TYPES OF CONVERTERS

AC to DC Converters (RECTIFIER)
Introduction

One of the first and most widely used application of power electronic devices have been in
rectification. Rectification refers to the process of converting an ac voltage or current source to
dc voltage and current. Rectifiers specially refer to power electronic converters where the
electrical power flows from the ac side to the dc side. In many situations the same converter
circuit may carry electrical power from the dc side to the ac side where upon they are referred to
as inverters. In this lesson and subsequent ones the working principle and analysis of several
commonly used rectifier circuits supplying different types of loads (resistive, inductive,
capacitive, back emf type) will be presented. Points of interest in the analysis will be.
• Waveforms and characteristic values (average, RMS etc) of the rectified voltage and
current.
• Influence of the load type on the rectified voltage and current.
• Harmonic content in the output.
• Voltage and current ratings of the power electronic devices used in the rectifier circuit.
• Reaction of the rectifier circuit upon the ac network, reactive power requirement, power
factor, harmonics etc.
• Rectifier control aspects (for controlled rectifiers only)

In the analysis, following simplifying assumptions will be made.

• The internal impedance of the ac source is zero.
• Power electronic devices used in the rectifier are ideal switches.

The first assumption will be relaxed in a latter module. However, unless specified otherwise, the
second assumption will remain in force.
Rectifiers are used in a large variety of configurations and a method of classifying them into
certain categories (based on common characteristics) will certainly help one to gain significant
insight into their operation. Unfortunately, no consensus exists among experts regarding the
criteria to be used for such classification. For the purpose of this lesson (and subsequent lessons)
the classification shown in Fig 9.1 will be followed.

DC – DC CONVERTER

There are three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits, termed as buck, boost and buck-boost. In all
of these circuits, a power device is used as a switch. This device earlier used was a thyristor, which is
turned on by a pulse fed at its gate. In all these circuits, the thyristor is connected in series with load
to a dc supply, or a positive (forward) voltage is applied between anode and cathode terminals. The
thyristor turns off, when the current decreases below the holding current, or a reverse (negative)
voltage is applied between anode and cathode terminals. So, a thyristor is to be force-commutated,
for which additional circuit is to be used, where another thyristor is often used. Later, GTO’s came
into the market, which can also be turned off by a negative current fed at its gate, unlike thyristors,
requiring proper control circuit. The turn-on and turn-off times of GTOs are lower than those of
thyristors. So, the frequency used in GTO-based choppers can be increased, thus reducing the size of
filters. Earlier, dc-dc converters were called ‘choppers’, where thyristors or GTOs are used. It may be
noted here that buck converter (dc-dc) is called as ‘step-down chopper’, whereas boost converter (dc-
dc) is a ‘step-up chopper’. In the case of chopper, no buck-boost type was used.
 With the advent of bipolar junction transistor (BJT), which is termed as self-commutated
device, it is used as a switch, instead of thyristor, in dc-dc converters. This device (NPN transistor) is
switched on by a positive current through the base and emitter, and then switched off by withdrawing
the above signal. The collector is connected to a positive voltage. Now-a-days, MOSFETs are used
as a switching device in low voltage and high current applications. It may be noted that, as the turn-
on and turn-off time of MOSFETs are lower as compared to other switching devices, the frequency
used for the dc-dc converters using it (MOSFET) is high, thus, reducing the size of filters as stated
earlier. These converters are now being used for applications, one of the most important being
Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Similarly, when application requires high voltage, Insulated
Gate Bi-polar Transistors (IGBT) are preferred over BJTs, as the turn-on and turn-off times
of IGBTs are lower than those of power transistors (BJT), thus the frequency can
be increased in the converters using them. So, mostly self-commutated devices
of transistor family as described are being increasingly used in dc-dc converters

TYPES OF DC –DC CONVERTERS

Buck Converters (dc-dc)

Boost Converters (dc-dc)

Buck-Boost Converters (dc-dc)

AC –AC CONVERTER

An AC/AC converter converts an AC waveform such as the mains supply, to another AC

waveform, where the output voltage and frequency can be set arbitrarily.

AC/AC converters can be categorized into

• Converters with a DC-link.

• Hybrid Matrix Converters.
• Matrix Converters.

As shown in Fig 1. For such AC-AC conversion today typically converter systems with a voltage
(Fig. 2) or current (Fig. 3) DC-link are employed. For the voltage DC-link, the mains coupling
could be implemented by a diode bridge. To accomplish braking operation of a motor, a braking
resistor must be placed in the DC-link. Alternatively, an anti-parallel thyristor bridge must be
provided on the mains side for feeding back energy into the mains. The disadvantages of this
solution are the relatively high mains distortion and high reactive power requirements (especially
during inverter operation).

