

GRADE _

Place a circle around the letter for the correct answer.

A. Fill the cells with electrolyte furnished with the battery.

B. Give the battery a freshening charge.

1. When a battery is connected to a charger, which way should the connection be made?

C. Adjust the electrolyte after charging.

A. Positive of the charger to positive of the battery.

D. Deep cycle the battery by completely discharging it before giving it the freshening charge.

B. Positive of the charger to negative of the battery.

5. How can you tell when a battery on constant current charge is fully charged?

C. It really does not make much difference.

A. The specific gravity does not show any increase in three consecutive readings taken one hour apart.

2. The specific gravity of a lead-acid battery measures 1.220 at a temperature of 100 degrees F. What is the corrected specific gravity?

B. All of the cells are gassing freely.

C. Both of the above conditions.

A. 1.220

D. The battery voltage stops rising.

B. 1.112

C. 1.228

6. Which statement is true regarding the mixing of electrolyte for lead-acid batteries?

D. 1.224

A. The electrolyte that is furnished with a dry-charged battery must be mixed with enough distilled water to adjust its specific gravity to 1.835.

3. What characteristic of a lead-acid battery determines its ampere-hour capacity?

A. The number of cells in the battery.

B. Be sure to pour the acid into the water. never the water into the acid.

B. The area of the plates.

C. The density of the electrolyte.

C. Be sure to pour the water into the acid, never the acid into the water.

D. The internal resistance of the battery.

D. Pure concentrated sulfuric acid is

used as an electrolyte. It does not need to be mixed.

7. What is the specific gravity of a fully charged lead-acid battery?

A. 1.260 to 1.285 at 80 degrees F.

B. 1.260 to 1.285 at 100 degrees F.

C. 1.835 at 80 degrees F.

D. 1.150 at 80 degrees F.

8. What IS the relationship between the desired voltage regulator setting and the ambient temperature in which the airplane is operated?

