Calculations in Chemistry

Calculations In Chemistry
A Note to Students
The goal of these lessons is to help you solve calculations in first-year chemistry. This is
only one part of a course in chemistry, but it is often the most challenging.
Provisions: A spiral notebook is suggested as a place to write your work when solving
problems in these lessons. You will also need
• two packs of 100 3x5 index cards (two or more colors are preferred) plus a small
assortment of rubber bands, and
• a pack of large (3 to 6 inch long) sticky notes to use as cover sheets.
Choosing a Calculator: As you do problems, use the same calculator that you will be
allowed to use during tests, to learn and practice the rules for that calculator before tests.
Many courses will not allow the use of a graphing calculator or other calculators with
extensive memory during tests. If no type of calculator is specified for your course, any
inexpensive calculator with a 1/x or x-1 , yx or ^ , log or 10x , and ln functions
will be sufficient for most calculations in first-year chemistry.
Buy two identical calculators if possible. If one becomes broken or lost, you will have a
familiar backup if the bookstore is sold out later in the term.
When to Start: You will receive the maximum benefit from these lessons by completing
the lessons on a topic before it is addressed in lecture.
Where to Start: The order of these lessons may not always match the order in which topics
are covered in your course. If you are using these modules as part of a course, do the
lessons in the order in which they are assigned by your instructor.
If you are using these lessons “on your own” to assist with a course,
• First, determine the topics that will be covered on your next graded problem set,
quiz, or test.
• Find those topics in the Table of Contents.
• Download the modules that include the topics.
• Find the prerequisite lessons for the topic, listed at the beginning of the module or
lesson. Download and print those lessons. Do the prerequisites, then the topics
related to your next graded assignments.
• Follow the instructions on “How to Use These Lessons” on page 1.
If you begin these lessons after the start of your course, as time permits, review prior topics
in these lessons starting with Module 1. You will need all of these introductory modules
for later topics -- and for your final exam.
Check back for updates at www.ChemReview.Net .
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Table of Contents
How to Use These Lessons ............................................................................................... 1
Module 1 – Scientific Notation........................................................................................ 2
Lesson 1A: Moving the Decimal.............................................................................................. 2
Lesson 1B: Calculations Using Exponential Notation ......................................................... 8
Lesson 1C: Tips for Complex Calculations .......................................................................... 16
Module 2 – The Metric System...................................................................................... 24
Lesson 2A: Metric Fundamentals .......................................................................................... 24
Lesson 2B: Metric Prefix Formats ......................................................................................... 30
Lesson 2C: Cognitive Science -- and Flashcards ................................................................. 34
Lesson 2D: Calculations With Units...................................................................................... 40
Module 3 – Significant Figures...................................................................................... 44
Lesson 3A: Rules for Significant Figures .............................................................................. 44
Lesson 3B: Sig Figs -- Special Cases...................................................................................... 47
Lesson 3C: Sig Fig Summary and Practice........................................................................... 50
Module 4 – Conversion Factors ..................................................................................... 53
Lesson 4A: Conversion Factor Basics.................................................................................... 53
Lesson 4B: Single Step Conversions ..................................................................................... 57
Lesson 4C: Multi-Step Conversions...................................................................................... 60
Lesson 4D: English/Metric Conversions.............................................................................. 62
Lesson 4E: Ratio Unit Conversions....................................................................................... 66
Lesson 4F: Review Quiz For Modules 1-4 ............................................................................. 70
Module 5 – Word Problems............................................................................................ 73
Lesson 5A: Answer Units -- Single Or Ratio? ...................................................................... 73
Lesson 5B: Mining The DATA .............................................................................................. 75
Lesson 5C: Solving For Single Units ..................................................................................... 82
Lesson 5D: Finding the Given................................................................................................. 84
Lesson 5E: Some Chemistry Practice.................................................................................... 86
Lesson 5F: Area and Volume Conversions ......................................................................... 89
Lesson 5G: Densities of Solids: Solving Equations ............................................................ 93
Module 6 – Atoms, Ions, and Periodicity .................................................................. 101
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................. 101
Lesson 6B: The Nucleus, Isotopes, and Atomic Mass ...................................................... 106
Lesson 6C: Elements, Compounds, and Formulas ........................................................... 113
Lesson 6D: The Periodic Table............................................................................................. 118
Lesson 6E: A Flashcard Review System............................................................................. 122
Module 7 – Writing Names and Formulas ................................................................ 125
Lesson 7A: Naming Elements and Covalent Compounds............................................... 125
Lesson 7B: Naming Ions....................................................................................................... 130
Lesson 7C: Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds ................................................. 140
Lesson 7D: Naming Acids .................................................................................................... 152
Lesson 7E: Review Quiz For Modules 5-7 ........................................................................... 155
Module 8 – Grams and Moles...................................................................................... 159
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 159
Lesson 8B: Grams Per Mole (Molar Mass)......................................................................... 160
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Lesson 8C: Converting Between Grams and Moles ..........................................................163
Lesson 8D: Converting Particles, Moles, and Grams ........................................................167
Module 9 – Mole Applications.....................................................................................172
Lesson 9A: Fractions and Percentages.................................................................................172
Lesson 9B: Empirical Formulas............................................................................................174
Lesson 9C: Empirical Formulas from Mass or % Mass.....................................................175
Lesson 9D: Mass Fraction, Mass Percent, Percent Composition......................................180
Module 10 – Balanced Equations and Stoichiometry..............................................189
Lesson 10A: Chemical Reactions and Equations .................................................................189
Lesson 10B: Balancing Equations ..........................................................................................192
Lesson 10C: Using Coefficients -- Molecules to Molecules ................................................197
Lesson 10D: Mole to Mole Conversions ................................................................................199
Lesson 10E: Conversion Stoichiometry ................................................................................202
Lesson 10F: Percent Yield .......................................................................................................209
Lesson 10G: Finding the Limiting Reactant..........................................................................214
Lesson 10H: Final Mixture Amounts – and RICE Tables....................................................220
Lesson 10I: Review Quiz For Modules 8-10..........................................................................233
Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 237
Lesson 11A: Ratio Unit Review ..............................................................................................237
Lesson 11B: Word Problems with Ratio Answers...............................................................237
Lesson 11C: Molarity ...............................................................................................................244
Lesson 11D: Conversions and Careers ..................................................................................250
Lesson 11E: Units and Dimensions ......................................................................................253
Lesson 11F: Ratios versus Two Related Amounts .............................................................260
Lesson 11G: Solving Problems With Parts ...........................................................................265
Module 12 – Molarity Applications ............................................................................275
Lesson 12A: Dilution ...............................................................................................................275
Lesson 12B: Ion Concentrations.............................................................................................283
Lesson 12C: Solution Stoichiometry ......................................................................................290
Lesson 12D: Reaction Stoichiometry For Ratio Units..........................................................297
Lesson 12E: Review Quiz For Modules 11-12........................................................................305
Module 13 – Ionic Equations and Precipitates ......................................................... 308
Lesson 13A: Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds ...................................................308
Lesson 13B: Total and Net Ionic Equations..........................................................................312
Lesson 13C: Predicting Precipitation.....................................................................................316
Lesson 13D: Precipitate and Gravimetric Calculations.......................................................323
Module 14 – Acid-Base Neutralization.......................................................................330
Lesson 14A: Ions in Acid-Base Neutralization .....................................................................330
Lesson 14B: Balancing Hydroxide Neutralization ..............................................................334
Lesson 14C: Acid-Hydroxide Neutralization Calculations................................................341
Lesson 14D: Neutralization Calculations in Parts ...............................................................347
Lesson 14E: Carbonate Neutralization .................................................................................354
Module 15 – Redox Reactions ......................................................................................362
Lesson 15A: Oxidation Numbers ...........................................................................................362
Lesson 15B: Balancing Charge ...............................................................................................367
Lesson 15C: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents..................................................................... 369
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Lesson 15D: Balancing Redox Using Oxidation Numbers ................................................ 372
Lesson 15E: Redox Stoichiometry........................................................................................ 377
Module 16 – Half-Reaction Balancing........................................................................ 381
Lesson 16A: Constructing Half-Reactions – The CA-WHe! Method................................ 381
Lesson 16B: Balancing By Adding Half-Reactions ............................................................. 387
Lesson 16C: Separating Redox Into Half-Reactions ........................................................... 390
Lesson 16D: Balancing Redox With Spectators Present ..................................................... 393
Lesson 16E: Review Quiz For Modules 13-16 ....................................................................... 398
Module 17 – Ideal Gases ............................................................................................... 401
Lesson 17A: Gas Fundamentals............................................................................................. 401
Lesson 17B: Gases at STP ....................................................................................................... 405
Lesson 17C: Complex Unit Cancellation.............................................................................. 410
Lesson 17D: The Ideal Gas Law and Solving Equations .................................................... 415
Lesson 17E: Density, Molar Mass, and Choosing Equations ............................................ 419
Lesson 17F: Using the Combined Equation ........................................................................ 426
Lesson 17G: Gas Law Summary and Practice ..................................................................... 432
Module 18 – Gas Labs, Gas Reactions........................................................................ 436
Lesson 18A: Charles’ Law; Graphing Direct Proportions.................................................. 436
Lesson 18B: Boyle’s Law; Graphs of Inverse Proportions ................................................. 443
Lesson 18C: Avogadro’s Hypothesis; Gas Stoichiometry.................................................. 446
Lesson 18D: Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures ................................................................... 455
Module 19 – Kinetic Molecular Theory ..................................................................... 463
Lesson 19A: Squares and Square Roots ................................................................................ 463
Lesson 19B: Kinetic Molecular Theory................................................................................. 471
Lesson 19C: Converting to SI Base Units ............................................................................. 474
Lesson 19D: KMT Calculations.............................................................................................. 479
Lesson 19E: Graham’s Law.................................................................................................... 488
Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491
Lesson 20A: Graphing Fundamentals................................................................................... 491
Lesson 20B: The Specific Equation for a Line...................................................................... 501
Lesson 20C: Graphing Experimental Data........................................................................... 511
Lesson 20D: Deriving Equations From Linear Data ........................................................... 518
Lesson 20E: Linear Equations Not Directly Proportional ................................................. 529
Lesson 20F: Graphing Inverse Proportions......................................................................... 536
Module 21 – Phases Changes and Energy ................................................................. 546
Lesson 21A: Phases and Phase Changes .............................................................................. 546
Lesson 21B: Specific Heat Capacity and Equations............................................................ 559
Lesson 21C: Water, Energy, and Consistent Units ............................................................. 566
Lesson 21D: Calculating Joules Using Unit Cancellation .................................................. 570
Lesson 21E: Calorimetry ........................................................................................................ 576
Module 22 – Heats Of Reaction (ΔH) ......................................................................... 584
Lesson 22A: Energy, Heat, and Work .................................................................................. 584
Lesson 22B: Exo- And Endothermic Reactions .................................................................. 591
Lesson 22C: Adding ΔH Equations (Hess’s Law)............................................................... 596
Lesson 22D: Heats of Formation and Element Formulas................................................... 603
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Module 23 – Light and Spectra ...................................................................................614
Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................614
Lesson 23B: Planck's Constant ..............................................................................................619
Lesson 23C: DeBroglie’s Wavelength ...................................................................................627
Lesson 23D: The Hydrogen Atom Spectrum........................................................................632
Lesson 23E: Quantum Mechanics .........................................................................................638
Module 24 – Electron Configuration...........................................................................643
Lesson 24A: The Multi-Electron Atom ..................................................................................643
Lesson 24B: Abbreviated Electron Configurations .............................................................647
Lesson 24C: The Periodic Table and Electron Configuration ...........................................651
Lesson 24D: Electron Configurations: Exceptions and Ions .............................................657
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................662
Lesson 25A: Covalent Bonds ..................................................................................................662
Lesson 25B: Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles................................................................667
Lesson 25C: Electronegativity ................................................................................................675
Lesson 25D: Molecular Polarity..............................................................................................679
Lesson 25E: Solubility .............................................................................................................685
Lesson 25F: Double and Triple Bonds ..................................................................................689
Lesson 25G: Ion Dot Diagrams...............................................................................................694
Lesson 25H: Orbital Models for Bonding..............................................................................696
Module 26 – The Behavior of Mixtures .....................................................................701
Lesson 26A: Measures of Solution Composition .................................................................701
Lesson 26B: Parts Per Million.................................................................................................707
Lesson 26C: Colligative Properties and Gas Pressures.......................................................710
Lesson 26D: Colligative Properties of Solutions ..................................................................718
Module 27 – Kinetics: Rate Laws................................................................................729
Lesson 27A: Kinetics Fundamentals .....................................................................................729
Lesson 27B: Rate Laws ............................................................................................................734
Lesson 27C: Integrated Rate Law --Zero Order ...................................................................743
Lesson 27D: Logarithms .........................................................................................................751
Lesson 27E: Integrated Rate Law -- First Order ..................................................................766
Lesson 27F: Reciprocal Math..................................................................................................776
Lesson 27G: Integrated Rate Law -- Second Order..............................................................781
Lesson 27H: Half-Life...............................................................................................................788
Module 28 – Equilibrium ..............................................................................................797
Lesson 28A: Le Châtelier’s Principle .....................................................................................798
Lesson 28B: Powers and Roots of Exponential Notation ...................................................810
Lesson 28C: Equilibrium Constants ......................................................................................820
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................827
Lesson 28E: Kp Calculations...................................................................................................830
Lesson 28F: K and Rice Moles Tables .....................................................................................836
Lesson 28G: K Calculations From Initial Concentrations ...................................................843
Lesson 28H: Q: The Reaction Quotient..................................................................................849
Lesson 28I: Calculations Using K and Q..............................................................................852
Lesson 28J: Solving Quadratic Equations............................................................................859
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Module 29 – Acid-Base Fundamentals....................................................................... 870
Lesson 29A: Acid-Base Math Review ................................................................................... 870
Lesson 29B: Kw Calculations: H+ and OH─....................................................................... 871
Lesson 29C: Strong Acid Solutions ....................................................................................... 877
Lesson 29D: The [OH─] in Strong Acid Solutions .............................................................. 882
Lesson 29E: Strong Base Solutions........................................................................................ 885
Lesson 29F: The pH System................................................................................................... 889
Module 30 – Weak Acids and Bases ........................................................................... 898
Lesson 30A: Ka Math and Approximation Equations ........................................................ 898
Lesson 30B: Weak Acids and Ka Expressions ..................................................................... 902
Lesson 30C: Ka Calculations .................................................................................................. 908
Lesson 30D: Percent Dissociation and Shortcuts................................................................. 917
Lesson 30E: Solving Ka Using the Quadratic Formula ...................................................... 920
Lesson 30F: Weak Bases and Kb Calculations..................................................................... 924
Lesson 30G: Polyprotic Acids ................................................................................................ 933
Module 31 – Brønsted-Lowry Definitions................................................................. 939
Lesson 31A: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases ................................................................... 939
Lesson 31B: Which Acids and Bases Will React?................................................................ 943
Module 32 – pH of Salts................................................................................................ 952
Lesson 32A: The Acid-Base Behavior of Salts...................................................................... 952
Lesson 32B: Will A Salt Acid-Base React? .......................................................................... 959
Lesson 32C: Calculating the pH of a Salt Solution ............................................................ 963
Lesson 32D: Salts That Contain Amphoteric Ions............................................................... 968
Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 974
Lesson 33A: Acid-Base Common Ions, Buffers ................................................................... 974
Lesson 33B: Buffer Example .................................................................................................. 977
Lesson 33C: Buffer Components ........................................................................................... 983
Lesson 33D: Methodical Buffer Calculations....................................................................... 987
Lesson 33E: Buffer Quick Steps............................................................................................. 992
Lesson 33F: The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation ........................................................... 998
Module 34 – pH During Titration ............................................................................. 1005
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures................................................................................................. 1005
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization ................................................................................. 1009
Lesson 34C: Distinguishing Types of Acid-Base Calculations........................................ 1020
Lesson 34D: pH During Strong-Strong Titration .............................................................. 1024
Lesson 34E: Titration pH: Weak by Strong ...................................................................... 1037
Module 35 – Solubility Equilibrium ........................................................................ 1051
Lesson 35A: Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds ............................................................... 1051
Lesson 35B: Ksp Calculations............................................................................................... 1055
Lesson 35C: Solubility and Common Ions ......................................................................... 1062
Lesson 35D: pH and Solubility ............................................................................................ 1069
Lesson 35E: Quantitative Precipitation Prediction........................................................... 1073
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Module 36 – Thermodynamics...................................................................................1085
Lesson 36A: Review: Energy and Heats of Reaction ........................................................1085
Lesson 36B: Entropy and Spontaneity ...............................................................................1090
Lesson 36C: Free Energy .......................................................................................................1098
Lesson 36D: Standard State Values......................................................................................1104
Lesson 36E: Adding ΔG° Equations....................................................................................1109
Lesson 36F: Free Energy at Non-Standard Conditions ....................................................1112
Lesson 36G: Free Energy and K............................................................................................1117
Module 37 – Electrochemistry .................................................................................... 1124
Lesson 37A: Redox Fundamentals .......................................................................................1124
Lesson 37B: Charges and Electrical Work ..........................................................................1131
Lesson 37C: Standard Reduction Potentials.......................................................................1135
Lesson 37D: Non-Standard Potentials: The Nernst Equation .........................................1138
Lesson 37E: Predicting Which Redox Reactions Go .........................................................1144
Lesson 37F: Calculating Cell Potential ...............................................................................1151
Module 38 – Electrochemical Cells ........................................................................... 1161
Lesson 38A: Cells and Batteries............................................................................................1161
Lesson 38B: Anodes and Cathodes .....................................................................................1171
Lesson 38C: Depleted Batteries and Concentration Cells.................................................1180
Lesson 38D: Electrolysis ........................................................................................................1188
Lesson 38E: Amperes and Electrochemical Calculations.................................................1191
•••••
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Module 1 – Scientific Notation
How to Use These Lessons

1. Read the lesson. Work the questions (Q) in the text as you go. To work the
questions, use this method.
• As you turn to a new page, cover the page on the right with a sheet of paper.
• As you start each new page, if you see 5 stars ( * * * * * ) on the page,
cover the text below the stars. As a cover sheet, use either overlapping sticky
notes or a folded sheet of paper.
• In your problem notebook, write your answer to the question (Q) above the
* * * * * . Then slide down the cover sheet to the next set of * * * * *
and check your answer. If you need a hint, read a part of the answer, then
re-cover the answer and try the problem again.
2. Memorize the rules, then do the Practice that follows the rules.
When working questions (Q) in a lesson, you may look back at the rules, but learn
the rules before starting the Practice problems. Treat Practice as a practice test.
Try every other problem of a Practice set on the first day and the remaining
problems in your next study session. This spacing will help you to remember new
material. On both days, try to work the Practice without looking back at the rules.
Step-by-step Practice answers are the end of each lesson. If you need a hint, read
a part of the answer and try again.
3. How many Practice problems should you do? It depends on your background.
These lessons are intended to
• refresh your memory on topics you once knew, and
• fill-in the gaps for topics that are less familiar.
If you know a topic well, read the lesson for review, then do a few problems on
each Practice set. Be sure to do the last problem (usually the most challenging).
If a topic is unfamiliar, do more problems.
4. Work Practice problems at least 3 days a week. Chemistry is cumulative. What
you learn early you will need later. To retain what you learn, space your study of
a topic over several days.
Science has found that your memory tends to retain what it uses repeatedly, but to
remember for only a few days what you do not practice over several days. If you
wait until a quiz deadline to study, what you learn may remain in memory for a
day or two, but on later tests, it will tend to be forgotten.
Begin lessons on new topics early, preferably before the topic is introduced in
lecture.
5. Memorize what must be memorized. Use flashcards and other memory aids.
Chemistry is not easy, but if you work at it steadily, you will achieve success.
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Timing: Module 1 should be done as soon as you are assigned problems that use
exponential notation. If possible, do these lessons before attempting problems in other
textbooks.
Additional Math Topics
Powers and roots of exponential notation are covered in Lesson 28B.
Complex units such as Æ atm ● L
are covered in Lesson 17C. (mole)( atm ● L )
mole ● K
Those lessons may be done at any time after Module 1.
Calculators and Exponential Notation

To multiply 492 x 7.36, the calculator is a useful tool. However, when using exponential
notation, you will make fewer mistakes if you do as much exponential math as you can
without a calculator. These lessons will review the rules for doing exponential math “in
your head.”
The majority of problems in Module 1 will not require a calculator. Problems that require a
calculator will be clearly identified.
You are encouraged to try complex problems with the calculator after you have tried them
without. This should help you to decide when, and when not, to use a calculator.
* * * * *
Lesson 1A: Moving the Decimal

Pretest: If you get a perfect score on this pretest, you may skip to Lesson 1B. Otherwise,
complete Lesson 1A. Answers are at the end of each lesson.
Change these to scientific notation.
1. 9,400 x 103 = ___________________ 3. 0.042 x 106 = _________________
2. ─ 0.0067 x 10―2 = _________________ 4. ─ 77 = _________________

* * * * *
Powers of 10
In science, we often deal with very large and very small numbers.
For example: A drop of water contains about 1,500,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules.
An atom in neon gas has a radius of about 0.000 000 007 0 centimeters.
Large and small numbers are more easily expressed using powers of 10. For the
measurements above, we write
• A drop of water contains about 1.5 x 1021 molecules.
• An atom of neon gas has a radius of about 7.0 x 10―9 centimeters.

Below are the numbers that correspond to powers of 10. Note the relationship between the
exponents in the exponential terms and position of the decimal point in the numbers as you
go down the sequence.
106 = 1,000,000
103 = 1,000 = 10 x 10 x 10
102 = 100
101 = 10
100 = 1 (Anything to the zero power equals one.)
10―1 = 0.1
10―2 = 0.01 = 1/102 = 1/100
10―3 = 0.001
To change from powers of 10 to the numbers they represent, use the following steps.
1. To convert an exponential term that has a positive power of 10 to a standard number,
• write 1, then after 1 add the number of zeros equal to the exponent.
Example: 102 = 100
Another way to state this rule:
• From 1, move the decimal to the right by the number of places equal to the exponent
of 10.
2. To convert a negative power of 10 to a number,
• From 1, move the decimal to the left by the number of places equal to the exponent
of 10 after its negative sign.
Example: 10―2 = 0.01
↑∪∪
Practice A: Write your answers, then check them at the end of this lesson.
1. Write these as regular numbers without an exponential term.
a. 104 = _______________ b. 10―4 = ______________
c. 107 = _______________ d. 10―5 = ______________ e. 100 = ________
Multiplying and Dividing By 10, 100, 1000

When multiplying or dividing by numbers that are positive powers of 10, such as 100 or
10,000, use the following rules.

1. When multiplying a number by a 10, 100, 1000, etc., move the decimal to the right by the
number of zeros in the 10, 100, or 1000.
Examples: 0.072 x 100 = 7.2 ─ 0.0624 x 1,000 = ─ 62.4
2. When dividing a number by 10, 100, or 1000, etc., move the decimal to the left by the
number of zeros in the 10, 100, or 1000.
Examples: 34.6/1000 = 0.0346 0.47/100 = 0.0047
↑∪∪∪
3. When writing a number that has a value between ─1 and 1 ( a number that begins with
a decimal point), always place a zero in front of the decimal point.
Example: Do not write .42 or ─ .74 ; do write 0.42 or ─ 0.74
During your written calculations, the zero in front helps in seeing your decimals.
Practice B: Write your answers, then check them at the end of this lesson.
1. When dividing by 1,000 move the decimal to the _______________ by _____ places.
2. Write these answers as regular numbers.
a. 0.42 x 1000 = b. 63/100 = c. ─ 74.6/10,000 =
Numbers in Exponential Notation

In scientific measurements, exponential notation expresses a value as a number times 10 to
a whole-number power.
Examples: 5,250 = 5.25 x 103 ─ 0.00065 = ─ 6.5 x 10―4
Numbers represented in exponential notation can be described as having three parts.
In ─ 6.5 x 10―4,
• The ─ in front is the sign.
• the 6.5 is termed the significand, or mantissa, or coefficient.
• The 10―4 is the exponential term: the base is 10 and the exponent (also termed the
power) is ―4.
Because coefficient and mantissa have other meanings in math and science, in these lessons
we will refer to the two parts of exponential notation after the sign as the significand and
exponential term.
sign ↓
─ 6.5 x 10―4
↑ ↑
significand exponential
You should also learn (and use) any alternate terminology preferred in your course.

Converting Exponential Notation to Numbers

To convert from exponential notation to a number without an exponential term, use the
following rules.
a. The sign in front never changes. It is independent of the terms after the sign.
b. If the significand is multiplied by a
• positive power of 10, move the decimal point in the significand to the right by the
same number of places as the value of the exponent;
Examples: 2 x 102 = 200 ─ 0.0033 x 103 = ─ 3.3
∪∪↑ ∪∪∪↑
• negative power of 10, move the decimal point in the significand to the left by the
same number of places as the number after the minus sign of the exponent.
Examples: 2 x 10―2 = 0.02
↑∪∪
─ 7,653 x 10―3 = ─ 7,653 x 0.001 = ─ 7.653

↑∪∪∪
Practice C: Write these as regular numbers without an exponential term.

1. 3 x 103 = _____________________ 2. 5.5 x 10―4 = _________________________
3. 0.77 x 106 = __________________ 4. ─ 95 x 10―4 = ______________________
Changing Exponential to Scientific Notation

In chemistry, it is often required that numbers that are very large or very small be written
in scientific notation (also called standard exponential notation).
Scientific notation is a special case of exponential notation in which the significand is
1 or greater, but less than 10, and is multiplied by 10 to a whole-number power.
Another way to say this: in scientific notation, the decimal point in the significand must be
after the first digit that is not a zero.
Example: ─ 0.057x 10―2 in scientific notation is written as ─ 5.7 x 10―4 .
The decimal must be moved to after the first number in the significand that is not a
zero: the 5.
To convert from exponential to scientific notation,

• move the decimal in the significand to after the first digit that is not a zero, then
• adjust the exponent to keep the same numeric value.

When moving a decimal point, use these rules.

1. When moving the decimal, the sign in front never changes.
2. If moving the decimal Y times to make the significand larger, make the power of 10
smaller by a count of Y.
Example. Converting exponential to scientific notation: 0.045 x 10 5 = 4 . 5 x 10 3
∪∪↑
To convert to scientific notation, the decimal must be after the 4. Move the
decimal two times to the right. This makes the significand 100 times larger. To
keep the same numeric value, lower the exponent by 2, making the 10x value
100 times smaller.
3. When moving the decimal Y times to make the significand smaller, make the power
of 10 larger by a count of Y.
Example. Convert to scientific notation: ─ 8,544 x 10 ―7 = ─ 8 . 544 x 10 ―4
↑∪∪∪
To convert to scientific notation, you must move the decimal 3 places to the left.
This makes the significand 1,000 times smaller. To keep the same numeric
value, increase the exponent by 3, making the 10x value 1,000 times larger.
Remember, 10─4 is 1,000 times larger than 10─7.

It helps to recite, every time you move a decimal, for the terms after the sign in front:
“If one gets smaller, the other gets larger. If one gets larger, the other gets smaller.”
Practice D: Change these to scientific notation. Check answers at the end of the lesson.
1. 5,420 x 103 = 2. 0.0067 x 10―4 = ___________________
3. 0.020 x 103 = 4. 870 x 10―4 = _____________________
5. 0.00492 x 10―12 = 6. 602 x 1021 = _____________________
Converting Numbers to Scientific Notation

To convert regular numbers to exponential notation, we will need these rules.
• Any number to the zero power equals one.
20 = 1. 420 = 1. Exponential notation most often uses 100 = 1.
• Since any number can be multiplied by one without changing its value, any number
can be multiplied by 100 without changing its value.
Example: 42 = 42 x 1 = 42 x 100 in exponential notation
= 4.2 x 101 in scientific notation.

To convert regular numbers to scientific notation, the steps are

1. Add x 100 after the number.
2. Apply these rules for scientific notation and moving the decimal:
• Move the decimal in the significand to after the first digit that is not a zero.
• Adjust the power of 10 to compensate for moving the decimal.
• The sign in front of the significand never changes.
Try: Q. Using the steps above, convert these numbers to scientific notation.
a. 943 b. ─ 0.00036
* * * * * (See How To Use These Lessons, Point 1, on page 1).
Answers: 943 = 943 x 100 = 9.43 x 102 in scientific notation.
─ 0.00036 = ─ 0.00036 x 100 = ─ 3.6 x 10―4 in scientific notation.
When a number is converted to scientific notation, numbers after the sign in front that are
• larger than one have positive exponents (zero and above) in scientific notation;
• smaller than one have negative exponents in scientific notation; and
• the number of places that the decimal in a number moves is the number after the sign
in its exponent.
Note how these three rules apply to the two answers above.
Note also that in both exponential and scientific notation, whether the sign in front is
positive or negative has no impact on the sign of the exponential term. The exponential term
indicates the position of the decimal point, and not whether a value is positive or negative.
Practice E
1. Which lettered parts in Problem 2 below must have negative exponentials when written
in scientific notation?
2. Change these to scientific notation.
a. 6,280 = b. ─ 0.0093 = ______________________
c. 0.741 = _____________________ d. 1,280,000 = _____________________
3. Complete the problems in the pretest at the beginning of this lesson.
Study Summary
In your problem notebook, write a list of rules in this lesson that were unfamiliar, needed
reinforcement, or you found helpful. Then condense the wording, number the points, and
write and recite until you can write them from memory.
Then do the problems below.

Practice F
Check and do every other letter. If you miss one, do another letter for that set. Save a few
parts for your next study session.
1. Write these answers as a number (without exponential terms).
a. 924/10,000 = b. 24.3 x 1000 = c. ─ 0.024/10 =
2. Convert to scientific notation.
a. 0.55 x 105 b. 0.0092 x 100 c. 940 x 10―6 d. 0.00032 x 101
3. Write these numbers in scientific notation.

a. 7,700 b. 160,000,000 c. 0.023 d. 0.00067
ANSWERS (To make answer pages easy to locate, use a sticky note.)
Pretest: 1. 9.4 x 106 2. ─ 6.7 x 10―5 3. 4.2 x 104 4. ─ 7.7 x 101

Practice A: 1a. 10,000 b. 0.0001 c. 10,000,000 d. 0.00001. e. 1
Practice B: 1. When dividing by 1,000 , move the decimal to the left by 3 places.
2a. 0.42 x 1000 = 420 2b. 63/100 = 0.63 (must have zero in front) c. ─ 74.6/10,000 = ─ 0.00746
Practice C: 1. 3,000 2. 0.00055 3. 770,000 4. ─ 0.0095
Practice D: 1. 5.42 x 106 2. 6.7 x 10―7 3. 2.0 x 101 4. 8.7 x 10―2 5. 4.92 x 10―15 6. 6.02 x 1023
Practice E: 1. 2b and 2c 2a. 6.28 x 103 2b. ─ 9.3 x 10―3 2c. 7.41 x 10―1 2d. 1.28 x 106
Practice F: 1a. 0.0924 1b. 24,300 1c. ─ 0.0024
2a. 5.5 x 104 2b. 9.2 x 10―1 2c. 9.4 x 10―4 2d. 3.2 x 10―3
3a. 7.7 x 103 3b. 1.6 x 108 3c. 2.3 x 10―2 3d. 6.7 x 10―4
* * * * *
Lesson 1B: Calculations Using Exponential Notation

Pretest: If you can answer all of these three questions correctly, you may skip to Lesson 1C.
Otherwise, complete Lesson 1B. Answers are at the end of the lesson.
Do not use a calculator. Convert final answers to scientific notation.
1. (2.0 x 10―4) (6.0 x 1023) = 2. 1023 =
(100)(3.0 x 10―8)
3. (─ 6.0 x 10―18) ─ (─ 2.89 x 10―16) =
* * * * *

Adding and Subtracting Exponential Notation

To add or subtract exponential notation without a calculator, the standard rules of
arithmetic can be applied – if all of the significands have the same exponential term.
To add or subtract exponential notation by hand, we re-write the values so that each value
has the same exponential term, moving the decimals in the significands to compensate for
changing the exponential. This usually results in numbers that are in exponential notation,
but not in scientific notation. That’s OK. During calculations, we nearly always work in
exponential notation, then convert to scientific notation at the final step.
To add or subtract, you may convert all of the exponential notation to any consistent power
of 10. However, it usually simplifies the arithmetic if you convert so that all values have
the same exponential as the largest of the exponential terms being added or subtracted.
The rule is
To add or subtract exponential notation by hand, make all of the exponents the same.
The steps are
To add or subtract exponential notation without a calculator,

1. Move the decimals so that all of the significands are multiplied by the same power of
10. Converting to the highest power of 10 being added or subtracted is suggested.
2. Write the significands and exponentials in columns: numbers under numbers (lining
up the decimal points), x under x, exponentials under exponentials.
3. Add or subtract the significands using standard arithmetic, then attach the common
power of 10 to the answer.
4. Convert the final answer to scientific notation.
Follow how the steps are applied in this
Example: ( 40.71 x 108 ) + ( 222 x 106 ) = ( 40.71 x 108 ) + ( 2.22 x 108 ) =
40.71 x 108
+ 2.22 x 108
42.93 x 108 = 4.293 x 109
Using the steps and the method shown in the example, try the following problem without a
calculator. In this problem, do not round numbers during or after the calculation.
Q. ( 32.464 x 101 ) ─ (16.2 x 10―1 ) = ?
* * * * *

A. ( 32.464 x 101 ) ─ (16.2 x 10―1 ) = ( 32.464 x 101 ) ─ (0.162 x 10+1 ) =

32.464 x 101 (101 has a higher value than 10―1)
─ 0.162 x 101
32.302 x 101 = 3.2302 x 102
Let’s do problem 1 again. This time, below, convert the exponential notation to regular
numbers, do the arithmetic, then convert the final answer to scientific notation.
32.464 x 101 =
─ 16.2 x 10―1 =
* * * * *
32.464 x 101 = 324.64
─ 16.2 x 10―1 = ─ 1.62
323.02 = 3.2302 x 102
The answer is the same either way, as it must be. This “convert to regular numbers”
method is easier when the exponents are close to 0. However, for exponents such as 1023
or 10―17, we will want to use the method above: adjusting so that all of the exponential
terms are the same.
The Role of Practice

Do as many Practice problems as you need to feel “quiz ready.”
• If the material in a lesson is relatively easy review, do the last problem on each
series of similar problems.
• If the lesson is less easy, check then work every 2nd or 3rd problem. If you miss
one, do some similar problem in the set.
• Save a few problems for your next study session -- and quiz/test review.
During the Examples and Q problems, you may look back at the rules, but try to learn
the rules and steps before the Practice.
If you use the Practice to learn the rules, it will be difficult to find time for all of the
problems you will need to do. If you use Practice to apply known rules, you will need
to do fewer problems to be “quiz ready.”
Practice A: Try these without a calculator. On these, don’t round. Do convert final
answers to scientific notation. After each problem, check your answer.
1. 64.202 x 1023
+ 13.2 x 1021
2. (2.25 x 10―5) + (61 x 10―7) + (212.0 x 10―6) =

3. ( ― 2.18 x 10―18 ) + ( ― 54 x 10―20 ) =
4. ( ― 21.46 x 10―17 ) ― ( ― 3,250 x 10―19 ) =
Multiplying and Dividing Powers of 10

The following boxed rules should be recited until they are memorized.
1. When you multiply exponentials, you add the exponents.

Examples: 103 x 102 = 105 10―5 x 10―2 = 10―7 10―3 x 105 = 102
2. When you divide exponentials, you subtract the exponents.

Examples: 103/102 = 101 10―5/102 = 10―7 10―5/10―2 = 10―3
When subtracting, remember: “Minus a minus is a plus.” 106―(―3) = 106+3 = 109
3. When you take the reciprocal of an exponential, change the sign.

This rule is often remembered as:
When you take an exponential term from the bottom to the top, change the sign.
Example: 1 = 10―3 ; 1/10―5 = 105
103
Why does this work? Rule 2: 1 = 100 = 100―3 = 10―3
103 103
4. When fractions include several terms, it often helps to simplify the top and bottom
separately, then divide.
Example: 10―3 = 10―3 = 10―6
105 x 10―2 103
Try the following problem.
Q. Without using a calculator, simplify the top, then the bottom, then divide.
10―3 x 10―4 = =
105 x 10―8
Answer: 10―3 x 10―4 = 10―7 = 10―7―(―3) = 10―7+3 = 10―4

105 x 10―8 10―3
Practice B: Write answers as 10 to a power. Do not use a calculator. Check your

answers at the end of the lesson.
1. 106 x 102 = 2. 10―5 x 10―6 =

3. 10―5 = 4. 10―3 =
10―4 105
5. 1 = 6. 1/1023 =
10 ―4
7. 103 x 10―5 = 8. 105 x 1023 =

10―2 x 10―4 10―1 x 10―6
9. 100 x 10―2 = 10. 10―3 x 1023 =
1,000 x 106 10 x 1,000
Multiplying and Dividing in Exponential Notation

These are the rules we use most often.
1. When multiplying and dividing using exponential notation, handle the significands and
exponents separately. Do number math using number rules, and exponential math using
exponential rules, then combine the two parts.
Memorize rule 1, then apply it to the following three problems.
a. Do not use a calculator: (2 x 103) (4 x 1023) =
* * * * *
For numbers, use number rules. 2 times 4 is 8
For exponentials, use exponential rules. 103 x 1023 = 103+23 = 1026
Then combine the two parts: (2 x 103) (4 x 1023) = 8 x 1026
b. Do the significand math on a calculator but the exponential math in your head
for (2.4 x 10―3) (3.5 x 1023) =
* * * * *
Handle significands and exponents separately.
• Use a calculator for the numbers. 2.4 x 3.5 = 8.4
• Do the exponentials in your head. 10―3 x 1023 = 1020
• Then combine.
(2.4 x 10―3) (3.5 x 1023) = (2.4 x 3.5) x (10―3 x 1023) = 8.4 x 1020
We will review how much to round answers in Module 3. Until then, round numbers
and significands in your answers to two digits unless otherwise noted.
c. Do significand math on a calculator but exponential math without a calculator.
6.5 x 1023 = ?
4.1 x 10―8
* * * * *
Answer: 6.5 x 1023 = 6.5 x 1023 = 1.585 x [1023 ― (―8) ] = 1.6 x 1031
4.1 x 10―8 4.1 10―8

2. When dividing, if an exponential term does not have a significand, add a 1 x in front of
the exponential so that the number-number division is clear.
Try the rule on this problem. Do not use a calculator.
10―14 =
2.0 x 10 ―8
* * * * *
Answer: 10―14 = 1 x 10―14 = 0.50 x 10―6 = 5.0 x 10―7
2.0 x 10―8 2.0 x 10―8
Practice C: Do these in your notebook. Do the odds first, then the evens if you need
more practice. Try first without a calculator, then check your mental arithmetic with a
calculator if needed. Write final answers in scientific notation, rounding significands to
two digits. Answers are at the end of the lesson.
1. (2.0 x 101) (6.0 x 1023) = 2. (5.0 x 10―3) (1.5 x 1015) =
3. 3.0 x 10―21 = 4. 6.0 x 10―23 =

― 2.0 x 103 2.0 x 10―4
5. 10―14 = 6. 1014 =
5.0 x 10―3 4.0 x 10―4
7. Complete the three problems in the pretest at the beginning of this lesson.
Study Summary
In your problem notebook, write a list of rules in Lesson 1B that were unfamiliar, need
reinforcement, or you found helpful. Then condense your list. Add this new list to your
numbered points from Lesson 1A. Write and recite the combined list until you can write all
of the points from memory. Then do the problems below.
Practice D
Start by doing every other letter. If you get those right, go to the next number. If not, do a
few more of that number. Save one part of each question for your next study session.
1. Try these without a calculator. Convert final answers to scientific notation.
a. 3 x (6.0 x 1023) = b. 1/2 x (6.0 x 1023) =
c. 0.70 x (6.0 x 1023) = d. 103 x (6.0 x 1023) =
e. 10―2 x (6.0 x 1023) = f. (― 0.5 x 10―2)(6.0 x 1023) =

g. 1 = h. 1/10―9 =
10 12
i. 3.0 x 1024 = j. 2.0 x 1018 =

6.0 x 1023 6.0 x 1023
k. 1.0 x 10―14 = l. 1010 =
4.0 x 10―5 2.0 x 10 ―5
2. Use a calculator for the numbers, but not for the exponents.
a. 2.46 x 1019 = b. 10―14 =
6.0 x 1023 0.0072
Try problems 3 and 4 without using a calculator.
3. 107 x 10―2 = 4. 10―23 x 10―5 =
10 x 10―5 10―5 x 100
5. Convert to scientific notation in the final answer. Do not round during these.
a. ( 74 x 105 ) + ( 4.09 x 107 ) =
b. (5.122 x 10―9 ) ― ( ― 12,914 x 10―12 ) =
ANSWERS
Pretest. In scientific notation: 1. 1.2 x 1020 2. 3.3 x 1028 3. 2.83 x 10―16
Practice A: You may do the arithmetic in any way you choose that results in these final answers.
1. 64.202 x 1023 = 64.202 x 1023
+ 13.2 x 1021 + 0.132 x 1023
64.334 x 1023 = 6.4334 x 1024
2. (2.25 x 10―5) + (61 x 10―7) + (212.0 x 10―6) = (2.25 x 10―5) + (0.61 x 10―5) + (21.20 x 10―5) =
2.25 x 10―5 (10―5 is the highest value of the three exponentials)
+ 0.61 x 10―5
+ 21.20 x 10―5
24.06 x 10―5 = 2.406 x 10―4
3. ( ― 2.18 x 10―18 ) + (― 54 x 10―20 ) = ( ― 2.18 x 10―18 ) + (― 0.54 x 10―18 ) =
─ 2.18 x 10―18
─ 0.54 x 10―18 (10―18 is higher in value than 10―20 )
─ 2.72 x 10―18

4. (― 21.46 x 10―17 ) ― ( ― 3,250 x 10―19 ) =

( + 3,250 x 10―19 ) ― ( 21.46 x 10―17 ) = ( + 32.50 x 10―17 ) ― ( 21.46 x 10―17 ) =
32.50 x 10―17
─ 21.46 x 10―17
11.04 x 10―17 = 1.104 x 10―16
Practice B
1. 108 2. 10―11 3. 10―1 4. 10―8 5. 104 6. 10―23 7. 104 8. 1035
9. 100 x 10―2 = 102 x 10―2 = 100 = 10―9 10. 10―3 x 1023 = 1020 = 1016
1,000 x 106 103 x 106 109 10 x 1,000 104
(For 9 and 10, you may use different steps, but you must arrive at the same answer.)
Practice C
1. 1.2 x 1025 2. 7.5 x 1012 3. ― 1.5 x 10―24 4. 3.0 x 10―19 5. 2.0 x 10―12 6. 2.5 x 1017
Practice D
1a. 3 x (6.0 x 1023) = 18 x 1023 = 1.8 x 1024 1b. 1/2 x (6.0 x 1023) = 3.0 x 1023
1c. 0.70 x (6.0 x 1023) = 4.2 x 1023 1d. 103 x (6.0 x 1023) = 6.0 x 1026
1e. 10―2 x (6.0 x 1023) = 6.0 x 1021 1f. (― 0.5 x 10―2)(6.0 x 1023) = ― 3.0 x 1021
1g. 1 = 10―12 1h. 1/10―9 = 109
10 12
1i. 3.0 x 1024 = 3.0 x 1024 = 0.50 x 101 = 5.0 x 100 ( = 5.0 )
6.0 x 1023 6.0 x 1023
1j. 2.0 x 1018 = 0.33 x 10―5 = 3.3 x 10―6 1k. 1.0 x 10―14 = 0.25 x 10―9 = 2.5 x 10―10
6.0 x 1023 4.0 x 10―5
1l. 1010 = 1 x 1010 = 0.50 x 1015 = 5.0 x 1014

2.0 x 10―5 2.0 x 10―5
2a. 2.46 x 1019 = 0.41 x 10―4 = 4.1 x 10―5
6.0 x 1023
2b. 10―14 = 1.0 x 10―14 = 1.0 x 10―14 = 0.14 x 10―11 = 1.4 x 10―12
0.0072 7.2 x 10―3 7.2 x 10―3
3. 107 x 10―2 = 105 = 109 4. 10―23 x 10―5 = 10―25
101 x 10―5 10―4 10―5 x 102
5a. ( 74 x 105 ) + ( 4.09 x 107 ) = 5b. (5.122 x 10―9 ) ― ( ― 12,914 x 10―12 ) =
= ( 0.74 x 107 ) + ( 4.09 x 107 ) = = (5.122 x 10―9 ) + ( 12.914 x 10―9 ) =

0.74 x 107 5.122 x 10―9

+ 4.09 x 107 + 12.914 x 10―9
4.83 x 107 18.036 x 10―9 = 1.8036 x 10―8
* * * * *
Lesson 1C: Tips for Complex Calculations

Pretest: If you can solve both problems correctly, you may skip this lesson. Convert your
final answers to scientific notation. Check your answers at the end of this lesson.
1. For this problem, (3.15 x 103)(4.0 x 10―24) =
use a calculator as needed. (2.6 x 10―2)(5.5 x 10―5)
2. Solve this problem (10―9)(1015) =

without a calculator. (4 x 10―4)(2 x 10―2)
* * * * *
Choosing a Calculator
If you have not already done so, please read Choosing a Calculator under Notes to the Student
in the preface to these lessons.
Complex Calculations
The prior lessons covered the fundamental rules for exponential notation. For longer
calculations, the rules are the same. The challenges are keeping track of the numbers and
using the calculator correctly.
The steps below will help you to simplify complex calculations, minimize data-entry
mistakes, and quickly check your answers.
Let’s try the following calculation two ways.
(7.4 x 10―2)(6.02 x 1023) =
(2.6 x 103)(5.5 x 10―5)
Method 1. Do numbers and exponents separately.
Work the calculation above using the following steps.
a. Do the numbers on the calculator. Ignoring the exponentials, use the calculator to
multiply all of the significands on top. Write the result. Then multiply all the
significands on the bottom and write the result. Divide, write your answer rounded
to two digits, and then check below.
7.4 x 6.02 = 44.55 = 3.1
2.6 x 5.5 14.3
b. Then exponents. Starting from the original problem, look only at the powers of 10.
Try to solve the exponential math “in your head” without the calculator. Write the
answer for the top, then the bottom, then divide.
* * * * *

10―2 x 1023 = 1021 = 1021―(―2) = 1023

103 x 10―5 10―2
c. Now combine the significand and exponential and write the final answer.
* * * * *
3.1 x 1023
Note that by grouping the numbers and exponents separately, you did not need to enter
the exponents into your calculator. To multiply and divide powers of 10, you simply add
and subtract whole numbers.
Let’s try the calculation a second way.
Method 2. All on the calculator.
Enter all of the numbers and exponents into your calculator. (Your calculator manual,
which is usually available online, can help.) Write your final answer in scientific
notation. Round the significand to two digits.
* * * * *
On most calculators, you will need to use an E or EE or EXP key, rather than the
times key, to enter a “10 to a power” term.
If you needed that hint, try again, and then check below.
* * * * *
Note how your calculator displays the exponential term in answers. The exponent
may be set apart at the right, sometimes with an E in front.
Your calculator answer should be the same as with Method 1: 3.1 x 1023 .
Which way was easier? “Numbers, then exponents,” or “all on the calculator?” How you
do the arithmetic is up to you, but “numbers, then exponents” is often quicker and easier.
Using the Reciprocal Key
On your calculator, the reciprocal key, 1/x or x-1 , may save time and steps.
Try the calculation below this way: Multiply the top. Write the answer. Multiply the
bottom. Write the answer. Then divide and write your final answer.
74 x 4.09 = =
42 x 6.02
An alternative to this ”top then bottom” method is “bottom, 1/x , top.” On the calculator,
repeat the above calculation using these steps.
• Multiply the bottom numbers first.
• Press the 1/x or x-1 button or function on your calculator.
• Then multiply that result by the numbers on top.
Try it.
* * * * *

You should get the same answer (1.197 = 1.2). On some calculators, using the 1/x or x-1
key may allow you to avoid writing or re-entering the “top-over-bottom” middle step.
Your calculator manual can help with using the 1/x function.
The algebra that explains why this works is
AxB = 1 x A x B = (C x D)―1 x A x B
CxD CxD
The reciprocal key “brings the bottom of a fraction to the top.”
Power of 10 Reciprocals
A reciprocal method can also be used for powers of 10.
For example, try the following calculation without a calculator. First do the math in your
head for the top terms and write the answer. Then evaluate the denominator in your head
and write the answer. Divide top by bottom in your head to get the final answer.
10―4 x 1023 = =
102 x 10―7
Now write the calculation “in your head, ” without a calculator, using these steps.
• Multiply the bottom terms (by adding the bottom exponents).
• “Bring the bottom exponential to the top” by changing its sign.
• Multiply that result by the top terms (by adding all of the exponents). Write the
final answer.
* * * * *
The steps are bottom = 2 + (―7) = ―5 top = +5 ― 4 + 23 = 24 answer = 1024
Why does “bringing an exponent up” change its sign? 1/10x = (10x)―1 = 10―x
When you take an exponential term to a power, you multiply the exponents.
(We will do more with exponents to a power in a later lesson.)

For simple fractions of exponential terms, if your mental arithmetic is good, you should be
able to calculate the final answer for the powers of 10 without writing down middle steps.
For longer calculations, however, writing the separate “top and bottom” answers, then
dividing, will break the problem into pieces that are easier to manage and check.
Checking Calculator Results
Whenever a complex calculation is done on a calculator, you must do the calculation a
second time, using different steps, to catch errors in calculator use. Calculator results can be
checked either by using a different key sequence or by estimating answers.
Below is a method that uses estimation to check multiplication and division of exponential
notation. Let’s use the calculation that was done in the first section of this lesson as an
example.
(7.4 x 10―2)(6.02 x 1023) =
(2.6 x 103)(5.5 x 10―5)

Try these steps on the above calculation.

1. Estimate the numbers first. Ignoring the exponentials, round and then multiply all
of the top significands, and write the result. Round and multiply the bottom
significands. Write the result. Then write a rounded estimate of the answer when
you divide those two numbers, and then check below.
* * * * *
Your rounding might be
7x6 = 7 ≈ 2 (the ≈ sign means approximately equals)
3x6 3
If your mental arithmetic is good, you can estimate the number math on the paper
without a calculator. The estimate needs to be fast, but does not need to be exact. If
needed, evaluate the rounded numbers on the calculator.
2. Evaluate the exponents. The exponents are simple whole numbers. Try the
exponential math without the calculator.
* * * * *
10―2 x 1023 = 1021 = 1021― (―2) = 1023
103 x 10―5 10―2
3. Combine the estimated number and exponential answers. Compare this estimated
answer to answer found when you did this calculation in the section above using a
calculator. Are they close?
* * * * *
The estimate is 2 x 1023. The answer with the calculator was 3.1 x 1023. Allowing
for rounding, the two results are close.
If your fast, rounded, “done in your head” answer is close to the calculator answer, it
is likely that the calculator answer is correct. If the two answers are far apart, check
your work.
4. Estimating number division. If you know your multiplication tables, and if you
memorize these simple decimal equivalents to help in estimating division, you may
be able to do many number estimates without a calculator.
1/2 = 0.50 1/3 = 0.33 1/4 = 0.25 1/5 = 0.20 2/3 = 0.67 3/4 = 0.75 1/8 = 0.125
The method used to get your final answer should be slow and careful. Your checking
method should use different steps or calculator keys, or, if time is a factor, should use
rounded numbers and quick mental arithmetic.
On timed tests, you may want to do the exact calculation first, and then go back at the end,
if time is available, and use rounded numbers as a check. Your skills at both estimating
and finding alternate calculator steps will improve with practice.
When doing a calculation the second time, try not to look back at the first answer until after
you write the estimate. If you look back, by the power of suggestion, you will often arrive
the first answer whether it is correct or not.

For complex operations on a calculator, do each calculation a second time using

rounded numbers and/or different steps or keys.
Practice
For problems 1-4, you will need to know the “changing fractions to decimal equivalent”
equalities in the box above. If you need practice, try this.
• On a sheet of paper, draw 5 columns and 7 1/2
rows. List the fractions down the middle 1/3
column.
1/4
• Write the decimal equivalents of the fractions …
at the far right.
• Fold over those answers and repeat at the far left. Fold over those and repeat.
Then try these next four without a calculator. Convert final answer to scientific notation.
1. 4 x 103 =
(2.00)(3.0 x 107)
2. 1 =
(4.0 x 109)(2.0 x 103)
3. (3 x 10―3)(8.0 x 10―5) =
(6.0 x 1011)(2.0 x 10―3)
4. (3 x 10―3)(3.0 x 10―2) =
(9.0 x 10―6)(2.0 x 101)
For the following calculations 5-8,
• First write an estimate based on rounded numbers, then exponentials. Try to do this
estimate without using a calculator.
• Then calculate a more precise answer. You may
o plug the entire calculation into the calculator, or
o use the “numbers on calculator, exponents on paper” method, or
o experiment with both approaches to see which is best for you.
Convert both the estimate and the final answer to scientific notation. Round the significand
in the answer to two digits.
Use the calculator that you will be allowed to use on quizzes and tests.
To start, try every other problem. If you get those right, go to the next lesson. If you need
more practice, do more.
5. (3.62 x 104)(6.3 x 10―10) = 6. 10―2 =

(4.2 x 10―4)(9.8 x 10―5) (750)(2.8 x 10―15)

7. (1.6 x 10―3)(4.49 x 10―5) = 8. 1 =

(2.1 x 103)(8.2 x 106) (4.9 x 10―2)(7.2 x 10―5)
9. For additional practice, do the two pretest problems at the beginning of this lesson.
ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. 8.8 x 10―15 2. 1.25 x 1011
Practice: You may do the arithmetic using different steps than below, but you must get the same answer.
1. 4 x 103 = 4 x 103― 7 = 2 x 10―4 = 0.67 x 10―4 = 6.7 x 10―5
(2.00)(3.0 x 107) 6 3
2. 1 = 1 = 1 x 10―12 = 0.125 x 10―12 = 1.25 x 10―13

(4.0 x 10 )(2.0 x 103)
9 8 x 1012 8
3. ( 3 x 10―3 )(8.0 x 10―5) = 8 x 10―3―5 = 2 x 10―8 = 2 x 10―8―8 = 2.0 x 10―16
( 2 6.0 x 1011)(2.0 x 10―3) 4 1011―3 108
4. ( 3 x 10―3 )( 3.0 x 10―2 ) = 9 x 10―3―2 = 0.50 x 10―5 = 0.50 = 5.0 x 10―1

( 9.0 x 10―6 )( 2.0 x 101 ) 18 10―6+1 10―5
5. First the estimate. The rounding for the numbers might be
4 x 6 = 0.6 For the exponents: 104 x 10―10 = 10―6 = 109 x 10―6 = 103
4 x 10 10―4 x 10―5 10―9
≈ 0.6 x 103 ≈ 6 x 102 (estimate) in scientific notation.
For the precise answer, doing numbers and exponents separately,
(3.62 x 104)(6.3 x 10―10) = 3.62 x 6.3 = 0.55 The exponents are done as in the estimate above.
(4.2 x 10―4)(9.8 x 10―5) 4.2 x 9.8
= 0.55 x 103 = 5.5 x 102 (final) in scientific notation.
This is close to the estimate, a check that the more precise answer is correct.
6. Estimate: 1 ≈ 1 = 0.05 ; 10―2 = 10―2― (―13) = 1011
7 x 3 20 (102)(10―15)
0.05 x 1011 = 5 x 109 (estimate)
Numbers on calculator: 1 = 0.048 Exponents – same as in estimate.
7.5 x 2.8
FINAL: 0.048 x 1011 = 4.8 x 109 (close to the estimate)
7. You might estimate, for the numbers first,

1.6 x 4.49 = 2 x 4 = 0.5 For the exponents: 10―3 x 10―5 = 10―8 = 10―17
2.1 x 8.2 2x8 103 x 106 109
= 0.5 x 10―17 = 5 x 10―18 (estimate)

More precisely, using numbers then exponents, with numbers on the calculator,
1.6 x 4.49 = 0.42 The exponents are done as in the estimate above.
2.1 x 8.2
0.42 x 10―17 = 4.2 x 10―18 This is close to the estimate. Check!
8. Estimate: 1 ≈ 1 ≈ 0.033 ; 1 = 1/(10―7) = 107

5x7 35 (10―2)(10―5)
0.033 x 107 ≈ 3 x 105 (estimate)
Numbers on calculator = 1 = 0.028 Exponents – see estimate.
4.9 x 7.2
FINAL: 0.028 x 107 = 2.8 x 105 (close to the estimate)
* * * * *
SUMMARY –Scientific Notation

1. When writing a number between ─1 and 1, place a zero in front of the decimal point.
Do not write .42 or ─ .74 ; do write 0.42 or ─ 0.74
2. Exponential notation represents numeric values in three parts:
• a sign in front showing whether the value is positive or negative;
• a number (the significand);
• times a base taken to a power (the exponential term).
3. In scientific notation, the significand must be a number that is 1 or greater, but less than
10, and the exponential term must be 10 to a whole-number power. This places the
decimal point in the significand after the first number which is not a zero.
4. When moving a decimal in exponential notation, the sign in front never changes.
5. To keep the same numeric value when moving the decimal of a number in base 10
exponential notation, if you
• move the decimal Y times to make the significand larger, make the exponent
smaller by a count of Y;
• move the decimal Y times to make the significand smaller, make the exponent
larger by a count of Y.
Recite and repeat to remember: When moving the decimal, for the numbers after the
sign in front,
“If one gets smaller, the other gets larger. If one gets larger, the other gets smaller.”

6. To add or subtract exponential notation by hand, all of the values must be converted to
have the same exponential term.
• Convert all of the values to have the same power of 10.
• List the significands and exponential in columns.
• Add or subtract the significands.
• Attach the common exponential term to the answer.
7. In multiplication and division using scientific or exponential notation, handle numbers
and exponential terms separately. Recite and repeat to remember:
• Do numbers by number rules and exponents by exponential rules.
• When you multiply exponentials, you add the exponents.
• When you divide exponentials, you subtract the exponents.
• When you take an exponential term to a power, you multiply the exponents.
• To take the reciprocal of an exponential, change the sign of the exponent.
8. In calculations using exponential notation, try the significands on the calculator but the
exponents on paper.
9. For complex operations on a calculator, do each calculation a second time using rounded
numbers and/or different steps or keys.
# # # # #

Module 2 – The Metric System

Lesson 2A: Metric Fundamentals
Have you already mastered the metric system? Take the following pretest to be sure. If you
get a perfect score, you may skip to Lesson 2B. If not, complete Lesson 2A.
Pretest: Write answers to these, then check your answers at the end of Lesson 2A.
1. What is the mass, in kilograms, of 150 cc’s of liquid water?
2. How many cm3 are in a liter? How many dm3 are in a liter?
3. 2.5 pascals is how many millipascals?
4. 3,500 centigrams is how many kilograms?
* * * * *
The Importance of Units
The fastest and most effective way to solve problems in chemistry is to focus on the units
used to measure quantities. In science, measurements and calculations are done using the
metric system.
Measurement systems begin with standards defining fundamental quantities that include
distance, mass, and time.
Distance
The metric distance unit is the meter, abbreviated m. It is about 39.3 inches, slightly longer
than one yard. A meter stick is usually numbered in centimeters.
|||||||||10|||||||||20|||||||||30|||||||||40|||||||||50|||||||||60||||||||70|||||||||80|||||||||90||||||||
Just as a dollar can be divided into 100 cents, and a century is 100 years, a meter is divided
into 100 centimeters. The centimeter, abbreviated cm, is 1/100th of a meter.
1 centimeter ≡ 1/100th of a meter ≡ 10─2 meters and 1 meter ≡ 100 centimeters
The symbol ≡ means “is defined as equal to” and/or “is exactly equal to.”
A centimeter can be divided into 10 millimeters (mm). Each millimeter is 1/1000th of a
meter.
1 millimeter ≡ 1/1,000th of a meter ≡ 10─3 meters and 1 meter ≡ 1,000 millimeters
A meter stick can also be divided into 10 decimeters (dm). In equations, we can write
1 decimeter ≡ 1/10th of a meter ≡ 10─1 meters and 1 meter ≡ 10 decimeters

One decimeter is equal to 10 centimeters.
Long distances are usually measured in kilometers (km). 1 kilometer ≡ 1,000 meters

The four prefixes above are those most often used in chemistry. From the above, you need
to be able to recall from memory, without hesitation, the equalities that define deci-, centi-,
milli-, and kilo-.
These equalities can be expressed in two ways.
1. The meter-stick equalities

1 METER ≡ 10 deciMETERS ≡ 100 centiMETERS ≡ 1,000 milliMETERS
and 1,000 METERS ≡ 1 kiloMETER
2. The prefix definitions
1 milliMETER ≡ 10―3 METERS ( ≡ 1/1000th METER ≡ 0.001 METERS )
1 centiMETER ≡ 10―2 METERS ( ≡ 1/100th METER ≡ 0.01 METERS )
1 deciMETER ≡ 10―1 METERS ( ≡ 1/10th METER ≡ 0.1 METERS )
1 kiloMETER ≡ 103 METERS ≡ 1,000 METERS
The above definitions for deci-, centi-, and milli- are mathematically equivalent.
1 meter = 100 centimeters is equivalent to 10―2 meters = 1 centimeter
To help in learning the relationships, visualize a meter stick. Recall what the numbers and
marks on the stick mean. Use that image to help you to write the equalities above.
To remember the kilometer definition, visualize 1,000 meter sticks in a row. That’s a
distance of one kilometer. 1 kilometer ≡ 1,000 meter sticks.
The two sets of equalities above are especially important because of the following rule.
3. You may substitute any unit for METER in the equalities above.
Rule 3 means that the prefix relationships that are true for meters are true for any units of
measure. The three rules above allow us to write a wide range of equalities that we can
use to solve science calculations, such as
1 liter ≡ 1,000 milliliters 1 centigram ≡ 10―2 grams 1 kilojoule ≡ 103 joules
To use kilo- , deci-, centi- or milli- with any units, you simply need to be able to write or recall
from memory the metric equalities in Rules 1 and 2 above.
Volume
Volume is three-dimensional space. By definition, volume is distance cubed. Volume is
termed a derived quantity, rather than a fundamental quantity, because it is derived from
distance. Any volume unit can be converted to a distance unit cubed.
A cube that is 1 centimeter wide by 1 cm high by 1 cm long has a volume of one cubic
centimeter (1 cm3). In biology and medicine, a cm3 is often abbreviated as a “cc.”

In chemistry, cubic centimeters are usually referred to as milliliters, abbreviated as mL.

One milliliter is defined as exactly one cubic centimeter. Based on this definition, since
• 1,000 milliMETERs ≡ 1 METER, and 1,000 millianythings ≡ 1 anything,
• 1,000 milliLITERS is defined as 1 liter (1 L).
The mL is a convenient measure for smaller volumes, while the liter (about 1.1 quarts) is
preferred when measuring larger volumes.
One liter is the same as one cubic decimeter ( 1 dm3 ). Note how these units are related.
• The volume of a cube that is 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm = 1,000 cm3 = 1,000 mL
• Since 10 cm ≡ 1 dm, the volume of this same cube can be calculated as
1 dm x 1 dm x 1 dm ≡ 1 cubic decimeter ≡ 1 dm3
Based on the above, by definition, all of the following terms are equal.
1,000 cm3 ≡ 1,000 mL ≡ 1 L ≡ 1 dm3
What do you need to remember about volume? For now, just two more sets of equalities.
4. 1 cm3 ≡ 1 mL ≡ 1 cc
5. 1,000 cm3 ≡ 1,000 mL ≡ 1 liter ≡ 1 dm3
Mass
Mass measures the amount of matter in a substance. If you have studied physics, you
know that mass and weight are not the same. In chemistry, however, unless stated
otherwise, we assume that mass is measured at the constant gravity of the earth’s surface.
In that case, mass and weight are directly proportional and can be measured with the same
instruments.
The metric base-unit for mass is the gram. One gram (g) was originally defined as the mass
of one cubic centimeter of liquid water at 4° Celsius, the temperature at which water has its
highest density. This historic definition is still very close to the modern standard, and we
will often use that historic definition in calculations involving liquid water.
For a given mass of liquid water at 4° C, its volume increases by a small amount with
changes in temperature. The volume increases more if the water freezes or boils. However,
for most calculations for liquid water at any temperature, the following rule may be used.
6. 1 cm3 H2O (liquid) ≡ 1 mL H2O (l) ≈ 1.00 gram H2O(l) ( ≈ means approximately)
Temperature
Metric temperature scales are defined by the properties of water. The unit of the
temperature scale is termed a degree Celsius (oC).
0oC = the freezing point of water.
100oC = the boiling point of water at a pressure of one atmosphere.

Time: The base unit for time in the metric system is the second.
Unit and Prefix Abbreviations
The following list of abbreviations for metric units should also be committed to memory.
The order is not important, but given the unit, you need to be able to write the
abbreviation, and given the abbreviation, you need to be able to write the unit.
Unlike other abbreviations, abbreviations for metric units do not have periods at the end.
Prefixes: k- = kilo- d- = deci- c- = centi- m- = milli-
Units: m = meter g = gram s = second
L = liter = dm3 = cubic decimeter cm3 = cubic centimeter = mL = “cc”
SI Units
The modern metric system (Le Système International d’Unités) is based on SI units. The SI
standard unit for distance is meters, for mass is kilograms, and for time is seconds.
SI units are a subset of metric units that chooses one preferred metric unit as the standard
for measuring each physical quantity. In physics, in calculations that mix units for
fundamental and derived quantities, SI units are essential to simplify calculations.
However, for reasons of both history
and convenience in dealing with Metric Basics
laboratory-scale quantities, chemistry 1. 1 METER ≡ 10 deciMETERS
often measures and calculates in units ≡ 100 centiMETERS
that are metric, but not SI. For volume ≡ 1000 milliMETERS
in chemistry, liters or milliliters are
nearly always used in place of the SI 1,000 METERS ≡ 1 kiloMETER
standard cubic meters, and mass is
2. 1 milliMETER ≡ 1 mm ≡ 10─3 METER
expressed in grams more frequently
than the SI standard kilograms. In 1 centiMETER ≡ 1 cm ≡ 10─2 METER
Modules 4 and 5, you will learn to 1 deciMETER ≡ 1 dm ≡ 10─1 METER
convert when needed between the
1 kiloMETER ≡ 1 km ≡ 103 METER
metric units usually used in chemistry
and SI units. 3. Any word can be substituted for METER
above.
Memorizing Metric Fundamentals
4. 1 cm3 ≡ 1 mL ≡ 1 cc
A strategy that can help in problem-
solving is to start each homework 5. 1 liter ≡ 1000 milliliters ≡ 1 dm3
assignment, quiz, or test by writing 6. 1 cm3 H2O(liquid) ≡ 1 mL H2O(l)
recently memorized rules at the top of
your paper. By writing the rules at the ≈ 1.00 gram H2O(l)
beginning, you will not need to 7. meter ≡ m ; gram ≡ g ; second ≡ s
remember them under time pressure
during a test.
For the metric system, write the seven rules in the box above.
We will use equalities to solve problems. The 7 metric basics are the equalities that we will
use most often.

A Note on Memorization
A goal of these lessons is to minimize what you must memorize. However, it is not
possible to eliminate memorization from science courses.
When there are facts which you must memorize in order to solve problems, these lessons
will tell you. This is one of those times. Memorize the table of metric basics. You will need
to write them automatically, from memory, as part of most assignments in chemistry.
Memorization Tips
When you memorize, it helps to use as many senses as you can.
• Say the rules out loud, over and over, as you would learn lines for a play.
• Write the equations several times, in the same way and order each time.
• Organize the rules into patterns, rhymes, or mnemonics.
• Number the rules so you know which rule you forgot, and when to stop.
• Picture real objects.
o Sketch a meter stick, then write the first two metric rules and compare to your
sketch.
o Write METER in ALL CAPS for the first two rules as a reminder that you that
you can substitute ANYTHING for METER.
o For volume, mentally picture a 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm = 1 cm3 cube.
Call it one mL. Fill it with water to make a mass of 1.00 grams.
├1 cm ┤
After repetition, you will recall new rules automatically. That’s the goal.
Practice: Study the 7 rules in the metric basics table above, then write the summary in
your problem notebook. Repeat until you can write all parts of the summary from
memory, 100%. Then cement your knowledge by doing the following problems. When
done, check your answers below.
1. Fill in the blanks in these equalities.
a. 1000 grams = 1 __g e. 1000 millipascals = 1 ________
b. 1000 cm3 = _________ mL f. _____ centigrams = 1 gram
c. 1 millimole = ______moles g. 100 cc H2O (l) = _____ grams H2O (l)
d. 1 dm3 = _______ L h. 1 deciliter = _____ liter
2. Which is larger, a kilometer or a millimeter?

3. Which is larger, a kilojoule or a millijoule?
4. Name four units that can be used to measure volume in the metric system.
5. How many centimeters are on a meter stick?

6. How large is a kiloliter?

7. What is the mass of 15 milliliters of liquid water?
8. A liter of liquid water has what mass?
9. What is the volume of one gram of ice?
10. Fill in the prefix abbreviations: 1 m = 10 ____m = 100 ____m = 1000 ____m
ANSWERS
Pretest:
1. 0.15 kg 2. 1,000 cm3, 1 dm3 3. 2,500 millipascals 4. 0.035 kg
Practice
1. a. 1000 grams = 1 kilogram b. 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL c. 1 millimole = 10―3 moles
d. 1 dm3 = 1 L e. 1000 millipascals = 1 pascal f. 100 centigrams = 1 gram
g. 100 cc liquid water = 100 grams H2O (liquid)
h. 1 deciliter = 1/10 or 0.1 or 10―1 liters 2. A kilometer 3. A kilojoule
4. Possible answers include cubic centimeters, milliliters, liters, cubic decimeters, cubic meters, and any
metric distance unit cubed.
5. 100 6. 1,000 liters 7. 15 grams 8. 1,000 grams, or one kilogram
9. These lessons have not supplied the answer. Water expands when it freezes. So far, we know the answer
only for liquid water.
10. 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm
* * * * *

Lesson 2B: Metric Prefixes

Pretest: If you think you have mastered the metric-prefix definitions below, try Practice C
at the end of this lesson. If you get those problems right, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Additional Prefixes Prefix Abbreviation Means
Topics in science often deal with very large or tera- T- x 1012
very small quantities. In such cases, prefixes
beyond milli- and kilo- are needed. The 13
giga- G- x 109
prefixes encountered most often are listed in the mega- M- x 106
table at the right.
kilo- k- x 103
Note that
hecto- h- x 102
• Outside the range between ─ 3 and 3, the
common metric prefixes are abbreviations deka- da- x 101
of powers of 10 that are divisible by 3. deci- d- x 10―1
• The abbreviation for a prefix must be centi- c- x 10―2
capitalized for prefixes above k- (kilo-) and
must be lower case for the prefixes k- and milli- m- x 10―3
below. micro- μ- (mu) or u- x 10―6
Using Prefixes nano- n- x 10―9
A metric prefix is simply a way to express an
pico- p- x 10―12
exponential term without writing exponentials.
In measurements and calculations, femto- f- x 10―15
• An exponential term can be substituted for a metric prefix.

Examples: 7.0 milliliters = 7.0 x 10―3 liters
5.6 kg = 5.6 x 103 g = 5,600 grams
43 nanometers = 43 nm = 43 x 10―9 m
• A metric prefix can be substituted for its equivalent exponential term.
Examples: 3.5 x 10―12 meters = 3.5 picometers = 3.5 pm
7.2 x 106 watts = 7.2 megawatts
As we solve problems, we will often need to convert between a prefix and the exponential
term that the prefix abbreviates.
Q. Using the table above, fill in these blanks. Answers are below.
1. 1 centijoule = _________ joules 4. 1,000 grams = 1 _________
2. 1 gigawatt = __________ watts 5. 2 x 102 meters = __________ meters
3. 6 x 106 volts = _______________volts 6. 9 nm = ___________ meters

* * * * *

Answers
1. 1 centijoule = 10─2 joules 4. 1,000 grams = 1 kilogram
2. 1 gigawatt = 109 watts 5. 2 x 102 meters = 2 hectometers
3. 6 x 106 volts = 6 megavolts 6. 9 nm = 9 x 10─9 meters
Even if you are not yet certain what quantity a unit is measuring, you can convert between
its prefix-unit value and its value using exponentials.
Science Versus Computer-Science Prefixes
Computer science, which calculates based on powers of 2, uses slightly different definitions
for metric prefixes, such as kilo- = 210 = 1,024 instead of 1,000.
However, in chemistry and all other sciences, for all base units, the prefix to power-of-10
relationships in the metric-prefix table are exact definitions.
Practice A: Use a sticky note to mark the answer page at the end of this lesson.
1. In your problem notebook, write the 7 metric basic rules from memory. Repeat until
you get them right without looking, 100%.
2. Consult your written “list from memory” to do the following problems. Fill in the
blanks with either exponential terms or prefixes.
a. 1 millisecond = _______ seconds b. 6 x 10─2 amps = ___________ amps
c. 1 deciliter = ___________ L d. 8 cm = ________________ m
e. 1 mg = ________ g f. 3,000 grams = ________ kg
3 . What does kilo- mean?
4. What does centi- mean?
Learning the Prefixes

Memorize the table of 13 metric prefixes. Look for patterns. Note
• tera = T = 10Twelve and nano (which connotes small) = 10─nine .

Those two can help to “anchor” the prefixes near them in the table.
Then make a self-quiz: on a sheet of paper, draw a table 3 columns across and 14 rows
down. In the top row, write
Prefix Abbreviation Means
Fill in the table. Repeat until you can fill in the table without looking back. Then do the
problems below without looking back at your table.

Practice B
1. Substitute exponential terms for prefixes and prefixes for exponentials.
a. 7 microseconds = _________ seconds b. 9 fg = ____________ g
c 12 gigawatts = ____________ watts d. 4 x 101 L = ___________ L
e. 3 picograms = ____________ grams f. 8 Tm = ___________ m
g. 6 x 10─9 m = ____________ m h. 5 x 10─1 L = ___________ L
2. When writing prefix abbreviations by hand, be careful to distinguish between
(add a prefix abbreviation) 5 x 10─3 g = 5 ____g and 5 x 106 g = 5 ____g
3. For which prefix abbreviations is the first letter always capitalized?
4. Write 0.30 gigameters/second without a prefix, in scientific notation.
Converting Between Prefix Formats

As a rule, it is most helpful to memorize what each metric prefix means ( prefix = 10x ) and
then to use those 1 prefix definitions when solving problems.
However, the equalities used to solve calculations in textbooks may be based on either one
unit definitions or the one prefix-unit definitions.
For example, to convert between milliliters and liters, we can use either
• 1 mL = 10─3 L , based on what milli- means, or
• 1,000 mL = 1 L ; which is an easy-to-visualize definition of one liter.
These two relationships are equivalent. The second is simply the first with the numbers on
both sides multiplied by 1,000.
Three of our “meter stick” equalities are based on one unit:
1 METER ≡ 10 deciMETERS ≡ 100 centiMETERS ≡ 1,000 milliMETERS
It is helpful to have those equalities in memory, because they are used often.
If we need other one-unit equalities, we can derive them from the prefix meanings.
For example, 1 gram = ______ centigrams?
• Since 1 centi-anything = 10─2 anythings, then
• 1 centigram = 10─2 grams
• To get a 1 in front of grams, we multiply both sides by 102 =100, so
• 1 gram = 102 centigrams = 100 centigrams

The steps above can be summarized as the reciprocal rule for prefixes:
If prefix- = 10a , 1 unit = 10─a prefix-units
Example: Since 1 milliliter = 10─3 liter , 1 liter = 103 milliliters = 1,000 mL

Another way to state the reciprocal rule for prefixes:
To change a prefix definition between the “1 prefix- = “ format and the “1 unit = “
format, change the sign of the exponent.
Try these examples.

Q. 1 nanogram = 1 x ______ grams , so 1 gram = 1 x ______ nanograms
1 dL = 1 x ______ liters , so 1 L = 1 x ______ dL
* * * * * (means cover below the * * * * * , do the work above, then check below.)
Answers
1 nanogram = 1 x 10─9 grams , so 1 gram = 1 x 109 nanograms
1 dL = 1 x 10─1 liters , so 1 L = 1 x 101 dL
To avoid confusing the signs of the exponential terms, memorize the table of 13 prefix
definitions. Then, if you need an equality with a “1 unit = 10x prefix-unit” format, reverse
the sign of the prefix definition.
Practice C
1. Fill in the blanks with exponential terms.
a. 1 terasecond = 1 x ______ seconds , so 1 second = 1 x ______ teragrams
b. 1 µg = 1 x ______ grams , so 1 g = 1 x ______ µg
2. Apply the reciprocal rule to add exponentials to these “one unit” prefix definitions.
a. 1 gram = _______ centigrams
b. 1 meter = ___________ decimeters
c. 1 s = ___________ ms
3. Convert between exponential terms and prefix abbreviations.
a. 1 micromole = 10___ moles b. 10─3 s = 1 ___s
c 10─12 g = 1 ___g d. 1 g = ____________ Gg
e. 1 fL = ___________ L f. 1 MPa = ____________ Pa

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. See table in text. 2a. 1 x 10─3 sec. b. 6 centiamps c. 1 x 10─1 L d. 8 x 10─2 m
e. 1 x 10─3 g f. 3 kg 3. “ x 1,000 “ 4. “ x 1/100 “ or “x 10─2 “
Practice B
1. a. 7 x 10─6 seconds b. 9 x 10─15 g c. 12 x 109 watts d. 4 daL
e. 3 x 10─12 grams f. 8 x 1012 m g. 6 nm h. 5 dL
2. 5 mg and 5 Mg 3. M-, G-, and T-. 4. 3.0 x 108 meters/second
Practice C
1. a. 1 terasecond = 1 x 1012 seconds , so 1 second = 1 x 10─12 teraseconds
b. 1 µg = 1 x 10─6 grams , so 1 g = 1 x 106 µg
2. a. 1 gram = 102 centigrams ( For “ 1 unit = “, take reciprocal (reverse sign) of prefix meaning )
b. 1 meter = 101 decimeters c. 1 s = 103 ms
3. a. 10─6 mole b. 1 ms c. 1 pg d. 10─9 Gg e. 10─15 L f. 106 Pa
* * * * *
Lesson 2C: Cognitive Science – and Flashcards

In this lesson, you will learn a system that will help you to automatically recall the
vocabulary needed to read science with comprehension and facts needed to solve
calculations.
Cognitive science studies how the mind works and how it learns. The model that science
uses to describe learning includes these fundamentals.
• The purpose of learning is to solve problems. You solve problems using
information from your immediate environment and your memory.
The human brain contains different types of memory, including
• Working memory: the part of your brain where you solve problems.
• Short-term memory: information that you remember for only a few days.
• Long-term memory: information that you can recall for many years.
Working memory is limited, but human long-term memory has enormous capacity. The
goal of learning is to move new information from short into long-term memory so that it
can be recalled by working memory for months and years after initial study. If information
is not moved into long-term memory, useful long-term learning has not taken place.
Humans learn speech naturally, but most other learning requires repeated thought about
new information: repeated practice at recalling new facts and using new skills, timed in
ways that encourage the brain to move new learning from short to long-term memory.
The following principles of cognitive science will be helpful to keep in mind while learning
chemistry as well as other disciplines.

1. Learning is cumulative. Experts in a field learn new information quickly because they
already have in long-term memory a storehouse of knowledge about the context
surrounding new information. That storehouse must be developed over time, with
practice.
2. Learning is incremental (done in small pieces). Especially for an unfamiliar subject,
there is a limit to how much new information you can store in long-term memory in a
short amount of time. Knowledge is extended and refined gradually. In learning,
steady wins the race.
3. The working memory in your brain is limited. Working memory is where you think.
Try multiplying 556 by 23 in your head. Now try it with a pencil, a paper, and your
head. Keeping track of the middle-step answers “in your head” while performing
successive steps can be challenging.
4. “Automaticity in the fundamentals” is one way to overcoming limitations in working
memory. When facts can be recalled automatically due to practice, more working
memory is available for higher level thought.
You can do work that is automatic while you think (most of us can think while walking),
but it is difficult to think about more than one problem at once.
5. “You can always look it up” is a poor strategy for problem-solving. The more
information you must stop to look up, the less likely you will be able to follow your
train of thought to the end of a complex problem.
How can you promote the retention of needed fundamentals? It takes practice, but some
forms of practice are more effective than others. Attention to the following factors can
improve your retention of the facts needed to solve problems.
1. Overlearning. Practice until you are perfect and you will only recall new information
for a few days. To be able to recall new facts and skills for more than a few days,
repeated practice to perfection is necessary.
2. The spacing effect. To retain what you learn, 20 minutes of study spaced over 3 days is
more effective than one hour of study for one day.
Studies of “massed versus distributed practice” show that if the initial learning of facts
and vocabulary is practiced over 3-4 days, then re-visited weekly for 2-3 weeks, then
monthly for 3-4 months, it can often be recalled for decades thereafter.
3. Effort. Experts in a field usually attribute their success to “hard work over an extended
period of time” rather than “talent.”
4. Core skills. The facts and processes you should practice most often are those needed
most often in the discipline.
5. Get a good night’s sleep. There is considerable evidence that while you sleep, your
brain reviews the experience of your day to decide what to store in long-term memory.
Sufficient sleep promotes retention of what you learn.
[For additional science that relates to learning, see Willingham, Daniel [2007] Cognition: The
Thinking Animal. Prentice Hall, and Bruer, John T. [1994] Schools for Thought. MIT Press.]
* * * * *

Two Types of Flashcards

What is more important in learning: Knowing the facts or the concepts? Cognitive studies
show the answer is: both. However, to “think as an expert,” you need a storehouse of
factual information that you can apply to solving new and unique problems.
Individual facts may be best learned using flashcards. Flashcards can be divided into two
types:
• “One-way cards” for questions that make sense in one direction; and
• “Two-way” cards for facts that need to be recalled in both directions.
The following system will improve your success in chemistry. If you have access to about
30 3 x 5 index cards, you can get started now. Plan to buy tomorrow about 100-200 3x5
index cards, lined or unlined. (A variety of colors is helpful but not essential.)
1. On 12-15 of your 30 initial cards (of the same color if possible), cut a triangle off the top-
right corner, making cards like this:
These cards will be used for questions that go in one direction.
Keeping the notch at the top right will identify the front side.
2. Using the following table, cover the answers in the right column with a folded sheet or
index card. Verbally answer each question in the left column, then slide the cover sheet
down to check your answer. Put check beside questions that you answer accurately
and without hesitation. When done, write the questions and answers without checks
onto the notched cards.
Front-side of cards (with notch at top right): Back Side -- Answers
To convert to scientific notation, move the
After the first number not a zero
decimal to…
If you make the significand larger Make the exponent smaller
420 Any number to the zero power = 1
To add or subtract in exponential notation Make all exponents the same
Simplify 1/10─x 10x
To divide exponentials Subtract the exponents
To bring an exponent from the bottom of a
Change its sign
fraction to the top
1 cc ≡ 1 ___ ≡ 1 ___ 1 cc ≡ 1 cm3 ≡ 1 mL
0.0018 in scientific notation = 1.8 x 10─3
1 L ≡ ___ mL ≡ ___ dm3 1 L ≡ 1,000 mL ≡ 1 dm3
To multiply exponentials Add the exponents
Simplify 1/10x 10─x
74 in scientific notation = 7.4 x 101

The historic definition of 1 gram The mass of 1 cm3 of liquid water at 4ºC.
8x7 56
42/6 7
Any multiplication or division up to 12’s that you cannot answer instantly? Add to
your list of one-sided cards. If you need a calculator to do number math, parts of
chemistry such as “balancing an equation” will be frustrating. With flashcard practice,
you will quickly learn what you need to know.
3. To make “two-way” cards, use the index cards as they are, without a notch cut.
For the following cards, first cover the right column, then put a check on the left if you
can answer the left column question quickly and correctly. Then cover the left column
and check the right side if you can answer the right-side automatically.
When done, if a row does not have two checks, make the flashcard.
Two-way cards (without a notch):
103 g or 1,000 g = 1 __g 1 kg = ____ g

Boiling temperature of water 100 degrees Celsius -- if 1 atm. pressure
1 nanometer = 1 x ___ meters 1 ____meter = 1 x 10─9 meters
Freezing temperature of water 0 degrees Celsius
4.7 x10─3 = ______________(nbr) 0.0047 = 4.7 x10?
1 GHz = 109 Hz = 2/3 = 0.? 0.666… = ? / ?

1 picoliter = 10─12 liters = 1/80 = 0.? 0.0125 = 1 / ?
3/4 = 0.? 0.75 = ? / ? 1 dm3 = 1 ___ 1 L = 1 __
1/8 = 0.? 0.125 = 1 / ? 1/4 = 0.? 0.25 = 1 / ?
More two-way cards (without a notch) for the metric-prefix definitions.
kilo = x 10? x 103 = ? Prefix d = x 10? x 10─1 = ? abbr. micro =? abbr. µ = ? pref.
nano = x 10? x 10─9 = ? pref. m = x 10? x 10─3 = ? abbr. mega =? abbr. M = ? pref.
giga = x 10? x 109 = ? Prefix T = x 10? x 1012 = ? abbr. deka =? abbr. da = ? pref.
milli = x 10? x 10─3 = ? pref. k = x 10? x 103 = ? abbr. pico =? abbr. p = ? prefix
deci = x 10? x 10─1 = ? pref. f = x 10? x 10─15 = ? abb deci =? abbr. d = ? prefix
tera = x 10? x 1012 = ? pref. µ = x 10? x 10─6 = ? abbr. hecto =? abbr. h = ? prefix
pico = x 10? x 10─12 = ? pref G = x 10? x 109 = ? abbr. tera =? abbr. T = ? prefix
hecto = x 10? x 102 = ? Prefix da = x 10? x 101 = ? abbr. milli =? abbr. m = ? pref.

deka = x 10? x 101 = ? Prefix p = x 10? x 10─12 = ? abb femto =? abbr. f = ? prefix
femto = x 10? x 10─15 = ? pref c = x 10? x 10─2 = ? abbr. giga =? abbr. G = ? pref.
mega = x 10? x 106 = ? Prefix h = x 10? x 102 = ? abbr. nano =? abbr. n = ? prefix
micro = x 10? x 10─6 = ? pref. M = x 10? x 106 = ? abbr. centi =? abbr. c = ? prefix
centi = x 10? x 10─2 = ? pref. n = x 10? x 10─9 = ? abbr. kilo =? abbrev. k = ? prefix
Which cards you need will depend on your prior knowledge, but when in doubt, make
the card. On fundamentals, you want quick, confident, accurate recall -- every time.
4. Practice with one type of card at a time.
• For front-sided cards, if you get a card right quickly, place it in the got it stack. If
you miss a card, say it. Close your eyes. Say it again. And again. If needed, write
it several times. Return that card to the bottom of the do deck. Practice until every
card is in the got-it deck.
• For two-sided cards, do the same steps as above in one direction, then the other.
For 3 days in a row, repeat those steps. Repeat again before working assigned textbook
problems, before your next quiz, and before your next test that includes this material.
5. Master the cards at least once, then apply them to the Practice on the topic of the new
cards. Treat Practice as a practice test.
6. Make cards for new topics early: before the lectures on a topic if possible. Mastering
fundamentals first will help in understanding lecture.
7. Rubber band and carry new cards. Practice during “down times.”
8. After a few modules or for a new textbook chapter, change card colors.
This system requires an initial investment of time, but in the long run it will save time and
improve achievement.
The above flashcards are examples. Add cards of your design and choosing as needed.
Flashcards, Charts, or Lists?
The best strategy for learning new information is multiple strategies: numbered lists,
mnemonics, phrases that rhyme, flashcards, reciting, and writing what must be
remembered. Practice repeatedly, spaced over time.
For complex information, automatic recall may be less important than being able to
methodically write out a chart for information that falls into patterns.
For the metric system, learning flashcards and the prefix chart and picturing the meter-stick
relationships all help to fix these fundamentals in memory.

Practice: Run your set of flashcards until all cards are in the “got-it” pile. Then try these
problems. Make additional cards if needed. Run the cards again in a day or two.
1. Fill in the blanks.
Format: 1 prefix- 1-base unit
1 μMETER = ______ METERS 1 METER = _______ μMETERS
1 gigawatt = ______ watts 1 watt = ________ gigawatts
1 nanoliter = ______ liter _______ nanoliters = 1 liter
2. Use prefixes and powers of 10 to fill in the blanks in the following.

a. 10─6 farads = 1 ___________farad f. 1 picocurie = ___________ curies
b. 1 megawatt = ___________watts g. 1 μg = ____________ grams
c. 1 mole = ___________ millimoles h. 10─1 L = 1 __L
d. 1 nm = ___________ meters i. 10─2 g = 1 __ g
e. 1 watt = ___________ gigawatts j. 1 kPa = ____________ Pa
3. Do these without a calculator.
a. 10─6/10─8 = b. 2─1 = ___.___ ___ c. 1/20 = ___.___ ___ ___
ANSWERS
1.
1 μMETER = 10─6 METERS 1 METER = 106 μMETERS
1 gigawatt = 109 watts 1 watt = 10─9 gigawatts
1 nanoliter = 10─9 liters 109 nanoliters = 1 liter
2. a. 10─6 farads = 1 microfarad f. 1 picocurie = 10─12 curies

b. 1 megawatt = 106 watts g. 1 μg = 10─6 grams
c. 1 mole = 103 millimole h. 10─1 L = 1 dL
d. 1 nm = 10─9 meters i. 10─2 g = 1 cg
e. 1 watt = 10─9 gigawatts j. 1 kPa = 103 Pa
3. a. 10─6/10─8 = 10─6 + 8 = 102 b. 2─1 = 1/2 = 0.50 c. 1/20 = 0.050

* * * * *

Lesson 2D: Calculations With Units

Pretest: If you can do the following two problems correctly, you may skip this lesson.
Answers are at the end of the lesson.
1. Find the volume of a sphere that is 4.0 cm in diameter. (Vsphere = 4/3π r3 ).
2. Multiply: 2.0 g • m • 3.0 m • 6.0 x 102 s =
s2 4.0 x 10─2
* * * * *
(Try doing this lesson without a calculator.)
Adding and Subtracting With Units
Many calculations in mathematics consist of numbers without units. In science, however,
calculations are nearly always based on measurements of physical quantities. A
measurement consists of a numeric value and its unit.
When doing calculations in science, it is essential to write a unit after the numbers in
measurements and calculations. Why? Units are the best indicators of what steps are
needed to solve problems. Units also provide a check that you have done a calculation
correctly.
In science calculations, the math must take into account both the numbers and their units.
When solving calculations, use the following three rules.
Rule 1. When adding or subtracting, the units must be the same in the numbers being
added and subtracted, and those same units must be added to the answer.
Rule 1 is logical. Apply it to these two examples.

A. 5 apples + 2 apples = _________ B. 5 apples + 2 oranges = __________
* * * * *
A is easy. B cannot be added. It makes sense that you can add two numbers that refer to
apples, but you can’t add apples and oranges. By Rule 1, you can add numbers that have
the same units, but you cannot add numbers directly that do not have the same units.
Apply Rule 1 to this problem: 14.0 grams
─ 7.5 grams
* * * * *
14.0 grams
─ 7.5 grams
6.5 grams If the units are the same, you can add or subtract.
Multiplying and Dividing With Units
The rule for multiplying and dividing with units is different, but logical.
Rule 2. When multiplying and dividing units, the units multiply and divide.
Do this example of unit math: cm x cm = ________ .

* * * * *
cm x cm = cm2 Units obey the laws of algebra. Try: cm5 = _____________
cm2
* * * * *
cm5 = can be solved as cm • cm • cm • cm • cm = cm3
cm2 cm • cm
or by using the rules for exponential terms:
cm5 = cm5─2 = cm3 Both methods arrive at the same answer (as they must).
cm2
Rule 3. When multiplying and dividing, group numbers, exponentials, and units
separately. Solve the three parts separately, then recombine the terms.
Apply Rule 3 to this problem: If a postage stamp has the dimensions 2.0 cm x 4.0 cm, the
surface area of one side of the stamp = ____________
* * * * *
Area of a rectangle = l x w =
= 2.0 cm x 4.0 cm = (2.0 x 4.0) x (cm x cm) = 8.0 cm2 = 8.0 square centimeters
By Rule 2, the units must obey the rules of multiplication and division. By Rule 3, the unit
math is done separately from the number math.
Units follow the familiar laws of multiplication, division, and powers, including “like units
cancel.”
Apply Rule 3 to these: a. 8.0 L6 = __________ b. 9.0 m6 = _________
2.0 L2 3.0 m6
* * * * *
a. 8.0 L6 = 8.0 • L6 = 4.0 L4 b. 9.0 m6 = 3.0 (with no unit.)
2.0 L2 2.0 • L2 3.0 m6
In science, the unit math must be done as part of calculations. A calculated unit must be
included as part of calculated answers (except in rare cases, such as part b above, when all
of the units cancel).
On the following problem, apply separately the math rules for numbers, exponential terms,
and units.
12 x 10─3 m4 = ____________
3.0 x 102 m2
* * * * *
12 x 10─3 m4 = 12 • 10─3 • m4 = 4.0 x 10─5 m2
3.0 x 102 m2 3.0 • 102 • m2
When multiplying and dividing, you will usually want to use a calculator to do the number
math, but both the exponential math and the unit math nearly always can be done, and
should be done, without a calculator.

In the problems above, the units were all the same. However, units that are different can
also be multiplied and divided by the usual laws of algebra. Complete this calculation:
4.0 g • m • 3.0 m • 6.0 s =
─4 2
s2 9.0 x 10 m
* * * * *
When multiplying and dividing, do the number, exponential, and unit math separately.
4.0 g • m • 3.0 m • 6.0 s = 72 • 1 • g • m • m • s = 8.0 x 104 g
s2 9.0 x 10─4 m2 9.0 10─4 s •s m2 s
This answer unit can also be written as g • s─1 , but you will find it helpful to use the x/y
unit format until we work with mathematical equations later in the course.
Practice: Do not use a calculator except as noted. If you need just a few reminders, do
Problems 11 and 14. If you need more practice, do more. Check your answer below after
each problem. If you miss a question, review the rules to figure out why before continuing.
1. 16 cm ─ 2 cm = 2. 12 cm • 2 cm =
3. (m4)(m) = 4. m4 / m =
5. 105 = 6. s─5 =
10─2 s2
7. 3.0 meters • 9.0 meters = 8. 3.0 g / 9.0 g =
9. 24 L5 = 10. 18 x 10─3 g • m5 =
3.0 L─4 3.0 x 101 m2
11. 12 x 10─2 L • g • 2.0 m • 4.0 s3 =

s 6.0 x 10─5 L2
12. A rectangular box has dimensions of 2.0 cm x 4.0 cm x 6.0 cm. Calculate its volume.
13. Do pretest problem 1 at the beginning of this lesson (use a calculator).
14. Do pretest problem 2 at the beginning of this lesson (without a calculator).

ANSWERS Both the number and the unit must be written and correct.
Pretest: See answers to Problems 13 and 14 below.
1. 14 cm 2. 24 cm2 3. m(4+1) = m5 4. m(4─1) = m3 5. 107
6. s─7 7. 27 meters2 8. 0.33 (no unit) 9. 8.0 L9 10. 6.0 x 10─4 g • m3
11. 16 x 103 g • m • s2 12. Vrectangular solid = length times width times height = 48 cm3
L
13. Diameter = 4.0 cm, radius = 2.0 cm.
Vsphere = 4/3 π r3 = 4/3 π (2.0 cm)3 = 4/3 π (8.0 cm3) = (32/3) π cm3 = 34 cm3
14. 2.0 g • m • 3.0 m • 6.0 x 102 s = (2.0)(3.0)(6.0) • 104 • g • m • m • s = 9.0 x 104 g • m2
s2 4.0 x 10─2 4.0 s2 s
* * * * *
SUMMARY – The Metric System

1. 1 METER ≡ 10 deciMETERS Prefix Abbreviation Means
≡ 100 centiMETERS
≡ 1000 milliMETERS
tera- T x 1012
1,000 METERS ≡ 1 kiloMETER giga- G x 109
2. 1 milliMETER ≡ 1 mm = 10─3 METER mega- M x 106

1 centiMETER ≡ 1 cm = 10─2 METER kilo- k x 103
1 deciMETER ≡ 1 dm = 10─1 METER hecto- h x 102
1 kiloMETER ≡ 1 km = 103 METER deka- da x 101
3. Any unit can be substituted for METER above.
deci- d x 10―1
4. 1 cm3 ≡ 1 mL ≡ 1 cc
centi- c x 10―2
5. 1 liter ≡ 1000 mL ≡ 1 dm3
milli- m x 10―3
6. 1 cm3 H2O(l) ≡ 1 mL H2O(l) = 1.00 g H2O (l)
micro- μ (mu) or u x 10―6
7. meter = m ; gram = g ; second = s
nano- n x 10―9
8. If prefix- = 10a , 1 unit = 10─a prefix-units
pico- p x 10―12
9. To change a prefix definition from a “1 prefix-
= “ format to a “1 unit = “ format, change the femto- f x 10―15
exponent sign.
10. Rules for units in calculations.
a. When adding or subtracting, the units must be the same in the numbers being added
and subtracted, and those same units must be added to the answer.
b. When multiplying and dividing units, the units multiply and divide.
c. When multiplying and dividing, group the numbers, exponentials, and units
separately. Solve the three parts, then recombine the terms.
# # # # #

Module 3 – Significant Figures

Pretest: If you think you know how to use significant figures correctly, take the following
pretest to be sure. Check your answers at bottom of this page. If you do all of the pretest
perfectly, skip Module 3.
1. Write the answer with proper significant figures: 1.008 + 1.008 + 16.0 =
2. Multiply using a calculator, then express your answer as a number in proper sf.
3.14159 x 1.32 x (an exact 2) =
3. How many significant figures are in each of these?
a. 0.002030 b. 670.0 c. 670 d. 2 (exactly)
4. Round these numbers as indicated.
a. 62.75 to the tenths place. b. 0.090852 to 3 sf.
5. 4.701 x 103 L2 • g • 0.0401 s─2 • 23.060 s4 • (an exact 4) =
s2 6.0 x 10─5 L
6. Solve without a calculator. Write your answer in scientific notation with proper
significant figures. (56 x 10―10 cm) ─ (49.6 x 10―11 cm) =
* * * * *
Lesson 3A: Rules for Significant Figures

Nearly all measurements have uncertainty. In science, we need to express
• how much uncertainty exists in measurements, and
• the uncertainty in calculations based on measurements.
The differentials studied in calculus provide one method to find a precise range of the
uncertainty in calculations based on measurements, but differentials can be time-
consuming.
The easier method for expressing uncertainty is significant figures, which in these lessons
are abbreviated as sf. Significant figures provide a quick method to indicate approximate
uncertainty in that is sufficient for most of the initial measurements and calculations in
science.
* * * * *
Pretest Answers: Your answers must match these exactly.