An AC/AC converter with approximately sinusoidal input currents and bidirectional power flow
can be realized by coupling a PWM rectifier and a PWM inverter to the DC-link. The DC-link
quantity is then impressed by an energy storage element that is common to both stages, which is
a capacitor C for the voltage DC-link or an inductor L for the current DC-link. The PWM
rectifier is controlled in a way that a sinusoidal mains current is drawn, which is in phase or anti-
phase (for energy feedback) with the corresponding mains phase voltage.
Due to the DC-link storage element, there is the advantage that both converter stages are to a
large extent decoupled for control purposes. Furthermore, a constant, mains independent input
quantity exists for the PWM inverter stage, which results in high utilization of the converter’s
power capability. On the other hand, the DC-link energy storage element has a relatively large
physical volume, and when electrolytic capacitors are used, in the case of a voltage DC-link,
there is potentially a reduced system lifetime.

In order to achieve higher power density and reliability, it is makes sense to consider Matrix
Converters that achieve three-phase AC/AC conversion without any intermediate energy storage
element.

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC);
the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits. An inverter is essentially the opposite of a rectifier.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small
switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current
applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from
DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early

mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to
convert DC to AC.

Basic designs

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap of
the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to
the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then
the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer
produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a
spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the
stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the
switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter
switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar
mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns.

As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of
semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs
Introduction

Single phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in a number of power electronic
based converters. In most cases they are used to provide an intermediate unregulated dc voltage
source which is further processed to obtain a regulated dc or ac output. They have, in general,
been proved to be efficient and robust power stages. However, they suffer from a few
disadvantages. The main among them is their inability to control the output dc voltage / current
magnitude when the input ac voltage and load parameters remain fixed. They are also
unidirectional in the sense that they allow electrical power to flow from the ac side to the dc side
only. These two disadvantages are the direct consequences of using power diodes in these
converters which can block voltage only in one direction. As will be shown in this module, these
two disadvantages are overcome if the diodes are replaced by thyristors, the resulting converters
are called fully controlled converters.
Thyristors are semi controlled devices which can be turned ON by applying a current pulse at its
gate terminal at a desired instance. However, they cannot be turned off from the gate terminals.
Therefore, the fully controlled converter continues to exhibit load dependent output voltage /
current waveforms as in the case of their uncontrolled counterpart. However, since the thyristor
can block forward voltage, the output voltage / current magnitude can be controlled by
controlling the turn on instants of the thyristors. Working principle of thyristors based single
phase fully controlled converters will be explained first in the case of a single thyristor halfwave
rectifier circuit supplying an R or R-L load. However, such converters are rarely used in practice.
Full bridge is the most popular configuration used with single phase fully controlled rectifiers.
Analysis and performance of this rectifier supplying an R-L-E load (which may represent a dc
motor) will be studied in detail in this lesson.

Single phase fully controlled halfwave rectifier

Fig shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled halfwave rectifier supplying a
purely resistive load. At ωt = 0 when the input supply voltage becomes positive the thyristor T
becomes forward biased. However, unlike a diode, it does not turn ON till a gate pulse is applied
at ωt = α. During the period 0 < ωt ≤ α, the thyristor blocks the supply voltage and the load
voltage remains zero as shown in fig 10.1(b). Consequently, no load current flows during this
interval. As soon as a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor at ωt = α it turns ON. The voltage
across the thyristor collapses to almost zero and the full supply voltage appears across the load.
From this point onwards the load voltage follows the supply voltage. The load being purely
resistive the load current io is proportional to the load voltage. At ωt = π as the supply voltage
passes through the negative going zero crossing the load voltage and hence the load current
becomes zero and tries to reverse direction. In the process the thyristor undergoes reverse
recovery and starts blocking the negative supply voltage. Therefore, the load voltage and the load
current remains clamped at zero till the thyristor is fired again at ωt = 2π + α. The same process
repeats there after

for

There fore

Or
Three phase fully controlled bridge converter

Introduction
The three phase fully controlled bridge converter has been probably the most widely used
power electronic converter in the medium to high power applications. Three phase circuits are
preferable when large power is involved. The controlled rectifier can provide controllable out put
dc voltage in a single unit instead of a three phase autotransformer and a diode bridge rectifier.
The controlled rectifier is obtained by replacing the diodes of the uncontrolled rectifier with
thyristors. Control over the output dc voltage is obtained by controlling the conduction interval
of each thyristor. This method is known as phase control and converters are also called “phase
controlled converters”. Since thyristors can block voltage in both directions it is possible to
reverse the polarity of the output dc voltage and hence feed power back to the ac supply from the
dc side. Under such condition the converter is said to be operating in the “inverting mode”. The
thyristors in the converter circuit are commutated with the help of the supply voltage in the
rectifying mode of operation and are known as “Line commutated converter”. The same circuit
while operating in the inverter mode requires load side counter emf. for commutation and are
referred to as the “Load commutated inverter”.