A. The colder the ambient temperature, the lower the voltage regulator should be set.

B. The colder the ambient temperature, the higher the voltage regulator should be set.

C. Ambient temperature has no bearing on the desired voltage of the charging system.

D. The regulated voltage should be the same regardless of the temperature.

9. What is used to neutralize spilled electrolyte from a lead-acid battery?

A. Dilute boric acid.

B. Vinegar.

C. Naphtha.

D. Baking soda and water.

10. When a battery is to be removed from an airplane, which lead should be removed first?

A. The lead going to the main solenoid (hot lead],

8. The lead going to ground.

C. It makes absolutely no difference, provided the master switch is off.

11. In a nickel-cadmium battery, when is the electrolyte level at its highest?

A. Immediately after the battery has completed its charge.

8. After the battery has been fully charged and allowed to sit for an hour or two.

C. The electrolyte level does not change in a nickel-cadmium battery.

12. What fact is not true about a thermal runaway of a nickel-cadmium battery?

A. A thermal runaway is the result of cells being unbalanced.

B. A thermal runaway may be started by an overheated cell in the battery.

C. A thermal runaway is most likely to occur when the battery is being charged on a constant current charger.

D. A thermal runaway can cause the entire output of the charging source to be run through the battery.

13. What is the function of the electrolyte in a nickel-cadmium battery?

A. Serves as an active element in the chemical action generating the current.

8. Serves as a conductor only, and does not take part in the chemical action.

C. Serves only to keep the cell cool.

D. Serves as an indicator of the charge of the cell.

24

14. Which discharge rate will produce the most ampere-hours from a battery?

A. Five hour rate.

B. Five minute rate.

C. Twenty minute rate.

D. They will all produce the same capacityoutput.

15. How can you tell when a constant voltage charge of a nickel-cadmium battery is complete?

A. The voltage stops rising.

B. The current decreases and stabilizes.

C. The specific gravity of the electrolyte rises to 1.30.

D. The cell voltage rises to 1.82 volts per cell.

16. When should water be added to a nickelcadmium cell?

A. Immediately after a constant current charge.

B. When the battery is completely discharged, and all of the cells are short circuited.

C. Any time you are checking the battery in the airplane and find the electrolyte level low.

D. Water should never be added to a nickel-cadmium cell.

17. When should a nickel-cadmium battery be given a deep cycle treatment?

A. Every 500 hours of operation.

B. Any time there appears to be a loss of capacity of the battery.

C. After a series of unsuccessful starts of the engine.

D. Only when the battery gets too weak to start the engine.

18. Which type of instrument is not used for inflight monitoring of nickel-cadmium batteries for thermal problems?

A. Temperature monitor.

B. Current monitor.

C. Voltage monitor.

D. Power monitor.

19. What type of battery charger is recommended for the final charge of a nickelcadmium battery?

A. Constant voltage charger.

B. Constant current charger.

C. Aircraft generator charging system in the airplane.

D. Charger which puts a low voltage alternating current across the battery.

20. What may be used to neutralize spilled electrolyte from a nickel-cadmium battery?

A. Baking soda.

B. Ammonia.

C. Tri-chlor-ethane,

D. Vinegar.

Answers to Study Questions

t Spongy lead.

2. Lead peroxide.

3. Ampere-hour capacity.

4. Sulfuric acid.

5. Lead sul fate.

6. Decreases.

7. Hydrometer.

8. 1.275.

9. 1.150. 10.1.182.

11. 2.10 volts.

12. The voltage drops.

13. The ampere hour capacity of a battery at the current which would drop the cell voltage to 1.75 volts in five hours.

14. The five-hour rate.

15. a. Remove the seals.

b. Fill with electrolyte.

c. It is preferred that it be given a freshening charge.

16. Pour the acid into the water.

H. Flush with clear water and get to a doctor immediately. ~8. Constant voltage.

~9. Increase the voltage as the battery voltage rises.

20. 2.8 or 3.0 amperes.

21. Reduce the charging rate.

2'.2. 'nere should be no rise in specific gravity in three consecutiv,!!: Ilhecks made at one hour intervals. and all cells should he gassing freely.

231. The eurrent limiter or the output capacity of the generator. 2Jl. Constant current.

~ HIgher.

Z8c. Biearbonate of soda (baking soda) and water. "17]" Acid proof - usually rubber or tar base.

~ .. DI~tllled water. or colorless, odorless water free of minerals. ~ 'Fhdot cable.

30" Pewdered nickel, sintered or fused into a fine mesh nickel ~~n.

31. Nickel hydroxide.

32. Cadmium hydroxide.

33. Nylon and cellophane.

34. Some have 19 and some have 20.

35. Potassium hydroxide and distilled water.

36. Nickel hydroxide becomes highly oxidized.

37. All of the oxygen is removed from the cadmium hydroxide, leaving only cadmium.

38. Only by knowing how much charge has been put onto it.

39. A condition occurring in a fully charged battery in which its internal resistance drops, allowing a high current to flow into the battery. This condition feeds itself and will continue until the battery is damaged.

40. Heat within the battery.

41. Boric acid solution.

42. Only in the shop.

43. The manufacturer's recommendation based on the severity of service of the battery, the number of hours in service, and the number of start. cycles.

44. 100 milliamperes.

45. A multi meter.

46. 1.58 volts per cell.

47. Immediately after the charge is completed.

48. It drops somewhat.

49. It should be deep cycled.

50. The battery is completely discharged, all the cells shorted and allowed

to rest, then recharged to 140% of its rated capacity

51. 140c;;.· of its rated capacity.

52. To completely discharge all cells so they can all accept the same charge.

53. Short. the last few cells with a 1 ohm, 2 watt resistor.

54. Seven hours.

55. It should be replaced.

56. a. Temperature monitor.

b. Current monitor.

c. Voltage monitor.

57. The fumes of the lead-acid battery will contaminate the nickel-cadmium batteries and damage them.

Answers to Final Examination Questions

:t .\

2.C 12. C

3.B 13. B

4.D 14. A

5.C 15. B

6.B 16.A

8.B 18. D

9. D 19. B

7.A 17. B

10. B 20. D