1. 18.0 2. 8.29 3a. 4 3b. 4 3c. 2 3d. Infinite sf 4a. 62.8 4b. 0.0909
5. 2.9 x 108 L • g 6. 5.1 x 10─9 cm
* * * * *

Significant Figures: Fundamentals

Use these rules when recording measurements and rounding calculations in chemistry.
1. When Recording a Measurement
Write all the digits you are sure of, plus the first digit that you must estimate in the
measurement: the first doubtful digit (the first uncertain digit). Then stop.
When writing a measurement using significant figures, the last digit is the first
doubtful digit.
2. Adding and Subtracting

a. First, add or subtract as you normally would.
b. Next, search the numbers for the doubtful digit in the highest place. The answer’s
doubtful digit must be in that place. Round the answer to that place.
Example: 2 3 .1 Å
+ 16 .0 1
+ 1.008
4 0 .1 1 8 = 40.1
This answer must be rounded to 40.1 because the tenths place has doubt.
The tenths is the highest place with doubt among the numbers added.
Recall that the tenths place is higher than the hundredths place, which is higher
than the thousandths place.
c. The logic: If you add a number with doubt in the tenths place to a number with
doubt in the hundredths place, the answer has doubt in the tenths place.
A doubtful digit is significant, but numbers after it are not.
In a measurement, if the number in a given place is doubtful, numbers after that
place are garbage. We allow one doubtful digit in answers, but no garbage.
d. Another way to state this rule: When adding or subtracting, round your answer
back to the last full column on the right. This will be the first column of numbers,
moving right to left (Å), with no blanks above.
The blank space after a doubtful digit indicates that we have no idea what that
number is, so we cannot add a blank space and get a significant number in the
answer in that column.
Summary: When adding or subtracting, round your answer back to

● the highest place with doubt, which is also
● the leftmost place with doubt, which is also
● the last full column on the right, which is also
● the last column to the right without a blank space.

3. Multiplying and Dividing

This is the rule we will use most often.
a. First multiply or divide as you normally would.
b. Then count the number of sf in each of the numbers you are multiplying or dividing.
To find the number of sf, count the sure digits plus the doubtful digit.
c. Your answer can have no more sf than the measurement with the least sf that you
multiplied or divided by. Round the answer back to that number of sf.
Example: 3.1865 cm x 8.8 cm = 28.041 = 28 cm2 (must round to 2 sf)
^5 sf ^2 sf ^2 sf
Summary: Multiplying and Dividing

If you multiply and/or divide a 10-sf number and a 9-sf number and a 2-sf
number, you must round your answer to 2 sf.
4. When Moving the Decimal: do not change the number of sf in the significand.
Q. Convert 424.7 x 10─11 to scientific notation. A. 4.247 x 10─9
5. Doing Calculations With Steps or Parts
The rules for sf should be applied at the end of a calculation.
In problems that have several separate parts (1a, 1b, etc.), and earlier answers are used
for later parts, many instructors prefer that you carry one extra sf until the end of a
calculation, then round to proper sf at the final step. This method minimizes changes
in the final doubtful digit due to rounding in the steps.
Practice: First memorize the rules above. Then do the problems. When finished, check
your answers at the end of the lesson.
1. Add and subtract using sf.
a. 23.1 b. 2.016 + 32.18 + 64.5 c. 1.976 x 10 ─13
+ 23.1 ― 7.3 x 10 ─14
16.01
2. Multiply and divide using a calculator. Write the first six digits of the calculator result,
then write the final answer, with units, and with the proper number of sf.
a. 3.42 cm times 2.3 cm2 =
b. 74.3 L2 divided by 12.4 L =
3. Convert to scientific notation: a. 0.0060 x 10─15 b. 1,027 x 10─1

4. a. 9.76573 x 1.3 = A = b. A/2.5 =

ANSWERS: Your answers must match these exactly.

1. (a) 23.1 (b) 2.016 + 32.18 + 64.5 (c) 1.976 x 10─13
+ 23.1 = 98.696 -- round to 98.7 ― 0.73 x 10─13
16.01 1.246 x 10─13
62.21 Round to 62.2 Round to 1.25 x 10─13
2. a. 7.9 cm3 (2 sf) 2b. 5.99 L (3 sf) 3a. 6.0 x 10─18 3b. 1.027 x 102
4a. 12.7 If this answer were not used in part b, the proper answer would be 13 (2 sf), but since we need the
answer in part b, it is often preferred to carry an extra sf. 4b. 12.7/2.5 = 5.1
* * * * *
Lesson 3B: Special Cases

There are special rules for zeros, and exact numbers, and rounding off a 5.
1. Rounding. If the number beyond the place you are rounding to is
a. Less than 5: Drop it (round down). Example: 1.342 rounded to tenths = 1.3
b. Greater than 5: Round up. Example: 1.48 = 1.5
c. A 5 followed by other digits: Round up. Example: 1.252 = 1.3
2. Rounding a lone 5 (A 5 without following digits).

Some instructors prefer the simple “round 5 up” rule. Others prefer a slightly more
precise “engineer’s rule” described as follows.
a. If the number in front of the 5 is even, round down by dropping the 5.
Example: 1.45 = 1.4
b. If the number in front of the five is odd, round it up.
Example: 1.35 = 1.4
Rounding a lone 5, the rule is “even in front of 5, leave it. Odd? Round up.”
Why not always round 5 up? On a number line, a 5 is exactly halfway between 0 and
10. If you always round 5 up in a large number of calculations, your average will be
slightly high. When sending a rover on a 300 million mile trajectory to Mars, if you
calculate slightly high, you may miss your target by hundreds of miles.
The “even leave it, odd up” rule rounds a 5 down half the time and up half the time.
This keeps the average of rounding 5 in the middle, where it should be.
When rounding off a lone 5, these lessons will use the more precise “engineer’s rule,” but
you should use the rule preferred by your instructor.
Practice A
Round these to the underlined place. Check your answers at the end of this lesson.
1. 23.25 2. 0.0655 3. 0.075 4. 2.659

3. Zeros. When do zeros count as sf? There are four cases.

a. Leading zeros (zeros in front of all other digits) are never significant.
Example: 0.0006 has one sf.
b. Zeros embedded between other digits are always significant.
Example: 300.07 has 5 sf. (Zeros sandwiched by sf count.)
c. Zeros after all other digits as well as after the decimal point are significant.
Example: 565.0 has 4 sf. You would not need to include that zero if it were not
significant.
d. Zeros after all other digits but before the decimal are assumed to be not significant.
Example: 300 is assumed to have 1 sf, meaning “give or take at least 100.”
When a number is written as 300, or 250, it is not clear whether the zeros are
significant. Many textbooks address this problem by using this rule:
• “500 meters” means one sf, but
• “500. meters,” with an unneeded decimal point added after a zero, means 3 sf.
These modules will use that convention on occasion as well.
However, the best way to avoid ambiguity in the number of significant figures is to
use scientific notation.
4 x 102 has one sf; 4.00 x 102 has 3 sf.

In exponential notation, only the significand contains the significant figures.
In scientific notation, all of the digits in the significand are significant .
* * * * *
Why are zeros complicated? Zero has multiple uses in our numbering system.
In cases 3a and 3d above, the zeros are simply “holding the place for the decimal.” In that
role, they are not significant as measurements. In the other two cases, the zeros represent
numeric values. When the zero represents “a number between a 9 and a 1 in a
measurement,” it is significant.
Practice B
Write the number of sf in these.
1. 0.0075 2. 600.3 3. 178.40 4. 4640. 5. 800
6. 2.06 x 10─9 7. 0.060 x 103

4. Exact numbers. Measurements with no uncertainty have an infinite number of sf. Exact
numbers do not add uncertainty to calculations.
• If you multiply a 3 sf number by an exact number, round your answer to 3 sf.
This rule means that exact numbers are ignored when deciding the sf in an calculated
answer. In chemistry, we use this rule in situations including the following.
a. Numbers in definitions are exact.
Example: The relationship “1 km = 1000 meters,” is a definition of kilo- and not a
measurement with uncertainty. Both the 1 and the 1000 are exact numbers.
Multiplying or dividing by those exact numbers will not limit the number of sf in
your answer.
b. The number 1 in nearly all cases is exact.
Example: The conversion “1 km = 0.62 miles” is a legitimate equality, but it is not
a definition and not exactly correct The 1 is therefore assumed to be exact, but the
0.62 has uncertainty and has 2 sf.
Whole numbers (such as 2 or 6), if they are measuring exact quantities (such as 2
people or 6 molecules), are also exact numbers with infinite sf.
c. Coefficients and subscripts in chemical formulas and equations are exact.
Example: 2 H2 + 1 O2 Æ 2 H2O All of those numbers are exact.
You will be reminded about these exact-number cases as we encounter them. For now,
simply remember that exact numbers
• have infinite sf, and
• do not limit the sf in an answer.
* * * * *
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. 23.25 rounds to 23.2 . The number in front of the 5 is even, so leave it.
2. 0.0655 rounds to 0.066 . The 5 to be rounded off follows an odd number. Round “odd up.”
3. 0.075 rounds to 0.08 . When rounding a lone 5, use “even leave it, odd up.”
4. 2.659 rounds to 2.7 . When rounding a 5 followed by other digits, round up.
Practice B
1. 0.0075 has 2 sf. (Zeros in front never count.) 2. 600.3 has 4 sf. (Sandwiched zeros count.)
3. 178.40 has 5 sf. (Zeros after the decimal and after all the numbers count.)
4. 4640. has 4 sf. (Zeros after the numbers but before a written decimal count.)
5. 800 has 1 sf. (Zeros after all numbers but before the decimal place usually don’t count.)
6. 2.06 x 10─9 has 3 sf. (The significand in front contains and determines the sf.)
7. 0.060 x 103 has 2 sf. (The significand contains the sf. Leading zeros never count.)
* * * * *

Lesson 3C: Summary and Practice

First, memorize the rules.
1. When expressing a measuring in significant figures, include the first doubtful digit,
then stop. When counting significant figures, include the doubtful digit.
2. When adding and subtracting sf,
a. find the measurement that has doubt in the highest place.
b. Round your answer to that place.
3. When multiplying and dividing,
a. find the number in the calculation that has the least number of sf.
b. Round your answer to that number of sf.
4. When moving a decimal, keep the same number of sf in the significand. When
solving a problem with parts, carry an extra sf until the final step.
5. If the digit in front of a lone 5, use the rule preferred by your instructor. Either
always round up, or use “even in front of 5, leave it. Odd? Round up.”
6. For zeros,
a. zeros in front of all other numbers are never significant.
b. Sandwiched zeros are always significant.
c. Zeros after the other numbers and after the decimal are significant.
d. Zeros after all numbers but before the decimal place are not significant, but if
an unneeded decimal point is shown after a zero, the zero is significant.
7. Exact numbers have infinite sf.
For reminders and reinforcement, use these flashcards. Identify the flashcards you need
using the method provided in Lesson 2C. Make only the flashcards you need.
Front-side (with notch at top right): Back Side -- Answers

Writing measurements in sf, stop where? At the first doubtful digit
Counting the number of sf, which digits count? All the sure, plus the doubtful digit
The column with doubt in highest place
Adding and subtracting, round to where?
= last full column
Multiplying and dividing, round how? Least # of sf in calculation = # sf allowed
In counting sf, zeros in front Never count
Sandwiched zeros count
Zeros after numbers and after decimal count
Zeros after numbers but before decimal Probably don’t count
Zeros followed by un-needed decimal count
Exact numbers have Infinite sf
Run the flashcards until perfect, then start the problems below.

Practice: First try every other problem on day 1. Try the rest on day 2.
1. Write the number of sf in these.
a. 107.42 b. 10.04 c. 13.40 d. 0.00640 e. 0.043 x 10─4
f. 1590.0 g. 320 x 109 h. 14 (exact) i. 250. j. 4200.
2. Round to the place indicated.

a. 5.15 cm (tenths place) b. 31.85 meters (3 sf)
c. 0.819 mL (hundredths place) d. 0.0635 cm2 (2 sf)
e. 0.04070 g (2 sf)
3. Addition and Subtraction

a. 1.008 b. 17.65 c. 39.1 + 124.0 + 14.05 =
+ 1.008 ― 9.7
32.00
4. Multiplication and Division: Write the first 6 digits given by your calculator. Then
write the answer with the proper number of sf and proper units.
a. 13.8612 cm x 2.02 cm = b. 4.4 meters x 8.312 meters2 =
c. 2.03 cm2/1.2 cm = d. 0.5223 cm3/0.040 cm =
5. Answer in scientific notation:
a. (2.25 x 10─2)(6.0 x 1023) b. (6.022 x 1023) / (1.50 x 10─2)
Answer 6 and 7 in scientific notation:
6. 5.60 x 10─2 L2 • g • 0.090 s─3 • 4.00 s4 • (an exact 2) =

s ─5
6.02 x 10 L 3
7. Do without a calculator, and convert your answer to scientific notation:
(─ 50.0 x 10―14 g) ─ (─ 49.6 x 10―12 g) =

8. For additional practice, solve the problems in the pretest at the beginning of this module.

ANSWERS
1. a. 107.42 5 sf (Sandwiched zeros count.)
b. 10.04 4 (Sandwiched zeros count.)
c. 13.40 4 (Zeros after numbers and after the decimal count.)
d. 0.00640 3 (Zeros in front never count, but zeros both after #s and after the decimal count.)
e. 0.043 x 10─4 2 (Zeros in front never count. The significand contains and determines the sf.)
f. 1590.0 5 (The last 0 counts since after #s and after decimal. This sandwiches the first 0.)
g. 320 x 109 2? (Zeros after numbers but before the decimal usually don’t count.)
h. 14 (exact) Infinite (Exact numbers have infinite sf.)
i. 250. 3 (The decimal point at the end means the zero before it counts.)
j. 4200. 4 (The decimal at the end means 0 before it counts, and first 0 is sandwiched.)
2. a. 5.15 cm (tenths place) 5.2 cm (Rounding a lone 5, if number in front is odd, round up.)
b. 31.85 meters (3 sf) 31.8 meters (Rounding a lone 5, if even in front of 5, leave it.)
c. 0.819 mL (hundredths place) 0.82 mL (9 rounds up.)
d. 0.0635 cm2 (2 sf) 0.064 cm2 (Since 3 is odd, round it up. Zeros in front don’t count.)
e. 0.04070 g (2 sf) 0.041 grams (Zeros in front never count.)
3. a. 1.008 b. 17.65 c. 39.1
+ 1.008 - 9.7 + 124.0
32.00 7.95 = 8.0 (5-odd up) _14.05
34.016 = 34.02 177.15 = 177.2
4. For help with unit math, see Lesson 2B. For help with exponential math, see Module 1.
a. 13.8612 cm x 2.02 cm = 27.9996 = 28.0 cm2 (3 sf)
b. 4.4 meters x 8.312 meters2 = 36.5728 = 37 meter3 (2 sf, 5 plus others, round up)
c. 2.03 cm2/1. 2 cm = 1.69166 = 1.7 cm (2 sf)
d. 0.5223 cm3/0.040 cm = 13.0575 = 13 cm2 (2 sf)
5. a. (2.25 x 10─2)(6.0 x 1023)x 1021 14 x 1021 = 1.4 x 1022 in scientific notation (2 sf)
b. (6.022 x 1023) / (1.50 x 10─2) = 4.01 x 1025 (3 sf)
6. = 5.60 • 0.090 • 4.00 • (an exact 2) • 10─2 • L2 • g • s─3 • s4 = 6.7 x 102 g

6.02 10─5 s • L3 L
The 0.090 limits the answer to 2 sf. Exact numbers do not affect sf. For unit cancellation, see Lesson 2D.
Group and handle the numbers, exponentials, and units separately.
7. (─ 50.0 x 10―14 g) ─ (─ 49.6 x 10―12 g) = + 49.6 x 10―12 g
─ 0.500 x 10―12 g
49.1 x 10―12 g = 4.91 x 10―11 g
Numbers added or subtracted by arithmetic must have same exponents and units (see Lessons 1B, 2B).
Adjusting to the highest exponent in the series (─12 is higher than ─14) often helps with sf. In moving the
decimal point, do not change the number of significant figures.
# # # # #

Module 4 – Conversion Factors

Prerequisites: Module 4 requires knowledge of exponential math and metric
fundamentals in Lessons 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. The other lessons in Modules 1-3 will be
helpful, but not essential, for most of Module 4.
* * * * *
Introduction
The material in Module 4 may be a review of what you have learned previously. Each
lesson will include suggestions for how you can complete this review quickly.
However, some rules in Module 4 that you may not know, such as “writing the wanted
unit first,” and using the “starting template,” will be important in solving problems in later
lessons. Therefore, be sure to read each section and do at least the last two problems in each
practice set.
* * * * *
Lesson 4A: Conversion Factor Basics
Conversion factors can be used to change from one unit of measure to another, or to find
equivalent measurements of substances or processes.
Conversion factor is a term for a ratio (a fraction) made from two measured quantities that
are equal or equivalent in a problem. A conversion factor is a fraction that equals one.
Conversion factors equal unity (1) because they are made from equalities. For any fraction
in which the top and bottom are equal, its value is one.
For example: 7 = 1
7
Or, since 1 milliliter = 10─3 liters ; 10─3 L = 1 and 1 mL = 1
1 mL 10─3 L
These last two fractions are typical conversion factors. Any fraction that equals one right-
side up will also equal one up-side down. Any conversion factor can be inverted (flipped
over) for use if necessary, and it will still equal one.
When converting between liters and milliliters, all of these are legal conversion factors:
1 mL 1000 mL 103 mL 3,000 mL All are equal to one.
10─3 L 1L 1L 3L
All of those fractions are mathematically equivalent, because they all represent the same
ratio. Upside down, each fraction is also legitimate conversion factor, because the top and
bottom are equal, and its value is one.
In solving calculations, the conversions that are preferred if available are those that are made
from fundamental definitions, such as “milli- = 10─3.” However, each of the four forms
above is legal to use in converting between milliliters and liters, and either of the first three
forms may be encountered during calculations solved in textbooks.

Let’s try an example of conversion-factor math. Try the following problem. Show your
work on this page or in your problem notebook, then check your answer below.
Multiply 7.5 kilometers • 103 meters =
1 kilometer
* * * * * ( * * * mean: cover below, write your answer, then check below.)
Answer
7.5 kilometers • 103 meters = (7.5 • 103) meters = 7.5 x 103 meters
1 kilometer 1
When these terms are multiplied, the “like units” on the top and bottom cancel, leaving
meters as the unit on top.
Since the conversion factor multiplies the given quantity by one, the answer equals the given
amount that we started with. This answer means that 7,500 meters is the same as 7.5 km.
Multiplying a quantity by a conversion factor changes the units that measure a quantity but
does not change the original amount of the given quantity. The result is what we started
with, measured in different units.
This process answers a question posed in many science problems: From the units we are
given, how can we obtain the units we want?
Our method of solving calculations will focus on finding equal or equivalent quantities.
Using those equalities, we will construct conversion factors to solve problems.
* * * * *
Summary
• Conversion factors are made from two measured quantities that are either defined
as equal or are equivalent or equal in the problem.
• Conversion factors have a value of one, because the top and bottom terms are
equal or equivalent.
• Any equality can be made into a conversion (a fraction or ratio) equal to one.
• When the units are set up to cancel correctly, given numbers and units multiplied
by conversions will result the WANTED numbers and units.
Î Units tell you where to write the numbers to solve a calculation correctly.
To check the metric conversion factors encountered most often, use these rules.
Since milli- = m- = 10─3, and conversions must be equal on the top and bottom,
in metric conversions,
• milli- or m- must be above or below 10─3 ;
• centi- or c- must be above or below 10─2 ;
• kilo- or k- must be above or below 103 .

Practice: Try every other lettered problem. Check your answers frequently. If you miss
one on a section, try a few more. Answers are on the next page.
1. Multiply the conversion factors. Cancel units that cancel, then group the numbers and
do the math. Write the answer number and unit in scientific notation.
a. 225 centigrams • 10─2 gram • 1 kilogram =

1 centigram 103 grams
b. 1.5 hours • 60 minutes • 60 seconds =
1 hour 1 minute
2. To be legal, the top and bottom of conversion factors must be equal. Label these
conversion factors as legal or illegal.
a. 1000 mL b. 1000 L c. 1.00 g H2O d. 10─2 volt

1 liter 1 mL 1 mL H2O 1 centivolt
e. 1 mL f. 103 cm3 g. 103 kilowatts h. 1 kilocalorie

1 cc 1L 1 watt 103 calories
3. Add numbers to make legal conversion factors, with at least one of the numbers in each
conversion factor being a 1.
a. grams b. mole c. cm3
kilograms nanomole mL
d. centijoules e. liters f. curie

joules cubic cm picocurie
4. Finish these.
a. 27A • 2T • 4W =
8A 3T
b. 2.5 meters • 1 cm =
10─2 meter
c. 33 grams • 1 kilogram =
103 grams
d. 95 km • 0.625 miles =
hour 1 km
e. 27 meters • 60 s • 60 min. • 1 kilometer =

seconds 1 min. 1 hour 103 meters

ANSWERS
1 a. 225 centigrams • 10─2 gram • 1 kilogram = 225 x 10─2 x 1 kg = 2.25 x 10─3 kg
1 centigram 103 grams 1 x 103
The answer means that 2.25 x 10─3 kg is equal to 225 cg.
b. 1.5 hours • 60 minutes • 60 seconds = 1.5 x 60 x 60 s = 5,400 s or 5.4 x 103 s

1 hour 1 minute 1
Recall that s is the abbreviation for seconds. This answer means that 1.5 hours is equal to 5,400 s.
2. a. 1000 mL b. 1000 L c. 1.00 g H2O d. 10─2 volt___

1 liter 1 mL 1 mL H2O 1 centivolt
Legal Illegal Legal IF liquid water Legal
e. 1 mL_ f. 103 cm3 g. 103 kilowatts h. 1 kilocalorie_

1 cc 1L 1 watt 103 calories
Legal Legal Illegal Legal
3. a. 103 grams b. 10─9 mole or 1 mole

1 kilogram 1 nanomole 109 nanomole
c. 1 cm3 d. 1 centijoule or 100 centijoules

1 mL 10─2 joules 1 joule
e. 1 liter or 10─3 liters f. 10─12 curie or 1 curie

1000 cc. 1 cubic cm 1 picocurie 1012 picocurie
4. a. 27A • 2T • 4W = 27A • 2T • 4W = 27 • 2 • 4 • W = 9W
8A 3T 8A 3T 8• 3
b. 2.5 meters • 1 cm = 2.5 x 102 = 250 cm
─2
10 meter
c. 33 grams • 1 kilogram = 33 = 0.033 kg

103 grams 103
d. 95 km • 0.625 miles = 95 • 0.625 = 59 miles

hour 1 km 1 hour
e. 27 meters • 60 s • 60 min • 1 kilometer = 27 • 60 • 60 = 97 km

seconds 1 min 1 hour 103 meters 103 hour
* * * * *

Lesson 4B: Single Step Conversions

In the previous lesson, conversion factors were supplied. In this lesson, you will learn to
make your own conversion factors to solve problems. Let’s learn the method with a simple
example.
Q. How many years is 925 days?
In your notebook, write an answer to each step below.
Steps for Solving with Conversion Factors
1. Begin by writing a question mark (?) and then the unit you are looking for in the
problem, the answer unit.
2. Next write an equal sign. It means, “OK, that part of the problem is done. From here
on, leave the answer unit alone.” You don’t cancel the answer unit, and you don’t
multiply by it.
3. After the = sign, write the number and unit you are given (the known quantity).
* * * * *
At this point, in your notebook should be ? years = 925 days
4. Next, write a • and a line _______ for a conversion factor to multiply by.
5. A key step: write the unit of the given quantity in the denominator (on the bottom) of
the conversion factor. Leave room for a number in front.
Do not put the given number in the conversion factor -- just the given unit.
? years = 925 days • ______________
days
6. Next, write the answer unit on the top of the conversion factor.
? years = 925 days • year
days
7. Add numbers that make the numerator and denominator of the conversion factor equal.
In a legal conversion factor, the top and bottom quantities must be equal or equivalent.
8. Cancel the units that you set up to cancel.
9. If the unit on the right side after cancellation is the answer unit, stop adding
conversions. Write an = sign. Multiply the given quantity by the conversion factor.
Write the number and the un-canceled unit. Done!
Finish the above steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
? years = 925 days • 1 year = 925 years = 2.53 years
365 days 365
(SF: 1 is exact, 925 has 3 sf, 365 has 3 sf (1 yr. = 365.24 days is more precise), round to 3 sf.)
You may need to look back at the above steps, but you should not need to memorize them.
By doing the following problems, you will quickly learn what you need to know.

Practice: After each numbered problem, check your answers at the end of this lesson.
Look back at the steps if needed.
In the problems in this practice section, write conversions in which one of the numbers (in
the numerator or the denominator) is a 1.
If these are easy, do every third letter. If you miss a few, do a few more.
1. Add numbers to make these conversion factors legal, cancel the units that cancel,
multiply the given by the conversion, and write your answer.
a. ? cm = 0.35 meters • 1 cm =
meter
b. ? days = 96 hours • day =
24 hours
c. ? mL = 3.50 liters • 1 mL =
liter
d. ? minutes = 330 s • minutes =

seconds
2. To start these, put the unit of the given quantity where it will cancel. Then finish the
conversion factor, do the math, and write your answer with its unit.
a. ? seconds = 0.25 minutes • sec. =

1
b. ? kilograms = 250 grams • kilogram =

103
c. ? meters = 14 cm • =
cm
d. ? days = 2.73 years • 365 =
e. ? years = 200. days • 1 =
3. You should not need to memorize the written rules for arranging conversion factors,
however, it is helpful to memorize this “single unit starting template.”
When solving for single units, begin with

? unit WANTED = number and UNIT given • _________________
UNIT given

The template emphasizes that your first conversion factor puts the given unit (but not
the given number) where it will cancel.
a. ? months = 5.0 years • =
b. ? liters = 350 mL • =
c. ? minutes = 5.5 hours =
4. Use the starting template to find how many hours equal 390 minutes.
5. ? milligrams = 0.85 kg • gram • _____________ =

kg gram
ANSWERS
Some but not all unit cancellations are shown. For your answer to be correct, it must include its unit.
Your conversions may be in different formats, such as 1 meter = 100 cm or 1 cm = 10─2 meters , as long as
the top and bottom are equal and the result is the same answers as below.
1. a. ? cm = 0.35 meters • 1 cm = 0.35 • 102 cm = 35 cm
10─2 meter
(c- = centi- = 10─2. SF: 0.35 has 2 sf, prefix definitions are exact with infinite sf, round to 2 sf)
b. ? days = 96 hours • 1 day = 96 days = 4.0 days

24 hours 24
c. ? mL = 3.50 liters • 1 mL = 3.50 • 103 mL = 3.50 x 103 mL
10─3 liter
(SF: 3.50 has 3 sf, prefix definitions are exact with infinite sf, answer is rounded to 3 sf)
d ? minutes = 330 sec. • 1 minute = 330 minutes = 5.5 minutes
60 seconds 60
(SF: 330 has 2 sf, this time definition is exact with infinite sf, answer is rounded to 2 sf)

2. Your conversions may be different (for example, you may use 1,000 mL = 1 L or 1 mL = 10─3 L), but
you must get the same answer.
a. ? seconds = 0.25 minutes • 60 sec. = 0.25 • 60 sec. = 15 s
1 minute
(SF: 0.25 has 2 sf, 1 min = 60 sec. is a definition with infinite sf, answer is rounded to 2 sf)
b. ? kilograms = 250 grams • 1 kilogram = 250 kg = 0.25 kg
103 grams 103
c. ? meters = 14 cm • 10─2 meter = 0.14 meters
1 cm
d. ? days = 2.73 years • 365 days = 2.73 • 365 days = 996 days
1 year
e. ? years = 200. days • 1 year = 200 years = 0.548 years
365 days 365
3. a. ? months = 5.0 years • 12 months = 60. months
1 year
(SF: 5.0 has 2 sf, 12 mo. = 1 yr. is a definition with infinite sf, round to 2 sf , the 60. decimal means 2 sf)
b. ? liters = 350 mL • 10─3 liter = 350 x 10─3 liters = 0.35 L

1 mL
(m- = milli- = 10─3. SF: 350 has 2 sf, prefix definitions are exact with infinite sf, round to 2 sf)
c. ? minutes = 5.5 hours • 60 minutes = 330 minutes

1 hour
4. ? hours = 390 minutes • 1 hour = 6.5 hours
60 minutes
5. ? milligrams = 0.85 kg • 103 gram • 1 mg = 0.85 x 106 mg = 8.5 x 105 mg
1 kg 10─3 gram
* * * * *
Lesson 4C: Multi-Step Conversions

In Problem 5 at the end of the previous lesson, we did not know a direct conversion from
kilograms to milligrams. However, we knew a conversion from kilograms to grams, and
another from grams to milligrams.
In most problems, you will not know a single conversion from the given to wanted unit, but
there will be known conversions that you can chain together to solve.
Try this two-step conversion, based on Problem 5 above. Answer in scientific notation.
Q. ? milliseconds = 0.25 minutes
* * * * *

A. ? milliseconds = 0.25 minutes • 60 s • 1 ms = 15 x 103 ms = 1.5 x 104 ms

1 min. 10─3 s
The 0.25 has two sf, both conversions are exact definitions that do not affect the significant
figures in the answer, so the answer is written with two sf.
The rules are, when
Solving With Multiple Conversions

• If the unit on the right after you cancel units is not the answer unit, get rid of it.
Write it in the next conversion factor where it will cancel.
• Finish the next conversion with a known conversion, one that either includes the
answer unit, or gets you closer to the answer unit.
• In making conversions, set up units to cancel, but add numbers that make legal
conversions.
• The numbers in any definition or equality that is exactly true have infinite
significant figures and do not restrict the sf in an answer.
Practice
Write the seven metric fundamentals from memory. Use those fundamentals for the
problems below. Convert your final answers to scientific notation.
These are in pairs. If Part A is easy, go to Part A of the next question. If you need help with
Part A, do Part B for more practice.
1. a. ? gigagrams = 760 milligrams • gram • ______________ =
b. ? cg = 4.2 kg • • _______________ =
g
2. a. ? years = 2.63 x 104 hours • • =
b. ? seconds = 1.00 days • hr • • =
3. a. ? µg H2O (l) = 1.5 cc H2O(l) • g H2O(l) • _____________ =
b. ? kg H2O(liquid) = 5.5 liter H2O(l)• • • =

Always check metric prefix-conversions to be sure:

• m- is above or below 10─3 , c- is above or below 10─2 , k- is above or below 103.
ANSWERS
For visibility, not all cancellations are shown, but cancellations should be marked on your paper.
Your conversions may be different (for example, you may use 1,000 mL = 1 L or 1 mL = 10─3 L ), but you
must get the same answer.
1a. ? gigagrams = 760 milligrams • 10─3 g • 1 Gg_ = 760 x 10─12 Gg = 7.6 x 10─10 Gg
1 mg 109 g
b. ? cg = 4.2 kg • 103 g • 1 cg = 4.2 x 105 cg
1 kg 10─2 g
2a. ? years = 2.63 x 104 hours • 1 day • 1 yr = 2.63 x 104 = 3.00 x 100 years
24 hr. 365 days 24 • 365
b. ? seconds = 1.00 days • 24 hr • 60 min • 60 s = 8.64 x 104 s

1 day 1 hr 1 min
3a. ? µg H2O(l) = 1.5 cc H2O(l) • 1.00 g H2O(l) • 1 µg = 1.5 x 106 µg H2O(l)

1 cc H2O(l) 10─6 g
b. ? kg H2O(l) = 5.5 liter H2O(l) • 1 mL • 1.00 g H2O(l) • 1 kg = 5.5 = 5.5 kg H2O(l)

10─3 L 1 mL H2O(l) 103 g 100
* * * * *
Lesson 4D: English/Metric Conversions

Using Familiar Conversions
All of the unit conversions between units that we have used so far have had the number 1
on either the top or the bottom, but a one is not required in a legal conversion.
Both “1 kilometer = 1,000 meters” and “3 kilometers = 3,000 meters” are true equalities,
and both equalities could be used to make legal conversion factors. In most cases, however,
conversions with a 1 are preferred.
Why? We want conversions to be familiar, so that we can write them automatically, and
quickly check that they are correct. Definitions are usually based on one of one component,
such as “1 km = 103 meters.” Definitions are the most frequently encountered conversions
and are therefore familiar and preferred.

However, some conversions may be familiar even if they do not include a 1. For example,
many cans of soft drinks are labeled “12.0 fluid ounces (355 mL).” This supplies an
equality for English-to-metric volume units: 12.0 fluid ounces = 355 mL. That is a legal
conversion and, because its numbers and units are seen often, it is a good conversion to use
because it is easy to remember and check.
Bridge Conversions
Science problems often involve a key bridge conversion between one unit system, quantity,
or substance, and another.
For example, a bridge conversion between metric and English-system distance units is
2.54 centimeters ≡ 1 inch
In countries that use English units, this is now the exact definition of an inch. Using this
equality, we can convert between metric and English measurements of distance.
Any metric-English distance equality can be used to convert between distance
measurements in the two systems. Another metric-English conversion for distance that is
frequently used (but not exact) is 1 mile = 1.61 km . (When determining the significant
figures, for conversions based on equalities that are not exact definitions, assume that an
integer 1 is exact, but the other number is precise only to the number of sf shown.)
In problems that require bridge conversions, our strategy to will be to “head for the
bridge,” to begin by converting to one of the two units in the bridge conversion.
When a problem needs a bridge conversion, use these steps.
1) First convert the given unit to the unit in the bridge conversion that is in the same
system as the given unit.
2) Next, multiply by the bridge conversion. The bridge conversion crosses over from
the given system to the WANTED system.
3) Multiply by other conversions in the WANTED system to get the answer unit
WANTED.
Conversions between the metric and English systems provide a way to practice the bridge-
conversion methods that we will use in chemical reaction calculations. Add these English
distance-unit definitions to your list of memorized conversions.
12 inches ≡ 1 foot 3 feet ≡ 1 yard 5,280 feet ≡ 1 mile
Memorize this metric-to-English bridge conversion for distance.
2.54 centimeters ≡ 1 inch

Then cover the answer below and apply the steps and conversions above to this problem.
Q. ? feet = 1.00 meter
* * * * *

Answer
Since the wanted unit is English, and the given unit is metric, an English/metric bridge is
needed.
Step 1: Head for the bridge. Since the given unit (meters) is metric system, convert to
the metric unit used in the bridge conversion (2.54 cm = 1 inch) -- centimeters.
? feet = 1.00 meter • 1 cm • _______
10─2 m cm
Note the start of the next conversion. Since cm is not the wanted answer unit, cm must be
put in the next conversion where it will cancel. If you start the “next unit to cancel”
conversion automatically after finishing the prior conversion, it helps to arrange and choose
the next conversion.
Adjust and complete your work if needed.
* * * * *
Step 2: Complete the bridge that converts to the system of the answer: English units.
? feet = 1.00 meter • 1 cm • 1 inch • __________

10─2 m 2.54 cm inch
* * * * *
Step 3: Get rid of the unit you’ve got. Get the unit you want.
? feet = 1.00 meter • 1 cm • 1 inch • 1 foot = 3.28 feet

10─2 m 2.54 cm 12 inches
The answer tells us that 1.00 meter (the given quantity) is equal to 3.28 feet.
Some science problems take 10 or more conversions to solve. However, if you know that a
bridge conversion is needed, “heading for the bridge” breaks the problem into pieces,
which will simplify your navigation to the answer.
Practice: Use the inch-to-centimeter bridge conversion above. Start by doing every
other problem. Do more if you need more practice.
1. ? cm = 12.0 inches • __________ =
2. ? inches = 1.00 meters • __________ • __________
3. For ? inches = 760. mm

a. To what unit to you aim to convert the given in the initial conversions? Why?
b. Solve: ? inches = 760. mm

4. ? mm = 0.500 yards
5. For ? km = 1.00 mile , to convert using 1 inch = 2.54 cm ,

a. To what unit to you aim to convert the given in the initial conversions? Why?
b. Solve: ? km = 1.00 mile
6. Use as a bridge for metric mass and English weight units, 1 kilogram = 2.2 lbs.
? grams = 7.7 lbs
7. Use the “soda can” volume conversion (12.0 fluid ounces = 355 mL).
? fluid ounces = 2.00 liters
ANSWERS
In these answers, some but not all of the unit cancellations are shown. The definition 1 cm = 10 mm may be
used for mm to cm conversions. Doing so will change the number of conversions but not the answer.
1. ? cm = 12.0 inches • 2.54 cm = 12.0 • 2.54 = 30.5 cm (check how many cm are on a 12 inch ruler)
1 inch
2. ? inches = 1.00 meters • 1 cm • 1 inch = 1 x 102 = 0.394 x 102 in. = 39.4 inches
10─2 m 2.54 cm 2.54
3a. Aim to convert the given unit (mm) to the one unit in the bridge conversion that is in the same system
(English or metric) as the given. Cm is the bridge unit that is in the same measurement system as mm.
3b. ? inches = 760. mm • 10─3 meter • 1 cm • 1 inch = 760 x 10─1 in. = 29.9 inches
1 mm 10─2 m 2.54 cm 2.54
SF: 760., with the decimal after the 0, means 3 sf. Metric definitions and 1 have infinite sf. The answer
must be rounded to 3 sf (see Module 2).
4. ? mm = 0.500 yd. • 3 ft. • 12 in. • 2.54 cm • 10─2 meter • 1 mm = 457 mm
1 yd. 1 ft. 1 inch 1 cm 10─3 m
5a. Aim to convert the given unit (miles) to the bridge unit in the same system (English or metric) as the given.
Inches is in the same system as miles.
5b. ? km = 1.00 mile • 5,280 ft. • 12 in. • 2.54 cm • 10─2 m • 1 km = 1.61 km
1 mile 1 ft. 1 inch 1 cm 103 m
SF: Assume an integer 1 that is part of any equality or conversion is exact, with infinite sf.

6. ? grams = 7.7 lbs • 1 kg • 103 grams = 3.5 x 103 grams

2.2 lb 1 kg
SF: 7.7 and 2.2 have 2 sf. A 1 has infinite sf. Definitions, including metric-prefix definitions, have infinite sf.
Round the answer to 2 sf.
7. ? fluid ounces = 2.00 liters • 1 mL • 12.0 fl. oz. = 67.6 fl. oz. (Check this answer on
10─3 L 355 mL any 2-liter soda bottle.)
* * * * *
Lesson 4E: Ratio Unit Conversions

Long Distance Cancellation
The order in which numbers are multiplied does not affect the result. For example,
1 x 2 x 3 has the same answer as 3 x 2 x 1.
The same is true when multiplying symbols or units. While some sequences may be easier
to set up or understand, from a mathematical perspective the order of multiplication does
not affect the answer.
The following problem is an example of how units can cancel in separated as well as
adjacent conversions. Try
Problem 1: Multiply these conversions. Cancel units that cancel. Write the answer
number and its unit.
12 meters • 60 sec. • 60 min. • 1 kilometer • 0.62 miles =

sec. 1 min 1 hour 1000 meters 1 kilometer
* * * * *
12 meters • 60 sec. • 60 min. • 1 kilometer • 0.62 miles = 27 miles

sec. 1 min. 1 hour 1000 meters 1 kilometer hr.
This answer means that a speed of 12 meters/sec is the same as 27 miles/hour.
* * * * *
Ratio Units in the Answer
In these lessons, we will use the term single unit to describe a unit that has one base unit in
the numerator but no denominator (which means the denominator is 1). Single units
measure amounts. Meters, grams, minutes, milliliters, and cm3 are all single units.
We will use the term ratio unit to describe a fraction that has one base unit in the numerator
and one base unit in the denominator. If a problem asks you to find
meters per second or meters/second or meters or m • s─1

second
all of those terms are identical, and the problem is asking for a ratio unit. In conversion
calculations, all ratio units should be written in the fraction form with a clear top and
bottom.

In Module 11, after we have worked with a wider variety of units, we will address in detail
the different characteristics of single units and ratio units. For now, the distinctions above
will allow us to solve problems.
Converting the Denominator
In solving for single units, we have used a starting template that includes canceling a given
single unit.
When solving for single units, begin with

? unit WANTED = # and UNIT given • __________________
UNIT given
When solving for ratio units, we may need to cancel a denominator (bottom) unit to start a
problem. To do so, we will loosen our starting rule to say this.
When Solving With Conversion Factors

If a unit to the right of the equal sign, in or after the given, on the top or the bottom,
• matches a unit in the answer unit, in both what it is and where it is, circle that
unit on the right side and do not convert it further;
• is not what you WANT, put it where it will cancel, and convert until it matches
what you WANT.
After canceling units, if the unit or units to the right of the equal sign match the
answer unit, stop adding conversions, do the math, and write the answer.
* * * * *
Problem 2: Use the rule above for these. Do Part A first, and check your answer on the
next page. Then do Part C. Do Part B if you need more practice.
a. ? cm = 0.50 cm • __________ =
min. s
b. ? g = 355 g • __________ =
dL L
c. ? meters = 4.2 x 105 meters • __________ • __________ =

second hour
Check your metric prefix- conversions:

• m- is opposite 10─3 , c- is opposite 10─2 , k- is opposite 103.
* * * * *

Answers to Problem 2:
a. ? cm = 0.50 cm • 60 s = 30. cm
min s 1 min min
Start by comparing the wanted units to the given units.

Since you WANT cm on top, and are given cm on top, circle cm to say, “The top is
done. Leave the top alone.”
On the bottom, you have seconds, but you WANT minutes. Put seconds where it
will cancel. Convert to minutes on the bottom.
When the units on the right match the units you WANT on the left for the answer,
stop conversions and do the math.
b. ? g = 355 g • 10─1 L = 35.5 g

dL L 1 dL dL
c. ? meters = 4.2 x 105 meters • 1 hour • 1 min = 1.2 x 102 meters

s hour 60 min 60 s s
* * * * *
Converting Both Top and Bottom Units
Many problems require converting both numerator and denominator units. Which you
convert first — the top or bottom unit — makes no difference. The order in which you
multiply factors does not change the answer.
* * * * *
Problem 3: In these, an order of conversion is specified. Write what must be placed in the
blanks to make legal conversions, cancel units, do the math, and write then check your
answers below.
a. ? meters = 740 cm • meters • minutes_ =

s min.
b. ? miles = 80.7 feet • mile • __________ • __________=

hour sec. min.
c. ? meters = 250. feet • min. • ________ • _________ • __________=

s min. 1 inch
* * * * *

ANSWERS to Problem 3:
3a. ? meters = 740 cm • 10─2 meters • 1 min = 0.12 meters
s min 1 cm 60 s s
In the given on the right, cm is not the unit WANTED on top, so put it where it will
cancel, and convert to the unit you want on top.
Next, since minutes are on the bottom on the right, but seconds are WANTED, put
minutes where it will cancel. Convert to the seconds WANTED.
3b. ? miles = 80.7 feet • 1 mile • 60 sec. • 60 min. = 55.0 miles

hour sec. 5,280 feet 1 min. 1 hour hour
3c. ? meters = 250. feet • 1 min. • 12 inches • 2.54 cm • 10─2 meter = 1.27 meters
sec. min. 60 sec. 1 foot 1 inch 1 cm s
(SF: 250. due to the decimal has 3 sf, all other conversions are definitions, answer is rounded to 3 sf)
* * * * *
Problem 4: In these, no order for the conversions is specified. Add legal conversions in
any order, solve, then check your answers below. Before doing the math, double check
each conversion, one at a time, to make sure it is legal.
a. ? centigrams = 0.550 x 10─2 g

liter mL
b. ? km = 1.17 x 104 mm
hour sec
c. ? ng = 47 x 102 mg
mL dm3
d. ? feet = 95 meters
sec. minute
* * * * *
ANSWERS to Problem 4: Your conversions may be in a different order.
a. ? centigrams = 0.550 x 10─2 g • 1 cg • 1 mL = 5.50 x 102 cg

liter mL 10─2 g 10─3 L L

b. ? km = 1.17 x 104 mm • 10─3 m • 1 km • 60 sec • 60 min = 42.1 km

hour sec 1 mm 103 m 1 min 1 hour hr
c. ? ng = 47 x 102 mg • 1 dm3 • 10─3 L • 10─3 g • 1 ng = 4.7 x 106 ng

mL dm3 1L 1 mL 1 mg 10─9 g mL
d. Hint: an English/metric bridge conversion for distance units is needed. Head for the bridge: convert
the given metric distance unit to the metric distance unit used in your bridge conversion.
* * * * *
? feet = 95 meters • 1 min • 1 cm • 1 inch • 1 foot = 5.2 feet
sec. min 60 s 10─2 m 2.54 cm 12 in. s
* * * * *
Lesson 4F: Review Quiz For Modules 1-4

Use a calculator and scratch paper, but no notes or tables. State your answers to
calculations in proper significant figures. Except as noted, convert your answers to
scientific notation.
To answer multiple choice questions, it is suggested that you
• Solve as if the question is not multiple choice,
• Then circle your answer among the choices provided.
Set a 20-minute limit, then check your answers after the Summary that follows.
* * * * *
1. 1023 =
(1.25 x 1010)(4.0 x 10―6)
a. 2.0 x 1018 b. 5.0 x 1018 c. 0.20 x 1019 d. 2.0 x 1020 e. 5.0 x 10―19
2. (─ 60.0 x 10―16) ─ (─ 4.29 x 10―14) =

a. 4.8 x 10―16 b. 3.69 x 10―14 c. 3.7 x 10―14 d. 4.8 x 10―16 e. 4.89 x 10―14
3. 15 mL of liquid water has what mass in kg?

a. 1.5 x 10―3 kg b. 15 x 10―4 kg c. 1.5 x 10―4 kg d. 1.5 x 10―4 kg e. 1.5 x 10―2 kg
4. 5.00 x 10─2 L3 • m • 2.00 m • 2.0 s3 • (an exact 2) =

s 8.00 x 10─5 L2
a. 1.00 x 10―4 m2 • s2 • L b. 5.00 x 103 m2 • s2 • L c. 5.0 x 103 m2 • s2 • L
d. 1.0 x 10―3 m • s2 • L e. 5.0 x 10―3 m2 • s2 • L

5. State your answer in proper significant figures Æ 1.008

but do not convert to scientific notation. + 238.00
a. 255.00 b. 255.0 c. 255.008 d. 255.1 e. 255.01 16.00
6. If 1 kg = 2.20 lb., ? mg = 4.0 x 10─2 lb.
a. 8.8 x 10―7 mg b. 8.8 x 104 mg c. 1.8 x 10―7 mg d. 1.8 x 104 mg e. 8.8 x 101 mg
7. ? kg = 2.4 x 105 μg
mL dm3
a. 2.4 x 10―7 kg b. 2.4 x 105 kg c. 2.4 x 10―10 kg d. 2.4 x 10―5 kg e. 2.4 x 10―4 kg
mL mL mL mL mL
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Conversion Factors

1. Conversion factors are fractions or ratios made from two entities that are equal or
equivalent. Conversion factors have a value of one.
2. An equality can be written as a conversion or fraction or ratio equal to one.
3. In solving a problem, first write the unit WANTED, then an = sign.
4. Solving for single units, start conversion factors with
? unit WANTED = # and UNIT given • ________________
UNIT given
5. Finish each conversion with the answer unit or with a unit that takes you closer to the
answer unit.
6. In making conversions, set up units to cancel, but add numbers that make legal
conversions.
7. Chain your conversions so that the units cancel to get rid of the unit you’ve got and get
to the unit you WANT.
8. When the unit on the right is the unit of the answer on the left, stop conversion factors.
Evaluate the numbers. Write the answer and its unit.
9. Units determine the placement of the numbers to get the right answer.
10. If you plan on a career in a science-related field, add these to your flashcard collection.
Front-side (with notch at top right): Back Side -- Answers
1 inch = ? cm 2.54 cm
1 kg = ? pounds 2.2 lb.
12 fluid oz. = ? mL 355 mL
* * * * *

ANSWERS – Module 1-4 Review Quiz

Only partial solutions are provided below.
1. a. 2.0 x 1018 1/5 x 1023―10+6 = 0.20 x 1019 = 2.0 x 1018 (See Lesson 1C)
2. b. 3.69 x 10―14 (+ 4.29 x 10―14) ─ (0.600 x 10―14) = net doubt in hundredths place
3. e. 1.5 x 10―2 kg 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O ; 1.00 kg H2O = 1 L H2O (Lessons 2A and 4D)
4. c. 5.0 x 103 m2 • s2 • L (2 sf and Lesson 2D)
5. e. 255.01 (Adding and subtracting, round to highest place with doubt. See Lesson 3A, 3B)
6. d. 1.8 x 104 mg (Lessons 2B and 4D)
7. a. 2.4 x 10―7 kg/mL L = dm3 (Lessons 2B and 4E)
# # # # #

Modules 5-7
A Note to the Student
The focus of these lessons is to provide methods to help you solve calculations in first-year
chemistry. This is only one part of a course in chemistry, but it is often the most
challenging.
Problem Notebook: The purchase of a spiral problem notebook is suggested as a place to
write your work when solving the problems in these lessons.
Choosing a Calculator: As you do problems in these lessons (and assigned homework)
that require a calculator, use the same calculator that you will be allowed to use during
quizzes and tests. Calculators have many different labels and placements of keys. It is
advisable to practice the rules and keys for a calculator before quizzes and tests.
Many courses will not allow the use of a graphing calculator or other types of calculators
with extensive memory during tests. If a type of calculator is specified for your course, buy
two if possible. When one becomes broken or lost, you will have a familiar backup if the
bookstore is sold out later in the term.
If no type of calculator is specified for your course, any inexpensive calculator with a 1/x
or x-1 , yx or ^ , log or 10x , and ln functions will be sufficient for most
calculations in introductory chemistry courses.
When to Do the Lessons: You will receive the maximum benefit from these lessons by
completing each topic before it is addressed in your class.
Where to Start and Lesson Sequence: The order of these lessons may not always match
the order in which topics are covered in your course. If you are using these modules as
part of a course, you should do the lessons in the order in which they are assigned by your
instructor. If you are using these lessons on your own to assist with a course, begin by
• Determining the topics that will be covered on your next graded assignment:
problem set, quiz, or test.
• Find that topic in the Table of Contents.
• Download the modules that precede and include the topics.
lesson. Print the needed lessons. Do the prerequisites, then the topics related to
your next graded assignments.
If you begin these lessons after the start of your course, when time permits, review prior
topics in these lessons as needed, starting with Module 1. You will need all of these
introductory modules for later topics -- and for your final exam.
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.n1 Page i

If we did not make a complete analysis of the elements of the problem, we should
obtain an equation not homogeneous, and, a fortiori, we should not be able to
form the equations which express … more complex cases.
. . . every undetermined magnitude or constant has one dimension proper to
itself, and the terms of one and the same equation could not be compared if they
had not the same exponent of dimensions.
-- Joseph Fourier, The Analytical Theory of Heat (1822)
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.n1 Page ii

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................. 101
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 159
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Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 237
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.n1 Page iv

Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491
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Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................614
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................662
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................827
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.n1 Page vi

Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 974
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•••••
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Module 5 – Word Problems

Prerequisite: Complete Modules 2 and 4 before starting Module 5.
Timing: Begin Module 5 as soon as you are assigned word-problem calculations.
* * * * *
Introduction
In this module, you will learn to identify given quantities and equalities in word problems.
You will then be able to solve nearly all of the initial problems assigned in chemistry with
the same conversion-factor method that you used with success in Module 4.
In these lessons, you will be asked to take steps to organize your data before you begin to
solve a problem. Most students report that by using this method, they then have a better
understanding of what steps to take to solve science calculations.
* * * * *
Lesson 5A: Answer Units -- Single or Ratio?

Types of Units
In these lessons, we will divide the units used in measurements into three types.
• Single units have one kind of base unit in the numerator, but no denominator.
Examples include meters, cubic centimeters, grams, and hours.
• Ratio units have one kind of base unit in the numerator and one kind in the
denominator. Examples include meters/second and g/cm3.
• Complex units are all other units, such as 1/sec or (kg·meters2)/sec2.
Most of the calculations encountered initially in chemistry involve single units and ratios,
but not complex units. Rules for single units will be covered in this module. The
distinctions between single and ratio units will be covered in Module 11. Rules for
complex units will be added in Modules 17.
Rule #1: Know Where You Are Going

In science calculations:
To solve word problems, begin by writing “WANTED: ? ” and the unit of the answer.
Example: WANTED: ? hours

The first time you read a word problem, look only for the unit of the answer.
Writing the answer unit first is essential to
• help you choose the correct given to start your conversions,
• prompt you to write DATA conversions that you will need to solve, and
• tell you when to stop conversions and do the math.
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.n1 Page 73

Rules for Answer Units

When writing the WANTED unit, it is important to distinguish between single units and
ratio units.
1. An answer unit is a ratio unit if a problem asks you to find
a. “unit X over one unit Y,” or
b. “unit X /unit Y” or “unit X•unit Y─1” or
c. “unit X per unit Y” where there is no number after per.
All of those expressions are equivalent. All are ways to represent ratio units.
Example: grams , also written grams/mL or g •mL─1, is a ratio unit.
mL
If there is no number in the bottom unit, or after the word per, the number one is
understood.
Example: “Find the speed in miles/hour (or miles per hour)” is equivalent to
“find the miles traveled per one hour.”
A ratio unit means something per ONE something.
2. An answer unit is a single unit if it has a one kind of base unit in the numerator (top
term) but no denominator.
Example: If a problem asks you to find miles, or cm3, or dollars, it is asking for
a single unit.
3. If a problem asks for a “unit per more than one other unit,” it WANTS a single unit.
Example: If a problem asks for “grams per 100 milliliters,” or the “miles
traveled in 27 hours,” it is asking for a single unit.
A ratio unit must be something per one something.
Writing Answer Units
1. If you WANT a ratio unit, write the unit as a fraction with a top and a bottom.
Example: If an answer unit in a problem is miles/hour, to start:
Write: WANTED: ? miles
hour
Do not write: WANTED: ? miles/hour or ? mph
The slash mark ( / ), which is read as “per” or “over,” is an easy way to type ratios and
conversion factors. However, when solving with conversions, writing ratio answer
units as a fraction, with a clear numerator and denominator, will help in arranging the
conversions to solve.
2. If a problem WANTS a single unit, write the WANTED unit without a denominator.
WANTED: ? miles or WANTED: ? mL
Single units have a one as a denominator and are written without a denominator.

Practice
Cover the answers below with a sticky note or cover sheet. Then, for each problem, write
“WANTED: ? ” and the unit that the problem is asking you to find, using the rules above.
After that WANTED unit, write an equal sign.
Do not finish the problem. Write only the WANTED units.
1. If a car is traveling at 25 miles per hour, how many hours will it take to go 450 miles?
2. If 1.12 liters of a gas at STP has a mass of 3.55 grams, what is the molar mass of the gas,
in grams/mole?
3. If a car travels 270 miles in 6 hours, what is its average speed?
4. A student needs 420 special postage stamps. The stamps are sold with 6 stamps on a
sheet, each stamp booklet has 3 sheets, and the cost is $14.40 per booklet.
a. What is the cost of all of the stamps? b. How much is the cost per stamp?
ANSWERS
1. The question asks for hours. Write WANTED: ? hours =
This problem is asking for a single unit. If the problem asked for hours per one mile, that would be a ratio
unit, but hours per 450 miles is asking for a single unit.
2. Write WANTED: ? grams = This is a ratio unit. Any unit that is in the
mole form “unit X / unit Y” is a ratio unit.
3. In this problem, no unit is specified. However, since the data are in miles and hours, the easiest measure
of speed is miles per hour, written
WANTED: ? miles = which is a familiar unit of speed. This problem is asking for a ratio unit.
hour
4a. WANTED: ? $ = or WANTED: ? dollars = The answer unit is a single unit.
4b. WANTED: ? $/stamp = or ? cents/stamp = The cost per one stamp is a ratio unit.
* * * * *
Lesson 5B: Mining The DATA

The method we will use to simplify problems is to divide solving into three parts.
WANTED:
DATA:
SOLVE:
This method will break complex problems into pieces. You will always know what steps to
take to solve a problem, because we will solve all problems with the same three steps.

Rules for DATA

To solve word problems, get rid of the words.
By translating words into numbers, units, and labels, you can solve most of the initial word
problems in chemistry by chaining conversions, as you did in Module 4.
To translate the words, the key is to write, in the DATA section on your paper, every
number you encounter as you read the problem, followed by its unit and a label that
describes what the number and its unit are measuring. This supplied DATA will help to
identify the unstated additional conversions that you will need to solve the problem.
In the initial problems of chemistry, it is important to distinguish numbers and units that
are parts of equalities from those that are not. To do so, we need to learn the many ways
that quantities that are equal or equivalent can be expressed in words.
Rules for Listing DATA in Word Problems
1. Read the problem. Write “WANTED: ?” followed by the WANTED unit and an = sign.
2. On the next line down, write “DATA:”
3. Read the problem a second time.
• Each time you find a number, stop. Write the number on a line under “DATA:”
• After the number, write its unit plus a label that helps to identify the number.
• Decide if that number, unit, and label is paired with another number, unit, and label
as part of equality.
4. In the DATA section, write each number and unit in the problem as an equality
a. Every time you read per. Per is written in DATA as an equal sign (=) .
If a number is shown after per, write the number in the equality.
Example: If you read “$8 per 3 pounds” write in the DATA: “$8 = 3 lb.”
If no number is shown after per, write per as “ = 1 “
Example: If you read “12 sodas per carton,” write “12 sodas = 1 carton.”
b. Every time you see a slash mark (/). A slash is the same as per.
Example: If you see “25 km/hour” write “25 km = 1 hour”
c. Every time you see unit x• unit y─1, which means the same as slash (/) and per.
Example: If you see “75 g• mL─1” write “75 grams = 1 mL”

d. Every time you see a conversion factor or a ratio unit.
Write 25 miles or 25 miles/hr under DATA as “25 miles = 1 hour”
hour
e. Every time the same quantity is measured using two different units.
If a problem says, “0.0350 moles of a gas has a volume of 440 mL,”
write in the DATA: “0.0350 moles of gas = 440 mL”

If a problem says that a bottle is labeled “2 liters (67.6 fluid ounces),”

write in your DATA: “2 liters = 67.6 fluid ounces ”
In both of the above are examples, the same physical quantity being measured in
two different units.
f. Any time two measurements are taken of the same process.
If a problem says, “burning 0.25 grams of candle wax releases 1700 calories of
energy,” write in your DATA section,
“0.25 grams candle wax = 1700 calories of energy”
Both sides are measures of what happened as this candle burned.
5. Watch for words such as each and every that mean one. One is a number, and you want
all numbers in your DATA table.
If you read, “Each student was given 2 sodas, ” write “ 1 student = 2 sodas”
6. Continue until all of the numbers in the problem are written in your DATA.
7. Note that in writing the WANTED unit, you write “per one” as a ratio unit, and “per
more than one” as a single unit.
In the DATA, however, because per is written as an equality, “per one” and “per more
than one” can be written in the same way.
Practice
For each phrase below, write the equality that you will add to your DATA based on the
measurements and words. On each side of the equal sign, include a number and a unit.
After each unit, if two different entities are being measured in the problem, add additional
words that identify what is being measured by the number and unit. After every few,
check your answers.
1. The car was traveling at a speed of 55 miles/hour.
2. A bottle of designer water is labeled 0.50 liters (16.9 fluid ounces).
3. Every student was given 19 pages of homework.
4. To melt 36 grams of ice required 2,880 calories of heat.
5. The cost of the three beverages was $5.
6. The molar mass is 18.0 grams H2O•mole H2O─1.
7. Two pencils were given to each student.
8. The dosage of the aspirin is 2.5 mg per kg of body mass.
9. If 125 mL of a gas at STP weighs 0.358 grams, what is the molar mass of the gas?
10. If 0.24 grams of NaOH are dissolved to make 250 mL of solution, what is the
concentration of the solution?

ANSWERS
Terms that are equal may always be written in the reverse order.
If there are two different entities in a problem, attach labels to the units that identify which entity the number and
unit are measuring. Doing so will make complex problems much easier to solve.
1. 55 miles = 1 hour (Rule 2b) 2. 0.50 liters = 16.9 fluid ounces (Rule 2e)
3. 1 student = 19 pages (Rule 3) 4. 36 grams ice = 2,880 calories heat (Rule 2f: Equivalent)
5. 3 beverages = $5 (Rule 2f) 6. 18.0 grams H2O = 1 mole H2O (Rule 2c)
7. 1 student = 2 pencils (Rule 3) 8. 2.5 mg aspirin = 1 kg of body mass (Rule 2a)
9. 125 mL of gas at STP = 0.358 grams gas (Rule 2e)
10. 0.24 g NaOH = 250 mL of solution (Rule 2f)
* * * * *
Lesson 5C: Solving For Single Units

The Law of Dimensional Homogeneity
In science, the units on both sides of an equality must, at the end of the calculation, be the
same. We will use this law to simplify problem solving by starting each calculation with
an equality:
? WANTED unit = # given unit
then convert the given to the WANTED unit.
DATA Formats If a Single Unit is WANTED
If a problem WANTS a single unit, one number and unit in the DATA is likely to be
• either a number and its unit that is not paired in an equality with other
measurements,
• or a number and its unit that is paired with the WANTED unit in the format
“? units WANTED = # units given”
We will define the given as the term written to the right of the equal sign: the starting point
for the terms that we will multiply to solve conversion calculations.
If a problem WANTS a single-unit amount, by the laws of science and algebra, at least one
item of DATA must be a single-unit amount. In problems that can be solved using
conversions, often one measurement will be a single unit, and the rest of the DATA will be
equalities.
If a single unit is WANTED, watch for one item of data that is a single unit amount. In the
DATA, write the single number, unit, and label on a line by itself.
It is a good practice to circle that single unit amount in the DATA, since it will be the
given number and unit that is used to start your conversions.

Variations on the above rules will apply when DATA includes two amounts that are
equivalent in a problem. We address these cases in Module 11. However, for the problems
you are initially assigned in first-year chemistry, the rules above will most often apply.
To SOLVE
After listing the DATA provided a problem, below the DATA, write SOLVE. Then, if you
WANT a single unit, write the WANTED and given measurements in the format of the
single-unit starting template.
? unit WANTED = # and unit given • ________________
unit given
The given measurement that is written after the = sign will be the circled single unit
listed in the DATA.
To convert to the WANTED unit, use the equalities in the DATA (and other fundamental
equalities if needed).
Summary: The 3-Step Method to Simplify Problem Solving

1. WANTED:
When reading a problem for the first time, ask one question: what will be the unit
of the answer? Then, write “WANTED: ?”, the unit the problem is asking for, and
a label that describes what the unit is measuring. Then add an = sign.
Write WANTED ratio units as fractions, and single units as single units.
2. DATA:
Read the problem a second time.
• Every time you encounter a number, under DATA, write the number and its
unit. Add a label after the unit if possible, identifying what is being measured.
• Then see if that number and unit are equal to another number and unit.
If a problem WANTS a single unit, most often one measurement will be a single
unit and the rest will be equalities. Circle the single unit in the DATA.
3. SOLVE:
Start each calculation with an equality: ? WANTED unit = # given unit.
If you WANT a single unit, substitute the WANTED and given into this format.
? unit WANTED = # and unit given • _________________
unit given
Then, using equalities, convert to the WANTED unit.
Solve the following problem in your notebook using the 3-step method above.
Q. If a car’s speed is 55 miles/hr., how many minutes are needed to travel 85 miles?
* * * * * ( * * * mean cover the answer below, write your answer, then check it.)

Your paper should look like this.

WANTED: ? minutes =
DATA: 55 miles = 1 hour
85 miles
SOLVE: ? minutes = 85 miles • 1 hour • 60 min. = 93 minutes
55 miles 1 hour
You can solve simple problems without listing WANTED, DATA, SOLVE, but this 3-part
method works for all problems. It works especially well for the complex problems that
soon you will encounter. By using the same three steps for every problem, you will know
what to do to solve all problems. That’s the goal.
Practice
Many science problems are constructed in the following format.
“Equality, equality,” then, “? WANTED unit = a given number and unit.”
The problems below are in that format. Using the rules above, solve on these pages or by
writing the WANTED, DATA, SOLVE sections in your notebook.
If you get stuck, read part of the answer at the end of this lesson, adjust your work, and try
again. Do problems 1 and 3, and problem 2 if you need more practice.
Problem 1.
If 2.2 pounds = 1 kg, what is the mass in grams of 12 pounds?
WANTED: ? (Write the unit you are looking for.)
DATA: (Write every number and unit in the problem here. If solving for a single unit, often one
number and unit is unpaired, and the rest are in equalities, Circle the unpaired single unit.)
SOLVE: (Substitute the above into “? unit WANTED = # and unit given • _____________ “
unit given
then chain the equalities to find the unit WANTED.)
* * * * *

Problem 2.
If there are 1.6 km/mile, and one mile is 5,280 feet, how many feet are in 0.50 km?
WANTED: ?
DATA:
SOLVE:
?
* * * * *
Problem 3.
If there are 3 floogles per 10 schmoos, 5 floogles/mole, and 3 moles have a mass of 25
gnarfs, how many gnarfs are in 4.2 schmoos? (Assume single digit whole numbers are
exact.)
WANTED:
DATA:
SOLVE:

ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ? g =
DATA: 2.2 pounds = 1 kg
12 pounds
SOLVE:
? g = 12 pounds • 1 kg • 103 g = 12•103 g = 5.5 x 103 g
2.2 pounds 1 kg 2.2
A single unit is WANTED, and the DATA has one single unit.
Note that the SOLVE step begins with “how many grams equal 12 pounds?”
Fundamental conversions such as kilograms to grams need not be written in your DATA section, but they
will often be needed to solve. Be certain that you have mastered the metric system fundamentals.
2. WANTED: ? feet =
DATA: 1.6 km = 1 mile
1 mile = 5,280 feet
0.50 km
SOLVE:
? feet = 0.50 km • 1 mile • 5,280 feet = 0.50•5280 feet = 1,600 feet
1.6 km 1 mile 1.6
3. WANTED: ? gnarfs =
DATA: 3 floogles = 10 schmoos
5 floogles = 1 mole
3 moles = 25 gnarfs
4.2 schmoos
SOLVE:
At the SOLVE step, first state the question, “how many gnarfs equal 4.2 schmoos?”
Then add the first conversion, set up to cancel your given unit.
? gnarfs = 4.2 schmoos • ________________

schmoos
Since only one equality in the DATA contains schmoos, use it to complete the conversion.
? gnarfs = 4.2 schmoos • 3 floogles

10 schmoos
On the right, you now have floogles. On the left, you WANT gnarfs, so you must get rid of floogles. In
the next conversion, put floogles where it will cancel.
? gnarfs = 4.2 schmoos • 3 floogles • ____________

10 schmoos floogles

Floogles is in two conversion factors in the DATA, but one of them takes us back to schmoos, so let’s
use the other.
? gnarfs = 4.2 schmoos • 3 floogles • 1 mole

10 schmoos 5 floogles
Moles must be gotten rid of, but moles has a known relationship with the answer unit. Convert from
moles to the answer unit. Since, after unit cancellation, the answer unit is now where you WANT it,
stop conversions and do the arithmetic.
? gnarfs = 4.2 schmoos • 3 floogles • 1 mole • 25 gnarfs = 4.2•3•25 = 2.1 gnarfs
10 schmoos 5 floogles 3 moles 10•5•3
* * * * *
Lesson 5D: Finding the Given

Ratio Unit Givens
In chemistry, the initial quantitative topics generally involve solving for single units, so
that will be our initial focus as well. Conversion factors may also be used to solve for ratio
units, as we did in Lesson 4E.
However, we will defer the most of the rules to use conversions to solve for ratio units
until Lesson 11B, when ratio units will be needed to solve for the concentration of chemical
solutions. If you need to solve word problems that have ratio-unit answers, now or at any
later point, Lesson 11B may be done at any time after completing this lesson.
Single-Unit Givens
When solving for single units, the given quantity is not always clear.
Example: A student needs special postage stamps. The stamps are sold 6 per sheet,
each stamp booklet has 3 sheets, 420 stamps are needed, and the cost is
$43.20 per 5 booklets. What is the cost of the stamps?
Among all those numbers, which is the given needed as the first term when you SOLVE?
For a single-unit answer, finding the given is often a process of elimination. If all of the
numbers and units are paired into equalities except one, that one is your given.
In your notebook, write the WANTED and DATA sections for the stamps problem above
(don’t SOLVE yet). Then check your work below.
* * * * *
Answer: Your paper should look like this.
WANTED: ? $= or ? dollars = (you could also solve in cents)
DATA: 1 sheet = 6 stamps
3 sheets = 1 booklet
420 stamps
$43.20 = 5 booklets

Since you are looking for a single unit, dollars, your data has one number and unit that did
not pair up in an equality: 420 stamps. That is your given.
To SOLVE, the rule is
If you WANT a single unit, start with a single unit as your given.
Apply the above rule, and SOLVE the problem.

* * * * *
Answer
SOLVE: If you WANT a single unit, start with the single-unit starting template.
? $ = 420 stamps • ___________

stamps
If you needed that hint, adjust your work and then finish.
* * * * *
? $ = 420 stamps • 1 sheet • 1 booklet • $ 43.20 = $ 201.60
6 stamps 3 sheets 5 booklets
Practice
For each problem below, use the WANTED, DATA, SOLVE method. If you get stuck, peek
at the answers and try again. Do at least two problems. If you plan on taking physics, be
sure to do problem 3.
On each of these, before you do the math, double check each conversion, one at a time, to
make sure the conversion is legal.
1. A bottle of drinking water is labeled “12 fluid ounces (355 mL).” What is the mass in
centigrams of 0.55 fluid ounces of the H2O? (Use the metric definition of one gram).
2. You want to mail a large number of newsletters. The cost is 18.5 cents each at special
bulk rates. On the post office scale, the weight of exactly 12 newsletters is 10.2 ounces.
The entire mailing weighs 125 lb. There are 16 ounces (oz.) in a pound (lb.).
a. How many newsletters are being mailed?
b. What is the cost of the mailing in dollars?
3. If the distance from an antenna on Earth to a geosynchronous communications satellite
is 22,300 miles, given that there are 1.61 kilometers per mile, and radio waves travel at
the speed of light (3.0 x 108 meters/sec), how many seconds does it take for a signal
from the antenna to reach the satellite?

ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ? cg =
DATA: 12 fl. oz = 355 mL
0.55 fl. oz
1.00 g H2O(l) = 1 mL H2O(l) (metric definition of one gram)
SOLVE:
? cg = 0.55 fl. oz. • 355 mL • 1.00 g H2O(l) • 1 cg = 1,600 cg
12 fl. oz 1 mL H2O(l) 10─2 g
2a. WANTED: ? newsletters
DATA: 18.5 cents = 1 newsletter
12 exact newsletters = 10.2 ounces
16 oz. = 1 lb. (a definition with infinite sf)
125 lb.
SOLVE: ? newsletters = 125 lb. • 16 oz. • 12 newsls = 2,350 newsletters
1 lb. 10.2 oz.
2b. WANTED: ? dollars
(Strategy: Since you want a single unit, you can start over from your single given unit (125 lb.),
repeat the conversions above, then add 2 more.
Or you can start from your single unit answer in Part a, and solve using the two
additional conversions.
In problems with multiple parts, to solve for a later part, using an answer from a
previous part often saves time. )
DATA: same as for Part a.
SOLVE: ? dollars = 2,350 newsls • 18.5 cents • 1 dollar = $ 435
1 newsl 100 cents
3. WANTED: ? seconds =
DATA: 22,300 miles
1.61 km = 1 mile
3.0 x 108 meters = 1 sec
SOLVE:
? sec = 22,300 mi. • 1.61 km • 103 meters • 1 s = 22,300 • 1.61 • 103 sec = 0.12 s
1 mile 1 km 8
3.0 x 10 m 3.0 x 108
(This means that the time up and back for the signal is 0.24 seconds. You may have noticed this one-
quarter-second delay during some live broadcasts which bounce video signals off satellites but use faster
land-lines for audio, or during overseas phone calls routed through satellites.)
* * * * *

Lesson 5E: Some Chemistry Practice

Listing Conversions and Equalities
Which is the best way to write DATA pairs —as equalities, or in the fraction form as
conversion-factor ratios? Mathematically, either form may be used.
In DATA: the equalities
1.61 km = 1 mile can be listed as 1.61 km , 3.0 x 108 meters
3.0 x 108 meters = 1 sec. 1 mile 1 sec.
In these lessons, we will generally write equalities in the DATA section. This will
emphasize that when solving problems using conversions, you need to focus on
relationships between two quantities. However, listing the data in the fraction format is
equally valid. Data may be portrayed both ways in textbooks.
Why “Want A Single Unit, Start With A Single Unit?”

Mathematically, the order in which you multiply conversions does not matter. You could
solve with your single unit given written anywhere on top in your chain of conversions.
However, if you start with a ratio as your given when solving for a single unit, there is a
50% chance of starting with a ratio that is inverted. If this happens, the units will never
cancel correctly, and you would eventually be forced to start the conversions over. Starting
with the single unit is a method that automatically arranges your conversions right-side
up.
Practice
Let’s do some chemistry. The problems below supply the DATA needed for conversion
factors. In upcoming modules, you will learn how to write these needed conversions
automatically even when the problem does not supply them. That small amount of
additional information is all that you will need to solve most initial chemistry calculations.
You’re ready. Solve two of these problems in your notebook now, and one in your next
study session. Don’t let strange terms like moles or STP bother you. You’ve done gnarfs.
You can do these.
1. Water has a molar mass of 18.0 grams H2O per mole H2O. How many moles of H2O
are in 450 milligrams of H2O?
2. If one mole of all gases has a volume of 22.4 liters at STP, and the molar mass of
chlorine gas (Cl2) is 71.0 grams Cl2 per mole Cl2 , what is the volume, in liters, of 28.4
grams of Cl2 gas at STP ?
3. If 1 mole of H2SO4 = 98.1 grams of H2SO4 and it takes 2 moles of NaOH per 1 mole of
H2SO4 for neutralization, how many liters of a solution that is 0.240 mol NaOH per
liter is needed to neutralize 58.9 grams of H2SO4?

ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ? moles H2O =
DATA: 18.0 grams H2O = 1 mole H2O
450 mg H2O
SOLVE:
? moles H2O = 450 mg H2O • 10─3 g • 1 mole H2O = 2.5 x 10─2 moles H2O
1 mg 18.0 g H2O
Write chemistry data in 3 parts: Number, unit, formula. Writing complete labels will make complex
problems easier to solve. 450 has 2 sf.
2. WANTED: ? L Cl2
DATA: 1 mole gas = 22.4 L gas
71.0 g Cl2 = 1 mole Cl2
28.4 g Cl2
SOLVE:
? L Cl2 = 28.4 g Cl2 • 1 mole Cl2 • 22.4 L Cl2 = 8.96 L Cl
2
71.0 g Cl2 1 mole Cl2
3. WANTED: ? L NaOH solution

DATA: 1 mole H2SO4 = 98.1 grams H2SO4
2 moles NaOH = 1 mole H2SO4 (assume whole numbers are exact)
0.240 moles NaOH = 1 liter solution
58.9 grams H2SO4
SOLVE:
? L NaOH = 58.9 g H2SO4 • 1 mole H2SO4 • 2 mole NaOH • 1 L soln. = 5.00 L solution
98.1 g H2SO4 1 mole H2SO4 0.240 mole NaOH
* * * * *

Lesson 5F: Area and Volume Conversions

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned area and volume conversions based on taking
distance conversions to a power, or if you are majoring in science or engineering.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last problem in the lesson. If you can do
that problem, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Area
The rules are
Rule A1. Area, by definition, is distance squared. All units that measure area can be
related to distance units squared.
Rule A2. Any unit that measures distance can be used to define an area unit. The area
unit is simply the distance unit squared.
Rule A3. Any equality that relates two distance units can be used as an area
conversion by squaring both sides of the distance conversion.
Rule A4. In conversions, write “square units” as units2.
By Rule A2, area units can be any distance unit squared, such as square centimeters, square
kilometers, or square miles.
Using Rule A3, we can calculate a conversion factor between any two area units that are
are distance units squared by starting from the distance to distance equality.
For example: Since 1 mile = 1.61 km is a distance conversion,

and any equality squared on both sides remains true,
(1 mile)2 = (1.61 km)2
12 mile2 = (1.61)2 km2
1 mile2 = 2.59 km2 which can be used as an area conversion.
Based on the above, you can say that “one square mile is equal to 2.59 square kilometers.”
Note that in squaring an equality, all parts (each number and unit) must be squared.
When an area conversion based on a distance conversion is needed, the area conversion
can be calculated separately, as above. However, the area conversion can also be
constructed in or after the given unit as part of your chained conversions.
The logic: any two quantities that are equal can be used as a conversion factor written as a
fraction. Since the value of any conversion factor = 1, and both sides of an equation can be
taken to a power and the equation will still be true, then
if A = B , then A = 1 and
B ( )
A
B
2 = 12 = 1 = A2
B2

Since A2/B2 and (A/B)2 both equal 1, both are legal conversion factors.
The general rule is:
Any distance to distance equality or conversion can be squared and used as an area
conversion, or cubed and used as a volume conversion.
Use that rule to complete this un-finished conversion, solve, then check below.
? miles2 = 75 km2 •
( 1 mile
1.61 km )
* * * * *
For km2 in the given to cancel and convert to miles2 on top, square the miles-to-km distance
conversion. As above, when you square the conversion, be sure to square everything (each
number and each unit) inside the parentheses. Adjust your work and finish if needed.
* * * * *
? miles2 = 75 km2 •
( 1 mile
1.61 km
) 2 = 75 km2 • 12 mile2
(1.61)2 km2
= 75 miles2 = 29 miles2
2.59
The result above means that the given 75 square kilometers is equal to 29 square miles.
Practice A
1. If 25.4 mm = 1 inch and 12 inches = 1 foot
a. ? in. = 1.00 mm
b. ? in2 = 1.00 mm2
c. ? mm2 = 2.00 ft2
2. A standard sheet of notebook paper has dimensions of 8.50 x 11.0 inches.
a. What is the area of one side of the sheet of paper, in square inches?
b. Using your part a answer and 2.54 cm = 1 inch , calculate the area of one side of
the sheet of paper in square centimeters.
3. Under the grid system used to survey the American Midwest, a section, which is one
square mile, is 640 acres. The smallest unit of farm land typically surveyed was a
“quarter quarter section” of 40 acres. If 1 mile = 1.61 km, 40.0 acres is how many km2?
Volume
Volume, by definition, is distance cubed. Note that in each of the following formulas for
the volume of solids, measurements of distance are multiplied three times.
• Volume of a rectangular solid = l x w x h
• Volume of a cylinder = π r2 h
• Volume of a sphere = 4/3 π r3

The rules for volume calculations using distance units parallel those for area calculations.
Rule V1. Volume, by definition, is distance cubed. All units that measure volume can
be related to distance units cubed.
Rule V2. Any unit that measures distance can be used to define a volume unit. The
volume unit is simply the distance unit cubed.
Rule V3. Any equality that relates two distance units can be used as a volume
conversion factor by cubing both sides of the distance conversion.
Rule V4. In conversions, write “cubic units” as units3 (cubic meters = m3 )
In chemistry, volume units are used more often than area units. Some key relationships
used in distance and volume calculations are
• 1 meter = 10 decimeters = 100 centimeters, which means
• 1 decimeter = 10 centimeters.
Since volume is distance cubed, and one milliliter is defined as one cubic centimeter, we can
write metric fundamental rules 4 and 5:
4. 1 cm3 = 1 cc = 1 mL and
5. A cube that is 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm = 1 dm x 1 dm x 1 dm =
= 1,000 cm3 = 1,000 mL = 1 L = 1 dm3 (see Lesson 2A.)
In the English measurement system, volume units include fluid ounces, teaspoons,
tablespoons, cups, quarts, and gallons. A metric-to-English volume conversion that can be
used to convert among these units is the “soda can” equality: 12.0 fluid ounces = 355 mL.
However, any English distance unit, such as inches, feet, or miles, can also be used to
define a volume unit, such as in3, ft3, and mi3.
Any distance to distance equality, cubed, can also be used as a volume conversion.
For example, since 1 foot ≡ 30.48 cm , 1 foot3 ≡ (30.48)3 cm3 = 28,317 cm3
Note that each number and each unit must be cubed when an equality is cubed.
This general rule applies to both area and volume conversions:
A conversion factor written as a fraction or equality can be taken to any power needed in
order to cancel units, and the conversion will remain legal (equal to one).
Use that rule to solve this problem.

Q. Lake Erie, the smallest Great Lake, holds an average 485 km3 of water. What is this
volume in cubic miles? (1.61 km = 1 mile).
* * * * *

WANTED: ? miles3 (in calculations, write cubic units as units3.)

484 km3
SOLVE: ? miles3 = 485 km3 •
( 1 mile
1.61 km )
The above conversion is un-finished. Complete it, solve, then check below.
* * * * *
To get the given km3 to convert to miles3, use the miles-to-km distance conversion, cubed.
When cubing the conversion, be sure to cube everything inside the parentheses.
* * * * *
? miles3 = 485 km3 •
( ) 1 mile 3 = 485 km3 • 13 mi.3
1.61 km (1.61)3 km3
= 485 mi.3 = 116 miles3
4.17
To cube 1.61, either multiply 1.61 x 1.61 x 1.61 or use the yx function on your calculator.
Practice B
Use the conversions above. Do at least every other problem now, but save one or two until
prior to your test on this material. The more challenging problems are at the end. If you
get stuck, read a part of the answer, then try again. Be sure to do problem 4.
1. If one mile = 1.61 km, solve: ? km3 = 5.00 miles3
2. How many cubic millimeters are in one cubic meter?
3. If 25.4 mm = 1 inch, how many cubic inches are equal to 1.00 cubic millimeters?
4. 0.355 liters
a. is how many cubic centimeters?
b. Using 12 in. = 1 foot and 1 in. = 2.54 cm , convert your part a answer to cubic feet.
5. ? dm3 = 67.6 fluid ounces (Finish. Include the soda-can conversion.)
6. The flathead V-twin engine on the 1947 Indian Chief motorcycle has a 74 cubic inch
displacement. What is this displacement in cc’s? (1 in. = 2.54 cm)
7. Each minute, the flow of water over Niagara Falls averages 1.68 x 105 m3. What is this
flow
a. In cubic feet? (1 meter = 3.28 feet)
b. In gallons? (1 gallon = 3.79 liters)
8. Introduced in 1960, the Chevrolet big block engine, when configured with dual four-
barrel carburetors and 11.3:1 compression, developed 425 horsepower at 6200 RPM.
The cylinders of this hydrocarbon-guzzling behemoth displaced 6.70 L. Immortalized
by the Beach Boys, what is this displacement in cubic inches? (1 in. = 2.54 cm)

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. ? in. = 1.00 mm • 1 inch = 0.0394 in.
25.4 mm
b. ? in2 = 1.00 mm2 • 2 = 1.00 mm2 • 12 in2
) ( 1 inch
25.4 mm (25.4)2 mm 2
= 1 in2 = 0.00155 in2
645
( ) ( )
c. ? mm2 = 2.00 ft2 • 12 in. 2 •
1 ft.
25.4 mm 2 = 2.00 ft2 • (12)2 in2 • (25.4)2 mm2 = 1.86 x
1 in 12 ft2 12 in2 106 mm2
2. a. Area = length x width = 8.50 in. x 11.0 in. = 93.5 in2
b. WANT: ? cm2 (a wanted single unit)
DATA: 2.54 cm = 1 inch (a ratio)
93.5 in2 (a single unit)
SOLVE: (if you want a single unit, start with the single unit in the data as your given)
? cm2 = 93.5 in2 •

( ) 2.54 cm 2 = 93.5 in2 • (2.54)2 cm2 = 603 cm2
1 in 12 in2
3. WANTED: ? km2 (in conversions, use exponents for squared, cubed)
1 section = 1 mile2 = 640 acres (any two equal terms can be used as a conversion)
40.0 acres (the single unit to use as your given)
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? km2 = 40.0 acres • 1 mile2 •
640 acres
( 1.61 km
1 mile
)
2 = 40 mi2 • 2.59 km2 = 0.162 km2
640 1 mi2
Practice B
1. ? km3 = 5.00 miles3 •

( )
1.61 km
1 mile
3 = 5.00 mi3 • 4.17 km3 = 20.9 km3
1 mi3
2. ? mm3 = 1 meter3 •
( 1 mm
10─3 meter
3 = 1 meter3 • 13 mm3
) 10─9 meter3
= 1 x 109 mm3
3. ? in3 = 1.00 mm3 •

(
1 inch
25.4 mm )
3 = 1.00 mm3 • 13 in3
(25.4)3 mm3
= 6.10 x 10─5 in3
4. a. ? cm3 = 0.355 L • 1,000 cm3 = 355 cm3 (metric fundamentals – rule 6)

1L
b. ? ft3 = 355 cm3 • 1 inch 3 • 1 foot 3 = 355 cm3 • 13 in3 • 13 ft3 = 0.0125 ft3
( 2.54 cm )( ) 12 in (2.54)3 cm3 (12)3 in3
5. ? dm3 = 67.6 fl. oz. • 355 mL • 10─3 L • 1 dm3 = 2.00 dm3
12.0 fl oz. 1 mL 1L

(Other conversions may be used if they result in the same answer.)

6. ? cc’s = ? cm3 = 74 in3 •
( 1 in )
2.54 cm 3 = 74 in3 • (2.54)3 cm3 = 1,200 cm3 = 1,200 cc’s
13 in3
7a. ? ft3 = 1.68 x 105 m3 •
( ) 3.28 ft 3 = 1.68 x 105 m3 • (3.28)3 ft3
1 meter (1)3 m3
= 5.93 x 106 ft3
7b. Hint: 1 m = 10 dm , 1 dm3 = 1 liter

* * * * *
? gallons = 1.68 x 105 m3 •
( )
10 dm 3 • 1 L • 1 gal = 1.68 x 108 gal. = 4.43 x 107 gallons
1 meter 1 dm3 3.79 L 3.79
8. WANTED: ? in3 displacement
DATA: 6.70 L displacement
1 inch = 2.54 cm (metric-English bridge)
* * * * *
Strategy: This problem includes numbers you don’t need. Since a displacement is wanted, start with a
displacement as your given, then head for the cm needed in the metric part of the
metric/English bridge conversion.
* * * * *
SOLVE:
* * * * *
? in3 = 6.70 L • 1,000 cm3 •
1L ( ) 1 in
2.54 cm
3 = 6,700 cm3 • 1 in3
(2.54)3 cm3
= 409 in3
Lesson 5G: Density and Solving Equations

Timing: This lesson should be done if you are assigned textbook problems on the density
of substances that are in the shape of geometric objects such as spheres, cylinders, or
rectangular solids.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last problem in the lesson. If you can do
that problem, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Solving Problems Using Mathematical Equations
Calculations in chemistry can generally be solved using conversions, mathematical
equations, or both.
Conversions can be used for problems in which all of the relationships can be expressed as
two quantities that are equal or equivalent. Equations are required for more complex
relationships. In these lessons, when we study gas laws and energy, we will discuss in
detail the circumstances in which equations must be used.

Many problems can be solved with either conversions or equations. Conversion methods
usually involve less memorization, less algebra, and fewer steps. For most of the early
topics in first-year chemistry courses, conversions are the easier way to solve.
An exception is problems involving the density of substances that are in geometric shapes.
To calculate volumes, these problems require mathematical equations. (In these lessons,
we will call mathematical formulas equations, and reserve the term formula for chemical
formulas.)
Volumes for regular geometric shapes are calculated using equations, including
• Volume of a cube = (side)3
• Volume of a rectangular solid = l x w x h
• Volume of a cylinder = π r2 h
• Volume of a sphere = 4/3 π r3
Density is defined as mass per unit of volume. In equation form: D = m/V .
Density is a ratio: a numeric relationship between mass and volume. Because density is a
ratio, it can be used as a conversion factor. Calculations involving density may be solved
using either conversions or the density equation.
However, in many density problems, equations are required to calculate geometric
volumes. If an equation is used for one part, by using the D = m/V equation for the other
part, the same equation-solving method can be used to solve both parts of the problem.
Both the density equation and the geometric volume equations include volume as one of the
terms. If we can solve for volume in one equation, we can use that volume to solve for
quantities in the other equation.
In general, if a problem involves two equations linked by a common quantity, a useful
method to solve is to
• list the equations and DATA for the two equations in separate columns.
• Find the value of the linked quantity in the column with one missing variable
instead of two (usually the column that does not include the WANTED quantity),
then
• Add the value of the linked quantity to the other column and solve for the
WANTED quantity.
Let us learn this method by example.
Q. If aluminum (Al) has a density of 2.7 g/cm3, and a 10.8 gram Al cylinder has a
diameter of 0.60 cm, what is the height of the cylinder? (Vcylinder = π r2h)
Do the following steps in your notebook.
1. First, read the problem and write the answer unit. WANTED = ? unit and label.
2. To use conversions, at this point we would list the problem’s numbers and units, most
of them in equalities. However, if you see a mathematical equation is needed to solve
the problem, write that equation in your DATA instead, and draw a box around it.
Then, under the equation, list each symbol in the equation, followed by an = sign.

3. If two equations are needed to solve the problem, write and box the two equations in
two separate columns. Under each equation, write each symbol in that equation.
4. Usually, one symbol will be the same in both equations. Circle that linked symbol in the
DATA in both columns. That symbol will have the same value in both columns.
Finish those steps and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
At this point, your paper should look like this.
WANTED: ? cm height Al cylinder =
DATA: Vcylinder = π r2 h Density = mass/Volume
V= D=
r= m=
h= V=
Next, do the following steps.
5. Write “= ? WANTED” after the symbol that is WANTED in the problem.
6. Transfer the problem data to the DATA table. After each symbol in the DATA, write
the number and unit in the problem that corresponds to that symbol. Use the units of
the numbers to match up the symbols: grams is mass, mL or cm3 is volume, etc.
7. After any remaining symbol that does not have DATA in the problem, write a ?.
After you have finished those steps, check your answer below.
* * * * *
Your DATA table should look like this.
DATA: Vcylinder = π r2 h Density = mass/Volume
V=? D = 2.7 g/cm3

r = 1/2 diameter = 0.30 cm m = 10.8 grams
h = ? WANTED V= ?
8. A fundamental rule of algebra: if you know values for all of the symbols in a
mathematical equation except one , you can solve for that missing symbol. If you are
missing values for two symbols, you cannot solve for those values directly.
In the above data, column 1 has two missing values, and column 2 has one. At this
point, you can solve for the missing value only in column 2.
In a problem involving two relationships, usually you will need to solve first for the
common, linked symbol in the column without the WANTED symbol. Then, use that
answer to solve for the WANTED symbol in the other column.
9. When solving an equation, solve in symbols before you plug in numbers. In algebra,
symbols move faster than numbers with units.

Solve for the missing column 2 data, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
SOLVE: (In column 2, D = m/V ; and we want V. Solve the D equation for V in
symbols, then plug in the numbers for those symbols from the DATA.)
D = m/V
WANTED = V = m = 10.8 g = 4.0 cm3

D 2.7 g/cm3
(In the unit cancellation, 1/(1/X) = X. See Lesson 17C.)
10. Put this solved answer in the DATA. Since the problem is about one specific cylinder,
the volume of that cylinder must be the same in both columns. Write your calculated
volume in both columns.
11. Now solve the equation that contains the WANTED symbol for the WANTED symbol.
First solve using the symbols, then plug in the numbers and their units.
EQUATION: Vcyl. = π r2 h ; so
WANTED = height = h = V = 4.0 cm3 = 4.0 cm3 = 14 cm height

π r2 π (0.30 cm)2 π (0.090 cm2)
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Steps for Solving With Equations

1. First write WANTED = ? and the unit you are looking for.
2. When you see that you need a mathematical equation to solve, under DATA, write
and box the equation.
3. If you need two equations, write them in separate columns.
4. Under each equation, list each symbol in that equation.
5. Write “? WANTED” after the WANTED symbol in the problem.
6. After each symbol, write numbers and units from the problem. Use the units to
match the numbers and units with the appropriate symbol.
7. Label remaining symbols without DATA with a ?
8. Circle symbols for variables that are the same in both equations.
9. Solve equations in symbols before plugging in numbers.
10. Solve for ? in the column with one ? first.
11. Write that answer in the DATA for both columns, then solve for the WANTED
symbol.

Flashcards: Using the table below, cover the answer column, then put a check by the
questions in the left column you can answer quickly and automatically. For the others,
make flashcards using the method in Lesson 2C.
One-way cards (with notch at top right): Back Side -- Answers
Density = Mass/Volume
Volume of a cube = (side)3
Volume of a sphere = 4/3 π r3
Volume of a cylinder = π r2 h
Practice: Practice any needed flashcards above, then try two of the problems below.
Save one problem for your next study session.
Use the steps for solving with equations above. Answers are at the end of this lesson. If
you get stuck, read a part of the answer, and then try again.
1. If the density of lead is 11.3 grams per cubic centimeter, what is the mass of a ball of
lead that is 9.0 cm in diameter?
2. A gold American Eagle $50 coin has a diameter of 3.26 cm and mass of 36.7 grams.
Assuming that the coin is in the approximate shape of a cylinder and is made of gold
alloy (density = 15.5 g/mL), find the height of the cylinder (the thickness of the coin).
3. If a solid copper cube with the length on a side of 1.80 cm has a mass of 52.1 grams,
what is the density of the copper, in grams per cubic centimeter?

ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ? grams lead
DATA: Vsphere = 4/3π r3 Density = mass/Volume
V=? D = 11.3 g/cm3

r = 1/2 diameter = 4.5 cm m = ? WANTED
V= ?
Strategy: First solve for the ? in the column with one ?. Then use that answer to solve for the
variable that is WANTED in the other column.
SOLVE: Column 1 has one ?, and column 2 has two. Solve column one first.
? = V = 4/3 π r3 = 4/3 π (4.5 cm)3 = 382 cm3
In problems that solve in steps, carry an extra sf until the final step.
Add this answer to the volume DATA in both columns. Then solve the Column 2
equation for the WANTED mass. First solve in symbols, then plug in the numbers.
If needed, adjust your work, then finish.
* * * * *
D = m/V and mass is WANTED,
WANTED = m = D ● V = 11.3 g ● 382 cm3 = 4.3 x 103 grams (2 sf )
cm3
Units must be included and must cancel to give the WANTED unit.
Use the sf in the original data to determine the sf in the final answer.
You can also solve the column 2 data for grams using conversion factors.
? g = 382 cm3 • 11.3 g = 4.3 x 103 g
1 cm3
2. (Hint: You will need 1 mL = 1 cm3 )
WANTED: ? cm height of gold cylinder (thickness of coin)
DATA: Vcylinder = π r2 h D = mass/Volume
V=? D = 15.5 g/mL

r = 1/2 diameter = 1.63 cm m = 36.7 grams
h = ? WANTED V= ?
Strategy: First complete the column with one ?, then use that answer to solve for the variable
WANTED in the other column. Column 1 has two ? and column 2 has one.
SOLVE: D = m/V ;
WANTED = V = m = 36.7 g = 2.368 mL (Carry extra sig fig until end)
D 15.5 g/mL

(For help with the unit cancellation in equations, see Lesson 17C.)
Fill in that Volume in both columns. Then solve the equation that contains the
WANTED symbol, first in symbols, and then with numbers.
EQUATION: V = π r2 h
WANTED = height = h = V = 2.368 mL = 2.368 cm3 = 0.284 cm
πr2 π (1.63 cm)2 8.347 cm2
Note carefully the unit cancellation above. By changing mL to cm3 (they are identical), the base units
are consistent. They then cancel properly.
A height of a cylinder, or thickness of a coin, must be in distance units such as cm.
Your work must include unit cancellation, and your answers must include correct units to be correct.
3. WANTED: ? grams copper cube =
cm3
DATA: 52.1 grams copper
Side of cube = 1.80 cm
Strategy: This one is tricky because you are not told that you need to calculate volume. Note,
however, that you WANT grams per cubic cm. You are given grams and cm. In
density problems, be on the lookout for a volume calculation.
The equation for the volume of a cube is Vcube = (side)3.
If you needed that hint, adjust your work and try the question again.
* * * * *
DATA: Vcube =(Side)3 D = mass/Volume
V=? D = ? WANTED
side = 1.80 cm m = 52.1 g copper
V= ?
SOLVE: First solve the column with one ? then put that answer in both columns.
Volume of cube = (side)3 = (1.80 cm)3 = 5.832 cm3
Now solve for the WANTED symbol in the other equation. (In this problem, the
density equation is already written in a form that solves for the WANTED symbol.)
Then substitute the numbers and units and solve.
D = ? WANTED = mass = 52.1 g Cu = 8.94 g Cu
volume 5.832 cm3 cm3
* * * * *

Summary: Word Problems

1. To solve word problems, get rid of the words.
2. Organize your work into 3 parts: WANTED, DATA, and SOLVE.
3. First, under WANTED, write the unit you are looking for. As a part of the unit, include
a label that describes what the unit is measuring.
4. If a ratio unit is WANTED, write the unit as a fraction with a top and a bottom.
5. Under DATA, to solve with conversions,
• write every number in the problem. Attach the units to the numbers. If the
problem involves more than one substance, add a label to the unit and number that
identifies which substance is being measured.
• If numbers and units are paired with other numbers and units, write the DATA as
equalities.
• Write per or a slash (/) or a unit─# in the data as = . If no number is given after the
per or /, write = 1 .
• Write as equalities two different measurements of the same entity, or any units and
labels that are equivalent or mathematically related in the problem.
6. To SOLVE, start each calculation with an equality:
? WANTED unit = # given unit.
If you WANT a single unit, start with a single number and unit as your given and chain
the conversions.
7. Any distance to distance equality or conversion can be squared and used as an area
conversion, or cubed and used as a volume conversion.
8. For problems that require mathematical equations to solve,
• write and box the equations in your DATA.
• List each symbol in the equation below the equation.
• Match the data in the problem to the symbols.
• Solve in symbols before plugging in numbers.
9. For problems requiring two equations to solve, solve the two equations separately.
Solve for the linked variable in the non-WANTED column first. Use that answer as
DATA to solve for the WANTED symbol in the other column.
# # # # #

Module 6 – Atoms, Ions, and Periodicity

Prerequisites: None. This module may be started at any point.
Each lesson in this module has a pretest. If you pass the pretest, you may skip the lesson.
Module 6 covers fundamentals. Depending on your background, you may be able to skip
several lessons or complete them very quickly.
To do this module, you will need an alphabetical list of the elements (at the end of these
lessons) and a periodic table of the elements that closely resembles the type of table you
will be allowed to consult during quizzes and tests in your course.
* * * * *
Lesson 6A: Atoms

Pretest: Using a list of elements or a periodic table, try problem 4 at the end of this lesson.
If you find problem 4 easy, you may skip to Lesson 6B.
* * * * *
Terms and Definitions
The following definitions are general and highly simplified, but they will provide us with a
starting point for discussing atoms.
1. Matter. Chemistry is primarily concerned with the measurement and description of
the properties of matter and energy. Matter is anything that has mass and volume. All
matter is composed of extremely small particles. A substance’s identity depends on the
particles that make up the substance and their arrangement in space.
2. When substances undergo physical changes, they do not change their identity.
Melting ice to water is a physical change, because both ice and liquid water are
composed of the same basic particles.
When substances undergo chemical reactions, they change their identity. The basic
particles change, and the chemical formulas for the substances also change.
3. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. There are 91 different kinds of
atoms that are naturally occurring in the Earth’s crust. More than 20 additional atoms
have been synthesized by scientists using nuclear reactions. All of the many different
kinds of matter on earth are composed of these limited different types of atoms.
Chemical reactions cannot create or destroy an atom, nor change an atom from one
kind of atom to another.
A list of the atoms, each corresponding to specific element, is found at the end of these
lessons. Each atom is represented by a one- or two-letter symbol. The first letter of the
symbol is always capitalized. The second letter, if any, is always lower case.

4. Electrical charges. Some particles have a property known as electric charge.

• There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Particles with like
electrical charges repel. Unlike charges attract.
Å + + Æ Å ─ ─ Æ + ÆÅ ─
5. Atomic structure: Atoms can be described as combinations of three subatomic

particles. The subatomic particles that make up all atoms are:
a. Protons (symbol p+)
¾ Each proton has a +1 electrical charge (1 unit of positive charge).
o Protons have a mass of about 1.0 amu (atomic mass units).
o Protons are found in the center of the atom, called the nucleus. The nucleus is
extremely small and occupies very little volume in the atom.
¾ The number of protons in an atom is defined as the atomic number (symbol Z)
of the atom.
¾ The number of protons determines the name (and thus the symbol) of the atom.
¾ The number of protons in an atom is never changed by chemical reactions.
b. Neutrons (symbol n0)
o A neutron has an electrical charge of zero.
o A neutron has about the same mass as a proton, 1.0 amu.
o Neutrons are located in the nucleus of an atom, along with the protons.
o Neutrons are thought to act as the glue of the nucleus: the particles that keep
the repelling protons from flying apart.
o Neutrons, like protons, are never gained or lost in chemical reactions.
o The neutrons in an atom have very little influence on the chemical behavior of
the atom.
c. Electrons (symbol e─)
¾ Each electron has a ─1 electrical charge (1 unit of negative charge).
o Electrons have very little mass, weighing about 1/1837th as much as protons
and neutrons.
o Electrons are found outside the nucleus of an atom, in regions of space called
orbitals.
o Nearly all of the volume of an atom is due to the space occupied by the electrons
around the nucleus.
¾ Electrons are the only subatomic particles that can be gained or lost during
chemical reactions.
Each of the above points will be addressed at various times in your course. For this
lesson, the items above identified by the ¾ symbol must be memorized.

6. Elements, by definition, contain atoms with an equal number of protons and electrons.
This balance between positive and negative charges gives the atom of an element a net
charge of zero. The charges are said to “cancel” to produce an overall electrically
neutral particle.
Practice A
Memorize the points in Section 5 above labeled with a ¾ .
For the problems below, consult either the alphabetical list of elements at the end of these
lessons or a table inside the cover of in your chemistry text. Apply the rules listed above
from memory. Check answers at the end of the lesson.
1. Write the symbols for these atoms.
a. Carbon b. Oxygen c. Osmium d. Tungsten
2. Name the atoms represented by these symbols.
a. N b. F c. Fe d. Pb
3. Assume each particle below is a neutral atom. Fill in the blanks.
Atomic
Atom Name Symbol Protons Electrons
Number
Sodium
N
6
82
9
More Terms and Definitions

7. Ions. During chemical reactions, the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
never changes, but atoms can gain or lose one or more electrons. Any particle that does
not have an equal number of protons and electrons is termed an ion, which is a particle
with a net electrical charge.
• Neutral particles that lose electrons become positive ions.
• Neutral particles that gain electrons become negative ions.
The symbol or chemical formula for a particle that is not electrically neutral places the
value of the net charge as a superscript to the right of the symbol.
An ion is not the same as the neutral particle from which it was formed. The ion has a
different number of electrons and different chemical behavior.

Examples of atoms and ions

a. All particles with a single nucleus containing 16 protons are examples of sulfur
(symbol S).
An atom of the element sulfur atom has 16 protons and 16 electrons. The positive
and negative charges balance to give a net charge of zero. The symbol for the
neutral sulfur atom is written as S. The symbol S0 may also be written to
emphasize that the sulfur atom has a neutral charge.
Often, a sulfur particle is found to contain 16 protons and 18 electrons. This particle
is a sulfur ion. Although the 16 protons cancel the charge of 16 electrons, the two
un-cancelled electrons leave the ion with an overall charge of ─2. The symbol for
this particle is S2─, and it is named a sulfide ion.
b. All particles with 19 protons are named potassium (symbol K).
In nature, potassium is always found with 18 electrons. The 18 electrons balance
the charge of 18 protons. This leaves one positive charge un-cancelled, so that the
ion has a net charge of +1. This ion form of potassium is symbolized as K+. In a
charge, if no number after the sign is shown, a 1 is understood.
c. Any particle with 88 protons is named radium (symbol Ra).
Ra2+ ions must have 2 more positive protons than negative electrons. Because all
radium atoms must have 88 protons, an Ra2+ ion must have 86 electrons.
Practice B
For the problems below, use the alphabetical list of elements at the end of these lessons or a
table inside the cover of your chemistry text.
1. Calcium has atomic number 20.
a. A neutral Ca atom has how many protons? How many electrons?
b. How many protons and electrons are found in a Ca2+ ion?
2. In their nucleus, during chemical reactions, atoms always keep a constant number of
______________s, which have a positive charge. Atoms take on a charge and become
ions by gaining or losing ______________s, which have a ______________charge.
3. In terms of subatomic particles, an atom that is a positive ion will always have more
________________ than __________________.

4. For the particles below, fill in the blanks.
Symbol Protons Electrons Name of Element

O
O2─
Mg2+
I─
79 79
1 0
35 36
36 selenium
10 aluminum
ANSWERS
Part A
1. a. C b. O c. Os d. W
2. a. Nitrogen b. Fluorine c. Iron d. Lead
3.
Atom Name Symbol Protons Electrons Atomic
Number
sodium Na 11 11 11
nitrogen N 7 7 7
carbon C 6 6 6
lead Pb 82 82 82
fluorine F 9 9 9
Part B
1. a. 20 protons, 20 electrons. b. 20 protons, 18 electrons
2. In their nucleus, during chemical reactions, atoms always keep a constant number of
PROTONS , which have a positive charge. Atoms take on a charge, to become ions , by
gaining or losing ELECTRONS , which have a NEGATIVE charge.
3. In terms of sub-atomic particles, an atom that is a positive ion will always have more
PROTONS than ELECTRONS .

4.
Symbol Protons Electrons Name of Element
O 8 8 oxygen
O2─ 8 10 oxygen
Mg2+ 12 10 magnesium
I─ 53 54 iodine
Au 79 79 gold
H+ 1 0 hydrogen
Br─ 35 36 bromine
Se2─ 34 36 selenium
Al3+ 13 10 aluminum
* * * * *
Lesson 6B: The Nucleus, Isotopes, and Atomic Mass

Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the first two parts of each practice set. If you
can do those correctly, skip the lesson.
* * * * *
The Nucleus
At the center of an atom is the nucleus. The nucleus contains all of the protons and
neutrons in the atom.
The nucleus is very small, with a diameter that is roughly 100,000 times smaller than the
effective diameter of most atoms, yet the nucleus contains all of the atom’s positive charge,
and nearly all of its mass.
Because the nucleus contains nearly all of the atom’s mass in a tiny volume, it is extremely
dense. Outside of the nucleus, nearly all of the volume of an atom is occupied by its
electrons. Because electrons have low mass but occupy a large volume compared to the
nucleus, the region occupied by the electrons has a very low density. In terms of mass, an
atom is mostly empty space.
However, the electron has a charge that is equal in magnitude (though opposite) to that of
the much more massive proton. It is the charge of the particles inside an atom, rather than
their masses, that play the major role in determining an atom’s size and chemical reactions.

Types of Nuclei
In a nucleus, only certain combinations of protons and neutrons form a nucleus that is
stable. In a nuclear reaction (such as by radioactive decay, or in a nuclear reactor), if a
combination of protons and neutrons is formed that is unstable, the nucleus will decay.
The combinations of protons and neutrons found in nuclei can be divided into three types.
• Stable: Stable nuclei are combinations of protons and neutrons that do not change
in a planetary environment such as Earth over many billions of years.
• Radioactive: Radioactive nuclei are somewhat stable. Once formed, they can exist
for a time on Earth (from a few seconds to several billion years), but they fall apart
(decay) at a constant, characteristic rate.
• Unstable: In nuclear reactions, if combinations of protons and neutrons form that
are unstable, they decay within a few seconds.
Nuclei that exist in the earth’s crust include all of the stable nuclei plus some radioactive
nuclei.
All atoms that have between one and 82 protons (except technetium with 43 protons) have
at least one stable nucleus. Atoms with 83 to 92 protons can be found in the earth’s crust,
but all are radioactive. Atoms with 93 or more protons exist on earth only when they are
created in nuclear reactions (such as in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons).
Radioactive elements comprise a very small percentage of the matter found on earth. Over
99.99% of the earth’s atoms have nuclei that are stable. The nuclei in those stable atoms
have not changed since the atoms came together to form the earth billions of years ago.
Terminology
Protons and neutrons are termed the nucleons because they are found in the nucleus. A
combination of a certain number of protons and neutrons is called a nuclide. A group of
nuclides that have the same number of protons (so they are all the same element) but
differing numbers of neutrons are called the isotopes of the element.
Stable Nuclei
Some elements have only one stable nuclide; other elements have as many as 10 stable
isotopes.
Example: All atoms with 17 protons are called chlorine. Only two chlorine nuclei are
stable: those with
• 17 protons and 18 neutrons; and
• 17 protons and 20 neutrons.
Nuclei that have 17 protons and other numbers of neutrons can be made in nuclear
reactions, but in all of those combinations, within a few seconds, either protons or
neutrons leave the nucleus, or a neutron decays into other particles.

Nuclide Symbols
Each nuclide can be assigned a mass number (symbol A), which is the sum of its protons
and neutrons.
Mass Number of a nucleus = A = Protons + Neutrons
A nuclide can be identified in two ways,

• either by its number of protons and number of neutrons,
• or by its nuclide symbol (also termed its isotope symbol).
A nuclide symbol has two parts: the element symbol and the mass number. The mass number
is written as a superscript in front of the atom symbol.
For example, the two stable isotopes of chlorine can be represented as
• 17 protons + 18 neutrons or as 35Cl (a nuclide named “chlorine-35”); and
• 17 protons + 20 neutrons or as 37Cl (named chlorine-37).
Knowing one representation for the composition of a nucleus, either the nuclide symbol or
its number of protons and neutrons, you need to be able to write the other.
Using a table of elements, atom symbols, and atomic numbers that can be found at the end
of these lessons or inside the cover of most chemistry texts, try these questions.
Q1. A nuclide with 6 protons and 8 neutrons would have what nuclide symbol?
* * * * *
A1. Atoms with 6 protons are always named carbon, symbol C. The mass number of
this nuclide is 6 protons + 8 neutrons = 14 . This isotope of carbon, used in
“radiocarbon dating,” is carbon-14, written 14C .
Try another.
Q2. How many protons and neutrons would be found in 20Ne ?
* * * * *
A2. All atoms called neon contain 10 protons. The mass number 20 is the total number
of protons plus neutrons, so neon-20 contains 10 protons and 10 neutrons.
* * * * *
Nuclide symbols may also be written with the nuclear charge on the
particle (which for atoms is the number of protons) before and below the 37
mass number. This is called the A-Z notation for a nuclide, illustrated at Cl
17
the right. The A is the mass number on top, and Z is the nuclear charge on
the bottom.
Nuclide symbols can also be used to identify sub-atomic particles (particles smaller than
atoms), such as free neutrons or beta particles), and in those cases the nuclear charge may
be zero or negative. Including the Z values is helpful when balancing nuclear reactions (a
future topic), but the Z values are not needed to identify an atom, since Z repeats what the
atom symbol represents: the number of protons in the nucleus of the particle.

Practice A: Consult a table of elements or periodic table to fill in the blanks below.
1.
Atom Atom Atomic Mass Nuclide
Protons Neutrons
Name Symbol Number Number Symbol
C 6
7 7
Iodine 78
235U
2. Which nuclides in Problem 1 must be radioactive? Why?
The Mass of Nuclides

The mass of a single nuclide is usually measured in atomic mass units, abbreviated amu.
By definition, one amu = 1.66 x 10─24 grams.
Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass, and both are much heavier than
electrons. The mass of
• a proton is 1.0 amu,
• a neutron is 1.0 amu, and
• an electron is 1/1837th of an amu.
Based on those masses, you might expect that the mass of a 35Cl atom would be just over
35.0 amu, since it is composed of 17 protons, 18 neutrons, and 18 electrons. In fact, for
neutral atoms of 35Cl, the actual mass is 34.97 amu, slightly lighter than the combined
mass of its protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Why do the masses of the three subatomic particles not add exactly to the mass of the
atom? When nuclei form, a small amount of mass is either converted to, or created from,
energy. This change is the relationship discovered by Einstein:
Energy gained or lost = mass lost or gained times the speed of light squared ( E = mc2 )
In nuclear reactions, if a small amount of mass is lost, a very large amount of energy is
created. In forming nuclei, however, the gain or loss in mass is relatively small. For this
reason, the mass of a nuclide or atom in amu’s will approximately (but not exactly) equal its
mass number.
The sum of the mass numbers of a nuclide roughly equals its mass in amu
The Average Mass of Atoms (Atomic Mass)

In chemical reactions, the isotopes of an atom behave the same. In addition, for most atoms
(those not formed by radioactive decay), one kind of atom may have several stable
isotopes, but in samples of that atom found on earth, the percentage of each isotope is
always the same.

For these reasons, when dealing with visible amounts of most atoms, the atoms of a
element that are not formed by radioactive decay on earth (over 99.9% of all matter on
earth) will have the same average mass in any matter found on earth.
This average mass of an element, called its atomic mass, can be calculated from the
weighted average of the mass of its isotopes. The equation for this weighted average is
∑ (isotope fraction)(isotope mass) = average mass = atomic mass of the element
where the symbol ∑ represents a summation. This summation can also be written as
atomic mass = (isotope fraction)1(isotope mass)1 + (isotope fraction)2(isotope mass)2 + …

For example: all samples of chlorine atoms collected on earth contain
• 75.78% atoms that have 35Cl nuclei with a mass of 34.97 amu; and
• 24.22% atoms that have 37Cl nuclei with a mass of 36.97 amu.
(Percentages for the isotopes must add to 100% and fractions must add to 1.00.)
This means that the average mass of chlorine atoms is (fill in the blank)
(0.7578)(34.97 amu) + (0.2422)(36.97 amu) = ___________ amu
Calculate the atomic mass for the blank above, then check your answer by looking up the
atomic mass of chlorine in the table of elements inside the covers of your chemistry text.
* * * * *
= 26.500 amu + 8.946 amu = 35.454 = 35.45 amu = average mass for a chlorine atom
(SF: carry extra sf until the final step; when adding, round to highest place with doubt.)
No single atom of chlorine will have this average mass, but in visible amounts of
substances containing chlorine, the chlorine atoms have this average mass. Use of the
average mass (atomic mass) simplifies chemistry calculations involving mass.
The numeric value for the atomic mass in amu that is found in tables is also the mass of the
element in “grams per mole.” The number 6.022 x 1023, called one mole, is a value that will
simplify the math when converting between grams of a substance and its number of
particles.
Practice B
1. Silver has two stable isotopes: 107Ag (106.91 amu) and 109Ag (108.90 amu). Assuming
that 51.8% of naturally occurring silver is silver-107,
a. calculate the atomic mass of Ag.
b. Compare your answer to the value listed for silver in your textbook or in the table
at the end of these lessons.
c. What would be the atomic mass of Ag in grams per mole?

Isotopes and Chemistry

The rules and the reactions for “standard chemistry” are very different from those of
nuclear chemistry. For example,
• chemical reactions can release substantial amounts of energy, such as seen in the
burning of fuels or in conventional explosives. Nuclear reactions, however, can
involve much larger amounts of energy, as in stars or nuclear weapons.
• An important rule in chemical reactions is that atoms can neither be created nor
destroyed. In nuclear reactions, atoms are often created and destroyed.
Because the rules are very different, a clear distinction must be made between chemistry
and nuclear chemistry. By convention, it is assumed that the rules that are cited as part of
“chemistry” refer to processes that do not involve changes in nuclei (unless nuclear
chemistry or physics is specified). Changes in atoms that affect the nucleus are termed
nuclear reactions which by definition are not chemical reactions.
The good news is that, except for experiments in nuclear chemistry, because all isotopes of
an element have the same chemical behavior, and because in visible amounts of substances,
the atoms of a given element have the same average mass, we can ignore the fact that
elements have isotopes as we investigate chemical reactions and processes.
We will return to the differences among isotopes when we consider nuclear chemistry,
which includes reactions such as radioactive decay, fission, and fusion.
Practice C
Fill in the blanks below.
Atom Atom Protons Neutrons Electrons Nuclide Ion

Name Symbol Symbol Symbol
90 144 88
148 Pu2+
78 206Pb
Hydrogen 0 0
3H H─
Ra 138 86
19 19 18
Nitrogen 7 10

ANSWERS
Practice A
1.
Atom Atom Atomic Mass Nuclide
Protons Neutrons
Name Symbol Number Number Symbol
Carbon C 6 6 6 12 12C
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 14 14N
Iodine I 53 78 53 131 131I
Uranium U 92 143 92 235 235U
2. Uranium must be radioactive, because no nuclei with more than 82 protons are stable.
Practice B
1a. Since there are only two Ag isotopes, 109Ag must be 48.2%.
(0.518)(106.91 amu) + (0.482)(108.90 amu) = (55.38 + 52.49) amu = 107.87 = 107.9 amu
1b. It should match. 1c. 107.9 g/mole (value for amu = value for g/mole)
Practice C
Atom Atom Protons Neutrons Electrons Nuclide Ion
Name Symbol Symbol Symbol
Thorium Th 90 144 88 234Th Th2+
Plutonium Pu 94 148 92 242Pu Pu2+
Lead Pb 82 124 78 206Pb Pb4+
Hydrogen H 1 0 0 1H H+
Hydrogen H 1 2 2 3H H─
Radium Ra 88 138 86 226Ra Ra2+
Potassium K 19 19 18 38K K+
Nitrogen N 7 7 10 14N N3─

Lesson 6C: Elements, Compounds, and Formulas

Prerequisites: Lesson 6A.
Pretest: Use the list of elements on the last page of these lessons or in a textbook. With a
perfect pretest score, you may skip to Lesson 6C. Answers are at the end of the lesson.
1. In this list:
A. H2O B. Cl2 C. Au D. S8 E. CO2 F. Co G. H2SO4
a. Which formulas represent elements?
b. Which formulas represent a substance without ionic or covalent bonds?
c. Which formulas represent substances that are diatomic?
2. Write the number of oxygen atoms present in each of these compounds.
a. Co(OH)2 b. CH3COOH c. Al2(SO4)3
3. Write the total number of atoms in each of the compounds in question 2.
* * * * *
Bonded Atoms: Some Vocabulary
The definitions below are general and highly simplified, but they will give us a starting
point for discussing how atoms may combine to yield different substances.
1. A pure substance (also known as a chemical) is composed of particles whose neutral
units have the same number and kind of atoms, chemically bonded in the same way.
Chemical formulas can be used to represent a substance. A mixture is a combination
of two or more substances.
2. In a substance, if the smallest particles that can be separated from each other relatively
easily are neutral particles, the particles are called molecules. If a substance consists of
charged particles that can separate from each other when dissolved in water, the
separated particles are called ions, and the smallest electrically neutral combination of
ions is called a formula unit.
3. Elements are electrically neutral substances that contain only one kind of atom. A
sample of an element exists as a collection of electrically neutral atoms or molecules.
Ne, Cl2, and S8 are formulas for elements because they are electrically neutral and all
contain only one kind of atom.
The basic particles for some elements, termed the monatomic elements, are individual
atoms. The chemical formulas for monatomic elements are written as one instance of
the atom’s formula, reflecting the fact that the basic unit is a single atom.
For example, the basic particles of the noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon, and radon) are single atoms. Therefore, the formulas for these elements are
written as He for helium, Ne for neon, etc.
Other elements are found in our environment as neutral particles consisting of two or
more atoms chemically bonded to form a new larger unit.

4. Bonds are forces that hold particles together. Molecules of the diatomic elements
consist of two atoms (di- means two), and their chemical formulas reflect the fact that
each unit contains 2 atoms. In chemical formulas, a subscript written after a symbol
represents the number of that kind of atom or ion present.
For example, the elemental forms of oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine are all diatomic.
The chemical formula for chlorine is Cl2, nitrogen is N2, and oxygen is O2.
Polyatomic elements are neutral molecules that contain 2 or more atoms, but only one
kind of atom.
For example, the elemental formula for sulfur is S8, indicating that it exists as eight
atoms bonded together.
Over 70% of the elements found in the earth’s crust are metals. Metals have a more
complex nature than simple monatomic or polyatomic elements, but metal formulas are
represented by single atoms, such as Ag for silver, and Al for aluminum.
Some elements have multiple forms that are stable at room temperature. The elemental
forms of carbon, for example, include graphite, diamond, and fullerenes (carbon
molecules shaped like soccer balls). Each of these has very different bonding and
properties, but all are composed entirely of carbon atoms. As an element, carbon is
usually represented by the simplified monatomic formula C.
5. A compound is a substance that consists of two or more different elements chemically
bonded together to form new substance. While there are just over 100 elements, there
are countless known compounds. In a given compound, the ratio of the elements is
always the same, which is reflected in their formulas. H2O, NaCl, and H2SO4 are all
formulas for compounds, because they contain two or more different elements.
Compounds can be classified as either ionic or covalent, depending on the type of
bonding present.
6. The basic particles for covalent compounds (also known as molecular compounds) are
molecules. The molecules are held together by covalent bonds. In a covalent bond,
electrons are shared between two neighboring atoms. Covalent bonds can be single
bonds (involving 2 shared electrons), double bonds (4 shared electrons), or triple bonds
(6 shared electrons). Covalent bonds hold atoms at predictable angles within the
molecule.
7. Molecular formulas use atomic symbols and subscripts to represent the number and
kind of atoms covalently bonded together in a single molecule.
• Water is composed of molecules that each consist of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom, represented by the molecular formula H2O.
In chemical formulas, when there is no subscript is written after a symbol, the
subscript is understood to be one.
• Carbon dioxide is composed of molecules that each consist of two oxygen atoms
and one carbon atom. The molecular formula is CO2.

Practice A: Use the elements table at the end of these lessons or in a textbook to answer
these questions. Answers are at the end of the lesson.
1. Identify each sample sketched below as an element, compound, or mixture. Different
elements are indicated by different shades, and individual particles are separated for
clarity.
a. b. c.
a. _______________ b._________________ c. ______________

2. Label the following formulas as elements or compounds.
a. C b. H2O c. NaCl d. S8 e. C6H12O6
3. Which of these formulas contain chemical bonds?

a. H2 b. CO c. Co d. NH3 e. He
4. In problems 2 and 3, which formula represents a diatomic element?

5. In problems 2 and 3, which formulas represents monatomic elements?
6. In problems 2 and 3, which formula has 4 atoms?
More Vocabulary
8. Structural formulas can be used to represent chemical particles that are held together
by covalent bonds. These formulas show each of the atoms present along with
information about their positions within the particle.
O __ H At the left is a structural formula for water. It shows that the

/ oxygen atom is found in the middle of the molecule, and that
H water has two directional covalent bonds and a bent shape.
The structural formula for carbon dioxide, CO2 , is O=C=O . Carbon dioxide has two
double bonds, and the molecule is linear in shape with the carbon atom in the middle.
9. Often, chemical formulas are written as a mixture of different types of formulas. For
example,
• ethyl alcohol can be written as CH3CH2OH or as C2H6O. The shorter formula,
however, is also the molecular formula of dimethyl ether, which is usually written
CH3OCH3 to show that the O is found in the middle in the ether, rather than
toward one end as in the alcohol.

Ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether have the same number and kind of atoms, but the
differing atomic arrangements give the molecules very different properties. To
predict chemical behavior, we often need to know a formula with structural
information.
10. Ionic compounds are substances consisting of a collection of positive and negative
ions (particles with a net electrical charge). Ions can be monatomic (single atoms
with an unequal number of protons and electrons) or polyatomic (a group of
covalently bonded atoms that have an unequal number of protons and electrons). An
ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
11. Ionic formulas use atomic symbols and numbers to represent the ratio and kind of
ions present in an ionic compound. The ions in an ionic compound are always
present in a ratio that guarantees overall electrical neutrality.
A formula unit is defined as the smallest combination of ions for which the sum of
the electrical charges is zero. Parentheses are used to indicate more than 1
polyatomic ion. Chemical formulas for ionic compounds show the atom ratios in a
single neutral formula unit.
• Table salt consists of a 1:1 ratio of positively charged sodium ions (formula Na+)
and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl─). The formal name of table salt is
sodium chloride, and its ionic formula is written as NaCl. The formula unit NaCl
represents 2 ions.
• Calcium phosphate is an ionic compound composed of three monatomic Ca+2
ions for every two polyatomic PO4─3 ions. The ionic formula is Ca3(PO4)2, and 1
formula unit represents a total of 5 ions.
• Copper(II) nitrate is an ionic compound composed of one monatomic Cu+2 ion

for every two polyatomic NO3─ ions. The ionic formula is written as Cu(NO3)2.
Writing the formula as CuN2O6 shows the atom ratios, but indicating that the
compound contains two NO3─ groups better conveys the structure and behavior
of this compound.
12. Be careful when you write formulas that you can distinguish between upper- and
lower-case letter combinations such as CS and Cs, Co and CO, NO and No.
• Co(OH)2 has 1 cobalt atom, 2 oxygen atoms, and 2 hydrogen atoms.
• CH3COOH has 2 carbon, 4 hydrogen, and 2 oxygen atoms.
To summarize, although molecules of covalent substances and formula units of ionic

compounds have different types of bonds, all compound formulas refer to a single, overall
electrically neutral unit of a substance.
* * * * *

Practice B: Use the elements table at the end of these lessons or in a textbook to answer
these questions.
1. Write the number of oxygen atoms in each of these compounds.
a. Al(OH)3 b. C2H5COOH c. Co3(PO4)2
2. Write the total number of atoms for each of the compounds in question 1.
3. Try every third one of these, then check your answers. Need more practice? Do a few
more. Name each atom, and write the total number of those atoms, in each of the
following chemical formulas.
a. HCOOH b. CoSO4 c. No(NO3)3
d. Ca3(PO4)2 e. (NH4)3PO4 f. Pb(C2H5)4
4. If you need additional practice, redo the pretest at the beginning of Lesson 6C.
ANSWERS
Pretest: 1a. B, C, D, F 1b. C, F 1c. B 2a. 2 2b. 2 2c. 12 3a. 5 3b. 8 3c. 17
Practice A: 1. a. Compound b. Element c. Mixture
2. 2a and 2d are elements because they have one kind of atom. The rest are compounds because they have
more than one kind of atom.
3. 3a, 3b, and 3d have bonds, because they have more than one atom. It takes bonds to hold two or more
atoms together in particles.
4. 3a, H2, is the only diatomic element. 5. 2a, 3c, and 3e are the only monatomic elements.
6. 3d, NH3, is the only formula with 4 atoms.
Practice B
1a. 3 oxygen atoms 1b. 2 1c. 8 2a. 7 total atoms 2b. 11 2c. 13
3. a. 2 hydrogen b. 1 cobalt c. 1 nobelium
1 carbon 1 sulfur 3 nitrogen
2 oxygen 4 oxygen 9 oxygen
d. 3 calcium e. 3 nitrogen f. 1 lead

2 phosphorous 12 hydrogen 8 carbon
8 oxygen 1 phosphorous 20 hydrogen
4 oxygen

Lesson 6D: The Periodic Table

Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last letter of each numbered question at
the end of this lesson. If you get those right, you may skip this lesson.
* * * * *
Patterns of Chemical Behavior
Learning the behavior of over 100 different elements would be a formidable task.
Fortunately, the elements can be organized into families. The behavior of one atom in a
family will predict the chemical behavior other elements in the family.
The grouping of elements into families results in the periodic table. To build the table, the
atoms are arranged in rows across (also called periods) in order of the number of protons in
each atom. This order usually, but not always, matches the order of the increasing average
mass of the atoms.
At certain points, the chemical properties of the elements begin to repeat, somewhat like
the octaves on a musical scale.
In the periodic table, under most graphic designs, when a noble gas atom is reached, it
marks the end of a row. The next element, with one more proton, starts a new row of the
table. This convention places the elements into vertical columns (called families or groups)
with the noble gases in the last column on the right.
Within each column, the elements have similar chemical behavior.
Some Families in the Periodic Table

The noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) are monatomic (composed of single atoms).
Though they can be liquefied by lowering temperature and/or increasing pressure, all of
the noble gases are gases at typical room temperature and pressure.
These atoms are termed noble because they are chemically “content” with their status as
single atoms: these atoms rarely bond with other atoms or each other.
Although the noble gases take part in very few chemical reactions, they are important in
predicting chemical behavior. Other atoms tend to react in ways that give them the same
electron configuration as the nearest noble gas. The outer electrons of atoms tend to react
to attain the “cloak of nobility.”
The alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are in column one (also called group 1A) of the
periodic table, at the far left. As elements, all are soft, shiny metals that tend to react with
many substances, including the water vapor present in air.
In chemical reactions, alkali metal atoms tend to lose an electron to become a +1 ion. This
ion has the same number of electrons as the noble gas that has one fewer protons. Once an
alkali metal atom forms a +1 ion, it becomes quite stable. Most chemical reactions do not
change its +1 charge.

The halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are in column 7 (group 7A) just to the left of the noble
gas column. As neutral elements at room temperature, halogen atoms are stable only when
they are found in the diatomic molecules F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, and At2.
Like alkali metals, the halogens are very reactive. In reactions, neutral halogen atoms tend
to gain one electron to become a halide ion: a single halogen atom with a ─1 charge. This
ion has the same number of electrons as the noble gas just to the right in the periodic table.
Halogen atoms can also share electrons with neutral nonmetal atoms. Shared electrons
result in a covalent bond. Including the shared electrons, each neutral halogen atom will
tend to be surrounded by the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas.
Hydrogen is often placed in column one of the table, and the reactions of hydrogen are
often like those of the alkali metals. However, other hydrogen reactions are like those of
the halogens. Hydrogen is probably best portrayed as a unique family of one that can have
characteristics of both alkali metals and halogens.
The main group elements are those found in the tall columns, termed either groups 1, 2,
and 13 to 18, or groups 1A, 2A, and 3A-8A, depending on the version of the periodic table
that you are using.
The transition metals are in the “middle dip” of the periodic table, in groups 3-12 or the
“B” groups. There are 10 elements in each row of the transition metals.
The inner transition elements (also called the lanthanides and actinides, or rare earth
metals), appear beginning in the 6th row. These elements are usually listed below the rest of
the periodic table in order to display a table that fits easily on a chart or page.
* * * * *
Predicting Behavior
The following table summarizes the general characteristics of the elements in the columns of
the periodic table. The positions of the column numbers, family names, and likely ion
charges should be memorized.
3B Æ 2B
Group 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
or 3 Æ 12
Family Alkali Transition Noble
Halogens
Name Metals Metals Gases
Monatomic 3+
1+ 2+ 3─ 2─ 1─ None
ion charge (or 1+)
For example: The element Cesium (Cs) is in column one of the periodic table. Based on
this placement, it can be predicted to
• behave like other alkali metals; and
• exists as a Cs+ ion in compounds.

Practice A: Use a copy of the periodic table and your memorized knowledge about the
table to answer these.
1. Describe the location in the periodic table of the
a. noble gases
b. alkali metals
c. halogens
d. transition metals
2. Add a charge to these symbols to show the ion that a single atom of these elements
tends to form.
a. Br b. Ra c. Cs d. In e. Te
(35) (88) (55) (49) (52)
Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

The elements in the periodic table can be divided into metals, metalloids (also called
semimetals), and nonmetals.
Metalloids
Many periodic tables include a thick line, like a staircase, as shown in the section of the
periodic table below. This line separates the metal and nonmetal elements.
The six elements bordering the line in bold below are the metalloids. They have chemical
behavior that is in-between that of the metals and the nonmetals.
Unless you are allowed to use a periodic table that has the staircase and identifies the
metalloids on tests, you should memorize the location of the staircase and the 6 metalloids.
If you memorize how the staircase looks at boron (B), the rest of the staircase is easy.
Remembering “11220” will help with the number of metalloids per row going down the
table. (Some textbooks include polonium (Po) as a metalloid, others do not.)
(H) He
B C N O F Ne
Si P S Cl Ar
Ge As Se Br Kr
Sb Te I Xe
(Po) At Rn

Nonmetals
At the right are the 18 nonmetals. The (H) He
nonmetals must be memorized.
C N O F Ne
Note the shape of their positions. All
nonmetals are all to the right of the P S Cl Ar
staircase and to the right of the
metalloids. All elements in the last
Se Br Kr
two columns (all halogens and all I Xe
noble gases) are nonmetals.
At Rn
Note also that hydrogen, although it is
often placed in column one in periodic tables, is considered to be a nonmetal. Hydrogen
has unique properties, but it most often behaves as a nonmetal.
Metals
The metals are all of the elements to the left of the thick line and the six metalloids. The
metals include all of the transition metals, as well as all of the inner transition (rare earth)
elements usually listed below the rest of the chart.
Of the over 100 elements, over 75 percent are metals. To memorize the atoms that are
metals, memorize the 6 metalloids and 18 nonmetals. All of the remaining elements are
metals.
Practice B: Use a copy of the periodic table and your memorized knowledge about the
columns of the table to answer these.
1. How many elements are non-metals?
2. Without consulting a periodic (H) He

table, add the metal/nonmetal B C N O F Ne
dividing line to the portion of the
Al Si P S Cl Ar
periodic table at the right, then
circle the metalloid elements. Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
ANSWERS
Practice A: 1a. Noble gases -- last column 1b. Alkali metals – column one 1c. Halogens – Group 7A
(tall column 7), just before the noble gases. 1d. Transition metals – the 10 columns in the middle dip.
2 a. Br─ b. Ra2+ c. Cs+ d. In3+ e. Te2─

Practice B: 1. 18 2. See table in lesson.

Lesson 6E: A Flashcard Review System

Previous Flashcards
At this point, you may have a sizeable stack of flashcards, and we will soon add more.
Before going further, let’s organize the cards. Try this system.
A. Separate your existing flashcards into 4 stacks.
1-Daily: Those you have done until correct for 3 days or less.
2-End of Chapter/Quiz: Those you have done for more than 3 days. Run again before
each session doing end of chapter textbook problems and/or before your next
quiz or test on this material.
3-Test: Those you have done 4 or more times. Run again before starting practice
problems for your next major test.
4-Final Exam Review: Those you have retired until the final.
B. Add cards with those 4 labels to the top of each stack. Rubber-band each stack.
You may want to carry the daily pack with you for practice during down time.
Module 6 Flashcards
If you have had a previous course in chemistry, you may recall much of the material in
Module 6 after a brief review. Other points may be less familiar, and the material in
Module 6 will need to be firmly in memory for the rest of the course.
For points that are not firmly in memory, make the flashcards. Use the method in Lesson
2C on the sample cards below: cover the answers, put a check next to those which you can
answer correctly and quickly. Make the flashcard if the answer is not automatic.
Run your new cards for several days in a row. Run the two-way cards in both directions.
Run the cards again before your next quiz, next test, and final exam.
For Lesson 6A
One-way cards (with notch at top right): Back Side -- Answers
Like charges Repel
Unlike Charges Attract
The particles in a nucleus = protons and neutrons
Subatomic particle with lowest mass electron
Subatomic particles with charge protons and electrons
Mass of a proton in amu 1.0 amu
Mass of a proton in grams/mole 1.0 grams/mole
Protons minus electrons Charge on particle
Atomic Number Number of protons
Determines atom symbol Number of protons
Particles gained and lost in chemical reactions electrons

Zero charge on an atom means # protons = # electrons

Negative ions have More electrons than protons
Subatomic particles with mass of 1.0 amu protons and neutrons
Two-way cards (without notch):

ion A particle with electrical charge
Protons plus Neutrons = Mass Number =
Z Symbol meaning atomic number
A Symbol meaning mass number
For Lesson 6B
One-way cards (with notch) Back Side -- Answers
To calculate the average atomic mass of an
∑ (isotope fraction)(isotope mass)
element
Same # of p+, different #’s of n0 isotopes
Different nuclides with same chemical behavior
isotopes
=
1 proton and 1 neutron = ? nuclide symbol 2H = contains what particles?
1 proton and 0 neutrons = ? nuclide symbol 1H = what particles?
1 proton and 2 neutrons = ? nuclide symbol 3H = what particles?
Protons plus neutrons approximately equals Mass of nuclide in amu approx. equals
For Lesson 6C
Define a Substance All particles have same chemical formula
A Mixture 2 or more substances
Neutral, independent particles with one or
Molecule
more atoms
Shows neutral atoms inside a neutral
Molecular Formula
particle
Structural Formula Shows atoms and positions in a particle
Stable neutral particles with one kind of
Elements
atom
Stable neutral particles with more than one
Compounds
kind of atom
Bonds Forces holding atoms together

For Lesson 6D
Family that rarely bonds to other atoms noble gases
Lightest non-metal Hydrogen (H)
Lightest metalloid Boron (B)
Number of non-metal elements 18
Position of alkali metals First column, below hydrogen
Position of halogens Next-to-last column
Position of noble gases Last column
Position of rare earths Two rows below body of table
Position of transition metals In dip between tall columns 2 and 3
Tend to form ─1 ions Ions formed by halogen atoms
Family forms +1 ions Ions formed by alkali metals
Family forms +2 ions Ions formed by Column 2 atoms
Name for halogen atoms with a ─1 charge Halide ions
If you can answer the following questions from memory, it will speed and simplify your
upcoming work in chemistry.
Symbols for the 5 lightest alkali metal atoms Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs
Symbols for the 5 lightest column 2 atoms Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba
Symbols for the 5 halogen atoms F, Cl, Br, I, At
Symbols for the 12 non-metals that tend to bond H, C, N, O, P, S, Se + the 5 halogens
Learning the names and symbols for the following frequently encountered metals that have
symbols based on their Latin names will also speed your work. If any of these are not
firmly in your memory in both directions, add them to your cards.
Two-way cards (without notch): Two-way cards (without notch):
copper Cu iron Fe
tin Sn lead Pb
mercury Hg silver Ag
gold Au sodium Na
potassium K
If your course goes at a fast pace, it is a good idea to put onto flashcards the names and
symbols for all of the elements in the first 3 rows of the table, as well as names and symbols
for other elements that are frequently encountered in your course.
# # # # #

Module 7 – Writing Names and Formulas

Prerequisites: Complete Module 6 before starting Module 7. The other prior modules are
not necessary for Module 7.
* * * * *
Lesson 7A: Naming Elements and Covalent Compounds
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last letter of each question in Practice A
and Practice B. If you get those right, skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Systems for Naming Substances
In chemistry, substances are identified by both a unique name and a chemical formula. For
names and formulas that both identify and differentiate substances, a system for writing
formulas and names is required.
1. The names of some compounds are non-systematic but familiar: Water (H2O) and
ammonia (NH3) are examples.
2. Historically, chemical substances have been divided into two broad categories.
Compounds containing carbon and hydrogen comprise organic chemistry, which has
its own system for naming compounds. All other substances are part of inorganic
chemistry, which is the focus of most first-year chemistry courses.
3. Different types of inorganic substances have different naming systems. We will begin
with the rules for elements, ion, and binary covalent compounds, ionic compounds,
and acids.
Naming Elements
An element is a substance that contains of only one kind of atom. The name of an element
is simply the name of its atoms.
Examples
• The element comprised of atoms with 20 protons is called calcium. Calcium is a
metal, and the formulas of metals are written as if they are monatomic elements.
The formula for the element calcium is therefore written as Ca.
• Neutral chlorine atoms, at room temperature, are stable when they exist in diatomic
molecules. For the element chlorine, the formula is written Cl2.
• At room temperature, sulfur atoms tend to form molecules with 8 bonded atoms.
For the elemental form of sulfur, the formula is written S8.
Note that for elements, the formula easily distinguishes between monatomic, diatomic, or
polyatomic structures, but the name does not. This is only an issue for a few of the
elements, but for the millions of chemical compounds, a more systematic nomenclature
(naming system) is needed.

Compounds
In compounds, there is more than one kind of atom, but all the neutral molecules or
formula units have the same atoms and structure. Most compounds can be classified as
either ionic or covalent.
Covalent compounds are molecules containing atoms bonded together by electrons shared
between atoms. The attractive forces (bonds) within molecules are strong compared to the
attractions between molecules. Substances that are gases or liquids at room temperature
are nearly always covalent compounds. Solids may be ionic or covalent compounds.
Ionic compounds are always solids at room temperature. Ionic compounds are composed
of an array of ions bonded strongly by electrostatic attraction.
Ionic and covalent compounds have different naming systems. To name a compound we
must identify it as ionic or covalent. To make that distinction, we must identify the types
of bonds in the compound.
Types of Bonds
1. In covalent bonds, electrons are shared between two atoms.
2. In ionic bonds, an atom (or group of atoms) has lost one or more electrons (compared
to its electrically neutral form), and another atom (or group of atoms) has gained one or
more electrons. The loss and gain of electrons results in charged particles (ions). The
ions are bonded by the attraction of their opposite charges.
3. The following rules will predict whether bonds are ionic or covalent in most cases.
• A bond between two nonmetal atoms is a covalent bond.
• A bond between a metal and a nonmetal atom is an ionic bond.
Using those rules and a periodic table, answer these questions.
Q. Label the following bonds as ionic or covalent.
1. C─H 2. C─Na 3. N─Cl 4. Al─Cl
* * * * *
Answers
1. C─H Both are non-metals = covalent bond
2. C─Na A non-metal and a metal atom = ionic bond
3. N─Cl Both are non-metals = covalent bond
4. Al─Cl A metal and non-metal: ionic bond.
* * * * *
Types of Compounds
1. If a compound has all covalent bonds, it is classified as a covalent compound.
2. If a compound has one or more ionic bonds, it is classified as an ionic compound.

These rules mean that in many cases,

• a compound with all nonmetal atoms is a covalent compound.
• a compound with metal and nonmetal atoms is an ionic compound.
The above general rules do not cover all types of bonds and compounds, and there are
many exceptions. However, they will give us a starting point for both naming compounds
and writing formulas that indicate the composition and behavior of compounds.
Q. Using those rules and a periodic table, label these compounds as ionic or covalent.
1. NaCl 2. CH4 3. Cl2 4. HCl
* * * * *
Answers
1. NaCl Na is a metal, Cl is non-metal, compound is ionic.
2. CH4 Both atoms are non-metals; compound is covalent.
3. Cl2 Both atoms are non-metals; compound is covalent.
4. HCl Both atoms are non-metals; compound is covalent.
Covalent Compounds
The 18 nonmetals are at the right. Recall that (H) He
hydrogen is classified as a nonmetal, and that all
C N O F Ne
elements in the last two columns are nonmetals.
P S Cl Ar
The six noble gases rarely bond. The remaining 12
nonmetal atoms nearly always form covalent bonds Se Br Kr
when they bond with each other. I Xe
The 12 nonmetals that tend to bond are a small At Rn
percentage of the more than 100 elements. However,
because
• covalent bonds are strong,
• the nonmetal atoms are relatively abundant on our planet, and
• the molecules in living systems are based on a nonmetal (carbon),
a substantial percentage of the compounds studied in chemistry are covalent compounds.
Practice A
On the problems below, use the type of periodic table that you are permitted to view on
tests in your course. You should not need to consult the metal versus nonmetal charts
found in these lessons, since they should be committed to memory. Answers are at the end
of this lesson.
1. Label these bonds as ionic or covalent.
a. Na─I b. C─Cl c. S─O d. Ca─F e. C─H f. K─Br

2. Label these compounds as ionic or covalent.

a. CF4 b. KCl c. CaH2 d. H2O e. NF3 f. NaCH3O
Rules For Naming Binary Covalent Compounds.

Binary covalent compounds contain two different nonmetals.
1. The name contains two words. The format is prefix-element then prefix-root-suffix
Example: The name of Br2O5 is dibromine pentoxide.
2. This rule takes precedence over the rules below. For covalent compounds that contain
• H atoms, hydrogen is the element name.
• O atoms, the second word is prefix-oxide.
3. The first word contains the name of the element (of the two elements in the formula) that
is in a column farther to the left in the periodic table. If the two elements are in the
same column, the lower element is named first.
4. The second word contains the root of the second element name, with the suffix –ide
added.
5. The number of atoms of each kind is represented by a Greek prefix.
mono- = 1 atom. (In the first word, mono- is left off and assumed if no prefix is
given. Mono- is included if it applies to the second word.)
di- = 2 atoms penta- = 5 atoms octa- = 8 atoms
tri- = 3 atoms hexa- = 6 atoms nona- = 9 atoms
tetra- = 4 atoms hepta- = 7 atoms deca- = 10 atoms
If an o or a at the end of a prefix is followed a first letter of an element or root that is a
vowel, the o or a in the prefix is sometimes omitted (both inclusion and omission of the o
and a are allowed, and you may see such names both ways).
Using a periodic table and the above rules, try the following..
Q1. What is the name of CS2?
* * * * * (the * * * mean cover the answer below, write your answer, then check it.)
A1. Carbon is in the column farther to the left in the periodic table, so carbon is the
element in the first word. For one atom, the prefix would be mono-, but mono- is
omitted if it applies to the first word. The name’s first word is simply carbon.
For the root of the second word, sulfur becomes sulfide. Since there are two
sulfur atoms, the name of the compound is carbon disulfide.
Q2. What is the name of the combination of four fluorine and two nitrogen atoms?
* * * * *

A2. Nitrogen is in the column more to the left in the periodic table, so the first word
contains nitrogen. Since there are two nitrogen atoms, add the prefix di-. For
the second word, the root fluorine becomes fluoride, and the prefix for four
atoms is tetra-. The name for the compound is dinitrogen tetrafluoride.
* * * * *
Flashcards
Cover the answers below, then check those which you can answer correctly and quickly.
When done, make flashcards for the others (see the steps in Lesson 2C).
Run the new cards for several days in a row, then add them to the previous flashcards for
quiz and test review.
Formula for elemental oxygen O2

A bond between a metal and nonmetal is Usually ionic
A bond between two nonmetals is Usually covalent
A covalent compound has Shared electrons and only covalent bonds
An ionic compound has One or more ionic bonds
A compound with all nonmetal atoms is usually A covalent compound
Compounds with one or more metal atoms are Ionic compounds
Formula for ammonia = ? Name of NH3 = ?

Formula for carbon monoxide = ? Name of CO = ?
Formula for dinitrogen tetrachloride = ? Name of N2Cl4 = ?
Practice B
Learn the rules, practice needed flashcards, then try every other problem. Wait a day, run
the cards again, then try the remaining problems. If you need help in switching between
the element name and symbol, add the name and symbol to your two-way flashcards.
1. Write the name for these combinations of nonmetals.
a. Three chlorine plus one nitrogen. b. One sulfur and six fluorine.
c. Two sulfurs and one silicon. d. Three chlorine and one iodine.
e. One oxygen and two chlorines. f. One bromine and one iodine
2. Name these covalent compounds.

a. HCl b. PI3 c. SO2 d. NO

3. Nonmetals often form several stable oxide combinations, including the combinations
below. Name that compound!
a. Five oxygen and two nitrogen b. 10 oxygen and four phosphorous
c. NO2 d. N2 O e. SO3 f. Cl2O7
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. Na─I Ionic b. C─Cl Covalent c. S─O Covalent
d. Ca─F Ionic e. C─H Covalent f. K─Br Ionic
2. a. CF4 Covalent b. KCl Ionic c. CaH2 Ionic

d. H2O Covalent e. NF3 Covalent f. CH3ONa Ionic
(All of the ionic compounds contain a metal atom.)
Practice B
1. a. Nitrogen is to the left, so it is the first word in the name. When the first word refers to a single atom,
the prefix is omitted. For the second word, chlorine becomes chloride, and the prefix tri- is added. The
name is nitrogen trichloride.
b. Sulfur hexafluoride. c. Silicon disulfide d. Iodine trichloride (if in same column, name lower
first) e. Dichlorine monoxide (oxygen is always last, drop last o in mono-) f. Iodine
monobromide
2. a. Hydrogen chloride b. Phosphorous triiodide c. Sulfur dioxide d. Nitrogen monoxide
3. a. Dinitrogen pentoxide (or pentaoxide) b. tetraphosphorous decaoxide c. Nitrogen dioxide
d. Dinitrogen monoxide e. Sulfur trioxide f. Dichlorine heptaoxide (or heptoxide).
* * * * *
Lesson 7B: Naming Ions

Prerequisites: Complete Module 6 and Lesson 7A before starting this lesson.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try several problems at the end of this lesson. If
you complete them all correctly, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Ions
In ionic compounds, the constituent particles are ions, particles with an electrical charge.
In most first-year chemistry courses you will be asked to memorize the names and symbols
for more than 50 frequently encountered ions. This task is simplified by the patterns for
ion charges that are found in the periodic table. Learning these rules and patterns will help
you to speak the language of chemistry.

Categories of Ions
1. All ions are either positive or negative.
• Positive ions are termed cations (pronounced KAT-eye-ons). The charges on
positive ions can be 1+, 2+, 3+, or 4+.
• Negative ions are termed anions (pronounced ANN-eye-ons). The charges on
negative ions can be 1─, 2─, or 3─.
2. All ions are either monatomic or polyatomic.
• A monatomic ion is composed of a single atom.
Examples of monatomic ions are Na+, Al3+, Cl─, and S2─.
• A polyatomic ion is a particle that has two or more covalently bonded atoms and an
overall electric charge.
Examples of polyatomic ions are OH─, Hg22+, NH4+, and SO42─.
Ions of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has unique characteristics. It is classified as a nonmetal, and in most of its
compounds hydrogen bonds covalently. In compounds classified as acids, one or more
hydrogens can form H+ ions (protons) when the compound is dissolved in water. When
bonded to metal atoms, hydrogen behaves as a hydride ion (H─).
The Structure and Charge of Metal Ions
More than 70% of the elements in the periodic table are metal atoms.
• Geologically, in the earth’s crust, most metals are found as metal ions. When metal
ions are found in rocks from which the ions can be extracted and converted to
metals, the rocks have economic value and are termed ores.
Exceptions to the “metals are found as ions” rule include the coinage metals:
copper and silver, which may be found geologically both as ions or in their metallic,
elemental form, and gold, which is always found in nature as a metal.
• In reactions, neutral metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form positive ions.
• In compounds that contain both metal and nonmetal atoms, the metal atoms nearly
always behave as ions with a positive charge. The charge can be 1+, 2+, 3+, or 4+.
• With the exception of mercurous (Hg22+) ion, all frequently encountered metal ions
are monatomic: the ions are single metal atoms that have lost one or more electrons.
Examples of metal ions are Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, and Sn4+.
All metals form at least one positive ion. Some frequently encountered metals form two
stable ions. In many cases, the charge (or possible charges) on a metal ion can be predicted
from the position of the metal in the periodic table.
In first-year chemistry, when you are asked to predict the charge on a metal atom, you will
nearly always be allowed to consult a periodic table. Use a periodic table when learning
the following rules for the charges on metal ions.

Metal Ions With One Charge

Metals in the first two columns of the periodic table form only one ion. The charge on that
ion is easy to predict.
• All metals in column one (the alkali metals) form ions that are single atoms with a
1+ charge: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and Fr+.
• All metals in column two form ions that are single atoms with a 2+ charge: Be2+,
Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and Ra2+.
The charges on metal ions in the remainder of the periodic table are more difficult to
predict. Additional rules for predicting ion charge will be learned when electron
configuration is studied in later parts of your course.
In order to solve problems initially, most courses require that the possible charges on
certain metals to the right of column 2 in the periodic table be memorized. The rules below
will help with that process.
Most metals to the right of the first two columns form two or more stable ions, but some
form only one. The following rule should be memorized.
• Metals to the right of the first two columns that form only one stable ion include
Ni2+, Ag+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Al3+.
For help in remembering this group, note the position of these metals in the periodic table.
Naming Metal Ions
How a metal ion is named depends on whether the metal forms only one ion or forms two
or more ions.
1. If a metal forms only one stable ion, the ion name is the element name.
Examples: Na+ is a sodium ion. Al3+ is an aluminum ion.
This rule applies to
• metal ions in columns one and two, plus
• the additional five metal ions listed above, plus
• additional ions that may be studied later in chemistry.
2. For metals that form two different positive ions, the systematic name (or modern name)
of the ion is the element name followed by a roman numeral in parentheses that states
the ion’s positive charge.
Examples: Fe2+ is named iron(II) and Fe3+ is named iron(III)
3. Metals that form two different positive ions and were “known to the ancients” also have
common names for their ions.
In common names, the lower charged ion uses the Latin root of the element name plus
the suffix –ous. The higher-charged ion uses the Latin root plus the suffix –ic.

For metal ions, the systematic (roman numeral) names are preferred, but the common
(latin-based) names are often encountered.
Most courses require that the names and symbols for the following ions, and perhaps
others, be memorized.
Ion Symbol Systematic Ion Name Common Ion Name
Cu+ copper(I) cuprous

Cu2+ copper(II) cupric
Fe2+ iron(II) ferrous
Fe3+ iron(III) ferric
Sn2+ tin(II) stannous
Sn4+ tin(IV) stannic
Hg22+ mercury(I) mercurous
Hg2+ mercury(II) mercuric
Lead also forms two ions. Pb2+ is named lead(II), and Pb4+ is named lead(IV). Lead (II) is
encountered in compounds far more often than lead (IV).
Note the exceptional name and structure of the mercury (I) ion. Mercury (I) is the only
frequently encountered metal ion that is polyatomic: It has the structure of a diatomic ion
with a 2+ charge. It is given the name mercury (I) matching the format of other metal ions,
in part because it behaves in many respects as two loosely bonded +1 ions.
When to Include Roman Numerals In Systematic Names
When naming metal ions, the rule is: Do not use roman numerals in systematic names for
metal ions that can form only one stable ion: ions for atoms in the first two columns, plus
However, for ions of the transition metals, adding the roman numeral, such as using
nickel(II) for Ni2+, may be acceptable in your course.
Summary: Metal Ion Rules
• All metal ions are positive. Except for Hg22+, all metal atoms are monatomic.
• In column one, all elements tend to form 1+ ions.
• In column two, all elements tend to form 2+ ions.
• For the metals to the right of column 2, five metals form only one ion: Ni2+, Ag+,
Zn2+, Cd2+, and Al3+. Assume that the others form more than one ion.
• If a metal forms only one ion, the ion name is the element name.
• If a metal forms more than one ion, the systematic ion name is the element name
followed by a roman numeral in parentheses showing the positive charge of the ion.

Flashcards: Using the flashcard steps in Lesson 2C, make cards for any of these that you
cannot answer from memory.
cation positive ion
anion negative ion
Monatomic ion one atom with a charge
2 or more bonded atoms
Polyatomic ion
with an overall charge
All metal ions (except mercurous) are Monatomic – contain only one atom
The charge on a metal ion is always positive
Column one ions have what charge? +1
Column two ions have what charge? +2
When is () in ion name needed? In systematic names, if the metal forms

more than one kind of positive ion
In systematic names, which ions do not need Columns 1 and 2, plus
(roman numerals) to show their charge? Ni , Ag+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Al3+
2 +
Practice A: Use a periodic table. Memorize the rules, ion symbols, and names in the
section above before doing the problems. On multi-part questions, save a few parts for your
next study session.
1. Add a charge to show the symbol for the stable ion that these elements form.
a. Ba b. Al c. Rb d. Na e. Zn f. Ag
2. Write the symbols for these ions.
a. Cadmium ion b. Lithium ion c. Hydride ion d. Calcium ion
3. Which ions in Problems 1 and 2 are anions?
4. Write the name and symbol for a polyatomic metal ion often encountered.

Stannic
Cupric
Iron(III)
Copper(I)
Fe2+
Monatomic Anions

Nine monatomic anions are often encountered in first-year chemistry. Their names and
symbols should be memorized.
• One is H─ (hydride).
• Four are halides (the ─1 ions of halogens): fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide
(F─, Cl─, Br─, and I─).
• Two are in tall column 6A: oxide (O2─) and sulfide (S2─).
• Two are in tall column 5A: nitride (N3─), and phosphide (P3─).
For monatomic anions, the name is the root of the element name followed by -ide.
For monatomic ions, the position of the element in the periodic table predicts the charge.
Family Alkali Transition N O Noble
Halogens
Name Metals Metals Family Family Gases
Charge on 3+
Monatomic 1+ 2+ 3─ 2─ 1─ None
ion (or 1+)
Polyatomic Ions
A polyatomic ion is a particle that both has two or more atoms held together by covalent
bonds and has an overall electrical charge. In polyatomic ions, the total number of protons
and electrons in the overall particle is not equal.
An example of a polyatomic ion is the hydroxide ion, OH─. One way to form this ion is to
start with a neutral water molecule H—O—H, which has 1+8+1 = 10 protons and 10
balancing electrons, and take away an H+ ion (which has one proton and no electrons).
The result is a particle composed of two atoms with a total of 9 protons and 10 electrons.
Overall, the particle has a negative charge. The negative charge behaves as if it is attached
to the oxygen. A structural formula for the hydroxide ion is
H—O─
Polyatomic ions will be considered in more detail when studying the three-dimensional
structure of particles. At this point, our interest is the ratios in which ions combine. For
that purpose, it may help to think of a monatomic ion as a charge that has one atom
attached, and a polyatomic ion as a charge with several atoms attached.
Polyatomic Cations
Three polyatomic cations with names and symbols that should be memorized are the
NH + (ammonium), H O+ (hydronium), and Hg 2+ (mercury(I) or mercurous) ions.
4 3 2

Oxyanions
Polyatomic ions with negative charges that contain non-metals and oxygen are termed
oxyanions. Oxyanions are often part of a series of ions that has one common atom and the
same charge, but different numbers of oxygen atoms.
Example: Nitrate ion = NO3─ , nitrite ion = NO2─
The names and symbols for most oxyanions can be determined from the following rules.
Oxyanion Naming System
1. When an atom has two oxyanions that have the same charge, the ion with more
oxygens is named root-ate , and the ion with one fewer oxygen atoms is root-ite.
Example: Sulfate is SO42─ . Sulfite is SO32─
2. If an atom has more than two oxyanions with the same charge, the
• per–root–ate ion has X oxygen atoms:
• root-ate ion has one fewer oxygens;
• root-ite ion has 2 fewer oxygens;
• hypo-root-ite ion has 3 fewer oxygens.
Example: Memorize that the ClO4─ ion is named perchlorate. Then,

• ClO3─ is chlorate;
• ClO2─ is chlorite;
• ClO─ is hypochlorite.
A way to simplify naming these ions is to memorize the name and formula for the ion in
the series that has the most oxygens, then write out the rest by logic as needed. With
practice, this naming process will become automatic.
* * * * *
Memorizing the Ion Names and Formulas
In most courses, you will be asked to memorize the names and formulas for a list of
frequently encountered ions. Even if this is not required, doing so will speed your work
and improve your understanding of chemistry.
The following set of flashcards is information that you will rely on heavily for the
remainder of the year. You may want to use a unique card color to identify these as the ion
cards, or add the word ion for clarity after each ion name.
Your course may not require that you know the “latin” names for the metal ions that have
more than one possible charge, but learning those names and charges will help you to
recall what charges are likely to be found on those metal ions.

Make these “two-way” flashcards following the procedure in Lesson 2C:

• cover the formula, and put a check if you are certain of the formula from the name.
• Then cover the names and put a check if you know the name from the formula.
You will need to be able to translate in both directions between the names and the ion
formulas. Omit making flashcards for names and formulas that you already know well in
both directions.
For a large number of new flashcards, allow yourself several days of practice. In the
beginning, writing and saying the answers out loud will speed your progress.
Two-way cards (without notch): Two-way cards (without notch):
CH3COO─ acetate Cu+ cuprous

CN─ cyanide Cu2+ cupric
OH─ hydroxide Fe2+ ferrous
NO3─ nitrate Fe3+ ferric
MnO4─ permanganate Sn2+ stannous
CO32─ carbonate Sn4+ stannic
hydrogen mercurous or
HCO3─ Hg22+
carbonate mercury (I)
CrO42─ chromate Hg2+ mercuric
Cr2O72─ dichromate O2 ─ oxide
PO43─ phosphate S2 ─ sulfide
SO42─ sulfate N3─ nitride
SO32─ sulfite P3─ phosphide
Na+ sodium ion ClO4─ perchlorate
K+ potassium ion ClO3─ chlorate
Al3+ aluminum ion ClO2─ chlorite

F─ fluoride ClO─ hypochlorite
Cl─ chloride H+ hydrogen ion
Br─ bromide H─ hydride
I─ iodide Mg2+ magnesium ion
Ca2+ calcium ion NH4+ ammonium
Ba2+ barium ion H3O+ hydronium
* * * * *

Practice B: Learn the rules and run the flashcards for the ion names and symbols in the
section above, then try these problems. Work in your notebook. Repeat these again after a
few days of flashcard practice.
1. In this chart of ions, from memory, add charges, names, and ion formulas.
Symbol Ion name CO3

acetate radium
CN MnO4
silver CrO4
hydroxide K
Al dichromate
ClO4 PO4
nitrate sulfate
sodium sulfide
F Ba
2. Circle the polyatomic ion symbols in the left column of Problem 1 above.
3. If NO3─ is a nitrate ion, what is the symbol for a nitrite ion?
4. Complete this table for the series of oxyanions containing bromine.
Ion name Ion Symbol
Per_______________ ______________
_________________________ BrO3─
Bromite _________________
Hypo________________ __________________
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. Ba2+ b. Al3+ c. Rb+ d. Na+ e. Zn2+ f. Ag+
2. a. Cd2+ b. Li+ c. H─ d. Ca2+ 3. Only the hydride ion (H─). 4. Hg22+

5.
Ion Symbol Systematic Ion Name Common Name
Practice B
1,2.
Symbol Ion name CO32─ carbonate
CH3COO─ acetate Ra2+ radium
CN─ cyanide MnO4─ permanganate
Ag+ silver CrO42─ chromate
OH─ hydroxide K+ potassium
Al3+ aluminum Cr2O72─ dichromate
ClO4─ perchlorate PO43─ phosphate
NO3─ nitrate SO42─ sulfate
Na+ sodium S2─ sulfide

F─ fluorine Ba2+ barium
3. NO2─
4.
Ion name Ion Symbol
Perbromate BrO4─
Bromate BrO3─
Bromite BrO2─
Hypobromite BrO─

Lesson 7C: Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds

Pretest: Using a periodic table, if you get these right 100%, you may skip the lesson.
1. Name Pb3(PO4)2 2. Write formulas for a. tin(IV) chlorate b. radium nitrate.
* * * * *
Ionic Compounds: Fundamentals
Positive and negative ions combine to form ionic compounds. Ionic compounds must have
both positive and negative ions.
There is only one ratio possible for the ions in a compound. The ions must combine in a
ratio that results in electrical neutrality. This means that the charges in any ionic substance
must balance. The overall charge of any stable combination of ions must be zero.
Names and Formulas
The composition of an ionic compound can be expressed in three ways.
• In a name; Example: ammonium phosphate
• As a solid formula; Example: (NH4)3PO4
• As balanced, separated ions. Example: 3 NH4+ + 1 PO43─
As a part of solving many upcoming chemistry problems, given one of these expressions,
you will need to be able to write the other two.
Ionic compounds can initially be confusing because their names and solid formulas do not
clearly identify the charges on the ions. The key to writing a correct name and solid
formula is to first write the separated-ions formula that shows the number and the formulas
of the ions in the combination, including their charges.
For ionic compounds, the fundamental rules for writing names and formulas are:
• Write the separated-ions formula first, and

• Add coefficients that balance the charges.
Balancing Separated Ions

In all combinations of ions, whether in solids, melted, or dissolved in water, the total
charges on the ions must balance: the total number of positive charges must equal the total
number of negative charges, so that the overall charge is zero.
In problems, you will often be asked to determine the ratios that balance the charges. The
way to find those ratios is to write a balanced separated-ions formula for the compound.
Let’s learn the method with an example.
Q. Find the ratio that balances the charges when S2─ and Na+ combine.
Try this problem using these steps, then check your answer below.

Step 1: Write the symbols for the two ions in the compound, with their charges,
separated by a + sign. It is preferred to put the positive ion first.
Step 2: Coefficients are numbers written in front of ion or particle symbols. In all ion
combinations,
(Coefficient times charge of cation) must equal (coefficient times charge of anion).
Write the whole-number coefficients in front of the ion formulas that make the
positive and negative charges balance.
In balancing, you cannot change the symbol or the stated charge of an ion. The
only change allowed is to add coefficients in front of the particle symbols.
Step 3: Reduce the coefficients to the lowest whole-number ratios.
* * * * *
Answer Step 1: Na+ + S2─
Step 2: 2 Na+ + 1 S2─ This is the separated-ions formula.
The coefficients that balance the charges show the ratios in which the ions
must exist in the compound.
Step 3: 2 and 1 are the lowest whole-number ratios.
There must be two sodium ions for every one sulfide ion. Why? For the charges,
(2 times 1+ = 2+) balances (1 times 2─ = 2─). In ion combinations, the ions are always
present in ratios so that the total positive and negative charges balance.
Only one set of coefficient ratios will balance the charges. The coefficients identify the
ratios in which the ions are found in the compound.
Try another. Cover the answer below, then try this question using the steps above.
Q. Add coefficients so that the charges balance: ___ Al3+ + ___ SO42─
* * * * *
Answer: An easy way to find the coefficients is to make the coefficient of each ion equal to
the number of charges of the other ion.
2 Al3+ + 3 SO42─
For these ions, (2 times +3 = +6) balances (3 times ─2 = ─6). In an ionic compound, the
total positives and total negatives must balance.
However, when balancing charge when using this method, you must often adjust the
coefficients so that the final coefficients are the lowest whole-number ratios.
Try this problem.
Q. Add proper coefficients: ____ Ba2+ + ____ SO42─
* * * * *

Answer
If balancing produces a ratio of
2 Ba2+ + 2 SO42─ , write the final coefficients as 1 Ba2+ + 1 SO42─ .
When balancing ions, make the coefficients the lowest whole-number ratios.
Practice A: Add lowest-whole-number coefficients to make these separated ions

balanced for charge. After every two, check your answers at the end of the lesson.
1. ____ Na+ + ____ Cl─ 5. NH4+ + CH3COO─
2. ____ Ca2+ + ____ Br─ 6. In3+ + CO32─
3. Mg2+ + SO42─ 7. Al3+ + PO43─
4. Cl─ + Al3+ 8. HPO42─ + In3+
Writing the Separated Ions from Names

To write the separated ions from the name of an ionic compound, use these steps.
Step 1: Write the symbols for the two named ions, including their charges, separated by a
+ sign. The first word in the name is always the positive ion.
Step 2: Add lowest-whole-number coefficients to balance the charges.
Try those the steps on this problem:
Q. Write a balanced separated-ions formula for aluminum carbonate.
* * * * *
Answer: Step 1: Aluminum carbonate Æ Al3+ + CO32─
Step 2: Aluminum carbonate Æ 2 Al3+ + 3 CO32─
The separated-ions formula shows clearly what the name does not. In aluminum
carbonate, there must be 2 aluminum ions for every 3 carbonate ions.
When writing separated ions, write the charge high, the subscript low, and the coefficient at
the same level as the symbol.
Practice B
If you have not done so today, run your ion flashcards one more time. Then write
balanced separated-ions formula for the ionic compounds below. You may use a periodic
table, but otherwise write the ion formulas from memory. Check answers as you go.
1. Sodium hydroxide Æ
2. Aluminum chloride Æ

3. Rubidium sulfite Æ
4. Ferric nitrate Æ
5. Lead(II) phosphate Æ
6. Calcium chlorate Æ
Writing Solid Formulas From Names

In ionic solid formulas, charges are hidden, but charges must balance. The key to writing a
correct solid formula is to write the balanced separated-ions first, so that you can see and
balance the charges.
To write a solid formula from the name of an ionic compound, use these steps.
1. Based on the name, write the separated ions. Add lowest whole number coefficients to
balance charge. Then, to the right, draw an arrow Æ .
2. After the Æ, write the two ion symbols, positive ion first, with a small space between
them. Include any subscripts that are part of the ion symbol, but no charges or
coefficients.
3. For the ion symbols written after the arrow, put parentheses () around a polyatomic ion
if its coefficient in the separated-ions formula is more than 1.
4. Add subscripts after each symbol on the right. The subscript will be the same as the
coefficient in front of that ion in the separated-ions formula.
Omit subscripts of 1. For polyatomic ions, write the coefficients as subscripts outside
and after the parentheses.
Apply those four steps to this example.

Q. Write the solid formula for potassium sulfide.
* * * * *
Answer
1: Write the separated-ions formula first. For potassium sulfide: 2 K+ + 1 S2─
2: Re-write the symbols without coefficients or charges. 2 K+ + 1 S2─ Æ K S
3: Since both K and S ions are monatomic, add no parentheses.
4: The K coefficient becomes a solid formula subscript: 2 K+ + 1 S2─ Æ K2S
The sulfide subscript of one is omitted as understood.
The solid formula for potassium sulfide is K2S.

* * * * *

Try another using the same steps.

Q. Write the solid formula for magnesium phosphate.
* * * * *
Answer
1: Write the balanced separated ions. Magnesium phosphate Æ 3 Mg2+ + 2 PO43─
2: Write symbols without coefficients or charges. 3 Mg2+ + 2 PO43─ Æ Mg PO4
3: Since Mg2+ is monatomic (just one atom), it is not placed in parentheses.

Phosphate is both polyatomic and we need >1, so add ( ) . Mg (PO4)
4: The separated coefficient of the Mg ion becomes its solid subscript. Mg3(PO4)
The phosphate ion’s separated coefficient becomes its solid subscript. Mg3(PO4)2
Mg3(PO4)2 is the solid formula for magnesium phosphate.
Recite the 3-P’s rule for ionic-solid formulas until it is memorized.
¾ Put parentheses around polyatomic ions -- if you need more than one.
Practice C: As you go, check the answers at the end of the lesson. You may want to do
half of the lettered parts today, and the rest during your next study session.
1. Circle the polyatomic ions.
a. Na+ b. NH4+ c. CH3COO─ d. Ca2+ e. OH─
2. When do you need parentheses? Write the rule from memory.

3. Write solid formulas for these ion combinations.
a. 2 K+ + 1 CrO42─ Æ
b. 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─ Æ
c. 1 SO32─ + 1 Sr2+ Æ
4. Balance these separated ions for charge, then write solid formulas.
a. Cs+ + N3─ Æ
b. Cr2O72─ + Ca2+ Æ
c. Sn4+ + SO42─ Æ

5. From these names, write the separated-ions formula, then the solid formula.
a. Ammonium sulfite Æ
b. Potassium permanganate Æ
c. Calcium hypochlorite Æ
d. Sodium hydrogen carbonate Æ
6. Write the solid formula.
a. Stannous fluoride Æ
b. Calcium hydroxide Æ
c. Radium acetate Æ
Writing Separated Ions From Solid Formulas

When placed in water, all ionic solids dissolve to some extent. The dissolved ions separate
and move about in the solution.
This dissolving process can be represented by a chemical equation that has a solid on the
left and the separated ions on the right. For example, when solid sodium phosphate
dissolves in water, the equation is
Na3PO4 (s) H2O 3 Na+(aq) + 1 PO43─(aq)

Æ
The (s) is an abbreviation for the solid state, and (aq) is an abbreviation for the aqueous
state, which means “dissolved in water.”
An equation for ion separation must balance atoms, balance charge, and result in the
correct formulas for the ions that are actually found in the solution.
In equations for an ionic solid separating into its ions, some subscripts in the solid formula
become coefficients in the separated ions, but others do not. In the equation above, the
subscript 3 became a coefficient, but the subscripts 1 and 4 did not. To correctly separate
solid formulas into ions, you must be able to recognize the ions inside the solid formula.
That’s why the frequently encountered ion names and formulas must be memorized.
Cover the answer below, try this example, then check the answer for tips that will make
this process easier. When needed, read a part of the answer for a hint, then try again.
Q. Write the equation for the ionic solid Cu2CO3 separating into its ions.
* * * * *

Answer: Follow these steps in going from a solid formula to separated ions.
Step 1: Decide the negative ion’s charge and coefficient first.
The first ion in a solid formula is always the positive ion, but many metal ions can
have two possible positive charges. Most negative ions only have one likely
charge, and that charge will identify the positive ion’s charge, so do the negative
ion first.
In Cu2CO3, the negative ion is CO3, which always has a 2─ charge.
This step temporarily splits the solid formula into Cu2 and 1 CO32─ .
Step 2: Decide the positive ion’s charge and coefficients.
Given Cu2 and CO32─ , the positive ion or ions must include 2 copper atoms and
must have a total 2+ charge to balance the charge of CO 2─. 3
So Cu2 , in the separated-ions formula, must be either 1 Cu22+ or 2 Cu+ .
Both possibilities balance atoms and charge. Which is correct? Recall that
All metal ions are monatomic (except Hg22+ (mercury(I) ion)).
This means that Cu+ must be the ion that forms, since Cu22+ is polyatomic.
Because most metal ions are monatomic, a solid formula with a metal ion will
separate
MXAnion Æ X M+? + Anion (unless the metal ion is Hg22+).
You also know that Cu+ is the copper(I) ion that was previously memorized
because it is frequently encountered. Both rules lead us to predict that the
equation for ion separation is
Cu2CO3 Æ 2 Cu+ + 1 CO32─
Copper can also be a Cu2+ ion, but in the formula above, there is only one
carbonate, and carbonate always has a 2─ charge. Two Cu2+ ions cannot balance
the single carbonate.
Step 3: Check. Make sure that the charges balance. Make sure that the number of atoms
of each kind is the same on both sides. The equation must also make sense going
backwards, from the separated to the solid formula.
Try another.
Q2. Write the equation for the ionic solid (NH4)2S dissolving to form ions.
* * * * *

Answer
• In a solid formula, parentheses are placed around polyatomic ions. When you
write the separated ions, a subscript after parentheses always becomes the
polyatomic ion’s coefficient.
You would therefore split the formula (NH4)2S Æ 2 NH4 + 1 S
• Assign the charges that these ions prefer. (NH4)2S Æ 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─
• Check. In the separated formula, do the charges balance?
Going backwards, do the separated ions combine to give the solid formula?
Keep up your practice, for 15-20 minutes a day, with your ion name and formula flashcards
(Lesson 7B). Identifying ions without consulting a table will be essential in the complex
problems ahead.
Practice D
If you have not done so today, run your ion flashcards in both directions, then try these.
To take advantage of the “spacing effect”(Lesson 2C), do half of the lettered parts below
today, and the rest during your next study session.
1. Finish balancing by adding ions, coefficients, and charges.
a. PbCO3 Æ Pb + 1 CO32─
b. Hg2SO4 Æ Hg2 +
2. Write equations for these ionic solids separating into ions.
a. KOH Æ
b. CuCH3COO Æ
c. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ
d. Ag2CO3 Æ
e. NH4OBr Æ
f. Mn(OH)2 Æ

Naming Ionic Compounds

From a solid or a separated-ions formula, writing the name is easy.
Step 1: Write the separated-ions formula.
Step 2: Write the name of the positive ion in the formula.
Step 3. Write the name of the negative ion.
That’s it! In ionic compounds, the name ignores the number of ions inside. Simply name
the ions in the compound, with the positive ion named first. Try this problem.
Q. What is the name of K2CO3?
* * * * *
Answer
K2CO3 Æ 2 K+ + 1 CO32─ ; the name is potassium carbonate.
With time, you will be able to convert solid formulas to compound names without writing
the separated ions, but the only way to develop this accurate intuition is by practice.
Practice E: If you are unsure of an answer, check it before continuing.

1. Return to Practice D and name each compound.
2. In Practice C, Problems 3 and 4, name each compound.
3. Would CBr4 be named carbon bromide or carbon tetrabromide? Why?
4. Name these ionic and covalent compounds. Try half today and half during your next
study session.
a. CaBr2 b. NCl3 c. NaH d. CuCl2
e. RbClO4 f. KOI g. Li3P h. PbO
i. NH4BrO2 j. SO2 k. CaSO3 l. P4S3
Flashcards: Add these to your collection.

Total + charges = total ─ charges
What must be true in all ionic substances?
Must be electrically neutral
Numbers you add to balance separated ions coefficients
To understand ionic compounds: Write the separated-ion formulas
In solid formulas, put parentheses around
When are parentheses needed in formulas?
polyatomic ions -- if you need >1
In separated-ion formulas, what do the The ratio in which the ions must be present
coefficients tell you? to balance atoms and charge
* * * * *

Practice F: Combining Ions Worksheet

Fill in the blanks. Complete half of the rows today and the rest during your next study
session. Check answers at the end of the lesson.
Ionic Compound NAME SEPARATED Ions SOLID Formula

• Name by ion names • Charges must show • Positive ion first
• Must be two or more words • Charges must balance • Charges balance,
• Put name of + ion first • Charges may flow but don’t show
• Coefficients tell ratio of • Put () around
ions polyatomic ions IF
you need >1
Sodium chloride 1 Na+ + 1 Cl─ NaCl
2 A13+ + 3 SO32─ A12(SO3)3
Lithium carbonate
Potassium hydroxide
___ Ag+ + ___ NO3─
___ NH4+ + ___ SO42─
FeBr2
Fe2(SO4)3
Cuprous chloride
Tin(II) fluoride
__ A13+ + __ Cr2O72─
K2CrO4
CaCO3
Aluminum phosphate

ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. Lead(II) phosphate 2a. Sn(ClO3)4 2b. Ra(NO3)2
Practice A
1. 1 Na+ + 1 Cl─ 4. 3 Cl─ + 1 Al3+ 7. 1 Al3+ + 1 PO43─
2. 1 Ca2+ + 2 Br─ 5. 1 NH4+ + 1 CH3COO─ 8. 3 HPO42─ + 2 In3+
3. 1 Mg2+ + 1 SO42─ 6. 2 In3+ + 3 CO 2─ 3
Practice B
1. Sodium hydroxide Æ 1 Na+ + 1 OH─ 4. Ferric nitrate Æ 1 Fe3+ + 3 NO3─
2. Aluminum chloride Æ 1 Al3+ + 3 Cl─ 5. Lead(II) phosphate Æ 3 Pb2+ + 2 PO 3─ 4
3. Rubidium sulfite Æ 2 Rb+ + 1 SO32─ 6. Calcium Chlorate Æ 1 Ca2+ + 2 ClO3─
Practice C
1. The polyatomic ions: b. NH4+ c. CH3COO─ e. OH─
2. For ionic solid formulas, put parentheses around polyatomic ions IF you need more than one.
3a. 2 K+ + 1 CrO 2─ Æ K CrO
4 2 4 4a. 3 Cs+ + 1 N3─ Æ Cs N 3
3b. 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─ Æ (NH4)2S 4b. 1 Cr2O72─ + 1 Ca2+ Æ CaCr2O7
3c. 1 SO32─ + 1 Sr2+ Æ SrSO3 4c. 1 Sn4+ + 2 SO42─ Æ Sn(SO4)2
5a. 2 NH4+ + 1 SO32─ Æ (NH4)2SO3 5c. 1 Ca2+ + 2 OCl─ Æ Ca(ClO)2
5b. 1 K+ + 1 MnO ─ Æ KMnO
4 4 5d. 1 Na+ + 1 HCO ─ Æ NaHCO
3 3
6. Write balanced, separated ions first to help with the solid formula.
a. Stannous fluoride Æ 1 Sn2+ + 2 F─ Æ SnF2
b. Calcium hydroxide Æ 1 Ca2+ + 2 OH─ Æ Ca(OH)
2
2 + ─
c. Radium acetate Æ 1 Ra + 2 CH3COO Æ Ra(CH3COO)2
Practice D and E
1. a. PbCO3 Æ 1 Pb2+ + 1 CO32─ (Lead(II) carbonate)
b. Hg2SO4 Æ 1 Hg22+ + 1 SO42─ (Mercurous sulfate or Mercury(I) sulfate)

2. a. KOH Æ 1 K+ + 1 OH─ (Potassium hydroxide)
b. CuCH COO Æ 1 Cu+ + 1 CH COO─ (Copper(I) acetate or cuprous acetate)
3 3
c. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ 3 Fe2+ + 2 PO43─ (Iron(II) phosphate or ferrous phosphate)
d. Ag2CO3 Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 CO32─ (Silver carbonate)
e. NH4OBr Æ 1 NH4+ + 1 BrO─ (Ammonium hypobromite)
f. Mn(OH)2 Æ 1 Mn2+ + 2 OH─ (Manganese hydroxide)

E2. C3a. Potassium chromate C3b. Ammonium sulfide C3c. Strontium sulfite
C4a. Cesium nitride C4b. Calcium dichromate C4c. Tin(IV) sulfate or stannic sulfate
E3: Carbon tetrabromide. Carbon is a nonmetal, so the compound is covalent (see Lesson 7A). Use di-, tri-
prefixes in the names of covalent compounds. Practice recognizing the symbols of the nonmetals.
E4. a. Calcium bromide b. Nitrogen trichloride c. Sodium hydride
c. Copper(II) chloride or cupric chloride e. Rubidium perchlorate f. Potassium hypoiodite
g. Lithium phosphide h. Lead(II) oxide i. Ammonium bromite j. Sulfur dioxide
k. Calcium sulfite l. Tetraphosphorous trisulfide
Practice F
Aluminum sulfite 2 A13+ + 3 SO32─ A12(SO3)3
Lithium carbonate 2 Li+ + CO32─ Li2CO3
Potassium hydroxide 1 K+ + 1 OH─ KOH
Silver nitrate 1 Ag+ + 1 NO3─ AgNO3
Ammonium sulfate 2 NH4+ + 1 SO42─ (NH4)2SO4
Iron(II) bromide/Ferrous bromide 1 Fe2+ + 2 Br─ FeBr2
Iron(III) sulfate/Ferric sulfate 2 Fe3+ + 3 SO42─ Fe2(SO4)3
Cuprous chloride 1 Cu+ + 1 Cl─ CuCl

Tin(II) fluoride 1 Sn2+ + 2 F─ SnF2
Aluminum dichromate 2 A13+ + 3 Cr2O72─ Al2(Cr2O7)3
Potassium chromate 2 K+ + CrO42─ K2CrO4
Calcium carbonate 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32─ CaCO3
Aluminum phosphate 1 Al3+ + 1 PO43─ AlPO4

Lesson 7D: Naming Acids

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are asked to name acids from an acid formula or write
a formula from an acid name.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last two problems on the practice at the
end of the lesson. If you get all of those parts right, skip this lesson.
* * * * *
Acids
An acid can be defined as a substance that, when dissolved in water, forms H+ ions (there
are other definitions for acids, but this is a good place to start).
This dissolving process can be represented by a reaction equation that has a solid, liquid, or
gas on the left and the separated ions on the right.
For example, when the covalent gas hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, it forms
a solution of hydrochloric acid. The reaction equation is
HCl(g) H2O 1 H+(aq) + 1 Cl─(aq) or HCl(aq)

Æ
Recall that (aq) is an abbreviation for aqueous (dissolved in water). The hydrochloric acid
solution is usually represented as HCl(aq) The separated ions are a more accurate
description of the solution composition, but for now, let’s limit our focus to naming acids.
We will address acid behavior in Modules 14 and 29-32.
Acid Nomenclature
Because of the long history of acids in chemistry, some of the names for acids do not follow
the rules for naming acids. We can write a long set of rules to cover all cases, but for now it
is easier to memorize a few name and formula combinations, then learn a set of rules that
generally apply to the remaining cases.
The steps to name acids:
Apply these rules in order.
Rule 1: Memorize the names for these acid solutions, by 2-way flashcard if necessary.
H2SO4(aq) is sulfuric acid, H2SO3(aq) is sulfurous acid, H3PO4(aq) and is phosphoric
acid. (These are exceptions because acids with sulfur and phosphorous use the element
name, but most acids use the anion name, as the basis for the acid name.)
In addition, HCN(aq) is hydrocyanic acid, and the combination of an H+ ion and an

OH─ ion is…? Water.
Rule 2: Memorize: The four acids that combine a hydrogen and a halogen atom are
HCl = hydrochloric acid, HF = hydrofluoric acid, HBr = hydrobromic acid, and
HI = hydroiodic acid.
The next rule will apply to oxoanions: negative ions that contain oxygen. Some oxoanions
occur in a series that have the same charge but decreasing numbers of oxygens.

The four-member oxoanion sequence that contain halogen atoms is

XO4─ XO3─ XO2─ XO─ ( where X can be the halogen Cl, Br, or I )
Perhaloate haloate haloite
hypohaloite Example: BrO─ is hypobromite ion.
One two-member oxoanion series includes NO ─ (nitrate) and NO ─ (nitrite) .
3 2
(The sulfur oxoanion series SO4─ (sulfate) and SO3─ (sulfite) is covered by rule 1.)
Some oxoanions are not part of a series, such as CO 2─ (carbonate ion).
3
Rule 3. If an acid contains an H+ ion and an oxoanion, to name the acid:

a. Write the name of the oxoanion, then cross off the suffix to form the root name.
b. If the ion suffix was –ate , replace the suffix with –ic followed by the word acid.
c. If the ion suffix was –ite , replace the suffix with –ous acid.
Examples:
For the acid H2CO3(aq)
To be neutral, the acid must combine 2 H+(aq) + 1 CO32─(aq)
(To understand ionic compounds, write the separated ions formula.)
The negative ion CO32─ is named carbonate .
The acid name for H2CO3(aq) is carbonic acid.
Note that multiple H+ ions in the acid do not affect the name.
For the acid HClO(aq) ,
By oxoanion rules, the ion ClO─ is named hypochlorite .
The acid name for HClO(aq) is therefore hypochlorous acid.
Q. Apply Rule 3 to name these acid solutions.
a. HClO4(aq) b. HNO2(aq)
* * * * *
a. In the acid HClO4 , the negative ion is ClO4─, named perchlorate .
The name for an HClO4 solution is perchloric acid.
b. In the acid HNO2 , the negative ion is NO2─, named nitrite .

The name for an HNO2 solution is nitrous acid.
Acid Formulas
In most cases, because the H+ ion is positive, it is written first in formulas. In compounds
that contain carbon and hydrogen (organic compounds), other rules are followed.
For example: the solution consisting of H+ ion and CH3COO─ ion is named…?
* * * * *

Acetate Æ acetic acid , contains oxygen and is named by Rule 3 above, but you will
see the formula written as
CH3COOH or CH3CO2H or HC2H3O2 or by the shortcut HAc (where Ac is an
abbreviation for acetate ion and is not the element actinium).
However, most acid formulas have the acidic H’s in front. We will address additional rules
for identifying acid formulas in Module 14.
Practice: First learn the rules, then try the questions. Leave a few for your next session.
1. Name these acid solutions. a. HCl b. HIO c. HNO3 d. H3PO4
2. Write molecular formulas representing aqueous solutions of these acids.
a. Bromous acid b. Sulfurous acid c. Chromic acid
3. Write formulas and names for aqueous solutions containing these ions.
a. H+ and MnO4─ b. H+ and SO4─ c. H+ and IO3─
4. The formula for the arsenate ion is AsO43─. What is the name and formula for an
aqueous solution containing H+ ions and AsO43─ ions ?
ANSWERS
1a. Hydrochloric acid by rule 2. 1b. hypoiodous acid by rule 3 from hypoiodite ion.
1c. Nitric acid by rule 3 from nitrate ion. 1d. Phosphoric acid by rule 1.
2a. Bromous acid must include bromite ion which is BrO2─, so the acid must be HBrO2(aq) .
2b. Sulfurous acid is memorized as H2SO3(aq) .
2c. Chromic acid must come from chromate ion which is CrO42─, so the acid must be H2CrO4(aq) .
3a. The acid’s anion is permanganate , so the acid name is permanganic acid; HMnO4(aq)
3b. The neutral molecular formula must be H2SO4(aq) which is sulfuric acid (Rule 1).
3c. The acid’s anion is iodate , so the acid name is iodic acid; HIO3(aq)
4. To be neutral, there must be 3 H+ + 1 AsO43─ Æ H3AsO4(aq) . Arsenate ion is in arsenic acid.
* * * * *

Lesson 7E: Review Quiz For Modules 5-7

You may use a calculator and a periodic table. Work on your own paper. State answers to
calculations in proper significant figures.
* * * * *
1. If there are 96,500 coulombs per mole of electrons and 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 electrons,
what is the charge in coulombs on 100. electrons?
2. One acre is 43,560 square feet. If one foot = 0.3048 meters, 0.250 acres is how many
square meters?
3. What is the volume in mL of a metal cylinder that is 5.0 cm in diameter and 2.0 cm
long? Use a calculator. Vcylinder = πr2h
4. For a particle with atomic number 92 that contains 143 neutrons and 90 electrons, write
the nuclide (isotope) symbol and then the symbol for the ion.
5. A particle of the isotope 107Ag is an Ag+ ion. How many protons, neutrons, and
electrons does the particle contain?
6. If an element has two isotopes with masses of 104.0 amu and 108.0 amu, and 22.0% of
the element in naturally occurring samples is the lighter isotope, what is the element’s
atomic mass?
7. Which of these lists contains all non-metals?

a. C, N, S, Na, O b. H, I, He, P, C c. F, H, Ne, Si, S d. Br, H, Al, N, C
8. Write the symbols for the ions that are combined to form these compounds.
a. Ag2SO4 b. NaOH c. K2CrO4
9. Write chemical formulas for these compounds.
a. Sodium dichromate b. Ammonium phosphate
c. Aluminum iodate d. Hydroiodic acid
e. Nitrous acid f. Bromic acid
10. Name these compounds.
a. Br2O7 b. KClO
c. NaHCO3 d. Fe2(SO3)3
e. CH3COOH f. HBrO
11. Which of the compounds in Questions 9 and 10 are covalent?
* * * * *

Summary: Writing Names and Formulas

1. The name of an element is the name of its atoms.
2. In covalent bonds, electrons are shared. Two nonmetal atoms usually bond with a
covalent bond.
3. An ionic bond exists between positive and negative ions. If a metal is bonded to a
nonmetal, the bond is generally ionic. The metal is the positive ion.
4. Most compounds with all nonmetal atoms are covalent. Most compounds with one or
more metal atoms and one or more nonmetal atoms are ionic.
5. If a compound has only covalent bonds, it is covalent. If a compound has one or more
ionic bonds, it is ionic.
6. Naming binary covalent compounds:
a. Names have two words. Compounds with H begin with hydrogen. Compounds
with O end in (prefix)oxide. (This rule has precedence.)
b. The first word contains the name of the element in the column farther to the left in
the periodic table. For two atoms in the same column, the lower one is named first.
c. The second word contains the root of the second element name plus a suffix -ide.
d. The number of atoms is shown by a prefix.
• Mono- = 1 atom. (For the first word of the name, mono is left off and is assumed
if no prefix is given.)
• Di- = 2 atoms, Tri- = 3, Tetra- = 4, Penta- = 5, Hexa- = 6, Hepta- = 7, Octa- = 8.
7. Positive ions are cations (pronounced CAT-eye-ons). Negative ions are anions
(pronounced ANN-eye-ons).
8. Metals can lose electrons to form positive ions. Column one elements form 1+ ions,
column two elements form 2+ ions.
9. The name of a metal ion that forms only one ion is the name of the element.
10. Metals to the right of column two often form two different cations. The name of these
ions is
• the element name followed by (I, II, III, or IV) stating the positive charge,
• or a common name consisting of the Latin root plus –ous for the lower-charged ion
or–ic for the higher-charged ion.
11. A polyatomic ion is composed of more than one atom.
12. The name of monatomic anions is the root followed by -ide.
13. For oxyanions of a given atom, the per–root–ate, root-ate, root-ite, and hypo-root-ite ions
each have the same charge, but one fewer oxygens, respectively.
14. Ionic compounds have positive and negative ions in ratios that guarantee electrical
neutrality.

15. To determine the names and formulas for ionic compounds,

• write the separated-ions formula first, and
• be certain that all names and formulas are electrically neutral.
16. To balance separated-ions formulas, add coefficients that balance charge. Coefficients
are numbers written in front of the ion symbols that show the ratio of the ions in the
compound. In balancing, you may not change the symbol or the stated charge of an
ion.
(Coefficient times charge of cation) must equal (coefficient times charge of anion). The
overall charge for ionic compounds must equal zero.
17. To write solid formulas for ionic compounds from their names, follow these steps.
• Write the separated ions with the lowest whole-number coefficient ratios.
• Write the two ion symbols, positive ion first, without charges, a + sign, or
coefficients.
• Put parentheses ( ) around polyatomic ions IF you need more than one.
• Make the separated formula coefficients into solid formula subscripts. Omit
subscripts of 1.
18. To write separated ions from solid formulas,
• decide the negative ion’s charge and coefficients first.
• Base the positive ion’s charge on what balances atoms and charge.
• Assume that metal atoms are monatomic (except Hg22+).