In phase controlled rectifiers though the output voltage can be varied continuously the load
harmonic voltage increases considerably as the average value goes down. Of course the
magnitude of harmonic voltage is lower in three phase converter compared to the single phase
circuit. Since the frequency of the harmonic voltage is higher smaller load inductance leads to
continuous conduction. Input current wave shape become rectangular and contain 5th and higher
order odd harmonics. The displacement angle of the input current increases with firing angle.
The frequency of the harmonic voltage and current can be increased by increasing the pulse
number of the converter which can be achieved by series and parallel connection of basic 6 pulse
converters. The control circuit become considerably complicated and the use of coupling
transformer and / or interphase reactors become mandatory.
With the introduction of high power IGBTs the three phase bridge converter has all but been
replaced by dc link voltage source converters in the medium to moderately high power range.
However in very high power application (such as HV dc transmission system, cycloconverter
drives, load commutated inverter synchronous motor drives, static scherbius drives etc.) the basic
B phase bridge converter block is still used. In this lesson the operating principle and
characteristic of this very important converter topology will be discussed in source depth.

Operating principle of 3 phase fully controlled bridge converter

A three phase fully controlled converter is obtained by replacing all the six diodes of an
uncontrolled converter by six thyristors as shown in Fig. 13.1 (a)
For any current to flow in the load at least one device from the top group (T1, T3, T5) and one
from the bottom group (T2, T4, T6) must conduct. It can be argued as in the case of an
uncontrolled converter only one device from these two groups will conduct.

Then from symmetry consideration it can be argued that each thyristor conducts for 120° of the
input cycle. Now the thyristors are fired in the sequence T1 → T2 → T3 → T4 → T5 → T6 → T1
with 60° interval between each firing. Therefore thyristors on the same phase leg are fired at an
interval of 180° and hence can not conduct simultaneously. This leaves only six possible
conduction mode for the converter in the continuous conduction mode of operation. These are
T1T2, T2T3, T3T4, T4T5, T5T6, T6T1. Each conduction mode is of 60° duration and appears in the
sequence mentioned. The conduction table of Fig. 13.1 (b) shows voltage across different
devices and the dc output voltage for each conduction interval. The phasor diagram of the line
voltages appear in Fig. 13.1 (c). Each of these line voltages can be associated with the firing of a
thyristor with the help of the conduction table-1. For example the thyristor T1 is fired at the end
of T5T6 conduction interval. During this period the voltage across T 1 was vac. Therefore T1 is fired
α angle after the positive going zero crossing of vac. Similar observation can be made about other
thyristors. The phasor diagram of Fig. 13.1 (c) also confirms that all the thyristors are fired in the
correct sequence with 60° interval between each firing.
Fig. 13.2 shows the waveforms of different variables (shown in Fig. 13.1 (a)). To arrive at the
waveforms it is necessary to draw the conduction diagram which shows the interval of
conduction for each thyristor and can be drawn with the help of the phasor diagram of fig. 13.1
(c). If the converter firing angle is α each thyristor is fired “α” angle after the positive going zero
crossing of the line voltage with which it’s firing is associated. Once the conduction diagram is
drawn all other voltage waveforms can be drawn from the line voltage waveforms and from the
conduction table of fig. 13.1 (b). Similarly line currents can be drawn from the output current
and the conduction diagram. It is clear from the waveforms that output voltage and current
waveforms are periodic over one sixth of the input cycle. Therefore this converter is also called
the “six pulse” converter. The input current on the other hand contains only odds harmonics of
the input frequency other than the triplex (3rd, 9th etc.) harmonics. The next section will analyze
the operation of this converter in more details.
Additional inductance:

The addition of AC input inductance to the single phase drive improves the
current waveform and spectrum from those shown in Figures 2 and 3 to those
shown in Figures 7 and 8. It is particularly beneficial for the higher order harmonics,
but the fifth and seventh is reduced by a useful degree. Only the third harmonic is
little improved.

Since the three-phase rectifier has no third harmonic current, the AC inductor is
even more

beneficial, as shown in figure

Introduction:

In most practical situations, most of ac dc converters are supplied from transformers. The series
impedance of the transformer can not always be neglected. Even if no transformer is used, the
impedance of the feeder line comes in series with the source. In most cases this impedance is
predominantly inductive with negligible resistive component. The presence of source inductance
does have significant effect on the performance of the converter. With source inductance present
the output voltage of a converter does not remain constant for a given firing angle. Instead it
drops gradually with load current. The converter output voltage and input current waveforms
also change significantly. In this lesson a quantitative analysis of these effects will be taken up in
some detail.