19. To name an ionic compound, name the ions, positive first.
20. To name acid solutions, memorize these:
• H2SO4 = sulfuric acid, H2SO3 = sulfurous acid, H3PO4 = phosphoric acid.
• HCl = hydrochloric acid, HF = hydrofluoric acid, HBr = hydrobromic acid, and
HI = hydroiodic acid.
21. If an acid contains an H+ ion and an oxoanion, to name the acid:
a. Write the name of the oxoanion, then cross off the suffix to form the root name.
b. If the ion suffix was –ate , replace the suffix with –ic followed by the word acid.
c. If the ion suffix was –ite , replace the suffix with –ous acid.
* * * * *


Some partial solutions are provided below. Your work on calculations should include
WANTED, DATA, and SOLVE.
1. 1.60 x 10─17 Coulombs (See Lesson 5D)

? Coulombs = 100. electrons • 1 mole of electrons • 96,500 Coulombs =
6.02 x 1023 electrons 1 mole of electrons
2. 1,010 m2 ? m2 = 0.250 acres • 43,560 ft2 •
1 acre
(0.3048
1 foot
)
m 2 = (Lesson 5F)
3. 39 mL Vcylinder = πr2h = π (2.5 cm)2(2.0 cm) = 39 cm3 = 39 mL (Lesson 5G)
4. 235U and U2+ (Lesson 5F) 5. 47 protons, 60 neutrons, and 46 electrons (Lesson 5F)
6. 107.1 amu ave. mass = (104.0 g/mol x 0.220) + (108.0 g/mol x 0.780) = (Lesson 6B)
7. b. H, I, He, P, C (Lesson 6D) 8a. Ag+ and SO42─ 8b. Na+ and OH─
8c. K+ and CrO42─ 9a. Na2Cr2O7 9b. (NH4)3PO4 9c. Al(IO3)3 (Lesson 7C)
9d. HI (Lesson 7D) 9e. HNO2 9f. HBrO3 10a. Dibromine heptoxide (or heptaoxide)
10b. Potassium hypochlorite 10c. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (or sodium bicarbonate)
10d. Iron (III) sulfite (Lessons 7B and 7C) 10e. Acetic acid 10f. Hypobromous acid
11. Only 10a (Lesson 7A) Acids contain H+ ions.
# # # # #

* * * * *
NOTE on the Table of Elements.
The atomic masses in this Table of Elements use fewer significant figures than most similar
tables in college textbooks. By “keeping the numbers simple,” it is hoped that you will use
“mental arithmetic” to do easy numeric cancellations and simplifications before you use a
calculator for arithmetic.
Many calculations in these lessons have been set up so that you should not need a
calculator at all to solve, if you look for easy cancellations first.
After any use of a calculator, use mental arithmetic and simple cancellations to estimate the
answer, in order to catch errors in calculator use.
# # # # #
The ELEMENTS – Lutetium
Magnesium
Lu
Mg
71
12
175.0
24.3
The third column shows the atomic number: The Manganese Mn 25 54.9
Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Mercury Hg 80 200.6
The fourth column is the molar mass, in Molybdenum Mo 42 95.9
grams/mole. For radioactive atoms, ( ) is the Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
molar mass of most stable isotope. Neon Ne 10 20.2
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Aluminum Al 13 27.0 Nickel Ni 28 58.7
Americium Am 95 (243) Niobium Nb 41 92.9
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Nobelium No 102 (253)
Arsenic As 33 74.9 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Astatine At 84 (210) Oxygen O 8 16.0
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 Platinum Pt 78 195.1
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Plutonium Pu 94 (242)
Boron B 5 10.8 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Bromine Br 35 79.9 Potassium K 19 39.1
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Calcium Ca 20 40.1 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Californium Cf 98 (249) Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Carbon C 6 12.0 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Radon Rn 86 (222)
Cesium Cs 55 132.9 Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Chromium Cr 24 52.0 Rubidium Rb 37 85.5
Cobalt Co 27 58.9 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Copper Cu 29 63.5 Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Curium Cm 96 (247) Scandium Sc 21 45.0
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Selenium Se 34 79.0
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Silicon Si 14 28.1
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Silver Ag 47 107.9
Fermium Fm 100 (253) Sodium Na 11 23.0
Fluorine F 9 19.0 Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Francium Fr 87 (223) Sulfur S 16 32.1
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Gallium Ga 31 69.7 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Germanium Ge 32 72.6 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Gold Au 79 197.0 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Helium He 2 4.00 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Indium In 49 114.8 Titanium Ti 22 47.9
Iodine I 53 126.9 Tungsten W 74 183.8
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Uranium U 92 238.0
Iron Fe 26 55.8 Vanadium V 23 50.9
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Lawrencium Lr 103 (257) Yttrium Y 39 88.9
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Zinc Zn 30 65.4
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Zirconium Zr 40 91.2
Module 8 – Grams and Moles
Modules 8 to 10
The focus of these lessons is to help you solve calculations in first-year chemistry. This is
only one part of a course in chemistry, but it is often the most challenging.
write your work when solving the problems in these lessons. A notebook that has graph-
paper as its pages will be especially helpful.
or x-1 , yx or ^ , log or 10x , and ln functions will be sufficient for most
calculations in introductory chemistry courses.
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v. r2 Page i

If we did not make a complete analysis of the elements of the problem, we should obtain an
equation not homogeneous, and, a fortiori, we should not be able to form the equations which
express … more complex cases.
. . . every undetermined magnitude or constant has one dimension proper to itself, and the terms
of one and the same equation could not be compared if they had not the same exponent of
dimensions.
-- Joseph Fourier, The Analytical Theory of Heat (1822)
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v. r2 Page ii

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................. 101
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 159
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Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 237
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v. r2 Page iv


Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491
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Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................614
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................662
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................827
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Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 974
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•••••
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Timing: Start this module when you are assigned problems using moles.
Pretests: Even if this is easy review, you will need to learn the prompt method we will use
for later topics. To do so, read each lesson and do at least the last problem on each problem
set. If you get that problem right, move on to the next lesson.
Prerequisites: You need to have completed Modules 2, 4, 5, and Lessons 6A and 6C. The
other lessons are helpful, but not essential, for Module 8.
* * * * *
Lesson 8A: The Mole

Counting Particles
Molecules are extremely small. Visible quantities of a substance must therefore have a very
large number of molecules, atoms, or ions.
One drop of water, for example, contains about 1,500,000,000,000,000,000,000
(1.5 x 1021) water molecules.
Rather than writing numbers of this size when solving chemistry calculations, chemists use
a convenient unit to count particles. As we count eggs by the dozen, or buy printer paper
by the ream (500 sheets), we count chemical particles such as molecules, atoms, and ions by
the mole.
A mole is 6.02 x 1023 particles. The number 6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadro’s number.
The mole was originally defined by counting the number of atoms in one gram of
hydrogen, the lightest element. The definition has changed slightly over time. We now
base our count on the isotope carbon-12 (exactly 12 grams of C-12 contains exactly one mole
of C-12), but the original definition based on hydrogen remains close to true.
Picking a number for the mole, our counting unit, so that 1 mole of the lightest element
(hydrogen) has a mass close to one gram, simplifies the arithmetic in problems with other
elements, especially when we convert between grams and moles. That’s our goal: to
calculate a count of particles by measuring their mass on a balance or scale.
Counting particles is the central component in explaining chemical reactions. The mole is
therefore the most important unit in chemistry. In problems, if we do not know the moles
involved, the rule is: find moles first.
In the SI (official metric) unit system, mole is abbreviated mol. As with all metric
abbreviations, the mol abbreviation is not followed by a period, and no distinction is made
between singular and plural when the abbreviation is used.
Working with Moles
Working with very large numbers is simplified by using exponential notation. Recall that
• 1023 means a 1 followed by 23 zeros: 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v. r2 Page 159

• When multiplying a number times a number times an exponential, the numbers

multiply by the normal rules of arithmetic, but the exponential does not change.
Examples: Half a mole = 1/2 x (6.02 x 1023) = 3.01 x 1023 particles
Ten moles = 10 x (6.02 x 1023) = 60.2 x 1023 = 6.02 x 1024 particles
0.20 moles = 0.20 x (6.02 x 1023) = 1.2 x 1023 particles
Practice: Cover the answers at the bottom of this page. (Sticky notes make good answer
covers). Write then check your answers below.
1. How many particles are in
a. 4.0 moles?
b. Half a mole?
d. One-third of a mole?
d. 5.0 moles (in scientific notation)?
2. Why is it convenient to set the value for our counting unit as 6.02 x 1023?
ANSWERS
Practice
1a. 24 x 1023 particles 1b. 3.0 x 1023 1c. 2.0 x 1023 particles 1d. 3.0 x 1024 particles
2. For hydrogen, the lightest element, one gram will roughly equal the mass of one mole of H atoms.
* * * * *
Lesson 8B: Grams Per Mole (Molar Mass)

Atomic Mass
Each element has a different average mass. The average atom of carbon has a mass
approximately 12 times that of the average hydrogen, because carbon has more protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Uranium atoms have on average about 238 times more mass than
hydrogen atoms.
The average mass of an atom is its atomic mass. Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass
units (see Lesson 6B). Average atomic masses for the atoms are listed at the end of this
booklet and inside the cover of most chemistry textbooks.
To encourage mental arithmetic, the atomic masses in these lessons use fewer significant
figures than most textbooks. If you use a textbook table of atomic masses, your answers
will differ slightly from the answers shown here.

Molar Mass
The mass of a mole of atoms is the molar mass of the atom. The number that represents the
average atomic mass of an atom is the same as the number that measures the molar mass of
an atom in units of grams per one mole. The molar mass of the lightest atom, hydrogen, is
1.008 g/mol. A mole of uranium atoms has a mass of 238 grams.
For substances that contain more than one atom, the molar mass is easily determined.
Simply add the molar masses of each of the atoms that make up the particle.
Example: What is the molar mass of NaOH?
Add these molar masses: Na = 23.0
O= 16.0
H= 1.008
40.008 = 40.0 g/mol NaOH
SF: Recall from Lesson 3A that when adding significant figures, because the highest
place with doubt in the columns above is in the tenth’s place, the sum has doubt in the
tenth’s place. Round the answer to that place.
The molar mass supplies an equality: 40.0 grams NaOH = 1 mole NaOH.
After calculating a molar mass, the equality format should be written in the DATA. Include
the formula for the substance on both sides of the equality. This will greatly simplify the
reaction calculations in upcoming lessons.
Molar Masses and Subscripts
To calculate the molar mass from chemical formulas containing subscripts, recall that
subscripts are exact numbers. Multiplying by a subscript therefore does not change the
doubtful digit’s place in the result.
When calculating a molar mass, use the following column format to keep track of the
numbers and the place with doubt.
Example: Find the molar mass of phosphoric acid: H3PO4
1 mol H3PO4 = 3 mol H = 3 x 1.008 g/mol = 3.024

1 mol P = 1 x 31.0 g/mol = 31.0
4 mol O = 4 x 16.0 g/mol = 64.0
98.024 Æ 98.0 g/mol
In your DATA, write: 98.0 g H3PO4 = 1 mol H3PO4
The Importance of Molar Mass

The molar mass is the most frequently used conversion in chemistry. Why?
Grams of a substance are easy to measure using a balance or scale. Moles are difficult to
measure directly, since we don’t have machines that count large numbers of particles.
However, most chemical processes are explained by counting the numbers of particles. The
molar mass converts between the grams that we can measure and the particle counts that
explain chemistry.

If you know the chemical formula of a substance, you can calculate the molar mass of
the substance.
The molar mass converts between the mass and the moles of a substance.
Practice: To speed your progress, try the last letter of each problem. If you have
difficulty, try other letters of the same problem. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. Use your table of elements to find the molar mass of these elements. Include the unit
with your answer.
a. Nitrogen b. Au c. Pb
2. How many oxygens are represented in each of these formulas?
a. Ca(OH)2 b. Al2(SO4)3 c. Co(NO3)2
Do the next two problems in your notebook. Allow enough room on the paper for clear and
careful work. Your calculations should look like the molar mass example above.
3. Calculate the molar mass for these compounds. Include the units of the answer and
proper sf.
a. H2 b. NaH c. KSCN d. Na3PO4 e. Barium nitrate
4. a. 1 mole H2S = ? grams H2S
b. ? grams AgNO3 = 1 mole AgNO3
ANSWERS
Practice
1a. Nitrogen 14.0 grams b. Au 197.0 g c. Pb 207.2 g
mole mol mol
2. a. Ca(OH)2 2 oxygens b. Al2(SO4)3 12 oxygens c. Co(NO3)2 6 oxygens
3a. H2 = 2 x H = 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 g/mol In your DATA, write 2.016 g H2 = 1 mol H2

(Multiplying by an exact subscript does not change the place with doubt).
3b. NaH = 3c. KSCN =
Na = 23.0 K= 39.1
H = 1.008 S= 32.1
24.008 = 24.0 g/mol C= 12.0
N= 14.0
In the DATA, write 97.2 g/mol
24.0 grams NaH = 1 mole NaH 97.2 g KSCN = 1 mol KSCN

3d. Na3PO4 = 3e. Barium nitrate = Ba(NO3)2 (Lesson 7C) =

3 x Na = 3 x 23.0 = 69.0 1 x Ba = 1 x 137.3 = 137.3
1 x P = 1 x 31.0 = 31.0 2 x N = 2 x 14.0 = 28.0
4 x O = 4 x 16.0 = 64.0 6 x O = 6 x 16.0 = 96.0
164.0 g/mol 261.3 g/mol
164.0 g Na3PO4 = 1 mol Na3PO4 261.3 g Ba(NO3)2 = 1 mol Ba(NO3)2
4. Question 4 is asking for the grams per one mole. That’s the molar mass.
4a. H2S = 4b. AgNO3 =

1 x Ag = 1 x 107.9 = 107.9
2 x H = 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 1 x N = 1 x 14.0 = 14.0
1 x S = 1 x 32.1 = 32.1 3 x O = 3 x 16.0 = 48.0
34.116 = 34.1 g/mol 169.9 g/mol
1 mol H2S = 34.1 g H2S 169.9 g AgNO3 = 1 mol AgNO3
* * * * *
Lesson 8C: Converting Between Grams and Moles

Knowing how to calculate the grams per one mole, we now want to be able to calculate the
mass of any number of moles of a substance.
The problem can be viewed as converting units, in this case from moles to grams. An
equality, the molar mass, provides the conversion factor.
The Grams Prompt
In theater, a prompt is a word or two that reminds the players of what to do next. In
chemistry, certain words or conditions can prompt us to do things automatically that will
help in solving problems.
Memorize the following rule as the
Grams Prompt
In a problem, either in the WANTED or DATA, if you see the grams or the
prefix-grams (such as kg, mg, etc.) or the mass of a substance formula,
• calculate the molar mass of that formula; then
• write that molar mass as an equality in your DATA.
Example: 1 mole H2O = 18.0 grams H2O
The grams prompt will help to list in your DATA the conversions needed to SOLVE. If you
see grams of a formula in a calculation, you will nearly always need the molar mass.

To convert between grams and moles of a substance, use the molar mass as a
conversion factor.
Use the WANTED, DATA, SOLVE format and the grams prompt to solve the following
problem, then check your answer below.
Q. What is the mass in grams of 0.25 moles of O2?
Answer
WANTED: ? g O2 =
DATA: 0.25 mol O2
32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2 (grams O2 in the WANTED is a grams prompt)
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? g O2 = 0.25 mol O2 • 32.0 g O2 = 8.0 g O2
1 mol O2
A single unit is WANTED, so the data contains a single unit and it is the given
quantity. The remaining DATA will be in pairs, written as equalities or ratios.
SF: Since 0.25 has 2 sf, 32.0 has 3 sf, and 1 is exact, round the answer to 2 sf.
In WANTED, DATA, and conversions, you must write the number, unit, and chemical
formula for all terms.
By writing the WANTED unit, you were prompted to write a conversion that was needed
to solve. By listing needed molar masses in the DATA before you start your conversions,
you can focus on arranging your conversions when you SOLVE.
Writing out the WANTED, DATA, prompts, and labels takes time. However, this
structured method of problem-solving will greatly improve your success in the complex
problems that soon will be encountered.
Practice A
Try the last letter on each numbered question. If you get it right, go to the next last. If you
need more practice to feel confident, do another letter of the numbered problem. Answers
are at the end of this lesson.
Molar masses for problems 2-4 are found in either Problem 1 or the Lesson 8B practice.
1. Working in your notebook, find the molar mass for
a. H2SO4 b. Aluminum nitrate
2. Finish. ? grams NaOH = 5.5 moles NaOH • 40.0 g NaOH =

1 mol NaOH

3. Supply the needed conversion and solve.
a. ? grams H2SO4 = 4.5 moles H2SO4 •
b. ? g AgNO3 = 0.050 mol AgNO3
(For molar mass,

see Lesson 8B, Problem 4b.)
4. Use WANTED, DATA, PROMPT and SOLVE to do these in your notebook.

a. 3.6 moles of H2SO4 would have a mass of how many grams?
b. What would be the mass in grams of 2.0 x 10─6 moles of Al(NO3)3 ? (Answer in
scientific notation.)
Converting Grams to Moles

If the grams of a substance with a known formula are known, how do we find the moles?
Use the molar mass as a conversion factor.
Try the following problem in your notebook, then check the answer below.
Q. How many moles are in 4.00 grams of O2?
* * * * *
A. WANT: ? mol O2 =
DATA: 4.00 g O2
32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2 (grams prompt)
SOLVE: ? mol O2 = 4.00 g O2 • 1 mol O2 = 0.125 mol O2
32.0 g O2
SF: 4.00 has 3 sf, 1 is exact (infinite sf), 32.0 has 3 sf; answer must be rounded to 3 sf.
Practice B
Start with the last letter on each numbered question. If you get it right, go to the next
number. Need more practice? Do another part. Molar masses for these problems were
calculated in the two prior sets of practice.
1. Supply conversions and solve. Answer in numbers without exponential terms.
a. ? mol H2SO4 = 10.0 g H2SO4 •
b. ? mol Ba(NO3)2 = 65.4 g Ba(NO3)2

2. Solve in your notebook. Answer in scientific notation.

a. 19.62 kg of H2SO4 is how many moles?
b. How many moles are in 51.0 mg of AgNO3 ?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. H2SO4 = 1b. Aluminum nitrate = Al(NO3)3 (Lesson 7B, 7C)
(If needed, adjust your work and try again)
2 x H = 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 1 x Al = 1 x 27.0 = 27.0
1 x S = 1 x 32.1 = 32.1 3 x N = 3 x 14.0 = 42.0
4 x O = 4 x 16.0 = 64.0 9 x O = 9 x 16.0 = 144.0
98.1 g/mol 213.0 g/mol
98.1 g H2SO4 = 1 mol H2SO4 213.0 g Al(NO3)3 = 1 mol Al(NO3)3
Note in 1b, for the 9 oxygens, that multiplying by an exact 9 is the same as adding 16.0 nine times. Multiplying
by an exact number does not change the place with doubt.
2. ? grams NaOH = 5.5 moles NaOH • 40.0 g NaOH = 220 grams NaOH
1 mole NaOH
3a. ? grams H2SO4 = 4.5 moles H2SO4 • 98.1 g H2SO4 = 440 g H2SO4
1 mol H2SO4
3b. ? g AgNO3 = 0.050 moles AgNO3 • 169.9 g AgNO3 = 8.5 g AgNO
3
1 mol AgNO3
4a. ? g H2SO4 = 3.6 mol H2SO4 • 98.1 g H2SO4 = 350 g H2SO4

1 mol H2SO4
4b. ? g Al(NO3)3 = 2.0 x 10─6 mol Al(NO3)3 • 213.0 g Al(NO3)3 = 4.3 x 10─4 g Al(NO3)3
1 mol Al(NO3)3
Practice B
1. a. ? mol H2SO4 = 10.0 g H2SO4 • 1 mol H2SO4 = 0.102 mole H2SO4
98.1 g H2SO4
b. ? mol Ba(NO3)2 = 65.4 g Ba(NO3)2 • 1 mole Ba(NO3)2 =

261.3 g Ba(NO3)2

Answer: If you wrote .250 moles Ba(NO3)2, mark it wrong.

If you wrote 0.250 moles Ba(NO3)2, go to the head of the class.
Always write a 0 in front of a decimal point, if there is no number in front of the decimal
point. This makes the decimal point visible when you need this answer for a later step of
a lab report or test.
2a. ? mol H2SO4 = 19.62 kg H2SO4 • 103 g • 1 mol H2SO4 = 2.00 x 102 mol H2SO4
1 kg 98.1 g H2SO4
2b. ? mol AgNO3 = 51.0 mg AgNO3 • 10─3 g • 1 mol AgNO3 = 3.00 x 10─4 mol AgNO3
1 mg 169.9 g AgNO3
* * * * *
Lesson 8D: Converting Particles, Moles, and Grams

Prerequisites: To do this lesson, you need to have completed Lessons 1A and 1B on
exponential notation, Module 4, Lessons 5A to 5D, and the prior Module 8 lessons.
Pretest: Even if this is easy review, read the lesson, work the questions (Q) in the lesson,
and do the last two problems in the Practice.
* * * * *
Problems Involving a Large Number of Particles
We know that one mole of anything = 6.02 x 1023 of anything. That’s the definition of a
mole. It’s like a dozen, only bigger. You will need Avogadro’s number in calculations
• that convert between a count of very small particles (such as molecules, atoms, or
ions) and units used to measure visible amounts of particles, such as grams or liters,
• and/or when DATA includes a very large exponential term, such as 1023 or any
other “two-digit positive exponential.”
Let’s call this rule the
Avogadro Prompt
If a calculation either includes a large exponential (10xx) number of particles or converts
between a number of very small particles and base units that measure visible amounts,
write under DATA:
1 mole (substance formula) = 6.02 x 1023 (substance formula)
Add that rule to the previous
Grams Prompt
If the WANTED or DATA includes grams (or prefix-grams) of a substance formula, write
in your DATA the molar mass equality for that formula.
Example: 1 mole H2O = 18.0 grams H2O

Cover the answer below and in your notebook, apply the WANTED, DATA, SOLVE
method and the two prompts to solve this problem.
Q. What is the mass in grams of 1.5 x 1022 molecules of H2O?
* * * * *
WANT: ? g H2O =
DATA: 1.5 x 1022 H2O molecules
1 mol H2O = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules (10xx calls Avogadro prompt.)
1 mol H2O = 18.0 g H2O (WANTED unit calls the g prompt.)
SOLVE:
? g H2O = 1.5 x 1022 H2O • 1 mole H2O • 18.0 g H2O =
6.02 x 1023 H2O 1 mol H2O
= 1.5 x 1022 • 18.0 g H2O = 4.5 x 10―1 g H2O or 0.45 g H2O

6.02 x 1023
There are several ways to do the arithmetic in the problem above. You may use any that
work, but try doing the exponential math without a calculator (see Lesson 1C).
Try one more.
Q. How many atoms are in 5.7 grams of F2?
* * * * *
WANTED: ? atoms F
DATA: 5.7 g F2
1 mol F2 molecules = 38.0 g F2 (grams prompt)
Prompts: (Mix of invisible atoms and visible grams = Avogadro prompt.)
1 mol F2 = 6.02 x 1023 F2 molecules
1 F2 molecule = 2 F atoms
Note the labels above. In most problems, we work with molecules, and molecules is
left out of our labels as understood. However, if a problem mixes molecules and
atoms, we need to distinguish between molecules and atoms carefully.
If needed, adjust your work and finish.
* * * * *
SOLVE:
23 molecules F
? atoms F = 5.7 g F2 • 1 mol F2 • 6.02 x 10 2 • 2 atoms F =
38.0 g F2 1 mol F2 molecules 1 molecule F2
= 1.8 x 1023 atoms F

Flashcards
For the cards below, cover the answers, try the questions, add questions that cannot be
answered automatically to your collection. Run them once to perfection, then use them to
do the problems below. Repeat for two more days, then put these cards in stack #2 (see
Lesson 6E).
To find molar mass of a substance formula Add the molar masses of its atoms
The units of molar mass Grams per 1 mole
To convert between grams and moles Use the molar mass equality
In DATA, write the molar mass as 1 mol formula = # g formula
If you see grams or prefix-grams in
Write the molar mass equality in the DATA
WANTED or DATA
In the DATA, write
If a calculation includes 10xx of a substance
1 mol (formula) = 6.02 x 1023 (formula)
If a calculation mixes units measuring visible In the DATA, write
amounts (g, mol, mL…) with units measuring
invisibles (atoms, molecules, particles…) 1 mol substance = 6.02 x 1023 of substance
Practice
Run the flashcards, then solve these problems below in your notebook. Save one problem
for your next study session. Problems 4 and 5 are more challenging.
1. 3.55 grams of Cl2 gas (chlorine gas) contain how many molecules of Cl2 ?
2. 8.0 x 1024 molecules of CH4 have a mass of how many kilograms?
3. How many millimoles of aluminum atoms are in 1.89 x 10─2 g Al?
4. 2.57 nanograms of S8 would contain how many sulfur atoms?
5. A magnesium ribbon of uniform width and thickness has a mass of 0.750 g Mg/meter.
How many magnesium atoms are in 5.25 cm of the ribbon?
ANSWERS
Your paper should look like this, but you may omit the (comments) in parentheses.
1. WANTED: ? molecules Cl2
DATA: 3.55 g Cl2
71.0 g Cl2 = 1 mol Cl2 (grams prompt)
1 mol Cl2 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules Cl2 (mix g and molecules = Avogadro prompt)

SOLVE:
23
? molecules Cl2 = 3.55 g Cl2 • 1 mol Cl2 • 6.02 x 10 molecules Cl2 = 3.01 x 1022
71.0 g Cl2 1 mol Cl2 molecules Cl2
2. WANTED: ? kg CH4
DATA: 8.0 x 1024 CH4 molecules
1 mol CH4 = 6.02 x 1023 CH4 molecules (10xx = Avogadro prompt)
1 mol CH4 = 16.0 g CH4 (any prefix-grams = grams prompt)
SOLVE:
? kg CH4 = 8.0 x 1024 CH4 • 1 mol CH4 • 16.0 g CH4 • 1 kg = 0.21 kg CH4
6.02 x 1023 CH4 1 mol CH4 103 g
3. WANTED: ? millimoles Al
DATA: 1.89 x 10─2 g Al
27.0 g Al = 1 mol Al (grams prompt)
SOLVE:
? mmol Al = 1.89 x 10─2 g Al • 1 mol Al • 1 mmol = 0.700 mmol Al
27.0 g Al 10─3 mol
If milliliters = mL, then millimoles = mmol . milli- = “ 10─3 ” ; 1 milli-anything = 1 x 10─3 anythings
Since the WANTED and given units were grams and moles, the molar mass that converts between grams
and moles was needed, but the Avogadro conversion needed for invisibles was not.
4. WANTED: ? atoms S
DATA: 2.57 nanograms S8
1 ng = 10─9 g (writing the less frequently used prefix equalities is a good idea)
256.8 g S8 = 1 mol S8 molecules (any prefix-grams = grams prompt)
1 mol S8 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules S8 (Invisible atoms and visible moles = Avo. prompt)
1 molecule S8 = exactly 8 atoms S
(Note that the molar mass of S8 is the mass of a mole of molecules.
If needed, adjust your work and complete the problem.)
* * * * *
─9 23
? atoms S = 2.57 ng S8 • 10 g • 1 mol S8 • 6.02 x 10 molec. S8 • 8 atoms S = 4.82 x 1013
1 ng 256.8 g S8 1 mol S8 1 molec. S8 atoms S
(SF: The 8 atoms per molecule is exact, and the 8 therefore does not restrict the number of sf in the
answer. Exact numbers have infinite sf.)

5. WANTED: ? atoms Mg
DATA: 0.750 g Mg = 1 meter Mg
5.25 cm Mg
24.3 g Mg atoms = 1 mol Mg atoms (grams prompt)
1 mol atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms (atoms = small particles = Avogadro prompt)
(In metals, the particles in the “molecular formula” are individual atoms, so the metal
“molecules” are the same as the metal atoms, and the molar mass is the mass of a
mole of metal atoms.)
SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Start with single unit.)
─2 23
? atoms Mg = 5.25 cm Mg • 10 m • 0.750 g Mg • 1 mol Mg • 6.02 x 10 atoms = 9.75 x 1020
1 cm 1 meter Mg 24.3 g Mg 1 mol atoms Mg
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Module 8 – Grams and Moles

1. Chemical processes are easiest to understand if you count the particles involved. Large
numbers of particles are counted by the mole.
2. 1 mole of anything = 6.02 x 1023 anythings. That’s Avogadro’s number.
3. If you know the chemical formula for a substance, you can calculate the grams per mole
of the substance: the molar mass.
4. To find the molar mass of a particle, add the molar masses of its atoms.
5. The units of molar mass are grams per one mole.
6. If molar mass is WANTED, write WANTED: ? g
mol
7. If a molar mass is DATA, write 1 mol formula = XX g formula
8. To convert between grams and moles, use the molar mass as a conversion factor.
9. Grams Prompt
If a calculation mentions grams or prefix-grams of a formula, write in your DATA,
(Molar Mass) grams of formula = 1 mole of formula
10. Avogadro Prompt

If a calculation includes 10xx of a substance, or includes both a count of invisibly
small particles and units used to measure visible amounts, write in your DATA:
1 mole (formula) = 6.02 x 1023 (formula)
11. If a problem mixes atoms and molecules, label atoms and molecules in the DATA.
12. To solve most chemistry calculations, the rule will be: find moles first.
# # # # #

Module 9 – Mole Applications

Lesson 9A: Fractions and Percentages
Timing. Do this lesson when an assignment first mentions fraction or percent.
Pretest. If you earn a perfect score, you may skip this lesson. Answers are at the end of
the lesson.
1. 0.6% is what decimal equivalent?
2. 45/10,000 is what decimal equivalent and what percent?
* * * * *
Fractions
A fraction is a ratio: one measured quantity divided by another. In math, a fraction can be
any ratio, but in science, “fraction” often (but not always) refers to a part of a larger total.
We will call this Module 9
Rule 1. Fraction = Quantity A and often equals Part

Quantity B Total
A decimal equivalent is a number in decimal notation that results by dividing the top
number of the fraction (the numerator) by the bottom number (the denominator).
An example of a fraction and its decimal equivalent is 1/2 = 0.50.
Rule 2. To find the decimal equivalent of a fraction, divide the top by the bottom.
Percents
A percent multiplies a decimal equivalent by 100.
A familiar example is 1/2 = 0.50 = 50%.
If a percent is required for an answer, first write the decimal equivalent, then multiply by
100% (moving the decimal twice to the right).
Rule 3. Percent = fraction x 100% = (decimal equivalent ) x 100%

To find a %, find the decimal equivalent first.
To find a %, write the fraction, find the decimal equivalent, then write the %.
For those who are not math-inclined, percentages provide more familiar numbers to
measure change than decimals that have a value less than one. However, when you are
given a percentage to use in a calculation, you must change the percentage to its decimal
equivalent. Conversion calculations and mathematical equations nearly always require
numeric values (the decimal equivalent), not percentages that are “values x 100”.

Rule 4 . To change a percentage to decimal equivalent, divide by 100 (move

the decimal twice to the left).
Before calculating an amount, change percentages to decimal
equivalents.
Examples: When calculating amounts, change 25% to 0.25 ; change 0.50% to 0.0050
Practice: First memorize the rules above, then do each of these problems.
1. 1/5 is what decimal equivalent and what percent?
2. 4.8% is what decimal equivalent?
3. 9.5/100,000 is what decimal equivalent and percent?
4. What percentage of 25 is 7?
5. What amount is 0.450% of 7,500. ?
6. Twelve is what percent of 24,000?
ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. 0.006 2. 0.0045, 0.45%
Practice
1. Decimal equivalent of 1/5 = 0.20. Percent = decimal equivalent x 100% = 20.%
2. Decimal equivalent = percent/100 = 4.8/100 = 0.048
3. Move the decimal 5 times to divide by 100,000. Decimal equivalent = 0.000095 = 9.5 x 10―5
Percent = decimal equivalent x 100% = 0.000095 x 100% = 0.0095% = 9.5 x 10―3 %
4. To calculate percent, calculate fraction, then decimal equivalent, then percent.
What fraction of 25 is 7? Fraction = Part = 7 = 0.28
Total 25
Percent = fraction x 100% = decimal equivalent x 100% = 0.28 x 100% = 28%
5. To calculate an amount, change % to decimal equivalent by dividing by 100. 0.450% = 0.00450
? = 7,500 x 0.00450 = 34
6. To calculate percent, write fraction, then decimal equivalent, then percent.
12 is what part of 24,000? = 12 is what fraction of 24,000?
Fraction = Part = 12 = 12 = 0.5 x 10―3 = 5.0 x 10―4
Total 24,000 24 x 103
This number in exponential notation is a decimal equivalent. A decimal equivalent is any numeric
value that has no denominator (which means 1 is the denominator) that is derived from a fraction.
Percent = fraction x 100% = decimal equivalent x 100% =

= 5.0 x 10―4 x 100% = 5.0 x 10―2 % = 0.050 %

* * * * *
Lesson 9B: Empirical Formulas
Timing. There are two types of empirical formula problems.
• Type I supplies a molecular formula and asks for the empirical formula. Type I
problems are easy, and they are often included in the first chapter of chemistry
texts.
• Type II problems supply the fraction or percentage of the total mass for each of the
elements in a compound and asks for the empirical formula. Type II problems can
be done only after learning grams to moles conversions.
Lesson 9B covers Type I problems. Lesson 9C covers Type II.
If you are assigned empirical formula problems that involve substance formulas but not
masses, do Lesson 9B. When you are assigned Type II problems (those that include grams),
do Lessons 9B and 9C.
* * * * *
Empirical Formula Problems: Type I
Empirical formulas are related to, but are not the same as, molecular formulas. Molecular
formulas tell the actual number and kind of atoms bonded together in a molecule.
Rule 5. Empirical formulas show the lowest whole-number ratios of the atoms in a
compound.
Examples: The molecular formula for benzene is C6H6.

The empirical formula for benzene is CH.
The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6.
The empirical formula for glucose is CH2O.
The best way to remember the empirical formula definition is to add an example to rule 5.
Rule 5. Empirical formulas show the lowest whole-number ratios of the atoms in a
compound. The empirical formula of C6H12O6 is CH2O.
In some cases, there are preferred orders for listing the elements in compounds. In
compounds containing carbon and hydrogen, the preferred order is usually C, H, O, then
other elements. For other types of empirical formulas, you may list the elements in any
order (but oxygen is usually listed last).
Empirical means “established by experiment or experience,” rather than from theory.
Measurements using the tools of analytical chemistry can provide the mass percent of each
element in a compound to a high degree of accuracy. This result can be converted to an

empirical formula that can be a key piece of evidence in identifying an unknown

compound.
However, while an empirical formula is evidence, it is not proof of the identity of a
chemical unknown. Compounds with very different molecular or structural formulas and
different chemical and biological behaviors can have the same empirical formula.
Practice: Find the empirical formula for these compounds.

1. Octane (a constituent of gasoline): C8H18
2. Ethylene glycol (used in car-radiator antifreeze): C2H6O2
3. Acetic acid (mixed with water to form vinegar): CH3COOH
4. Cyclooctane: C8H16 5. Benzene: C6H6 6. Cyclooctatetraene: C8H8
ANSWERS: 1. C4H9 2. CH3O 3. CH2O 4. CH2 5. CH 6. CH
* * * * *
Lesson 9C: Empirical Formulas from Percent Mass

Prerequisites. Module 8, plus Lessons 9A and 9B.
Pretest. If you think you know how to calculate empirical formulas, try Problem 2 at the
end of this lesson. If you solve correctly, you may skip this lesson.
* * * * *
Empirical Formula Calculations
A Type II empirical formula problem supplies either a mass percent or actual mass of the
elements in a sample of a compound and asks you to calculate the empirical formula.
The steps in calculating an empirical formula are based on its definition. An empirical
formula shows the lowest whole-number mole ratios for the elements in a compound.
To help in recalling the steps for empirical formula calculations, memorize
Rule 6. To calculate an empirical formula, find grams then moles then the lowest
whole-number mole ratios.
A table will help to organize these calculations. To learn the table method, do the following
steps for this problem.

Q. A pure colorless liquid is found to have a composition of 39.2% carbon, 8.73%

hydrogen, and 52.1% oxygen, by mass. Determine the empirical formula.
Steps for Calculating Empirical Formulas
1. Write WANTED and describe what you are looking for.
2. Write Strategy and, from memory, Rule 6 for empirical-formula calculations.
3. Make a table with these 7 columns:
Element Grams Molar Moles Mole Ratios Ratios Lowest

(% =g) Mass Moles Multiplied Until Whole #
Close to Whole Mole Ratios
Lowest Moles
Numbers
4. Fill in the first four columns.

a. If data is supplied in mass percents, use this rule.
Rule 7. In empirical formula calculations, given the mass percent of an element,

assume a 100 g sample so that % = grams in the sample.
A mass percent can be applied to a sample of any size. By choosing to assume

sample size of exactly 100 grams, if 25% of the grams in the sample are atom X, the
sample has 25 g of X.
b. For column 4, do one conversion below the table. Thereafter for these repetitive
calculations, use the rule: moles = grams/(grams/mole) .
Complete steps 1-4, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
WANTED: Empirical formula = lowest whole-number mole ratios
Strategy: Find grams then moles then the lowest whole-number mole ratios.

(% =g) Mass Moles Multiplied Whole #
Until Close to Mole Ratios
Lowest Moles
Whole #
C 39.2 g 12.0 g/mol 3.266 mol
H 8.73 g 1.008 g/mol 8.661 mol
O 52.1 g 16.0 g/mol 3.256 mol

A sample conversion: ? mol C = 39.2 g C • 1 mol C = 3.266 mol C

12.0 g C
In calculations, we round to sf at the end of a calculation. In a similar fashion, in
calculations with multiple parts or steps, it is a preferred practice to carry an extra sf
until the end of the calculations. Both of these rules minimize changes in the final
answer due to rounding in the middle steps.
Rule 8. SF and steps: In calculations that have more than one part (including
empirical formula calculations), carry an extra digit, beyond the doubtful
digit, until the end of the problem.
5. Calculate the mole ratios.

a. In column 4, circle the lowest number of moles.
b. In column 5, divide each mole value by the lowest number of moles.
Do those steps and then check your answer below.
* * * * *

(% =g) Mass Moles Multiplied Whole #
Until Close to Mole Ratios
Lowest Moles
Whole #
C 39.2 g 12.0 g/mol 3.266 mol (3.266/3.256)
= 1.003
H 8.73 g 1.008 g/mol 8.661 mol 2.660
O 52.1 g 16.0 g/mol 3.256 mol 1
6. To find the lowest whole-number mole ratios, use trial and error.
a. If all of the mole ratios are close to whole numbers, write the whole numbers that
they are close to in the last column.
b. If any one or more of the mole ratios are not close to a whole number, fill-in
column 6. In column 6, if any mole ratio in column 5 ends in close to
• .25 or .75, quadruple all of the mole ratios.
• .33 or .67, triple all mole ratios.
• .5, double all mole ratios.
Repeat these steps until your column 6 ratios are all close to whole numbers.
Empirical formula calculations rarely result in perfect whole-number ratios
because they are taken from experimental data, and such data always has error.
For empirical formula calculations, close is good enough.

c. In the last column, write the whole numbers that the column 6 ratios are close to.
Do those steps, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *

(% =g) Mass Moles Multiplied Whole-#
Until Close Mole Ratios
Lowest Moles
to Whole #
C 39.2 g 12.0 g/mol 3.266 mol (3.266/3.256) 3.009 3
= 1.003
H 8.73 g 1.008 g/mol 8.661 mol 2.660 7.980 8
O 52.1 g 16.0 g/mol 3.256 mol 1 3 3
The mole ratios are not all close to whole numbers, but 2.66 is close to 2 2/3.
Multiplying all of the mole ratios by 3 will “get rid of the thirds” and give column 6,
in which the numbers are all close to whole numbers.
7. Below the table, write “Empirical formula:” Then write each element symbol from
the first column. Write the whole number in the last column after each symbol as a
subscript. If there is a 1 in the last column, write the element symbol without a
subscript. (If a subscript is omitted, a 1 is understood.)
Example: If the whole number ratios are C = 1 and H = 2, the empirical
formula is written CH2 .
Do step 7, then check your answer below.

* * * * *
The empirical formula for the compound above is written as C3H8O3 .
The above process works for most, but not all empirical formulas. For large molecules with
complex mole ratios, finding a multiplier for column 5 that will give close to whole
numbers in column 6 may require additional trial and error.
Practice: Practice until you can write the seven column headings from memory, then
solve these. For additional practice, work problems from any textbook that have answers
you can check.
1. A sample of an alcohol is found to have 52.2% carbon, 13.1% hydrogen, and 34.8%
oxygen, by mass. What is the empirical formula of the alcohol?
2. A sample of a pure compound is composed of 15.8% aluminum, 28.0% sulfur, and
56.2% oxygen. Find the empirical formula for this compound.

ANSWERS
1. WANTED: Empirical Formula = lowest whole-number mole ratios of the atoms
Strategy: To calculate an empirical formula, find grams then moles then the lowest whole-
number mole ratios.
Lowest Moles Until Close to Mole Ratios
Whole #
(4.350/2.175) =
C 52.2 g 12.0 g/mol 4.350 mol 2
2.000
H 13.1 g 1.008 g/mol 13.00 mol H 5.977 6
O 34.8 g 16.0 g/mol 2.175 mol 1 1
Sample table calculations: 52.2% carbon (C) in a 100 gram sample = 52.2 g C
? mol C = 52.2 g C • 1 mol C = 4.350 mol C
12.0 g C
(If a problem has parts, carry an extra sf at each step until the end of the problem.)
The mole ratios 2.00, 5.96, and 1 are close to the whole numbers 2, 6, and 1. For empirical formulas,
close to a whole number is good enough.
Write the empirical formula based on the first and last columns: C2H6O.
2. WANTED: Empirical Formula = lowest whole-number mole ratios.
Strategy: For empirical formula, find grams then moles then the lowest whole-number
mole ratios.

Until Close Mole Ratios
Lowest Moles
to Whole #
Al 15.8 g 27.0 g/mol 0.5852 mol 1 2 2
S 28.0 g 32.1 g/mol 0.8723 mol H 1.491 2.982 3
O 56.2 g 16.0 g/mol 3.512 mol 6.001 12.002 12
Sample calculations: 15.8% Al by mass, in a 100 gram sample = 15.8 g Al

? moles Al = 15.8 g Al • 1 mole Al = 0.5852 mole Al (carry extra sf)
27.0 g Al
The mole ratios are not close to whole numbers, but 1.491 is close to 1.5 = 1 ½ = 3/2 . If we
multiply by 2, we get rid of halves. Doubling the mole ratios gives column 6, in which all ratios are
close to whole numbers.
Empirical formula: Al2S3O12
* * * * *

Lesson 9D: Mass Fraction, Mass Percent, Percent Composition

Timing: Do this lesson when mass fraction, mass percent, or percentage composition is first
mentioned in class or problem assignments.
Prerequisites: Complete Module 8 plus Lesson 9A before starting this lesson.
Pretest: If you think you know how to do these problems, try Problem 2 at the end of this
lesson. If you answer correctly, skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Mass Fraction
A mass fraction is a fraction made from two masses: (g of part)/(g of total) .
The mass fraction of an element in a compound is the ratio of the mass of the element in the
compound to the total mass of the compound. The value of a mass fraction will always be
expressed as a decimal value between 0 and 1.
Mass fraction of element ≡ Part g from element = 0.XXX ( ≡ means “is defined as”)
Total g of compound
Compounds have a characteristic composition: the different atoms that are found the
compound are always present in the exactly the same ratio. Those elements have a
characteristic mass. These facts mean that for a given substance, the mass fraction of an
element in a compound is always the same no matter what consistent unit is chosen to
measure mass or what size sample is measured.
To calculate a mass fraction, the easiest sample size to work with is one mole of the
compound. By using one mole, the terms in the mass fraction calculation are the terms that
are used in calculating the molar mass.
For example, the molar mass of carbon dioxide can be calculated in a column format
that emphasizes the arithmetic and the place with uncertainty:
1 mol CO2 = 1 mol C = 1 x 12.0 g C = 12.0 g C
+ 2 mol O = + 2 x 16.0 g O + 32.0 g O
44.0 g CO2
or rearranged to emphasize the equalities in the calculation:
1 mole CO2 = 1 mole C + 2 moles O =
= (1)(12.0 g C) + (2)(16.0 g O) =
= 12.0 g C + 32.0 g O =
= 44.0 g CO2
Compare the two formats. Do both calculate molar mass? Are they the same?
In the second, the DATA is the same, but format emphasizes that the molar-mass-
calculation steps are a series of equalities. Our fundamental conversion-factor rule is:
Any two terms that are related in equalities can be used as a conversion factor.

Let’s summarize the above as
Rule 9. Mass fraction ≡ part g from element = g element in 1 mol compound = 0.XXX
total g in compound total g in 1 mole of compound
To find a mass fraction, select from terms added to find the molar mass.
and apply Rule 9 to a problem.

Q. Find the mass fraction of oxygen in nitrogen dioxide.
Do the steps below in your notebook.
1. Prompt: When you see “mass fraction,” write Rule 9.
2. Write the specific ratio WANTED in the problem.
WANTED: Mass Fraction O in NO2 = gO
g NO2
3. Write out the calculation of the molar mass in the equalities format.
4. In the molar mass calculation, find the two terms that have the units and substance
formulas found in the WANTED ratio. Circle those terms: the number, unit, and
formula.
* * * * *
1 mol NO2 = 1 mol N + 2 mol O =
= (1) (14.0 g N) + (2) (16.0 g O) =
= 14.0 g N + 32.0 g O =
= 46.0 g NO2
5. Substitute those numbers, units, and substance formulas into the WANTED fraction,
then calculate the decimal equivalent.
* * * * *
SOLVE: Mass Fraction O in NO2 = gO = 32.0 g O = 0.696 g O
g NO2 46.0 g NO2 g NO2
Practice A
1. Calculate the mass fraction of hydrogen in glucose, C6H12O6 .

The Mass of an Element in a Sample

The terms in a molar mass calculation can be used in a ratio (such as the mass fraction
equation) or as a conversion factor (which is a ratio equal to one) to convert between grams
of an element in a compound and grams of the compound. Let’s call this
Rule 10. For calculations involving g of a compound and g of an element in the

compound, select from terms added to find the molar mass.
Using standard conversion factor methods, try the following problem in your notebook,
then check your answer below.
Q. Find the grams of carbon in an 11.0 gram sample of carbon dioxide.
* * * * *
WANTED: ? g C in a carbon dioxide sample
DATA: 11.0 g CO2
SOLVE: To solve for a single unit, start with the starting template.
? g C = 11.0 g CO2 • _____________
g CO2
Is there a ratio that will convert g CO2 to g C for carbon dioxide?
* * * * *
Apply Rule 10.
1 mole CO2 = 1 mol C + 2 mol O =
= (1)(12.0 g C) + (2)(16.0 g O) =
= 12.0 g C + 32.0 g O =
= 44.0 g CO2
SOLVE: ? g C = 11.0 g CO2 • 12. 0 g C = 3.00 g C

44.0 g CO2
If two terms are related in equalities, the terms can be used as a conversion factor.
Practice B
1. Calculate the mass fraction of sulfur in sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
2. How many grams of hydrogen are in 10.0 grams of sulfuric acid?

Mass Percent
The mass percent (or percent mass) of an element in a compound is simply the mass fraction
times 100%.

To find a %, find the decimal equivalent first.
To find a %, write the fraction, find the decimal equivalent, then write the %.
When mass percent is WANTED, find the mass fraction, then decimal equivalent, then %.
Example: From the section above, the mass fraction of O in NO2 is 0.696
The mass percent of O in NO2 = mass fraction x 100% = 0.696 x 100% = 69.6 %
Cover the answer below, then try this problem in your notebook.
Q. In potassium permanganate (KMnO4), what percentage of the mass is from oxygen?
* * * * *
WANTED: Mass percent O in KMnO4
Strategy: When % is WANTED, write fraction, then decimal equivalent, then %.
WANTED: Mass Fraction O in KMnO4 = gO
g KMnO4
total g compound total g in 1 mole of compound
To find mass fraction, select from terms added to find the molar mass.
1 mole KMnO4 = 1 mole K + 1 mole Mn + 4 moles O

= 39.1 g K + 54.9 g Mn + (4)(16.0 g O)
= 39.1 g K + 54.9 g Mn + 64.0 g O
= 158.0 g KMnO4
? = Mass fraction O in KMnO4 = gO = 64.0 g O = 0.405

g KMnO4 158.0 g KMnO4
? = Mass percent O in KMnO4 = 0.405 x 100% = 40.5 %
* * * * *

Percent Composition
Percent composition means the percent by mass of each of the elements in a compound.
Rule 11. Percent composition of a compound = mass percent for each element. The
percentages must add up to 100% (or very close).
To calculate the percent composition of a compound, simply calculate the percent mass of
each element in the compound.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The calculations of percentage composition and empirical formulas are based on the atomic
theory proposed by the English scientist John Dalton in 1808. Dalton combined earlier
proposals that
• all matter is composed of tiny individual atoms that cannot be created nor
destroyed;
with his new theories that
• chemical reactions cannot convert one type of atom into another;
• the atoms of each element have a characteristic mass and other unique properties;
and
• a compound has a characteristic ratio of its different atoms.
Dalton’s atomic theory formed the foundation for modern chemistry.
Flashcards
In this module, there have been 11 rules (summarized at the end of the module). You can
learn the rules as a numbered list or you can convert the rules to flashcards.
You may want to divide the rules, putting short rules on flashcards, but writing a
numbered list for the more complex rules, prompts, or formulas.
However you decide to learn the 11 rules, you will recall them more easily if space your
practice over several days. Each day, practice the rules first, then use them to solve
problems. Then, before your quiz or test on the material, practice recalling the rules from
memory, then do a few additional problems.
Practice C
For additional practice, work examples or problems in a regular chemistry textbook that
have answers you can check.
1. What percent of the mass of alanine (C3H7NO2), an amino acid, is from nitrogen?
2. A 200. gram sample of KClO4 contains how many grams of oxygen?
3. Calculate the percent composition for aluminum oxide (Al2O3).

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED: Mass percent H in C6H12O6
Strategy: When percent is WANTED, find fraction first.
WANTED: Mass Fraction H in C6H12O6 = g H .
g C6H12O6
When you see “mass fraction,” write
DATA:
1 mole C6H12O6 = 6 moles of C + 12 moles of H + 6 moles of O
= (6)(12.0 g C) + (12)(1.008 g H) + (6)(16.0 g O)
= 72.0 g C + 12.096 g H + 96.0 g O
= 180.1 g C6H12O6
SOLVE: Mass fraction H = 12.096 g H = 0.06716

180.1 g C6H12O6
(SF: coefficients and subscripts are exact numbers with infinite sf.)
Practice B
1. WANTED: Mass Fraction S in H2SO4 = gS
g H2SO4
Strategy; When you see mass fraction, write
DATA: 1 mole H2SO4 = 2 mole H + 1 mole S + 4 moles O

= (2)(1.008 g H) + (1)(32.1 g S) + (4)(16.0 g O)
= 2.016 g H + 32.1 g S + 64.0 g O
= 98.1 g H2SO4
SOLVE: ? = Mass fraction S in H2SO4 = gS = 32.1 g S = 0.327
g H2SO4 98.1 g H2SO4

2. WANTED: ?gH
DATA: 10.0 g H2SO4
SOLVE: ? g H = 10.0 g H2SO4 • _____________
g H2SO4
A ratio is needed that relates g H2SO4 to the WANTED g H.
Rule 10. For calculations involving g of a compound and g of an element in the compound, select
from added to find the molar mass.
1 mol H2SO4 = 2 mol H + 1 mol S + 4 mol O

= (2)(1.008 g H) + (1)(32.1 g S) + (4)(16.0 g O)
(multiplying by exact numbers, including subscripts, does not change the place with doubt.)
= 2.016 g H + 32.1 g S + 64.0 g O
= 98.1 g H2SO4
SOLVE: ? g H = 10.0 g H2SO4 • 2.016 g H = 0.206 g H

98.1 g H2SO4
Practice C
1. WANTED: Mass percent N in C3H7NO2
Strategy: When percent is WANTED, find fraction first.
WANTED: Mass Fraction N in C3H7NO2 = g N
g C3H7NO2
When you see mass fraction, write
DATA:
1 mole C3H7NO2 = 3 moles C + 7 moles H + 1 mole N + 2 moles O
= (3)(12.0 g C) + (7)(1.008 g H) + (1)(14.0 g N) + (2)(16.0 g O)
= 36.0 g C + 7.056 g H + 14.0 g N + 32.0 g O
= 89.1 g C3H7NO2
SOLVE: Fraction grams N = 14.0 g N = 0.157 = 15.7 % N by mass

89.1 g C3H7NO2
2. WANTED: ?gO
DATA: 200. g KClO4
Strategy: You want g O. You are given g KClO4 . What equality relates them?

Rule 10. For calculations involving g of a compound and g of an element in the compound, select
from the terms added to find the molar mass.
1 mole of KClO4 = 1 mole K + 1 mole Cl + 4 moles O =

= 39.1 g K + 35.5 g Cl + (4)(16.0 g O)
= 39.1 g K + 35.5 g Cl + 64.0 g O
= 138.6 g KClO4
SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Start with the one single unit in your DATA.)
? g O = 200. g KClO4 • 64.0 g O = 92.4 g O
138.6 g KClO4
3. WANTED: % composition of Al2O3
Rule 11. Percent composition of a compound = mass percent for each element.
The percentages must total close to 100%
To find a %, find the fraction first. To find a percentage, write the fraction, then
decimal equivalent, then %.
To find mass fraction, select from terms in the molar mass calculation.
DATA: 1 mol Al2O3 = 2 mol Al + 3 mol O

= (2)(27.0 g Al) + (3)(16.0 g O)
= 54.0 g Al + 48.0 g O
= 102.0 g Al2O3
SOLVE: Fraction Al grams = 54.0 g Al = 0.529 = 52.9 % Al

102.0 g Al2O3
Fraction O grams = 48.0 g O = 0.470 = 47.1 % O

102.0 g Al2O3
Check: Sum of % must equal 100% (or very close). 52.9% + 47.1% = 100.0%
* * * * *

SUMMARY: Mole Applications

1: Fraction = Quantity A and often equals Part
Quantity B Total
2: To find the decimal equivalent of a fraction, divide the top by the bottom.
3: Percent = fraction x 100% = (decimal equivalent ) x 100%
To calculate a percentage, calculate the fraction first.

To find a %, write the fraction, then decimal equivalent, then %.
4 Before calculating, change percents to decimal equivalents.
5. Empirical formulas show the lowest whole-number ratios of the atoms in a compound.
The empirical formula of C6H12O6 is CH2O .
6. To calculate an empirical formula:
• In table 1, convert mass percents to grams then moles.
• In table 2, find the lowest whole-number mole ratios.
7. In empirical formula calculations, given the percent mass of an element, assume a 100 g
sample, so that % = grams.
8: SF and steps: In calculations that have more than one part (including empirical formula
calculations), carry an extra digit, beyond the doubtful digit, until the end of the
problem.
9: Mass fraction ≡ part g from element = g element in 1 mol compound
To find a mass fraction, select terms from the molar mass calculation.
10. For calculations involving grams of a compound and grams of an element in the
compound, use the terms in the molar mass calculation.
11. Percent composition of a compound = mass percent for each element.
Percentages must total very close to 100%.
To find an empirical formula from mass percents, use a 100 g sample.

To find mass fraction, mass percent, percent mass, or percent composition from a
chemical formula, select terms from the molar mass calculation.
# # # # #

Module 10 – Stoichiometry
Prerequisites: To do this module, you need to have completed Modules 2, 4, 5, 6 and 8.
(The others are helpful, but not necessary, for Module 10.)
* * * * *
Lesson 10A: Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical Reactions
An example of a chemical reaction is the burning of hydrogen gas (H2) to produce steam
(hot H2O gas). To burn something is to react it with oxygen gas (O2) to form one or more
new substances.
Chemical equations are the language used to describe chemical reactions. In a chemical
equation written using molecular formulas, the above reaction would be represented as
2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O (1)
This equation can be read as either “two H two plus one O two react to form two H two O,”
or as “two molecules of hydrogen plus one molecule of oxygen react to form 2 molecules of
water.”
The substances on the left side of a reaction equation are termed the reactants. The
substances on the right side of the arrow are the products.
In chemical reactions, reactants are used up and products form.
Most chemical reactions are represented by equations using molecular formulas, as in (1)
above. However, more information is supplied if the equation is written using structural
formulas. An example is
H H H H
O O Æ O O (2)
H H H H
Compare equation (1) to equation (2). Are they the same?
* * * * *
They are the same. However, by writing the structural formulas it is easier to see that in
many respects, after the reaction, not much has changed. We began with four hydrogen
atoms and two oxygen atoms; we end with the same.
In chemical reactions, bonds break, and new bonds form, but the atoms stay the same.
The fact that chemical reactions can neither create nor destroy atoms is called the law of
conservation of atoms. In this usage, conservation means that what you begin with is
conserved at the end.

Before, during, and after a reaction, there is also conservation of mass: the total mass of
the reactants and products also does not change. Total mass is determined by the
number and kind of atoms, which a chemical reaction does not change.
What does change? Because of the new positions of the bonds, after the reaction the
products will have characteristics and behavior that are different from those of the
reactants.
In the above reaction, the hydrogen molecules on the left are explosive, but the water
molecules on the right are quite stable. The oxygen molecules on the left side cause many
materials to burn. To stop burning, we often use the water on the right.
The position of the bonds can also change the economic value of atoms. The historic
importance of chemistry to society has included the discovery of reactions that change
• brittle rock into metals that can be molded and shaped;
• willow bark into aspirin; and fungus into antibiotics;
• animal waste into explosives; and sand into computer chips for electronic devices.
Another outcome of chemical reactions is quite often the storage or release of energy. In
burning hydrogen to form water, large amounts of stored energy are released. Including
the energy term, the burning of hydrogen is represented as
2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O + energy
It was the release of energy from this simple reaction that led to the explosive destruction of
the airship Hindenburg in 1937. Currently, researchers are seeking ways to harness the
energy released by burning hydrogen as an alternative to burning gasoline in cars.
If energy is the not the focus of a particular problem, the energy term is often omitted when
writing a chemical equation. However, nearly all reactions either absorb or release energy.
We will turn our attention to the energy of reactions in Modules 21 and 22.
Reaction Equation Terminology
1. In the substance formula H2O , the 2 is a subscript. The omission of a subscript, such as
after the O in H2O , means the subscript is understood to be 1.
2. In a reaction equation, if 5 H2O is a term, the 5 is a termed a coefficient. Coefficients
are exact numbers that express the exact particle ratios in a reaction. If no coefficient is
written in front of an equation term , the coefficient is understood to be 1.
It is important to distinguish between subscripts and coefficients.
• Subscripts are numbers written after and lower than the element symbols in a
molecule or ion formula. Subscripts count the atoms of each element inside the
particle.
• Coefficients are numbers written in front of a particle formula. Coefficients
represent the particle ratios in a reaction: a count of how many of one particle react
with how many of another particle.
3. If the number and kind of atoms on both sides of an equation are the same, the equation
is said to be balanced. The coefficients of a balanced chemical equation show the exact
ratios in which the particles react (are used up) and are formed.

4. To balance equations, we will need to count atoms based on coefficients and subscripts.
The rule is:
To count the number of each kind of atom represented by a term in a reaction

equation, multiply the coefficient times the subscript(s) for each atom.
For example: The term 5 H2O represents 5 molecules of water. Each molecule
has 3 atoms. In the 5 molecules are (5 x 2) = 10 hydrogen atoms and
(5 x 1) = 5 oxygen atoms.
Try this problem.
Q. Count the H atoms in a. 5 CH4 b. 3 CH3COOH c. 2 Pb(C2H5)4 .
* * * * *
a. Each molecule has 4 H atoms. 5 molecules = 5 x 4 H = 20 H atoms.
b. Each molecule has 4 H atoms. 3 molecules = 3 x 4 H = 12 H atoms.
c. The H in this case has two subscripts. Multiply 2 x 4 x 5 = 40 H atoms
Practice: If you are not sure that your answer is correct, check the answers at the end of
the lesson before proceeding to the next question.
1. Label the reactants and products in this reaction equation. Circle the coefficients.
4 Fe + 3 O2 Æ 2 Fe2O3
2. How many oxygen atoms are represented in

a. 7 Na3PO4 b. 3 Co(OH)2 c. 2 No(NO3)2 d. 5 Al2(SO4)3
3. How many total atoms are represented in 2a and 2d above?

4. The following equation uses structural rather than molecular formulas.
H H
| |
C + C + H─H + H─H + H─H Æ H─C─ C─H
| |
H H
a. Is the equation balanced?
b. Write the reaction using molecular formulas (the type used in problem 1).
c. In going from reactants to products, what changed? What stayed the same?
Changes:
Stays the same:

ANSWERS
1. 4 Fe + 3 O2 Æ 2 Fe2O3
Reactants Products
2a. 7 Na3PO4 28 2b. 3 Co(OH)2 6 2c. 2 No(NO3)2 12 2d. 5 Al2(SO4)3 60
The total number of atoms is the coefficient times each subscript that applies to the atom.
3. 2a: 56 and 2d: 85
4a. Yes. There are the same number and kind of atoms on both sides. 4b. 2 C + 3 H2 Æ C2H6
4c. Changes: The number of bonds, the bond locations, the molecules, stored energy, and the
appearance and characteristics of the substances involved.
Stays the same: The numbers of each kind of atom and the total mass.
* * * * *
Lesson 10B: Balancing Equations

Prerequisites: Lessons 6A, 6B, and 10A.
Pretest: If balancing equations is familiar, do Problems 5h and 6c at the end of this lesson.
If you get those right easily, you may skip to Lesson 10C. If not, do the lesson.
* * * * *
Balancing By Trial and Error
The coefficients that balance an equation are not always supplied with the equation.
However, if you are given the chemical formulas for the reactants and products of a
reaction, you can find the coefficients by trial and error.
One consequence of the law of conservation of atoms is that only one set of ratios will balance
a chemical equation. However, since coefficients are ratios, if you multiply all the
coefficients by the same number, you continue to have a balanced equation. This means
that a balanced equation may be shown with different sets of coefficients, so long as the
ratios among the coefficients are the same.
Example: 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O and H2 + 1/2 O2 Æ H2O
are the same balanced equation, because the coefficient ratios are the same.
Let’s learn to balance an equation by example. Using the question below, cover the answer
that is below the * * * * * line, write your answer to the step, and then check your answer.
Q. The burning of n-propanol can be represented by the unbalanced equation
C3H7OH + O2
Æ CO2 + H2O
1. Put a coefficient of 1 in front of the most complex formula (the one with the most atoms
or the most different kinds of atoms). If two formulas seem complex, choose either one.
* * * * *

In this case, propanol is the most complex, so start with

1 C3H7OH + O2 Æ CO2 + H2O
2. Now add coefficients to the other side that must be true if atoms are balanced.
* * * * *
In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed. Each side must have the
same kinds of atoms, and the same number of each kind of atom.
Each term in a chemical equation is a coefficient followed by a substance formula.

To count the number of each kind of atom represented by a term, multiply the
coefficient by the subscript(s) for that atom.
To count each type of atom on a side, add the atoms in each term on that side.
The left side has 3 carbon atoms. Since only CO2 on the right has C, the only way to
have 3 carbon atoms on the right is to have the CO2 coefficient be 3. The left has 8
hydrogen atoms total; since only H2O on the right has H, the only way to have 8 H
atoms on the right is to have the H2O coefficient be 4. So far, this gives us
1 C3H7OH + ___ O2 Æ 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
The right side is now finished, because each particle has a coefficient. Only the O2 on
the left side lacks a coefficient.
Most important: During balancing, you cannot change a formula or a subscript. The
numbers that you add to balance an equation must be coefficients.
3. Add the coefficient that must be true for the oxygen to balance.
* * * * *
We count the oxygens on the right and get 10. We see 1 oxygen in propanol, which
means we have must have a total of 9 oxygens from O2.
We can write 1 C3H7OH + 9/2 O2 Æ 3 CO2 + 4 H2O (1)
or we can multiply all of the coefficients by 2.
2 C3H7OH + 9 O2 Æ 6 CO2 + 8 H2O (2)
Since coefficients are ratios, and both sets of ratios above are the same, both answers above
are equally correct. We can multiply all the coefficients by the same number and still have
the same ratios and a balanced equation.
To check that Atom Count C H O
Equations (1) and
(2) are both Side Left Right Left Right Left Right
balanced, fill in Rxn (1)
the chart at the
right. Rxn (2)
* * * * *

Both are balanced. Atom Count C H O

The second
equation has the Side Left Right Left Right Left Right
same ratios at the Rxn (1) 3 3 8 8 10 10
first.
Rxn (2) 6 6 16 16 20 20
* * * * *
Balancing Using Fractions As Coefficients
Fractions are permitted when adding coefficients to balance equations. In some types of
problems, including some energy calculations, the use of fractions to balance equations is
required. In other situations, fractions may be inappropriate (you cannot have half a
molecule). We will address these differences as we encounter them.
At this point, our major use for coefficients will be as ratios in calculating amounts of
substances involved in chemical reactions. The arithmetic in these calculations will be
easier if whole number coefficients are used. In most upcoming cases, if we encounter
fractions when balancing, it will simplify the arithmetic if all terms are multiplied by the
fraction’s denominator, to change from fractions to whole-number coefficients.
Practice
Read each numbered step below, then do every other or every third lettered problem. As
you go, check answers at the end of this lesson. If you need more practice at a step, do a
few more letters for that step. Save a few for your next practice session.
1. A balanced equation must have the same number of each kind of atom on both sides.
To check for a balanced equation, count the total number of one kind of atom on one
side, then count the number of that kind of atom on the other side. The left and right-
side counts must be equal.
Repeat those counts for each kind of atom in the equation.
Using this counting method, label each equation below as balanced or unbalanced.
a. 2 Cs + Cl2 Æ 2 CsCl
b. 4 HI + O2 Æ 2 H2O + I2
c. Pb(NO3)2 + 2 LiBr Æ PbBr2 + LiNO3
d. BaCO3 + 2 NaCl Æ Na2CO3 + BaCl2
2. In the equations below, one coefficient has been supplied. Use that coefficient to decide
one or more coefficients on the other side. Then use your added coefficient(s) to go back
and forth, from side to side, filling the remaining blanks on both sides to balance the
equation.
Some coefficients may be fractions. Fractions are permitted when balancing.
Remember that balancing is trial and error. Do what works. If you need help, check
your answer after each letter.

Tip: It usually helps to balance last the atom used in two or more different formulas on
the same side. Oxygen is the element most frequently encountered in compounds, so
“saving O until last” usually helps in balancing.
a. 4 Al + ____ O2 Æ ____ Al2O3
b. 6 Ca + ____ N2 Æ ____ Ca3N2
c. ____ CH4 + ____ O2 Æ ____ CO2 + 8 H2O
d. ____ C8H18 + ____ O2 Æ 24 CO2 + ____ H2O
e. ____ MgH2 + ____ H2 O Æ 2 Mg(OH)2 + ____ H2
f. ____ C2H6 + 7 O2 Æ ____ CO2 + ____ H2O
3. Balance these, starting with one of the underlined substances.

a. K + Br2 Æ KBr
b. Cs + O2 Æ Cs2O
c. NF3 Æ N2 + F2
d. C2H5OH + O
2
Æ CO2 + H2O
e. FeS + O2 Æ Fe2O3 + SO2
4. When balancing equations without suggested ways to start,
Begin by putting a 1 in front of the most complex formula on either the left or right side
of the equation (the one with the most atoms, or the most different kinds of atoms). If
two formulas are complex, use either one.
Then add as many coefficients as you are sure of to the side opposite the side where
you put the 1.
If you begin to get fractions as you balance, you may go back and multiply all of the
existing coefficients by the lowest common denominator of the fractions. Repeat this
step if you get additional fractions while balancing. Then finish. Fractions are
permitted, but it will be easier to use balanced equations in most problems if you have
whole-number coefficients.
Expect to need to start over on occasion, because balancing is trial and error. Be
persistent! All of the equations below can be balanced.
Your answer may be different from what is shown, but still be correct, as long as it
shows the same ratios for the coefficients.
a. Mg + O2 Æ MgO
b. N2 + O2 Æ NO

c. C6H6 + O2 Æ CO2 + H2O
d. P4 + O2 Æ P4O6
e. Al + HBr Æ AlBr3 + H2
5. Balance.
a. Cr + O2 Æ Cr2O3
b. Zn + S8 Æ ZnS
c. H2CO + O2 Æ CO2 + H2O
d. N2 + O2 + H2O Æ HNO3
e. Rb2O + H2O Æ RbOH
f. Mg(NO3)2 + Na3PO4 Æ Mg3(PO4)2 + NaNO3
g. Pb(C2H5)4 + O2 Æ PbO + CO2 + H2O
h. Cd + HNO3 Æ Cd(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
6. Write the formulas then balance. (Need formula help? See Lessons 7B and 7C.)
a. Dinitrogen tetroxide Æ Nitrogen dioxide
b. Barium carbonate + cesium chloride Æ cesium carbonate + barium chloride
c. Silver nitrate + calcium iodide Æ silver iodide + calcium nitrate
ANSWERS: Coefficients of 1 may be omitted as understood.

la. 2 Cs + Cl2 Æ 2 CsCl Balanced b. 4 HI + O2 Æ 2 H2O + I2 Not balanced
c. Pb(NO3)2 + 2 LiBr Æ PbBr2 + LiNO3 Not balanced
d. BaCO3 + 2 NaCl Æ Na2CO3 + BaCl2 Balanced
2. a. 4 Cr + 3 O2 Æ 2 Cr2O3 b. 6 Ca + 2 N2 Æ 2 Ca3N2
c. 4 CH4 + 8 O2 Æ 4 CO2 + 8 H2O d. 3 C8H18 + 75/2 O2 Æ 24 CO2 + 27 H2O
e. 2 MgH2 + 4 H2O Æ 2 Mg(OH)2 + 4 H2
(2e is tricky because H is used in more than one formula on each side, rather than the usual O. Save
until last the atom that is in two compounds on one or both sides.)

f. 2 C2H6 + 7 O2 Æ 4 CO2 + 6 H2O
3 a. 2 K + Br2 Æ 2 KBr b. 4 Na + O2 Æ 2 Na2O

c. 2 NF3 Æ N2 + 3 F2 d. C2H5OH + 3 O2 Æ 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
e. 2 FeS + 7/2 O2 Æ Fe2O3 + 2 SO2
4. Your answers may be different so long as the ratios among all of the coefficients are the same. A
coefficient of 1 may be omitted as “understood.”
a. 2 Mg + 1 O2 Æ 2 MgO b. 1 N2 + 1 O2 Æ 2 NO
c. 2 C6H6 + 15 O2 Æ 12 CO2 + 6 H2O d. 1 P4 + 3 O2 Æ 1 P4O6
e. 2 Al + 6 HCl Æ 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
5. a. 4 Al + 3 O2 Æ 2 A12O3 b. 8 Zn + 1 S8 Æ 8 ZnS
c. 1 H2CO + 1 O2 Æ 1 CO2 + 1 H2O d. 2 N2 + 5 O2 + 2 H2O Æ 4 HNO3
e. 1 Rb2O + 1 H2O Æ 2 RbOH
f. 3 Mg(NO3)2 + 2 Na3PO4 Æ 1 Mg3(PO4)2 + 6 NaNO3
g. 2 Pb(C2H5)4 + 27 O2 Æ 2 PbO + 16 CO2 + 20 H2O
h. 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 Æ 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 4 H2O + 2 NO
6. a. 1 N2O4 Æ 2 NO2 b. BaCO3 + 2 CsCl Æ Cs2CO3 + BaCl2

c. 2 AgNO3 + CaI2 Æ 2 AgI + Ca(NO3)2
* * * * *
Lesson 10C: Using Coefficients: Molecules to Molecules

Flashcards: Let’s summarize the reaction fundamentals learned so far.
Cover the flashcard answers below, then put a check by the questions you can answer
easily and quickly. Make flashcards (Lesson 2C) for those you cannot. Consider using a
different color of card for this new module. Run the new cards for 3 sessions in a row, then
put them in stack #2 (the Run Before End of Chapter/Next Quiz Stack).
One-way cards (with notch). Questions: Back Side -- Answers

Cannot change during chemical reactions The atoms present and the total mass
In chemical reactions, used up are the Reactants
In chemical reactions, formed are the Products
Numbers inside a formula that count atoms Subscripts
Numbers you add to balancing equations Coefficients
To balance an equation, start by Putting 1 in front of most complex formula
The law of conservation of mass means During a reaction, total mass does not change.
What is balanced in a balanced equation that
The number and kind of atoms on each side
contains neutral substance formulas?

The Meaning of Coefficients

Balanced chemical equations tell the ratios in which molecules or formula units are used up
and form. For example, the burning of the hydrocarbon paraffin, used in some types of
candles, can be represented as
C25H52 + 38 O2 Æ 25 CO2 + 26 H2O
The equation states that burning 1 molecule of paraffin uses up 38 molecules of oxygen.
The products are 25 molecules of carbon dioxide and 26 molecules of water. Reactants are
used up and products form in known, predictable ratios.
What would happen if you burned 2 molecules of paraffin? You would use up twice as
much oxygen (76 molecules), and you would produce twice as much product: 50
molecules of CO2 and 52 molecules of H2O.
The ratios of the substances used up and formed stay the same.
Practice
Do these in your head and write your answers below. Check your answers after each
problem as you go.
1. For the balanced equation 4 HCl + O2 Æ 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O
a. If 16 molecules of HCl react,

i. how many molecules of O2 must react?
ii. How many molecules of Cl2 must form?
b. If 5 molecules of O2 react,
i. how much HCl must react?

ii. How much Cl2 must form?
2. For the reaction CS2 + O2 Æ CO2 + SO2
a. Balance the equation.

b. If 25 trillion molecules of CS2 react,
i. how many molecules of O2 must also be used up?
ii. How many molecules of SO2 must form?

ANSWERS
1a(i). 16 molecules HCl need 4 molecules O2 (the ratio must be 4 HCl to 1 O2)
1a(ii). 16 molecules of HCl make 8 molecules Cl2 (the ratio must be 4 HCl to 2 Cl2)
1b. 20 molecules HCl react, 10 molecules Cl2 form.
2a. CS2 + 3 O2 Æ CO2 + 2 SO2 b(i). 75 trillion O2 (ii) 50 trillion SO2
* * * * *
Lesson 10D: Mole to Mole Conversions

Conversions Based on Coefficients
Coefficients are exact numbers because balanced equations are based on counts of atoms.
You may have 1, 2, or 3 atoms, but you cannot have 3.1 atoms. In chemical reactions and
processes, atoms are indivisible. Coefficients therefore have no uncertainty.
This balanced equation 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O means that
• 2 molecules of H2 used up equals exactly 1 molecule of O2 used up;
• 2 molecules H2 consumed means that exactly 2 molecules of H2O are formed;
• 1 molecule O2 reacted equals exactly 2 molecules H2O formed.
In this sense, any two terms in a balanced equation are “equal.” Two terms that are equal
can be made into conversion factors. From the equation above, we can write three
equalities that can be used as conversions:
• 2 molecules H2 used up = 1 molecule O2 used up
• 2 molecules H2 used up = 2 molecules H2O formed
• 1 molecule O2 used up = 2 molecules H2O formed
Mole-to-Mole Conversions
The units in the above equalities are molecules. Coefficients can also be read in exact moles,
because once the molecule ratios from the balanced equation are known, those ratios can be
multiplied by any number and the equation will still be exactly balanced. A mole is simply
a large number.
Since the above three molecule-to-molecule equalities are true, the following three mole-to-
mole equalities are also true. In the ratios of reaction for 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O,
2 moles H2 = 1 mole O2 2 mol H2 = 2 mol H2O 1 mol O2 = 2 mol H2O

Counting the particles is the key to understanding chemical processes. Most reaction
calculations involve visible amounts of a substance, and we count visible amounts of
particles in moles.
In the equalities above, the coefficients supply mole-to-mole conversion factors that are
simple whole numbers. In reaction calculations, these equalities based on coefficients will
be our bridge conversions between the given and WANTED units.

A key rule in solving reaction calculations is the
Mole-to-Mole Bridge Prompt: In reaction calculations, if the

WANTED substance ≠ the given substance, ( ≠ means does not equal)
• Balance the equation; and
• Bridge: write the bridge conversion: X mol WANTED = Y mol given
in which X and Y are the substance coefficients from the balanced equation.
• Use this bridge conversion to SOLVE.
Use the bridge prompt to solve the problem below. Cover the answer, follow the
WANTED, DATA, SOLVE format, and then check your answer.
Q. Burning ammonia with catalysts present can result in the formation of nitrogen
monoxide by the reaction
4 NH3 + 5 O2 Æ 4 NO + 6 H2O
How many moles of NH3 are needed to make 9.0 moles of H2O?
* * * * *
WANTED: ? mol NH3
DATA: 9.0 mol H2O
Strategy: (Since NH3 ≠ H2O, balance the equation (done above) and write
the WANTED moles to given moles equality.)
4 mol NH3 = 6 mol H2O (Finish from here)
* * * * *
SOLVE: Begin with the starting template.
? mol NH3 = 9.0 mol H2O • ______________ ; then use the bridge.
mol H2O
? moles NH3 = 9.0 mol H2O • 4 mol NH3 = 6.0 mol NH3
6 mol H2O
SF: 9.0 has two sf. Coefficients are exact with infinite sf. Round the answer to two sf.
Practice. Learn the prompt, then apply it from memory.

1. Burning ammonia can result in the formation of water and elemental nitrogen:
4 NH3 + 3 O2 Æ 2 N2 + 6 H2O
a. By this reaction, how many moles of O2 are required to burn 14.0 moles of NH3 ?
b. How many moles of O2 are used up if 20.0 moles of N2 forms?

2. Given the equation 3 Fe + 4 H2O Æ Fe3O4 + 4 H2

a. How many moles of H2O are needed to react with 7.24 moles of Fe?
b. How many moles of Fe3O4 can be made from 3.6 moles Fe?
3. For the unbalanced equation KClO3 Æ KCl + O2
how many moles of O2 can be obtained from 2.50 moles of KClO3 ?
ANSWERS
Your paper should look like this, but you may omit the (comments) in parentheses.
1a. WANTED: ? mol O2
DATA: 14.0 mol NH3
(Strategy: Since the formula WANTED ≠ formula given, balance the equation (above), then write
the mole–to-mole bridge. Use it to solve.)
Bridge: 3 Mol O2 = 4 mol NH3
SOLVE: (Order your conversions in the usual way, beginning with the starting template.)
? mol O2 = 14.0 mol NH3 • 3 mol O2 = 10.5 mol O2
4 mol NH3
b. WANTED: ? mol O2
DATA: 20.0 mol NO
(Strategy: Since the formula WANTED ≠ formula given, write the mole-to-mole conversion.)
Bridge: 3 mol O2 = 2 mol N2
SOLVE: ? mol O2 = 20.0 mol N2 • 3 mol O2 = 30.0 mol O2
2 mol N2
2. a. WANTED: ? mol H2O
DATA: 7.24 mol Fe (Since WANTED ≠ given, write the bridge.)
Bridge: 4 Mol H2O = 3 mol Fe
SOLVE: ? mol H2O = 7.24 mol Fe • 4 mol H2O = 9.65 mol H2O
3 mol Fe
b. WANTED: ? mol Fe3O4
DATA: 3.6 mol Fe
(Strategy: For a reaction, if formula WANTED ≠ formula given, balance (done) and ….)
Bridge: 3 Mol Fe = 1 mol Fe3O4
SOLVE: ? mol Fe3O4 = 3.6 mol Fe • 1 mol Fe3O4 = 1.2 mol Fe3O4
3 mol Fe

3. WANTED: ? mol O2
DATA: 2.50 mol of KClO3 (Since O2 ≠ KClO3, balance and bridge.)
Balance: 2 KClO3 Æ 2 KCl + 3 O2
Bridge: 3 mol O2 = 2 mol KClO3
SOLVE: ? mol O2 = 2.50 mol KClO3 • 3 mol O2 = 3.75 mol O2

2 mol KClO3
* * * * *
Lesson 10E: Conversion Stoichiometry

Perhaps the most frequently encountered type of chemistry calculation is stoichiometry, a
term derived from the ancient Greek meaning “measuring fundamental quantities.” In
stoichiometry, you are given a measured quantity of one substance and WANT to know how
much of another substance will react or form.
We will define stoichiometry as a reaction calculation in which the coefficients of the
balanced equation must be used to convert from measures of one substance to measures of
another.
Our system for solving stoichiometry for a WANTED amount will be
The 7 Stoichiometry Steps

1. Write: “WANTED: ? unit and substance formula.”
2. List the DATA, including prompts.
For a chemical reaction calculation, if the WANTED substance ≠ given substance,
3. Balance the equation.
4. Bridge: Write the mole-to-mole relationship between the WANTED and given
formulas, using the coefficients of the balanced equation.
5. To SOLVE, convert “? WANTED unit and substance = # unit of given substance” to
moles of the given substance.
6. Convert to moles of WANTED substance, using the bridge conversion.
7. Convert to the unit WANTED.
With practice, these steps will become automatic. The short version of the 7 steps (which
should be memorized) is the
Stoichiometry 7-Step Prompt: For reactions, if WANTED substance ≠ given substance,

• Write 4 steps to gather tools: WANTED and DATA, balance and bridge (WDBB), and
• 3 to solve: Convert “? WANTED = unit given” to mol given to mol wanted to unit wanted.

The stoichiometry steps use the conversion method with a mole-to-mole bridge conversion.
The coefficients of the balanced equation supply the key bridge ratio. That bridge will
convert units of the given substance to units of the WANTED substance.
In your notebook, solve the following problem with the 7 stoichiometry steps, then check
your answer below.
Q. Sodium burns to form sodium oxide (Na2O). How many grams of Na2O could be
produced from 2.30 grams of Na?
The unbalanced equation is Na + O2 Æ Na2O
* * * * *
1. WANT: ? g Na2O (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 2.30 g Na (only single unit in DATA—use as given)

1 mol Na = 23.0 g Na (g Na in DATA = grams prompt)
1 mol Na2O = 62.0 g Na2O (g Na2O WANTED = grams prompt)
(Since this is a reaction and the WANTED and given substances differ,
solve using the 7 stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance: 4 Na + O2 Æ 2 Na2O
4. Bridge: 4 mol Na = 2 mol Na2O (moles WANTED to moles given)

* * * * *
5. SOLVE. Write “? WANTED = given”
? g Na2O = 2.30 g Na
Then convert to moles given. (“Grams to moles – use molar mass.”) When a single
unit is WANTED, use single unit DATA as a given (Lesson 5D).
? g Na2O = 2.30 g Na • 1 mol Na •

23.0 g Na mol Na
6. Convert to moles WANTED using the bridge between given and WANTED.
? g Na2O = 2.30 g Na • 1 mol Na • 2 mol Na2O•

23.0 g Na 4 mol Na mol Na2O
7. Convert to units WANTED.
? g Na2O = 2.30 g Na • 1 mol Na • 2 mol Na2O • 62.0 g Na2O =

23.0 g Na 4 mol Na 1 mol Na2O
= 2.30 • 2 • 62.0 g Na2O = 3.10 g Na2O

23.0 • 4
(SF: Coefficients and 1 are always exact, 2.30 and 23.0 have 3 sf, round answer to 3 sf.)

Note the order of the units on the top in your multiplied conversions: units given, moles
given, moles WANTED, units WANTED.
Note also the mol-to-mol bridge conversion that is needed in all reaction calculations when
the WANTED substance formula differs from the given formula.
* * * * *
Units and Substance Formulas: Inseparable
In solving problems involving chemical reactions, always write the number, the unit, and
the substance formula in each term in your WANTED, DATA, and conversions. One reason
to write number, unit, formula is to avoid errors in unit cancellation.
• Units measuring one substance cannot cancel the same units measuring a different
substance.
Example: 32 grams NaOH • 1 mole HCl

36.5 grams HCl
Is this conversion legal or illegal? Write your answer, then check below.
* * * * *
Illegal. Since grams of NaOH are not the same as grams of HCl, the units cannot
cancel. The substance is an inseparable part of the unit.
Is this conversion legal or illegal?
32 g NaOH • 1 kg = 0.032 kg NaOH
1000 g
* * * * *
Legal, since different formulas are not canceled. The conversion ratio between
grams and kilograms is true for all measurements.
When problems involve several formulas, writing the substance formulas after the units for
all quantities in the WANTED and DATA is essential to avoid errors.
• If a substance formula is known, it is a part of the unit, it must be written, and the
unit cannot be cancelled in conversions unless the formula attached also cancels.
Writing the formulas also keeps straight which molar mass numbers to put where. In the
previous problem, the 62.0 g applies to the Na2O, not the Na.
Why Not Go from Grams to Grams In One Conversion?

In a reaction, if the substance formulas are known, the particle ratios are easy to determine.
Simply balance the equation. The coefficients then supply exact and whole-number ratios
for the numbers of particles that react and form, in units of particles or moles of particles.
Why not use a grams/grams ratio in reaction calculations? There is simply no easy way to
calculate the gram-to-gram ratios for a chemical reaction. Coefficients of a balanced
equation can relate all the terms in a reaction, but coefficients are particle ratios, not gram
ratios.

Why not use molecule to molecule, instead of mole to mole, ratios in our bridge
conversions? Particle counts would require converting to large exponential numbers in all
calculations. When dealing with visible amounts of a substance, moles are simply easier
numbers to work with.
To summarize: In reaction calculations, the bridge from the given to WANTED substance
is a mole to mole conversion.
The Stoichiometry Bridge: Moles to Moles

Grams A Grams B
Moles B
Moles of A Moles of B
Moles A
* * * * *
Flashcards
Put a check by the questions below that you can answer quickly and correctly. Make
flashcards for those you cannot.
Run these cards until you can do them perfectly, then try the problems below. Save a few
problems, then for your next study session, run the cards again and then finish the practice.
Run the cards until you know each one for 3 sessions in a row, then add them to stack 2.

Coefficients can be read as Molecules, or moles of molecules
When is a mol/mol conversion needed in
If WANTED formula # given formula
conversions?
When are the stoichiometry steps needed? If WANTED formula # given formula
What numbers go into a mol/mol conversion? The coefficients of the balanced equation.
In stoichiometry, convert the unit given to mol given to mol wanted to unit wanted
Recite the 7 steps to solve stoichiometry Wanted and Data, Balance and Bridge
for a WANTED single unit Convert units to moles to moles to units
Practice
Do problems 1b, 2, 4b, and 5 for practice with several variations on stoichiometry. After
those, if you feel you need more practice, do more. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. Multiply these terms. Label the answers completely.
a. 5.1 grams Al2O3 • 1 mole Al2O3 • 3 mole O2 =

102 g Al2O3 4 mole Al2O3

b. 1.27 x 10─3 g Cu • 1 mol Cu • 2 mol Ag • 107.9 g Ag =

63.5 g Cu 1 mol Cu 1 mol Ag
2. Phosphorous, (P4 burns in air (O2) to form the oxide P4O10 (Molar masses:
P = 31.0 g/mol, O = 16.0 g/mol)
a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
b. How many moles of O2 are needed to burn 7.0 moles of P4?
c. How many grams of P4O10 would be produced when 0.500 mole of P4 burns?
3. For the reaction FeS + O2 Æ Fe2O3 + SO2

b. Starting with 0.48 moles of FeS and plenty of oxygen, how many grams of Fe2O3
can be formed? (Molar masses: iron (Fe) = 55.8 g/mol, oxygen = 16.0 g/mol)
4. Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid. The balanced equation is
3 NO2 + H2O Æ 2 HNO3 + NO
(Molar masses: N = 14.0 g/mol, O = 16.0 g/mol, H = 1.008 g/mol)
a. How many moles of H2O are required to react with 2.3 kilograms of NO2?
b. How many milligrams of NO can be made from 2.4 x 1021 molecules of NO2?
5. Silver reacts with nitric acid in this balanced reaction equation:

Ag + 2 HNO3 Æ NO2 + AgNO3 + H2O
a. How many grams of nitric acid are required to use up 5.00 g Ag?
b. How many grams of nitrogen dioxide would be formed?
ANSWERS
1. a. 0.038 mol O2 b. 4.32 x 10─3 g Ag
2. a. 1 P4 + 5 O2 Æ 1 P4O10
b. 1. WANTED: ? mol O2
2. DATA: 7.0 mol P4
(For reaction calculations, if WANTED ≠ given, use the 7 stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance. (Part A)
4. Bridge: 1 mol P4 = 5 mol O2
5. SOLVE: (Begin with) ? mol O2 = 7.0 mol P4 • _______________
mol P4

6-7. (Convert unit given to moles given to moles WANTED to unit WANTED
Here, the given and WANTED units are moles. Use the one conversion in the DATA to solve.)
? mol O2 = 7.0 mol P4 • 5 mol O2 = 35 mol O2
1 mol P4
c. 1. WANTED: ? g P4O10 (WANT single unit)
2. DATA: 0.500 mol P4 (Use single unit as given)
1 mol P4O10 = 284.0 g P4O10 (grams prompt)
(For a reaction calculation, if WANTED ≠ given, use the 7 stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance. 1 P4 + 5 O2 Æ 1 P4O10
4. Bridge. 1 mol P4 = 1 mol P4O10
5-7. SOLVE. (? WANTED = Unit given to moles given to moles WANTED to unit WANTED.
Here, moles are given. Chain the two DATA conversions to solve.)
? g P4O10 = 0.500 mol P4 • 1 mol P4O10 • 284.0 g P4O10 = 142 g P4O10

1 mol P4 1 mol P4O10
(SF: 0.500 has 3 sf and 1 is exact, so the answer must be rounded to 3 sf.)
3. a. 4 FeS + 7 O2 Æ 2 Fe2O3 + 4 SO2

b. 1. WANT: ? g Fe2O3
2. DATA: 0.48 mol FeS
1 mol Fe2O3 = 159.6 g Fe2O3 (grams prompt)
(A reaction calculation and WANTED ≠ given. Use the 7 stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance: (see Part A) 4. Bridge: 4 mol FeS = 2 mol Fe2O3
5. SOLVE: (Write ? WANTED = given. Convert to given moles (not needed. Moles was given)
6. To moles WANTED, via the bridge. 7. To units WANTED.)
? g Fe2O3 = 0.48 mol FeS • 2 mol Fe2O3 • 159.6 g Fe2O3 = 38 g Fe2O3
4 mol FeS 1 mol Fe2O3
^Step 5 ^Step 6 ^Step 7
4. a. 1. WANT: ? mol H2O
2. DATA: 2.3 kg NO2
1 mol NO2 = 46.0 g NO2 (kg = grams prompt)
(A reaction calculation. WANTED substance ≠ given substance. Use 7 stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance. 3 NO2 + H2O Æ 2 HNO3 + NO
4. Bridge. 3 mol NO2 = 1 mol H2O

5-7. Solve. (? WANTED = unit given to mole given to mole WANTED to unit WANTED.)
? mol H2O = 2.3 kg NO2 • 103 g • 1 mol NO2 • 1 mol H2O = 17 mol H2O
1 kg 46.0 g NO2 3 mol NO2
b. 1. WANT: ? mg NO
2. DATA: 2.4 x 1021 molecules of NO2 (only single unit in DATA = given)
1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 molecules (Avogadro prompt)
1 mol NO = 30.0 g NO (g, mg, kg of formula = grams prompt)
(WANTED substance ≠ given substance. A reaction calculation. Use stoichiometry steps.)
3. Balance. 3 NO2 + H2O Æ 2 HNO3 + NO
4. Bridge. 1 mol NO = 4 mol NO2
5-7. SOLVE. (? WANTED = Unit given to mol given to mol WANTED to unit WANTED.)
? mg NO = 2.4 x 1021 NO2 • 1 mol NO2 • 1 mol NO • 30.0 g NO • 1 mg = 40. mg NO

6.02 x 1023 NO2 3 mol NO2 1 mol NO 10─3 g
5. a. 1. WANT: ? g HNO3 (Nitric acid is what Ag reacts with. Reactants are on the left.)
2. DATA: 5.00 g Ag (WANT a single unit; this is your single unit given)
1 mol Ag = 107.9 g Ag
1 mol HNO3 = 63.0 g HNO3
3. Balance. (supplied)
4. Bridge. 1 mol Ag = 2 mol HNO3
5-7. SOLVE.
? g HNO3 = 5.00 g Ag • 1 mol Ag • 2 mol HNO3 • 63.0 g HNO3 = 5.84 g HNO3
107.9 g Ag 1 mol Ag 1 mol HNO3
b. 1. WANT: ? g NO2
1 mol Ag ; 1 mol NO2 (list equalities as equalities
2. DATA: 5.00 g Ag ;
107.9 g Ag 46.0 g NO2 or conversions)
4. Bridge; 1 mol Ag = 1 mol NO2
? g NO2 = 5.00 g Ag • 1 mol Ag • 1 mol NO2 • 46.0 g NO2 = 2.13 g NO2
107.9 g Ag 1 mol Ag 1 mol NO2
* * * * *

Lesson 10F: Percent Yield

Prerequisites: Before this lesson, complete Lesson 10E.
* * * * *
Actual versus Theoretical Yield
A primary goal of chemical reactions is to take substances of low value to society and
convert them, using chemical reactions, to medicines, fertilizers, computer chips, and other
materials that raise our standard of living. In most cases, however, the amount of product
we are able to recover after a reaction is less than the amount predicted by stoichiometry.
Factors that reduce actual yield include
• difficulty in separating a wanted product from other products and left-over
reactants, and
• reactions that do not go to completion.
An amount of product that is calculated by stoichiometry to form is the theoretical yield:
how much product we would get if the reaction goes 100% and we are able to isolate in
pure form all the product we are seeking.
The percent yield is a measure of our efficiency at recovering products. Percent yield
compares how much product stoichiometry predicts we should form to how much is
actually obtained from the reaction. The definition equation is
Percent Yield = actual yield x 100%
Theoretical yield
In the fraction, the top and bottom terms must have the same units and formulas.
In the lab, the percent yield is at most 100%, and is nearly always less than 100%.
In percent calculations, our rule (from Lesson 9A), is “first use the fraction equation.” The
yield fraction equation is
Yield Fraction = actual yield = amount of product actually formed

Theoretical yield amount predicted by stoichiometry
Commit to long-term memory both the yield fraction equation and what its terms mean.
Yield calculations are easier to solve using equations than conversions. To simplify solving
equations, use these steps.
Solving Problems Using Equations
1. Write the unit and substance formula WANTED.
2. Write the needed equation from memory.
3. Make a DATA table that contains each term in the equation.
4. Add the problem’s DATA after each term.
5. Solve the equation for the WANTED term using the terms or symbols first; then
6. Substitute the data from the table and complete the math.

Apply those steps to the following example. There are other, faster ways to solve this
simple problem, but our goal at this point is to learn the steps. The steps above have the
advantage of being able to solve more difficult problems. You will know how to solve
nearly all equation calculations, because you will always use the same steps.
Q1. A reaction that produces 6.8 grams of aspirin has a 72% yield. What mass of aspirin
was predicted by stoichiometry to form?
* * * * *
WANT: ? g aspirin theoretical (stoichiometry predicts theoretical yields)
When a percent is involved, use the fraction equation.
Yield Fraction = actual yield
Theoretical yield
DATA: Yield Fraction = 72%/100% = 0.72
Actual yield = 6.8 g aspirin
Theoretical yield = ? g aspirin (actual must = theoretical units)
SOLVE: Solve the memorized equation for the WANTED term in symbols or terms first.
Theoretical yield = actual yield = 6.8 g aspirin = 9.4 g aspirin theoretical
Yield fraction 0.72
In more typical chemistry calculations, you will need to solve stoichiometry to find a
percent yield. With that hint, try this problem, but use the same equation steps as above.
Q2. A reaction of 0.100 moles of lead nitrate with excess potassium chloride produces
15.0 grams of lead chloride. The unbalanced equation is
Pb(NO3)2 + KCl Æ PbCl2 + KNO3
What is the percent yield for this reaction?
* * * * *
WANT: % yield PbCl2 (Yield measures products. The product measured is PbCl2 )
When a percent is involved, first write and solve the fraction equation.
Yield fraction
DATA: Yield Fraction = ?
Actual yield = 15.0 g PbCl2
Theoretical yield = ? g PbCl2
Using algebra, we can solve an equation that has one unknown, but not two. We need to
fill in one of those two ? terms before we can solve the equation. Which term can we
calculate from what we know?
* * * * *
Stoichiometry is a tool that predicts theoretical yield. Apply the 7 stoichiometry steps.
* * * * *

Stoichiometry starts with WDBB.

1. WANT: ? g PbCl2 theoretical (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 0.100 moles Pb(NO3)2 (only single unit in DATA—use as given)
1 mol PbCl2 = 278.1 g PbCl2 (grams prompt)
One tricky point: the actual amount of PbCl2 in the problem has no role in stoichiometry to
find the theoretical amount of PbCl2 formed, so that the 15.0 g PbCl2 actual is not data that
used in this part of the problem.
3. Balance: 1 Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KCl Æ 1 PbCl2 + 2 KNO3
4. Bridge: 1 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 1 mol PbCl2 (moles WANTED to moles given)
* * * * *
5. SOLVE.
? g PbCl2 theoretical = 0.100 mol Pb(NO3)2 • 1 mol PbCl2 • 278.1 g PbCl2 =
1 mol Pb(NO3)2 1 mol PbCl2
= 27.8 g PbCl2 = the theoretical yield
Add this answer to the DATA table for the yield fraction and complete the problem.
* * * * *
DATA: Yield Fraction = ?
Actual yield = 15.0 g PbCl2
Theoretical yield = 27.8 g PbCl2
Now we have an equation with one unknown, so we can SOLVE for ?:
* * * * *
Yield Fraction = actual yield = 15.0 g PbCl2 = 0.540
Theoretical yield 27.8 g PbCl2
But what was WANTED?
* * * * *
Percent yield = fraction x 100% = 0.540 x 100% = 54.0%
Practice: Memorize the yield equation first, then do one problem now. Save the
other for your next practice session.
1. In a blast furnace, one step in the production of iron from the iron ore magnetite,
Fe3O4 , is the reaction:
Fe3O4 + 4 CO Æ 3 Fe + 4 CO2
To produce 850 kilograms of iron as an actual yield, if the percent yield of the process is
92%, how many moles of magnetite must be reacted?

2. For the reaction of the iron ore hematite ( Fe2O3 ) in a blast furnace, one step is this
unbalanced equation:
Fe2O3 + CO Æ Fe + CO2
If 275 moles of hematite is reacted and the process has a 95% yield, how many
kilograms of iron will be formed?
ANSWERS
1. WANT: ? mol Fe3O4 When a percent yield is involved, first write the yield fraction equation.
Theoretical yield by stoich.
Strategy: When an equation and stoichiometry are both needed to solve a problem, the question is:
Which part should be done first? See which part you have enough DATA to solve. Let’s try
the equation DATA table first.
DATA: Yield Fraction = 92% / 100% = 0.92
Actual yield = 850 kg Fe
Theoretical yield = ? kg Fe (the two terms in the fraction must have the same units)
Using algebra, we can solve an equation with one unknown term. Do so.
* * * * *
SOLVE: Solve in symbols or terms first.
Theoretical yield = actual yield = 850 kg Fe = 924 kg Fe predicted
Yield fraction 0.92
It is an option to carry an extra sf until the end of a multi-step calculation.
Stoichiometry predicts the theoretical amount of product that can be formed. If needed, adjust and finish.
* * * * *
Recite repeatedly to retain: “Stoichiometry starts with WDBB.”
1. WANT: ? mol Fe3O4 initial (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 924 kg Fe predicted (only single unit in DATA—use as given)
1 mol Fe = 55.8 g Fe ( kg is a grams prompt)
3. Balance: above
4. Bridge: 1 mol Fe3O4 = 3 mol Fe
5. SOLVE.
? mol Fe3O4 = 924 kg Fe • 1,000 g • 1 mol Fe • 1 mol Fe3O4 = 5.5 x 103 mol Fe3O4
1 kg 55.8 g Fe 3 mol Fe
The original data had 2 sf.

2. WANT: ? kg Fe actual yield

It helps to label the WANTED and DATA with the terms that are used in the equation.
When a percent yield is involved, first write the yield fraction equation.
Theoretical yield
Strategy: Which part should be done first: the equation or stoichiometry? See which part you have
enough DATA to solve. Try the equation DATA table first.
Actual yield = ? kg Fe
Theoretical yield = ? kg Fe (the two terms in the fraction must have the same units)
The yield must be a product of the reaction. This data does not supply a yield amount.
But, the data does supply an initial amount of reactant and a balanced equation. Using stoichiometry, we
can calculate the theoretical yield needed in the equation data table above. Start there.
* * * * *
Stoichiometry starts with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? kg Fe theoretical yield (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 275 mol Fe2O3 (only single unit in DATA—use as given)
1 mol Fe = 55.8 g Fe ( kg is a grams prompt)
3. Balance: 1 Fe2O3 + 3 CO Æ 2 Fe + 3 CO2
4. Bridge: 1 mol Fe2O3 = 2 mol Fe
5. SOLVE.
? kg Fe theor. = 275 mol Fe2O3 • 2 mol Fe • 55.8 g Fe mol • 1 kg = 30.7 kg Fe theoretical
1 mol Fe2O3 1 mol Fe 103 g
See if the yield fraction can now be solved.
* * * * *
The data table for the equation is
Actual yield = ? kg Fe
Theoretical yield = 30.7 kg Fe
SOLVE: Solve the yield fraction equation in symbols or terms first.
Actual yield = ( Yield fraction ) (theoretical yield ) = ( 0.95 ) ( 30.7 kg Fe ) = 29 kg Fe actual
* * * * *

Lesson 10G: Finding the Limiting Reactant

Prerequisites: Before this lesson, complete Lesson 10E.
* * * * *
Determining the Amounts of the Products
At this point in our study, we will limit our consideration to reactions that go to
completion: those that continue until one reactant is essentially 100% used up.
A reactant that is ~100% used up (~ means approximately) is termed a limiting reactant (or
limiting reagent): it limits both how much of the other reactants are used up and how
much of the products form. Which reactant is used up first depends on
• the starting amounts of each reactant, and
• the ratios of reaction for the reactants (the reactant coefficients).
A reactant that is not ~100% used up in a reaction is said to be in excess, meaning
• enough is present to use up all of the limiting reactant; and
• some amount remains when the reaction stops.
In calculations for reactions that go to completion, key rules include
• One or more reactants must be limiting (totally used up);
• The initial amount of the limiting reactant determines how much of the other
reactants react and products form.
• The initial amount of the limiting reactant must be used as the given to calculate how
much of the other reactants react and products form.
• the amounts of reactants in excess do not determine how much of other reactants are
used up or products form. The amount of a reactant in excess cannot be used as a
given to calculate how much of the products form.
• If a reactant is in excess and its amount is not supplied, the amount is not needed for
the calculation.
Write your answers to the following question based on “numbers in your head” rather than
written conversions, then check below.
Q. Given the balanced equation 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O , if 10 molecules of H2 are
ignited with 6 molecules of O2 , and the reaction goes to completion,
a. which reactant is limiting? b. How much H2O can be formed?
c. How much of each reactant and product is present in the mixture at the end of
the reaction?
* * * * *

Answer
a. For the 6 molecules of O2 to react, they would use up 12 molecules of H2. We don’t
have that much H2 , so the H2 is limiting: though its particles are initially present with
a higher count, its amount prevents all of the O2 from being used up.
Looked at another way: Reacting 10 molecules of H2 requires 5 molecules O2. We have
that much O2 , so when we use up all of the H2 , some O2 remains. The H2 is therefore
limiting (used up ~100%), and there is excess O2 : some remains in the mixture at the
end of the reaction.
b. If 10 molecules of H2 are used up, according to the balanced equation, 10 molecules of
H2O must form. Because the O2 is not all used up, the 6 molecules of O2 initially
present do not determine how much H2O forms. Only the amount of reactant that
reacts determines the products that form. The initial amount of limiting reactant
predicts the amounts of all products that form.
c. In the mixture after the reaction is no H2 . There is the 12 molecules of water formed,
plus the 1 molecule of O2 that did not react.
Practice A: Do these in your head. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
Use the balanced equation 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O to answer these questions.
1. To form 8 molecules of H2O ,
a. How much H2 is needed? b. How much O2 is needed?
2. How much H2O could be produced from 7 molecules of O2?
3. If 20 molecules of H2 reacts with 20 molecules of O2,
a. The H2 uses up how much O2 as it reacts?
b. How much H2O is formed? c. How much O2 is left over?
d. Which reactant is in excess? e. Which reactant is limiting?
Stoichiometric Equivalents
In some reaction calculations, you are asked to find the amount of one reactant that is
needed to exactly use up another reactant. When reactants exactly and completely use each
other up in a reaction, the reactants are said to be stoichiometrically equivalent, and they
are present in stoichiometric amounts.
If two reactants are in stoichiometric amounts, both are limiting, and the amounts of either
reactant can be used as a given to calculate the amounts of product that form.
A calculation of a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of a reactant is a standard 7-step
stoichiometry calculation: the amount of one reactant that will be stoichiometrically
equivalent to another is WANTED. The known amount of the other reactant is assumed to
be 100% used up, and is therefore used as given.

Identifying the Limiting Reactant

So far, for reactions that go to completion, we have learned to solve three types of reaction
amount calculations (stoichiometry).
1. Given a known count of particles for one (limiting) reactant, and excess amounts of the
other reactants, how much of the products can be formed?
2. Given a known count of particles for one reactant, how much of a second reactant is the
stoichiometric equivalent needed to exactly and completely use up the first?
In both types of problems above,
• an amount for only one substance is identified, and it is used as a given, and
• to solve, the preferred method is 7-step stoichiometry.
A third type of problem was encountered above in this lesson.
3. The grams or counts of two or more reactants are supplied, but which reactant is
limiting is not specified. To find the amounts of the products formed, you must first
find which reactant is limiting.
If the particle counts and the reaction ratios are simple, you can often identify the limiting
reactant by inspection, as has been done so far in this lesson. To find which reactant is
limiting if it is not solvable by inspection, we will learn two methods. The first is as
follows.
To Identify the Limiting Reactant
1. If a calculation supplies the grams or counts of two or more reactants and asks for
amounts of one or more products, the limiting reactant must be identified. To do so,
a. In successive calculations, use 7-step stoichiometry conversions, to calculate the
WANTED amount of one of the products.
b. In each successive calculation, use as a given the supplied single-unit amount of a
different reactant. In each conversion calculation, find the amount that would be
formed of the same WANTED amount, using a different supplied reactant amount as
a given each time.
c. The calculation that results in the lowest amount of the WANTED substance formed
has the limiting reactant as its given. Label this as a limiting reactant.
The logic is: the limiting reactant is the one that most limits how much of the
products you can create. You cannot form more product than can be made from
the reactant that is used up first, when the least amount of product is formed.
When the reactant that is limiting is used up, the reaction must stop.
2. The conversions using the limiting reactant calculate how much of one of the WANTED
products will form.
If you are asked to calculate the amounts of other products that also form, base your
answer on stoichiometry conversions with the supplied amount of the limiting reactant
as given.
The limiting reactant determines how much of each of the products form.

Apply the rules above to the following example, and then check your answer below.
Q. If a mixture of 2.00 g H2 gas and 4.80 g O2 gas is mixed and ignited, how many grams
of water will form?
* * * * *
In reaction calculations, start with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? g H2O (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 2.00 g H2
4.80 g O2
1 mol H2 = 2.016 g H2
1 mol O2 = 32.0 g O2
1 mol H2O = 18.0 g H2O (there are 3 grams prompts)
Strategy: If a single-unit amount is WANTED, and the data includes single-unit grams or
counts of two reactants, it is likely to be a limiting reactant calculation.
If the limiting reactant is not known, you must identify the limiting reactant to find the
amount of product that will form. To do so, find the WANTED amount using the 7
stoichiometry steps for each of the supplied reactant amounts.
3. Balance: 2 H2 + 1 O2 Æ 2 H2O
4. Bridge: (moles WANTED to moles given conversion will vary for the two givens.)
* * * * *
5. SOLVE.
? g H2O = 2.00 g H2 • 1 mol H2 • 2 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 17.9 g H2O

2.016 g H2 2 mol H2 1 mol H2O
? g H2O = 4.80 g O2 • 1 mol O2 • 2 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 5.40 g H2O

32.0 g O2 1 mol O2 1 mol H2O
The limiting reactant is the one that most limits the amount of products that can form. Each
calculation shows the amount of given reactant that is used up to make the found amount
of product. Making more product than the lowest amount of product would require using
up more of the limiting reactant than is initially present.
The limiting reactant above must be O2 . The amount of water that forms must be 5.40 g
H2O . Though more grams of oxygen gas are supplied, the oxygen is used up first.
Let’s summarize.

Limiting Reactant Calculations

1. If a reaction goes to completion, it has a limiting reactant that is used up ~100%.
2. To calculate how much of other reactants react and products form, you must start
from an amount of a limiting reactant as given.
3. In calculations, the amounts of reactants in excess (not used up 100%) cannot be used
to predict the amounts of products that form. Amounts of reactants in excess have
no effect on stoichiometry calculations.
4. When two reactants exactly and completely use each other up in a reaction, both are
limiting, and their amounts are stoichiometrically equivalent.
5. If an amount of a product is WANTED, and two or more single-unit reactant
amounts are in the DATA, you will likely need to identify the limiting reactant.
6. To identify the limiting reactant, use separate, successive 7-step stoichiometry with
the same WANTED product for each supplied reactant. The lowest amount of
product that results from the calculations is the maximum product that can form,
and the given in its calculation identifies the limiting reactant.
Practice B: Learn the rules and terms above, then do Problem 2. If you need more
practice, do problem 1.
1. For the reaction represented by the following unbalanced equation
H2 + Cl2 Æ HCl
If 14.2 grams of chlorine gas is reacted with 0.300 moles of hydrogen gas,
a. how many moles of hydrogen chloride can be formed?
b. How many moles of the reactant in excess is stoichiometrically equivalent to the
limiting reactant?
2. For the following unbalanced reaction equation
H2SO4 + NaOH Æ H2O + Na2SO4
If 2.00 grams of NaOH is reacted with 0.0100 moles of H2SO4,
a. how many grams of water can be formed?
b. How many grams of the reactant in excess is stoichiometrically equivalent to the
limiting reactant?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. 8 molecules H2 needed 1b. 4 molecules O2 needed 2. 14 molecules H2O
3a. 10 O2 3b. 20 H2O 3c. 10 O2 left over 3d. O2 is in excess; H2 is limiting.
Practice B
1a. In reaction amount calculations (stoichiometry), start with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? mol HCl (a single unit is WANTED)
2. DATA: 14.2 g Cl2
0.300 mol H2
1 mol Cl2 = 71.0 g Cl2
(Strategy: Since the data includes single-unit grams or counts of two reactants, you must identify the
limiting reactant to find the amount of product that will form. Find the WANTED amount using the 7
stoichiometry steps for both reactant amounts.)
3. Balance: 1 H2 + 1 Cl2 Æ 2 HCl
4. Bridge: (moles WANTED to moles given will vary for the two givens.)
5. SOLVE: ? mol HCl = 14.2 g Cl2 • 1 mol Cl2 • 2 mol HCl = 0.400 mol HCl
71.0 g Cl2 1 mol Cl2
? mol HCl = 0.300 mol H2 • 2 mol HCl = 0.600 mol HCl

1 mol H2
The limiting reactant is the one that most limits the amount of products that can form. The reactant that is
limiting decides how much product can form.
The limiting reactant must be Cl2 . When 0.400 mol HCl forms, the reaction stops.
1b. In reaction amount calculations (stoichiometry), start with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? mol H2 (From part a, H2 is the reactant in excess)
2. DATA: 14.2 g Cl2 (the given is the known amount of the limiting reactant)
1 mol Cl2 = 71.0 g Cl2
The calculation of stoichiometric equivalents is standard 7-step stoichiometry.
3. Balance: 1 H2 + 1 Cl2 Æ 2 HCl
4. Bridge: 1 mol H2 = 1 mol Cl2
5. SOLVE: ? mol H2 = 14.2 g Cl2 • 1 mol Cl2 • 1 mol H2 = 0.200 mol H2
71.0 g Cl2 1 mol Cl2

2a. In reaction amount calculations, start with WDBB.

1. WANT: ? g H2O
2. DATA: 2.00 g NaOH
0.0100 mol H2SO4
1 mol NaOH = 40.0 g NaOH
1 mol H2O = 18.0 g H2O (2 grams prompts)
(Strategy: Since the data includes single unit grams or counts of two reactants, you must identify the limiting
reactant. Find the WANTED amount using 7-step stoichiometry with both reactant amounts as given.)
3. Balance: 1 H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Æ 2 H2O + 1 Na2SO4
4. Bridge: (moles WANTED to moles given will vary for the two givens.)
5. SOLVE: ? g H2O = 2.00 g NaOH • 1 mol NaOH • 2 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 0.900 g H2O
40.0 g NaOH 2 mol NaOH 1 mol H2O
? g H2O = 0.0100 mol H2SO4 • 2 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 0.360 g H O

2
1 mol H2SO4 1 mol H2O
The limiting reactant is the one that most limits the amount of product that can form. The reactant that is
limiting decides how much product can form. For the amounts mixed in this reaction, the limiting reactant is
H2SO4 . The mass of water formed is decided based on the limiting reactant: 0.360 g H2O .
2b. In reaction amount calculations, start with WDBB.
The calculation of a stoichiometrically equivalent amount is standard 7-step stoichiometry because the
given amount is known.
1 WANT: ? g NaOH (NaOH is the reactant in excess)
2. DATA: 0.0100 mol H2SO4 (the given is the amount of the limiting reactant)
3. Balance: 1 H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Æ 2 H2O + 1 Na2SO4
4. Bridge: 1 mol H2SO4 = 2 mol NaOH (stoichiometric equivalents are always two reactants.)
5. SOLVE: ? g NaOH = 0.0100 mol H2SO4 • 2 mol NaOH • 40.0 g NaOH = 0.800 g NaOH
1 mol H2SO4 1 mol NaOH
This answer makes sense. You started with 2.00 g NaOH. You use up 0.800 g NaOH in the reaction with
the H2SO4 . This confirms that NaOH is in excess: some is left over at the end.
* * * * *

Lesson 10H: Final Reaction Mixtures – and RICE Tables

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are asked to complete problems that calculate the total
amounts of reactants and products present at the end of a reaction, or if you are asked to
complete amounts tables or ICE tables or RICE tables at this point in your course.
* * * * *
A Chemistry Accounting System
So far, for reactions that go to completion, we have learned to calculate
1. Amounts of products that form when the limiting reactant is identified;
2. The amount of a second reactant that is needed to exactly use up (is stoichiometrically
equivalent to) a known amount of another reactant; and
3. Given amounts of more than one reactant, how to identify the limiting reactant that
decides how much of the products form.
In each of these type of calculations, the preferred method to solve is 7-step stoichiometry.
The method you are about to learn can be used to organize the results of conversion
stoichiometry. It can be used to solve any type of reaction amount (stoichiometry)
calculations, even for reactions that do not go to completion.
It is especially useful in problems that ask you to find the amounts of all of the reactants
and products that are present at the end of a reaction, but it can help to organize your work
in any reaction calculation that is complex or confusing.
In problems that involve lots of numbers, it is helpful to have an accounting system that to
organize and make sense of the numbers. Let’s learn the logic of a “chemistry accounting
system” with a non- chemistry example.
Q1. The Classic Chemistry Composition Corporation. is producing spiral notebooks.
Each notebook has one spiral binder, two identical covers, and 20 sheets of paper.
From the initial inventory of 120 spirals, 220 covers, and 3,000 sheets of paper, as
many notebooks are made as possible. How many notebooks are assembled? How
much of each component is present at the end of the process?
To solve, complete the following steps.
1. Balance this equation for the ratios of the production process.
_____ Spiral + _____ Covers + ____ Sheets used up = 1 Notebook formed
2. Fill in the boxes in the following table, then check your answer below.
Reaction/Process ___ Spiral ___ Covers ____ Sheets ____ Notebook

Initial Count
Change (use + and ―)
At End
* * * * *

The initial data:
Reaction/Process 1 Spiral 2 Covers 20 Sheets 1 Notebook

Initial Count 120 220 3,000 0
At End
Determine by trial and error: which component is used up first?

* * * * *
Because the table is intuitive, you can likely solve without a set of rules, but check to see if
your answers agree with the following.
Accounting Rules For the Table
• In the Change row, components used up are assigned negative signs, and products
formed are given positive signs;
• The ratios in the Change row must be the same as the ratios in the Reaction (top) row;
• One End amount must be zero (or as close as possible) but no End amount can be
negative (you can’t use up more than you start with). The column that has an End
row zero is determined by ratio trial and error.
• The column with zero in the End row has the component that is limiting at the top.
The count for the limiting component in the Change row is used to determine the
other counts in the Change row, based on the ratios in the top row.
Adjust your work if needed, then complete all of the boxes.
* * * * *
Reaction/Process 1 Spiral 2 Covers 20 Sheets 1 Notebook

Change (use + and ―) ― 110 ― 220 ― 2,200 + 110
At End 10 0 800 110
The table displays the count of each component initially, the change in the counts of the
component during the process, and the amounts present when the process is completed.
The Rice Moles Table
In most respects, a chemical reaction is like any other production process: components are
used up (reactants react) and new components (products) are formed. Reaction
calculations are also solved by counting the components. As we count eggs by the dozen,
we count particles by the mole.
We will call our “chemistry accounting system” a rice moles table: rice for the labels of the
rows:
Reaction, Initial, Change, End
and moles for the numbers that go into the table. If you can solve the Classic Chemistry
problem, you are prepared to solve nearly every stoichiometry calculation in chemistry.

Apply the same table logic to this chemistry example.

Q2. Given the unbalanced equation H2 + O2 Æ H2O
if 16.0 moles of H2 are mixed with 6.0 moles of O2 and ignited, assuming the
reaction goes to completion, find the moles of each substance present after the
reaction by completing this rice moles table.
___ H2 ___ O2 ____ H2O
* * * * *
The initial data:
Reaction 2 H2 1 O2 2 H2O
Initial 16.0 mol 6.0 mol 0 mol

End
To start, add the balanced equation to the Reaction row. Then, using logic and the
coefficients, by trial and error (and/or the accounting rules above), find which component
is used up first.
* * * * *
• To use up 6.0 moles of O2 requires that 12.0 moles of H2 be used up. The O2 can be
used up, because more than 12.0 moles of H2 is initially present.
• Looked at another way: To use up 16.0 mol H2 requires 8.0 mol O2. For these
amounts, that can’t happen: you can’t use up more O2 than the 6.0 mol present at
the start, so H2 cannot be 100% used up (limiting), and O2 must be limiting.
In this mixture, since the O2 is limiting (used up first), the O2 present at the end of the
reaction must be zero moles. This limiting amount of O2 used up determines the moles of
hydrogen gas used up and water formed.
If needed, adjust your table. Check that all ratios in the Change row are the same as the
coefficient ratios in the Reaction row.
* * * * *
Reaction 2 H2 1 O2 2 H2O

Change (use + and ―) ― 12.0 mol ― 6.0 mol + 12.0 mol
End 4.0 mol 0 mol 12.0 mol

The End row answers Q2, part b: In the vessel at the end of the reaction is 4.0 mol H2, no
O2, and 12.0 mol H2O. A rice moles table tracks the particle counts initially, reacting, and at
the End. From those counts, we can convert to other units WANTED.
Summary: Rice Moles Tables
In a reaction calculation, if the limiting reactant or given substance is not specified, a rice
moles table is one way to identify the limiting reactant. A rice moles table often takes longer
to identify the limiting reactant than the “successive 7-step stoichiometry” method in the
previous lesson, but if you are asked to calculate a count of all of the particles used up,
formed, and present at the end of a reaction, the rice moles table is the preferred method to
organize and simplify your work.
If reactions start as all reactants (with no products yet formed) and go to completion
(conditions that you should assume are true for now unless otherwise noted), the rules in
our rice moles accounting system include
a. The numbers entered into the table must have units that count particles, such as a
count of the molecules or ions, or moles or millimoles of particles, or other units that
are a multiple of particle counts. All numbers must have the same units.
b. In the Change row, counts for reactants used up must be assigned negative signs and
products formed assigned positive signs.
The rules below are also true, but you don’t need to memorize them as long as you can
solve rice tables intuitively.
d. To identify the limiting reactant, find the column that Ends in zero by ratio trial and
error among the reactants. In the End row, the count of one reactant (the limiting
reactant) must be zero, more than one reactant may be zero (if two or more reactants
are stoichiometrically equivalent), but no count can be negative.
e. To determine the other counts in the Change row, use the limiting reactant Change
and the coefficient ratios in the top row.
Practice A: Answers are at the end of this lesson.

1. Which rows in a rice moles table must have the same ratios? Why must the ratios be the
same?
2. Given the unbalanced equation: Al + Cl2 Æ AlCl3
If 15.0 moles of Al is reacted with 15.0 moles Cl2 and the reaction goes to completion,
how many moles of each component are present at the end of the reaction? Use:
Reaction
Initial
End

3. For the reaction (unbalanced) Mg + HCl Æ MgCl2 + H2

If 0.20 moles of Mg is mixed with 0.10 moles HCl and the reaction goes to completion,
what is the composition of the mixture at the end of the reaction?
Finding the Limiting Reactant For Complex Mole Ratios

In the rice moles tables in the example above, the numbers could be solved by mental
arithmetic. When the Change row cannot be done “in your head,” use this rule:
For a rice moles table, if the mole-to-mole Change row cannot be completed by
inspection, use mol-to-mol conversions
• between the reactants to identify the limiting reactant, then
• using the limiting moles as given, by inspection or using conversions, complete the
Change row.

Q1. Given the unbalanced equation NH3 + O2 Æ NO + H2O
if 6.70 moles of NH3 are mixed with 7.20 moles of O2 and ignited,
a. which substances are not present after the reaction?
b. How many moles of each substance are present after the reaction?
c. How many grams of water are present after the reaction?
When the counts of two reactants are given, use a rice table to identify which is limiting.
Because the data does not lend itself to mental arithmetic, apply the rule in the box above.
To do so this first time, in your notebook, answer these questions.
1. What is the balanced equation?
2. To use up all of the O2 , how many moles of NH3 are needed?
3. To use up all of the NH3 , how many moles of O2 are needed?
4. Which reactant is completely used up?
* * * * *
1. The balanced equation: 4 NH3 + 5 O2 Æ 4 NO + 6 H2O
2. When amounts of one reactant are given, and amounts of another reactant are
WANTED, use stoichiometry (mole-to-mole) conversions to solve.
* * * * *

To find the moles of NH3 needed to exactly use up 7.20 mol O2:
WANTED: ? mol NH3 DATA: 7.20 mol O2 Bridge: 4 mol NH3 = 5 mol O2
? mol NH3 needed = 7.20 mol O2 reacts ● 4 mol NH3 needed = 5.76 mol NH3 needed
5 mol O2 reacts
At the point when all of the initial O2 is used up, less than 6 mol NH3 is used up. Since
you have more than 6 mol of NH3 available, O2 is used up before NH3. The O2 is
therefore limiting and must have zero moles in the End row of the rice table.
3. When the problem supplies a count for two reactants, choose either reactant as your
given and solve for moles of the other reactant needed. Only one mole-to-mole
conversion is needed to identify which reactant is limiting. In Question 2, we chose O2
as given, and O2 was found to be limiting. Once the limiting reactant is identified, you
can complete the calculations to predict how much product is formed.
However, for this one calculation, let’s use Question 3 to check what the logic would be
if we had chosen 6.70 mol NH3 as given.
? mol O2 needed = 6.70 mol NH3 reacts ● 5 mol O2 needed = 8.38 mol O2 needed
4 mol NH3 reacts
NH3 cannot be completely used up because there is not enough initial O2, so NH3
cannot be the limiting reactant. Since one reactant must be limiting, and we only have
two, it must be O2 .
Both calculations agree: O2 is limiting. Only one calculation is required, because once the
limiting reactant is identified, its amount is used as given to complete the Change row.
Now write your answer to part a of the original question.
* * * * *
The substance not present at the end of a reaction the limiting reactant: in this case, O2. A
limiting reactant is ~100% used up. To answer parts b and c , complete the table.
* * * * *
Reaction 4 NH3 5 O2 4 NO 6 H2O
Initial 6.70 mol 7.20 mol -- --

Change ― 5.76 mol ― 7.20 mol
End 0 mol

For a limiting reactant, the amount in row 2 is always subtracted in row 3. The rest of the
Change row is calculated based on the reaction coefficients, either by inspection or using
mole-to-mole conversions, with the limiting moles as given. The moles NH3 used up was
calculated in the conversions above. From the value for moles NH3 used up and the
coefficients, try entering the remaining values by inspection and/or quick arithmetic.
* * * * *
Reaction 4 NH3 5 O2 4 NO 6 H2O

Change ― 5.76 mol ― 7.20 mol + 5.76 mol + 8.64 mol
End 0.94 mol 0 mol + 5.76 mol + 8.64 mol
• The moles NO formed must equal the moles NH3 used up, since their ratio is 1 to 1.
• Mol H2O formed = change in mol NH3 or mol NO x 6/4 = 8.64 mol H2O
The End row answers part b. Complete part c.
* * * * *
WANT: g H2O at end
DATA: 8.64 mol H2O at end; 1 mol H2O (g prompt in the conversion format)
18.0 g H2O
SOLVE: ? g H2O = 8.64 mol H2O ● 18.0 g H2O = 156 g H2O
1 mol H2O
From the moles in a rice table, other WANTED units can be calculated.
Practice B
1. The combustion (burning) of methanol (wood alcohol) is described by
2 CH3OH + 3 O2 Æ 2 CO2 + 4 H2O
If a mixture of 5.50 mol O2 and 2.25 mol CH3OH is ignited, how many moles of each
substance is present in the mixture at the end of the reaction?
Finding the Limiting Reactant When the Units Are Not Moles
The units after the numbers in a rice table must all be the same. The units may be any units
that the coefficients can be: particles (such as molecules or ions) or any units that are
multiples of particle counts, including dozens of particles, moles of particles, or prefix-moles
(such as millimoles).
A rice moles table may not be solved in grams. Why not? The ratios in the Change row are
the coefficients in the Reaction row. Those coefficients can be read as particle or mole
ratios, but not as mass (gram) ratios, and the units in the rice table must be consistent.

However, if the units supplied in a reaction calculation are not moles, the rice moles table
can be solved if the supplied units can be converted to moles. The steps are logical.
1. Convert all initial DATA to moles.
2. Solve the rice moles table in moles.
3. Convert the End-row moles to WANTED units.
Use those steps to solve this example.
Q. For the reaction CH4 + 2 O2 Æ CO2 + 2 H2O , if an initial mixture is 12.0 grams
of CH4 and 7.20 x 1023 molecules of O2 and the reaction goes to completion,
a. how many moles of CO2 form? b. How many grams of H2O form?
* * * * *
Step 1. ? mol CH4 = 12.0 g CH4 ● 1 mol CH4 = 0.750 mol CH4
16.0 g CH4
? mol O2 = 7.20 x 1023 O2 ● 1 mol O2 = 1.20 mol O2
6.02 x 1023 O2
* * * * *
Reaction 1 CH4 2 O2 1 CO2 2 H2O
Initial 0.750 mol 1.20 mol

Change
End
Try to determine which reactant is limiting using mental arithmetic, but if unsure, do a
mole-to-mole conversion between the reactants.
* * * * *
0.750 doubled is 1.50, so 1.50 mol O2 would be needed to use up the CH4. 1.50 mol O2
doesn’t work in the table (we don’t have that much O2), so CH4 cannot be all used up
(limiting). Since there are only two reactants, O2 must be limiting.
Or you can reason that as 1.20 mol O2 is used up, 0.600 mol CH4 must be used up, and we
have more than that much CH4, so CH4 is in excess, and O2 is used up first.
From here, solve as much of the table as needed to find the WANTED units.
* * * * *

The limiting moles become the given for the mole-to-mole ratios in the Change row. Since
those ratios are the whole-number coefficients, the Change row can usually be filled in by
inspection or quick paper and pencil arithmetic.
In this reaction, the O2 to H2O ratio is 1 to 1, and the O2 to CO2 ratio is 2 to 1.
A quick Change-row conversion answers part a:
a. ? mol CO2 formed = 1.20 mol limiting O2 used up ● 1/2 = 0.600 mol CO2
The moles of water formed must be the same as the moles of O2 used up.
Reaction 1 CH4 2 O2 1 CO2 2 H2O

Change ― 1.20 mol + 0.600 mol + 1.20 mol
End 0 mol + 0.600 mol + 1.20 mol
Once moles at the End are known, other units WANTED can be calculated. For part b:
b. ? g H2O = 1.20 mol H2O ● 18.0 g H2O = 21.6 g H2O
1 mol H2O
In a rice table, it may not be necessary to fill in all of the columns to find what is WANTED.
Summary
For any reaction calculation that asks you to find the mixture at the end of the reaction,
or for any reaction that is complicated, including when you are not sure whether you
need to find a limiting reactant or not, or use a rice moles table to solve. The steps are
write the WANTED unit, then
All supplied units > all moles > rice moles table > WANTED units
Flashcards
Put a check by questions below that you can answer quickly; flashcard those you cannot.
Which reactant decides the amount of products that form? The limiting reactant
The reactant used up first is The limiting reactant
Which reactant amounts do not affect calculations? Amounts in excess (those not limiting)
Whenever a reaction amount calculation is
When should you use a rice moles table?
complicated
In a reaction, how many reactants are limiting? At least one
In a reaction, how many reactants will be in excess? All that are not limiting
Given counts of two reactants, how do you identify the Use successive stoichiometry or
limiting reactant? solve the rice moles table

Practice C: If you need to find the limiting reactant on any of these, use a rice table.
Solve Problems 1, 2 and 3. Save Problem 4 for your next review session on this material.
1. For which of the Problems 2-4 below must the limiting reactant be identified before the
calculation is solved?
2. Given the unbalanced equation NH3 + O2 Æ NO2 + H2O
if 1.70 grams of NH3 are mixed with 9.60 grams of O2 and ignited, how many moles of
each substance are present after the reaction?
3. Magnesium burns to form magnesium oxide (MgO). The unbalanced equation is
Mg + O2 Æ MgO
How many grams of MgO can be produced from burning 0.486 kilograms of Mg in
excess oxygen?
4 Given the unbalanced equation: CS2 + O2 Æ CO2 + SO2 , starting with
10.0 grams of each reactant,
a. how many moles of SO2 can be formed?
b. How many moles of CS2 will be used up?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. The Reaction (row 1) and Change (row 3) rows must have the same ratios, because the coefficients
determine the ratios in which the reacting particles are used up and formed.
2. WANT: all moles in mixture at end of reaction. Use a rice table to solve.
Balanced equation: 2 Al + 3 Cl2 Æ 2 AlCl3
Reaction 2 Al 3 Cl2 2 AlCl3

End 5.0 mol 0 mol 10.0 mol
The starting moles of reactants are equal, but with its higher coefficient, Cl2 is used up at a faster rate, so
Cl2 is limiting. The End Cl2 moles must be zero, so the Cl2 Change must be ― 15.0 mol. In the Change
row, the limiting Cl2 determines all of the other counts, based on the coefficients in the top row. The End
row shows all counts at the end of the reaction.

3. Balanced equation: 1 Mg + 2 HCl Æ 1 MgCl2 + 1 H2
Reaction 1 Mg 2 HCl 1 MgCl2 1 H2
Initial 0.20 mol 0.10 mol 0 mol 0 mol

One count in the End row must be zero and none may be negative. By trial and error, the HCl must be
limiting. The HCl change must be ― 0.10 mol to get a zero in the End row. In the Change row, the limiting
HCl moles determine all of the other moles. The ratios across the Change row must always match the
ratios of the Reaction row. The End row shows all counts at the end of the reaction.
Practice B
1 WANTED: moles of all components.
To find the amounts in an end mixture, use a rice moles table.
To complete the Change row, either logic which is limiting by mental arithmetic or use a mole-to-mole
conversion between the reactants with moles of either reactant as given.
One mol-mol conversion that identifies the limiting reactant is
? mol O used up = 2.25 mol CH OH used up • 3 mol O2 = 3.38 mol O2 used up
2 3
2 mol CH3OH
As all of the CH3OH reacts, 3.38 moles O2 is needed. In the initial mixture is 5.50 moles O2. The O2 is
therefore in excess. Since one reactant must be limiting, it must be CH3OH. Use up the CH3OH.
* * * * *
Reaction 2 CH3OH 3 O2 2 CO2 4 H2O

Change (use +, ―) ― 2.25 mol ― 3.38 mol + 2.25 mol + 4.50 mol
End 0 mol 2.12 mol + 2.25 mol + 4.50 mol
The End row shows counts of all components present at the end of the reaction.
Practice C
1. In Problem 3, O2 is in excess, so Mg must be limiting. In problems 2 and 4, you know the amounts of two
reactants, so you need to find which is limiting.
2. WANTED: moles of all components.
You are given grams and formulas for two reactants. From those data, you can find the moles for
both. Knowing the moles of two reactants, to find the amounts in an end mixture, use a rice moles
table. The steps are: All units > all moles > rice moles > WANTED units .
Converting all supplied units to moles:
? mol NH3 = 1.70 g NH3 • 1 mol NH3 = 0.100 mol NH3
17.0 g NH3

? mol O2 = 9.60 g O2 • 1 mol O2 = 0.300 mol O2

32.0 g O2
For row 1, balance the equation: 4 NH3 + 7 O2 Æ 4 NO2 + 6 H2O
In the rice table, try using ratio arithmetic “in your head” first, but if unsure, use a mole-to-mole conversion.
* * * * *
O2 is used up about twice as fast according to the coefficients, but there are 3 times more initial moles of
O2. O2 is therefore likely in excess and NH3 limiting. See if that works in the table.
* * * * *
Reaction 4 NH3 7 O2 4 NO2 6 H2O
Initial 0.100 mol 0.300 mol -- --

End 0 mol 0.125 mol + 0.100 mol + 0.150 mol
In the End row, make one reactant zero and the other reactants subtract to a positive value. The column
with the zero contains the limiting reactant.
Try to complete the Change row by mental arithmetic, but do the conversions if unsure.
* * * * *
? mol O2 used up = 0.100 mol NH3 used up • 7 mol O2 = 0.175 mol O2 used up
4 mol NH3
? mol H2O formed = 0.100 mol NH3 used up • 6 mol H2O = 0.150 mol H2O formed
4 mol NH3
The End row shows the moles of all components present at the end of the reaction.
3. WANTED: g MgO
Since O2 is in excess, the limiting reactant must be Mg.
If the limiting reactant is known and one other component is WANTED, the fastest way to solve is
7-step stoichiometry: WDBB, units given > moles given > moles WANTED > units WANTED .
2. DATA: 0.486 kg Mg (your single-unit given)
1 mol Mg = 24.3 g Mg (the DATA prefix-grams Mg calls this g prompt)
1 mol MgO = 40.3 g MgO (the WANTED unit calls this g prompt)
3. Balance: 2 Mg + 1 O2 Æ 2 MgO
4. Bridge: 2 mol Mg = 2 mol MgO 5-7. SOLVE.
? g MgO = 0.486 kg Mg • 103 g • 1 mol Mg • 2 mol MgO • 40.3 g MgO = 806 g MgO
1 kg 24.3 g Mg 2 mol Mg 1 mol MgO

4. WANTED: mol SO2 and mol CS2 .

Given grams and formulas for two reactants, you can find the moles for both. Knowing the moles of
two reactants, you need to find which is limiting. Use a rice moles table. The steps are:
All units > all moles > rice moles > WANTED units .
For Row 1: 1 CS2 + 3 O2 Æ 1 CO2 + 2 SO2 Then convert all supplied units to moles.
? mol CS2 = 10.0 g CS2 • 1 mol CS2 = 0.131 mol CS2
76.2 g CS2
? mol O2 = 10.0 g O2 • 1 mol O2 = 0.312 mol O2

32.0 g O2
Which is limiting? To use up 0.131 mol CS2 • 3 O2 / 1 CS2 = 0.393 mol O2 is used up
Since that much O2 is not present, O2 is limiting. Use the O2 limiting moles to finish the Change row,
either by inspection, quick arithmetic, or mole-to-mole conversions.
* * * * *
Reaction 1 CS2 3 O2 1 CO2 2 SO2
Initial 0.131 mol 0.312 mol -- --

Change ―0.104 mol ―0.312 mol + 0.104 mol + 0.208 mol
a. ? mol SO2 formed = double the 0.104 mol CS2 used up = 0.208 mol SO2 formed
b. ? mol CS2 used up = 1/3 of 0.312 mol O2 limiting used up = 0.104 mol CS2 used up
* * * * *
Lesson 10I: Review Quiz For Modules 8-10

You may use a calculator and a periodic table. Work on your own paper.
To answer multiple choice questions, it is suggested that you
• Solve as if the question is not multiple choice,
• Then circle your answer among the choices provided.
Set a 30-minute limit. Answers are after the Summary that follows.
* * * * *
1. 0.72 kg of water contain how many atoms? a. 2.4 x 1022 atoms b. 2.4 x 1025 atoms
c. 7.2 x 1025 atoms d. 7.2 x 1022 atoms e. 2.4 x 1026 atoms
2. If a substance is 25.1% hydrogen by mass and the rest is carbon, find the empirical
formula.
a. CH b. CH2 c. CH3 d. CH4 e. CH5

3. What is the percent mass that is oxygen in carbon dioxide?

a. 33.3 % b. 72.7 % c. 27.2 % d. 66.7 % e. 32.1 %
4. For Fe2O3 + CO Æ Fe + CO2
b. If 33.5 g Fe is produced, how many moles of carbon monoxide are used up?
a. 0.400 mol CO b. 0.601 mol CO c. 1.20 mol CO d. 1.81 mol CO e. 0.901 mol CO
5. If 40.2 g H2 gas is burned with 128 g O2 gas, how many moles of water form?
a. 1.00 mol H2O b. 2.00 mol H2O c. 4.00 mol H2O d. 8.00 mol H2O e. 16.0 mol H2O
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Balanced Equations and Stoichiometry

1. In chemical equations, reactants on the left side are used up, and products on the right
side form.
2. Coefficients show the exact particle ratios involved in the reaction. Coefficients can be
read as molecules, particles, or any consistent multiple of molecules or particles. We
most often read coefficients as exact moles.
3. In chemical reactions, atoms and mass are neither created nor destroyed.
4. Balanced chemical equations have the same number and kind of atoms on both sides.
The coefficients of a balanced equation show the exact ratios in which the particles react
and form.
5. Each term in a balanced equation is a coefficient followed by a substance formula.
To count the number of each kind of atom represented by a term, multiply the
coefficient by the subscript(s) for that atom.
To count each type of atom on a side, add the atoms in each term on that side.
6. Only one set of ratios will balance a chemical equation. To balance equations,
coefficients are added by trial and error.
7. Start balancing by putting a one in front of the most complex formula. If you need to
eliminate fractions, multiply all coefficients by the denominator.
8. Prompts
a. Grams Prompt: If you see g (or prefix-g) of a chemical formula, write in the DATA:
(Molar Mass) # g formula = 1 mole formula
b. Avogadro Prompt: If you see 10xx or any mix of units measuring visible and
invisible particles, write
1 mole of anything = 6.02 x 1023 (molecules or particles) of anything.
c. Stoichiometry Prompt: For reaction calculations, if WANTED substance ≠ given
substance, a balanced equation and mole-to-mole bridge conversion will be needed.

9. The 7 Steps of Conversion Stoichiometry. If a reaction calculation WANTS a quantity

of one substance, and a different substance is given, use these steps:
1. WANTED unit and substance 2. List the DATA. 3. Balance the equation.
4. Bridge: Write the mol WANTED to mol given equality, using coefficients.
5. Convert “? WANTED = given“ to moles given. 6. To moles WANTED.
7. To units WANTED. Summary: WDBB, then units > moles > moles > units
10. Limiting Reactants
a. A reaction that goes to completion continues until one reactant is ~100% used up.
(For now, assume reactions go to completion unless otherwise noted.)
b. A reactant 100% used up is a limiting reactant. Reactants not limiting are in excess.
The amount of limiting particles used up determines the amounts of other reactants
used up and products formed.
c. If a reaction goes to completion, one reactant must be limiting. If two reactants are
limiting (both exactly used up), the two reactants are stoichiometrically equivalent.
d. If the limiting reactant is known, the amount of any other reactant used up or
product formed, can be calculated using 7-step conversion stoichiometry.
e. If the limiting reactant is not known, either
• Use 7-step stoichiometry in successive calculations to calculate the WANTED
amount of one products. In each calculation, use as a given the known amounts
for a different reactant.
The calculation that forms the lowest amount of the WANTED substance has the
limiting reactant as its given. OR,
• Use a rice moles table to calculate all of the moles used up, formed during the
reaction, and present at the end of the reaction.
11. Rice Moles Tables: Nearly all reaction calculations can be solved by a rice moles table.
a. The 4 table rows are labeled: Reaction, Initial, Change, End.
b. All table numbers must have the same units. The units must count particles or be
multiples of particle counts.
c. In the Change row, reactants used up are assigned negative signs, and products
formed are assigned positive signs.
d. In the End row for reactions that go to completion, one number must be zero, more
than one may be zero, but no numbers can be negative.
e. To identify the limiting reactant, find the column that Ends in zero by ratio trial and
error among the reactants. Use either quick arithmetic or mole-to-mole conversions.
f. The Change in the limiting reactant, converted based on the coefficient ratios,
determines all of the other counts in the Change row.
g. If the DATA supplied is not in molecules or moles, use these rice table steps:
* * * * *


1. c. 7.2 x 1025 atoms (3 atoms per molecule. See Lesson 8C)
2. d. CH4 ( 25.1 g H, 74.9 g C, find lowest-whole-number mole ratios. See Lesson 9C)
3. b. 72.7% O ( 32.0 g O / 44.0 g CO2 , See Lesson 9D)
4a. 1 Fe2O3 + 3 CO Æ 2 Fe + 3 CO2 (Lesson 10B) 4b. e. 0.901 mol CO (Lesson 10E)
5. d. 8.00 mol H2O (If two reactant amounts are supplied, find the limiting reactant first. See Lesson
10F or 10G. )
# # # # #

NOTE on the Table of Elements

The atomic masses in the Table of Elements in the following table use fewer significant
figures than most similar tables in college textbooks. By “keeping the numbers
simple,” it is hoped that you will use “mental arithmetic” to do easy numeric
cancellations and simplifications before you use a calculator for arithmetic.
Many of the calculations in these lessons have been set up so that you should not need
a calculator at all to solve, if you look for easy cancellations first.
The purpose is to give you practice at estimating answers. After any use of a
calculator, it is important to estimate the answer using mental arithmetic and simple
cancellations in order to catch errors in using the calculator.
# # # # #

The ELEMENTS – Magnesium
Manganese
Mg
Mn
12
25
24.3
54.9
The third column shows the atomic Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
Mercury Hg 80 200.6
number: The protons in the nucleus of the
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.9
atom.
Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
The fourth column is the molar mass, in Neon Ne 10 20.2
grams/mole. For radioactive atoms, ( ) is Neptunium Np 93 (237)
the molar mass of most stable isotope. Nickel Ni 28 58.7
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Niobium Nb 41 92.9
Aluminum Al 13 27.0 Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Americium Am 95 (243) Nobelium No 102 (253)
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Oxygen O 8 16.0
Arsenic As 33 74.9 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Astatine At 84 (210) Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Platinum Pt 78 195.1
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Plutonium Pu 94 (242)
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Potassium K 19 39.1
Boron B 5 10.8 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Bromine Br 35 79.9 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Calcium Ca 20 40.1 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Californium Cf 98 (249) Radon Rn 86 (222)
Carbon C 6 12.0 Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Cesium Cs 55 132.9 Rubidium Rb 37 85.5
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Chromium Cr 24 52.0 Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Cobalt Co 27 58.9 Scandium Sc 21 45.0
Copper Cu 29 63.5 Selenium Se 34 79.0
Curium Cm 96 (247) Silicon Si 14 28.1
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Silver Ag 47 107.9
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Sodium Na 11 23.0
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Fermium Fm 100 (253) Sulfur S 16 32.1
Fluorine F 9 19.0 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Francium Fr 87 (223) Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Gallium Ga 31 69.7 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Germanium Ge 32 72.6 Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Gold Au 79 197.0 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Helium He 2 4.00 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Titanium Ti 22 47.9
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Tungsten W 74 183.8
Indium In 49 114.8 Uranium U 92 238.0
Iodine I 53 126.9 Vanadium V 23 50.9
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Iron Fe 26 55.8 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 Yttrium Y 39 88.9
Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Zinc Zn 30 65.4
Lawrencium Lr 103 (257) Zirconium Zr 40 91.2
Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.94
Lutetium Lu 71 175.0
Modules 11 to 12
The focus of these lessons is to provide methods will help you to solve numeric calculations
in first-year chemistry. This is only one part of a course in chemistry, but it is often the
most challenging.
write your work when solving the problems in these lessons. A notebook that has graph-
paper as its pages will be especially helpful.
or x-1 , yx or ^ , log or 10x , and ln functions will be sufficient for most calculations
in introductory chemistry courses.
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page i

Table of Contents
Module 1 – Scientific Notation ........................................................................................ 2
Lesson 1A: Moving the Decimal ..............................................................................................2
Lesson 1B: Calculations Using Exponential Notation ..........................................................8
Lesson 1C: Tips for Complex Calculations...........................................................................16
Module 2 – The Metric System ......................................................................................24
Lesson 2A: Metric Fundamentals...........................................................................................24
Lesson 2B: Metric Prefix Formats ..........................................................................................30
Lesson 2C: Cognitive Science -- and Flashcards ..................................................................34
Lesson 2D: Calculations With Units ......................................................................................40
Lesson 3A: Rules for Significant Figures...............................................................................44
Lesson 3B: Sig Figs -- Special Cases.......................................................................................47
Lesson 3C: Sig Fig Summary and Practice............................................................................50
Module 4 – Conversion Factors......................................................................................53
Lesson 4A: Conversion Factor Basics ....................................................................................53
Lesson 4B: Single Step Conversions......................................................................................57
Lesson 4C: Multi-Step Conversions.......................................................................................60
Lesson 4D: English/Metric Conversions ..............................................................................62
Lesson 4E: Ratio Unit Conversions .......................................................................................66
Lesson 4F: Review Quiz For Modules 1-4..............................................................................70
Module 5 – Word Problems ............................................................................................73
Lesson 5A: Answer Units -- Single Or Ratio?.......................................................................73
Lesson 5B: Mining The DATA ...............................................................................................75
Lesson 5C: Solving For Single Units......................................................................................82
Lesson 5D: Finding the Given .................................................................................................84
Lesson 5E: Some Chemistry Practice ....................................................................................86
Lesson 5F: Area and Volume Conversions ..........................................................................89
Lesson 5G: Densities of Solids: Solving Equations .............................................................93
Module 6 – Atoms, Ions, and Periodicity................................................................... 101
Lesson 6A: Atoms...................................................................................................................101
Lesson 6B: The Nucleus, Isotopes, and Atomic Mass.......................................................106
Lesson 6C: Elements, Compounds, and Formulas ............................................................113
Lesson 6D: The Periodic Table..............................................................................................118
Lesson 6E: A Flashcard Review System .............................................................................122
Module 7 – Writing Names and Formulas.................................................................125
Lesson 7A: Naming Elements and Covalent Compounds ...............................................125
Lesson 7B: Naming Ions .......................................................................................................130
Lesson 7C: Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds..................................................140
Lesson 7D: Naming Acids.....................................................................................................152
Lesson 7E: Review Quiz For Modules 5-7............................................................................155
Module 8 – Grams and Moles ......................................................................................159
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................159
Lesson 8B: Grams Per Mole (Molar Mass) .........................................................................160
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page ii

Lesson 8C: Converting Between Grams and Moles ......................................................... 163
Lesson 8D: Converting Particles, Moles, and Grams........................................................ 167
Module 9 – Mole Applications .................................................................................... 172
Lesson 9A: Fractions and Percentages................................................................................ 172
Lesson 9B: Empirical Formulas........................................................................................... 174
Lesson 9C: Empirical Formulas from Mass or % Mass .................................................... 175
Lesson 9D: Mass Fraction, Mass Percent, Percent Composition..................................... 180
Module 10 – Balanced Equations and Stoichiometry.............................................. 189
Lesson 10A: Chemical Reactions and Equations................................................................. 189
Lesson 10B: Balancing Equations.......................................................................................... 192
Lesson 10C: Using Coefficients -- Molecules to Molecules ............................................... 197
Lesson 10D: Mole to Mole Conversions ............................................................................... 199
Lesson 10E: Conversion Stoichiometry................................................................................ 202
Lesson 10F: Percent Yield ...................................................................................................... 209
Lesson 10G: Finding the Limiting Reactant ......................................................................... 214
Lesson 10H: Final Mixture Amounts – and RICE Tables................................................... 220
Lesson 10I: Review Quiz For Modules 8-10 ......................................................................... 233
Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 237
Lesson 11A: Ratio Unit Review ............................................................................................. 237
Lesson 11B: Word Problems with Ratio Answers .............................................................. 237
Lesson 11C: Molarity .............................................................................................................. 244
Lesson 11D: Conversions and Careers ................................................................................. 250
Lesson 11E: Units and Dimensions ..................................................................................... 253
Lesson 11F: Ratios versus Two Related Amounts ............................................................. 260
Lesson 11G: Solving Problems With Parts .......................................................................... 265
Module 12 – Molarity Applications............................................................................ 275
Lesson 12A: Dilution .............................................................................................................. 275
Lesson 12B: Ion Concentrations ............................................................................................ 283
Lesson 12C: Solution Stoichiometry ..................................................................................... 290
Lesson 12D: Reaction Stoichiometry For Ratio Units ......................................................... 297
Module 13 – Ionic Equations and Precipitates ........................................................ 308
Lesson 13A: Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds .................................................. 308
Lesson 13B: Total and Net Ionic Equations ......................................................................... 312
Lesson 13C: Predicting Precipitation.................................................................................... 316
Lesson 13D: Precipitate and Gravimetric Calculations ...................................................... 323
Module 14 – Acid-Base Neutralization ...................................................................... 330
Lesson 14A: Ions in Acid-Base Neutralization .................................................................... 330
Lesson 14B: Balancing Hydroxide Neutralization ............................................................. 334
Lesson 14C: Acid-Hydroxide Neutralization Calculations ............................................... 341
Lesson 14D: Neutralization Calculations in Parts............................................................... 347
Lesson 14E: Carbonate Neutralization................................................................................. 354
Module 15 – Redox Reactions ...................................................................................... 362
Lesson 15A: Oxidation Numbers .......................................................................................... 362
Lesson 15B: Balancing Charge............................................................................................... 367
Lesson 15C: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents .................................................................... 369
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Lesson 15D: Balancing Redox Using Oxidation Numbers .................................................372
Lesson 15E: Redox Stoichiometry......................................................................................... 377
Module 16 – Half-Reaction Balancing........................................................................381
Lesson 16A: Constructing Half-Reactions – The CA-WHe! Method ................................381
Lesson 16B: Balancing By Adding Half-Reactions..............................................................387
Lesson 16C: Separating Redox Into Half-Reactions ............................................................390
Lesson 16D: Balancing Redox With Spectators Present......................................................393
Module 17 – Ideal Gases ...............................................................................................401
Lesson 17A: Gas Fundamentals..............................................................................................401
Lesson 17B: Gases at STP........................................................................................................405
Lesson 17C: Complex Unit Cancellation...............................................................................410
Lesson 17D: The Ideal Gas Law and Solving Equations.....................................................415
Lesson 17E: Density, Molar Mass, and Choosing Equations.............................................419
Lesson 17F: Using the Combined Equation .........................................................................426
Lesson 17G: Gas Law Summary and Practice ......................................................................432
Module 18 – Gas Labs, Gas Reactions ........................................................................436
Lesson 18A: Charles’ Law; Graphing Direct Proportions...................................................436
Lesson 18B: Boyle’s Law; Graphs of Inverse Proportions..................................................443
Lesson 18C: Avogadro’s Hypothesis; Gas Stoichiometry ..................................................447
Lesson 18D: Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures ....................................................................454
Module 19 – Kinetic Molecular Theory...................................................................... 462
Lesson 19A: Squares and Square Roots.................................................................................462
Lesson 19B: Kinetic Molecular Theory .................................................................................470
Lesson 19C: Converting to SI Base Units ..............................................................................473
Lesson 19D: KMT Calculations ..............................................................................................478
Lesson 19E: Graham’s Law ....................................................................................................487
Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................491
Lesson 20A: Graphing Fundamentals ...................................................................................491
Lesson 20B: The Specific Equation for a Line ......................................................................501
Lesson 20C: Graphing Experimental Data ...........................................................................511
Lesson 20D: Deriving Equations From Linear Data ............................................................518
Lesson 20E: Linear Equations Not Directly Proportional ..................................................529
Lesson 20F: Graphing Inverse Proportions..........................................................................536
Module 21 – Phases Changes and Energy..................................................................546
Lesson 21A: Phases and Phase Changes ...............................................................................546
Lesson 21B: Specific Heat Capacity and Equations ............................................................559
Lesson 21C: Water, Energy, and Consistent Units ..............................................................566
Lesson 21D: Calculating Joules Using Unit Cancellation ...................................................570
Lesson 21E: Calorimetry .........................................................................................................576
Lesson 22A: Energy, Heat, and Work ...................................................................................584
Lesson 22B: Exo- And Endothermic Reactions ...................................................................591
Lesson 22C: Adding ΔH Equations (Hess’s Law) ...............................................................596
Lesson 22D: Heats of Formation and Element Formulas ...................................................603
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page iv

Module 23 – Light and Spectra ................................................................................... 614
Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 614
Lesson 23B: Planck's Constant ............................................................................................. 619
Lesson 23C: DeBroglie’s Wavelength .................................................................................. 627
Lesson 23D: The Hydrogen Atom Spectrum ....................................................................... 632
Lesson 23E: Quantum Mechanics ........................................................................................ 638
Module 24 – Electron Configuration .......................................................................... 643
Lesson 24A: The Multi-Electron Atom ................................................................................. 643
Lesson 24B: Abbreviated Electron Configurations............................................................. 647
Lesson 24C: The Periodic Table and Electron Configuration ........................................... 651
Lesson 24D: Electron Configurations: Exceptions and Ions ............................................ 657
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 662
Lesson 25A: Covalent Bonds.................................................................................................. 662
Lesson 25B: Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles ............................................................... 667
Lesson 25C: Electronegativity................................................................................................ 675
Lesson 25D: Molecular Polarity............................................................................................. 679
Lesson 25E: Solubility............................................................................................................. 685
Lesson 25F: Double and Triple Bonds ................................................................................. 689
Lesson 25G: Ion Dot Diagrams .............................................................................................. 694
Lesson 25H: Orbital Models for Bonding ............................................................................. 696
Module 26 – The Behavior of Mixtures .................................................................... 701
Lesson 26A: Measures of Solution Composition................................................................. 701
Lesson 26B: Parts Per Million ................................................................................................ 707
Lesson 26C: Colligative Properties and Gas Pressures ...................................................... 710
Lesson 26D: Colligative Properties of Solutions ................................................................. 718
Module 27 – Kinetics: Rate Laws ............................................................................... 729
Lesson 27A: Kinetics Fundamentals .................................................................................... 729
Lesson 27B: Rate Laws ........................................................................................................... 734
Lesson 27C: Integrated Rate Law --Zero Order .................................................................. 743
Lesson 27D: Logarithms ........................................................................................................ 751
Lesson 27E: Integrated Rate Law -- First Order.................................................................. 766
Lesson 27F: Reciprocal Math................................................................................................. 776
Lesson 27G: Integrated Rate Law -- Second Order ............................................................. 781
Lesson 27H: Half-Life.............................................................................................................. 788
Module 28 – Equilibrium.............................................................................................. 797
Lesson 28A: Le Châtelier’s Principle..................................................................................... 798
Lesson 28B: Powers and Roots of Exponential Notation................................................... 810
Lesson 28C: Equilibrium Constants...................................................................................... 820
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827
Lesson 28E: Kp Calculations .................................................................................................. 830
Lesson 28F: K and Rice Moles Tables .................................................................................... 836
Lesson 28G: K Calculations From Initial Concentrations .................................................. 843
Lesson 28H: Q: The Reaction Quotient ................................................................................. 849
Lesson 28I: Calculations Using K and Q............................................................................. 852
Lesson 28J: Solving Quadratic Equations ........................................................................... 859
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page v

Module 29 – Acid-Base Fundamentals .......................................................................870
Lesson 29A: Acid-Base Math Review ....................................................................................870
Lesson 29B: Kw Calculations: H+ and OH─ .......................................................................871
Lesson 29C: Strong Acid Solutions........................................................................................877
Lesson 29D: The [OH─] in Strong Acid Solutions...............................................................882
Lesson 29E: Strong Base Solutions ........................................................................................885
Lesson 29F: The pH System ...................................................................................................889
Module 30 – Weak Acids and Bases............................................................................898
Lesson 30A: Ka Math and Approximation Equations .........................................................898
Lesson 30B: Weak Acids and Ka Expressions ......................................................................902
Lesson 30C: Ka Calculations ...................................................................................................908
Lesson 30D: Percent Dissociation and Shortcuts .................................................................917
Lesson 30E: Solving Ka Using the Quadratic Formula .......................................................920
Lesson 30F: Weak Bases and Kb Calculations......................................................................924
Lesson 30G: Polyprotic Acids .................................................................................................933
Module 31 – Brønsted-Lowry Definitions .................................................................939
Lesson 31A: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases ....................................................................939
Lesson 31B: Which Acids and Bases Will React?.................................................................943
Module 32 – pH of Salts ................................................................................................952
Lesson 32A: The Acid-Base Behavior of Salts.......................................................................952
Lesson 32B: Will A Salt Acid-Base React? ...........................................................................959
Lesson 32C: Calculating the pH of a Salt Solution .............................................................963
Lesson 32D: Salts That Contain Amphoteric Ions ...............................................................968
Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................974
Lesson 33A: Acid-Base Common Ions, Buffers ....................................................................974
Lesson 33B: Buffer Example ...................................................................................................977
Lesson 33C: Buffer Components............................................................................................983
Lesson 33D: Methodical Buffer Calculations........................................................................987
Lesson 33E: Buffer Quick Steps .............................................................................................992
Lesson 33F: The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation............................................................998
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures .................................................................................................1005
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization..................................................................................1009
Lesson 34C: Distinguishing Types of Acid-Base Calculations ........................................1020
Lesson 34D: pH During Strong-Strong Titration ...............................................................1024
Lesson 34E: Titration pH: Weak by Strong .......................................................................1037
Module 35 – Solubility Equilibrium.........................................................................1051
Lesson 35A: Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds ................................................................1051
Lesson 35B: Ksp Calculations ...............................................................................................1055
Lesson 35C: Solubility and Common Ions..........................................................................1062
Lesson 35D: pH and Solubility .............................................................................................1069
Lesson 35E: Quantitative Precipitation Prediction............................................................1073
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page vi

Module 36 – Thermodynamics .................................................................................. 1085
Lesson 36A: Review: Energy and Heats of Reaction ....................................................... 1085
Lesson 36B: Entropy and Spontaneity .............................................................................. 1090
Lesson 36C: Free Energy ...................................................................................................... 1098
Lesson 36D: Standard State Values ..................................................................................... 1104
Lesson 36E: Adding ΔG° Equations ................................................................................... 1109
Lesson 36F: Free Energy at Non-Standard Conditions ................................................... 1112
Lesson 36G: Free Energy and K ........................................................................................... 1117
Module 37 – Electrochemistry.................................................................................... 1124
Lesson 37A: Redox Fundamentals ...................................................................................... 1124
Lesson 37B: Charges and Electrical Work ......................................................................... 1131
Lesson 37C: Standard Reduction Potentials ...................................................................... 1135
Lesson 37D: Non-Standard Potentials: The Nernst Equation ........................................ 1138
Lesson 37E: Predicting Which Redox Reactions Go......................................................... 1144
Lesson 37F: Calculating Cell Potential............................................................................... 1151
Lesson 38A: Cells and Batteries ........................................................................................... 1161
Lesson 38B: Anodes and Cathodes..................................................................................... 1171
Lesson 38C: Depleted Batteries and Concentration Cells................................................ 1180
Lesson 38D: Electrolysis ....................................................................................................... 1188
Lesson 38E: Amperes and Electrochemical Calculations ................................................ 1191
•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page vii

Module 11 — Molarity
Timing: Lessons 11A to 11D cover the fundamentals of molarity. Lessons 11E to 11G cover
more complex molarity calculations. Try to complete all of Module 11 as soon as molarity
problems are assigned.
Prerequisites: Molarity problems will be relatively easy if you have completed Lessons 2A-
B, 4A-E, 5A-D, and 8A-D. Those lessons do not take long, but they include practice with
the prompts and conversions that are used in molarity calculations. If needed, do those
lessons and then return here.
* * * * *
Introduction
Most problems we have done so far have asked for a single-unit answer, such as grams,
moles, or molecules. Problems involving the concentration of solutions or the densities of
substances often require finding a ratio unit, such as “moles per liter of solution,” or “grams
per liter of gas.”
In this module, you will learn two ways to solve for ratio units: 1) starting with a ratio and
2) solving in two parts.
* * * * *
Lesson 11A: Ratio Unit Review

Solving for ratio units using conversions was covered in Lesson 4E. To briefly review,
• the order in which numbers or units are multiplied does not affect the answer.
• When converting a ratio unit, either the top unit or the bottom unit may be
converted first.
• If a unit and label on the right matches a unit and label in the WANTED, in both
what it is and where it is (top or bottom), circle it and leave it alone.
• If a unit and label in or after the given unit is not what you WANT and where you
want it , put it where it will cancel, and convert until it matches what you WANT.
Practice A: Cover the answers below. Do every other part, and more if you need more
practice. For additional review, see Lesson 4E.
1. Make legal conversions, cancel units, do the math, check your answers.
a. ? meters = 95 km • meters • • =
sec hr min
b. ? mol H2O = 0.36 grams H2O • _______________ • 1 mole H2O =

L of solution mL of solution L
©2009 ChemReview.net v.g2 Page 237

2. Add legal conversions in any order and solve.

a. ? mg = 0.025 g •
L mL
b. ? calories = 1.44 kilocalories

gram H2O mole H2O
ANSWERS
1a. ? meters = 95 km • 103 meter • 1 hour • 1 min = 26 meters
sec hour 1 km 60 min 60 sec sec
(In the given, since km was not the unit WANTED on top, it is put where it cancels and converted to the unit
WANTED on top. Next, since hours is on the bottom, but seconds is WANTED, hours was put where it
cancels, and is converted to the seconds WANTED on the bottom).
1b. ? mol H2O = 0.36 g H2O • 1 mL • 1 mol H2O = 20. mol H2O
L of soln. mL of soln. 10─3 L 18.0 g H2O L of soln.
(Note the grams prompt. If you see grams of a formula, you will likely need the molar mass).
2. Your conversions should match these, but they may be in any order.
a. ? mg = 0.025 g • 1 mg • 1 mL = 2.5 x 104 mg

L mL 10─3 g 10─3 L L
b. ? calories = 1.44 kilocalories • 103 calories • 1 mol H2O = 80.0 calories

gram H2O mol H2O 1 kilocalorie 18.0 g H2O g H2O
( Note the grams prompt in the WANTED unit.)
* * * * *
Lesson 11B: Word Problems With Ratio Answers

Prerequisite: Lesson 11B may be done at any time after Module 5 is completed.
Timing: This lesson must be done before lessons on molarity.
* * * * *
Recall these rules (from Lessons 5A and 5C) for solving word problems using conversions.
1. Write the WANTED unit first.
a. If the problem WANTS a single unit, or WANTS a single unit per more than one of
another unit, write the WANTED unit as a single unit.
b. If a problem WANTS one unit per one other unit, write the WANTED unit as a ratio
unit: a fraction with a top and a bottom.

2. Write DATA as single units OR as equalities (or as ratios/fractions/conversions that are

equivalent to equalities).
a. In problems that can be solved using conversions, most data will be two
measurements that are paired because they are equal or equivalent in some way.
b. Paired measurements are written in the DATA as either equalities or conversions.
In these lessons, we usually list DATA equalities, but the conversion format is
equally valid.
3. If you WANT a single unit, one item of DATA will be a single unit, and it is used as the
given. The rest of the DATA will be paired measurements.
If you WANT a ratio unit, all of the DATA will be paired measurements.
There are several ways to solve for ratio units using conversions. To learn the first method,
we will begin with the following new rule (which must be committed to memory).
4. To SOLVE, in choosing a given,

• If you WANT a single unit, start with a single unit.
• If you WANT a ratio, start with a ratio.
Rule 4 is based on dimensional homogeneity: a fundamental law of science.

• If a single-unit amount is on one side of an equal sign, a single-unit amount must
result on the other.
• If a ratio is on one side of an equal sign, a ratio must be on the other.
Otherwise the two sides cannot be equal.
If you WANT a ratio unit, it does not matter which ratio you choose as your given, since in
multiplication, the order of the terms does not matter. However, it is possible to pick a
ratio as your given that will never cancel to give the WANTED unit, because your given is
algebraically upside down from the answer unit.
If this happens, it will become apparent as you do your conversions. The solution is to
simply start over with your given flipped over. However, the following methods will help
to pick a given ratio that is right-side up the first time.
Method 1: Start With One Given Unit Where It Is In the WANTED Unit.
To solve for a ratio unit, pick as your given an equality from your DATA that includes one of
the units that is WANTED. Write that unit in your given ratio where it needs to be (on the
top or bottom) to match the WANTED unit. This way, the other unit of your given is the
only one that needs converting.
For example, if
WANTED: ? miles = and DATA: 0.60 feet = 1 second
hour 5,280 feet = 1 mile
Start with a term in the DATA and use Method One to write your given.
* * * * *

Start to solve with: ? miles = 1 mile

hour 5,280 ft.
The only WANTED unit that is in the DATA is miles. Start with a given that has miles where
you want it in the answer. Once one given unit, on the top or bottom, is where it should be,
the other conversions will lead to a right-side up answer.
Practice A
Using Method #1 above, do Question 1 (the Q1 answer will be helpful in other problems)
and question 2. Do Q3 if you are pre-engineering or if you need more practice.
1. In 1988, Florence Griffith-Joyner set a new women’s world record in the 200 meter dash
with a time of 21.34 sec. What was her average speed in miles per hour?
(1.61 km = 1 mile)
2. If a sample of 0.0500 moles of a substance has a mass of 9.01 grams, calculate its molar
mass.
3. In estimating the weight of a quantity of water, it is a time-honored engineering maxim
that “a pint’s a pound the world around.” If a pint is defined as 16 fluid ounces,
calculate the actual number of pints in one pound, based on the metric definition of
1.00 grams of liquid water = 1 mL. (English-metric conversions: 12.0 fl. oz. = 355 mL,
1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds)
Method 2: Arrange the Given Based on Complete Labels

A second way to pick a given ratio that is right-side up is, in your WANTED and DATA, to
include complete and descriptive labels after the units, words that describe what the unit is
measuring. Then pick and arrange the given to match the labels in the WANTED unit.
Using that rule, write the WANTED, DATA, and the WANTED and given terms for this
problem.
Q. If a solution contains 0.020 pounds of NaCl dissolved to form 250 mL of solution, how
many moles of NaCl are dissolved per liter of solution?
* * * * *
WANTED: ? moles NaCl
L solution
DATA: 0.020 lb. NaCl = 250 mL solution (2 measures of same object)
Using Method Two, one option is to pick as your given an equality which has something
about the NaCl solution on the bottom.
SOLVE: ? mol NaCl = 0.020 lb. NaCl
L solution 250 mL solution
This choice will result in an answer with units that are right-side up. Add as DATA,
1 kg = 2.20 lb. and 58.5 g NaCl = 1 mole NaCl, and complete the problem.
* * * * *

SOLVE: ? mol NaCl = 0.020 lb. NaCl • 1 kg • 103 g • 1 mol NaCl • 1 mL =

L solution 250 mL solution 2.20 lb. 1 kg 58.5 g NaCl 10─3 L
= 0.62 mol NaCl
L solution
Practice B
Use Method #2 above on these. Start with Q1. Do Q2 if you need more practice.
1. 10.0 grams of NaOH is dissolved to make 1250 mL of solution. Calculate the
concentration of the solution in moles of NaOH per liter of solution. (Molar mass of
NaOH: 40.0 g/mol.)
2. A water bath absorbs 24 calories of heat from a reaction which forms 0.88 grams of
carbon dioxide. What is the heat released by the reaction, in kilocalories of heat per
mole of CO2?
Method 3: Arrange the Given Based on Dimensions

A third way to pick a given ratio that is right-side up is to arrange the given dimensions to
match the WANTED dimensions:
For example, if km/second is WANTED, and 24 miles per hour is in the DATA, since
you want distance over time, to start, use as your given distance over time.
WANTED: ? km = 24 miles
s hour
The above 3 methods may lead you to pick different ratios as your given, but all three
techniques should result in an initial given ratio that is “right-side up.” In solving for a
ratio, as long as the given ratio is right-side up, you should be able to convert to the
WANTED unit.
Ratios Represented by Negative Powers
A ratio unit can be represented as “A per B” or A/B or A•B─1. An important rule of
algebra is A•B─1 = A/B . When solving with conversions, units in the form A•B─1 must
be treated as a ratio unit.
For example, treat g•mol─1 the same as g/mol ; a ratio unit.
• If DATA includes 18.0 g/mol or 18.0 g•mol─1, write DATA: 18.0 g = 1 mol
• If g/mol or g •mol─1 is WANTED, write: WANTED = ? g
mol
The general rule is: ─x x
A•B = A / (B ) .
Example: In conversion calculations, treat g•cm─3 as g/cm3 .
If your course at this point makes extensive use of unit─x notation in solving calculations,
you should complete Lesson 27F at the end of this lesson.

Practice C
1. Re-write these in the slash (/) format.
a. 14 meters•s─1 b. 0.47 mg•mol─1 c. 9.2 kg•dm─3
2. If a sample of Rn gas at a given temperature and pressure has a density of 8.60

mg•mL─1, what is its density in kg •L─1? (Solve using Method 3.)
3 A typical 16 fl. oz. soft drink contains 52 grams of sugar. Using any method above,
convert the concentration of sugar to mg•cm─3 (12 fl. oz. = 355 mL).
ANSWERS
Practice A
In both Questions 1 and 2 below, a given was chosen which matched the WANTED top unit.
1. WANTED: ? miles (Write WANTED X per Y units as a ratio)
hour
DATA: 200.0 meters = 21.34 sec (Equivalent: two measures of one event. See Lesson 5b)
1.61 km = 1 mile
(When you solve for a ratio unit, all of the data will be in pairs.)
SOLVE: (Your conversions may be in a different order, but should all be right-side up compared to
these. Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. One option is to start with miles on top, to match the
unit WANTED.)
? miles = 1 mile • 1 km • 200.0 meters • 60 s • 60 min = 21.0 miles

hour 1.61 km 103 meters 21.34 s 1 min 1 hour hour
(Strategy: If you start your given by putting the miles data on top, all that remains is to convert km on the
bottom to hours. The squiggles above show a path through the data from km to hours, giving the needed
conversions in order. Using squiggles may be a useful technique.
SF: Assuming the 200 meters is very carefully measured in world-class races, the number with the most
uncertainty is the 1.61, which is a metric-English approximation. 1’s have infinite sf. The answer is
therefore rounded to 3 sf.)
2. WANTED: ? g (Write the unit WANTED. The unit of molar mass is g/mol)
mol
DATA: 0.0500 mol = 9.01 g
(If a ratio is WANTED, all of the DATA will be in equalities (aka conversions or ratios)
SOLVE: (Your conversion may be in a different order, but should be “right-side up” compared to
these. Want a ratio? Start with a ratio.

You WANT the ratio g/mol. You know the grams and moles. The fundamental rule is: Let
the units tell you what to do.)
? g = 9.01 g = 180. g (When the units on the two sides match,

mol 0.0500 mol mol stop conversions and do the math.)
3. WANTED: ? pints (Write WANTED X per Y units as a ratio)

pound
DATA: 1 pint ≡ 16 fl. oz. (exact)
1.00 gram water = 1 mL water
12.0 fl. oz = 355 mL
1 kg = 2.20 pounds
SOLVE: (Your conversion may be in a different order, but should be “right-side up” compared to
these. Want a ratio? Start with a ratio.)
? pints = 1 pint • 12.0 fl. oz • 1 mL water • 103 g • 1 kg = 0.960 pints

pound 16 fl. oz. 355 mL 1.00 g water 1 kg 2.20 pounds pound
0.960 is close to one – so the maxim is close to true.

SF: The definitions and the 1’s have infinite sf; both of the metric-to-English conversions use 3 sf, so the
answer is rounded to 3 sf.)
Practice B: Data labels are used in solving.
1. WANTED: ? mol NaOH (Write WANTED X per Y units as a ratio)
L of soln.
DATA: 10.0 g NaOH = 1250 mL soln. (Equivalent: two measures of the same solution)
40.0 g NaOH = 1 mol NaOH
SOLVE: (Below, the label “solution” is placed in the bottom of the given to match the WANTED unit,
but your conversions may be in a different order. Want a ratio? Start with a ratio.)
? mol NaOH = 10.0 g NaOH • 1 mL • 1 mol NaOH = 0.200 mol NaOH
L soln. 1250 mL soln 10─3 L 40.0 g NaOH L soln.
(SF: all of the non-exact numbers have 3 sf; the answer is rounded to 3 sf.)
Note that the 2nd conversion is true for all substances and processes. The first and last conversions need a
substance formula after the unit because that ratio of numbers and units is not always true.
2. WANTED: ? kilocalories heat (Write WANTED X per Y units as a ratio)
mol CO2
DATA: 24 calories heat = 0.88 g CO2 (Equivalent: see Lesson 5B)
44.0 g CO2 = 1 mol CO2 (grams prompt)
1 kilo-anything = 103 anythings (prefix conversions are optional in DATA)
SOLVE: (Pick as your given any data equality which puts a heat term on top OR a CO2 term on the
bottom. Your conversions may be in a different order, but must all be “flipped” in the same
direction, and must result in the same answer. Want a ratio? Start with a ratio.)

? kilocalories heat = 24 calories heat • 1 kilocalorie • 44.0 g CO2 = 1.2 kilocalories heat
mol CO2 0.88 g CO2 103 calories 1 mol CO2 mol CO2
Practice C
1. a. 14 meters/sec b. 0.47 mg/mol c. 9.2 kg/dm3
2. WANTED: ? kg Rn (kg • L─1 = kg/L Write a WANTED ratio unit as a ratio )
L
DATA: 8.60 mg = 1 mL (mg •mL─1 = mg/mL Write ratio DATA as an equality )
SOLVE: ? kg Rn = 8.60 mg • 10─3 g • 1 kg • 1 mL = 8.60 x 10─3 kg Rn
L 1 mL 1 mg 103 g 10─3 L L
3. WANTED: ? mg sugar ( mg•mL─1 = mg/mL = a ratio unit is WANTED )

mL drink
DATA: 16 fl. oz. drink = 52 g sugar (2 measures of the same drink)
355 mL = 12 fl. oz.
SOLVE: The following starts with sugar DATA on top. That places one unit where you want it.
However, your conversions may be in a different order, as long as you get the same answer.)
? mg sugar = 52 g sugar • 12 fl. oz. • 1 mL • 1 mg = 110 mg sugar
cm3 drink 16 fl. oz. drink 355 mL 1 cm3 10─3 g cm3 drink
* * * * *
Lesson 11C: Molarity

Prerequisite: Complete Lessons 11A and 11B.
Timing: Do all of Module 11 when molarity calculations are assigned.
* * * * *
Solvents and Solutions
Many substances dissolve to some extent in liquids. The result is a solution.
A liquid used to dissolve a substance is termed the solvent, and the substance dissolved is
the solute. When a substance dissolves to a substantial extent in a liquid, it is said to be
soluble in that solvent.
Any liquid can be a solvent, but water is the solvent most commonly used in chemistry and
in everyday use. When substances are dissolved in water, the result is termed an aqueous
solution (from the Latin aqua, for water).
Aqueous solutions are of special interest in the biological sciences. Water is the most
abundant component of all cells, and most biochemical processes are the result of chemical
reactions in the aqueous solution of the cell.
Solutions permit convenient measurement of the number of particles involved in a
chemical reaction. As long as a solution is well mixed, and therefore has a uniform
distribution of dissolved particles, the number of solute particles can be calculated from
measurements of solution volume using calibrated glassware such as burets and pipettes.

When using solutions of known concentration, it is easy to convert from a measured

volume to a count of dissolved particles, and counting particles is the key to understanding
and explaining chemical reactions.
Preparing Aqueous Solutions
The volume and the concentration of a solution are the dimensions most often used to
describe solutions. The molar concentration of a solution is defined as moles of dissolved
solute per liter of solution.
Concentration can also be measured by any units that can be converted a ratio of particles
per unit that is close to proportional to volume. Such units include parts per million (ppm)
and moles per kilogram of solvent (molality) that we will study in Module 26. However,
unless otherwise specified, you should assume that if the term concentration refers to an
solution, the units used to measure concentration are mol/L.
To make an aqueous solution of a known concentration, a substance is weighed, placed in a
volumetric flask, and completely dissolved in distilled water (water with minerals and
impurities removed). The quantity of water is then increased, with mixing, until a precisely
marked volume is reached.
In preparing an aqueous solution, the amount of water added is neither measured nor used
to calculate the solution concentration. What is measured carefully and used in calculations
is the volume of the mixture of the solute and water: the volume of the solution.
Aqueous Solutions: Terminology and Rules
The concentration of a solution, measured in moles per liter, is termed the molarity of the
solution. Moles per liter can be written as mol/L or as mol • L─1, and it is abbreviated by a
capital M. A solution labeled “0.50 M HCl” is termed a “0.50 molar HCl solution.”
Brackets [ ] are used as shorthand for “the concentration of a solution.” [NaCl] is read as
“the concentration of NaCl.”
Solution concentration is a ratio unit: moles of dissolved substance per liter of solution.
Molarity calculations can be solved with conversions if you use this rule:
M Prompt
In conversions, treat concentration or a capital M or molar or molarity or mol • L─1 or “[ ]”
as “moles per 1 liter of solution” in the WANTED and DATA.
M = [ ] = molar = mol/L = mol•L─1 = moles per 1 liter = a ratio unit
The abbreviations for mol/L cannot be used when writing the WANTED or DATA for use
in conversions, or when multiplying conversions,. Concentration is a ratio, and its units
must be treated as a fraction in conversions .
For example, If a problem WANTS the “concentration of NaCl” or “molarity of NaCl” or
[NaCl], write
WANTED: ? mol NaCl Concentration is a ratio unit.
L of NaCl soln.

• If the DATA in a problem includes 0.25 M NaOH or 0.25 Molar NaOH, write this
equality (or the conversion) in the DATA:
DATA: 0.25 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH soln. ( or 0.25 mol NaOH )
1 L NaOH soln.
As always, when using conversions to solve for ratio units,

• You must write a ratio unit WANTED as a fraction with a top and bottom, but
• You may write a ratio in DATA in either the equality format or in the
fraction/ratio/conversion format. (In these lessons, we usually list equalities.)
Using the rules above, cover the answer under * * * * * below and try this problem.
Q1. If 2.98 g KCl is dissolved to make 250. mL of KCl solution, what is the [KCl]?
WANT: ? mol KCl (You want concentration. its units are mol per L soln.)
L of KCl soln.
DATA: 2.98 g KCl = 250. mL KCl soln. (two measures of the same solution)
74.6 g KCl = 1 mol KCl (grams prompt)
When using conversions to solve for a ratio unit, all of the data will consist of paired
measurements, listed as equalities or ratios. There should be no single-unit DATA.
If needed, adjust your work, finish the problem, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Below we started with a given that put soln. on
the bottom , but your conversions, if same-side up, may be in any order.)
? mol KCl = 2.98 g KCl • 1 mol KCl • 1 mL = 0.160 mol KCl

L KCl soln. 250 mL soln. 74.6 g KCl 10─3 L L KCl soln.
The M prompt can also be used in problems that solve for single units. Try the following
question and then check your answer below.
Q2. How many grams of NaOH are required to make 150. mL of a 0.300 M NaOH
solution?
* * * * *
WANT: ? g NaOH (You want a single unit)
DATA: 150. mL NaOH soln. (single-unit data)
0.300 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH soln. (M prompt in DATA format)
40.0 g NaOH = 1 mol NaOH (WANTED unit = grams prompt)
If needed, adjust your work and then finish.
* * * * *

SOLVE: Want a single unit? Start with a single unit.

? g NaOH = 150. mL NaOH soln. • 10─3 L • 0.300 mol NaOH • 40.0 g NaOH =
1 mL 1 L NaOH soln 1 mol NaOH
= 1.80 g NaOH
* * * * *
Labeling Solution Conversions
In the problem above, ratios that are not always true were given a complete label: number,
unit, and substance. Since the units and labels are what we rely on to solve problems, good
labels are important.
Often, however, some parts of labels can be omitted as “understood.” For example, in the
problem above, all of the volumes are of NaOH solution. In such cases, the fact that each
volume is “NaOH solution” should be indicated once in the problem, but after that, volume
units may omit the label “NaOH solution” as understood.
However, this shortcut needs to be used carefully. When we encounter problems that
involve two different solutions, or problems that involve both volumes of gas and volumes
of a solution, we will need full labels that clearly identify what each unit is measuring.
To solve complex problems, write complete labels.
* * * * *
Flashcards
Add any flashcards below that are not automatic to your collection. Run them once to
perfection, then use them on the following problems. Repeat them for two more days, then
put these cards in stack #2 (see Lesson 6E).
If you WANT a single unit Start with a single unit
If you want a ratio Start with a ratio
Unit X
If unit X/unit Y is WANTED, write WANTED =
Unit Y
If unit X/unit Y is DATA, write in DATA Unit X = Unit Y
X•Y─1 = X / Y (a ratio unit)
If 0.50 M of X is in the data, write DATA: 0.50 mol X = 1 L X
If 0.50 mol • L─1 X is data, write DATA: 0.50 mol X = 1 L X
If 0.50 M =[X] is problem data, write DATA: 0.50 mol X = 1 L X
mol X
If [X] is WANTED, write WANTED =
L X soln.
Treat M = [ ] = molar = mol/L = mol•L─1 as moles per 1 liter, a ratio unit
If you get stuck on a complex problem Add detail to the WANTED and DATA labels

Practice: Do every other problem. Need more practice? Do more. Problem 7 must be
done and checked; it has important information discussed in its answer.
1. Find the moles of solute in 100. mL of 0.50 M KBr.
2. How many moles of dissolved potassium hydroxide (KOH) will be present in 0.30
liters of 0.60 mol•L─1 KOH?
3. How many grams of HCl would be needed to prepare 500. mL of 0.200 M HCl?
4. How many milliliters of 0.100 molar KCl is needed to obtain 4.48 grams of dissolved
KCl?
5. In 400. mL of solution is dissolved 2.34 grams of NaCl. What is the molarity of this
NaCl solution?
6. If 0.020 pounds of NaOH is dissolved to make 1 quart of aqueous solution, find the
[NaOH]. (2.2 pounds = 1 kg, 12 fl. oz. = 355 mL, 1 quart = 32 fl. oz.)
7. Knowing that 1.00 grams of liquid water has a volume of one milliliter, what is the
concentration of pure liquid water, in moles per liter?
Check your prefix- conversions: is m- above/below 10─3 , c- / 10─2 , and k- / 103 ?
ANSWERS Your answers should look like these, but you should omit the (comments).
1. Find the moles of solute in 100. mL of 0.50 M KBr .
WANTED: ? mol KBr
DATA: 100. mL of KBr solution
0.50 mol KBr = 1 L KBr solution (M prompt)
SOLVE: (WANT a single unit? Start with the single unit in your data.)
? mol KBr = 100 mL KBr soln. • 10─3 L • 0.50 mol KBr = 0.050 mol KBr
1 mL 1 L KBr soln.
2. How many moles of dissolved potassium hydroxide (KOH) will be present in 0.30
liters of 0.60 M KOH?
WANTED: ? mol KOH
DATA: 0.30 L KOH soln.
0.60 mol KOH = 1 L KOH soln ( mol•L─1 = mol/L = M Prompt.

Write ratio DATA as an equality )
SOLVE: (If you WANT a single unit, start with a single unit.)
? mol KOH = 0.30 L KOH soln. • 0.60 mol KOH = 0.18 mol KOH
1 L KOH soln.

3. How many grams of HCl would be needed to prepare 500. mL of 0.200 M HCl?
WANTED: ? g HCl
DATA: 500. mL HCl solution

0.200 mol HCl = 1 L HCl solution (M prompt)
36.5 g HCl = 1 mol HCl (g prompt – see Lesson 8C)
SOLVE: (WANT a single unit? Start with a single unit.)
? g HCl = 500. mL HCl soln. • 10─3 L • 0.200 mol HCl • 36.5 g HCl = 3.65 g HCl
1 mL 1L 1 mol HCl
(“soln” and “HCl soln” labels are omitted from some of the volume units as “understood.” When a
problem is about one solution, volumes may be assumed to be for that solution.)
4. How many milliliters of 0.100 molar KCl contain 4.48 grams of KCl?
WANTED: ? mL soln.
DATA: 4.48 g KCl (since you WANT a single unit, start with this as your given)
0.200 moles KCl = 1 liter of solution (M prompt)
74.6 grams KCl = 1 mole KCl (grams prompt)
SOLVE: (the squiggles trace the path from the given to the WANTED unit)
? mL KCl soln. = 4.48 g KCl • 1 mol KCl • 1 L soln. • 1 mL = 601 mL KCl
74.6 g KCl 0.100 mol KCl 10─3 L
5. In 400. mL of solution is dissolved 2.34 grams of NaCl. What is the molarity of this
NaCl solution?
WANT: ? mol NaCl (you want molarity. its units are moles per liter)
L soln.
DATA: 2.34 g NaCl = 400. mL soln. (two measures of same solution)
58.5 g NaCl = 1 mol NaCl (grams prompt)
(If you want a ratio unit, all of the DATA will be in equalities.)
SOLVE: (You want a ratio. Start with a ratio – preferably one with NaCl on top and soln on bottom,
but your conversions may be in any order if they are the “same side up” as these.)
? mol NaCl = 2.34 g NaCl • 1 mol NaCl • 1 mL = 0.100 mol NaCl
L soln. 400 mL soln 58.5 g NaCl 10─3 L L soln.
6. If 0.020 lb. of NaOH is dissolved to make 1 quart of aqueous solution, find the
[NaOH]. (2.2 lb. = 1 kg, 12 fl. oz. = 355 mL, 1 quart = 32 fl. oz.)
WANT: ? mol NaOH (Brackets mean concentration: units are moles per liter)
L soln.

DATA: 0.020 lb. NaOH = 1 qt. soln. (two measures of same solution)
40.0 g NaOH = 1 mol NaOH (lb. NaCl to kg = grams prompt)
(plus the conversions listed in the problem)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Your conversions may be in any order if they are
“same side up” as these.)
? mol NaOH = 0.020 lb. NaOH • 1 kg • 103 g • 1 mol NaOH • 1 qt. • 12 fl oz • 1 mL = 0.24 mol NaOH
L soln. 1 qt. soln. 2.2 lb. 1 kg 40.0 g NaOH 32 fl. oz. 355 mL 10─3 L L soln.
7. Knowing that 1.00 grams of liquid water has a volume of one milliliter, what is the
concentration of pure liquid water, in moles per liter?
WANT: ? mol H2O

L H2O
DATA: 1.00 gram liquid H2O = 1mL liquid H2O
18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O (grams prompt)
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? mol H2O = 1 mol H2O • 1.00 g H2O(l) • 1 mL = 55.6 mol H2O
L H2O 18.0 g H2O 1 mL H2O(l) 10─3 L L H2O
As calculated in this answer, pure liquid water has a concentration of about 55 moles
per liter. For substances dissolved in water, even for those very soluble in water, the
highest concentration solutions have a limit of about 20 moles per liter.
If you calculate a concentration for an aqueous solution that is higher than 20 mol/L,
check your work.
* * * * *
Lesson 11D: Conversions and Careers

The methods used in Lessons 11B and C to solve for single and ratio units can be useful in a
variety of science courses and careers.
Students with an interest in health and medical careers should try Problem 1 below, a type
of problem you might encounter in the dosage lab of a pharmacy or veterinary medicine
program.
Students preparing for engineering, physics, or applied math will likely encounter a
variation on Problem 2 below during introductory courses. Problem 2 may also be of
interest to fans of renaissance fairs or horse racing.
Problems similar to 3-5 are often included on general chemistry and engineering exams.
Try at least two problems below.

Practice: Apply the conversion rules in Lesson 11B and C. If you get stuck, peek at a
part of the answer, adjust your work, and try again.
1. (Don’t let the vocabulary intimidate you. Apply the rules for writing the WANTED and
DATA.)
Your client’s cat (8.0 lb., 3 years old) has glaucoma and you decide a cholinergic agent
and a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor type of diuretic are needed for treatment. Your
prescription includes acetazolamide to be given orally 15 mg/kg twice daily.
(1 kilogram = 2.20 lb.)
a. What is the appropriate milligram dosage?
b. Your pharmacist has on hand 125 and 250 mg quarter-scored tablets. How will
the client be instructed?
2. The “speed of light” is the speed limit of the universe, the highest speed at which
energy or matter can travel. Scientists report this speed as 3.0 x 108 meters per second.
Medievalists prefer more traditional units. If there are 14 days in a fortnight, 8 furlongs
is a mile, and a mile is 1.61 km, calculate the speed of light -- in furlongs per fortnight.
3. The density of pure gold is 19.3 g/cm3. What is this density in pounds (lb.) per cubic
inch? (1 kilogram = 2.20 lb., 1 inch = 2.54 cm)
4. A drop of water has a volume of about 0.050 mL. If a drop takes 2.0 hours to evaporate,
how many molecules evaporate per second? (1 mL H2O = 1.00 g H2O)
5. An atom has a mass of 6.6 x 10─24 grams. What is the molar mass of the atom? What
element is it likely to be?
ANSWERS
1a. Hint #1: Write complete labels, especially since both of the answer units are mass units. The dosage is
“milligrams of medicine per kilogram of cat.
* * * * *
HINT #2: This problem is asking for a single-unit answer. If you want a single unit, start with a single unit
as your given.
* * * * *
WANTED: ? milligrams acetaz.
DATA: 8.0 lbs. of cat
3 years old
15 mg acetaz. = 1 kg cat

SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Start with a single unit as your given.)
? mg acetaz. = 8.0 lbs cat • 1 kg • 15 mg acetaz. = 55 mg acetaz.
2.20 lb. 1 kg cat
This is the rare problem where you are given a number that you don’t use (the cat’s age), but complete
labels will help you to choose the data you need.)
1b. Your prescription might be “Give 1/2 of a 125 mg tablet twice daily.” This would be a dose of 62.5
milligrams. The weight of the cat calls for 55 milligrams, but for medicines, if precise dosages are not
critical, a small additional amount should be safe.
2. WANTED: ? furlongs
fortnight
DATA: 3.0 x 108 meters = 1 second (You may list the DATA as equalities:)
14 days = 1 fortnight
8 furlongs = 1 mile
1 mile = 1.61 km
(OR you may list DATA that is two related units in the conversion or ratio format:)
3.0 x 108 meters 14 days 8 furlongs 1 mile
1 second 1 fortnight 1 mile 1.61 km
(Both forms are equivalent. In DATA, use whichever you wish.)
SOLVE: (Your conversions may be in a different order, provided that they are right-side up compared to
these and arrive at the same answer.)
? furlongs = 3 .0 x 108 m • 1 km • 1 mile • 8 furl. • 60 s • 60 min • 24 hr • 14 days = 1.8 x 1012 furl.
fortnight s 103 m 1.61 km 1 mile 1 min 1 hr 1 day 1 fortnight fort.
3. Hint: This problem uses the distance to volume conversion rules in Lesson 5F. If needed, review those
rules, then try again.
* * * * *
WANTED: ? lb Au
inch3 Au (Write cubic units as unit3)
DATA: 19.3 g Au = 1 cm3 Au
1 kg = 2.20 lb.
1 inch = 2.54 cm
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Since you WANT a volume on the bottom, you may want to
start by arranging your given ratio so that a volume is on the bottom, but any order for
multiplied conversion ratios is OK.)
? lb Au = 19.3 g Au • 2.54 cm 3 • 1 kg • 2.20 lb = 19.3 • (2.54)3 • 2.20 = 0.696 lb Au
inch3 Au cm3 Au
( 1 inch ) 103 g 1 kg 103 inch3 Au

4. WANTED: ? molecules H2O (Want a ratio unit)

second
DATA: 0.050 mL H2O = 1 drop
1 drop = 2.0 hours (Two measures of the same process: evaporation of drop)
1 mL H2O = 1.00 g H2O
18.0 g H2O = 1 mole H2O ( g of formula = grams prompt)
1 mole H2O = 6.02 x 1023 molecules H2O (molecules = Avogadro prompt)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Since you WANT H2O on top, you may want to pick a given
ratio with H2O on top, but any order is OK for multiplied conversions.)
? molec. H2O = 0.050 mL H2O • 1 drop • 1 hour • 1 min. • 1.00 g H2O • 1 mol H2O • 6.02 x 1023 molec. =
second drop 2 hrs. 60 min. 60 s 1 mL H2O 18.0 g H2O 1 mol H2O
= 2.3 x 1017 molecules H2O ( = 230,000,000,000,000,000 molecules/second! Molecules are small. )

s
5. WANTED: ? grams (the unit wanted for molar mass)
mole
DATA: 6.6 x 10─24 g = 1 atom
1 mole H2O = 6.02 x 1023 atoms (any 10xx or 10─xx measure = Avogadro prompt)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. You may want to pick a given ratio with grams on top, or
moles on the bottom, but any order is OK for multiplied conversions.)
? grams = 6.6 x 10─24 g • 6.02 x 1023 atoms = 39.7 x 10─1 = 4.0 grams
mole 1 atom 1 mol mol
The only stable isotope with a mass of 4.0 g/mol is helium-4.
* * * * *
Lesson 11E: Units and Dimensions

* * * * *
Measurement Fundamentals
So far, we have focused on calculations that use one set of data to answer one question. We
also need to be able to solve calculations that have several questions about one set of data.
Answering these questions will require distinctions between two types of equalities that we
have been listing in our data. To make these distinctions, we need to review and expand
what we know about units and measurements.