DC inductance

Drives rated at 4kW or more usually have three-phase input and include
inductance in the DC link. This gives the improved waveform and spectrum shown in
Figures 11 and 12, which are for a hypothetical 1.5kW drive for ease of comparison with
the previous illustrations.
Single phase fully controlled converter with source inductance
Fig. 1.1(a) shows a single phase fully controlled converter with source inductance. For simplicity
it has been assumed that the converter operates in the continuous conduction mode. Further, it
has been assumed that the load current ripple is negligible and the load can be replaced by a dc
current source the magnitude of which equals the average load current. Fig. 1.1(b) shows the
corresponding waveforms. It is assumed that the thyristors T 3 and T4 were conducting at t = 0. T1
and T2 are fired at ωt = α. If there were no source inductance T 3 and T4 would have commutated
as soon as T1 and T2 are turned ON. The input current polarity would have changed
instantaneously. However, if a source inductance is present the commutation and change of input
current polarity can not be instantaneous. Therefore, when T1 and T2 are turned ON T3 T4 does not
commutate immediately. Instead, for some interval all four thyristors continue to conduct as
shown in Fig. 15.1(b). This interval is called “overlap” interval.
During this period the load current freewheels through the thyristors and the output voltage is
clamped to zero. On the other hand, the input current starts changing polarity as the current
through T1 and T2 increases and T3 T4 current decreases. At the end of the overlap interval the
current through T3 and T4 becomes zero and they commutate, T1 and T2 starts conducting the full
load current. The same process repeats during commutation from T1 T2 to T3T4 at ωt = π + α.
From Fig. 15.1(b) it is clear that, commutation overlap not only reduces average
output dc voltage but also reduces the extinction angle γ which may cause
commutation failure in the inverting mode of operation if α is very close to 180º.
In the following analysis an expression of the overlap angle “μ” will be
determined.

From the equivalent circuit of the converter during overlap period

for α ≤ ωt ≤α + μ
can be represented by the following equivalent circuit

The simple equivalent circuit of Fig. 15.3 represents the single phase fully controlled converter
with source inductance as a practical dc source as far as its average behavior is concerned. The
open circuit voltage of this practical source equals the average dc output voltage of an ideal
converter (without source inductance) operating at a firing angle of α. The voltage drop across
the internal resistance “RC” represents the voltage lost due to overlap shown in Fig. 15.1(b) by
the hatched portion of the v0 waveform. Therefore, this is called the “Commutation resistance”.
Although this resistance accounts for the voltage drop correctly there is no power loss associated
with this resistance since the physical process of overlap does not involve any power loss.
Therefore this resistance should be used carefully where power calculation is involved.

Three phase fully controlled converter with source

inductance

When the source inductance is taken into account, the qualitative effects on the
performance of the converter is similar to that in the case of a single phase
converter. Fig. 15.4(a) shows such a converter. As in the case of a single phase
converter the load is assumed to be highly inductive such that the load can be
replaced by a current source.
As in the case of a single phase converter, commutations are not instantaneous due to the
presence of source inductances. It takes place over an overlap period of “μ 1” instead. During the
overlap period three thyristors instead of two conducts. Current in the outgoing thyristor
gradually decreases to zero while the incoming thyristor current increases and equals the total
load current at the end of the overlap period. If the duration of the overlap period is greater than
60º four thyristors may also conduct clamping the output voltage to zero for sometime. However,
this situation is not very common and will not be discussed any further in this lesson. Due to the
conduction of two devices during commutation either from the top group or the bottom group the
instantaneous output voltage during the overlap period drops (shown by the hatched portion of
Fig. 15.4 (b)) resulting in reduced average voltage. The exact amount of this reduction can be
calculated as follows.
In the time interval α < ωt ≤ α + μ, T6 and T2 from the bottom group and T1 from the top group
conducts. The equivalent circuit of the converter during this period is given by the circuit
diagram of Fig. 15.5.
Therefore, in the interval α < ωt ≤ α + μ

at ωt = α + μ, ib = 0
Equation 15.20 holds for μ ≤ 60º. It can be shown that for this condition to be
satisfied

To calculate the dc voltage

For α ≤ ωt ≤ α + μ

Substituting Equation 15.20 into 15.24

Equation 15.25 suggests the same dc equivalent circuit for the three phase
converter with source inductance as shown in Fig. 15.3 with

and commutation resistance

It should be noted that RC is a “loss less” resistance, since the overlap process
does not involve any active power loss.