The Fundamental Quantities

A measurement must have a magnitude (a number) and a unit. Quantities that can be
measured are termed physical quantities or dimensions. The physical properties of the
universe are measured in terms of the fundamental quantities. The fundamental
quantities most often studied in chemistry are distance, mass, time, and electrical charge.
Some textbooks include numbers used to count quantities as a type of fundamental
quantity; others consider numbers to be magnitudes rather than fundamental quantities.
By either standard, numbers are a part of measurements. For most uses, temperature is
best defined as a fundamental quantity.
Any system of measurement must begin with arbitrary definitions of base units that are
used to measure the fundamental quantities.
For the quantities most often studied in chemistry, the base units are
Fundamental Quantities base unit

distance meter
mass gram or kg*
time second
electric charge coulomb
count of particles mole
temperature kelvins
[* In the “official metric” system (SI), the kg is the base unit for mass, but when using metric
prefixes in the metric or SI system, the gram is treated as a base unit for mass.]
A metric prefix (such as kilo-, centi-, and nano-) may be used with any metric base unit. The
prefix changes the size of the unit, but does not change the important correlation between
the base unit and the quantity it measures.
Fundamental quantities can always be measured by a single base unit to the first power.
Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are quantities that are based on fundamental quantities measured two
or more times. Derived quantities have definitions that use fundamental quantities two or
more times, or use one base unit to a power that is not equal to one.
Derived quantities have base units that include either two or more of the base units for
fundamental quantities, or one base unit to a power that is not equal to one.
The table below lists some derived quantities that are frequently measured in chemistry.
Note that for each derived quantity, the definition is based either on two or more
fundamental quantities, or a fundamental quantity to a negative power .

Derived Units Often Used in

definition SI base units
Quantity Chemistry
area distance squared meter2 m2, cm2
volume distance cubed meter3 mL (=cm3), liter (=dm3)
speed (velocity) distance over time meters/second m/s
density mass over volume kg/m3 g/cm3, g/mL
concentration particles per volume mol/m3 mol/L
molar mass mass per particle kg/mol g/mol
acceleration velocity over time m/s2
Mass x acceleration x
energy (kg·m2)/s2 joules, calories
distance
pascal, bar, torr, mm Hg,
pressure (Mass x accel.)/area kg·m─1·s─2 atm.
frequency 1/time 1/s 1/s = Hertz
The units used to measure a quantity must be consistent with the definition of the quantity.
For example:
• Volume is the three-dimensional space an object occupies. All geometric formulas
for volume are based on a distance multiplied three times.
Volume of a cube = (side)3; volume of a cylinder = π r2 h
Units for volume can always be related to a distance unit cubed.
• Speed (or velocity) is always a ratio of the distance an object is moving per unit of
time. The units of speed must be based on distance units over time units.
For the derived quantities, some commonly used units are abbreviations for combinations
of base units. For example, most chemistry textbooks use
• liter (L) as an abbreviation for cubic decimeter (dm3);
• milliliter (mL) as an abbreviation for cubic centimeter (cm3);
• molar as an abbreviation for moles/liter;
• hour as an abbreviation for 3,600 seconds; and
• joules (which measures energy) as an abbreviation for (kg·m2)/sec2;
Some calculations in chemistry (and more in physics) will require the translation of these
abbreviations into their base units in order to solve problems. With practice, you will know
when this is necessary and when it is not.
Other quantities have definitions based on fundamental quantities, but their units have a
complex relationship with the base units. Temperature, for example, can be defined as
either a fundamental quantity or as a derived quantity based on energy energy, but the
base unit used to measure temperature is nearly always the kelvin (which is the same size as

the degree Celsius). A complex conversion from temperature units to energy units can be
done, but it is not needed in most calculations.
The Three Types of Units
In these lessons, to solve problems we will divide units into three categories.
• Single units are those with one kind of base unit. The base unit may
o have a prefix. Examples: mm, km, kg
o It may be a multiple of a base unit. Example: minute = 60 seconds
o It may have a positive exponent. Examples: dm3 (liters), cm3 (mL), m2
However, a single unit cannot have a unit in the denominator.
• Ratio units have one base unit in the numerator and one base unit in the denominator.
The base unit may include prefixes and/or powers. In the derived quantities table
above, speed, density, molar mass, and concentration are defined as ratios, and they have
ratio units.
Examples: km/hour, mg/cm3, g/mole, and moles•L─1 are all ratio units.
• Complex units are combinations of base metric units that either have two or more
different base units in the numerator or denominator, or have no term in the
numerator.
Examples: Joules, an energy unit, is an abbreviation for (kg·m2)/sec2. Wave
frequency is measured in hertz, an abbreviation for 1/seconds.
We will address the use of these complex units in later lessons.
Practice A: Before doing these problems, learn

• The fundamental quantities and their base units in table above.
• The information in bold in the derived quantities table above.
• The difference between single, ratio, and complex units.
Then cement your knowledge by doing the problems below.
1. Write two metric units that can be used to measure
a. Time b. Mass c. Distance d. Volume
2. Which unit measures the molar concentration of solutions?

3. Label each of these units as measuring the quantity of: distance, area, volume, mass,
density, time, speed, solution concentration, or molar mass.
a. liters b. cubic meters
c. kilograms d. decimeters
e. millimeters f. deciliters
g. fluid ounces h. acres

i. nanoseconds j. grams/mL
k. feet/second l. square feet
m. moles/liter n. grams/mole
4. Which units in Problem 3 measure fundamental quantities?
5. Which quantities listed at the top of Problem 3 are derived?
6. Which units in Problem 3 are ratio units?
7. Which quantities listed at the top of Problem 3 are defined as ratios?
8. How do complex units differ from ratio units?
Intensive and Extensive Quantities

Physical quantities can also be classified as intensive and extensive.
An extensive quantity is a physical quantity whose value is proportional to the size of the
system it describes. For extensive quantities, the amount matters. Examples of extensive
quantities include all of the fundamental quantities, as well as area, volume, and energy.
An intensive quantity is a quantity whose value is does not depend on the amount of
substance being measured. Pressure, density, molar mass, and concentration are examples
of intensive quantities. In general, a ratio of two extensive quantities is an intensive
quantity (Temperature, an intensive property, is a special case that is convenient to define
as fundamental, but can also be derived.)
Dimensional Analysis
The fundamental and derived quantities together are termed dimensions. The technique
of using dimensions and their units to solve problems is called dimensional analysis.
Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool for solving science problems. Using conversion
rules, you can often solve a problem even if you are not sure what the units measure.
However, in more complex calculations, a careful analysis of dimensions must be done to
correctly choose which data to use in each part. This will require a clear understanding of
which units measure which dimensions.
To develop that understanding, it is important to learn which quantities are fundamental,
the definitions of derived quantities, and the units that are used to measure both types of
dimensions. These fundamentals are a foundation for higher-level work.
* * * * *

Flashcards
Add any of the following that you cannot answer automatically to your collection. Run
them once to perfection, then use them on the problems below. Repeat them for two more
days, then put them in your WEEKLY stack.
Name six fundamental quantities Distance, mass, time, temp, particles, charge
What are the two parts of a measurement? A magnitude and a unit
What quantity is based on distance cubed? Volume
Name four quantities defined as ratios of two
Density, speed, concentration, molar mass
fundamental quantities.
Define an extensive quantity A quantity based on an amount
Define an intensive quantity A quantity in which amount does not matter
Concentration, pressure, density,
Name three intensive quantities
temperature, or molar mass
What quantity is measured by distance/time? Speed or velocity
What quantity is mass per unit of volume? Density
What is the SI base unit for distance? meters
What is the SI base unit for mass? kilograms
Practice B
1. Label each of these equalities as always true (AT) or not always true (Not AT). Some of
these will be challenging but educational. They will help to get you thinking about
units and dimensions. Check your answers frequently.
a. 60 seconds = 1 minute.
b. 60 miles = 1 hour
c. 18.0 grams = 1 mole
d. 18.0 grams H2O = 1 mole H2O
e. 6.0 x 1023 molecules = 1 mole
f. 2.0 moles HCl = 750 mL solution
g. 1.00 gram liquid water = 1 mL liquid water
h. 355 mL = 12 fluid ounces
2. Which parts of Problem 1 represent measurements of these ratios?
a. Speed b. Molar mass c. Concentration d. Density
3. Which parts of Problem 2 are intensive quantities?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. These are a few of the possibilities:
a. Time seconds, minutes, hours, days, years, centuries
b. Mass grams, kilograms, milligrams
c. Distance meters, kilometers, centimeters
d. Volume liters, milliliters, deciliters, cubic meters, cubic centimeters, decimeters cubed
2. Unit used to measure solution concentration: Moles/liter
3. The fundamental quantities, their base units, and the definitions of derived quantities must be memorized. A
metric prefix does not change the dimension being measured.
a. liters volume
b. cubic meters volume (volume by definition must be a distance cubed)
c. kilograms mass (grams is the base unit for mass)
d. decimeters distance (deci- is a prefix meaning one-tenth, meters is distance)
e. millimeters distance
f. deciliters volume (liters is a unit of volume)
g. fluid ounces volume (an English-system unit for volume)
h. acres area (an English-system unit for area)
i. nanoseconds time
j. grams/mL density (density is defined as mass over volume)
k. feet/second speed or velocity (speed is defined as distance over time)
l. square feet area (area by definition is distance squared)
m. moles/liter concentration
n. grams/mole molar mass
4. Kilograms, millimeters, nanoseconds, decimeters
5. Area, volume, density, speed, concentration, molar mass
6. Feet/sec, moles/liter, grams/mL, grams/mole
7. Density, speed, solution concentration, molar mass.
8. Ratio units have one base unit on the top and one on the bottom. Complex units have more than
one base unit on the top or bottom, or none on top.
Practice B
1. Don’t worry if you miss a few. It takes experience and context to make these judgments in many cases.
This is practice.
a. 60 seconds = 1 minute. AT – always true, and both are time units.
b. 60 miles = 1 hour Not AT – 60 miles per hour is a speed; speed varies.
c. 18.0 grams = 1 mole Not AT – grams per mole (molar mass) ratios vary depending on the
formula for the compound.
d. 18.0 grams H2O = 1 mole H2O AT – always true for H2O, even if ice or steam.

e. 6.0 x 1023 molecules = 1 mole AT – the mole definition: true for particles of everything.
f. 2.0 moles HCl = 750 mL solution Not AT – this is a concentration; it can vary.
g. 1.00 gram liquid water = 1 mL liquid water AT – always close to true, most true at 4ºC.
h. 355 mL = 12 fluid ounces AT – both are volume units. Two volume units will always be related
by the same ratio.
2. a. Speed b (distance units over time units = speed)
b. Molar mass c d (grams per mole is a molar mass, even if the formula is unknown)
c. Concentration f (“particles per volume” is a concentration, by definition)
d. Density g (any mass to volume ratio is a density)
3. All parts a-d of Problem 2 are intensive quantities. All four are a ratio of two extensive quantities.
* * * * *
Lesson 11F: Ratios Versus Two Related Amounts

* * * * *
Types of DATA
So far, in solving with conversions, we have divided DATA into two types: single unit and
ratio unit. To solve conversion calculations that ask one question about one set of data,
those are often the only distinctions among data items that are needed.
In some calculations, however, you will need to select the correct data, often from a long list
of data, to use in each part. To do so, it will be necessary to distinguish between ratios and
two related amounts. This distinction will result in three DATA types: single-unit amounts,
ratios, and two related single-unit amounts.
Single-Unit Amounts
Single-unit data measures an amount of an object or process.
A single unit may measure a fundamental or derived quantity. It may have a prefix (such
as kilograms), may be a multiple of a base unit (minute = 60 sec.) , and may be raised to a
positive power, but it must be defined using one base unit in the numerator and no unit in
the denominator.
Examples: mm, km, grams, kg, dm3 (liters), cm3 (mL), m2, sec., min., moles.
This represents no change in our past definition of single-unit data.

Ratios
Ratios do not represent one amount or two amounts of a physical quantity. Ratios
represent a relationship between two units.
Ratios must have two measurements. Ratios in DATA can be written either as an equality
(as we have usually been doing for ratio units) or as a fraction or ratio or conversion (all of
those terms have the same meaning).
Examples of ratio data include the following.
a. Metric-prefix definitions are ratios. Example: 1 kilometer = 103 meters.
b. Conversions relating two units that measure the same dimension are ratios.
Example: 1 minute = 60 sec. or 1 minute/60 sec.
c. Some derived quantities are defined as ratios.
Examples: Concentration, speed, density, and molar mass are ratios by definition.
Quantities that are ratios must have ratio units. Note in the examples of typical data
below that each of the quantities being measured is defined as a ratio, the units that
measure each quantity are ratios, and the units are consistent with the fundamental
quantities that define the quantity.
• The speed of the car was 55 miles/hour. (Speed is distance/time)
• The density of the gold in the ring is 15.5 g/cm3.
• The concentration of the solution is 0.25 moles per liter.
• The molar mass of water is 18.0 g H2O = 1 mole H2O .
d. The coefficients of a balanced equation are exact particle to particle ratios.

Two Related Amounts
A third type of DATA is two amounts that are related because they both measure the same
object or process. If this relationship involves two different dimensions or two different
substances, the two related amounts are termed an equivalency.
Two related amounts are especially important in solving problems because they supply
three items of DATA: two single-unit amounts and a ratio.
Example: If a problem reads, ”the car traveled 84 miles in 2.0 hours,” two amounts
have been measured.
• The distance the car traveled was 84 miles. We can convert this distance amount
to other distance units, such as kilometers or feet.
• The time the car traveled was 2 hours. We can convert this amount of time to
minutes (120 minutes), seconds, or any other time unit.
With this data, we can also calculate a ratio, the average speed of the car, in distance
over time units.
? miles = 84 miles = 42 miles
hour 2.0 hours hour

Ratios versus Two Related Amounts

If Problem A reads, ”the car traveled 42 miles in 1 hour,” we have been writing in our
DATA,
42 miles = 1 hour (A)
The Problem A data supplies two amounts that are equivalent because they measure, in
two different dimensions, the same object or process: the trip.
42 miles = the trip = 1 hour, so “42 miles = 1 hour” is true in this problem.
The wording of Problem A supplies two single-unit amounts and a ratio that you can use to
solve a problem.
If Problem B reads, “the car was traveling 42 miles per hour,” we also write in our data,
42 miles = 1 hour (B)
This is the same equality that we wrote for Problem A. However, equalities A and B are
different. From the wording of Problem A, we know both the amount of distance the car
traveled and the amount of time required. From that data, we can find also the average
speed of the car. We know two amounts and one ratio.
The wording of Problem B data tells us the speed of the car, but not how far it went, nor
how long it traveled. Problem B supplies one ratio, but no amounts.
The ratio that is the speed of the car is the same in both Problems A and B. However,
Problem A gives us more information.
We have been writing ratios and two related amounts in the same way to this point,
because both can be used in the same way as ratios and/or conversions. However, when
solving for single units, we often need to make a distinction between measurements that are
ratios and those that are two related amounts.
Distinguishing Ratios From Two Related Amounts
How do you make the distinction between a ratio and two related amounts? It often
requires a careful analysis of the wording of a problem. A helpful rule is that when a
measurement in a problem is written in ratio units (with the word per or with a slash mark
(/) meaning per one or over), it nearly always represents a ratio rather than two related
amounts.
To practice this distinction between ratios and two related amounts, try this example.
Write the equality represented by the following DATA, then label the equality as a ratio (R),
or as two single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R).
Q1. If 0.24 grams of NaOH are dissolved to make 250 mL of solution….
* * * * *
Answer
DATA: 0.24 g NaOH = 250 mL soln. (2SUA-R)
This data represents the amount of material in the solution measured in two different
dimensions. These two quantities are related because they are both measurements of
the same solution.

If you are asked, “how many moles of NaOH are present,” or “how many liters of
solution are present,” you can solve for those amounts because you have single unit
amounts of the NaOH mass and the solution volume to start from.
Try the next example the same way: Write and then label the equality as a ratio (R) or as
two single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R), then check your answer.
Q2. For the conversion between the English volume-unit fluid ounces and milliliters,
use 12 fl. oz. = 355 mL.
* * * * *
Answer
12 fl. oz. = 355 mL (R)
This is a ratio, not two amounts. If you are asked, “how many liters of liquid are
present,” you cannot answer based on this data. Ratios do not provide amounts.
Do this next example in the same manner as above: write the equality, label the equality as
a ratio (R) or as two related single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R), and then check your
answer below.
Q3. “The bottle of soda was labeled 12 fl. oz. = 355 mL.”
* * * * *
Answer
12 fl. oz. = 355 mL (2SUA-R)
These are two related amounts and a ratio. Both measurements represent the amount of
liquid in the bottle. Unlike Q2 above, if you are asked, “how many liters of soda does
the bottle hold?” you can solve: 0.355 liters. The two measurements can also be used as
a ratio in conversions between the two units.
Technically, the relationship in Q3 by most definitions is not an equivalency. The equality
represents measurements in different measurement systems, but both units in this equality
measure the same dimension: volume. However, solving chemistry conversions at this
point does not require distinctions between equivalencies and other cases of two related
units.
To solve for single units, you simply need to be able to distinguish between two related
amounts and ratios. Practice will help in making these distinctions.
Practice A: For each “part of a problem” below, write the DATA only. Then label each
DATA equality as a ratio (R) or as two single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R). Check
your answers at the end of this lesson.
1. The car was traveling at a speed of 55 miles/hour.
2. A bottle of designer water is labeled 0.50 liters (16.9 fluid ounces).
3. To melt 36 grams of ice required 2,880 calories of heat.
4. The dosage of the aspirin is 2.5 mg per kg of body mass.
5. The concentration of the acid solution is 2.0 M HCl.

6. 2.0 moles of HCl were dissolved in water to make one liter of solution.
7. Given that there are 1.61 kilometers per mile, and radio waves travel at the speed of
light (3.0 x 108 meters/sec)…
Labeling Amounts and Ratios

In DATA, for calculations in which you need to distinguish ratios from amounts, label
• single-unit amounts as (SUA);
• ratios as (R); and
• two single-unit amounts and a ratio as (2SUA-R).
These labels will make the distinction that will be needed to solve for single units using
conversions: amounts versus ratios.
Practice B
For each part below, write the DATA section only. Include prompts, but you may omit
metric prefix conversions. Then label each line in the DATA as
• a single-unit amount (SUA);
• a ratio (R); or
• two single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R).
1. 10.0 grams of NaOH is dissolved to make 1250 milliliters of solution. Calculate the
concentration of the solution in moles of NaOH per liter of solution. (Molar mass of
NaOH: 40.0 g/mol)
2. A water bath absorbs 24 calories of heat from a reaction which forms 0.88 g CO2.
What is the heat released by the reaction, in kilocalories per mole of CO2?
3. How many milliliters of 0.100 molar KCl contain 1.49 grams of KCl?
4. A 0.50 liter (16.9 fluid ounce) soft drink contains an artificial sweetener. The
concentration is 2.5 milligrams per fluid ounce. Express this concentration in mg/mL.
ANSWERS
Practice A
Consider these as “best guess” answers. Taking a line out of context can sometimes change its meaning.
1. 55 miles = 1 hour (R) You don’t know the amount of the distance or time.
2. 0.50 liters = 16.9 fl. oz. (2SUA-R) Two amounts. Both measure the volume of the bottle.
3. 36 g ice = 2,880 calories heat (2SUA-R) Equivalency. The amounts of ice and heat in melting.
4. 2.5 mg = 1 kg (R) You are not told the amount of the aspirin or the body.

5. 2.0 mol HCl = 1 L soln (R) You don’t know the number of moles or liters, we only know the ratio of
moles to liters in the solution.
6. 2.0 mol HCl = 1 L soln (2SUA-R) An equivalency. You know the single-unit amount that is the moles
of HCl; you could solve for grams HCl. You could solve for the mL of solution present. Same equality as
Problem 5, but the wording gives us different conditions.
7. 1.61 km = 1 mile (R) Unit conversions and/or “per one” data nearly always means a ratio.
3.0 x 108 meters = 1 sec (R) Speed is defined as a ratio. This data seems to be a ratio between units
for speed, rather than two measured amounts from an experiment.
Practice B
1. DATA: 10.0 grams NaOH = 1250 mL soln. (2SUA-R – two amounts for same solution)
40.0 grams NaOH = 1 mole NaOH (g prompt:) (R – the ratio of grams to moles for NaOH)
2. DATA: 24 calories heat = 0.88 grams CO2 (2SUA-R – two amounts, same reaction)
44.0 grams CO2 = 1 mole CO2 (g prompt:) (R – the ratio of grams to moles for CO2)
3. DATA: 1.49 g KCl (SUA)
0.100 moles KCl = 1 L solution (R – molarity is a ratio: moles per liter)
74.6 grams KCl = 1 mole KCl (g prompt:) (R – molar mass is a ratio: grams per mole)
4. DATA: 0.50 liters = 16.9 fl. Oz. (2SUA-R – two amounts for container volume )
2.5 mg sweetener = 1 fl. oz. (R – concentration is a ratio by definition. Neither
measurement is an amount of an object in the problem. )
* * * * *
Lesson 11G: Solving Problems With Parts

* * * * *
Solving In Parts
Until this point, for all conversion calculations in which a single unit was WANTED, one
item of data was a single unit, and the rest of the data was in equalities/conversions. In
some problems, however, especially those in which there are multiple questions based on
one set of DATA, you will need to solve for a single unit when all of the DATA is in ratios.
To learn a method to solve these calculations, let us begin with a variation on a problem we
have done previously.
Q. In 1988, Florence Griffith-Joyner set a new women’s world record in the 200 meter
dash with a time of 21.34 sec. (1.61 km = 1 mile)
A. What was the length of the race in miles?
B. What was the time of the race in hours?
C. What was her average speed in miles per hour?

In a problem with one set of data but multiple questions, it is helpful to write the DATA
section first, to avoid having to re-write the DATA for each part. Below the DATA, write
the WANTED unit for each part.
In your notebook, using those steps, solve for just Parts A and B above, and then check
your answers below.
* * * * *
Your paper should include
DATA: 200.0 meters = 21.34 sec
1.61 km = 1 mile
A. WANTED: ? miles =
B. WANTED: ? hours =
Which of the four measurements in the DATA should be chosen as the given to solve Part
A? To solve Part B?
Because the above units are familiar, you may know by intuition which quantity to use as
the given in each part. Science problems, however, may involve less familiar situations and
units. Let’s use this track and field example to develop rules for picking the given from
several possibilities.
Rules for Selecting the Given
In the current problem, you WANT different single units in Parts A and B, but the DATA
has two equalities. To handle such cases, let’s expand our conversion rules.
Solving for a single unit IF all of the DATA is equalities/ratios

1. If you WANT a single-unit amount, start with a given that is a single-unit amount.
2. As the given, choose from the DATA one single-unit amount of two that are related.
When solving for a single unit, you cannot use as a given one of two measurements
in an equality or ratio that is not two amounts.
3. To distinguish amounts from ratios, label each equality in the DATA as a ratio (R) or
as two single-unit amounts and a ratio (2SUA-R).
The distinction that is needed when solving conversions for single units is amounts
versus ratios.
4. Choose as your given the one single-unit amount of the two that are related that
converts more easily to the WANTED unit.
Let’s return to our track and field problem. Apply rules 1-4 above to your DATA, adjust if
needed to solve Parts A and B, then check below.
* * * * *
Your paper should include:
DATA: 200.0 meters = 21.34 sec (2SUA-R)
1.61 km = 1 mile (R)

The top equality is an equivalency. The 200.0 meters is an amount: the distance of the
race. The 21.34 sec. is an amount: the time of the race. Those two measurements are
equivalent in this problem because both measure the same object (the race). The top
equality can be used as a ratio or as two single-unit amounts.
The second equality “1.61 km = 1 mile” is a ratio relating two distance units. Those two
numbers and their units are not measured amounts in the race. Those two numbers
and their units cannot be used as single-unit givens.
If needed, adjust your work to use step 4 to SOLVE Parts A and B, and then check your
answer below.
* * * * *
As a given in each calculation, you must choose an amount that you can convert to the
WANTED unit. The 2SUA-R data above supplies two amounts. Which do you choose
for each part?
Often (but not always), the DATA amount that will work as a given will measure the
same dimension as the WANTED unit. To choose a given, begin by identifying the
dimension of the WANTED unit, and then search for a unit in a DATA amount that
measures the same dimension.
If needed, apply that hint, then check below.
* * * * *
SOLVE: A. ? miles = 200.0 meters • 1 km • 1 mile = 0.1242 miles
103 meters 1.61 km
B. ? hours = 21.34 sec• 1 min • 1 hour = 0.0059277 hours
60 sec 60 min
In Part A, you WANT miles, a measure of the dimension distance. The DATA supplies
an amount for meters, which is also a distance unit. From the DATA, you also know a
conversion from metric-to-English distance units.
For Part B, the dimension time is the WANTED amount (hours), and a time amount is
supplied in the DATA (seconds). This type of conversion was done in Lesson 4C.
When you are not sure what to choose as a given, separating the data into amounts and ratios
will narrow your choice. Analyzing the dimensions should be your next step. However, in
complex problems, choosing the correct given amount to begin your conversions may
require trial and error.
In Problems With Multiple Steps, Carry An Extra Significant Figure
Note the extra digit, after the doubtful digit, in the above two answers. When solving a
problem or calculation that has multiple steps or multiple parts, it is a good practice to carry
an extra digit until the final answer. Then, for the final answer in the problem, round to the
correct number of sf based on the sf in the original DATA in the problem. This method
limits variations in the final answer due to rounding in the parts. That said, the last digit in
any measurement or calculation done using significant figures must be considered as
doubtful rather than certain, and variation in the last digit of an answer are generally
considered to be acceptable.

Solving For A Ratio In Two Parts

For Part C of the track problem, the answer unit is a ratio unit.
To solve for a ratio unit using conversions, there are two methods to solve.
• Method 1: Start from the original data and use the rule, “if you want a ratio, start
with a ratio,” or
• Method 2: Solve in two parts: solve separately for the values of the top and bottom
answer units, and divide the top answer by the bottom answer.
As your given to start Part C, you could use Method 1. That is how we solved this problem
in Lesson 11B. Solving required 5 conversions.
But in Part C, and in many problems that have multiple parts, a faster way to solve later
parts is to use Method 2, with answers from previous parts as DATA. Doing so will solve
Part C in one conversion.
With that tip, cover the answer below and solve Part C using Method 2 above.
* * * * *
Part C asks for the ratio of the miles run in the race to the hours of the race. Miles was solved
in Part A, and hours in Part B. Apply the fundamental rule of conversions: let the units tell
you what to do.
* * * * *
The units say to divide miles by hours.
C. WANTED: ? miles = Part A answer = 0.1242 miles = 21.0 miles/hour
hour Part B answer 0.0059277 hr.
SF: In this final step, the answer is rounded to 3 sf due to the 1.61 km. in the original data.
* * * * *
SUMMARY: For Problems With Multiple Questions About Common Data

1. List the DATA common to all of the parts first, then list the WANTED unit for each
part.
2. Box the answer to each part. When a problem has parts, you can often use an
answer for an early part as DATA for a later part.
3. In the answer to each part, carry one digit beyond the doubtful digit until the final
step.
4. When a part WANTS a single-unit amount, at least one measurement in the DATA
will be a single-unit amount. Begin by labeling the lines in the DATA table as SUA,
R, or 2SUA-R, and then choose as your given the single-unit amount that most easily
converts to the WANTED single unit.
Ratio (R) data cannot be split into two amounts to use as a single-unit given.

5. When a later part WANTS a ratio unit, often the earlier parts have solved for either
the top or bottom WANTED amount, or both. If so, a faster way to solve is use
those answers when you divide to find a final WANTED ratio.
* * * * *
The Three Methods To Solve For A Ratio Unit
To solve for a ratio unit, three methods to solve are
Method 1. Use the conversion rule, “if you want a ratio, start with a ratio.”
Method 2. Solve in two parts: Solve separately for the values of the top and bottom
amounts, then divide the top by the bottom amount.
Method 3. Use a mathematical equation and algebra.
Any problem that can be solved with conversions can be solved using equations and
algebra. For many complex relationships, solving with equations is necessary. However,
most initial relationships in first-year chemistry can be solved with conversions, and this
avoids having to memorize dozens of equations. With conversions, the same short list of
rules applies to each problem.
To solve for a ratio unit using conversions, should you choose Method 1 or
Method 2? In many cases, both methods work, but for less complex calculations, “if you
want a ratio, start with a ratio” is quicker.
Method 2, solving for the top and bottom units separately, is necessary in calculations that
require both conversions and mathematical equations. For calculations that have multiple
questions about common data, Method 2 may not be necessary, but it is often quicker.
For now, a good strategy is: first try Method 1. If you get stuck, try Method 2. If neither
Methods 1 nor Method 2 works, try Method 3 (look for an equation that will solve). In
upcoming modules, we will address additional cases where Method 2 and Method 3 are
preferred or necessary.
* * * * *
Flashcards
Add these two to your collection. Run them once to perfection, then use them on the
problems below. Repeat them for two more days, then put them in stack #2.
What types of units always measure amounts? Single units
1. Want a ratio, start with a ratio.
State 3 ways to solve for a ratio unit 2. Solve for top and bottom unit, then divide.
3. Use an equation.
Answers to one part that can be used as data
In calculations with parts, watch for
for later parts.

Practice: Use the rules in the SUMMARY section and the flashcards above. Save one or
two numbered problems for your next study session.
1. 11.7 grams of NaCl is dissolved to make 250. mL of aqueous solution.
a. How many moles of NaCl were used?
b. How many liters of solution were prepared?
c. What is the concentration of the solution?
2. 0.0250 moles of KCl are used to make 750. mL of solution.
a. How many grams of KCl are needed?
c. What is the [KCl]?
3. If 0.050 pounds of NaCl is dissolved in water to make in 32 fluid ounces of
solution (2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram, 12.0 fl. oz. = 355 mL),
a. How many moles of NaCl were used?
c. What is the [NaCl]?
4. An 18-carat brick of gold measures 2.50 cm x 5.00 cm x 10.0 cm and weighs 4.27 lb.
( 1 kg = 2.20 lb.) Find:
a. The mass of the brick in grams.
b. The volume of the brick in mL.
c. The density of the brick in grams/mL.
ANSWERS
1. 11.7 grams of NaCl is dissolved to make 250. mL of aqueous solution.
DATA: 11.7 g NaCl = 250. mL NaCl soln 2SUA-R (Two amounts -- same soln.)
58.5 g NaCl = 1 mol NaCl R (molar mass is a ratio by definition)
a. WANTED: ? mol NaCl
SOLVE: (When a problem has multiple questions about one set of data, label the data as
SUA, R, or 2SUA-R. Then, on the parts of the problem where you WANT a single
unit, pick a single unit from the SUA or 2SUA-R data.
To find moles NaCl, which side of the 2SUA-R data above do you pick as our
given? Grams can be converted to moles using molar mass.)
? mol NaCl = 11.7 g NaCl • 1 mol NaCl = 0.200 mol NaCl
58.5 g NaCl

b. WANTED: ? L soln.
DATA: above
SOLVE: (Pick a single-unit-given amount that easily converts to the L WANTED.)
? L soln. = 250. mL soln. • 10─3 L = 0.250 L soln.
1 mL
c. WANTED: ? mol NaCl
L soln.
SOLVE: (Want moles and liters. You found moles and liters in parts A and B.)
? mol NaCl = Part A answer = 0.200 mol NaCl = 0.800 mol NaCl
L soln. Part B answer 0.250 L soln L soln.
2. 0.0250 moles of KCl are used to make 750. mL of solution.
DATA: 0.0250 mol KCl = 750. mL solution 2SUA-R (Two related amounts for soln.)
a. More DATA: 74.6 g KCl = 1 mol KCl R (molar mass is a ratio, not amounts)
WANT: ? g KCl
SOLVE: (If you WANT a single unit, start with a single unit. All of the data is in pairs, but two
amounts related in a pair (2SUA-R) may be used as single unit data. You know
moles and want grams. “Grams and moles, use molar mass.”)
? g KCl = 0.0250 mol KCl • 74.6 g KCl = 1.860 g KCl .
1 mol KCl
b. WANTED: ? L soln.
SOLVE: (If you WANT a single unit, start with a single unit. One of the 2SUA-R related
amounts is mL soln; convert it to the liters WANTED.)
? L soln. = 750. mL soln. • 10─3 L = 0.7500 L soln. .
1 mL
c. WANT: ? mol KCl (write the unit that you want)
L soln.
SOLVE: (When solving for a ratio in parts, let the units tell you what to do. The answer
divides moles (supplied in 2SUA-R data) by liters (found in part B).)
? mol KCl = 0.0250 mol KCl = 0.0333 mol KCl
L soln. 0.750 L soln. L soln.
3. If 0.050 pounds of NaCl is dissolved in water to make in 32 fluid ounces of
solution (2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram, 12.0 fl. oz. = 355 mL),
DATA: 0.050 pounds NaCl = 32 fl. oz. soln Å 2SUA-R (two amounts for one soln)
2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram ÅR (an English-metric unit conversion)
12.0 fl. oz. = 355 mL ÅR (an English-metric volume conversion)
a. WANT: ? mol NaCl
(To solve for moles, use one of your 2SUA-R amounts. Which one? Pounds NaCl can be
converted to kg, kg to grams NaCl, grams to moles using the molar mass of NaCl.)
58.5 g NaCl = 1 mol NaCl R (molar mass is a ratio, not an amount)

? mol NaCl = 0.050 pounds NaCl • 1 kg • 103 g • 1 mole NaCl = 0.389 mol NaCl
2.2 pounds 1 kg 58.5 g NaCl
(Carry an extra sf until the final part)
b. WANT: ? L soln.
(The other single-unit amount measured is a volume. You have a conversion from fluid ounces
to mL, and mL to L you can do. )
? L soln. = 32 fl. oz. soln. • 355 mL • 10─3 L = 0.947 L solution
12.0 fl. oz. 1 mL
c. WANTED: ? mol NaCl
L soln
SOLVE: (When solving for a ratio in parts, let the units tell you what to do. The units say to
divide moles (found in part A) by liters (found in part B).)
? mol NaCl = 0.389 mol NaCl = 0.41 mol NaCl
L soln. 0.947 L soln L soln.
(SF: both original measurements were 2 sf; round final answer to 2 sf)
4. An 18-carat brick of gold measures 2.50 cm x 5.00 cm x 10.0 cm and weighs 4.27 lb.
( 1 kg = 2.20 lb.) Find:
(For problems with multiple parts, list the DATA first.)
DATA: 4.27 lb Au = (2.50 cm x 5.00 cm x 10.0 cm) Au (2SUA-R – wt. and vol. of one block)
1 kg = 2.20 lb. (R -- a conversion always true at earth’s surface gravity)
a. WANT: ? g Au
(You WANT a single unit, but all of the DATA is in equalities. Label each equality as R or 2SUA-
R. Pick the SUA measurement that can convert to grams.)
? g Au = 4.27 lb Au • 1 kg • 103 g = 1,941 g Au
2.20 lb 1 kg
b. (Use a volume equation to calculate the volume in cubic centimeters, which equal mL.)
* * * * *
? cm3 block = length x width x height = 2.50 cm x 5.00 cm x 10.0 cm = 125.0 cm3 = 125.0 mL
c. WANT: ? g Au
1 mL
(Solving for the top and bottom units separately is a way to solve without the density equation used
in Lesson 5F. The answer units tell us to divide the grams of the gold sample by its volume in mL.
Both of those quantities were found in the parts above. )
? g Au = 1,941 g Au = 15.5 g Au (The original data had 3 sf )
mL 125.0 mL mL
* * * * *

Dimensional Homogeneity
In balancing equations, we apply the law of conservation of atoms to determine the one
set of particle ratios that balance and explain a chemical reaction.
In a similar way, many of our conversion rules flow from the principle of dimensional
homogeneity: the requirement in science that both sides of an equation (and every
term added or subtracted in an equation) must have the same dimensions.
To use dimensional homogeneity, we begin each calculation with an equation:
WANTED = given, then convert until both sides have the WANTED unit.
Dimensional Homogeneity and Choosing A Given
In conversion calculations, the rule, “If you want a single unit, start with a single
unit,” is not necessary from a mathematical perspective. When multiplying terms,
the single unit data could be listed in the middle or at the end of the conversions.
However, the rule is helpful because
• to solve for an amount, you must know an amount to convert from.
• Starting with a single-unit amount as your given (first) factor on top
automatically arranges your conversions right-side up.
• When solving for a single unit, eliminating ratios that are not two amounts
simplifies the selection of the given amount.
Our conversion rules, based on dimensional homogeneity, simplify picking the given.
Calculations are easier if you know where to start.
Summary: Molarity
1. When using conversion factors,
a. in choosing a given,
• If you WANT a single-unit amount, start with a single-unit amount.
• If you WANT a ratio, start with a ratio.
b. The order in which you multiply conversions does not affect the answer.
c. When converting a ratio unit given, which you convert first -- the top or bottom unit
-- makes no difference.
d. When you WANT a ratio, it does not matter which ratio you pick as your given.
However, you need to start with a ratio that is right-side up.
e. To pick a given ratio that is right-side-up the first time,
• pick as your given a ratio that includes one of the units and labels WANTED, and
put that unit where it is wanted (on top or bottom); or
• arrange the given ratio based on descriptive labels in your WANTED unit, or
• arrange the given ratio based on the dimensions in the WANTED unit.
f. If a unit and label on the right matches a unit and label WANTED, in both what it is
and where it is (top or bottom), leave it alone.

g. If a unit and label in or after the given is NOT what you WANT where you want it ,
put it where it will cancel. Convert until it matches what you WANT.
2. A•B─x = A/(Bx) . When solving with conversions, treat units in the form A•B─x in
the same way as other ratio units.
3. In problems involving solutions and solution concentration (molarity),
a. The liquid used to dissolve a substance is the solvent, and the substance dissolved is
the solute. Substances that dissolve are soluble in the solvent.
b. Concentration is a ratio unit: Moles per liter.
c. Brackets are used as shorthand for “the concentration of a solution.” [NaCl] is read
as “the concentration of NaCl.”
d. The M prompt: Treat concentration or [ ] or molar or molarity or capital M or
mol•L─1 as “moles per 1 liter” when doing conversions.
M = [ ] = molar = mol/L = mol•L─1 = moles per 1 liter = a ratio unit
4. In conversions, treat ratios as ratios.

• You may write ratio unit data in your DATA as equalities (or fractions or conversions).
• You must write WANTED ratio units as a fraction with a top and bottom.
5. When solving for a ratio, an alternative to starting with a ratio is to solve in two parts.
• Solve for the value of the top answer unit as a single unit.
• Solve for the value of the bottom answer unit as a single unit.
• Divide the top answer by the bottom answer to obtain the final answer.
6. If you WANT a single-unit amount, pick as your given a single-unit amount.

When solving for a single-unit amount, you may choose as a given
• a single-unit amount (SUA data), or
• one of the single-unit amounts from two that are related (2SUA-R),
but you cannot use a measurement from a ratio (R) as a single-unit given.
7. When solving in parts, or solving for any single unit when all of the data is in
equalities/ratios/conversions,
a. label the data as single unit amounts (SUA), ratios (R), or two amounts that are
equivalent because they measure the same object or process (2SUA-R).
b. Use a single unit of the SUA or 2SUA-R DATA as your “single-unit given;”
c. For each part, pick a single unit as your given that can be most easily converted to
the WANTED unit;
d. In problems which have one set of DATA but multiple questions, box answers
from early parts and use them as DATA for later parts.
# # # # #

Module 12 — Molarity Applications

Lesson 12A: Dilution
Pretest: If you think you can do dilution calculations, try Practice C, Problem 2 at the end
of this lesson. If your answer is correct, you may skip this lesson.
* * * * *
Dilution Fundamentals
A solution is diluted when more solvent is added. As it is diluted, a solution becomes less
concentrated: the dissolved particles, after dilution, have more distance between them.
When a solution is diluted, its volume increases, and its concentration decreases, but the
number of particles of the solute stays the same. That’s the key relationship in dilution
calculations: the moles of dissolved solute are the same before and after dilution.
In dilution: moles solute Concentrated = moles solute Diluted
The Dilution Prompt: Two Volumes, Two Concentrations, Same Formula

How do you recognize that a problem is about dilution? Dilution calculations often do not
include the word dilution, but can be recognized using the
Dilution Prompt
If the WANTED and DATA contain two volumes (usually in mL or liters) and two
concentrations (M) of the same substance, use a dilution method to solve.
Solving Dilution By Inspection

If the numbers and units in a dilution involve simple multiples, calculations can often be
solved “by inspection.” For example,
• If the volume of a solution is doubled by adding more solvent, the concentration is cut
in half.
• If a concentration of a solution is WANTED that is 1/10th the [original], add solvent
to increase the volume of the solution by a factor of ten.
In dilution, if either the volume or the molarity is changed by a multiple, to find the
resulting change in the other, multiply the other by 1/multiple.
Cover the answer below. Using the logic above, compute the answer to this problem in
your head. Write the answer.
Q. To 250 mL of a 0.45 M aqueous glucose solution, distilled water is added until the
volume is 750 mL. What is the new [glucose]?
* * * * *

To solve by inspection, compare the two items in the problem’s DATA that have the same
unit. Figure out what easy multiple takes you from the initial to the final value for that
unit. Multiply the data for the other original unit times 1/multiple. That’s the answer.
* * * * *
Answer
The total volume increased from 250 mL to 750 mL. It tripled. So the final concentration of
the glucose will be 1/3 the original 0.45 M = 0.15 M.
Practice A: Learn the rule above, then treat this practice as a quiz: solve without
looking back. Write answers by inspection. Check them at the end of the lesson.
1. If 100. mL of 2.00 M KCl is diluted to 400. mL total volume, what is the final [KCl]?
2. To dilute 250 mL of 1.0 M HCl to a concentration of 0.20 M, what must be the final
volume of the solution?
Dilution Calculations – Two Options

When a dilution problem cannot be done by inspection, you have two options to solve:
using conversions or an equation.
Method A: Solving With Conversions In Two Parts
To solve dilution problems using conversion factors, solve in two parts. First find the moles
of the part (concentrated or diluted) that is not WANTED, then use that value for moles to
find the unit WANTED.
To learn the conversion method, do the steps below in your notebook for the following
problem.
Q. Water is added to 225 mL of an aqueous 0.200 M KOH solution until the total
volume is 4.00 liters. What is the resulting [KOH]?
1. List the WANTED and DATA in the usual manner.
2. When you see the dilution prompt (2 volumes, 2 concentrations, same formula), label
two items from the WANTED and DATA as concentrated (C) and two as diluted (D). (The
solution with the higher molarity or lower volume is more concentrated.)
Solve dilution by inspection for easy multiples, and by conversions or an equation if not. In
this problem, the volume change is not an easy multiple. To solve by conversions,
3. In the DATA, write the fundamental rule: “In dilution: moles C = moles D “
4. You will know less DATA for the part (concentrated or diluted) that has the unit you
WANT. So, solve first for moles of solute for the part that you do not WANT, using the
DATA for the part (C or D) that you do not WANT.
5. Using the same number of moles as data for the WANTED part, plus the other available
DATA for the WANTED part, solve for the WANTED unit with conversions.
* * * * * (The * * * mean, try those steps, then check below.)

Answer
After steps 1-3, your paper should look like this, (minus the comments ).
WANTED: ? mol KOH D (The unit of concentration is mol/L)
L KOH soln.
DATA: 225 mL KOH C (lower of the 2 volumes)
0.200 mol KOH = 1 L soln. C (goes with the 225 mL)
4.00 L KOH soln. D (higher volume means more diluted)
In dilution: moles Concentrated = moles Diluted
In the WANTED and DATA, two must be C and two D. If needed, adjust your work and do
Steps 4 and 5.
* * * * *
4. In this problem, since the diluted molarity is WANTED, solve first for the concentrated
moles using the concentrated data.
? moles KOH C = 225 mL KOH C • 10─3 L • 0.200 mol KOH C =
1 mL 1 L KOH soln. C
= 0.04500 moles KOH for both C and D. (Carry an extra sf .)
In dilution, the key to choosing which numbers to use when is to make sure that every unit
is labeled as C or D, and moles is labeled as both C and D. Then, do the calculations for C
and D separately, using C data for C and D data for D.
5. Use that mole value and the WANTED-part data to solve for the unit WANTED.
* * * * *
WANTED: ? moles KOH D = 0.04500 mol KOH D = 0.0112 moles KOH D
L soln D 4.00 L D L soln D
6. Check. Substitute in the original data round numbers that make an easy multiple
between the two data values with the same unit. Solve with the rounded numbers by
inspection. See if rounded and calculated answers are close.
* * * * *
If you substitute 200 mL for 225 mL, the volume increase to 4,000 mL is 20 times. Multiply
0.20 M by 1/20 = 0.01 M. This rounded is close to the calculated answer above. Check!
Practice B: Use the conversion method to solve. Then check your answer: round the
data to make an easy dilution multiple and solve by inspection.
1. To make 250 mL of a 0.65 M NaCl solution, starting from a 2.00 M NaCl solution, how
many mL of the concentrated solution are needed?

Method B: The Dilution Equation

The conversion method works for dilution and is based on fundamentals. However, there
is a quicker way to solve dilution with a bit of algebra.
In dilution, because the moles of solute stays constant, we can write
Liters C • moles C = moles C = moles D = Liters D • moles D

Liter C Liter D
A way to rewrite this equation is
VolumeC x MolarityC = VolumeD x MolarityD
which is written in symbols as
The dilution equation: VC x MC = VD x MD
and memorized by recitation:
“In dilution, volume times molarity equals volume times molarity.”
Using the dilution equation, if you know any 3 of the variables, you can solve for the 4th.
You do not need to solve for moles in the middle.
A restriction on the use of this and other equations is that the units must be consistent,
meaning in this equation that the volume units must be the same. The equation works in
any volume units, provided that all of the volumes are converted to the same unit.
Let’s learn the method by solving the previous problem, this time using equation steps.
Q. To 225 mL of an aqueous 0.200 M KOH solution, water is added until the total
volume is 4.0 liters. What is the resulting [KOH]?
Do the following in your notebook.
Steps: Solving With the Dilution Equation
The first two steps are the same used for conversions.
1. List the WANTED and DATA.
2. If you see the dilution prompt (2 volumes, 2 concentrations, same substance), label two
items of WANTED and DATA concentrated (C) and two diluted (D).
Then, follow these steps to use an equation to solve.
3. Write the fundamental, memorized equation in symbols.
4. Label each item of WANTED and DATA with a symbol from the equation.
5. Convert the DATA to consistent units. (If the two volume units differ, either make both
mL or both liters.).
Do those steps, then check below.
* * * * *

WANT: ? mol KOH MD

L KOH soln.
DATA: 225 mL KOH soln. VC
0.200 mol KOH = 1 L KOH soln MC
4.00 L KOH soln VD = 4,000 mL KOH soln.
(or you could change both volumes to liters)
SOLVE: Dilution Equation: VC x MC = VD x MD
6. Using algebra, solve the equation in symbols for the symbol WANTED.
* * * * *
WANTED = ? MD = VC x MC
VD
Do not plug numbers into an equation until after you have solved for the WANTED
symbol. When numbers include units, symbols move faster and with fewer mistakes.
7. Now plug in the numbers with their units and solve.
When using conversions, you must write M as moles per liter because you use M as a
ratio to solve. With the dilution equation, however, you may use M to abbreviate
moles/liter. In the equation, the M’s will cancel properly.
* * * * *
? MD = VC x MC = 225 mL KOH C x 0.200 M KOH C = 0.0112 M KOH soln. Diluted
VD 4.00 x 103 mL KOH D
A Caution About Equations, Units, and Labels

In the above equation, the units cancelled properly to give the WANTED unit. But if you
include the C and D labels with the quantities (as we must when using conversions), the
labels seem not to cancel.
Actually, units and labels must cancel in equations. If, instead of abbreviating molarity as
for example MC, we had written out the full “mol KOH/L KOH C soln,” the units would
have cancelled properly, as they must. The dilution equation solves quickly if you
abbreviate the molarity unit as M, but if you do, you lose the benefit of label cancellation as
a check on your work.
If you write out the full units, the units and labels cancel correctly, but the equation does
not solve quickly.
So, if you solve the dilution equation quickly by abbreviating molarity as M, you need to
substitute numbers into the equation carefully. You will not have unit-label cancellation as
a safety net.

Which Method Is Best To Solve Dilution: Conversions or Equations?

Many calculations in chemistry require equations to solve, but others can be solved using
either conversions or equations. Given the choice, conversions are generally easier to use.
Equations must be memorized, and most equations have conditions that narrow their use.
For dilution, however, the equation is easy to remember, uses fewer steps to solve, and the
only condition is consistent units. For dilution, the equation is faster if you abbreviate M
and ignore the C and D label cancellation.
Because it is faster, the dilution equation is used more often, but which method you use is
up to you.
SUMMARY: Dilution Calculations

Dilution problems may be solved with conversions or the dilution equation. Both
methods start with the same steps.
1. List the WANTED and DATA in the usual manner.
2. Label each number and its unit as either concentrated (C) or diluted (D).
Then pick your method.
To Solve With Conversions
a. Solve for moles using DATA from the part (C) or (D) you don’t WANT.
b. Use the same number of moles to solve for the part you WANT.
c. Except for moles, don’t use data for one part to solve in the other part.
To Solve With the Dilution Equation
When you see that you want or need to use an equation,
a. Write the memorized equation.
b. Label each WANTED and DATA item with a symbol from the equation.
c. Convert the data to consistent units (such as mL or liters, but not both).
d. Solve the equation for the WANTED symbol, using the symbols.
e. Plug in the numbers and units and solve. If you use the abbreviation M for
mol/L, the units will cancel properly, but the labels will not.
Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run them to perfection 3 days.

The fundamental rule of dilution Moles dissolved is not changed by dilution
In dilution calculations, if volume or [ ] is
The other value is multiplied by 1/multiple
changed by a multiple,
The dilution equation in words Volume times molarity = vol. times molarity
The dilution equation in symbols VC x MC = VD x MD
When solving with equations, label the
The symbols used in the equations
WANTED and DATA with
* * * * *

Practice C: Do Problems 1 and 3, and 2 if you need more practice. Except for 1a, use the
equation method to solve. Check each answer: round the data to make an easy multiple,
solve by inspection, and see if your rounded answer is close.
1. If 50.0 mL of 3.00 M NaOH is diluted
a. to 500. mL total volume, what is the [NaOH]?
b. to 750. mL volume, what is the [NaOH]?
2. How many mL of 6.0 M HCl are diluted to make 0.250 liters of 0.15 mol•L─1 HCl ?
3. To what volume must 50.0 mL of 2.0 M NaCl be adjusted to make 0.24 M NaCl?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Since the volume has been quadrupled, the concentration must be cut to 1/4 the original amount. The final
[KCl] = 0.50 M.
2. Since the final concentration has been cut to 1/5th of the original value, the volume must become five times
the original value. Final volume = 5 x 250 mL = 1,250 mL.
Practice B
1. WANTED: ? mL NaCl soln C
DATA: 250 mL soln D (D because it is paired with 0.65 M which is D below)
0.65 mol NaCl = 1 L D (lower of two concentrations)
2.00 mol NaCl = 1 L C (higher concentration)
(Check: In WANTED and DATA, two must be C and two D)
Rule: In Dilution: moles C = moles D
(Strategy: First, solve for moles of the part you do not WANT, using the data for the part (concentrated
or diluted) that does NOT contain the unit WANTED.
In this problem, since the concentrated mL are WANTED, solve first for the diluted moles
using the diluted data.)
? mol NaCl D = 250 mL NaCl soln D • 10─3 L • 0.65 mol NaCl D =
1 mL 1 L NaCl D
= 0.162 mol NaCl (both C and D if moles). (carry extra sf until end)
(Use those moles and the WANTED part data to solve for the unit WANTED.)
? mL NaCl soln. C = 0.162 mol NaCl C • 1 L NaCl C • 1 mL = 81 mL NaCl soln. C
2.00 mol NaCl C 10─3 L
In the DATA and conversions, since all of the volumes are of NaCl solution, after one volume is fully
labeled as NaCl soln., other volume labels may be omitted as understood. However, every number must
be labeled with a C or a D, since there are two different NaCl solutions in the problem (C and D).

Check: For the variable (volume or molarity) that is known both before and after dilution, substitute for one
of the numbers to make it a close but easy multiple of the other. Then do the dilution estimate in your
head, write an answer, and compare it to the calculated answer. Try that step, then check below.
* * * * *
If the 0.65 M is rounded to 0.50 M, that number must be quadrupled to reach the 2.00 M, so the problem’s
volume must be cut to about 1/4 of the original 250 mL = about 60 mL, which is in the ballpark of the answer.
Practice C
1. (If the volume increases by a factor of 10, the solution becomes 1/10th as concentrated.) 0.300 M NaOH.
1b. WANTED: [NaOH] = ? M NaOH = ? mol NaOH MD
L NaOH soln.
DATA: 50.0 mL VC (C because lower of 2 volumes)
3.00 mol NaOH = 1 L soln MC (in wording, goes with 50.0 mL)
750. mL soln. VD (higher of 2 volumes = Diluted)
(Check: In WANTED and DATA, two must be C and two D)
(Strategy: For equation method: Write the equation. Go back and label the DATA with the
equation’s symbols. Check for consistent units. Solve for the missing symbol. Plug in
numbers and units and solve. Check the answer unit; make sure it makes sense. Check
the answer using rounded numbers.)
? MD = VC x MC = 50.0 mL x 3.00 M NaOH = 0.200 M NaOH diluted

VD 750. mL
(The units must cancel to result in the unit WANTED but when using the M label as a shortcut, the
labels may not cancel correctly).
Check: 50 to 800 mL makes the volume 16 times larger, the concentration will be about
1/16 x original = 1/16 x 3 = about 3/15 = about 1/5 = 0.20 M. Check!
2. WANTED: ? mL HCl solution VC (in wording, applies to 6.0 M)
DATA: 6.0 mol HCl = 1 L soln. MC (higher of the 2 molarities)
0.15 mol HCl = 1 L MD (mol•L─1 = mol / L = ratio unit data )
0.250 L soln. VD = 250. mL HCl soln
(Strategy: The problem doesn’t mention dilution, but you have 2 volumes and 2 concentrations of
the same substance. That’s the dilution prompt. Two of the WANTED and DATA must
be C and two must be D.
The equation method is faster, but in equations the units must be consistent. It is
easier to convert the volume data to the WANTED unit.)
WANTED: ? mL = VC = VD x MD = 250 mL HCl • 0.15 M HCl = 6.2 mL HCl soln.

MC 6.0 M HCl

Check: To go from 0.15 M to 6.0 M is an increase of 40 times. The volume that goes with the 0.15 M
must therefore be multiplied by 1/40. Since we want mL, 0.250 L = 250 mL x 1/40 equals about 6 mL.
Check.
3. WANTED: ? mL NaCl solution VD (choose mL for consistent volume units)
DATA: 50.0 mL NaCl VC (goes with 2.0 M, which is C)
2.0 mol NaCl = 1 L NaCl MC (higher of the 2 concentrations)
0.24 mol NaCl = 1 L NaCl MD
(Strategy: Two volumes, two molarities, same substance. That’s the dilution prompt. Labeling
the DATA as C or D first helps in deciding whether the WANTED variable is
concentrated or diluted.
Using the equation method, you may use the M abbreviation for moles/liter.)
SOLVE: Dilution: VC x MC = VD x MD
WANTED: ? mL VD = VC x MC = 50.0 mL • 2.0 M = 420 mL NaCl soln D

MD 0.24 M
Check: From 2.0 M to 0.24 M is a decrease about 10 times. The volume that goes with the 2.0 M must
therefore be increase by about 10 times. 10 x 50 mL = 500 mL. Pretty close.
* * * * *
Lesson 12B: Ion Concentrations

Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to solve for the concentration of ions when ionic
compounds are dissolved in water.
Prerequisites: Lessons 7C and 11D.
* * * * *
Ion Separation in Water
Ionic compounds have high melting points: they are always solids at room temperature.
In the solid, the ions are locked in place, held together by electrostatic attraction. However,
when an ionic solid is melted or is dissolved in water, the ions separate and move about.
The electrical charges on the ions can “flow.” This ability for the charges to move means
that when ions are melted or dissolved in water, they can conduct electricity. A substance
that forms ions when dissolved in water is termed an electrolyte.
Some ionic compounds dissolve only slightly in water, while others dissolve 100% in dilute
solutions. In either case, dissolving an ionic solid in water can be considered as a simple
chemical reaction. As the solid dissolves, the original formula unit of the solid is used up,
and its separated ions form.
For the portion of an ionic substance that dissolves in water, unless otherwise specified,
you should assume that all of the ions separate. In dilute solutions, this “ideal solution
behavior” is generally close to true. We will discuss the exceptions to this 100% ionization
assumption in Module 26, but for now, our rule will be this useful approximation:

For the portion of an ionic solid that dissolves in water, to find [ions] in the water,
assume the ions separate ~100%.
For solutions in which an ionic solid dissolves 100%, the ions are assumed to separate
100%, and the relationships between the number of formula units added to the solution and
the number of ions formed are the simple whole-number ratios of the balanced equation.
For example, Na3PO4 is highly soluble in water (in diluted solutions, the ionic solid
dissolves 100%) and the ions in dilute solutions separate by close to 100%. The reaction
can be written as
1 Na3PO4(s) Æ 3 Na+(aq) + 1 PO43─(aq)
The (s) is an abbreviation for solid and the (aq) abbreviates aqueous, which means
dissolved in water. The products of the ionization of an ionic solid can be predicted
using the rules for separated-ion formulas (see Lesson 7C).
Note that one particle was used up and four particles form. One formula unit of an ionic
compound, when its ions separate, will always produce two or more ions.
Note also that the reaction is balanced for both atoms and charge. In chemical reactions,
the total numbers of molecules or formula units on each side will often differ. However, the
number of each kind of atoms, and the overall charge, must be the same on both sides of a
balanced reaction equation.
In calculations for an ionic solid that dissolves in water, write the balanced equation
for the ion separation. The coefficients then show the count of ions formed in solution
per formula unit of solid used up in the ion separation reaction.
Calculating Moles of Ions

If an ionic solid dissolves 100% in water, then the moles of ions formed can be calculated
from the moles of solid added.
After writing the balanced equation for ion separation, the moles of solid used up and
moles of ions formed can often be “solved by inspection” (done in your head), because the
calculation is based on coefficients: simple whole-number mole ratios.
For this problem, write the balanced equation, then try to solve by inspection.
Q. The ionic solid BaCl2 dissolves 100% in dilute aqueous solutions.
If 0.40 moles of solid BaCl2 are mixed into water,
a. how many moles of Cl─ ions are present in the solution?
b. How many moles of BaCl2 are present in the solution?
* * * * *
A. The balanced equation for dissolving and separation is
1 BaCl2(s) Æ 1 Ba2+(aq) + 2 Cl─(aq)
For every one mole of BaCl2 formula units used up as it dissolves and separates, two
moles of Cl─ ions form. Dissolving 0.40 moles of BaCl will therefore result in
2

a. 0.80 moles of Cl─ in solution, and

b. 0 moles of BaCl2 in solution. All of the BaCl2 formula units are used up as BaCl2
separates.
Practice A
1. A solution is made by adding 0.50 moles of Na2SO4 to water. The Na2SO4 dissolves
and ionizes 100%. In the resulting solution, what will be the number of moles of
a. Na+ ions? b. SO42─ ions?
c. Na2SO4 particles? d. Particles in the solution?
Coefficients and Ion Concentrations

When ionic solids dissolve 100% in water, the simple coefficient ratios that predict moles
used up and formed also predict the concentrations (mol/L) of ions formed. Why?
• Coefficients are ratios between numbers of particles.
• Because coefficients are ratios, coefficients can be multiplied by any number and
still be true. When coefficients based on the particle counts of balanced equations
are multiplied by 6.02 x 1023, the coefficients can be read as moles, the unit used to
count particles for visible amounts of substance.
• Since coefficients can be mole ratios, they can also be mole per liter (concentration)
ratios if all of the substances in the balanced equation are contained in, and well
mixed and therefore uniformly distributed in, the same volume.
For a reaction that takes place in solution that keeps a constant volume during the
reaction (as you should assume a solution does during reactions unless otherwise
noted) the mole ratios for the balanced equation will remain the same when divided
by the constant volume, so the coefficients can be read as mol per liter ratios.
To summarize,
Coefficients of a balanced equation can be read as

• Particles, or moles of particles, or
• moles per liter if all of the particles are evenly distributed in the same volume.
When an ionic solid dissolves in water 100%, assume its ions separate ~100% unless
otherwise noted. To calculate the moles or the [ions formed],
• write the balanced equation for the solid separating into ions.
• Solve the moles and the mol/L of particles used up and formed by inspection,
or with a simple conversion based on the coefficients of the balanced equation.

Ion Concentration Calculations

Describing the concentration of particles in a solution is a bit tricky because chemists often
use a shortcut when writing solution concentrations. Using the rules above, try this
problem in your notebook.
Q. In a bottle of solution labeled 0.15 M K2CrO4, what is the
a. [K+]? b. [CrO42─]? c. [K2CrO4]?
* * * * *
Answer
To find moles or [ions] when ionic solids dissolve, first write the balanced equation.
1 K2CrO4(s) Æ 2 K+(aq) + 1 CrO42─(aq)
Solving each part by inspection,
a. [K+] = 0.30 M; and b. [CrO42─] = 0.15 M, based on the balanced equation.

Since all moles are in the same liters of solution, the coefficients show the ratios in which
the moles per liter are used up and formed. For every 0.15 moles per liter of K2CrO4
formula units used up, 0.30 mol/L of K+ and 0.15 mol/L of CrO42─ forms.
The answer to Part c is a bit more complex.
c. The [K2CrO4] is labeled as “0.15 M, ” but in the solution is zero K2CrO4.

Why? As the solid K2CrO4 dissolves in water, its formula units are used up. The label
“0.15 M K2CrO4 “ represents the moles of K2CrO4, per liter, dissolved to make the solution,
but no K2CrO4 particles are present in the solution.
Labeling a solution as “0.15 M K2CrO4” is a shortcut. It is quicker to write than “0.30 M K+
and 0.15 M CrO 2─,” so it is usually done. In calculations, however, you will often need to
4
use the concentrations of the ions that are the particles actually present in the solution.
The REC Steps
Most calculations involving ions provide ion concentrations in mol/L. For a reaction in
which a substance separates 100% into ions, a fast method to calculate the ion
concentrations is to solve by inspection -- by writing the REC steps.
For Substances Separating 100% Into Ions

To find the [ions] for an ionic solid dissolving 100%, if all units are mol/L, write the
REC steps. Write
• R: The balanced Reaction equation. After the equation, write
• E: The Extent of the reaction (such as “goes 100%”). Below each particle, write
• C: The Concentration of the particle, based on the coefficient ratios.
Apply the REC steps to the following problem.

Q. Calcium nitrate dissolves 100% in water. In a solution labeled 0.25 M Ca(NO3)2,

what is the
a. [Ca(NO ) ]?
32 b. [Ca2+]? c. [NO ─]? 3
* * * * *
Since this reaction is a solid separating 100% into ions, and all of the data is in mol/L , solve
by inspection using the REC steps. Write the
Reaction and Extent: 1 Ca(NO3)2 Æ 1 Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3─(aq) (goes 100%)

^ ^ ^
Concentrations: 0.25 M (Æ 0 M) 0.25 M 0.50 M
First write the given concentration, then write the others based on the coefficient ratios.
The REC notation above shows the mol/L of the ionic solid both as originally mixed
(0.25 M) and after it separates ( 0 M ).
Practice B: Assume these solids dissolve 100% and form ions 100%. Solve using the
REC steps. Check your answers at the end of the lesson after each problem.
1. In a 0.30 M solution of radium nitrate,
a. [Ra2+] = ? b. [NO3─] = ?
2. In a 0.60 M solution of sodium carbonate,
a. [Na+] = ? b. [CO32─] = ?
3. If a solution of potassium phosphate has a [K+] of 0.45 Molar,
a. [PO 3─] = ?
4 b. [K PO ] = ?
3 4
4. In a solution of aluminum sulfate, if the [SO42─] = 0.036 Molar,
a. [Al3+] = ? b. [Al2(SO4)3] = ?
Ion Stoichiometry
For some calculations in which a compound separates 100% into ions, not all of the units
will be mol/L, or the numbers will be too complex to solve by inspection. In those cases,
the REC steps cannot be applied directly. However, you can treat the ion separation as a
reaction and solve by stoichiometry. (This method can be used for all ion-separation
calculations, but solving with the REC steps is quicker if the numbers are easy ratios.)
Using stoichiometry steps, try this problem in your notebook.
Q. How many grams of anhydrous aluminum sulfate must be used to make 250. mL of
a solution in which [SO 2─] = 0.245 M? ( Al (SO ) = 342.2 g/mol )
4 2 43
(Many ionic solids are hydrates: they have water molecules in their crystal structures.
Anhydrous means the ionic solid has no water molecules in its crystals or its formula.)
* * * * *

Answer: This ion separation includes grams instead of all mol/L, so we cannot use the
REC steps directly. Try stoichiometry.
WANTED: ? g Al2(SO4)3
DATA: 250. mL solution
0.245 moles SO42─ = 1 L soln. (M prompt)
342.2 g Al2(SO4)3 = 1 mol Al2(SO4)3 (g prompt)
Balance: 1 Al2(SO4)3 Æ 2 Al3+ + 3 SO42─
Bridge: 1 mol Al2(SO4)3 = 3 mol SO42─
SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Convert units to moles to moles to units.)

? g Al2(SO4)3 = 250. mL soln • 10─3 L • 0.245 mol SO42─ • 1 mol Al2(SO4)3 • 342.2 g Al2(SO4)3
1 mL L soln. 3 mol SO42─ 1 mol Al2(SO4)3
= 6.99 g Al2(SO4)3
In the above terms, note that “mL soln.” did not have a substance label. This is because
there is only one solution, and all of the particles in the reaction are in that solution. In
upcoming problems involving two solutions, labels that include formulas will be needed.
Practice C: Assume these solids separate 100% to form ions.

1. If 6.37 grams of solid K3PO4 are dissolved to make 0.250 liters of solution, what will be
the concentration of K+ ions in the solution?
2. How many milligrams of solid Ba(OH)2 need to be dissolved to make 50.0 mL of a
solution with a [OH─] of 0.0280 M?
Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run each until perfect: daily, weekly, monthly.
Molecules, or moles -- or mol/L if all reactants
Coefficients can be read as
and products are in same volume
To find solution concentrations for substances Write the REC steps --
that separate 100% into ions Or use stoichiometry steps
Balanced Reaction Equation, Reaction Extent,
REC steps mean
Concentrations
A substance or mixture that a) is made of
electrolyte
ions and b) conducts electricity
hydrates Solids with H2O in crystal and in formula
anhydrous Solids withOUT H2O in crystal and formula

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. First, balance. 1 Na2SO4(s) Æ 2 Na+(aq) + 1 SO42─(aq)
^ ^ ^
Then, based on coefficients: 0.50 moles used up Æ 1.0 mol + 0.50 mol formed
After the reaction, there will be a) 1.0 mol Na+ ions, b) 0.50 mol SO42─ ions, c) no Na2SO4 particles.
The un-separated Na2SO4 formula units are all used up in the reaction. d) 1.5 total moles of particles.
Practice B
1. Radium Nitrate = 1 Ra2+ + 2 NO3─ = 1 Ra(NO3)2
Reaction and Extent: 1 Ra(NO3)2 Æ 1 Ra2+ + 2 NO3─ (goes 100%)

^ ^ ^
Concentrations: 0.30 M (Æ 0 M) Æ 0.30 M + 0.60 M formed
2. Reaction and Extent: 1 Na2CO3 Æ 2 Na+ + 1 CO32─ (goes 100%)

^ ^ ^
Concentrations: 0.60 M (Æ 0 M) Æ 1.2 M + 0.60 M
3. Reaction and Extent: 1 K3PO4(aq) Æ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─ (goes 100%)

^ ^ ^
a. Based on the coefficients, 3 K+ are formed for every one PO43─. [PO43─] = 0.15 M
b. [K3PO4]? The ratio of K3PO4 to K+ is one to three, so mol/L K3PO4 used up = 0.15 M , That is
the mol/L of K3PO4 mixed. However, there are no K3PO4 particles in the solution.
4. Reaction and Extent: 1 Al2(SO4)3 Æ 2 Al3+ + 3 SO42─ (goes 100%)

^ ^ ^
a. [Al3+] = 0.024 M
b. [Al2(SO4)3]? One third of the given [SO42─] = 1/3 (0.036 M) = 0.012 mol/L Al2(SO4)3 is used to
make the solution, and this may be used as a label for the solution, but there are no particles of
Al2(SO4)3 in the solution.
Practice C
1. WANTED: ? = [K+] = ? mol K+ (Write the unit WANTED)
L soln.
DATA: 6.37 g K3PO4 = 0.250 L soln. (equivalent: 2 measures of same solution)
212.3 g K3PO4 = 1 mol K3PO4 (g prompt)
(There is no need to label the solution volumes with a substance, since there is only one solution and all of
the substances are in it.

When the data for solids dissolving to form ions is not all in mol/L, you cannot use the REC steps directly.
Since problem involves a reaction and two different formulas, K+ and K3PO4, try stoichiometry.)
1 K3PO4 Æ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─ (Stoichiometry Step 3: Balance equation)
1 mole K3PO4 = 3 moles K+ (Stoich. Step 4: write mol-to-mol bridge)
SOLVE: (One method is: want a ratio? Start with a ratio.)
? [K+] = ? mol K+ = 6.37 g K3PO4 • 1 mol K3PO4 • 3 mole K+ = 0.360 moles K+
L soln. 0.250 L soln 212.3 g K3PO4 1 mole K3PO4 L soln.
2. WANTED: ? mg Ba(OH)2
DATA: 50.0 mL soln.
0.0280 mol OH─ = 1 L soln. (M prompt)
171.3 g Ba(OH)2 = 1 mol Ba(OH)2 ( mg = g prompt)
(When the data for solids dissolving to form ions is not in mol/L, the REC steps cannot be used directly to
solve for [ions]. Since the WANTED and DATA involve two formulas and a reaction, try stoichiometry.)
Balance: 1 Ba(OH)2 Æ 1 Ba2+ + 2 OH─
Bridge: 1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 mol OH─
SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Solve using single-unit stoichiometry, chaining conversions.)
? mg Ba(OH)2 = 50.0 mL • 10─3 L • 0.0280 mol OH─ • 1 mol Ba(OH)2 • 171.3 g Ba(OH)2 • 1 mg =
1 mL 1 L soln. 2 mol OH─ 1 mol Ba(OH)2 10─3 g
= 120. mg Ba(OH)2
* * * * *
Lesson 12C: Solution Stoichiometry

Prerequisites: Modules 10 and 11 and their prerequisites.
Timing: Do this lesson when you are assigned acid-base neutralization calculations, or
precipitation or gravimetric calculations, or redox stoichiometry, or any other “amount
calculations” for reactions that take place in aqueous solutions.
* * * * *
Calculations For Solution Reactions
Chemical reactions are often carried out in aqueous solutions. Calculations of how much of
the reactants and products are involved in reactions are stoichiometry. For solution
reactions that go to completion, calculations can be solved using the same stoichiometry
methods that we have studied previously.

In solution reactions, an additional factor is the
M Prompt
In the WANTED and DATA, translate M, molar, molarity, concentration, and [ ] brackets
into moles per 1 liter. Write moles per liter as a ratio when it is WANTED and as an
equality or conversion in the DATA.
For Single Unit WANTED, Given Quantity Known

In solution stoichiometry, if a single-unit amount is WANTED, and if either the limiting
reactant or only one item of single-unit DATA is identified, that amount is your given
quantity. This type of calculation is solved using 7-step conversion stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry Prompt: For reactions, if WANTED substance ≠ given substance,

• Write 4 steps to gather tools: WANTED and DATA, balance and bridge (WDBB), and
• 3 to solve: Convert “? WANTED = unit given” to mol given to mol wanted to unit wanted.
The Importance of Complete Labels

By definition, stoichiometry involves two or more substances. In any problem dealing
with two or more entities, a careful labeling of the WANTED and DATA is essential.
• In the WANTED and DATA, if a number and unit apply to only one entity in the
problem, label each unit with a substance formula and/or words that identify
what the unit is measuring.
• Remember: a unit that measuring one substance cannot be used to cancel the same
unit measuring a different substance. The substance, its state, and other parts of its
descriptive label are an inseparable part of the unit.
Practice A: If review is needed, see Lesson 10E.

1. An acidic solution of lead dioxide (PbO2) is reacted with 4.48 grams of manganese
nitrate. The balanced equation is
2 Mn(NO3)2 + 5 PbO2 + 6 HNO3 Æ 5 Pb(NO3)2 + 2 HMnO4 + 2 H2O
For a 0.250 M PbO2 solution, how many milliliters is needed to use up all of the
manganese nitrate? (Mn(NO3)2 = 179 g/mol)
Finding the Limiting Reactant

If you are asked to find the limiting reactant in a reaction, you can either use successive
stoichiometry conversions (Lesson 10G) or a rice moles table (Lesson 10H). Because solution
reactions have lots of numbers, a rice table is usually the preferred to help in tracking the
numbers. In rice calculations, the steps are write the WANTED unit, then

Practice B: Solve using rice tables or successive conversions (see Lessons 10H and 10I).
1. To 25.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is added 0.00200 mol Ba(OH)2. The reaction goes to
completion. The unbalanced equation is
HCl + Ba(OH)2 Æ H2O + BaCl2
a. Which is the limiting reactant?
b. How many moles of each substance is present at the end of the reaction?
c. If the final volume of the reaction solution is 150. mL, what is the [BaCl2] at the end
of the reaction?
Recognizing When the Limiting Reactant Must Be Found

Stoichiometry calculations can be divided into two types: those in which
• the given amount is clear in the problem, and we solve using a moles-to-moles
conversion, either by inspection or in 7-step stoichiometry; or
• counts of two reactants are supplied, and the limiting reactant must be determined
before using a moles-to-moles conversion.
By definition, stoichiometry is a calculation in which a count of particles of a WANTED
substance is found by involving that substance in a chemical reaction. If a count of the
particles of any one substance that reacts or forms is known, the count of the WANTED
particles can be determined based on the coefficients of the reaction. From the count in
moles of the WANTED particles, measurements in other WANTED units can be found.
However, it can be difficult to distinguish problems in which the DATA can be converted
to a count for one substance, and that is your given, from problems that supply you with
counts of two reactants, and you must first determine which amount is limiting. If
conversion stoichiometry uses a reactant as given, it must be a reactant that is totally used
up (limiting) in the reaction, and not a reactant that is in excess.
In solution stoichiometry, it can be challenging to distinguish which calculations require
finding the limiting reactant first from those that do not, since the solution DATA usually
involves more numbers and units than “grams and moles” stoichiometry.
To distinguish stoichiometry problems that supply the given from those in which a limiting
reactant must be identified first, we will use two methods that we will call hints and counts.
Let’s look at the more reliable counts method first.
Counting Particles
Reaction calculations require particle counts, and for visible amounts of substances, we
count in moles. However, the DATA in problems and in labs is usually supplied in the
units that are measured by lab instruments. Those instruments generally can measure
mass in grams or volume in liters, but they cannot directly count particles in moles.
In stoichiometry, to know whether we need to find tre limiting reactant, we need to know
how many reactants have DATA supplied that allows us to count particles (without using

the reaction coefficients). This requires knowing which unit combinations can be converted
to moles. The rule is:
If you are supplied DATA for one substance, moles can be counted IF
1. the mass (g) and the molar mass (in g/mol) of the substance is known; or
2. the mass and the substance formula is known (because from the formula you can
easily find its molar mass); or
3. for a substance dissolved in a solvent, the solution volume (usually supplied in liters
or prefix-liters) and the substance concentration (in mol/L) are known.
Try Q. Can you count the particles of NaCl in 40.0 mL of 0.30 M NaCl solution?
* * * * *
For visible (macroscopic) amounts of substances, we count the particles in moles. If
you can find the moles, you have counted the particles. The rule says that if we know
the volume and concentration of a solution, we can find its moles of solute. Do so.
* * * * *
? mol NaCl = 40.0 mL NaCl soln. • 10─3 L • 0.30 mol NaCl = 0.012 mol NaCl
1 mL 1 L soln.
In deciding whether a limiting reactant must be identified to solve for product amounts, to
use the count method, determine whether the DATA for the problem allows you to convert
directly (without using the balanced equation coefficients) to a count (moles) for one
substance or two reactants. If you can do so
• for one substance, use 7-step conversion stoichiometry to solve;
• for two reactants, first find which is limiting, then use the limiting reactant as given
and then mole-to-mole conversions to predict how much of the products will form.
If a single unit is WANTED, and if the DATA supplies single-unit amounts in any units for
two reactants, it is likely that you can convert both of those amounts to moles (two counts),
which means you must determine which reactant is limiting. In chemistry, the single unit
amounts that we measure tend to be those that can be converted to moles.
Hints
The count method above is a reliable way to identify whether a limiting reactant must be
identified or the given is supplied, but in many cases, the wording of a reaction calculation
give quick, strong hints about whether or not identifying the limiting reactant is required in
a reaction calculation.
A clear given is likely supplied in the DATA if a problem
• identifies the limiting reactant or excess reactants, or
• supplies an amount of a product to be used in the calculation, or
• involves finding an amount of one reactant that exactly uses up another reactant (a
stoichiometric equivalence), as is found at an equivalence point or endpoint of a
reaction, or when one reactant neutralizes another.
You must identify the limiting reactant in order to predict product amounts if counts are
supplied for two reactants.

To find the limiting reactant, you can use either successive stoichiometry conversions
(Lesson 10G) or a rice moles table (Lesson 10H). However, in solution stoichiometry
problems, which can have lots of numbers, the rice table may do a better job of breaking the
problem into manageable pieces.
If a problem asks you to find the “mixture at the end of a reaction,” solve with a rice table.
Finally, if a reaction amount calculation leaves you not sure where to start, make the rice
moles table. The table takes time, but it solves all types of stoichiometry calculations
(limiting needed or not), helps in organizing the numbers, and gives a complete picture of
the reactants and products initially, used up, and present at the end of the reaction.
Let’s summarize the above.
In Reaction Calculations, Use Which Steps?

To solve stoichiometry, how can you tell whether the limiting or given substance is
supplied, or if a limiting reactant must first be identified?
1. Hints: The given is identified, and you don’t need to find the limiting reactant
first,
• if a limiting or excess reactant is identified or a stoichiometric equivalent
reactant is WANTED or
• if an amount of product is supplied, or
Words such as endpoint or equivalence point or neutralize also hint that a problem is
about a stoichiometric equivalence and that there is one clear substance that can be
used as your given to solve.
2. Counts are more reliable than hints. Ask: from the supplied DATA, how many
substances can be counted (without using the balanced equation)?
a. For a substance, if you know its mass and its molar mass or formula, or its
solution volume and concentration, you can count its particles.
b. If particles can be counted for only one substance, assume that substance is
limiting or given. Use its amount as given for conversion stoichiometry.
c. If particles can be counted for two reactants, but the limiting reactant is not
specified, first identify the limiting reactant using a rice moles table.
d. If a single unit is WANTED, and if the DATA supplies amounts in any single
units for two reactants, it is likely that you can convert both of those amounts to
moles (two counts), which means you must determine which reactant is limiting.
3. In 7-step conversion stoichiometry, solve using WDBB and these conversions.
Given units > given moles > WANTED moles > WANTED units
4. For a rice table, use: Supplied units > moles > rice moles table > WANTED units
5. If the problem asks for the amounts of all of the substances present in the mixture
at the end of a reaction, a rice moles table is the faster way to solve.
6. For complex stoichiometry problems in which you are not sure how to proceed,
use a rice moles table. It will organize and solve all reaction calculations.

Practice C
1. For problems 3 and 4 below, circle the reactant(s) listed for which the DATA
supplied can be converted to moles (without using the balanced equation).
In Problem 3: Ag HNO3 In Problem 4: NaCl Pb(NO3)2
2. In which problem(s) below must the limiting reagent be determined in order to solve?
Now solve one problem below now, and the other during your next study session.
3. How many grams of silver metal will react with 2.0 liters of 3.0 Molar HNO3 ?
The balanced equation: Ag + 2 HNO3 Æ AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O
4. To 0.468 g NaCl is added 15.0 mL of 0.200 M Pb(NO3)2. The reaction goes to
completion. How many grams of PbCl2 form? The unbalanced equation is
NaCl + Pb(NO3)2 Æ NaNO3 + PbCl2
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. 1. WANT: ? mL PbO2 soln. (Want a single unit)
2. DATA: 4.48 g Mn(NO3)2 (one single unit in DATA)

179 g Mn(NO3)2 = 1 mol Mn(NO3)2
0.250 mol PbO2 = 1 L PbO2 soln.
(For reaction calculations with measurements of two substances, you will need the stoichiometry steps
with a mol-mol conversion.)
3. Balance. (see above)
4. Bridge. 5 mol PbO2 = 2 mol Mn(NO3)2 (relate the WANTED and given moles)
5-7. SOLVE: (WANT a single unit? Start with a single-unit as your given)
? mL PbO2 = 4.48 g Mn(NO3)2 • 1 mol Mg(NO3)2 • 5 mol PbO2 • 1 L PbO2 • 1 mL =

179 g Mn(NO3)2 2 mol Mn(NO3)2 0.250 mol PbO2 10―3 L
= 250. mL PbO2 soln.
Practice B: If you use successive conversions, you will get the same final answers.
1a. WANT: the limiting reactant, using a rice moles table. Follow these steps:
All supplied units > all moles > rice moles table > WANTED units. Converting all units to moles: )
? mol HCl initially = 50.0 mL HCl · 10―3 L HCl · 0.100 mol HCl = 0.00500 mol HCl
1 mL HCl 1 L HCl

Reaction 2 HCl 1 Ba(OH)2 2 H2O 1 BaCl2
Initial 0.00500 mol 0.00200 mol 0 mol formed 0 mol

Change (use + , ―) ― 0.00400 mol ― 0.00200 mol +0.00400 mol + 0.00200 mol
At End 0.00100 mol 0 mol Lots – solvent 0.00200 mol
The End row both identifies the limiting reactant (0 mol at end = Ba(OH)2) and shows the moles of each
reaction component at the end of the reaction, answering parts a and b.
Since water is the solvent, the water formed has no significant impact on the high amount of water,
compared to the other substances, present at the end of the reaction.
1c. WANT: [BaCl2] = mol BaCl2 at End of reaction (want ratio unit)
L BaCl2 soln.
DATA: 0.00200 mol BaCl2 (in table at End) = 150. mL total volume (2 measures, same solution)
SOLVE:
? = [BaCl2] = mol BaCl2 = 0.00200 mol BaCl2 · 1 mL = 0.0133 M BaCl2
L BaCl2 soln. 150. mL soln. 10―3 L
Practice C
1. In Problem 3: Ag HNO3 Knowing L and mol/L, moles can be calculated.
In Problem 4: NaCl Pb(NO3)2 Knowing the mass and formula for NaCl, molar mass and then
moles can be calculated. Knowing mL and mol/L for Pb(NO3)2 , moles can be calculated.
2. In problem 3, the given substance is clear: you know a count of particles for only one substance. In
problem 4, you are supplied amounts that can be converted to counts for two reactants. To solve, you
need to find which reactant is limiting first.
3. Per Answer 2, since the substance given is clear: use 7-step stoichiometry.
1. WANTED: ? g Ag
2. DATA: 2.0 L HNO3 soln.
107.9 g Ag = 1 mol Ag (grams prompt)
3.0 mol HNO3 = 1 L HNO3 soln. (M prompt)
(Note that by listing the WANTED unit and formula first, it prompts for a conversion needed to solve)
3. Balance: See problem.
4. Bridge: 1 mol Ag = 2 mol HNO3
SOLVE: (WANT a single unit? Start with the single-unit amount in the DATA.)
? g Ag = 2.0 L HNO3 • 3.0 mol HNO3 • 1 mol Ag • 107.9 g Ag = 320 g Ag
1 L HNO3 2 mol HNO3 1 mol Ag

4. WANT: g PbCl2 . Per answer 2, you must find the limiting reactant first. Use the rice table steps:
All supplied units > all moles > rice moles > WANTED units Converting units to moles:
? mol NaCl = 0.468 g NaCl · 1 mol NaCl = 0.00800 mol NaCl initially
58.5 g NaCl
? mol Pb(NO3)2 = 15.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 · 10―3 L · 0.200 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 0.00300 mol HCl initially
1 mL L Pb(NO3)2
Balancing: 2 NaCl + 1 Pb(NO3)2 Æ 2 NaNO3 + 1 PbCl2
Reaction 2 NaCl 1 Pb(NO3)2 2 NaNO3 1 PbCl2

Change (use + , ―) ― 0.00600 mol ― 0.00300 mol + 0.00600 mol + 0.00300 mol
End 0.00200 mol 0 mol 0.00600 mol 0.00300 mol
The End row identifies the limiting reactant: 0 mol at end = Pb(NO3)2 .
The End row the moles PbCl2 formed. From moles, other WANTED units can be calculated.
? g PbCl2 = 0.00300 mol PbCl2 · 278.1 g PbCl2 = 0.834 g PbCl2

1 mol PbCl2
* * * * *
Lesson 12D: Stoichiometry Finding Ratio Units

So far, all of our reaction calculations have solved for a single unit amount. However, in
solution stoichiometry you may also be asked to solve for a ratio unit such as concentration
(mol/L) or molar mass (g/mol).
When solving for a ratio, you can either
• use the rule, if you WANT a ratio, start with a ratio, or
• solve separately for the top and bottom WANTED units, then divide.
Both methods work, but for reaction calculations the second is easier to use.
When a reaction is used to find the value of a characteristic ratio, our strategy will be to
solve in two parts.
• First, for a sample of a substance or a solution, we will calculate separately the
amounts for each of the single units in the top and bottom of the WANTED ratio.
Conversion stoichiometry will be needed for one of the amounts.
• Then, to find the final WANTED ratio, divide the two amounts. The ratio for the
sample will be true for any and all samples of the substance or solution.
Let’s learn this method by example.

Q. If 20.0 mL of the acid H3PO4 is exactly neutralized by 35.5 mL of 0.0500 M NaOH,

calculate the original [H3PO4]. The unbalanced equation is
H3PO4 + NaOH Æ Na3PO4 + H2O
To begin, ask: is the given known, or do we need to find the limiting reactant first?
* * * * *
“Exactly neutralized” means that at the end of the reaction, both of the reactants are exactly
used up: the two reactants are stoichiometrically equivalent. That’s a strong hint that the
given is supplied in the DATA and you can solve directly with conversions.
But let’s check by the count rule to be sure. In this problem, the DATA supplies the volume
and concentration of NaOH, so we can find the moles of NaOH from the NaOH data
supplied. For the H3PO4 , we are supplied the volume, but volume cannot be converted to
moles unless we also know the H3PO4 concentration (which the problem WANTS), or we
use a mole-to-mole (stoichiometry) conversion (which is how we will solve). But, from the
DATA supplied for the H3PO4 by itself, we cannot count its particles.
When the DATA supplies a way to count the particles for only one substance, which
method do you use to solve?
* * * * *
Conversion stoichiometry.
When solving for a ratio using conversions, several methods can be used. However, in the
special case of a solving reaction calculation (stoichiometry) for a ratio, one of the units in
the WANTED ratio is usually moles. In that case, it will simplify problem solving to use the
following steps to “solve in two parts.”
Steps: Solving Stoichiometry For a Ratio Unit
1-4. Start with the first 4 stoichiometry steps: WANTED, DATA, balance, bridge (WDBB).
5. Label one of the DATA equalities as “2 Equivalent Amounts” or “2SUA-R.”
When solving for a ratio, all of the data will be in equalities.
When solving stoichiometry for a ratio, one of the equalities will be two amounts
that are equivalent in some way at the endpoint of the reaction. The other
equalities will be ratios (R) that are not amounts in the reaction.
6. Solve separately for the top and bottom WANTED units.
a. Solve first for the WANTED unit that is not moles. Use as the given the side
of the equivalency that has the substance formula that is in the WANTED unit.
b. Then find moles WANTED using the other half of the equivalency as the
given and single-unit stoichiometry conversions.
7. To SOLVE for the final WANTED ratio, divide the two WANTED amounts.
Apply those steps to the problem above, and then check below.
* * * * *

Your paper should look like this.

1. WANT: [H3PO4] = mol H3PO4
L H3PO4 soln.
2. DATA: 0.0500 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH (M prompt)
(In identifying the equalities, it helps to list M ratio data first)
20.0 mL H3PO4 = 35.5 mL NaOH (Equivalent)
3. Balance. 1 H3PO4 + 3 NaOH Æ 1 Na3PO4 + 3 H2O
4: Bridge. 1 mol H3PO4 used up = 3 mol NaOH used up
Both single- and ratio-unit conversion stoichiometry start with the same four steps:
WANTED, DATA, Balance, and Bridge (WDBB). When solving for a ratio unit, all of the
DATA will be in equalities. For reactions, one equality will be two amounts that are
equivalent in some way at the reaction endpoint.
5. Identify and label the equivalency equality in the DATA.
20.0 mL H3PO4 = 35.5 mL NaOH (2 Equivalent Amounts)
Those two amounts are equivalent when the reaction stops. We will discuss how they
are equivalent in later lessons. For now, all you need to know is that when solving
stoichiometry for a ratio, two amounts will be identified as equivalent at the endpoint
of a reaction. Label that equivalency.
The remaining DATA will be ratio (R) equalities that are not two related amounts.
Do Step 6 above if you have not already done so, then check below.
* * * * *
The two WANTED units are moles and liters of H3PO4. Solve for L H3PO4 (not
moles) first. As a given, choose the side of the equivalency that includes an
H3PO4 amount.
* * * * *
In solution reactions, we often must convert from mL to L. Do so either
1. by conversions
? L H3PO4 = 20.0 mL H3PO4 • 10─3 L = 20.0 x 10─3 L H3PO4
1 mL
2. or by inspection, by substituting what the prefix means.
? L H3PO4 = 20.0 mL H3PO4 = 20.0 x 10─3 L H3PO4
b. Solve for moles WANTED using single-unit stoichiometry steps. Start with the other
half of the equivalency as your given.
* * * * *
Start with ? mol H3PO4 = 35.5 mL NaOH
* * * * *

Convert to moles given, then moles WANTED. Since moles WANTED is the unit
WANTED at this point, stop conversions and get a number for moles WANTED.
* * * * *
? mol H3PO4 = 35.5 mL NaOH • 10─3 L • 0.0500 mol NaOH • 1 mol H3PO4 = 5.917 x 10─4 mol H3PO4
1 mL 1 L NaOH 3 mol NaOH
Do step 7 if you have not already done so, then check below.
* * * * *
Let the WANTED units tell you where to put the two units in the given ratio.
* * * * *
? mol H3PO4 ─4 mol H PO
= 5.917 x 10 3 4 = 0.0296 mol H3PO4
L H3PO4 ─3
20.0 x 10 L H3PO4 L H3PO4
The original data had 3 or more sf . Round the final answer to 3 sf .

Summary: Reaction Calculations
Let’s add the steps to solve for a ratio to our previous steps for reaction calculations.
Reaction Amount Calculations For Reactions That Go To Completion

1. If the limiting reactant, or an amount of one stoichiometric equivalent, or an
amount of one substance that can be converted to moles is known, solve using
conversions.
a. if a single-unit amount of one other substance is WANTED, write WDBB
(steps 1-4) and then these conversions:
Given unit > given moles (5) > WANTED moles (6) > WANTED units (7)
b. if a ratio-unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be in equalities. Write WDBB
(steps 1-4) and then
Step 5. Label the equivalency in the DATA.
Step 6. Solve separately for the top and bottom WANTED amounts.
i. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles first. Use as a given the
side of the equivalency that is an amount of the WANTED formula.
ii. Solve for moles WANTED using single-unit stoichiometry with the
other half of the equivalency as your given.
Step 7. Divide the two WANTED amounts to find the final WANTED ratio.
2. If two reactant counts are supplied or can be calculated, but the limiting reactant is
not specified, identify the limiting reactant and solve using these steps:
All supplied units > all moles > rice moles > WANTED units
Be able to apply the steps above from memory. In upcoming topics, with these rules as a
foundation, you will know how to start and finish all types of stoichiometry.

When Must the State Be Labeled?

In stoichiometry calculations, a measurement in a calculation often must include four parts:
the number, the unit, the substance, and its state: (gas) or (aq) or “soln.”
Why include the state? In chemistry, volume units (such as mL, L, dm3) can be used to
measure both solutions involving liquid solvents and gases. In problems that involve both
volumes of both solutions and gases, writing gas or solution after a volume unit and formula
is needed to describe what is being measured and to arrange correct conversions.
However, if all the volumes in a problem clearly apply to either gases or solutions, the state,
as (gas) or “soln” or (aq), can be written after one volume in the WANTED or DATA (as in
the WANTED unit above) but omitted from the remaining volumes as understood.
We will return to this issue when we study gases, but the rule is, for calculations that
involve only solutions, include “soln.” after a WANTED or DATA volume at least once.
* * * * *
To solve calculations, also be able to list the steps above. When learning any process, try to
use multiple methods.
If a ratio unit is wanted, if you can solve with
equalities
conversions, all data will be in
In a reaction calculation, when a ratio unit is Will be equivalent (=) at the endpoint.
WANTED, 2 amounts…
In conversion stoichiometry, when a ratio unit is Solve for the 2 WANTED units separately,
WANTED, the method is then divide.
In conversion stoichiometry, when a ratio unit is
The WANTED unit that is not moles
WANTED, solve first for
In conversion stoichiometry, when a ratio unit is the one of the 2 equivalent amounts that has
WANTED, the first given used is the WANTED unit formula.
Practice
First learn the steps in the summary above, then apply them to solve these. Additional
solution stoichiometry problems will be done in Modules 13D, 14C-E, and 15E.
1. For problems 3, 4, and 5 below, circle the reactant(s) listed for which the supplied
DATA for each substance can be converted to moles (without using the balanced
equation).
In #3: HCl KOH In #4: H2SO4 KOH In #5: Ba(OH)2 HCl
2. In which problem(s) below must the limiting reagent be calculated in order to solve?
3. If 25.0 mL KOH solution is exactly neutralized by 47.2 mL of 0.450 M HCl, find the
[KOH]. The unbalanced equation is
HCl + KOH Æ KCl + H2O

4. If 44.0 mL of sulfuric acid solution is needed to exactly use up 3.93 g KOH, calculate
the [H2SO4]. The unbalanced equation is
H2SO4 + KOH Æ K2SO4 + H2O
5. A 200. mL sample of a Ba(OH)2 solution is exactly neutralized by 62.4 mL of 0.100 M

HCl. What was the original [Ba(OH)2]? The unbalanced equation is
Ba(OH)2 + HCl Æ BaCl2 + H2O
ANSWERS
1. In #3: HCl KOH Knowing mL and mol/L for HCl , moles can be calculated. For the KOH,
knowing only its solution volume, you cannot find its moles without stoichiometry.
In #4: H2SO4 KOH Knowing g and formula for KOH, molar mass then moles can be calculated.
From the data supplied about the H2SO4, you cannot count the particles without using the balanced
equation.
In #5: Ba(OH)2 HCl Knowing mL and mol/L for HCl , moles can be calculated. From the data
supplied that refers to the Ba(OH)2 , you cannot count its particles.
2. In all 3 reactions, moles can be calculated for one reactant but not two. You need to find the limiting
reactant only if the moles of two reactants can be calculated, and you do not know which is limiting.
3. When a count of the particles of one substance can be calculated without a mol-mol conversion, and a
measure of a second substance that is equivalent is WANTED, use conversions to solve.
1. WANTED: ? mol KOH (the unit of concentration is moles/liter, a ratio unit)
L KOH soln.
2. DATA: 25.0 mL KOH = 47.2 mL HCl (Two amounts equivalent at endpoint)
0.450 mol HCl = 1 L HCl (M prompt)
(Since we have two substances, DATA and conversions must be labeled as HCl or KOH.
When stoichiometry WANTS a ratio unit, all of the data will be in equalities, and one equality will be
two amounts that are equivalent at the end point.
For reaction calculations involving measurements of two substances, use the stoichiometry steps.
All stoichiometry starts with the same first 4 steps: WDBB)
3. Balance: 1 KOH + 1 HCl Æ 1 HOH + 1 KCl
4. Bridge: 1 mol KOH = 1 mol HCl

5. SOLVE. (In stoichiometry, if a ratio unit is WANTED, find the top and bottom WANTED amounts in a
sample separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the DATA equalities.
b. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles, using as a given the side of the equivalency with
the WANTED formula).
? L KOH = 25.0 mL KOH = 25.0 x 10─3 L KOH
* * * * *
c. (Solve for moles WANTED using stoichiometry, with the other half of the equivalency as the given.
To start:) ? mol KOH = 47.2 mL HCl
* * * * *
(Convert the given unit to given moles, then WANTED moles using the bridge conversion.)
? mol KOH = 47.2 mL HCl • 10─3 L HCl • 0.450 mol HCl • 1 mol KOH = 2.212 x 10─2 mol KOH
1 mL HCl 1 L HCl 1 mol HCl
(When arithmetic is done before the end of a problem, carry an extra sf so that rounding does
not affect the final answer.
* * * * *
d. Solve for the final WANTED ratio by dividing the amounts found above.)
? mol KOH = 2.212 x 10─2 mol KOH = 0.850 mol KOH

L KOH 25.0 x 10─3 L KOH L KOH
4. When a count of one substance can be calculated based on supplied DATA that measures that
substance, and a measure of a second substance that is equivalent is WANTED, use conversions to
solve.
1. WANT: [H2SO4] = mol H2SO4 (a ratio unit)
L H2SO4 soln.
2. DATA: 44.0 mL H2SO4 = 3.93 g KOH (2SUA-R: equivalent when reaction stops)
56.1 g KOH = 1 mol KOH (grams prompt)
(Strategy: Reaction with data for two formulas = stoichiometry. Stoichiometry starts with WDBB.)
3. Balance: 1 H2SO4 + 2 KOH Æ 1 K2SO4 + 2 H2O
4. Bridge: 1 mol H2SO4 = 2 mol KOH (relate WANTED and given moles)
(If needed, adjust your work, then finish.
* * * * *
5. SOLVE. (In stoichiometry, if a ratio unit is WANTED, find the top and bottom WANTED amounts in a
sample separately.
a. Label the equivalency.
b. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles, using as a given the equivalency side with the
WANTED substance formula).
? L H2SO4 = 44.0 mL H2SO4 = 44.0 x 10─3 L H2SO4

c. (Solve for moles WANTED. Start with the other half of the equivalency as your given.)
? mol H2SO4 = 3.93 g KOH • 1 mol KOH • 1 mol H2SO4 = 3.503 x 10─2 mol H2SO4
56.1 g KOH 2 mol KOH
(Until the final step, carry an extra sf .
* * * * *
d. For the final WANTED ratio, divide the two amounts. Let the WANTED units tell you where to put the
numbers and units in the given.)
? mol H2SO4 ─2 mol H SO

= 3.503 x 10 2 4 = 0.796 mol H2SO4
L H2SO4 soln. 44.0 x 10─3 L soln. L
5. When a count of one substance can be calculated without a mol-mol conversion, and a measure of a
second substance that is equivalent at a point in the reaction is WANTED, use conversions to solve.
1. WANT: [Ba(OH)2] = mol Ba(OH)2 (want ratio unit)
L Ba(OH)2 soln.
2. DATA: 200. mL Ba(OH)2 = 62.4 mL HCl (Equivalent at end of reaction)
0.100 mol HCl = 1 L HCl soln. (M prompt)
(Strategy: Reaction - two substances = stoichiometry = WDBB)
3. Balance: 1 Ba(OH)2 + 2 HCl Æ 1 BaCl2 + 2 H2O
4. Bridge: 1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 mol HCl (relate moles of the two substances)
(Label each solution with the formula for the substance in the solution, to distinguish the DATA for the two
solutions.
* * * * *
a. Label the equivalency.
b. Solve first for the easier unit (not-moles), given the equivalency side with the WANTED formula.)
? L Ba(OH)2 = 200. mL Ba(OH)2 = 200. x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2
c. Solve for moles WANTED by single-unit stoichiometry with the other half of the equivalency as given.)
? mol Ba(OH)2 = 62.4 mL HCl • 10─3 L • 0.100 mol HCl • 1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 3.120 x 10─3
1 mL 1 L HCl 2 mol HCl mol Ba(OH)2
(If needed, adjust your work and finish.
* * * * *
d. For the final WANTED ratio, divide the two WANTED amounts found in the sample.)
? mol Ba(OH)2 = 3.120 x 10─3 mol Ba(OH)2 = 0.0156 mol Ba(OH)2

L Ba(OH)2 soln. 200. x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2 L Ba(OH)2
* * * * *


You may use a calculator and a periodic table. Work on your own paper. On the multiple
choice problems, solve -- then find your answer.
* * * * *
1. How many grams of NaOH are required to make 500. mL of 0.150 M NaOH
solution?
a. 0.550 g NaOH b. 133 g NaOH c. 0.834 g NaOH d. 1.35 g NaOH e. 3.00 g NaOH
2. If 150 mg NaOH is dissolved to form 50.0 mL of NaOH solution, find the [NaOH].
a. 0.33 M NaOH b. 3.3 M NaOH c. 0.30 M NaOH d. 0.075 M NaOH e. 0.75 M NaOH
3. If a drop of water contains 0.050 mL and requires 6.0 hours to evaporate, how many
molecules evaporate per minute?
a. 4.6 x 1018 molec/min. b. 8.3 x 1021 molec/min c. 2.8 x 1020 molec/min
d. 1.8 x 1019 molec/min e. 7.7 x 1017 molec/min
4. A 2.0 liter (67.7 fluid ounce) soft drink contains an artificial sweetener. The
concentration is 4.5 milligrams per fluid ounce.
a. Write an equality from this data that represents two equivalent amounts.
b. Write an equality from this data that represents a ratio that is not two amounts.
5. To what volume must 50.0 mL of 2.0 M KCl be adjusted to make 0.24 mol•L─1 KCl?
a. 600. mL b. 420 mL c. 60. mL d. 104 mL e. 24 mL
6. 4.25 g K3PO4 (212.3 g/mol) is dissolved to make 400. mL solution. What is the
resulting [K+]?
a. 0.050 M K+ b. 0.150 M K+ c. 0.166 M K+ d. 0.667 M K+ e. 0.100 M K+

7. If 20.0 mL of an HCl solution is needed to react completely with 50.0 mL of 0.250 M
K3PO4, find the [HCl]. The unbalanced equation is
HCl + K3PO4 Æ H3PO4 + KCl
a. 0.625 M HCl b. 0.209 M HCl c. 0.938 M HCl d. 1.88 M HCl e. 2.09 M HCl
* * * * *

Summary: Molarity Applications

1. In dilution, the amount of solvent changes. This changes the volume of the solution but
not the number of solute particles dissolved.
a. The key relationship: moles solute concentrated = moles solute diluted.
b. Dilution prompt. If a problem has 2 volumes and 2 concentrations for one
substance formula, use a dilution method to solve.
• If V or M changes by an easy multiple , multiply the other by 1/multiple.
• If not easy multiples, either use conversions: solve for moles not WANTED,
then use the same moles to solve for the WANTED unit; OR
• Solve with the dilution equation: V x M = V x M
2. Coefficients can be read in units of particles, or moles of particles, or moles per liter of
particles if all the particles are evenly distributed in the same volume.
3. For Particles Separating 100% Into Ions
a. If all units are mol/L, solve by inspection by writing the REC steps.
• R: The balanced Reaction equation.
• E: The Extent of the reaction (“goes 100%”), and on the next line,
• C: Each Concentration based on the coefficient ratios.
b. If not all units are mol/L and easy numbers, solve using stoichiometry steps.
In Calculations For Reactions That Go To Completion
4. If either the limiting reactant or an amount of a stoichiometric equivalent is known,
solve using conversions.
Absent those hints, ask: How many substances can we count (without using the
balanced equation)? If one, use 7-step conversions. If two reactants, use a rice table.
When unsure if the given amount is known, use a rice table to solve.
5. To solve reaction calculations using conversions, if
a. a single-unit amount of one other substance is WANTED, solve with WDBB and
conversions using the limiting reactant as given:
Given units > given moles > WANTED moles > WANTED units
b. a ratio-unit is WANTED, write WDBB, then solve separately for the top and
bottom WANTED amounts.
i. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles first. Use as given the
side of the equivalency that is an amount of the WANTED formula.
ii. Solve for moles WANTED using single-unit stoichiometry with the
other half of the equivalency as given.
iii. Divide the two WANTED amounts to find the final WANTED ratio.
* * * * *


1. e. 3.00 g NaOH (Lesson 11C) 2. d. 0.075 M NaOH (Lesson 11C)

3. a. 4.6 x 1018 molec/min (See Lesson 11D. Data includes: 1 drop = 6.0 hours , 1 drop = 0.050 mL ,
1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O liquid, 18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O , 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 molecules)
4a. 2.0 L = 67.7 fluid ounce 4b. 4.5 mg = 1 fluid ounce. (Lesson 11F)
5. b. 420 mL (Dilution -- Lesson 12A) 5. b. 0.150 M K+ (0.0600 mol K+ / 0.400 L soln. Lesson 12B)
6. d. 1.88 M HCl ( 0.0375 mol HCl / 0.0200 L soln. Lesson 12D)
# # # # #

* * * * *
calculator to solve, if you look for easy cancellations first.
# # # # #

The ELEMENTS – Lutetium
Magnesium
Lu
Mg
71
12
175.0
24.3
The third column shows the atomic number: Manganese Mn 25 54.9
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
The protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Mercury Hg 80 200.6
The fourth column is the molar mass, in Molybdenum Mo 42 95.9
grams/mole. For radioactive atoms, ( ) is the Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
molar mass of most stable isotope. Neon Ne 10 20.2
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Aluminum Al 13 27.0 Nickel Ni 28 58.7
Americium Am 95 (243) Niobium Nb 41 92.9
Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Nobelium No 102 (259)
Arsenic As 33 74.9 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Astatine At 84 (210) Oxygen O 8 16.0
Barium Ba 56 137.3 Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 Platinum Pt 78 195.1
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Plutonium Pu 94 (242)
Boron B 5 10.8 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Bromine Br 35 79.9 Potassium K 19 39.1
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Calcium Ca 20 40.1 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Californium Cf 98 (251) Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Carbon C 6 12.0 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Radon Rn 86 (222)
Cesium Cs 55 132.9 Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Chromium Cr 24 52.0 Rubidium Rb 37 85.5
Cobalt Co 27 58.9 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Copper Cu 29 63.5 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (261)
Curium Cm 96 (247) Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Scandium Sc 21 45.0
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Selenium Se 34 79.0
Erbium Er 68 167.3 Silicon Si 14 28.1
Europium Eu 63 152.0 Silver Ag 47 107.9
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Sodium Na 11 23.0
Fluorine F 9 19.0 Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Francium Fr 87 (223) Sulfur S 16 32.1
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Gallium Ga 31 69.7 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Germanium Ge 32 72.6 Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Gold Au 79 197.0 Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Thallium Tl 81 204.4
Helium He 2 4.00 Thorium Th 90 232.0
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Tin Sn 50 118.7
Indium In 49 114.8 Titanium Ti 22 47.9
Iodine I 53 126.9 Tungsten W 74 183.8
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Uranium U 92 238.0
Iron Fe 26 55.8 Vanadium V 23 50.9
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Lawrencium Lr 103 (260) Yttrium Y 39 88.9
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Zinc Zn 30 65.4
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Zirconium Zr 40 91.2.
. Page 309
* * * * *
Module 13 – Ionic Equations and Precipitates
Module 14 – Acid-Base Neutralization
* * * * *
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................. 101
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 159
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page iii

Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 237
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page iv

Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page v

Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................614
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................662
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................827
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page vi

Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 974
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page vii

•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page viii

Module 13 — Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Pretests: On Module 13 lessons, if you think you know the topic, try the last problem in the
lesson. If you can do that problem, you may skip the lesson.
Lesson 13A: Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds

Prerequisites: If you have any problems translating between the names, solid formulas,
and separated formulas for ionic compounds during Module 13, review your ion name and
formula flashcards from Lessons 7B and 7C.
* * * * *
Solubility Terminology
All ionic compounds dissolve to some extent in water, and some dissolve to a substantial
extent, and some ionic compounds have borderline solubility at room temperature. In
addition, solubility for ionic compounds is temperature dependent: some dissolve to a
greater extent in warmer solvents, some dissolve less,
Those messy realities aside, most ion combinations can generally be classified as soluble or
insoluble in water. A commonly accepted definition is
• if 0.10 moles or more of a solid dissolve per liter of solution at room temperature,
the solid is termed soluble;
• if the solid dissolves less than 0.10 moles per liter, it is considered either slightly
soluble or insoluble.
Most introductory chemistry courses ask that you memorize a set of solubility rules that
will allow you to predict the solubility of many ion combinations. Although there are some
patterns to solubility based on the Periodic Table, there are limited simple rules. The
solubility scheme on the following page will cover most ions customarily assigned.
However,
• if your course requires that you memorize a particular chart, memorize it instead of
this one.
• If you are allowed to consult a particular solubility chart on quizzes and tests, use it
in place of this one.
• If the following chart conflicts in its predictions from a chart you are assigned in
your class, use the one that you are assigned.
A Solubility Scheme
The scheme below is hierarchical: higher rules take precedence over those beneath them. To
predict the solubility of ion combinations, apply the rules in order from the top.
If only one ion of the two in a compound is in this table, you may presume that the
compound will follow the rule for the ion that is shown. (This will not always be accurate,
but is a best guess. With solubility, there are exceptions.)
©2009 ChemReview.net v. j9 Page 308

Commit to long-term memory:
Positive Ions Negative Ions

─ ─ ─ ─
1. (alkali metals)+ , NH4+ NO3 , CH3COO , ClO3 ; ClO4 Soluble
(nitrate, acetate, chlorate, perchlorate)
2. Pb2+ , Hg22+ , Ag+ CO32─ , PO43─ , S2─ , CrO42─ Insoluble
3. Cl─ , Br─ , I─ (except Cu+) Soluble
4. Ba2+ (except OH─) OH─ (except Ba2+ , Sr2+, Ca2+) Insoluble
5. SO42─(except Sr2+, Ca2+) Soluble
Exceptions include: Column 2 sulfides and aluminum sulfide decompose in water.

CH3COOAg, Ag2SO4 and Hg2SO4 are moderately soluble.
Memorization Tips
1. Focus especially on the rules near the top. In this scheme, the higher the rule, the more
often it will be used.
2. Notice the patterns in the last column and in the empty boxes.
3. Most people best recall what they hear repeatedly (especially if it rhymes). You may
want to recite the ion names in a series, as well as write them.
Using the Scheme to Make Predictions
When using any solubility scheme, if you are unsure of which ions are in a compound, you
should write out the separated formula that shows the ion charges. Atoms that have two
possible ion charges, such as Cu+ and Cu2+, can have differing solubilities.
Let’s try a few predictions.
Q. For the questions below, use the solubility scheme of your choice. Write your
answer and your reason.
1. Is Ba(NO3)2 soluble?
2. Is PbCl2 soluble or insoluble?
3. Is Hg(NO3)2 soluble or insoluble?

Answers
1. Yes. Ba(NO3)2 Æ Ba2+ + 2 NO3─ , Ba2+ ion is insoluble by Rule 4, but all nitrates are
soluble by Rule 1, and the higher rule has precedence.
2. PbCl2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 Cl─. Pb2+ ion by Rule 2 is insoluble. Chloride ion in Rule 3 is
soluble, but rule 2 takes precedence. PbCl2 is insoluble.

3. Hg(NO3)2 Æ Hg2+ + 2 NO3─ . The above solubility scheme makes no specific

predictions for Hg2+, the mercuric [mercury (II)] ion, but based on Rule 1 that all
nitrates are soluble, predict soluble. If only one ion in a pair is in the table, base your
prediction on the rule for that ion.
Practice
1. If you are required to memorize solubility rules in your course, do so before you do the
problems below, then write your solubility scheme from memory in your notebook.
2. Label each ion combination as soluble or insoluble, and state a reason for your
prediction. Check your answers after each one or two parts.
a. K+ + Br─
b. Sr2+ + Cl─
c. Ca2+ + CO32─
d. Ag+ + CrO42─
3. Write the separated ions for these combinations, then label the ion combination as
soluble or insoluble, and state a reason for your prediction. (If you are using a different
scheme, your reason may differ, but your answer will probably be the same.)
Do every other part, and check your answers frequently. Do more if you need more
practice. If you have trouble writing the separated ions, redo Lessons 7B and 7C.
a. Lead (II) Bromide Æ Pb2+ + 2 Br─ ; Insoluble -- Rule 2 for Pb2+ (example)
b. Barium Carbonate Æ
c. Sodium Hydroxide Æ
d. SrBr2 Æ
e. Silver nitrate Æ
f. Ammonium hydroxide Æ
g. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ
h. Pb(CH3COO)2 Æ
i. NiCl2 Æ

j. BaSO4 Æ
k. RbBr Æ
l. Fe2S3 Æ
4. Which ions in combination with Pb2+ are soluble compounds?
5. Are all nitrates soluble? Are all phosphates insoluble?
ANSWERS
These answers are based on the solubility scheme above. You will have different rules if you use a different
scheme, but you should have the same answer in most cases, and a similar reason.
2. a. K+ + Br─ Soluble. Rule 1, first column metal ions are always soluble
b. Sr2+ + Cl─ Soluble. Rule 3, chloride
c. Ca2+ + CO32─ Insoluble. Rule 2, carbonates (if only one ion is in table, use it)
d. Ag+ + CrO 2─ Insoluble. Rule 2, chromate ion and/or silver ion.
4
3. b. Barium Carbonate Æ Ba2+ + CO32─ Insoluble by Rule 2 for carbonates
c. Sodium Hydroxide Æ Na+ + OH─ Soluble by Rule 1 for alkali-metal ions
d. SrBr2 Æ Sr2+ + 2 Br─ Soluble by Rule 3 for bromides
e. Silver nitrate Æ Ag+ + NO ─ Soluble by Rule 1 for nitrates
3
f. Ammonium hydroxide Æ NH4+ + OH─ Soluble by Rule 1 for ammonium ion
g. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ 3 Fe2+ + 2 PO43─ Insoluble by Rule 2 for phosphate ions
h. Pb(CH3COO)2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 CH3COO─ Soluble by Rule 1 for acetates
i. NiCl2 Æ Ni2+ + 2 Cl─ Soluble by Rule 3 for chlorides
j. BaSO4 Æ Ba2+ + SO42─ Insoluble by Rule 4 for barium ions
k. RbBr Æ Rb+ + Br─ Soluble by Rule 1 for alkali-metal ions
l. Fe2S3 Æ 2 Fe3+ + 3 S2─ Insoluble by Rule 2 for sulfide ions
4. Which ions in combination with Pb2+ would make soluble compounds? Nitrate, acetate, chlorate, and
perchlorate.
5. Are all nitrates soluble? YES. That rule is used frequently.
Are all phosphates insoluble? NO. Alkali-metal and ammonium-ion phosphates are soluble. Rule 1 has
precedence.
* * * * *

Lesson 13B: Total and Net Ionic Equations

Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 10B, and 13A.
* * * * *
Mixing Ions
When solutions of different ions are mixed, chemical reactions can occur.
One type of reaction is precipitation. When solutions of different soluble ionic compounds
are mixed, the ions can “trade partners:” new combinations of positive and negative ions
are possible. If a new combination is possible that is insoluble in water, it will precipitate:
it will form a cloud of solid particles in the solution.
For example, when a 0.1 M solution of sodium chloride (table salt) is mixed with a 0.1
M solution of silver nitrate, a bright white cloud immediately forms. Solid particles
from the cloud slowly settle to the bottom of the solution. Over time, in light, the
surface of the solid slowly turns grey.
The precipitate formed is silver chloride (AgCl), a solid that reacts with light.
The total ionic equation for this reaction is
Na+(aq) + Cl─(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3─(aq) Æ AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3─(aq)
The (aq) is an abbreviation for aqueous, which means dissolved in water. The (s)
abbreviates solid, which is the state of any precipitate.
Note that the sodium and nitrate ions did not change in the reaction. Ions that are present
during a reaction but do not change are termed spectator ions. In total ionic equations, the
spectator ions are included on both sides, and they will be the same on both sides. Including
the spectators helps us to see all of the reactant and product compounds.
However, as in math equations, terms that are the same on both sides of an equation can be
cancelled. Canceling the spectators gives the net ionic equation, which shows only the
particles that change in the reaction.
For the reaction above, cancel the spectators and write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ag+(aq) + Cl─(aq) Æ AgCl(s)
Practice A: Put a √ by and do Part a on each of these. Do the part b’s during your next
practice session.
1. For these total ionic equations, circle the precipitate, cross out the spectators, and write
the net ionic equation.
a. Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3― (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + 2 Cl―(aq) Æ Cu2+(aq) + 2 NO3―(aq) + PbCl2(s)
b. 6 Na+(aq) + 2 PO43―(aq) + 3 Mg2+(aq) + 3 SO42―(aq) Æ Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Na+(aq) + 3 SO42―(aq)

2. Balance these equations for precipitation reactions. (For rules, see Lesson 10B).
a. Fe(NO3)3(aq) + NaOH(aq) Æ Fe(OH)3(s) + NaNO3(aq)
b. Ca(NO3)2(aq) + K3PO4(aq) Æ KNO3(aq) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)
3. Molecular formulas with an aqueous state, such as in Problem 2 above, are often
written to represent ionic solids dissolved in a solution. In reality, however, if an ionic
solid dissolves in water, its ions will separate in the solution. Total and net ionic
equations show separated-ion formulas -- unless the ions react and precipitate.
Re-write the balanced equations for problems 2a and 2b using separated-ion formulas.
This will be the total ionic equation for each reaction.
4. Write the net ionic equations for the reactions in 2a and 2b.
Balancing Total Ionic Equations

For precipitation reactions, you will often be asked to balance a total ionic equation. To
balance properly, you must first balance each of the reactant and product formulas for
charge, then balance again to account for ratios of reaction.
In the following equation, the brackets show the original ion combinations on the left and
the new possible combinations on the right.
[ Ca2+ + NO3― ] + [ K+ + PO43―] Æ Ca3(PO4)2(s) + [ K+ + NO3― ]

To balance, first add coefficients inside the brackets so that the charges are balanced for each
substance formula, and then check your answer below. (For reactions conducted in
aqueous solutions, if no state is shown, assume (aq).)
* * * * *
[ 1 Ca2+ + 2 NO3― ] + [ 3 K+ + 1 PO43―] Æ Ca3(PO4)2(s) + [ 1 K+ + 1 NO3― ]
Now add coefficients in front of the brackets so that all of the atoms balance.
* * * * *
To form the precipitate, 3 calcium atoms and 2 phosphate ions are needed, so:
3 [1 Ca2+ + 2 NO3―] + 2 [3 K+ + 1 PO43―] Æ 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 [1 K+ + 1 NO3―]
Write the total ionic equation by removing the brackets. Check that the total ionic equation is
balanced for atoms. In total ionic equations, check also that the charges on each side total
to zero as well.
* * * * *
3 Ca2+ + 6 NO3― + 6 K+ + 2 PO43― Æ 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 K+ + 6 NO3―
Check: 3 Ca, 6 N, 6K, 2 P, 26 O on both sides. Zero net charge on both sides. Balanced.

Practice B: Put a √ by and do Problem 1. Do Problem 2 during your next practice

session. Re-write these equations as balanced total ionic equations.
1. [ K+ + SO42― ] + [ Sr2+ + NO3― ] Æ SrSO4(s) + [ K+ + NO3― ]
2. [ Fe2+ + Br ― ] + [ Na+ + PO43― ] Æ [ Na+ + Br― ] + Fe3(PO4)2(s)
Balancing Equations That Omit Some Spectator Ions

Until this point, most of the equations we have encountered have contained either
• formulas for neutral compounds, or
• separated ions, with a total charge of zero on both sides of the equation.
In reactions that involve ions, equations may also be written that omit some but not all of
the spectator ions.
For example, the reaction of silver nitrate and magnesium chloride solutions can be
represented with ionic solid and molecular formulas as
2 AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq) Æ 2 AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) (1)
Separated-ion formulas better represent soluble substances dissolved in water. The
total ionic equation for the above reaction is
2 Ag+ + 2 NO3─ + Mg2+ + 2 Cl─ Æ 2 AgCl(s) + Mg2+ + 2 NO3─ (2)

However, it is also common to write a mixture of the above two forms and leave out
some of the spectators. The above reaction may be written as
2 AgNO3 + 2 Cl─ Æ 2 AgCl(s) + 2 NO3─ (3)

In this equation, the spectator magnesium ions have been left out. The reaction can be
written in this format to emphasize that silver nitrate solution will form a precipitate
when mixed with any solution that contains chloride ions.
Note that this partial ionic equation (3), unlike the total ionic equation (2), does not have a
zero charge on both sides. However, it does have a balanced charge on both sides: the total
charge on both sides is positive two. That’s an important rule:
Equations are considered balanced if they have the same number and kind of atoms and
the same net charge on both sides.
In balancing equations, the equation can be considered balanced even if some of the ions
that must be present to balance charge have been left out. In the partial ionic equations that
are frequently written, the atom counts and total charge must simply be the same on both
sides.

Leaving Out the Spectators

Leaving out the spectators, when writing net or partial ionic equations, results in an
equation that is quicker to write than the total ionic equation. Without the spectator ions,
an equation focuses on the most important particles: those that change in the reaction.
In a similar fashion, in a laboratory a container may be labeled Ag+ or OH─ . However,

when the label is a single ion, spectator ions must also be present in the container. All stable
matter must be composed of balanced positive and negative charges. “Leaving out the
spectators” on container labels and in equations is simply a shortcut that is used to
emphasize the ions that react.
Practice C: Balance these partial ionic equations. Check answers as you go. Do every
other letter, and the rest in your next practices session.
1. Co(NO3)2 + OH─ Æ Co(OH)2(s) + NO3─
2. AgNO3 + CrO42─ Æ Ag2CrO4(s) + NO3─
3. CO32─ + HCl Æ H2CO3 + Cl―
4. HCO3─ + OH─ Æ H2O + CO32―

─
5. Al3+ + NO + H2O Æ Al + NO3 + H+
ANSWERS
Practice A: Assume (aq) if no state is shown.
1a. Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3― (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + 2 Cl―(aq) Æ Cu2+(aq) + 2 NO3―(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Net ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl―(aq) Æ PbCl2(s)
1b.. 6 Na+ + 2 PO43―+ 3 Mg2+ + 3 SO42― Æ Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Na+ + 3 SO42―

Net ionic equation: 3 Mg2+(aq) + 2 PO43―(aq) Æ Mg3(PO4)2(s)
2a. 1 Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3 NaOH(aq) Æ 1 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 NaNO3(aq)
2b. 3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2 K3PO4 Æ 6 KNO3 + 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)
3a. 1 Fe3+ + 3 NO3― + 3 Na+ + 3 OH― Æ 1 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 Na+ + 3 NO3―
3b. 3 Ca2+ + 6 NO ― + 6 K+ + 2 PO 3― Æ 6 K+ + 6 NO ― + 1 Ca (PO )

3 4 3 3 4 2(s)
4a. Net ionic equation: 1 Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH―(aq) Æ 1 Fe(OH)3(s)
4b. Net ionic equation: 3 Ca2+(aq) + 2 PO43―(aq) Æ 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)

Practice B: For reactions run in aqueous solution, assume (aq) if no state is shown.
1. 2 K+ + 1 SO42― + 1 Sr2+ + 2 NO3― Æ 1 SrSO4(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3―
2. 3 Fe2+ + 6 Br ― + 6 Na+ + 2 PO43― Æ 6 Na+ + 6 Br― + Fe3(PO4)2(s)
Practice C: (coefficients of 1 may be omitted).

1. 1 Co(NO3)2 + 2 OH─ Æ 1 Co(OH)2(s) + 2 NO3─
2. 2 AgNO3 + 1 CrO42─ Æ 1 Ag2CrO4(s) + 2 NO3─
3. 1 CO32─ + 2 HCl Æ 1 H2CO3 + 2 Cl―
4. 1 HCO3─ + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H2O + 1 CO32―

─
5. 1 Al3+ + 1 NO + 2 H2O Æ 1 Al + 1 NO3 + 4 H+
* * * * *
Lesson 13C: Predicting Precipitation

Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 10B, 13A, and 13B.
Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to predict whether a precipitate will form, or to
write a formula for a precipitate which forms, when ions are mixed.
* * * * *
Steps in Predicting Precipitation
This key rule for predicting precipitation must be memorized.
When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,

• if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
• If a new possible combination is soluble, its ions will remain separated and
dissolved in the solution.
To predict whether the mixing of soluble ions will produce a precipitate, you must analyze
the solubility of the new ionic combinations that can form. To walk through this prediction
process, answer the questions below in your problem notebook.
Q. Two separate aqueous solutions are prepared, one by dissolving Ca(NO3)2 and the
other by dissolving Na2CO3.
a. Write two balanced equations, one above the other, showing the ions formed when
each of these two ionic solids dissolves in water.
* * * * *
a. Ca(NO3)2(s) Æ Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3―(aq)
Na2CO3(s) Æ 2 Na+(aq) + CO32―(aq)

* * * * *

b. When the two solutions above are mixed, two new combinations of positive and
negative ions are possible. Each positive ion can attract either its original negative
partner or the new negative ion with which it has been mixed. Fill in the blanks
below to show the new possible ion combinations, then add coefficients to balance
each new combination for charge.
1 Ca2+ + ____ _______ Æ
___ _____ + ____ NO3― Æ
In solution reactions, if no state is shown, assume (aq).

* * * * *
b. 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32― Æ
1 Na+ + 1 NO3― Æ
* * * * *
c. After the arrows, write solid formulas for these new combinations.
d. Based on ion solubility rules, label each of the solids as soluble or insoluble.
e. Apply the rule: When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,
• if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
• If the new combination is soluble, its ions remain separated.
Will there be a precipitate in this case? If so, what is its solid formula?
Write answers for the above three steps, and then check your answers below.
* * * * *
c. 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32―Æ CaCO3 Insoluble by Rule 2. Will precipitate.
1 Na+ + 1 NO3― Å NaNO3 Soluble by Rule 1. Ions stay separated.

e. The precipitate is solid CaCO3 .
* * * * *
f. To write the total ionic equation, write the 4 original reactant ions. Then, for
products, write the formula for the solid precipitate, plus the separated ions for the
new combination that did not precipitate.
Fill in the blanks to give the total ionic equation for the reaction above.
1 Ca2+ +___ ________ +___ ______ + 1 CO32― Æ ___ _______(s) + ___ ______ + ___ ______
* * * * *
f. Ca2+ + 2 NO3― + 2 Na+ + CO32― Æ CaCO3(s) + 2 Na+ + 2 NO3―
g. In your total ionic equation, cross out the spectator ions that are the same on both
sides. These ions did not react. Rewrite the equation without the spectators. This is
the net ionic equation.
* * * * *

g. Net ionic equation: Ca2+(aq) + CO32―(aq) Æ CaCO3(s)

To write net ionic equations, omit spectator ions. Write a balanced equation showing
only the particles that change in the reaction.
* * * * *
Predicting Precipitation – The Chart Method
The chart method below can help in predicting whether a precipitate will form. Copy the
following chart into your notebook.
Solid Dissolved Ions Mixed – Possible Possible

Formulas before mixing new ion combinations Precipitates
1.
2.
Let’s use an example to see how the chart is used.

Q2. When solutions of Pb(NO3)2 and KI are mixed, a yellow precipitate forms. Using
the steps on the previous page, fill in the chart above and write the formula for the
precipitate.
If you need a hint, read a part of the answer below and then again.
* * * * *
Answer
Ionic compounds in solution are often represented using solid formulas, but when ionic
solids dissolve, the ions separate. In these two solutions are these ions:
Solid Dissolved Ions
Formulas before mixing
1. Pb(NO3)2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 NO3─
2. KI Æ K+ + I─
After they are mixed, the ions can “trade partners.” Two new combinations of positive and
negative ions are possible.
Solid Dissolved Ions Mixed – Possible
Formulas before mixing new ion combinations
Pb(NO3)2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 NO3─ Pb2+ + I─
KI Æ K+ + I─ K+ + NO3─
These new combinations may or may not form solid precipitates. Add the possible solid
formulas.
* * * * *


Formulas before mixing new ion combinations Precipitates
Pb(NO3)2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 NO3─ Pb2+ + 2 I─ Æ PbI2
KI Æ K+ + I─ K+ + NO3─ Æ KNO3
Note that the coefficients are not the same before mixing and after. You must adjust the
coefficients so that each new ion combination is balanced for atoms and charge.
Will a precipitate form? If a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
Label each of the possible precipitates in the chart as soluble or insoluble.
* * * * *
PbCl2 is insoluble by rule 2 (Pb2+); KNO3 is soluble by rule 1. The result is

Formulas before mixing new combinations Precipitates
Pb(NO3)2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 NO3─ Pb2+ + 2 I─ Æ PbI2 (Insoluble, forms ppt.)
KI Æ K+ + I─ K+ + NO3─ Å KNO3 (Soluble, ions stay dissolved)

* * * * *
Q3. For the above reaction, write the total and then the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Answer
The chart shows the ions before mixing (column 2) and the products after mixing (column 3
or 4). To write the total ionic equation, copy all of the column two ions on a line on your
paper, followed by a reaction arrow. To the right of the arrow, write the new products that
form, shown in column 3 or column 4. Adjust the coefficients so that both each ion
combination and the overall equation are balanced for atoms and charge.
* * * * *
To make the precipitate, we need 2 I─. That means we must have 2 K+ to start).
Pb2+ + 2 NO3─ + 2K+ + 2 I─ Æ PbI2(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3─
That is the balanced total ionic equation. Now write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Pb2+(aq) + 2 I─(aq) Æ PbI2(s) Net ionic equations show the ions that change.
Practice A: Do one now and one next time.

1. When AgNO3 solution is mixed with Na2CrO4 solution, a blood red precipitate
appears. Fill in a chart like the one above for this reaction, and then write the total and
net ionic equations.

2. When potassium hydroxide and cobalt nitrate solutions are mixed, an intense blue
precipitate forms. Complete the chart, then write the total and net ionic equations.
The 3-Line Method

The chart method can be used for as long as needed to gain confidence that you are
arriving at correct answers. At that point, you can try a quicker “3 line method” (draft,
total ionic, and net ionic equations) that handles more of the steps in your head. Let’s learn
the method with the following example.
Q4. Write the total and net ionic equation identifying the white precipitate that forms
when solutions of barium chloride and potassium sulfate are mixed.
Write then check your answers to the steps below.
1. On one line, write the separated-ion formulas for the ions being mixed.
* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl─ } + { 2 K+ + SO42─ } Æ
2. After the arrow, write the new possible ion combinations.

* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl─ } + { 2 K+ + SO42─ } Æ { Ba2+ + SO42─ } + { K+ + Cl─ }
3. Use solubility rules to label each new combination as soluble or insoluble.

4. If a new combination of ions is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate. Write the
solid formula for any precipitate that would form.
* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl─ } + { 2 K+ + SO42─ } Æ { Ba2+ + SO42─ } + { K+ + Cl─ }
INsoluble Soluble
BaSO4(s)
5. That’s the rough draft. Copy the draft result without the brackets, adjusting the
coefficients as needed, to write the total ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ba2+ + 2 Cl─ + 2 K+ + SO42─ Æ BaSO4(s) + 2 K+ + 2 Cl─
6. Write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ba2+(aq) + SO42─(aq) Æ BaSO4(s)
* * * * *

Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run each until perfect for 3 days.
But remember, you must also memorize a) a detailed solubility scheme and b) a method to
predict whether mixed ions will precipitate, and what the precipitate formula will be.
Chemical equations must be balanced for Atoms and charge
Net ionic equations leave out Spectator ions
When will mixing two soluble ionic compounds
If a new possible combination is insoluble
produce a precipitate?
When will mixing two soluble ionic compounds
If both new possible combinations are soluble
not result in a precipitate?
Ion combinations with these positive ions will
(alkali metals)+ , NH4+
always be soluble
Ion combinations with these negative ions will
nitrate, acetate, chlorate, perchlorate
always be soluble
Practice B
1. For these, write total and net ionic equations. Try using the 3-line method.
a. Ferric nitrate and rubidium hydroxide Æ
b. MgSO4(aq) and BaCl2(aq) Æ
2. Combining solutions of magnesium chloride and sodium sulfate,
a. what will be the names of the two new combinations that are possible?
b. Which of the new combinations are soluble in aqueous solutions?
c. Which of the new combinations will precipitate?
3. When these solutions are mixed: NiBr2(aq) + K3PO4(aq)
a. What are the solid formulas for the two new combinations that are possible?
b. Will a precipitate form in the mixture? If so, what is its name and formula?
c. Write the total and the net ionic equations for the reaction.

ANSWERS ( Assume the state is (aq) if not shown.)

Practice A
Problem 1
Formula before mixing new combinations Precipitates
1. AgNO3 Æ Ag+ + NO3─ 2 Ag+ + CrO42─ Æ Ag2CrO4 (Insoluble, ppt.)
2. Na2CrO4 Æ 2 Na+ + CrO42─ Na+ + NO3─ Å NaNO3 (Soluble, does not ppt.)
Total ionic equation:

2 Ag+ + 2 NO3─ + 2Na+ + CrO42─ Æ Ag2CrO4(s) + 2 Na+ + 2 NO3─
Net ionic equation: 2 Ag+(aq) + CrO42─(aq) Æ Ag2CrO4(s)

Problem 2
Formula before mixing new combinations Precipitates
Potassium Hydroxide Æ K+ + OH─ K+ + NO3─ Å KNO3 (Soluble, does not ppt.)
Cobalt Nitrate Æ Co2+ + 2 NO3─ Co2+ + 2 OH─ Æ Co(OH)2 (Insoluble, ppt.)
Total ionic equation: 2 K+ + 2 OH─ + Co2+ + 2 NO3─ Æ Co(OH)2(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3─

Net ionic equation: Co2+(aq) + 2 OH─(aq) Æ Co(OH)2(s)
Practice B
1a. { Fe3+ + 3 NO3─} + { Rb+ + OH─ } Æ { Fe3+ + 3 OH─ } + { Rb+ + NO3─ }
Insoluble Soluble
Fe(OH)3(s)
(That’s the rough draft. To write total and net ionic equations, remove brackets and adjust coefficients so
that all atoms and charges balance.)
Total ionic: Fe3+ + 3 NO3─ + 3 Rb+ + 3 OH─ Æ Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 Rb+ + 3 NO3─
Net ionic equation: Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH─(aq) Æ Fe(OH)3(s)
1b. { Mg2+ + SO42─ } + { Ba2+ + 2 Cl─} Æ { Mg2+ + 2 Cl─ } + { Ba2+ + SO42─ }

Soluble Insoluble
BaSO4(s)
Total ionic: Mg2+ + SO42─ + Ba2+ + 2 Cl─ Æ Mg2+ + 2 Cl─ + BaSO4(s)
NET ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO4─(aq) Æ BaSO4(s)

2. a. Magnesium sulfate and sodium chloride. b. Both c. Neither

3. { Ni2+ + 2 Br─ } + { 3 K+ + PO43─} Æ { 3 Ni+2 + 2 PO43─} + { K+ + Br─ }
Insoluble Soluble
Ni3(PO4)2(s)
a. KBr and Ni3(PO4)2 b. Yes. Ni3(PO4)2 (nickel phosphate)
c. Total: 3 Ni2+ + 6 Br─ + 6 K+ + 2 PO43─ Æ 1 Ni3(PO4)2(s) + 6 K+ + 6 Br─
Net ionic equation: 3 Ni2+(aq) + 2 PO43─ (aq) Æ Ni3(PO4)2(s)

(Note how the coefficients are balanced above. When writing each combination at each stage, adjust
coefficients to balance the combination for atoms and charge. Then, for the total ionic equation, adjust the
coefficients again to balance each ion combination plus all of the atoms and charges on both sides.
If the coefficients do not balance easily, it may indicate an error and you should double-check your work.)
* * * * *
Lesson 13D: Precipitation and Gravimetric Calculations

Timing: If there is a gap between the time that you are asked to predict which ion
combinations precipitate and when you are assigned calculations involving precipitates,
delay this lesson until precipitation calculations are assigned.
* * * * *
Gravimetric Calculations
Stoichiometry answers how much of the reactants are used up and products are formed in
chemical reactions. Once a count (usually in moles) of any one reaction component is
determined, a count of other components can be solved using simple-whole-number ratios:
the coefficients of the balanced equation.
In some precipitation calculations, volume and concentration are used to solve for moles.
In others, precipitates are dried and weighed to determine moles; a process termed
gravimetric because the moles of precipitate are determined by its weight, which is the
attraction of its mass by gravity.
Precipitation/Gravimetric Stoichiometry
In most respects, precipitation/gravimetric calculations follow the same rules for solution
stoichiometry that you used in Lessons 12C and 12D, but in several ways they often differ.
1. In most previous equations to balance, you were supplied with the formulas of the
reactants and products.
In precipitation calculations, you will often be asked to both predict all of the product
formulas and identify which products precipitate.
2. Precipitation calculations can involve measurements for both a solid formula and the
ions formed when the solid dissolves in water.

3. For most reaction calculations, you can count the particles of one or two substances
directly from the supplied DATA. In many gravimetric calculations, you must first
identify the formula of a precipitate before you can count any particles.
To handle these differences for precipitation reactions, we will add these special steps to
our stoichiometry process.
In precipitation calculations, do WDBB steps 3 and 4 as follows.

3. Balance the equation.
a. Write and balance a precipitation equation in three parts:
Reactants in solid formulas Æ Reactants as separated ions Æ Products

b. As you write the product formulas, decide whether a new combination will be
soluble and separated, or insoluble and precipitate. Use one of the methods
for predicting product formulas and precipitates in Lesson 13C.
In the products, write solid formulas for insoluble precipitates and separated-
ions for combinations that are soluble.
c. Once the precipitate formula is identified, in the WANTED and/or DATA,
replace ppt. with the formula for the precipitate. If this results in grams of a
formula in WANTED or DATA, add the molar mass of the ppt. to the DATA.
4: Write the mol-mol bridge.
In the mol-mol bridge, include all chemical formulas that are written after units in
the WANTED and DATA. This may result in three or more terms with
coefficients, moles, and chemical formulas that are equal, instead of two.
Cover the answer below, then apply the steps to the following problem. If you get stuck,
read part of the answer below, then try again.
Q. If 14.0 mL of Pb(NO3)2 solution is reacted with excess MgCl2 solution, and the
resulting precipitate when dried weighs 0.314 grams, what was the original [Pb2+]?
* * * * *
Since there are two reactants, and one is in excess, the other must be limiting. If you know
the limiting reactant, solve by conversion stoichiometry.
1. WANT: ? mol Pb2+ = (a ratio unit is WANTED)

2 +
L Pb soln.
Concentration is a ratio that is constant in a well-mixed solution. The ratio for any
sample will be the same as the ratio for the whole solution. We can easily measure the
liters in a sample, but we cannot count the moles of ions directly.
However, if we precipitate the ions, weigh the precipitate, and identify the precipitate
formula, we can find the moles of ions in the original sample. We can then divide to
find the mol/L ratio for that sample, and that is the WANTED unit. Since weighing the
dried precipitate is one step in this process, this is a gravimetric calculation.

2. DATA: 14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 0.314 g ppt. (Equivalent: 2SUA-R)

In the calculation of a WANTED ratio based on a reaction, two DATA amounts will be
equivalent in the reaction (Lesson 12C).
The MgCl2 is in excess. Amounts of reactants in excess can be ignored in the DATA,
since they do not determine the amounts of reactants used up or products formed
(Lesson 10F).
3. Balance. Since this is a precipitation reaction, apply the special steps above.
a. Write the balanced equation for precipitation in 3 parts: Reactants as solid
formulas, reactants in separated-ions, and products as either precipitates or as
separated, soluble spectator ions, depending on their state in the products.
Solid Reactants: 1 Pb(NO3)2 + 1 MgCl2 Æ
Separated Reactants: Æ 1 Pb2+ + 2 NO3─ + 1 Mg2+ + 2 Cl─ Æ
Products: Æ 1 PbCl2(s) + 1 Mg2+ + 2 NO3─

Adjust coefficients so that all three parts balance for atoms and charge.
* * * * *
b. Decide the precipitate formula.
Upon mixing the two solutions, two new ion combinations can form.
• One new combination is lead ion with chloride ion. By the solubility rules in
Lesson 13A, the combination of Pb2+ and Cl─ is insoluble. A possible new
combination that is insoluble will precipitate, so PbCl2 will precipitate.
• The other new possible combination is Mg2+and NO ─ ions. All
3
combinations that include nitrate ion are soluble. Write these ions as
separated on the products side.
• The only precipitate is therefore PbCl2.
c. In the DATA, replace ppt. with its solid formula:
DATA: 14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 0.314 g ppt. PbCl2(s) (Equivalent)
Now that the DATA includes grams of a formula, what should be added to the
DATA that will likely be needed to solve?
* * * * *
278.1 g PbCl2 = 1 mol PbCl2 (grams prompt)
4. Bridge conversion. In precipitation reactions, write mole ratios between all of the
chemical formulas which are written after units in the WANTED or DATA.
In this problem, the WANTED and DATA involve measurements of three chemical
formulas: Pb2+, Pb(NO ) , and PbCl . Write the bridge ratios for those three formulas
32 2
using the coefficients in the balanced equations above.
* * * * *
Bridge: 1 mol Pb2+(aq) = 1 mol Pb(NO3)2(aq) = 1 mol PbCl2(s)

Any two of those three terms can be used if needed as a bridge conversion.
5. SOLVE. For reaction calculations in which the answer unit is a ratio, our strategy is to
find a value for the top and bottom WANTED units separately, then divide (see Lesson
12D). The steps are
a. Label the DATA equality that has two amounts that are equivalent .
b. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles first, using as a given the side of
the equivalency that measures the WANTED formula or sample.
c. Solve for moles WANTED using the other half of the equivalency as the given.
c. Divide the two WANTED amounts.
* * * * *
The WANTED unit that is not moles is L Pb2+. Pick one of the terms in the equivalency
to convert to Pb2+. Which one?
In stoichiometry, pick the term in the equivalency that measures the WANTED
substance or sample. Neither of the two equivalent amounts has the formula Pb2+.
However, the labels Pb(NO3)2 and Pb2+ are equivalent: one label has the spectator ions
included, and the other does not. The Pb(NO3)2 solution and Pb2+ solution are the
same solution. The mL volume of Pb(NO3)2 is in the equivalency, so use that term as
your given.
? L Pb2+ soln. = 14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 14.0 x 10─3 L Pb(NO3)2
= 14.0 x 10─3 L Pb2+ soln. A good general rule is:
If you get stuck, add more complete labels to the WANTED and DATA.
In this case, by labeling all of the volume units as soln., it is a indication that they are
related. Now solve for the other WANTED unit and then check below.
* * * * *
Starting from the other half of the equivalency as given,
? mol Pb2+ = 0.314 g PbCl2 ● 1 mol PbCl2 ● 1 mol Pb2+ = 1.129 x 10─3 mol Pb2+
278.1 g PbCl2 1 mol PbCl2
Finish the problem, and then check below.
* * * * *
The sample of Pb2+ solution was found to have 1.129 x 10─3 mol Pb2+ in
14.0 x 10─3 L Pb2+ soln. Knowing those amounts, find the WANTED ratio.
* * * * *
─3 2+
? mol Pb2+ = 1.129 x 10 mol Pb = 0.0806 mol Pb2+
2 + ─3 2 +
L Pb soln. 14.0 x 10 L Pb soln. L Pb2+ soln.
* * * * *

Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run each until perfect for 3 days, then move
them to stack 2 (see Lesson 6E).
In gravimetric or precipitation calculations, Write solid reactants Æ separated reactants
what special rule applies to the balance step? Æ products
In gravimetric or precipitation calculations, If grams ppt is in WANTED or DATA,
when you identify the ppt. formula… add the molar mass to the DATA
Practice: Memorize the special rules for precipitate stoichiometry, then apply them to
these problems. If you get stuck, read a part of the answer and try again.
1. A 25.0 mL sample of a K2SO4 solution is reacted with an excess amount of BaCl2
solution. Assuming that all of the sulfate ions precipitate, if the mass of the dried
precipitate is 1.167 grams, what was the original [K2SO4]?
2. 50.0 mL of a solution containing Pb2+ requires 12.0 mL of a 0.200 M NaCl solution to
precipitate all of the lead ions. What was the original [Pb2+]?
ANSWERS
1. If there are two reactants and one is in excess, the other is limiting and controls how much product can be
formed. Solve using conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.
1. WANTED: ? mol K2SO4
L K2SO4 soln.
2. DATA: 25.0 mL K2SO4 soln. = 1.167 g ppt. (Equivalent – 2SUA-R)
(The problem is about a chemical reaction. The WANTED and DATA involve 2 substances, with the
ppt. being one. That’s the stoichiometry prompt. All stoichiometry begins with the same 4 steps.)
3. Balance.
a. (In precipitation, balance in 3 parts)
Solid Reactants: 1 K2SO4(aq) + 1 BaCl2(aq) Æ
Separated Reactants: Æ 2 K+(aq) + 1 SO42─(aq) + 1 Ba2+(aq) + 2 Cl─(aq) Æ
Products: Æ 1 BaSO4(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 Cl─ (aq)

b. (Identify the precipitate. Since KCl is soluble, the ppt. must be BaSO4.
c. Adjust the DATA.)
DATA: 25.0 mL K2SO4 soln. = 1.167 g ppt. BaSO4(s) (equivalent – 2SUA-R)
(When a ratio unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be equalities. Here, the mL K2SO4 soln. is what
determined the grams of ppt. that formed. What additional key information can now be added to the DATA?
* * * * *
233.4 g BaSO4 = 1 mol BaSO4 (grams of a formula = g prompt)

4. Bridge. 1 mole K2SO4 = 1 mole BaSO4

(K2SO4 and BaSO4 are the only formulas that are written after units in the WANTED or DATA.
* * * * *
5. SOLVE. (Since the answer unit is a ratio, find amounts for the two WANTED units separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the DATA.
b. First find the WANTED unit that is not moles, choosing as a given the side of the equivalency that
measures the formula WANTED.)
? L K2SO4 = 25.0 mL K2SO4 = 25.0 x 10─3 L K2SO4 (Substitute what prefix means)
c. (Find moles WANTED using the other half of the equivalency as a given.)
* * * * *
? mol K2SO4 = 1.167 g BaSO4 ● 1 mol BaSO4 ● 1 mol K2SO4 = 5.000 x 10─3 mol K SO
2 4
233.4 g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4
d. (Find the final WANTED unit.)
* * * * *
─3
? mol K2SO4 = 5.000 x 10 mol K2SO4 = 0.200 mol K2SO4
L K2SO4 25.0 x 10─3 L K2SO4 soln L K2SO4
2. Since you can count the moles for only one substance (NaCl), that substance will be your given when you
solve for moles Pb2+. Knowing the given, solve using conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? mol Pb2+ =
L Pb2+ soln.
2. DATA: 50.0 mL Pb2+ soln = 12.0 mL NaCl soln. (equivalent – 2SUA-R)
0.200 mol NaCl = 1 L NaCl soln. (M prompt – a ratio)
(If a ratio unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be equalities. The mL Pb2+. is what determined the mL
NaCl that reacted. They are proportional and equivalent.)
3. Balance.
a. (Write the balanced equation for precipitate formation in three parts: solid, separated, products.)
1 Pb2+ + 2 NaCl Æ 1 Pb2+ + 2 Na+ + 2 Cl─ Æ 1 PbCl2(s) + 2 Na+
(The anion that was initially combined with lead ion is not known, but it is not needed as long as
the above equations are balanced for atoms and charge.
b. Identify: The precipitate must be PbCl2.
c. Adjust: Since the ppt. amount is not measured in the DATA, there is no DATA to adjust.)
4. Bridge. (The WANTED and DATA include measurements (units and formulas) for only 2 substance
formulas: Pb2+ and NaCl.)
Bridge: 1 mol Pb2+ = 2 mol NaCl (If needed, adjust your work and solve from here.)
* * * * *

5. SOLVE. (Since the answer unit is a ratio, find amounts for the two WANTED units separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the DATA.
b. First find the WANTED unit not moles, choosing as a given the side of the equivalency that
measures the formula WANTED.)
? L Pb2+ soln. = 50.0 mL Pb2+ = 50.0 x 10─3 L Pb2+ (Substitute what prefix means)
c. (Using other half of equivalency as given, find moles WANTED using stoichiometry steps.)
? mol Pb2+ = 12.0 mL NaCl ● 10─3 L ● 0.200 mol NaCl ● 1 mol Pb2+ = 1.200 x 10─3
1 mL 1 L NaCl 2 mol NaCl mol Pb2+
d. (Find the final WANTED unit.
Above, in the sample of the WANTED solution, you found mol Pb2+ and L Pb2+ soln.)
? mol Pb2+ = 1.200 x 10─3 mole Pb2+ = 0.0240 M Pb2+

L Pb2+ 5.000 x 10─2 L Pb2+
* * * * *
Summary: Solubility and Precipitation
1. Most ionic solids can be characterized as soluble or insoluble in water. The rules for
solubility must be memorized, and exceptions occur. Some frequently used rules are
a. compounds containing alkali-metal atoms, and NH4+, NO3─ , CH3COO─, ClO3─ ,
and ClO ─ ions are nearly always soluble in water;
4
b. except in the above cases, compounds containing Pb2+ , Hg22+, Ag+, CO32─,
PO 3─ , S2─, or CrO 2─ ions will generally be insoluble in water.
4 4
2. When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,
• if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate;
• if a new combination is soluble, its ions will remain separated.
3. Total ionic equations show all of the ions and precipitates present when two soluble
solutions are mixed. Net ionic equations include the ions and solids that change in a
reaction, and omit spectator ions that do not change.
4. In precipitation calculations:
a. Write a balanced equation for precipitate formation in 3 parts.
Reactants as solid formulas Æ Reactants as separated ions Æ Products
b. Use solubility rules to determine which ions precipitate.
c. Use stoichiometry steps to solve.
5. In general, to understand the reactions of ionic compounds,
• Re-write the reactants in their separated-ions format;
• Look for reactions among the new possible ion combinations.
# # # #

Module 14 — Acid-Base Neutralization

Timing: This module covers acid-base neutralization. Other acid-base topics, including
pH, weak acids and bases and buffers are covered in Modules 29 - 32.
There are two types of neutralization calculations that may be assigned in your course.
• If all of the neutralization calculations that you are assigned supply chemical
formulas for the products in the reactions, you do not need to complete Module 14.
This type of calculation was covered in Lesson 12C and 12D.
• If your course assigns in which you must predict the product formulas for acid-base
neutralization, complete Module 14.
* * * * *
Lesson 14A: Ions In Acid-Base Neutralization

Prerequisites: Lessons 7B, 7C, and the acid naming lesson (7D).
Pretest: If you can do each of the 3 following problems, you may skip Lessons 14A and
14B. Check answers at the end of this lesson.
Assuming complete neutralization of all protons and basic ions, write product formulas
and balance these.
a. KHC2O4 + KOH Æ
b. H3Unk + Mg(OH)2 Æ
c. HCO3─ + OH─ Æ
* * * * *
Terminology
Many substances can be classified as acids or bases (and some can be both). A variety of
definitions exist for acids and bases, with each definition helpful in certain types of
reactions and calculations.
Because acids and bases can react with many substances, they are often termed corrosive:
they may damage a surface, metal, or fabric. When an acid or base is neutralized, at least
some of its reactive ions are used up, and its corrosive power is reduced.
In an acid-base neutralization reaction, an acid and a base are reactants. When mixed
together, they react, and both are used up to some extent. In the process, both the acid and
the base are said to be neutralized.
For the limited purpose of studying neutralization, we will define
• an acid as a substance that creates H+ ions when dissolved in water, and
• a base as a substance that can react with (use up) H+ ions.

Understanding Neutralization
As substances, acids and bases may be ionic or covalent compounds. However, when
dissolved in water, acids and bases react with the water to form ions. A key to
understanding neutralization is to write the acid and base reactants as separated ions.
Acids
When they are dissolved in water, acids form H+ ions plus other ions. The ions formed are
always present in ratios that guarantee electrical neutrality.
A strong acid is one that separates essentially 100% into ions when it dissolves in water.
Example – Nitric acid: 1 HNO3 H2O 1 H+ + 1 NO3─ (goes ~100%)

Æ
Other frequently encountered strong acids include
• HCl , hydrochloric acid, which ionizes to form an H+ ion and a chloride ion (Cl─).
• H2SO4 , sulfuric acid, which is used in most car batteries. It is termed a diprotic acid
because each neutral H2SO4 molecule ionizes to form two H+ ions.
Strong acids can neutralize both strong and weak bases.
Weak acids ionize only slightly in water. An example is CH3COOH (acetic acid), the active
ingredient in vinegar. Acetic acid ionizes slightly in water to form one H+ ion and one
acetate anion (CH3COO─). Weak acids are neutralized by strong bases, but not necessarily
by weak bases.
The four italicized acid names above are encountered frequently. Their names and formulas
should be memorized.
Bases
Strong bases can neutralize both strong and weak acids. Strong bases often contain
hydroxide ions. Examples include NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and KOH (potassium
hydroxide).
Compounds that contain carbonate ions (CO 2─) are also bases. Carbonates are weaker
3
bases than hydroxides, but carbonate ions are strong enough as bases to neutralize both
strong and moderately weak acids. Examples of carbonates include Na2CO3 (sodium
carbonate) and CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
Hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3─, also called bicarbonate ion) can also react as a base, but
HCO3─ is a weaker base than carbonate and hydroxide ions, and it reacts only with acids
that are relatively strong.
Many other molecules and ions can act as bases, but those containing OH─, CO32─, or
HCO3─ ions are the bases most frequently encountered in acid-base neutralization.
Electrolytes
Because acids and bases form ions when they dissolve in water, they are termed
electrolytes: their solutions can conduct electricity. Strong acids and strong bases are
termed strong electrolytes because they ionize ~100%.

The Structure of H+: A Proton

Neutral hydrogen atoms contain one proton and one electron. (About 1% of naturally
occuring H atoms also contain one or two neutrons, but the neutrons have no impact on the
types of reactions in which hydrogen participates.)
An H+ ion is a hydrogen atom without an electron, so most H+ ions in terms of structure
are single protons. The terms H+ ion and proton are often used interchangeably to describe
the active particle in an acid.
Memorize: the ion formed by acids = H+ = proton
Identifying Acids and Bases

From a chemical formula, how can you tell whether a substance is an acid or a base? It is
not always easy to tell. A general rule is:
If You Are Told That A Compound Is Either An Acid or A Base

To identify which it is, write the balanced equation for the substance formula
separating into familiar ions.
y Compounds that ionize to form H+ ions are acids.
y Compounds that contain OH─ or CO32─ ions can act as bases.
y Compounds that contain HCO ─ ions can act as both.
3
Practice A: For the reaction in which the compounds below ionize in water, write
balanced equations showing the ions formed, then label each initial reactant as either an
acid or a base. Answers are at the end of the lesson. For help, review Lesson 7C and 7D.
a. LiOH H2O d. Na2CO3 Æ

Æ
b. Perbromic acid Æ e. Ca(OH)2 Æ
c. HCN Æ f. KHCO3 Æ
g. Nitrous acid Æ h. Chromic acid Æ
Identifying Acidic Hydrogens

Hydrogen atoms in compounds can be divided into two types.
• Acidic hydrogens are generally defined as those that react with hydroxide ions, and
• non-acidic hydrogens are those that do not.
Compounds often contain both acidic and non-acidic hydrogens.

For example, in CH3COOH (acetic acid), the H atom at the end of the formula reacts
with NaOH, but the other three H atoms do not. The H at the end is the acidic
hydrogen. The other H atoms are not acidic hydrogens.
In an acid formula, how can you predict which hydrogens will be acidic and which will
not? In most cases, the rules are:
• If one or more H atoms is written toward the front of a formula, while others are
not, the H atoms at the front will be acidic, the others will not.
Example: Acetic acid is often written as HC2H3O2. Only the H in front is
acidic.
• The H at the end of a ─COOH (also written ─CO2H) functional group is acidic.
Examples: In C6H5COOH, only the H at the end is acidic.
In C3H7CO2H, only the H at the end is acidic.
• If H is the second atom in the formula, written after a metal atom and before other
atoms, it is acidic.
Examples: In KHC8H4O4, the first H (and only the first) is acidic.
In NaH2PO4, the two H’s after the metal atom are acidic.
• If a substance with only one H reacts with hydroxide ion, the H is acidic.
Practice B
1. Draw an arrow toward and count the acidic hydrogens in these compounds.
a. NaH2PO4 b. C12H25COOH c. H2C4H4O6
d. H3AsO4 e. KHC8H4O4 f. NaHSO4
2. Fill in the blanks to show the number of protons formed when these compounds ionize
in water.
a. C3H7CO2H Æ ___ H+
b. HC2H3O2 Æ ___ H+
c. NaH2(C3H5O(COO)3) Æ ___ H+
ANSWERS
Pretest: Coefficients of 1 may be omitted as understood.
a. 1 KHC2O4 + 1 KOH Æ 1 H2O + 1 K2C2O4
b. 2 H3Unk + 3 Mg(OH)2 Æ 6 H2O + 1 Mg3(Unk)2

c. HCO3─ + OH─ Æ H2O + CO32─

Practice A
a. LiOH Æ Li + + OH─ Base b. HBrO4 Æ H+ + BrO4─ Acid
c. HCN Æ H+ + CN─ Acid d. Na2CO3 Æ 2 Na+ + CO32─ Base
e. Ca(OH)2 Æ Ca2+ + 2 OH─ Base f. KHCO3 Æ K+ + HCO3─ Acid or Base
g. HNO2 Æ H+ + NO2─ Acid h. H2CrO4 Æ 2 H+ + CrO42─ Acid
Practice B
1. a. NaH2PO4 Two b. C12H25COOH One c. H2C4H4O6 Two
d. H3AsO4 Three e. KHC8H4O4 One f. NaHSO4 One
2 a. C3H7CO2H Æ 1 H+ b. HC2H3O2 Æ 1 H+
c. NaH2(C3H5O(COO)3) Æ 2 H+
* * * * *
Lesson 14B: Balancing Hydroxide Neutralization

* * * * *
Hydroxide Neutralization
In the reaction of an acid and a hydroxide, the neutralization reaction forms water (which
can be written as H─OH or HOH or H2O).
H+ + OH─ Æ H-OH(l) (1)
The reaction of an acid and a hydroxide is driven to completion by the formation of water: a
low potential energy molecule. Whenever a physical or chemical system can go to lower
potential energy, there is a strong tendency to do so.
The reaction of acids with compounds containing hydroxide ions can be represented by the
general equation
An acid + a base containing OH─ Æ H2O + a salt (2)
Historically in chemistry, the term salt in reaction (2) was a general term for any product,
in addition to water, formed when an acid and base react. In modern usage, salt is often
used as a synonym for ionic compound.
A typical acid-hydroxide neutralization is the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium chloride (also known as table salt).
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) Æ H-OH(l) + NaCl(aq) (3)

The state (aq) means aqueous (dissolved in water). Most (but not all) acid-base reactions are
carried out in water. In the acid-base reaction equations in these lessons, you may assume
that the water is liquid and the formulas for other compounds and ions are aqueous (aq)
unless otherwise noted. Writing water in the form H─OH form helps to emphasize the
reaction that occurs between acids and hydroxide ions.
Equation (3) above is one way that this reaction is represented. However, both HCl and
NaOH, when dissolved in water, separate completely into ions. The table salt in the
solution after the reaction also exists as separate ions of Na+ and Cl─. Re-writing the
equation to show the separated ions that actually exist in the solution, the reaction is
H+ + Cl─ + Na+ + OH─ Æ H─OH(l) + Na+ + Cl─ (4)

Note in reaction (4) that the sodium and chloride ions are spectators: they do not change
during the reaction.
Predicting All Products of Hydroxide Neutralization
If formulas are supplied for all the reactants and products, neutralization equations can be
balanced by trial and error using the methods in Lesson 10B. However, in acid-base
neutralization problems, often the product formulas are not supplied. In these cases, you
can often predict the products and balance the reaction equation by
• Re-writing the acid and base as separated ions, and
• Predicting one of the neutralization products.
In hydroxide neutralization, a key rule is
If an acid reacts with OH─, one of the products is H─OH.
Knowing that water is one product, you can usually determine the other product
formula(s). Complete the steps below in your notebook.
Q. Write a balanced equation for the complete neutralization of H3PO4 (phosphoric
acid) by Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide).
Steps
1. Write the acid and base reactants in their solid (molecular) formulas.
2. On the line below, re-write each reactant inside parentheses ( ) in its separated-ion
format.
3. After the reactants, add “ Æ H─OH + ______ + ______”.
* * * * *
Solid: H3PO4 + Ca(OH)2 Æ
Separated: ( 3 H+ + PO43─ ) + ( Ca2+ + 2 OH─ ) Æ H-OH + _____ + _____

4. Add lowest-whole-number coefficients in front of the parentheses ( ) to balance the H+,
OH─, and H-OH.
* * * * *

Separated: 2 ( 3 H+ + PO43─ ) + 3 ( Ca2+ + 2 OH─ ) Æ 6 H-OH + ____ + ____

^ ^ ^
[ ( 6 H+ ) ( 6 OH─ ) Æ ( 6 H-OH ) ]
The total H+ ions must equal the total OH─ ions must equal the total H O. 2
5. Add in the products side blanks the formulas and coefficient totals for the ions on the
left that are not H+and OH─.
6. Move the left side coefficients that are in front of the ( ), plus the coefficient of the water,
up to the top line.
7. Finish adding coefficients to the top equation. To write a molecular formula for the
remaining product, use the rules for writing ionic solid formulas in Lesson 7C.
* * * * *
Solid: 2 H3PO4 + 3 Ca(OH)2 Æ 6 H2O + 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)
Separated: 2 ( 3 H+ + PO43─ ) + 3 ( Ca2+ + 2 OH─ ) Æ 6 H2O + 2 PO43─ + 3 Ca2+
In most neutralization reactions, the ions that are not H+ and OH─ will simply remain
as aqueous “spectator ions,” dissolved in the final solution. In this problem, however,
calcium and phosphate ions are an insoluble combination. If a combination can form
that is insoluble, it will precipitate. In this reaction, we have both a neutralization and a
precipitation.
8. Check that the final equation is balanced.
Practice A. Balance by inspection or the methods above. Assume that the acids and
bases are completely neutralized. Do every other part, and more if you need more practice.
1. Write the product formulas in the solid (molecular) format and balance the equation.
a. HNO3 + KOH Æ
b. KOH + H2SO4 Æ
c. H2SO4 + Al(OH)3 Æ
2. Write reactant and product formulas, then balance the equation. Write final formulas in
the ionic-solid (molecular) format.
a. Barium hydroxide plus sulfuric acid
b. Hydrochloric acid plus magnesium hydroxide
Balancing Neutralization with Spectators Omitted

In all stable substances and mixtures, the total of all of the positive and negative charges
must add up to zero. However, as a shortcut, spectator ions are often omitted when
representing substances or writing reaction equations. In such cases, the written charges
may not add up to zero.

For example, in the lab, solutions of acids and bases may be labeled as simply H+ or
OH─ to emphasize the reactive particles. In those solutions, however, there must
also be other ions that balance the overall charge.
Similarly, in writing equations for neutralization reactions, partial ionic equations may be
written that leave out spectators. In these equations, the total charge may not be zero on
both sides, but as long as it is the same on both sizes, the equation is considered to be
balanced.
For a written reaction equation to be considered balanced, what is required is that the
total charge is the same on both sides (but not necessarily zero) and that the number and
kind of atoms is the same on both sides.
To balance a neutralization equation in which some spectators have been left out, use the
same steps as above: separate the formulas into familiar ions, one reactant including H+
and the other including a basic ion, then balance the atoms and charge on each side.
Try this example.
Q. Write the products and balance: HSO4─ + OH─ Æ

* * * * *
• Inside parentheses, break the reactants into familiar ions. When the base is a
hydroxide, form water on the right.
• Add coefficients that balance the particles that form water.
• Balance the particles that don’t react.
• Make sure that the atoms balance and the total charge is the same in all three parts.
1 HSO4─ + 1 OH─ Æ 1 ( 1 H+ + 1 SO42─ ) + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H-OH + 1 SO42─
Atoms balance, and in all three parts, the total charge is ─2. Balanced.
Practice B. Check answers as you go. Do every other letter, and more for more practice.
1. Write product formulas and balance the equation. Assume all acids and bases are
totally neutralized. Products may be molecules or ions.
a. H+ + Al(OH)3 Æ
b. HSO4─ + KOH Æ
c. KHSO4 + OH─ Æ
d. CH3COOH + OH─ Æ

Balancing Only the Reactants

To solve most neutralization stoichiometry, we will need only the coefficients for the
reactants: the acid and the base. This partial balancing can be completed if know the
formula for one product, and in the case of acid-hydroxide neutralization, we do. One
product is always H-OH.
For this problem, write H-OH as a product, balance the left side, and then check below.
Q. What is the ratio of reaction for H2SO4 + Al(OH)3 Æ
* * * * *
Either balance by inspection (total H+ = total OH─) or by using these steps.
1. Below the two reactants, write the number of acidic and basic ions in the reactants.
2. On the right, add one product of the reaction.
H2SO4 + Al(OH)3 Æ H─OH + …
( 2 H+ ) + (3 OH─ ) Æ H─OH + …
3. Add the coefficients to balance the atoms and charge.
H2SO4 + Al(OH)3 Æ H─OH + …
3 ( 2 H+ ) + 2 (3 OH─ ) Æ 6 H─OH + …
4. Transfer the coefficients to the original reaction equation.
3 H2SO4 + 2 Al(OH)3 Æ 6 H─OH + …
3 ( 2 H+ ) + 2 (3 OH─ ) Æ 6 H─OH + …
The reactant ratios will be all that is needed to solve most neutralization stoichiometry.
Practice C. Assume all reactants are completely neutralized. Balance by inspection or

using the steps above. Do every other problem, and the rest in your next practice session.
1. Balance the coefficients of the two reactants.
a. CsOH + H2SO4 Æ
b. Ca(OH)2 + nitric acid Æ
c. HSO4─ + OH─ Æ
2. Add ratios of reaction for these reactants.

a. Acetic acid + NaOH Æ
b. Calcium hydroxide + HC2H3O2 Æ
c. NaHC2O4 + Al(OH)3 Æ
d. Sodium hydroxide + KHC8H4O4 Æ

Balancing with an Unknown Formula

In some neutralization calculations, the formula for an acid or the base is not supplied, but
the number of protons in the acid, or basic ions in the base, is provided. This information is
often all that you need to balance the acid-base ratio. Try this example.
Q. A solid acid has an unknown formula but is known to contain three acidic hydrogens.
What will be the ratio for the reaction of this acid with NaOH?
If you need a hint, check part of the answer below.
* * * * *
Answer
One way to balance is to write the acid formula as H3Unk , where the Unk stands for
unknown, and H3 represents three acidic hydrogens. The two reactants can then be written
as:
H3Unk + NaOH Æ
Complete the reactant balancing.
* * * * *
H3Unk + NaOH Æ 1 ( 3 H+ ) + 3 ( OH─ ) Æ 3 H─OH + ….
The acid-base ratio must be 1 H3Unk + 3 NaOH Æ
A formula could be written for the other products, but it would be speculation. The acid
anion could remain intact, or it could decay in some fashion. However, for most
neutralization stoichiometry, formulas for the other products are not required: the acid-
base ratio on the left side of the equation will be all that is needed to solve.
Summary for neutralization rules so far.

1. Acid-base neutralization is an ionic reaction. To understand ionic reactions, write
the separated-ion formulas.
2. Ions: Acids contain H+. The reacting particle in acids = H+ = a proton.
Bases include compounds with hydroxide (OH─), carbonate (CO32─), and
hydrogen carbonate (HCO ─) ions.
3
3. Products: For acids + OH─, one product is water: H-OH. H+ + OH─ Æ H-OH
4. Balancing: To predict the products and balance the equations,
• Write the separated-ion formulas in ( ).
• Write one product.
• Finish by balancing atoms and charge.
5. To balance when a formula is unknown,
• If a substance has 2 acidic hydrogens, write its formula as H2Unk.
• If a base has 3 hydroxides, write Unk(OH)3.

Practice D: Learn the rules above, then do these problems. Assume that all reactants
are completely neutralized.
1. Supply the ratios of reaction for the two reactants.
a. H2Unk + Sr(OH)2 Æ
b. H2SO4 + Unk(OH)3 Æ
c. HCl + UnkOH Æ
2. Add coefficients to balance the two reactants.
a. An unknown acid with two acidic hydrogens is totally neutralized by potassium
hydroxide.
b. An unknown base with three hydroxide ions is totally neutralized by nitric acid.
ANSWERS
Practice A
Coefficients of one may be omitted. Any coefficient ratios which are the same as these are not incorrect, but
lowest whole-number ratios are preferred.
1 a. 1 HNO3 + 1 KOH Æ 1 H2O + 1 KNO3
b. 2 KOH + 1 H2SO4 Æ 2 H2O + 1 K2SO4
c. 3 H2SO4 + 2 Al(OH)3 Æ 1 Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O
2. a. 1 Ba(OH)2 + 1 H2SO4 Æ 2 H2O + 1 BaSO4

b. 2 HCl + Mg(OH)2 Æ 2 H2O + 1 MgCl2
Practice B
1. a. 3 H+ + 1 Al(OH)3 Æ 3 H-OH + Al3+
b. 1 HSO4─ + 1 KOH Æ 1 H-OH + 1 K+ + 1 SO42─
c. 1 KHSO4 + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H-OH + 1 K+ + 1 SO42─
d. 1 CH3COOH + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H-OH + 1 CH3COO─
Practice C: To balance the reactants, write one product of the reaction.

1. a. 2 CsOH + 1 H2SO4 Æ 2 H-OH + …
b. 1 Ca(OH)2 + 2 HNO3 Æ 2 H-OH + …
c. 1 HSO4─ + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H-OH + …
2. a. 1 CH3COOH + 1 NaOH Æ 1 H2O + …

b. 1 Ca(OH)2 + 2 HC2H3O2 Æ 2 H2O + …

c. 3 NaHC2O4 + 1 Al(OH)3 Æ 3 H2O + …

d. 1 NaOH + 1 KHC8H4O4 Æ 1 H2O + …
Practice D
1. a. 1 H2Unk + 1 Sr(OH)2 Æ 2 H-OH + …
b. 3 H2SO4 + 2 Unk(OH)3 Æ 6 H2O + … c. 1 HCl + 1 UnkOH Æ H-OH + …
2. a. 1 H2Unk + 2 KOH Æ 2 H2O + … b. 3 HNO3 + 1 Unk(OH)3 Æ 3 H2O + …
* * * * *
Lesson 14C: Acid-Hydroxide Neutralization Calculations

Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 10E, 11D, 12C, 14A+B.
* * * * *
Terminology
Titration is an experimental technique used to gather the information needed for
stoichiometry calculations. Calibrated burets are used to precisely measure the amount of
solution added as a chemical reaction takes place.
Indicators are dyes used in titration that change color at the instant the moles of two
reacting particles are equal or have reacted in a simple-whole-number ratio. When this
equivalence point is reached, a change in indicator color signals the endpoint of the
titration.
Acid-base titration is simply neutralization in which the amounts of acid and base are
carefully measured.
In an acid-base neutralization, an acid and base are mixed. If one or both of the two
reactants is a strong acid or base, the reaction will proceed until the limiting reactant is
essentially completely used up. Standard stoichiometry steps can then be used to calculate
the amounts of reactants used up and products formed.
In the special case of a titration of an acid and a base that contain hydroxide ions, when the
equivalence point is reached, the moles of H+ ions from the original solution equal the
moles of OH─ ions in the original base solution: the reactant reaction ratio is 1 to 1.
At an acid-hydroxide endpoint, moles H+ added = moles OH─ added
When an acid and a hydroxide ion are mixed, one reaction is always
1 H+ + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H-OH(l)
When titrating a weak acid or base, the opposite solution must be strong, and a careful
selection of the indicator dye will be required to show a sharp endpoint. However, for all
acids and bases, whether one or both is strong, stoichiometry calculations are done using
the same steps.

Calculations Based on Reactants-Only Balancing

Nearly all neutralization calculations involve a stoichiometric equivalent: the moles of one
reactant are supplied and are used as the given amount in stoichiometry conversions.
To solve most reaction calculations, a complete balanced equation is not required. What is
needed is the bridge conversion: the numeric ratio between the WANTED and given moles.
In most neutralization calculations, the WANTED and given are the acid and base, and their
coefficients can be determined by the reactants-only balancing practiced in Lesson 14B.
In neutralization stoichiometry, use reactants-only balancing at Step 3 to write the

Step 4 bridge.
Once reactants-only balancing supplies the acid and base coefficients, neutralization
calculations can be solved using the stoichiometry steps practiced in Lesson 12C and 12D.
Try this example.
Q. If 19.29 mL of a 0.120 M KOH solution is needed to exactly neutralize 0.1484
grams of an unknown acid, given that acid has three acidic protons, what is molar
mass of the acid?
If you get stuck, read a portion of the answer until you are unstuck, then try again.
* * * * *
Answer: Your paper should look like this.
1. WANT: ? g acid (write the unit WANTED)
mol acid
2. DATA: 0.1484 g acid = 19.29 mL KOH (2SUA-R: equivalent at endpt.)
0.120 mol KOH = 1 L KOH
3. Balance. (If needed for acid-base neutralization, use reactants-only balancing)
1 H3Unk + 3 KOH Æ 3 H2O + …
4. Bridge. 1 mol H3Unk = 3 mol KOH

Rules used above include
• Reaction calculations with data for two substances are solved by stoichiometry.
• Calculations to solve an exact stoichiometric equivalent (at an equivalence point or
endpoint) are solved using conversion stoichiometry.
• All conversion stoichiometry starts with the same 4 steps: WDBB.
• Solving for a ratio unit, all of the DATA will be in equalities.
• In stoichiometry for a ratio unit, two amounts will be equivalent at the endpoint.
• In neutralization, use reactants-only balancing at Step 3 to write the Step 4 bridge.
• An unknown acid with 3 acidic protons can be written as H3Unk when balancing.
If needed, adjust your work and finish from here.
* * * * *

5. SOLVE.
In stoichiometry, when a ratio unit is WANTED, solve separately for the top and
bottom WANTED amounts in a sample, then divide.
a. Label the DATA equality that has the two amounts that are equivalent at the
endpoint as “Equivalent”or “2SUA-R.”
b. Solve first for the easier unit (the one not moles), using as a given the side of the
equivalency that contains the WANTED substance formula.
In this problem, the WANTED amount not moles is g acid. The grams of acid in the
sample are supplied in the equivalency. That was easy.
? g acid in sample = 0.1484 g acid
c. To find the moles of acid WANTED, start with the other half of the equivalency as
the given.
* * * * *
In this problem, the acid may be written as acid or as H3Unk .
Start: ? mol acid = 19.29 mL KOH (other half of equivalency)
Use single-unit stoichiometry. Convert to the moles of the given that reacted,
? mol WANTED = unit given >> mol given
? mol acid = 19.29 mL KOH • 10─3 L • 0.120 mol KOH •

1 mL 1 L KOH
* * * * *
Cross the mol/mol bridge to reach the moles of WANTED substance.
? mol WANTED = unit given >> mol given >> mol WANTED (stop)
? mol acid = 19.29 mL KOH • 10─3 L • 0.120 mol KOH • 1 mol acid =
1 mL 1 L KOH 3 mol KOH
= 7.716 x 10─4 mol H Unk in the sample.
3
* * * * *
Solve for the final WANTED ratio.
? g acid = g acid in sample = 0.1484 g acid = 192 g acid
mol acid mol acid in sample 7.716 x 10─4 mol acid mol
The molar mass of a substance is constant: a ratio that is characteristic. The concentration
of a well-mixed solution is another ratio that is constant. In cases where a ratio WANTED
is constant, if the amounts of the top and bottom WANTED units in a sample can be found,
that ratio will be true for all samples.
* * * * *
Stoichiometry and CSI
Consider what we were able to determine in the above calculation.

Many molecules that are important in chemical and biological systems, including legal and
illegal drugs, are acids or bases. In the above problem, we did not know the chemical
formula for the acid. However, by finding the ratio of the grams of acid per mole of the acid
(its molar mass), we can get close to identifying the acid.
The acid can be weighed to find the grams in a sample, but nearly always we do not have a
way to count the number of particles (the moles) in a sample directly. However, for acids
and bases, we can determine the moles in a sample by titrating with an acid or base
solution of a known concentration and applying stoichiometry.
In titration, when the indicator changes color, the moles of two reacting particles are either
equal or in a whole-number ratio.
Knowing the grams and moles in a sample, we can find the grams to moles ratio: the molar
mass. From the molar mass of a substance and its melting point or other physical
constants, tables in chemistry reference media will identify many unknown substances
with near certainty.
The ability to identify an unknown acid or base is a skill that is marketable in forensic
criminology, medicine, and other rewarding careers.
Practice: If needed, review the steps for solving solution stoichiometry in Lesson 12C.
Answers are at the end of this lesson. If you get stuck, read a portion of the answer until
unstuck, then try again.
1. If 124 milliliters of a barium hydroxide solution is needed to exactly neutralize 2.34
grams of arsenic acid (H3AsO4), what is the original [Ba(OH)2]?
2. A 2.00 M H3PO4 solution is exactly neutralized by 1.50 liters of 0.500 M OH─. How
many mL of the H3PO4 solution were neutralized?
3. Oxalic acid (90.03 g•mol─1) is a solid at room temperature. Each oxalic acid particle
contains two acidic hydrogens. If 44.43 mL of an NaOH solution is needed to exactly
neutralize 0.100 g of oxalic acid crystals, find the [NaOH].
4. Review Lessons 14A-C and prepare flashcards that cover fundamentals.
Take the Paper You Need

In many problems, a methodical approach will require using an entire sheet of paper to
solve each question. That’s OK. Paper recycles. Trees grow. Your understanding will
also grow if you take the time and paper that is needed for careful work.
If you are solving in a graph-paper notebook (a good idea), try working with the paper
in the landscape mode (turned sideways). This provides more room for the long string
of conversions that stoichiometry often requires.

ANSWERS
1. 1. WANTED: ? mol Ba(OH)2 (the unit WANTED is mol/L)
L soln
2. DATA: 124 mL Ba(OH)2 soln. = 2.34 g H3AsO4 (equivalent at end point)
141.9 g H3AsO4 = 1 mol H3AsO4 (g prompt)
(In calculations with measurements at an equivalence point, the given substance is known. Use
conversion stoichiometry to solve. When stoichiometry WANTS a ratio unit, all of the data will be in
equalities, and one equality will be two amounts that are equivalent at the endpoint. All conversion
stoichiometry begins with the same 4 steps: WDBB.)
3. Balance. (Using the rules in Lesson 14B,)
2 H3AsO4 + 3 Ba(OH)2 Æ 6 H―OH + … (use reactants-only balancing)
4. Bridge. 2 mol H3AsO4 = 3 mol Ba(OH)2
5. SOLVE. (Since a ratio unit is WANTED, solve for the top and bottom WANTED amounts separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the data.
b. Solve for the easier WANTED amount first (usually the one not moles), using as a given the side
of the equivalency that measures the WANTED substance.)
? L Ba(OH)2 = 124 mL Ba(OH)2 = 124 x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2 (Substitute what prefix means)
c. (To find the other WANTED unit (usually moles), use single-unit stoichiometry steps. Start with
the other half of the equivalency as your given.)
? mol Ba(OH)2 = 2.34 g H3AsO4 • 1 mol H3AsO4 • 3 mol Ba(OH)2 = 0.02473 mol Ba(OH)2
141.9 g H3AsO4 2 mol H3AsO4
(Carry an extra sf until the final step. Finish, then check below.
* * * * *
d. Solve for the final WANTED unit using the two amounts found above.)
? mol Ba(OH)2 = mol Ba(OH)2 in sample = 0.02473 mol Ba(OH)2 = 0.200 mol Ba(OH)2
L soln L Ba(OH)2 in sample 124 x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2 L Ba(OH)2
2. (For calculations to an endpoint or equivalence point , use conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.)
WANT: ? mL H3PO4 (you want a single unit)
DATA: 2.00 mol H3PO4 = 1 L H3PO4 (M prompt)
1.50 L OH─ soln. (the single unit given)
0.500 mol OH─ = 1 L OH─ (M prompt)
(Since you have solutions of two different substances, include formulas after all units to identify the
substance that each number and unit measures.
Since all volumes in the problem are for aqueous solutions, you may label one volume as “soln.” but
omit the other “solution” labels as understood.)
Balance: 1 H3PO4 + 3 OH─ Æ 3 H2O + PO43─

Bridge. 1 mol H3PO4 = 3 mol OH─

SOLVE: Since a single unit is WANTED, use single-unit stoichiometry, chaining conversions.)
? mL H3PO4 = 1.50 L OH─ • 0.500 mol OH─ • 1 mol H3PO4 • 1 L H3PO4 • 1 mL =
1 L OH─ 3 mol OH─ 2.00 mol H3PO4 10─3 L
= 125 mL H3PO4
3. (For calculations to an endpoint, use conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.)
WANTED: ? mol NaOH
L NaOH soln
DATA: 44.43 mL NaOH = 0.100 g oxalic acid (Equivalent at endpoint)
90.03 g oxalic acid = 1 mol oxalic acid
Balance: Let oxalic acid be H2Unk.
1 H2Unk + 2 NaOH Æ 2 H2O + ….
Bridge. 1 mol H2Unk = 2 mol NaOH
SOLVE.
(Not moles): ? L NaOH = 44.43 mL NaOH = 44.43 x 10─3 L NaOH
(moles): ? mol NaOH = 0.100 g H2Unk • 1 mol acid • 2 mol NaOH = 2.221 x 10─3 mol
90.03 g acid 1 mol acid NaOH
? = mol NaOH = 2.221 x 10─3 mol NaOH = 0.0500 mol NaOH
L NaOH 44.43 x 10─3 L NaOH soln. L NaOH
4. Your flashcards might include the following.
Hydrochloric: HCl, sulfuric: H2SO4,
Names and formulas for 3 strong acids
nitric: HNO3
Ion symbol for a proton H+
At the endpoint of acid-hydroxide neutralization moles H+ reacted = moles OH─+ reacted
Formula for an unknown base with 3 hydroxides Unk(OH)3
Formula for an unknown with 2 acidic protons H2Unk
Solve calculations to an endpoint with Conversion stoichiometry
An acid A substance that produces H+ in water

A base A substance that neutralizes H+
3 moderate to strong basic ions often used to
OH─, CO32─, HCO3─
neutralize acids
* * * * *

Lesson 14D: Neutralization Calculations In Parts

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned neutralization calculations that include either
measurements of three particles or questions with multiple parts.
* * * * *
Calculations Involving Both Ionized and Un-Ionized Acids or Base Formulas
For neutralization calculations that include data for both un-ionized acid or base formulas
and their reacting ions, you will need to write a relationship between the ionized and un-
ionized particles. Use this special rule.
1. In stoichiometry, when the WANTED and DATA include units that measure both
a solid (molecular) formula and its ions,
a. write the balanced reaction equation in three parts:
Reactants in molecular formulas Æ Reactants as separated ions Æ Products

b. In the bridge conversion, write all formulas in the WANTED and DATA that
have units attached. (This may result in three or more terms that are equal in
the bridge conversion, instead of two.)
There are other ways to track the relationship between particles and their ions, but the
above rules have the advantage of being consistent with both the rule for precipitation
reactions and a fundamental rule for reactions that involve ions:
To understand the reactions of ionic compounds, re-write the reactants as separated

ions, then look for reactions in the new combinations that become possible when the
ions are mixed.
Use Rule 1 to solve the following.

Q. A sample of 45.0 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution is neutralized by 28.14 mL of
0.100 M HCl. What was the [OH─] in the original base solution?
Write only the first four stoichiometry steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Analysis: From the DATA, without using the balanced equation, you can find the moles of
HCl, but you cannot find the moles of Ba(OH)2 . If a count for only one substance is
supplied, the given for conversion stoichiometry is known. Your paper should look like this.
1. WANT: ? mol OH─

L OH─
2. DATA:
45.0 mL Ba(OH)2 = 28.14 mL HCl (Equivalent at endpt. -- 2SUA-R)
0.100 mol HCl = 1 L HCl

3. Balance.
Reactants – molecular: 1 Ba(OH)2 + 2 HCl Æ
Reactants as ions: Æ 1 Ba2+ + 2 OH─ + 2 H+ + 2 Cl─ Æ
Products: Æ 2 H2O + ….
4. Bridge: 1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 mol HCl = 2 mol OH─
Rules that apply above include

• For calculations to an endpoint, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
• In stoichiometry for a ratio unit, two amounts will be equivalent at the endpoint.
• In acid-base stoichiometry, the WANTED and DATA are nearly always
measurements of the two reactants. You will only need to know one product
formula to find the coefficients for the reactants.
• In the WANTED and DATA there are three chemical formulas with units in front:
OH─, Ba(OH)2, and HCl. This is a prompt to balance the equation in 3 parts.
An additional prompt is that the OH─ ion must come from the Ba(OH) . When the
2
WANTED and DATA include both an un-ionized formula and one or more of its
ions, write the balanced equation in 3 parts: solid formulas, separated ions,
products (in neutralization, one product).
• In step 4, include in the bridge conversion the moles of all the chemical formulas in
the WANTED and DATA that were listed after units of measure. This problem has
three such formulas.
Now solve for the WANTED unit.
* * * * *
To solve a reaction calculation for a ratio, solve for top and bottom WANTED units
separately, then divide.
a. Label the DATA equality that has two amounts equivalent at the endpoint as
“Equivalent”or “2SUA-R.”
b. Solve first for the easier unit (the one not moles), using as a given the side of the
equivalency that measures the WANTED chemical formula.
In this problem, the WANTED unit not moles is L OH─. In the DATA equivalency
is mL of Ba(OH)2 solution. Since the solution labeled Ba(OH)2 is the solution that
contains the OH─ ions, the Ba(OH)2 and OH─ solutions are the same solution. The
moles of Ba(OH)2 and OH─ differ, but the solution volume in which those particle
formulas are found are the same, and may be labeled with either formula.
? L OH─ soln. = 45.0 mL Ba(OH)2 soln. = 45.0 x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2
= 45.0 x 10─3 L OH─ soln. If needed, adjust your work and finish.
* * * * *

c. Solve for the other WANTED unit using single-unit stoichiometry. Use the other
half of the equivalency as your given. Use the bridge to go from given to WANTED.
? mol OH─ = 24.18 mL HCl ● 10─3 L HCl ● 0.100 mol HCl ● 1 mol OH─ =
1 mL 1 L HCl 2 mol HCl
= 1.209 x 10─3 mol OH─ (carry an extra sf until the final step)
d. Solve for the final WANTED unit.
* * * * *
? mol OH─ = 1.209 x 10─3 mol OH─ = 0.0269 mol OH─ or 2.69 x 10─2 M OH─
L OH─ 45.0 x 10─3 L OH─ L OH─
* * * * *
Neutralization Calculations in Parts
When problems contain more than one question about a common set of DATA, the general
rules (from Lesson 11F) included
• First list the common DATA, then write the WANTED unit for each part. As parts
are completed, consider those answers to be additional DATA.
Similarly, for reaction calculations that have multiple questions, use special rule 2.
2. When stoichiometry contains more than one question about a common set of data,
• First do stoichiometry steps 2, 3, and 4 (DATA, balance, bridge),
• then do step 1 (WANTED) for each part.
Stoichiometry that has multiple questions will also rely on these prior rules.
• To solve for single units when all of the data is in equalities, label the DATA as
SUA, R, or 2SUA-R (Lesson 11F). Use single-unit amounts (SUA or 2SUA-R), not
ratios, as a given to solve for single units.
• To solve for a single unit, try to select a given from the SUA DATA that solves in the
fewest steps. Include as DATA answers from previous steps.
A Shortcut: Moles H+ = Moles OH─

When a stoichiometry problem asks questions in multiple parts, each part can be treated as
a new problem in which you “start over” to solve. However, the parts of a problem can
often be solved more quickly by using answers to previous parts plus fundamental
relationships.
An equality that can be used in acid-hydroxide reactions is special rule 3.
3. In hydroxide neutralization, at the equivalence point, the moles of H+ in the original

acid sample equal the moles of OH─ in the original base sample.
At the endpoint of acid-OH─ titration, mol H+ reacted = mol OH─ reacted

Rule 3 will allow us to solve some steps of acid-base titration by inspection.

Use special rules 1, 2, and 3 to solve the following problem.
Q. KH(IO3)2 (potassium hydrogen iodate – 389.9 g/mol) is a primary standard solid
acid: it can be used to determine the concentration of base solutions. In such a
titration, the indicator changes color when 19.29 mL of a KOH solution has been
added to 0.338 grams of KH(IO3)2.
A. How many moles of H+ ions were in the acid sample?
B. How many moles of hydroxide ions were in the added base sample?
C. Find the [KOH].
* * * * *
2. DATA:
389.9 g KH(IO3)2 = 1 mol KH(IO3)2 (R)
19.29 mL KOH = 0.338 g KH(IO3)2 (2SUA-R - equivalent at endpt.)

3. Balance:
Solid formulas: 1 KH(IO3)2 + 1 KOH Æ
Separated formulas: Æ 1 K+ + 1 H+ + 2 IO3─ + 1 K+ + 1 OH─ Æ
Products: Æ 1 H2O + ….
4. Bridge: 1 mol KH(IO3)2 = 1 mol KOH = 1 mol H+ = 1 mol OH─
The above uses these rules:

Reactants-only balancing with one product will find the neutralization bridge conversions.
Rule 3: For stoichiometry problems with more than one part, do steps DBB, then W.
Rule 1: This problem and its parts includes measurements for four particles: KH(IO3)2 ,
KOH, H+, and OH─. When the WANTED and DATA includes both solid/molecular
formulas and ions, write the balanced equation in three parts: reactants in molecular
(solid) formulas, reactants as separated-ions, then products using formulas for the
substances and ions actually present in the products.
When solving a problem with parts, you may not catch that both ions and molecular
formulas are both included until reaching a later part of a problem. If that happens,
add the 3-part balancing step to the DATA at that time.
In the bridge conversion, include all of the particle formulas that label units in the
DATA and WANTED terms, including WANTED units found in later parts of the
problem.
Solve Part A.
* * * * *

Part A:
WANT: ? mol H+
Strategy: WANT a single unit? Start with a single unit. Since all of the DATA is in
equalities, pick one of the single-unit amounts, from the two that are equivalent,
as your given. Pick the amount that can most easily be converted to the
WANTED mol H+.
* * * * *
Since the H+ ions are formed from KH(IO ) in this reaction:
32
1 mol KH(IO3)2 Æ 1 mol H+ + …..
try solving for the WANTED amount using stoichiometry steps, with the known
amount of KH(IO3)2 as given.
* * * * *
amount known bridge relationship
? mol H+= 0.338 g KH(IO3)2• 1 mol KH(IO3)2 • 1 mol H+ = 8.669 x 10─4 mol H+
389.9 g KH(IO3)2 1 mol KH(IO3)2
Carry an extra sf until the last part. Add this answer to the DATA.
Using the Part A answer, try solving Part B by inspection.
* * * * *
Part B: WANT: ? mol OH─
In problems with parts, watch for easy conversions from answers to earlier parts. At the
endpoint of an acid-hydroxide titration, when the indicator changes color:
moles H+ reacted = moles OH─ reacted.
Using the Part A answer: ? mol OH─ = 8.669 x 10─4 mol H+ = 8.669 x 10─4 mol OH─
Once you know the moles of either H+ or OH─, the moles of the other in the other reacting
sample are the same.
Part C: WANT: ? mol KOH
L KOH soln.
We solve stoichiometry for a ratio in three steps: find the top amount, then bottom amount,
then divide. Try solving for the first two of those three steps by inspection.
* * * * *
You could start at the beginning and do complete ratio-unit stoichiometry, but using
answers found so far will save steps.
For the top WANTED unit: 1 mole KOH Æ 1 mole OH─ , so from Part B,
8.669 x 10─4 moles OH─ = 8.669 x 10─4 mol KOH in the sample.
* * * * *

For the bottom unit (L KOH in the sample), the mL KOH in the sample is known. By
inspection, substituting what the prefix means.
Bottom unit = ? L KOH = 19.29 mL KOH = 19.29 x 10─3 L KOH
Find the final WANTED ratio.
* * * * *
If you want a ratio, you must convert from a ratio. The answer unit divides the moles
KOH in the sample by the L KOH in the sample. Both of those amounts are solved above.
WANT: ? mol KOH = 8.669 x 10─4 mol KOH = 0.0449 mol KOH
L KOH 19.29 x 10─3 L KOH L KOH
In the original DATA, 0.338 g has 3 sf. This limits the final answer to 3 sf.
Practice. Do Problem 1 today. Save Problem 2 for your next study session.
1. A 10.00 mL sample of NaOH solution exactly neutralizes 55.1 mg H2SO4.
a. How many moles of H2SO4 were neutralized?
b. What was the original concentration of the base solution?
2. If 21.82 mL of 0.110 M HCl is required to neutralize 25.00 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution,
a. how many moles of hydroxide ions were in the original base solution ?
b. What was the original [base]?
ANSWERS
1. (For equivalence/endpoint calculations with parts, do conversion stoichiometry steps 2, 3, 4, then 1)
2. DATA: 10.00 mL NaOH = 55.1 mg H2SO4 (equivalent at endpoint)
98.1 g H2SO4 = 1 mol H2SO4 ( mg = g prompt)
3. Balance: 2 NaOH + 1 H2SO4 Æ 2 H2O + … (reactants-only balancing provides the bridge)
4. Bridge. 2 mol NaOH = 1 mol H2SO4
Part A: WANT: ? mol H2SO4
* * * * *
(Using the rules in Lesson 11F: if you want a single unit and all of the DATA is in equalities,
• Label the equality that has two amounts that are equivalent;
• Choose one side of the equivalency as the given;
• As the given, pick the side that most easily converts to the WANTED unit. In stoichiometry,
that will usually be the side of the equivalency that has the WANTED formula.)
? mol H2SO4 = 55.1 mg H2SO4 • 10─3 g • 1 mol H2SO4 = 5.617 x 10─4 mol H2SO4
1 mg 98.1 g H2SO4
* * * * *

Part B: WANT: ? mol NaOH (solve for non-moles, then moles)

L NaOH soln
(non-moles): ? L NaOH soln. = 10.00 mL NaOH = 10.00 x 10─3 L NaOH
(Solve for moles NaOH:
You can use stoichiometry steps, or use the Part A answer to solve more quickly. The moles of acid from
Part A are known. Mol/mol ratios for reactions are always simple. Here, the moles of base that reacts is
2x the moles of acid that reacts.)
? mol NaOH = 5.617 x 10─4 mol H2SO4 • 2 = 11.23 x 10─4 mol NaOH in sample
* * * * *
? mol NaOH = 11.23 x 10─4 mol NaOH in sample = 0.112 mol NaOH
L NaOH 10.00 x 10─3 L NaOH in sample L NaOH
(Original DATA has 3 sf or higher; round the final answer to 3 sf)
2. (For endpoint calculations with parts, do conversion stoichiometry steps 2, 3, 4, then 1)
2. DATA: 25.00 mL of Ba(OH)2 = 21.82 mL HCl (Equivalent at endpoint)
0.110 mol HCl = 1 L HCl soln.
3. Balance: (Since the problem includes quantities of both Ba(OH)2 and OH─ , balance in 3 parts.)
2 HCl + 1 Ba(OH)2 Æ 2 H+ + 2 Cl ─ + Ba2+ + 2 OH─ Æ 2 H2O + 1 BaCl2
4. Bridge: 2 mol HCl = 1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 mol OH─
Part A. WANT: ? moles OH─
(There are several ways to solve, but whenever moles of H+ or OH─ are involved in a
problem, consider using the rule that 1 mol H+ neutralizes 1 mol OH─.
Take a look at the DATA. Can you find moles of OH─ or base directly? No.
But you know a lot about the HCl. If you can find moles of HCl that reacted, that equals the
moles of H+ that reacted (1 HCl Æ 1 H+), which equals the moles of OH─ that reacts.)
* * * * *
? mol HCl = 21.82 mL HCl • 10─3 L • 0.110 mol HCl = 2.40 x 10─3 mol HCl = mol H+ = mol OH─
1 mL 1 L HCl soln.
Part B: WANT: ? mol Ba(OH)2 (solve stoichiometry ratios for non-moles, then moles)
L Ba(OH)2
(non-moles) ? L Ba(OH)2 soln. = 25.00 mL Ba(OH)2 = 25.00 x 10─3 L Ba(OH)2
(Find moles Ba(OH)2: You can use stoichiometry or you can solve by inspection.
Since 1 Ba(OH)2 Æ 2 OH─ , the mol Ba(OH)2 is 1/2 the mol OH─ from Part A.)
? mol Ba(OH)2 = 1/2 times 2.40 x 10─3 mol OH─ = 1.200 x 10─3 mol Ba(OH)2
(Finish from here.)
* * * * *

? mol Ba(OH)2 = 1.200 x 10─3 mol Ba(OH)2 = 0.0480 mol Ba(OH)2

L Ba(OH)2 25.00 x 10─3 L Ba(OH) soln.
2 L Ba(OH)2
* * * * *
Lesson 14E: Carbonate Neutralization

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned problems involving the acid-base neutralization
of carbonates and/or hydrogen carbonates.
Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 12C, and 14A.
Pretest: If you can do all steps of the following problem, you may skip this lesson. Check
answers at the end of this lesson.
Q. Assuming complete neutralization of all protons and basic ions in an open system,
write the final product formulas and balance these.
a. CaCO3 + HCl Æ
b. H2SO4 + Al2(CO3)3 Æ
c. HCO3─ + OH─ Æ
d. HCO3─ + H+ Æ
* * * * *
Carbonic Acid
At room temperature and pressure, CO2 gas dissolves to a slight extent in water. If
pressure and mixing is applied to the mixture of CO2 gas and water, more gas dissolves.
This pressurized mixing can be used to make carbonated beverages.
When dissolved in water, some CO2 molecules react with water form carbonic acid:
H2CO3(aq). Carbonic acid is a weak acid. In water, it ionizes to form H+ plus HCO3─, but
it does so only slightly; less than 1% of the carbonic acid molecules ionize at room
temperature. The dissolved CO2 gas gives carbonated water its effervescence, and the H+
ions, though low in concentration, give carbonated water a tart (acidic) taste. Together,
these reactions can be represented as
H2O(l) + CO2(g) ÅÆ H2CO3(aq) ÅÆ H+(aq) + HCO3─(aq)
The two-way arrows indicate that these reactions are reversible: the steps can go forward
and backward. Kept under pressure at constant temperature, a carbonated solution is a
stable mixture of all of the particles above. However, if the solution is left open at room
pressure, the CO2 gas will slowly leak out. This “drives the reaction to the left,” using up
the H+, HCO3─, and H2CO3. As the CO2 gas leaves, the solution loses its fizz and acidic
tartness.

Hydrogen Carbonate Ion

A second way to make a carbonic acid solution is to react a relatively strong acid with
hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3─, also known as bicarbonate ion). The result is the same
two-way reaction written above, but it is usually written in the reverse direction to
emphasize the addition of acid to the HCO3─.
H+ + HCO ─ Å Æ [ H CO ] Å Æ H O + CO ↑
3 2 3 2 2
When CO2 is mixed with water, carbonic acid forms slowly and a low concentration, but
when typical lab concentrations of acid and HCO3─ are mixed, the carbonic acid forms
quickly and at relatively high concentration compared to its formation by mixing carbon
dioxide and water. At room pressure, most of the carbonic acid formed will quickly break
down into water and carbon dioxide gas. The mixing of acid and hydrogen carbonate ion
thus causes the solution to form bubbles of CO2 gas.
In the reaction above, the brackets [ ] are a way to indicate a substance is formed
temporarily. When acid and hydrogen carbonate are mixed, most of the carbonic acid
formed is an intermediate particle that quickly breaks apart. If the container is open, the
up-arrow ↑ after the CO2 is one way to indicate that a gas formed is allowed to escape.
In the reaction above, HCO ─ reacts with an acid as a base. However, HCO ─ is
3 3
amphoteric, meaning that it can react with both acids and bases. How it behaves will
depend on whether it is mixed with an acid or a base.
• Mixed with a strong acid: H+ + HCO3─ Æ [ H2CO3 ] Æ H2O + CO2↑
• Mixed with a hydroxide base: OH─ + HCO3─ Æ H─OH + CO32─

When HCO3─ is mixed with acids, it forms H2CO3 and then bubbles of CO2 gas. When
HCO3─ is mixed with a strong base such as OH─, it loses a proton to form carbonate ion
(CO32─), and gas does not form.
Practice A
Check answers as you go.
1. Predict intermediate (if any) and final products of these reactions in open containers,
then balance the equations. Ion combinations in final products may be written in solid
or separated formulas.
a. HCl + NaHCO3 Æ
b. HCO3─ + H2SO4 Æ
c. Sodium hydroxide plus sodium hydrogen carbonate Æ
d. LiHCO3 + OH─ Æ

Carbonate Neutralization
A third way to make a carbonic acid solution is to react excess acid with carbonate ion
(CO32─), a base. In the complete neutralization of CO32─, one product is always H2CO3.
Carbonate ion reacts with strong acids and many weak acids. As in the reaction of acid and
hydrogen carbonate, if carbonate ion is reacted with excess reasonably strong acid in an
open container, the carbonic acid formed it will quickly break down to form water and
bubbles of carbon dioxide.
2 H+ + CO32─ ÅÆ [ H2CO3 ] Å Æ H2O + CO2↑

If acid is slowly mixed with CO32─ ions, HCO3─ ions form initially. Once equivalent
moles of carbonate and protons are mixed, all of the carbonate ion is converted to hydrogen
carbonate ion, and further addition of acid forms H2CO3, most of which breaks down
quickly into water and CO2 gas.
Complete Balancing of Acid-Carbonate Neutralization
To predict the complete products for the reaction of strong acids with CO32─ or HCO3─,
use these rules.
• If an acid reacts with HCO ─ or completely neutralizes CO 2─, one product is
3 3
H2CO3.
• H2CO3 breaks apart to form H2O liquid and CO2 gas.
When representing all of the products in carbonate neutralization in equations, it is helpful
to balance the equation in five steps.
For example: Calcium carbonate is found in minerals including limestone, calcite,
chalk, and marble. When excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to calcium
carbonate, the solution bubbles. Why?
Step 1. Write molecular formulas: 2 HCl + CaCO3 Æ
Step 2. Separate reactants into ions: Æ 2 H+ + 2 Cl─ + Ca2+ + CO32─ Æ
Step 3. Write the initial products: Æ [ H2CO3 ] + Ca2+ + 2 Cl─ Æ

When excess acid mixes with carbonate ion, one of the products is H2CO3.
Step 4. Write final products: Æ H2O + CO2↑ + CaCl2(aq)
Step 5. Check that the atoms and total charge are balanced in all parts.
The fundamental rule: to predict the reactions of ionic compounds, re-write the solid and
molecular formulas for the reactants as separated ions, then look for ways that the new
possible combinations of ions will react.
In the final step, the spectator ions in the products can be represented by either an ionic
solid formula labeled aqueous or as the separated ions actually present.
Ca2+ + 2 Cl─ = CaCl2(aq)

* * * * *

Practice B: Assume that these acids and bases ionize and react completely. Write
balanced equations for the steps of the reaction using the 5 step method above. Ions in final
products may be written in solid or separated formulas. Check answers as you go.
1. Write formulas for reactants (if needed) and products, then balance the equation.
a. HCl + K2CO3 Æ
b. CO32─ + H3PO4 Æ
c. Sulfuric acid plus sodium hydrogen carbonate Æ
Reactants-Only Balancing of Carbonate Neutralization

To solve most neutralization stoichiometry, we need coefficients for only the acid and the
base. This partial balancing can be completed if know the formula for one product. In the
complete neutralization of HCO3─ or CO32─ by acid, one product is always H2CO3.
For this problem, write H2CO3 as one product, balance the left side, and then check below.
Q. What is the ratio of reaction for H2SO4 + Al2(CO3)3 Æ
* * * * *
1. Below the two reactants, write the number of protons and basic ions in the reactants.
2. On the right, add one product of the reaction.
H2SO4 + Al2(CO3)3 Æ H2CO3 + …
( 2 H+ ) + (3 CO32─ ) Æ H2CO3 + …
3. Add coefficients to balance the atoms and charge.
H2SO4 + Al2(CO3)3 Æ H2CO3 + …
3 ( 2 H+ ) + 1 (3 CO32─ ) Æ 3 H2CO3 + …
4. Transfer the coefficients in front of the ( ) to the reactants.
3 H2SO4 + 1 Al2(CO3)3 Æ 3 H2CO3 + …
3 ( 2 H+ ) + 1 (3 CO32─ ) Æ 3 H2CO3 + …
The top reactant ratio will be all that is needed in most neutralization stoichiometry.
Knowing one product, and with practice at separating molecular formulas into ions, you
can often balance the reactants by inspection. Try that on this one.
Q. What is the ratio of reaction for HNO3 + BaCO3 Æ
* * * * *
One product for acid-carbonate neutralization is H2CO3. Add the coefficients by inspection.
2 HNO3 + 1 BaCO3 Æ 1 H2CO3 + …
* * * * *

Practice C
First review the rules in the summary at the end of this module. Then try these problems.
Assume that the following acids and bases react completely. Balance the acid and base
reactants using the reactants-only balancing methods above. Try every other part, and more if
you need more practice. Check answers as you go.
1. Write formulas for reactants (if needed) and products, then balance the equation.
a. HNO3 + Al2(CO3)3 Æ
b. Calcium carbonate plus nitric acid Æ
c. Potassium hydroxide plus potassium hydrogen carbonate Æ
2. Supply the coefficients for the two reactants.
a. H2Unk + NaHCO3 Æ
b. H2SO4 + Unk(CO3)3 Æ
c. HCl + Unk(CO3)2 Æ
Carbonate and Hydrogen Carbonate Neutralization Calculations

In carbonate and hydrogen carbonate neutralization, the ratio of reaction for the acid and
the base can be determined by partial balancing using the steps above. Neutralization
calculations can then be solved using the same solution stoichiometry steps that were
practiced in Lesson 12C and 14D. If needed, refer to those steps when solving the problems
below.
Practice D: If you get stuck, read the answer until unstuck, then try again.
1. If 38.58 mL of 0.150 M HCl is needed to react completely with a sample of solid CaCO3,
how many grams of calcium carbonate were in the sample?
2. If 872 mg of a dry solid acid is exactly neutralized by 24.0 mL of 0.150 M NaHCO3,
assuming that each solid acid particle contains two acidic hydrogens, what is the
molar mass of the acid?
3. Review Lessons 14D-E and write additional flashcards that cover the fundamentals.

ANSWERS
Pretest: Coefficients of 1 may be omitted as understood.
a. 1 CaCO3 + 2 HCl Æ 1 H2O + 1 CO2↑ + 1 CaCl2
b. 3 H2SO4 + 1 Al2(CO3)3 Æ 3 H2O + 3 CO2↑ + 1 Al2(SO4)3
c. HCO3─ + OH─ Æ H2O + CO32─
d. HCO3─ + H+ Æ 1 H2O + 1 CO2↑
Practice A: Balance atoms and charge in all parts of each equation. Coefficients of 1 may be omitted.
1. a. 1 HCl + 1 NaHCO3 Æ 1 [ H2CO3 ] + 1 NaCl Æ H2O + CO2↑ + NaCl
b. 2 HCO3─ + 1 H2SO4 Æ 2 [ H2CO3 ] + SO42─ Æ 2 H2O + 2 CO2↑ + SO42─
c. 1 NaOH + 1 NaHCO3 Æ 1 H─OH + 1 Na2CO3
d. 1 LiHCO + 1 OH─ Æ 1 H─OH + 1 Li+ + 1 CO 2─
3 3
Practice B: Balance atoms and charge in all 4 parts of each equation.

1. a. 2 HCl + 1 K2CO3 Æ 2 H+ + 2 Cl─ + 2 K+ + CO32─ Æ
Æ 1 [ H2CO3 ] + 2 KCl Æ H2O + CO2↑ + 2 KCl
b. 3 CO32─ + 2 H3PO4 Æ 3 CO32─ + 6 H+ + 2 PO43─ Æ

Æ 3 [ H2CO3 ] + 2 PO43─ Æ 3 H2O + 3 CO2↑ + 2 PO43─
c. 1 H2SO4 + 2 NaHCO3 Æ 2 H+ + 1 SO42─ + 2 Na+ + 2 H+ + 2 CO32─ Æ
Æ 2 [ H2CO3 ] + 1 Na2SO4 Æ 2 H2O + 2 CO2↑ + 1 Na2SO4
Practice C
1. a. 6 HNO3 + 1 Al2(CO3)3 Æ 3 [ H2CO3 ] + …
b. 1 CaCO3 + 2 HNO3 Æ 1 [ H2CO3 ] + …
c. 1 KOH + 1 KHCO3 Æ H─OH + CO32─ … (mixed with OH─, HCO3─ acts as an acid)
2. a. 1 H2Unk + 2 NaHCO3 Æ 2 [ H2CO3 ] + …
b. 3 H2SO4 + 1 Unk(CO3)3 Æ 3 [ H2CO3 ] + …
c. 4 HCl + 1 Unk(CO3)2 Æ 2 [ H2CO3 ] + …
Practice D
1. For titration to an equivalence point, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? g CaCO3
2. DATA: 100.1 g CaCO3 = 1 mol CaCO3 ( g prompt)
38.58 mL HCl (the single unit given)
0.150 mol HCl = 1 L HCl soln. (M prompt)

3. Balance. (For acid-base neutralization, try partial balancing – reactants only.)

1 CaCO3 + 2 HCl Æ 1 [H2CO3] + …..
4. Bridge. 1 mol CaCO3 Æ 2 mol HCl
* * * * *
(Since a single unit is WANTED, use single-unit stoichiometry steps 5-7, chaining the conversions.)
? g CaCO3 = 38.58 mL HCl • 10─3 L • 0.150 mol HCl • 1 mol CaCO3 • 100.1 g CaCO3 = 0.290 g CaCO3
1 mL 1 L HCl 2 mol HCl 1 mol CaCO3
2. For titration to an equivalence point, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
1. WANTED: g acid (Write the unit WANTED)

mol acid
2. DATA: 872 mg acid = 24.0 mL NaHCO3 soln. (Equivalent at endpoint)
0.150 mol NaHCO3 = 1 L NaHCO3 (M prompt)
3. Balance. Let acid with two acidic hydrogens = H2Unk
1 H2Unk + 2 NaHCO3 Æ 2 [H2CO3] + ….
4. Bridge. 1 mol H2Unk (or 1 mol acid) = 2 mol NaHCO3
5. SOLVE.
(Not moles): ? g acid = 872 mg acid • 10─3 g = 0.872 g acid in sample
1 mg
(Moles): ? mol acid = 24.0 mL NaHCO3 • 10─3 L • 0.150 mol NaHCO3 • 1 mol acid =
1 mL L 2 mol NaHCO3
= 1.800 x 10─3 mol acid in sample.
WANTED: ? g acid = 0.872 g acid = 484 g acid
mol acid 1.800 x 10─3 mol acid mol acid
3. Your flashcards might include the following.

Product of complete carbonate neutralization H2CO3
[ H2CO3 ] Breaks down to form H2O and CO2

If stoichiometry WANTED and DATA includes Write solid formulas Æ separated-ions Æ
both solid formulas and ions products
Define amphoteric A particle that can act as an acid or a base
* * * * *

SUMMARY: Acid-Base Neutralization

1. Acid-base neutralization is an ionic reaction. To understand ionic reactions, write the
separated-ion formulas, then look for new ion combinations that react.
2. Ions: Acids contain H+. The reacting particle in acids = H+ = a proton
Bases include compounds with hydroxide OH─, carbonate CO32─, and hydrogen
carbonate HCO ─ ions.
3
3. Products: For acids + OH─, one product is water: H-OH. H+ + OH─ Æ H-OH
For excess acid plus CO32─, one product is H2CO3. 2 H+ + CO32─ Æ H2CO3
4. Balancing: To predict the products and balance the equations,
• Write the separated-ion formulas in ( ).
• Write one product.
• Finish by balancing atoms, familiar ions, and charge.
5. To balance if a formula is unknown,
• If an acid has 2 acid hydrogens, use H2Unk.
• If a base has 3 hydroxides, write Unk(OH)3.
• If a base has 1 carbonate ion, use UnkCO3. If three, use Unk(CO3)3.
6. Do reactants-only balancing at Step 3 if needed. Add one product; balance the left side,
and use the left side numbers to write the key bridge conversion.
7. To solve titration to an endpoint, use conversion stoichiometry plus these 3 rules.
1. When the WANTED and DATA terms include units and particle formulas that
include both an un-ionized particle and its ions,
a. balance the reaction equation in three parts:
Reactants in molecular formulas Æ Reactants in separated ions ÆProducts

b. In the bridge conversion, write all formulas in the WANTED and DATA that
have units attached.
2. In the case of stoichiometry problems that contain more than one question about a
common set of data,
• first do stoichiometry steps 2, 3, and 4,
• then do step 1 (list the WANTED unit) for each part.
3. Hydroxide neutralization steps can often be solved by inspection using this rule:
At the endpoint of acid-OH─ titration, mol H+ added = mol OH─ added
# # # #

Module 16: Half-Reaction Balancing
* * * * *
tables in college textbooks. By keeping the numbers simple, it is hoped that you will use
mental arithmetic to do easy numeric cancellations and simplifications before you use a
# # # # #

The ELEMENTS – Manganese
Mendelevium
Mn
Md
25
101
54.9
(256)
The third column shows the atomic number: Mercury Hg 80 200.6
grams/mole. For radioactive atoms, ( ) is the Neptunium Np 93 (237)
molar mass of most stable isotope. Nickel Ni 28 58.7
Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.94
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3
* * * * *
Module 15 – Redox Reactions
Module 16 – Half-Reaction Balancing
* * * * *
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page ii

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................. 101
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 159
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page iii

Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 237
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page iv

Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page v

Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................614
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................662
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................827
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page vi

Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 974
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page vii

•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page viii

Module 15 — Redox Reactions

Timing: Many courses cover redox reactions as part of a unit on molarity and solution
reactions. Others cover redox reactions as part of an electrochemistry unit later in the
course. Complete Module 15 at the time that redox reactions are assigned in your class.
Balancing redox reactions using oxidation numbers is covered in this module. Balancing
redox using half-reactions is covered in Module 16. If both balancing using oxidation
numbers and half-reactions are assigned now, complete both modules. If half-reactions are
assigned at the later time than balancing with oxidation numbers, complete Module 16
when half-reaction balancing is assigned.
* * * * *
Lesson 15A: Oxidation Numbers

Pretest: If you can solve these problems, you may skip to Lesson 15B. Answers are at the
end of the lesson.
1. Define oxidation.
2. What is the oxidation number of
a. Each chromium atom in K2Cr2O7 ? b. The Cl atom in ClO3─ ?
* * * * *
Redox Definitions
Redox reactions are a combination of reduction and oxidation.
1. Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
2. Reduction is the gain of electrons.
In a redox reaction, electrons transfer from one particle to another: one particle must be
oxidized (lose its electrons), and another particle must be reduced (gain the transferred
electrons).
The term oxidation is derived from the fact that molecular oxygen (O2) is the agent most
often used to remove electrons from substances. The term reduction reflects a chemical
reaction important since prehistoric times. When metal ions found in ores are heated with
substances that can donate electrons to the ions, the volume of the ore is seemingly reduced,
as metals, valued for uses including ornaments and weaponry, are formed.
Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers can be assigned to each individual atom in a chemical particle.
Oxidation numbers can be thought of as the charge that each atom would have in a
molecule or ion if each atom were a monatomic ion.
In reality, individual atoms most often do not behave as monatomic ions in chemical
particles. However, assigning oxidation numbers helps in tracking the gain or loss of
electrons that is the key to explaining many chemical reactions.
©2009 ChemReview.net v. k1 Page 362

RULES for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

The goal is to assign an oxidation number to each individual atom in a substance.
1. In an element, each atom is assigned an oxidation number of zero.
Elements are neutral molecules with only one kind of atom. Examples of element
formulas include C, Na, O2, S8, and Cl2 (see Lessons 7B and 22D for additional
information on elements). In those formulas, all atoms are assigned an oxidation
number of zero.
2. For complex ionic compounds, write the formulas for each ion in the compound, then
assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in the ions based on the rules below.
3. In a monatomic ion, the oxidation number of the atom is the charge on the ion.
Examples: In Na+, the Na atom is assigned an oxidation number of +1.
In Al3+, the Al is assigned an oxidation number of +3;
In S2─, the S is assigned an oxidation number of ─ 2.
4. For particles that are not elements or monatomic ions, oxidation numbers are assigned
as follows.
a. Each oxygen (O) atom is assigned a ─ 2 (except in peroxides, where O is ─1).
b. Each hydrogen (H) atom is assigned a +1, except in metallic hydrides (compounds
of a metal atom and hydrogen) where H is ─1.
c. Each alkali metal atom is assigned a +1, and each column 2 atom is assigned a +2.
d. All other oxidation numbers are selected to make the sum of the oxidation numbers
equal the overall charge on the molecule or ion.
Example: What is the oxidation number for the Mn atom in MnO4─?
In these lessons, we will use a labeling system where the oxidation number for
the each atom is shown above the particle symbol, and the total for the atoms of
that kind is shown below.
Each O has a ─2 oxidation number. The total of the oxidation numbers for the
oxygens is therefore ─8.
Each: ─2
Formula for the particle: MnO4―
Total: ─8
The total of the oxidation numbers must add up to the ─1 charge on the ion.
The oxidation number on the Mn atom must therefore be +7.
Each: +7 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: MnO4―
Total: +7 ─ 8 Å must add up to ─ 1.

5. The oxidation number of each atom in a chemical particle is the total of the oxidation
numbers for the atoms of that kind, divided by the number of atoms of that kind.
Example: In neutral N2O4, each O is assigned a ─ 2 oxidation number, and the
total of the oxidation numbers for the oxygens is ─8.
Each: +4 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: N2O4
Total: +8 ─ 8 Å must add up to 0.
The total of the oxidation numbers must add up to the zero charge on the
molecule. The oxidation number on each N atom must therefore be +4.
Memorize and then, without looking back, use the above rules on this problem.
Q1. What is the oxidation number for the nitrogen atom in NO2?
* * * * * (the * * * mean: write your answer, then check the answer below.)
Answer
a. For any particle that is not an element or monatomic ion, first assign individual, then
total oxidation numbers, for O, H, and column one and two atoms.
b. Each oxygen atom in NO2 has an oxidation number of ─ 2; for the two oxygens, the
total of the oxidation numbers is ─ 4.
Oxidation number of each atom: ─2
Formula for the particle: NO2
Total oxidation #’s for those atoms: ─4 (individual O.N.) x (subscript) = total)
To calculate the oxidation number for the nitrogen atom, use the rule that the total
numbers on the bottom must add up to the overall charge on the particle, in this case
= zero.
The total of the oxidation numbers for all of the nitrogens must therefore be +4. Since
we have only one nitrogen, its individual oxidation number must be +4.
Oxidation number of each atom: +4 ─2
Formula for the particle: NO2
Total oxidation numbers for those atoms: +4 ─4 Å must total to charge on particle.
Try one more problem using the rules above.
Q2. Find the oxidation number of the nitrogen atom in ammonium ion, NH4+.
* * * * *
Answer
a. The overall charge on the NH4+ particle is +1; the total for the oxidation numbers must
add up to +1.
b. For any particle that is not an element or monatomic ion, assign individual, then total
oxidation numbers, for O, H, and column one and two metal atoms.

In NH4+, each hydrogen atom has an oxidation number of +1; the total oxidation
numbers for the four hydrogens is +4.
Oxidation number of each atom: +1
Formula for the particle: NH4+
Total Ox# for those atoms: +4 [(individual O.N.) x (subscript) = total]
c. Calculate the total, then individual oxidation numbers for the remaining atoms.
Since the total charges for all the atoms (on the bottom) must add up to +1, the total
for all nitrogens must be ─3. Since there is only one nitrogen atom, its individual
oxidation number must be ─ 3.
Oxidation number of each atom: ─ 3 +1
Formula for the particle: NH + 4
Total oxidation numbers for those atoms: ─ 3 +4 Å must add up to +1.
Summary: Assigning Oxidation Numbers

To assign oxidation numbers to individual atoms, if a particle is not an element or a
monatomic ion,
• Write the individual, then total oxidation numbers on O, H, and column one and
two atoms;
• Assign remaining totals for atoms that add up to the charge on the particle.
• Write the oxidation numbers for each individual remaining atom.
Practice: Find the oxidation number of each individual atom for the atoms specified in
these compounds. Do at least every other problem. Answers are on the following page.
1. CO2 C = ________ 9. S8 S = _______
2. Br2 Br = _______ 10. C2O42─ C = _______
3. Mn2+ Mn = _______ 11. H3AsO4 As = _______
4. CaBr2 Br = ________ 12. KMnO4 Mn = _______
5. NO3─ N = ________ 13. ClO3─ Cl = ________
6. Na2CrO4 Cr = _________ 14. Mn2O7 Mn = _______
7. Cr2O72─ Cr = _______ 15. Hg22+ Hg = ________
8. H2O2 O = _______ (H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide)

ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. Oxidation is the loss of electrons. 2. Cr = + 6 3. Cl = + 5
Practice
1. C = +4
Do individual, then total ON, for O, H, and column 1&2. Here, the total for O is 2 x (─ 2) = ─ 4 .
Do total, then individual, for remaining atoms. C must be +4, since CO2 has a zero charge.
Oxidation number of each atom: +4 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: CO2
Total oxidation numbers for those atoms: +4 ─ 4 Å must total to zero.
2. Br = Zero. Br2 has one kind of atom and is neutral: it is an element. In elements, each atom has an
oxidation number of zero.
3. Mn = +2. The oxidation number on a monatomic ion is equal to its charge.
4. Br = ─ 1
If you recognize that CaBr2 is ionic, write its monatomic ions. Each charge is the oxidation number.
OR -- do individual, then total Ox# for O, H, and col. 1&2. Ca is column 2: 1 x (+2) = +2 .
Do total, then individual, for remaining atoms. Br must be ─ 1 due to the zero charge on CaBr2.
Oxidation number of each atom: +2 ─1
Formula for the particle: CaBr2
Total oxidation numbers for those atoms: +2 ─ 2 Å must total zero.
5. N = +5 Do O first. Each O is ─ 2. 3 x ─ 2 = ─ 6 . N must be +5 to equal the -1 total charge.
Each atom: +5 ─2
Formula for the particle: NO ― 3
Total for those atoms: +5 ─ 6 Å must total ─ 1.
6. Cr = +6 Each Na is +1 (Na is an alkali metal). Each O is ─ 2.
Each atom: +1 +6 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: Na2CrO4
Total for those atoms: +2 +6 ─ 8 Å must total zero.
7. Cr = +6 Each O is ─ 2: x 7 = ─ 14. The 2 Cr must total +12, so each is +6.
Each: +6 ─2
Formula for the particle: Cr2O7 2―
Total: +12 ─14 Å must total ─ 2.
8. O = = ─ 1. In peroxides, oxygen has an Ox# of ─ 1.
9. S = Zero. S8 is an element: one kind of atom and neutral. Atoms in elements have Ox# of zero.

10. C = +3 Each O is ─ 2: 4 x ─ 2 = ─ 8. The 2 Carbons must total +6, so each is +3.

Each: +3 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: C2 O4 2―
Total: +6 ─ 8 Å must total ─ 2.
11. As = +5 Each H is +1. Each O is ─ 2. (Individual O.N.) times (subscript) = Ox# Total
Each: +1 +5 ─ 2
Formula for the particle: H3 As O4
Total: +3 +5 ─ 8 Å must total zero.
12. Mn = +7 13. Cl = +5 14. Mn = +7 15. Hg = +1
* * * * *
Lesson 15B: Balancing Charge

Prerequisites: Make sure that you have mastered Lesson 10B: Balancing Equations.
Pretest: On the remaining lessons in this module, if you think you know the topic, try the
last few problems in the lesson. If you can do those, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Half Reactions
In balanced redox equations, the number of electrons lost by one reactant particle must
equal the number gained by another reactant particle. However, this key balanced transfer
of electrons is hidden when a redox equation is written. To understand redox reactions, it
is often necessary to separate the reaction into two parts in order to see and balance the
number of electrons lost and gained.
For example, the oxidation of copper by silver ion can be represented as
Cu + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 Ag + Cu2+ (1)
This reaction is best understood as a result of two half-reactions. Each reactant copper
atom loses two electrons, and each reactant silver ion gains one electron.
Cu Æ Cu2+ + 2e─ (the copper reactant is oxidized, losing 2 electrons) (2)
2e─ + 2 Ag+ Æ 2Ag (for each Cu oxidized, 2 silver ions are reduced) (3)
A redox half-reaction is a balanced equation that includes one central atom and free
electrons. A half-reaction shows the number of electrons gained or lost by particles;
standard redox equations do not.
Every redox reaction is a result of two half reactions: one that loses electrons, and the other
that gains the same number of electrons. Half-reactions break a redox reaction into its two
components: the oxidation and the reduction.
In all chemical reactions, both atoms and charge must be conserved: in both half-reactions
and complete redox reactions, the number and kind of atoms, and the total of the charges,
must be the same on both sides. Check each of the three reactions above to see that both
atoms and total charge are balanced.

Balancing Charge In Half-Reactions

To balance redox reactions, it is often necessary to balance half-reactions first.
To balance half-reactions,
• first add coefficients to balance the atoms,
• then add electrons (e─) to balance charge.
Apply those rules to this problem.
Q. Balance this half-reaction: Al Æ Al3+

* * * * *
A. Each side has one Al atom, so atoms are already balanced. The left side is neutral, and
the right has a charge of 3+. For charge to be the same on both sides, three negative
electrons must be added to the right.
Al Æ Al3+ + 3 e─ (1 Al atom and zero total charge on both sides. Balanced.)

The number of atoms must be the same on both sides of a balanced equation, but the
number of electrons does not. Electrons are not atoms.
The total charge must be the same on both sides of a equation. The electron in a half-
reaction equation is a ─ 1 charge that serves to balance charge. Try this problem.
Q. Balance this half-reaction: Br2 Æ Br─

* * * * *
A. First balance atoms by adding coefficients (you cannot change the particle formulas). A
coefficient of 2 must be added on the right.
Br2 Æ 2 Br─ That balances atoms, but the charge is not balanced.
The right side has a total charge of 2―, and the left is neutral. To balance charge in a
half-reaction, two electrons must be added to the left.
2e─ + Br2 Æ 2 Br─ This half-reaction is now balanced for atoms and charge.
Practice: Check answers as you go.

1. Add electrons to balance these half-reactions.
a. Co Æ Co2+ c. S Æ S2─
b. Cu2+ Æ Cu+
2. Balance these half-reactions.
a. H2 Æ H+ c. I2 Æ I─
b. Hg22+ Æ Hg2+ d. Sn4+ Æ Sn2+

ANSWERS
1a. . Co Æ Co2+ + 2 e─ 1b. 1 e─ + 1 Cu2+ Æ 1 Cu+ 1c. S + 2 e─ Æ S2─
2a. H2 Æ 2 H+ + 2e─ 2b. Hg22+ Æ 2 Hg2+ + 2 e─ 2c. I + 2 e─ Æ 2 I─
2
2d. 2 e─ + Sn4+ Æ Sn2+
* * * * *
Lesson 15C: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Timing: Complete this lesson when you are asked to identify oxidizing and reducing
agents. In some courses, this is done as part of a unit on ions and solutions. Other courses
cover agents during later units on electrochemistry.
* * * * *
Redox Agent Terminology
Redox reactions are a combination of reduction and oxidation. One reactant must be
oxidized (lose its electrons), and another reactant must be reduced (gain the transferred
electrons).
In a redox reaction, the reactant particle that is oxidized is the one that contains an atom
that loses electrons. This particle is termed the reducing agent, because, by giving its
electrons to another particle, it acts as an agent causing the other particle to be reduced.
The reactant particle that is reduced is the one that contains an atom that gains electrons.
This particle is termed the oxidizing agent, because, by taking electrons from another
particle, it is the agent that causes the other particle to be oxidized. On both sides of a
redox reaction, there must be one oxidizing agent and one reducing agent.
The following definitions must be memorized.
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons.
• Oxidizing agents are particles that contain an atom that accepts electrons in a
reaction; it removes electrons from another atom.
• Reducing agents are particles that contain an atom that loses electrons in a reaction
by donating its electrons to another atom.
• In redox reactions, reducing agents are oxidized, losing their electrons, and
oxidizing agents are reduced, gaining electrons.
After learning these definitions, for the following questions, cover the answers below each
* * * * * line, then write an answer for the question above the * * * * * .
Q1. For the reaction Cu + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 Ag + Cu2+
1. Is the neutral copper being oxidized or reduced?
* * * * *
A. In the reaction, Cu becomes Cu2+; it must lose 2 electrons to do so. As it
loses electrons, the neutral Cu metal is being oxidized.
2. Is the Ag+ being oxidized or reduced?
* * * * *

A. Since the neutral Cu reactant is being oxidized, the Ag+ reactant must be
being reduced.
The Ag+ becomes Ag in the reaction. To do so, must gain an electron.
Particles that gain electrons in a reaction are being reduced.
3. Is the Ag+ acting as an oxidizing agent or a reducing agent?

* * * * *
A. Since Ag+ is being reduced, it is an oxidizing agent. By accepting the
electron from neutral copper, Ag+ causes the Cu to be oxidized.
In more complex reactions, it is often helpful to assign oxidation numbers to atoms to
identify which particles are being oxidized and reduced.
Q2. For this redox reaction,
a. assign oxidation numbers to each atom,
b. write the formula for the reactant particle that is the oxidizing agent, and
c. write the formula for the reactant being oxidized.
2 MnO4─ + Cl─ + H2O Æ 2 MnO2 + ClO3─ + 2 OH─
* * * * *
Answer
a. Assigning oxidation numbers,
Each: +7 -2 -1 +1 -2 +4 -2 +5 -2 -2 +1
2 MnO4─ + Cl─ + H2O Æ 2 MnO2 + ClO3─ + 2 OH─
Total +7 -8 -1 +2 -2 +4 -4 +5 -6 -2 +1
b. The Mn atom is +7 left and +4 right, so it gains 3 electrons. MnO4─ contains the
atom that is being reduced, so MnO4─ ion is an oxidizing agent.
c. The Cl atom is ─1 in the reactants and +5 in the products. The Cl─ ion is therefore
losing 6 electrons in the reaction and is the reactant being oxidized.
In general, strong oxidizing agents include O2, CrO42─, Cr2O72─, and substances or ions
that include per- as a prefix in their names, such as permanganate. Elements that are
metals are often used as reducing agents. However, to determine the role of particles in a
reaction, rather than memorize a list, it is best to assign the oxidation numbers and analyze
the loss and gain of electrons.
* * * * *
Flashcards
Make needed cards from the list below. Run the new cards 3 days in a row, and again
before each quiz or test on this material.
Oxidation number for atoms in an element Zero
Normal oxidation number for oxygen atoms ─2
Oxidation number for O atoms in peroxides ─1

Normal oxidation number for hydrogen atoms +1

Oxidation number for H atoms in hydrides ─1
Oxidation # for alkali metals in compounds +1
Oxidation # for column 2 atoms in compounds +2
The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is Its charge
In reactions, reducing agents are Oxidized
In reactions, oxidizing agents are Reduced
Total oxidation numbers must add up to The charge on the particle
The fundamental law of redox balancing Electrons lost must equal electrons gained
Reduction The gain of electrons
Oxidation The loss of electrons
Oxidizing agent Particle that accepts electrons
Reducing Agent Particle that gives away electrons
Practice
1. Label each reactant as an oxidizing agent (OA) or reducing agent (RA), then circle the
reactant particle being oxidized.
a. Sn4+ + Ni Æ Ni2+ + Sn2+ b. Mg + 2 H+ Æ H2 + Mg2+
2. Assign oxidation numbers, label each reactant as an oxidizing agent (OA) or reducing
agent (RA), and circle the reactant being oxidized.
a. 2 Al + 3 NiCl2 Æ 2 AlCl3 + 3 Ni
b. 4 As + 3 HClO3 + 6 H2O Æ 4 H3AsO3 + 3 HClO
ANSWERS
OA RA RA OA
1a. Sn4+ + Ni Æ Ni2+ + Sn2+ 1b. Mg + 2 H+ Æ H2 + Mg2+
In 1a, Sn4+ changes to Sn2+, so it must gain 2 electrons and is being reduced. Because Sn4+ is
accepting electrons, it is the oxidizing agent.
The Ni loses 2 electrons in reacting, so it is being oxidized. Because Ni gives electrons to the Sn4+, it is a
reducing agent. The particle being oxidized is the reducing agent.

In 1b, the Mg on the left loses two electrons as it forms Mg2+. It is therefore being oxidized. Because it is
giving away its electrons, it is the reducing agent.
That means the H+ must be the oxidizing agent. Two H+ ions gain 2 electrons to form neutral hydrogen. In
a redox reaction, the reactants must contain both an RA and an OA.
2a. Each: 0 +2 -1 +3 -1 0
2 Al + 3 NiCl2 Æ 2 AlCl3 + 3 Ni
RA OA
Neutral Al and Ni atoms are elements. Atoms in elements have a zero oxidation number.
NiCl2 and AlCl3 are both ionic compounds because they combine metal and non-metal atoms. All of their
atoms are monatomic ions. The oxidation numbers for the atoms are the charges of the ions.
Since the Al goes from neutral to 3+, it loses 3 electrons. A particle that loses electrons is being oxidized
and is acting as a reducing agent.
The other reactant (NiCl ) must therefore be oxidizing agent. The Ni2+ ion gains two electrons.
2
2b. Each 0 +1 +5 -2 +1 -2 +1 +3 -2 +1 +1 -2
4 As + 3 HClO3 + 6 H2O Æ 4 H3AsO3 + 3 HClO
RA OA
The As atom is an element with a zero oxidation number. After reaction, it has a +3 oxidation number.
The As loses 3 electrons, is oxidized, and acts as a reducing agent.
The Cl atom goes from a +5 oxidation number in the reactants to +1 in the products. It gains 4 electrons.
Particles that contain atoms that gain electrons in a reaction are reduced. Because they accept electrons,
those particles are oxidizing agents.
* * * * *
Lesson 15D: Balancing Redox Using Oxidation Numbers

Trial and error can balance all chemical equations, but for many redox reactions, trial and
error can be a slow process. Oxidation numbers can speed balancing by identifying
coefficients. A key principle in oxidation-reduction reactions is
The number of electrons lost by the reducing agent must equal the number gained by
the oxidizing agent.
Because unbalanced redox equations do not show the transfer of electrons, the ratios that
balance the loss and gain are often not obvious. However, by assigning oxidation numbers,
the gain and loss of electrons among atoms can be seen. Coefficients can then be assigned
that balance the electron gain and loss, and balancing can be completed by trial and error.
The oxidation-number method of balancing is best learned by example. Using the
following redox equation,
NaClO3 + HI Æ I2 + H2O + NaCl
complete the following steps in your notebook.

Using Oxidation Numbers to Balance Redox Reactions

1. Above the atoms, write the oxidation numbers for each atom in the equation.
* * * * * (means: cover below the * *, write your answer, then check the answer below.)
Each: +1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
2. Identify the two atoms on each side that change their oxidation number in going from
reactants to products.
* * * * *
The two atoms that change oxidation numbers are I and Cl.
3. For each of those two atoms, draw arrows connecting the atom on one side to the same
atom on the other side. Draw one arrow above and the other below the equation. Label
each arrow with the electron change that must take place in going from one oxidation
number to the other.
* * * * *
To go from +5 to ─1, each chlorine must gain six negative electrons.
To go from ─1 to zero, each iodine atom must lose one electron.
+ 6 e─
Each: +1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
─1 e─ (one arrow must lose, the other must gain, electrons)

4. Calculate the multiplier (based on a lowest common denominator) by which each loss
or gain should be multiplied so that the total electrons lost and gained are equal.
* * * * *
Multiply the I arrow by 6 and the Cl arrow by 1.
+ 6 e─ ( 1x )
Each: +1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
─ 1 e─ ( 6x )
5. Re-write the original equation, using the 2 arrow multipliers as trial coefficients for the
two particles connected by the arrow.
* * * * *
1 NaClO3 + 6 HI Æ 6 I2 + H2O + 1 NaCl
6. The subscript tweak. For each atom that changed oxidation number, if its subscript is not
1, divide the trial coefficient in front of its particle by the subscript of that atom.
* * * * *

In this problem, we have a subscript tweak in one case out of 4. One of the I atoms
has a subscript of two, so divide the trial coefficient of its particle by 2.
1 NaClO3 + 6 HI Æ 3 6 I2 + ? H2O + 1 NaCl

7. Add coefficients to finish the balancing by trial and error.
* * * * *
1 NaClO3 + 6 HI Æ 3 I2 + 3 H2O + 1 NaCl
8. Check: 1 Na, 1 Cl, 3 O, 6 H, 6 I atoms on both sides. Neutral charge on both sides.
The equation is balanced. Done!
* * * * *
Oxidation number balancing gives trial coefficients, not final answers. In all methods of
balancing, it is necessary to modify trial coefficients if needed, using the subscript tweak
and trial and error, until atoms and overall charge are the same on both sides.
This method will become easier with practice.
Practice: Write a summary of the steps above until you know it from memory, then
write your summary from memory and use it to balance these redox equations. If you
need help, peek at the answer and try again. Save one problem for your next practice
session.
1. Mn2+ + BiO3─ + H+ Æ MnO4─ + Bi3+ + H2O
2. KI + O2 + H2O Æ I2 + KOH
3. Co + H+ + NO3─ Æ Co2+ + N2 + H2O
ANSWERS
Problem 1
1. Calculate the oxidation numbers for each atom in the equation.
Each: +2 +5 -2 +1 +7 -2 +3 +1 -2
Mn2+ + BiO3─ + H+ Æ MnO4─ + Bi3+ + H2O
2. Identify two atoms that change their oxidation numbers. Mn and Bi.
3. Add arrows connecting each atom that changed. Label with the electron change.
─ 5 e─
Each: +2 +5 -2 +1 +7 -2 +3 +1 -2
Mn 2+ ─ + ─
+ BiO3 + H Æ MnO4 + Bi3+ + H2O
+ 2 e─

4. Add lowest common denominators as arrow multipliers so that the electron loss and
gain is equal.
─ 5 e─ ( 2x )
Each: +2 +5 -2 +1 +7 -2 +3 +1 -2
Mn 2+ ─ + ─
+ BiO3 + H Æ MnO4 + Bi 3+ + H2O
+ 2 e─ ( 5x )
5. Re-write the original equation. Use each arrow multiplier as a coefficient for the particles
connected by the arrows.
2 Mn2+ + 5 BiO3─ + ? H+ Æ 2 MnO4─ + 5 Bi3+ + ? H2O

6. The subscript tweak. Not needed – none of the Bi or Mn atoms have subscripts.
7. Complete balancing by trial and error.
15 O on the left. Must be 7 H2O on right to get 15 O on right. 7 H2O means 14 H+ on left.
2 Mn2+ + 5 BiO3─ + 14 H+ Æ 2 MnO4─ + 5 Bi3+ + 7 H2O

8. Check: 2 Mn, 5 Bi, 15 O, 14 H atoms on both sides. +13 charge on both sides. Balanced.
Problem 2
1. Calculate the Ox# for each atom.
Each: +1 -1 0 +1 -2 0 +1 -2 +1
KI + O2 + H2O Æ I2 + KOH
O2 and I2 are elements: neutral particles containing only one kind of atom.
2. Identify two atoms on each side that change their oxidation number. I and O.
3. Write the electron change for each atom.
lost one e─
+1 -1 0 +1 -2 0 +1 -2 +1
gained 2 e─
4. Calculate an LCD multiplier for each to get the same number of electrons in both.
(2x) lost one e─
+1 -1 0 +1 -2 0 +1 -2 +1
(1x) gained 2 e─
5. In the original equation, add the multipliers as coefficients for connected particles.
2 KI + 1 O2 + ? H2O Æ 2 I2 + 1 KOH

6. The subscript tweak. Since both the O on the left and the I on the right have a subscript of 2, divide the
coefficient of their particles by 2. Fractions are OK at this point.
2 KI + 1/2 1 O2 + ? H2O Æ 1 2 I2 + 1 KOH
7. Finish by trial and error. With 2 K on the left, there must be 2 on the right, so adjust the trial KOH
coefficient. With 2 H now on the right, one water is needed on the left.
2 KI + 1/2 O2 + 1 H2O Æ 1 I2 + 2 KOH
8. Check: 2 K, 2 I, 2 O and 2 H atoms on both sides. Zero charge on both sides. Balanced!
If desired, you may multiply all coefficients by 2 to eliminate the fraction. Fractions are permitted, but
calculations based on balanced equations are easier without the fractions.
Note that the trial coefficients had to be adjusted at the end. The coefficients found by oxidation numbers
are good hints; but always adjust by trial and error at the end, if needed, until the equation is balanced.
Problem 3
1. Calculate the Ox# for each atom.
Each: 0 +1 +5 -2 +2 0 +1 -2
Co + H+ + NO3─ Æ Co2+ + N2 + H2O
2. Identify two atoms that change oxidation number. Co and N
3. Write the electron change for each atom.
─ 2 e─
Each: 0 +1 +5 -2 +2 0 +1 -2
Co + H+ + NO3─ Æ Co2+ + N2 + H2O
+ 5 e─
4. Add an LCD arrow multiplier so that electron loss = gain.
(5x) ─ 2 e─
0 +1 +5 -2 +2 0 +1 -2
Co + H+ + NO3─ Æ Co2+ + N2 + H2O
(2x) + 5 e─
5. To the original equation, add the multipliers as coefficients for both connected particles.
5 Co + __ H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 5 Co2+ + 2 N2 + __ H2O
6. The subscript tweak. Since N on the right has a subscript 2, divide its coefficient by 2.
5 Co + __ H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 5 Co2+ + 1 2 N2 + __ H2O
7. Complete by trial and error.
The 6 O atoms on the left require 6 H2O on the right. That means 12 H+ must be on the left.
5 Co + 12 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 5 Co2+ + 1 N2 + 6 H2O
8. Check: 5 Co, 12 H, 2 N and 6 O atoms on both sides. +10 charge on both sides. Balanced!
* * * * *

Lesson 15E: Redox Stoichiometry

Timing: Do this module if you are assigned calculations involving redox reactions. If your
current assignments include learning to balance redox using half-reactions, first do Module
16, then return to this lesson.
* * * * *
Redox reactions are more difficult to balance than most chemical equations. However, once
a redox equation is balanced, calculations for redox reactions can be done using the same
steps as other stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry Steps
1. If the moles for two reactant particles are supplied in the data without a limiting
reactant identified, solve using a rice table. However, most redox reaction calculations
are reactions to a stoichiometric equivalence point (endpoint). In such cases,
conversion stoichiometry solves more quickly.
2. If you want a single unit, solve by the 7 single-unit stoichiometry steps (Lesson 10E):
WANTED and DATA, balance and bridge, convert units to moles to moles to units.
3. If you want a ratio unit, solve for the top and bottom WANTED units separately, then
divide (Lesson 12D).
4. For reactions involving ions, write the balanced equation using solid and then separated
formulas for the reactants and products.
5. For some stoichiometry, you may not need to balance the entire equation. You will
only need to balance enough to find the coefficients for the WANTED and given
substances that are used in the bridge conversion.
Practice: If you get stuck, read a bit of the answer, then try again.
1. In the problems below, for which reactants can you find the moles initially present based
on the data supplied (without using a stoichiometry mole-to-mole conversion),
a. In problem 2? b. In problem 3?
2. In a redox titration of 40.0 mL of FeCl2 solution, the endpoint is reached when 24.4 mL
of 0.200 M KMnO4 is added. The unbalanced equation is
KMnO4 + FeCl2 + HCl Æ FeCl3 + MnCl2 + H2O + KCl
a. What is the original [FeCl2]?
b. Which reactant is the oxidizing agent?
c. Which reactant is being oxidized?
3. How many mL of acidic 0.200 M K2Cr2O7 solution is needed to titrate a sample of
0.851 grams of KNO2? The unbalanced equation is
KNO2 + K2Cr2O7 + HNO3 Æ Cr(NO3)3 + KNO3 + H2O

ANSWERS
1a. In problem 2: only KMnO4 1b. In problem 3: only KNO2.
2a. Only the moles for one reactant is supplied by the DATA, so use conversion stoichiometry to solve.
WANTED: ? mol FeCl2

L FeCl2 soln.
DATA: 40.0 mL of FeCl2 soln. = 24.4 mL KMnO4 soln. (Equivalent at endpt.)
0.200 mol KMnO4 = 1 L KMnO4 soln. (M prompt)
For stoichiometry that WANTS a ratio unit, all of the DATA will be equalities, and one equality
will be an equivalency.
Balance: The problem calls this a redox reaction. Balance using oxidation numbers as shown below,
or using half-reactions (after doing Module 16).
To understand reactions of ionic compounds, separate the compounds into ions.
K+ + MnO4─ + Fe2+ + Cl ─ + H+ + Cl─ Æ Fe3+ + Cl─ + Mn2+ + Cl─ + H2O + K+ + Cl ─
Assign oxidation numbers; identify the two atoms that change oxidation numbers.
+7 +2
+2 +3
Mn, Fe. Decide the multipliers that equalize the electrons lost and gained .
+7 (1x) + 5 e─ +2
+2 (5x) ─ 1 e─ +3
Use the multipliers as trial coefficients and finish balancing by trial and error.
1 KMnO4 + 5 FeCl2 + 8 HCl Æ 5 FeCl3 + 1 MnCl2 + 4 H2O + 1 KCl
Check: 1 K, 1 Mn, 4 O, 5 Fe, 18 Cl, 8 H, zero charge on both sides.
Bridge: 5 mol FeCl2 = 1 mol KMnO4 (coefficient moles WANTED = coefficient moles DATA)
SOLVE. Since a ratio unit is WANTED, find the top and bottom WANTED amounts separately.
a. Label the equality in the DATA that is an equivalency.
b. Solve for the easier WANTED amount first (usually the one that is not moles), using as a given
the side of the equivalency that measures the WANTED substance or sample.)
? L FeCl2 soln. = 40.0 mL FeCl2 = 40.0 x 10─ 3 L FeCl2
c. (To find the moles WANTED, start with the other half of the equivalency as your given.)
? mol FeCl2 = 24.4 mL KMnO4 • 10─3 L • 0.200 mol KMnO4 • 5 mol FeCl2 = 2.440 x 10─ 2 mol FeCl2
1 mL 1 L KMnO4 1 mol KMnO4
d. (Solve for the final WANTED unit using the two amounts found for the sample.)

WANT: ? mol FeCl2 = 2.440 x 10─ 2 mol FeCl2 = 0.610 M FeCl2

L FeCl2 soln. 40.0 x 10─ 3 L FeCl2
2b. The oxidizing agent is the reactant particle (on left side) that is gaining electrons in the reaction. Since
MnO4─ is the particle with an atom that is gaining e─ (Mn), the reactant gaining e─ is the KMnO4.
2c. The balancing shows that Fe2+ is the ion losing an electron, so FeCl2 is the reactant being oxidized.
3. Only the moles for one reactant can be found directly from the supplied DATA, so use conversion
stoichiometry to solve.
WANT: ? mL K2Cr2O7 soln.
DATA: 0.851 g KNO2 (your single-unit given)
0.200 mol K2Cr2O7 = 1 L K2Cr2O7 soln.
85.1 g KNO2 = 1 mol KNO2 (g prompt)
Balance: First convert the solid formulas to the ions they separate into in solution.
K+ + NO2─ + K+ + Cr2O7 2─ + H+ + NO3─ Æ Cr3+ + NO3─ + K+ + NO3─ + H2O + K+ + Cl ─
Solve using oxidation numbers as below, or by using half-reactions.
Assign oxidation numbers; identify the two atoms that change oxidation numbers.
+3 ─ 2 e─ +5
+ ─ +
K + NO2 + K + Cr2O7 2─ + H + NO3 Æ Cr + NO3 + K + NO3─ + H2O + K+ + Cl ─
+ ─ 3+ ─ +
+6 + 3 e─ +3
N and Cr. Decide the multipliers that equalize the electrons lost and gained .
+3 (3x) ─ 2 e─ +5
K+ + NO2─ + K+ + Cr2O7 2─ + H+ + NO3─ Æ Cr3+ + NO3─ + K+ + NO3─ + H2O + K+ + Cl ─
+6 (2x) + 3 e─ +3
Use the multipliers as trial coefficients and finish balancing by trial and error.
3 KNO2 + 1 K2Cr2O7 + 8 HNO3 Æ 2 Cr(NO3)3 + 5 KNO3 + 4 H2O
Note subscript tweak on the coefficient of K2Cr2O7. Check: 5 K, 11 N, 37 O, 2 Cr, 8 H on both sides.
Bridge: 1 mol K2Cr2O7 = 3 mol KNO2
SOLVE: (Since a single unit is wanted, solve with 7-step single-unit stoichiometry, chaining conversions.)
? mL K2Cr2O7 = 0.851 g KNO2 • 1 mol KNO2 • 1 mol K2Cr2O7 • 1 L K2Cr2O7 • 1 mL =
85.1 g KNO2 3 mol KNO2 0.200 mol K2Cr2O7 10─3 L
= 16.7 mL K2Cr2O7 soln.
* * * * *

Summary: Redox Balancing and Oxidation Numbers

1. Redox definitions:
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons.
• Oxidizing agents are particles that contain an atom that accepts electrons in a
reaction; it removes electrons from another atom.
• Reducing agents are particles that contain an atom that loses electrons in a reaction
by donating its electrons to another atom.
• In redox reactions, reducing agents are oxidized, losing their electrons, and
oxidizing agents are reduced, gaining electrons.
2. Rules for assigning oxidation numbers.
a. Each atom in an element is assigned an oxidation number of zero.
b. The oxidation number of an atom in a monatomic ion is the charge on the ion.
c. For particles that are not elements or monatomic ions, oxidation numbers are
assigned as follows:
i. Each oxygen (O) atom is assigned a ─ 2 (except in peroxides, O is ─1).
ii. Each hydrogen (H) atom is assigned a +1, except in metallic hydrides
(compounds of a metal atom and hydrogen), where H is ─1.
iii. Each alkali metal atom is assigned a +1. Each column 2 atom is assigned a +2.
iv. All other oxidation numbers are selected to make the sum of the oxidation
numbers equal the overall charge on the molecule or ion.
d. The oxidation number of each individual atom in a chemical particle is the total of
the oxidation numbers for the atoms of that kind, divided by the number of atoms
of that kind.
3. A key principle in oxidation-reduction reactions is
The number of electrons lost by the reducing agent must equal the number gained
by the oxidizing agent.
To balance redox reactions, coefficients must be added so that the number of electrons
lost by the reducing agent equals the number gained by the oxidizing agent.
4. In balancing redox reactions, assigning oxidation numbers to assist in balancing
provides trial coefficients. Always adjust the coefficients by trial and error at the last
step in order to complete the balancing.
# # # # #


Timing: Module 16 covers redox balancing using half-reactions. Some courses assign this
topic after oxidation numbers. Others assign half-reactions as part of electrochemistry later
in the course. Do this unit when half-reactions are assigned in your course.
Prerequisite: If you cannot solve these problems easily, review Lessons 15A, 15B, and 15D
before starting Module 16. Answers are at the end of Lesson 16A.
1. Define reduction. 2. Balance this half-reaction: F2 Æ F─
3. What is the oxidation number of
a. Each Cl atom in Cl2O5 ? b. The Mn atom in MnO4─ ?
4. Label each reactant as an oxidizing agent (OA) or reducing agent (RA). Circle the
reactant being oxidized.
a. Sn4+ + Co Æ Co2+ + Sn2+ b. Ca + 2 H+ Æ H2 + Ca2+
* * * * *
Lesson 16A: Balancing Half-Reactions: The CA-WHe! Method

Balancing Half-Reactions That Include Acid and Water
Many redox reactions occur in aqueous solutions, and water is often a term in the reactants
or products. Many redox reactions carried out in aqueous solutions need acidic conditions
for the desired reaction to take place. In these cases, both the redox half-reactions and the
overall reaction may include H+ ions and H2O in the reactants and/or products.
The steps for balancing half-reactions which include H+ and H2O are the same as for
balancing other half-reactions.
• First add coefficients to balance atoms,
• then add electrons to balance charge.
Using those two steps, solve the following problem.
Q. Balance this half-reaction.
MnO4─ + H+ Æ Mn2+ + H2O
* * * * * (the * * * means: cover below write your answer, then check below.)
Both sides have one Mn atom: Mn is balanced. The left has 4 oxygens, so the right
must have a coefficient of 4 for water.
That gives 8 H atoms on the right, so the H+ coefficient on the left must be 8 for the H
atoms to balance. The atoms are now balanced:
MnO4─ + 8 H+ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O
but the charge is not balanced. Add electrons to the equation to balance the charges.
* * * * *

Since the left charges total 7+ and the right 2+, we must add 5 electrons to the left in
order for the charges to balance.
5 e─ + MnO4─ + 8 H+ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O
The net charge is now +2 on both sides. Atoms and charge are now balanced, so the
half-reaction is balanced.
Practice A
Do every other problem. Check answers as you go. Need more practice? Do more.
1. Add electrons to balance these half-reactions.
a. NO3─ + 4 H+ Æ NO + 2 H2O
b. H2O2 Æ 2 H+ + O2
2. Balance these half-reactions.

a. SO42─ + H+ Æ SO2 + H2O
b. H2S Æ S8 + H+
c. MnO2 + H+ Æ Mn2+ + H2O
d. NH4+ + H2O Æ NO3─ + H+
Balancing Half-Reactions By the CA-WHe Method

In textbook and test problems, for redox reactions run in aqueous solutions, the H+, H2O,
and electrons needed to balance a half-reaction often are not supplied. In those cases, you
will need to add those terms to balance the half-reactions.
You can construct half-reactions by using
The CA-WHe! Method

To balance redox half-reactions,
1. first balance the “central atom” (CA), usually one that is not O or H. Then,
2. add Water if needed to balance the oxygens.
3. Add H+ if needed to balance the hydrogens.
4. Add electrons to balance the charge.
5. Check that atoms and charge are the same on both sides.
It helps to memorize: “To balance half-reactions, balance the central atom, then WHe!”
Use the CA-WHe! method on the following example.

Q. Balance this half-reaction.

Cr2O72─ Æ Cr3+
* * * * *
Answer
1. First, balance the central atom (usually an atom that is not O or H).
Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+
2. Add Water to balance oxygen atoms.
Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
3. Add H+ to balance hydrogen.
14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
4. Add electrons to balance charge.
6 e─ + 14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
5. After balancing, check to see that the count for each kind of atom is the same on both
sides and the total charge is the same on both sides.
Check: 14 H, 2 Cr, 7 O on both sides; +6 charge on both sides. Balanced.
Practice B
Complete the balancing of these half-reactions, adding H+ and H2O if needed. Assume a
particle is neutral if no charge is shown. Do the odd problems, checking your answers as
you go. Do the evens during your next practice session.
1. ClO3─ Æ Cl2 5. Br2 Æ BrO4─
2. PbSO4 Æ Pb + SO42─ 6. Au Æ Au3+
3. SO2 Æ SO42─ 7. H2O Æ O2
4. MnO4─ Æ MnO2
Balancing Half-Reactions That Include Hydroxide Ion (OH─)

Some redox reactions require basic conditions for the desired reaction to take place. In these
cases, the redox half-reactions may include OH─ ions instead H+ ions. The steps to
balance these half-reactions are
1. First balance by the CA-WHe! method using H+ and H2O.

2. Then neutralize the H+: using the H+ coefficient, add that number of OH─ ions to both
sides. This “neutralization of H+” will replace the number of H+ ions in the reaction

with an equal number of H2O molecules, and add the same number of OH─ ions to
the side opposite the original H+.
3. Adjust the H2O coefficients on both sides if needed.
Use those steps to do the following problem. If you get stuck, read part of the answer
below, then complete the problem.
Q. Balance this half-reaction using OH─ ions instead H+.
Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+
* * * * *
Answer
1. Balance the half-reaction using the CA-WHe! method.
6 e─ + 14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
2. Neutralize the H+ by adding OH─ to both sides.
6 e─ + 14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 14 OH─

+ 14 OH─
3. React the H+ and OH─ to form H2O.
6 e─ + 14 H2O + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 14 OH─
4. Adjust the count of the H2O. 7 H2O cancel on both sides.
6 e─ + 14 H2O + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 14 OH─

7
5. Check: 14 H, 2 Cr, 14 O, 8 negative charges on both sides.
Practice C
Do every other problem. Save the rest for your next practice session.
1. Modify these half-reactions to balance using OH─ ions instead H+.
a. 3 e─ + NO3─ + 4 H+ Æ NO + 2 H2O
b. H2O2 Æ 2 H+ + O2 + 2 e─
2. Balance these half-reactions using OH─ and H2O.
a. Cr3+ Æ CrO42─

b. MnO4─ Æ MnO2
c. C2H4O Æ C2H6O
ANSWERS
Pretest
1. The gain of electrons. 2. 2e─ + F2 Æ 2 F─ 3. Cl = +5, Mn = +7
4a. Sn4+ (OA) + Co (RA) Æ 4b. Ca (RA) + 2 H+ (OA) Æ
Practice A
The total of the charges on both sides must balance.
1a. 3 e─ + NO3─ + 4 H+ Æ NO + 2 H2O 1b. H2O2 Æ 2 H+ + O2 + 2 e─
2a. 2 e─ + SO42─ + 4 H+ Æ SO2 + 2 H2O 2b. 8 H2S Æ S8 + 16 H+ + 16 e─
2c. MnO2 + 4 H+ + 2 e─ Æ Mn2+ + 2 H2O 2d. 1 NH4+ + 3 H2O Æ 1 NO3─ + 10 H+ + 8 e─
Practice B
1. First balance the Central Atom: 2 ClO3─ Æ Cl2
Then WHe: Add water to balance O: 2 ClO3─ Æ Cl2 + 6 H2O
H+ to balance H: 2 ClO3─ + 12 H+ Æ Cl2 + 6 H2O
e─ to balance charge: 2 ClO3─ + 12 H+ + 10 e─ Æ Cl2 + 6 H2O
Check: 2 Cl, 6 O, 12 H, zero charge on both sides. Balanced.
2. Central atom, O, and H are already balanced. Use e─ to balance charge.
PbSO + 2 e─ Æ Pb + SO 2─
4 4
Check: 1 Pb, 1 S, 4 O, 2 negative charges on both sides. Balanced.
3. Central atom S is balanced. Use water to balance O: SO2 + 2 H2O Æ SO42─
Use H+ to balance H: SO2 + 2 H2O Æ 4H+ + SO42─
Use e─ to balance charge: SO2 + 2 H2O Æ 2 e─ + 4H+ + SO42─
Check: 1 S, 4 O, 4 H, zero charge on both sides. Balanced.
4. MnO4─ + 4 H+ + 3 e─ Æ MnO2 + 2 H2O 5. Br2 + 8 H2O Æ 2 BrO4─ + 16 H+ + 14 e─
6. Au Æ Au3+ + 3 e─ 7. 2 H2O Æ O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e─

Practice C
1a. Add enough OH─ to both sides to neutralize H+.
3 e─ + NO3─ + 4 H+ Æ NO + 2 H2O + 4 OH─
4 H2O
Adjust the H2O 3 e─ + NO3─ + 2 4 H2O Æ NO + 2 H2O + 4 OH─
Final. 3 e─ + NO3─ + 2 H2O Æ NO + 4 OH─
Check: 1 N, 5 O, 4H, 4 negative charges on both sides. Balanced.
1b. 2 OH─ + H2O2 Æ 2 H+ + O2 + 2 e─
2 H2O
Final: 2 OH─ + H2O2 Æ 2 H2O + O2 + 2 e─

Check: 4 O, 4 H, 2 negative charges on both sides. Balanced.
2a. First balance using CA-WHe! method.
4 H2O + Cr3+ Æ CrO42─ + 8 H+ + 3 e─
Then add enough OH─ to both sides to neutralize H+.
8 OH─ + 4 H2O + Cr3+ Æ CrO42─ + 8 H+ + 3 e─
8 H2O
Then adjust the water.
8 OH─ + 4 H2O + Cr3+ Æ CrO42─ + 4 8 H2O + 3 e─
Final: 8 OH─ + Cr3+ Æ CrO42─ + 4 H2O + 3 e─

Check: 8 O, 8 H, 1 Cr, 5 negative charges on both sides. Balanced.
2b. Balance using CA-WHe first: 3 e─ + 4 H+ + MnO4─ Æ MnO2 + 2 H2O
Neutralize the H+: 3 e─ + 4 H+ + 4 H2O + MnO4─ Æ MnO2 + 2 H2O + 4 OH─
Adjust the H2O: 3 e─ + 2 4 H2O + MnO4─ Æ MnO2 + 2 H2O + 4 OH─

Check: 4 H, 6 O, 1 Mn, 4 negative charges on both sides. Balanced.
2c. 2 e─ + 2 H2O + 1 C2H4O Æ 1 C2H6O + 2 OH─
* * * * *

Lesson 16B: Balancing By Adding Half-Reactions

Steps in Adding Half-Reactions
Two balanced half-reactions can be added to give a balanced redox equation.
The key principle in adding half-reactions is that the electrons lost must equal the electrons
gained: the number of electrons in one half-reaction must equal the number of electrons on
the other side of the arrow in the other half-reaction.
The steps to adding two half-reactions are
1. Balance each half-reaction. (The two balanced half-reactions that result must have their
e─ terms on opposite sides; check your work if they do not.)
2. Multiply each half-reaction by a number (based on a lowest common denominator) to get
the same number of electrons in both half-reactions.
3. Add the two half-reactions. All terms on the left side of the two arrows are added
together on the left side of the arrow in the final, total reaction. All terms on the right
are added on the right. Cancel “like terms” on both sides. The like number of electrons
on each side must cancel.
4. Check to make sure that the resulting trial redox equation is balanced for atoms and
charge. If not, modify the final coefficients by trial and error.
Use those steps to balance and add these two half-reactions.
Q. Add: Pb Æ Pb2+
Ag+ Æ Ag
* * * * *
Answer
1. Balance each half-reaction separately for atoms and charge.
If possible, write the reactions so that the arrows line up, one below the other, to
emphasize that we separately add the two columns separated by the arrows.
Pb Æ Pb2+ + 2 e─
e─ + Ag+ Æ Ag
2. Multiply each half-reaction by a lowest common denominator (LCD) to get the same
number of electrons in both half-reactions.
Multiply all terms in the bottom equation by 2. This keeps the half-reaction balanced,
but makes the electron count equal but on opposite sides in the two equations..
Pb Æ Pb2+ + 2 e─
2e─ + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 Ag (2x)
3. Add the two half-reactions by adding terms that are on the same side of the arrows,
then cancel like terms on both sides. The electrons must cancel.

Add: Pb Æ Pb2+ + 2 e─
2 e─ + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 Ag
Pb + 2 Ag+ Æ Pb2+ + 2 Ag That’s the total redox reaction.

4. Check: 1 Pb, 2 Ag atoms on both sides; +2 charge on both sides. Balanced.
Summary: To add two half-reactions, the electron count must be the same in both half-
reactions, and the electrons must be on opposite sides.
* * * * *
Flashcards
To balance a redox half-reaction, the steps are CA-WHe!
In balancing a redox half-reaction, O atoms are
Water
balanced by adding
In balancing a redox half-reaction, H atoms are
balanced by adding H+
In balancing a redox half-reaction, charge is
balanced by adding e─
To add two redox half-reactions
Equal in number and on opposite sides
the electrons must be
To balance a half-reaction using OH─ ions Balance with CA-WHe, then neutralize H+
Practice
Try the last letter on each of these numbers. If easy, go to the next number. Need more
practice? Do more.
1. Using the method above, add these half-reactions to get a balanced redox reaction.
a. H2 Æ 2 H+ + 2e─
e─ + Ag+ Æ Ag
b. 2C1─ Æ C12 + 2e─
5 e─ + 8H+ + MnO4─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O
2. Balance each half-reaction, adding H+ and H2O if needed, then add the half-reactions
to get a balanced redox reaction.
a. Ni Æ Ni2+ b. Fe3+ Æ Fe
Cl2 Æ Cl─ NO Æ NO3─

c. H2S Æ S d. MnO4─ Æ MnO2
MnO4─ Æ Mn2+ Br─ Æ Br2
3. Balance the result in Problems 2c and 2d using OH─ ions instead of H+.
ANSWERS
1a. H2 Æ 2 H+ + 2e─
2 e─ + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 Ag (multiply all terms in this half-reaction by 2 so e─ balance)
H2 + 2 Ag+ Æ 2 H+ + 2 Ag (add terms on same side of arrows; check for balance)
1b. 10 2Cl─ Æ 5 Cl + 10 2e─ (To get e─ to balance, multiply by 5)

2
10 5 e─ + 16 8H+ + 2 MnO ─ Æ 2 Mn2+ + 8 4 H O (and this one by 2)
4 2
10 Cl─ + 2 MnO4─ + 16 H+ Æ 5 Cl2 + 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O
Check: 10 Cl, 2 Mn, 8 O, 16 H atoms on both sides. +4 charge on both sides. Balanced.
2a. Ni Æ Ni2+ + 2 e─ (Using CA-WHe, only need e─ to balance charge)

2 e─ + Cl2 Æ 2 Cl─ (Balance central atom, then add e─ to balance charge)
Ni + Cl2 Æ Ni2+ + 2 Cl─ (Since 2 e─ on both sides, half-reactions can be added)
Check balance of atoms and charge: 1 Ni, 2 Cl atoms on both sides, neutral on both sides.
2b. Fe3+ + 3 e─ Æ Fe (Using CA-WHe, need only electrons to balance charge)

NO + 2 H2O Æ NO3─ + 4 H+ + 3 e─ (Use CA-WHe to balance)
─
Fe3+ + NO + 2H2O Æ Fe + NO3 + 4H+ (3 e─ on both sides, halves can be added)
Check: 1 Fe, 1N, 3 O, 4 H atoms on both sides; +3 charge on both sides. Balanced.
2c. H2S Æ S + 2H+ + 2 e─ (Use CA-WHe to balance)

5 e─ + 8 H+ + MnO4─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O (Use CA-WHe to balance)
Use LCD method to get electrons equal in both:
5 H S Æ 5 S + 10 2H+ + 102 e─ (5x)
2
10 5 e─ + 16 8 H+ + 2 MnO ─ Æ 2 Mn2+ + 8 4 H O
4 2 (2x)
5 H2S + 2 MnO4─ + 6 H+ Æ 5 S + 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O
The 16 H+ on the left side of the arrow and the 10 H+ on the right cancel to give 6 H+ on the left. Check:
16 H, 5 S, 2 Mn, 8 O atoms on both sides. Overall +4 charge on both sides. Balanced.

2d. 6 3 e─ + 8 4 H+ + 2 MnO4─ Æ 2 MnO2 + 4 2 H2O (Use CA-WHe to balance, then 2x)

6 2 Br─ Æ 3 Br2 + 6 2 e─ (For e─ to balance, multiply by 3)
8 H+ + 2 MnO4─ + 6 Br─ Æ 2 MnO2 + 4 H2O + 3 Br2
Check: 8 H, 2 Mn, 8 O, 6 Br atoms on both sides. Overall zero charge on both sides. Balanced.
3a. 5 H2S + 2 MnO4─ + 6 H+ + 6 OH─ Æ 5 S + 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 6 OH─

5 H2S + 2 MnO4─ + 6 H2O Æ 5 S + 2 Mn2+ + 2 8 H2O + 6 OH─
Check: 10 H, 5 S, 2 Mn, 8 O atoms on both sides. Overall ─2 charge on both sides. Balanced.
3b. 4 8 H O + 2 MnO ─ + 6 Br─ Æ 2 MnO + 4 H O + 3 Br + 8 OH─

2 4 2 2 2
Check: 8 H, 12 O, 2 Mn, 6 Br atoms on both sides. Total ─ 8 charge on both sides. Balanced.
* * * * *
Lesson 16C: Separating Redox Into Half-Reactions
The fastest way to balance a redox reaction is often to separate the equation into two half-
reactions. The steps are
1. Find the 2 atoms that change their oxidation numbers.
2. Write the 4 particles that contain those two atoms in two separate half-reactions, one
above the other, with arrows lined up.
3. Balance and add the half-reactions.
4. Put the resulting trial coefficients back into the original equation. Adjust trial
coefficients by trial and error if needed to balance atoms and charge.
Use those steps on the following problem.
Q. Add two half-reactions, adding H+ and H2O if needed, to balance this reaction.
Br ─ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + Br2

Try Steps 1 and 2 above, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
1. Find the two atoms that change their oxidation numbers.
Each -1 +6 -2 +4 -2 0
Br ─ + SO42─ Æ SO 2 + Br 2
Bromine and sulfur change their oxidation number.
2. Write the 4 particles containing those two atoms in two separate half-reactions.
Br─ Æ Br2
SO42─ Æ SO2
Now try Step 3 above, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *

3. Balance each half-reaction.

2 Br─ Æ Br2 + 2 e─
2 e─ + 4 H+ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + 2 H2O
Since 2 electrons are in each, they can be added without multiplying either equation.
2 Br─ Æ Br2 + 2 e─
2 e─ + 4 H+ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + 2 H2O
2 Br─ + 4 H+ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + Br2 + 2 H2O

Try Step 4.
* * * * *
The unbalanced equation was Br ─ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + Br2
With H+, H2O, and trial coefficients: 2 Br ─ + 4 H+ + SO42─ Æ SO2 + Br2 + 2 H2O
Check the balancing. 4 H, 2 Br, 1 S, 4 O and zero net charge on each side.
Practice
1. Balance these by adding half-reactions. Add H+ ions and H2O if needed.
a. Br─ + ClO4─ Æ Br2 + Cl─
b. Ni + NO3─ Æ Ni2+ + NH4+
c. S2─ + NO3─ Æ S + NO
2. In each reaction above, identify the reactant that is the reducing agent.
3. In each reaction above, identify the reactant being reduced.
ANSWERS
1a. Br─ + ClO4─ Æ Br2 + Cl─
Steps 1 and 2: Break into half-reactions. Br─ Æ Br2

ClO4─ Æ Cl─
Step 3: Balance both using CA-WHe. 2 Br─ Æ Br2 + 2 e─
8 e─ + 8H+ + ClO4─ Æ Cl─ + 4 H2O
Then add. 8 2 Br─ Æ 4 Br + 8 2 e─ (4x)

2
8 e─ + 8H+ + ClO4─ Æ Cl─ + 4 H2O (1x)
8 Br─ + 8H+ + ClO4─ Æ 4 Br2 + Cl─ + 4 H2O

Step 4: Check: 8 Br, 8 H, 1 Cl, and 4 O atoms on each side; net ─1 charge on both sides.
1b. Ni + NO3─ Æ Ni2+ + NH4+
Steps 1 and 2: Break into half-reactions: Ni Æ Ni2+

NO3─ Æ NH4+
Step 3: Balance each half-reaction: Ni Æ Ni2+ + 2 e─
8 e─ + 10H+ + NO3─ Æ NH4+ + 3 H2O
Then add: 4 Ni Æ 4 Ni2+ + 8 2 e (4x)

8 e─ + 10H+ + NO3─ Æ NH4++ 3 H2O (1x)
4 Ni + 10 H+ + NO3─ Æ 4 Ni2+ + NH4+ + 3 H2O
Step 4: Check: 4 Ni, 10 H, 1 N, 3 O atoms on both sides; +9 charge on both sides.
1c. S2─ + NO3─ Æ S + NO
Steps 1 and 2: Break into two half-reactions. S2─ Æ S
NO3─ Æ NO
Step 3: Use CA-WHe! to balance each. S2─ Æ S + 2 e─
3 e─ + 4H+ + NO3─ Æ NO + 2 H2O
Get the electrons to be the same on both sides, and then add the two half-reactions.
3 S2─ Æ 3 S + 6 e─ (3x)
6 e─ + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 2NO + 4 H2O (2x)
3 S2─ + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Step 4: 3 S, 8H, 2 N, 6 O atoms on both sides; zero net charge on both sides. Check!
2. In problem 1a, the half-reactions show Br─ giving away electrons: acting as a reducing agent.
In problem 1b, the half-reactions show Ni giving away electrons: acting as a reducing agent. Metal atoms
often act as reducing agents.
In problem 1c, the half reactions show the reactant S2─ donating electrons, which is the behavior of a
reducing agent.
3. In problem 1a, the half-reactions show ClO4─ gaining electrons, since the Cl atom is changing to a more
negative oxidation number in the reaction. Gaining electrons means ClO ─ is being reduced.
4
In problem 1b, the half-reactions show the N atom in the NO3─ is having electrons added to it in the
reaction: the NO3─ is being reduced.
In problem 1c, the half-reactions show the N atom in the NO3─ is again having electrons added to it in the
reaction: the NO3─ is being reduced.
* * * * *

Lesson 16D: Balancing Redox With Spectator Ions Present

Balancing oxidation-reduction reactions can be tricky when spectator ions (ions that do not
change in the reaction) are included in the equation. Consider this redox reaction carried
out in an aqueous solution.
K2Cr2O7 + HNO3 + C2H6O Æ KNO3 + C2H4O + H2O + Cr(NO3)3
Balancing this equation by trial and error could take some time. Balancing using oxidation
numbers can help, but for complex reactions, using half-reactions to balance is usually
faster.
But when the spectators are present, how do you find the half-reactions? The following
steps present a system to break complex redox reactions into half-reactions.
In your notebook, apply the following steps to the reaction above.
Steps for Balancing Redox With Spectators Present
1. The fundamental rule: To understand the reactions of ionic compounds, re-write the
reaction using separated-ion formulas. You may leave out coefficients at this step.
The rules for identifying ionic compounds (Lesson 7A), separating ionic solid into
separated-ion formulas (Lesson 7C), and strong acid ionization (Lesson 14A) include:
a. Compounds with both metal and non-metal atoms are usually ionic.
b. Compounds containing alkali metal atoms (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are soluble in
water and separate ~100% to form monatomic +1 ions.
c. Nitrates dissolve and ionize ~100% in water to form nitrate ions (NO3―).
d. Aqueous solutions of strong acids (such as HCl and HNO3) ionize ~100%.
Try Step 1 on the above reaction, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
The separated-ions version of the equation, leaving out coefficients, is
K+ + Cr2O72― + H+ + NO3― + C2H6O Æ
K+ + NO3― + C2H4O + H2O + Cr3+ + NO3―
2. Cross out the spectators: particles that do not change in the reaction.
* * * * *
K+ + Cr2O72― + H+ + NO3― + C2H6O Æ
K+ + NO3― + C2H4O + H2O + Cr3+ + NO3―
3. With spectators omitted, find two atoms that change oxidation number in the reaction.
* * * * *

Each +6 -2 +1 -2 +1 -2 -1 +1 -2 +1 -2 +3
Cr 2 O 7 2― + H + + C 2 H 6 O Æ C 2 H 4 O + H 2 O + Cr 3+
Total +12 -14 -4 +6 -2 -2 +4 -2 +3
The two atoms that change oxidation number are Cr and C.
See if you can solve from here by splitting then adding the two half-reactions.
* * * * *
4. Split the 4 particles containing those two atoms into two half-reactions, writing one
above the other.
* * * * *
Cr2O72― Æ Cr3+
C2H6O Æ C2H4O
5. Balance the half-reactions using the CA-WHe! method.

* * * * *
6 e─ + 14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
C2H6O Æ C2H4O + 2 e─ + 2 H+
6. Multiply the coefficients in each half-reaction to equalize the number of electrons in the
two half-reactions, then add the half-reactions.
* * * * *
6 e─ + 8 14 H+ + Cr2O72─ Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O (1x)
3C H O Æ 3 C2H4O + 6 2 e─ + 6 2 H+ (3x)
2 6
8 H+ + Cr2O72─ + 3 C2H6O Æ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 C2H4O
Check: 26 H, 2 Cr, 10 O, 6 C atoms on both sides, +6 net charge on both sides.

7. Plug the trial coefficients from the total of the half-reactions into the original equation.
Then, using trial and error, finish balancing.
* * * * *
1 K2Cr2O7 + 8 HNO3 + 3 C2H6O Æ 2 KNO3 + 3 C2H4O + 7 H2O + 2 Cr(NO3)3
8. Check: 2K, 2 Cr, 34 O, 26 H, 8 N, 6 C on both sides, neutral on both sides.
In balancing, try to avoid calculator use.
IF you find that you need a calculator to do the arithmetic of balancing and checking,
make flashcards of the math facts on which you are rusty. Practicing those flashcards
will give you the quick math recall that will help you to “keep your train of thought”
in upcoming more complex calculations.

Practice: First learn the steps above, then apply them to balance these redox reactions.
1. Cu + HNO3 Æ Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
2. KMnO4 + HNO3 + H2O2 Æ Mn(NO3)2 + O2 + KNO3 + H2O

(Tip: H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide.)
3. MnO + PbO2 + HCl Æ HMnO4 + PbCl2 + H2O (Tip: HMnO4 is an strong acid.)
4. In each reaction above, identify the reactant being oxidized.
If you need additional practice, work the examples and/or problems that have
supplied answers in any standard chemistry textbook.
Balancing Redox: Which Method To Use?

We have used three methods of balancing equations: the trial and error method (in
Lesson 10B) that can be used on all equations, the oxidation number method for redox
equations (in Lesson 15C), and the half-reaction method for redox in this module.
Which method should you use?
• Trial and error is always a legitimate method of balancing. However, for
complex redox reactions, trial and error alone can be very time-consuming.
Two additional methods can be used to balance redox equations.
• The oxidation-number method supplies four key trial coefficients. The remaining
coefficients must be determined by trial and error.
• The half-reaction method often takes longer at the start than the oxidation
number method, but half-reactions nearly always supply more than 4 trial
coefficients.
Which method is best? In general, for easy reactions, try trial and error first. For
more complex redox, try oxidation numbers. For very complex redox, try half-
reactions.
Remember, both redox methods give trial coefficients, not final answers. At the end
of both methods, correct the coefficients if needed, using trial and error, until atoms
and net charge are the same on both sides.
ANSWERS
1. Cu + HNO3 Æ Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
Step 1: Break the compounds that ionize into separated ions. Leave out coefficients.
Cu + H+ + NO3─ Æ Cu2+ + NO3─ + NO + H2O
Step 2: Cross out spectators ions:

Cu + H+ + NO3─ Æ Cu2+ + NO3─ + NO + H2O

NO3─ is a spectator on the right, but not on the left. Some NO3─ on the left changed to NO, and some
remained as NO ─.3
Step 3: Find the two atoms that change oxidation number.
Each 0 +1 +5 -2 +2 +2 -2 +1 -2
+ ─
Cu + H + NO3 Æ Cu 2+ + NO + H2O
Copper and nitrogen are the central atoms that change their oxidation number.
Step 4: Write the particles containing those two atoms in two separate half-reactions:
Cu Æ Cu2+
NO3─ Æ NO
Step 5: Complete half-reactions using CA-WHe! Cu Æ Cu2+ + 2 e─
3 e─ + 4 H+ + NO3─ Æ NO + 2 H2O
Step 6: Get the electrons equal in both, then add the two half-reactions. Use a lowest common
denominator (LCD) method: the electron coefficient of one as the multiplier of the other:
3 Cu Æ 3 Cu2+ + 6 e─ (3x)
6 e─ + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 2 NO + 4 H2O (2x)
3 Cu + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Check: 3 Cu, 8 H, 2 N, 6 O, +6 charge on both sides.
Step 7: Plug the trial coefficients into the original equation; finish balancing by trial and error.
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 Æ 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Step 8: Check: 3 Cu, 8 H, 8 N, 24 O, zero net charge on both sides. Balanced.
2. KMnO4 + HNO3 + H2O2 Æ Mn(NO3)2 + O2 + KNO3 + H2O
Steps 1 and 2: Break compounds that ionize into separated ions, then cross out the spectators and
particles that are the same on both sides.
K+ + MnO4─ + H+ + NO3─ + H2O2 Æ Mn2+ + NO3─ + O2 + K+ + NO3─ + H2O
Step 3: Find the 2 atoms that change their oxidation number. In peroxides, the O Ox# is ─1.
Each +7 -2 +1 +1 -1 +2 0 +1 -2
MnO4─ + H+ + H2O2 Æ Mn2+ + O2 + H2O
Steps 4 and 5: Write the 4 particles containing the 2 atoms that change their oxidation number in separate
half-reactions, then balance the half-reactions using the CA-WHe! method.
5 e─ + 8 H+ + MnO4─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O
H2O2 Æ O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e─
Step 6: Get electrons equal in both, then add the half-reactions.

10 5 e─ + 16 8 H+ + 2 MnO ─ Æ 2 Mn2+ + 8 4 H O
4 2
5 H O Æ 5 O + 10 2 H+ + 10 2 e─
2 2 2
6 16 H+ + 2 MnO ─ + 5 H O Æ 5 O + 10 H+ + 2 Mn2+ + 8 H O
4 2 2 2 2
Check: 2 Mn, 18 O, 16 H atoms on both sides, +4 charge on both sides. Balanced.
Step 7: Plug trial coefficients into the original equation; finish balancing by trial and error.
Trial: 2 KMnO4 + 6 HNO3 + 5 H2O2 Æ 2 Mn(NO3)2 + 5 O2 + ___ KNO3 + 8 H2O
Final: 2 KMnO4 + 6 HNO3 + 5 H2O2 Æ 2 Mn(NO3)2 + 5 O2 + 2 KNO3 + 8 H2O
Step 8: 2 K, 2 Mn, 36 O, 16 H, 6 N atoms on both sides, zero net charge on both sides. Balanced.
3. MnO + PbO2 + HCl Æ HMnO4 + PbC12 + H2O
Steps 1 and 2: Break compounds that ionize into separated ions, then cross out the spectators and
particles that are the same on both sides: Strong acids ionize 100% in water.
MnO + PbO2 + H+ + Cl─ Æ H+ + MnO4─ + Pb2+ + 2 C1─ + H2O
Step 3: Find the 2 atoms that change their oxidation number.
Each +2 -2 +4 -2 +7 -2 +2 +1 -2
MnO + PbO2 Æ ─
MnO4 + Pb 2+ + H2O
Steps 4 and 5: Write the 4 particles containing the 2 atoms that change their oxidation number in separate
half-reactions, then balance the half-reactions using the CA-WHe! method.
4 H+ + 2 e─ + PbO2 Æ Pb2+ + 2 H2O
MnO + 3 H2O Æ 5 e─ + 6 H+ + MnO4─
Step 6: Get electrons equal in both, then add the half-reactions.

20 4 H+ + 10 2 e─ + 5 PbO Æ 5 Pb2+ + 10 2 H O (5x)
2 2
2 MnO + 6 3 H O Æ 10 5 e─ + 12 6 H+ + 2 MnO ─
2 4 (2x)
2 MnO + 8 H+ + 5 PbO2 Æ 5 Pb2+ + 2 MnO4─ + 4 H2O
Check: 2 Mn, 12 O, 8 H, 5 Pb atoms on both sides, +8 charge on both sides. Balanced.
Step 7: Plug trial coefficients into the original equation; finish balancing by trial and error.
2 MnO + 5 PbO2 + 10 8 HCl Æ 2 HMnO4 + 5 PbC12 + 4 H2O
Step 8: Check: 2 Mn, 12 O, 10 H, 5 Pb, 10 Cl atoms, zero charge on both sides. Balanced.
The HCl coefficient must be adjusted to balance the spectators, but the balanced half-reactions get
you close to the final answer.
4. In problem 1, the half-reactions show Cu losing electrons in the reaction. That means Cu is being oxidized.
In problem 2, the half reactions show the reactant H2O2 losing electrons -- being oxidized.
In problem 3, the half reactions show the reactant MnO losing electrons -- being oxidized.
* * * * *


You may use a calculator and a periodic table. Work on your own paper.
* * * * *
1. Label each of these compounds as soluble or insoluble in water.
a. (NH4)3PO4 b. AgBr c. Pb(NO3)2 d. BaCO3 e. CaCl2
2. For the reaction Pb(NO3)2 + KCl Æ
a. Write a total ionic equation. b. Write the net ionic equation.
3. In the reaction in Problem 2, if 0.100 L of Pb(NO3)2 solution is reacted with excess
KCl, and the weight of the rinsed and dried solid product is 11.12 g, what was the
original [Pb(NO3)2]?
4. If 912 mg of a dry solid acid is neutralized by 22.0 mL of 0.120 M NaOH, assuming

that each acid particle contains two acidic hydrogens,
a. How many moles of acid were in the acid sample?
b. What is the molar mass of the unknown acid?
5. Write the final products in molecular (solid) formulas and balance this equation.
Assume the reaction goes to completion.
CH3COOH + KHCO3 Æ
6. Balance:
FeCl2 + KMnO4 + HCl Æ MnCl2 + FeCl3 + H2O + KCl
7. In problem 6, which substance is the reducing agent?
8. Based on Problem 6, how many grams of KMnO4 (158.0 g/mol) are needed to react
with 40.0 mL of 0.150 M iron (II) chloride?
* * * * *
Summary: Half-Reaction Balancing

1. Redox half-reactions can be constructed and balanced by using
The CA-WHe! Method

For redox reactions run in aqueous solutions, to balance half-reactions,
a. First balance the central atom (CA), usually one that is not O or H. Then,
b. Add Water if needed to balance oxygen.
c. Add H+ if needed to balance the hydrogen.
d. Add electrons to balance charge.

2. To balance half-reactions using OH─ instead H+ ions,

a. first balance by the CA-WHe method.
b. Then neutralize the H+ by adding OH─ ions equally to both sides.
c. Adjust the H2O coefficients on both sides.
3. Half-reactions can be added to balance redox reactions. The steps are
a. Balance each half-reaction.
b. Multiply each half-reaction by a lowest common denominator to get the same number
of electrons in both half-reactions.
c. Add the two half-reactions. Cancel like terms on both sides. A like number of
electrons on each side must cancel.
d. Check to make sure that the resulting trial redox equation is balanced for atoms and
charge.
4. Redox reactions can be divided into half-reactions to aid in balancing.
a. Re-write the reaction changing any molecular (solid) into separated-ion formulas.
b. Find the two atoms that change their oxidation numbers in the reaction.
c. Write the 4 particles containing the atoms that change their oxidation numbers in
two separate half-reactions.
d. Balance and add the half-reactions.
e. Check and adjust trial coefficients if needed to balance atoms and charge.
* * * * *

1a. Soluble 1b. Insoluble 1c. Soluble 1d. Insoluble 1e. Soluble (Lesson 13A)
2a. Pb2+ + 2 NO3― + 2 K+ + 2 Cl― Æ PbCl2(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3―

2a. Pb2+ + 2 Cl― Æ PbCl2(s)
3. 0.400 M Pb(NO3)2 (0.04000 mol Pb(NO3)2 / 0.100 L Pb(NO3) soln -- Lesson 13D)
4a. 1.32 x 10―3 mol acid 4b. 691 g/mol (0.912 g acid / 1.32 x 10―3 mol acid -- Lesson 14D)
5. 1 CH3COOH + 1 KHCO3 Æ 1 CO2(g) + 1 H2O + 1 CH3COOK (or KAc or KC2H3O2) (Lesson 14E)
6. 5 FeCl2 + 1 KMnO4 + 8 HCl Æ 1 MnCl2 + 5 FeCl3 + 4 H2O + 1 KCl (Mods 15 and 16)
7. FeCl2 (Lesson 15B)
8. 0.190 g KMnO4 ? g KMnO4 = 0.0400 L FeCl2 · 0.150 mol FeCl2 · 1 mol KMnO4 · 158.0 g KMnO4 =
(Lesson 15E) 1 L FeCl2 soln 5 mol FeCl2 1 mol KMnO4
# # # # #

* * * * *
tables in college textbooks. By keeping the numbers simple, it is hoped that you will use
mental arithmetic to do easy numeric cancellations and simplifications before you use a
# # # # #

Mendelevium
Mn
Md
25
101
54.9
(256)
Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.94
* * * * *
Modules 17 and 18
Ideal Gases, Gas Labs, Gas Reactions

©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms...................................................................................................................101
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................159
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page ii

Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 237
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page iii

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................491
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page iv

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 614
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 662
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page v

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................974
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page vi

•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page vii

Module 17 — Ideal Gases

Timing: Ideal gas law calculations are covered in Module 17. The laws discovered by
Boyle, Charles, Avogadro, and Dalton are addressed in Module 18. The Kinetic Molecular
Theory and Graham’s law is covered in Module 19. If you need to solve calculations for
Module 18 or 19 topics before those using the ideal gas law, complete Lessons 17A and
17D, then Modules 18 and/or 19.
Prerequisites: It will help with the Module 17 calculations if you have completed Modules
2, 4, 5, 8 and Lesson 11B. Those lessons can be done quickly.
Pretest: If you believe you have previously mastered ideal gas law calculations, try the
problems in the last lesson in this module. If you can do those, you may skip this module.
* * * * *
Lesson 17A: Gas Measurements and Fundamentals
Gas Quantities and Their Units
Chemistry is generally concerned with matter in 3 states: gas, liquid, and solid. The gas
state is in most respects the easiest to study, because by most measures, gases have similar
and highly predictable behavior. Gas quantities can be measured using 4 variables:
• Pressure, volume, temperature, and moles of gas molecules.
The symbols for these variables are P, V, T, and n.
Gas Pressure
In an experiment, a glass tube about 100 cm (1 meter) long is sealed at one end and then
filled with mercury: an element that is a dense, silver-colored metal (symbol Hg) and is a
liquid at room temperature. The open end of the filled tube is covered, the tube is turned
over, and the covered end is placed under the surface of additional mercury in a partially
filled beaker. The tube end that is under the mercury in the beaker is then uncovered.
What happens? In all experiments at standard atmospheric pressure, the same result. The
top of the mercury in the tube quickly falls from the top of the tube until it is about 76
centimeters above the surface of the mercury in the beaker. There, the mercury descent
stops. The result is a column of mercury inside the glass tube that is about 76 cm high.
What is in the tube above the mercury column? A bit of mercury vapor, but no air. The
space above the mercury in the tube is mostly empty: close to a vacuum.
What happens if the top of the tube is snapped off? The mercury inside the tube behaves
the same as a straw full of liquid when you take your finger off the top. The liquid mercury
in the tube falls quickly until it reaches the same level as the mercury in the beaker.
However, as long as the tube is sealed and is longer than 76 cm, the top of the mercury in
the tube in will remain about 76 cm above the top of the mercury in the beaker.
Why? The device made in this experiment is a mercury barometer. It measures the
pressure of the air outside the tube.
©2009 ChemReview.net v. d9 Page 401

A barometer is a kind of balance, like a playground “teeter-totter.” The pressure of the

dense column of mercury in the tube, pressing down on the
top of the pool of mercury in the beaker, is balanced by the
pressure of the 20-mile-high column of air, the atmospheric
pressure, pressing down on the pool of Hg outside the tube.
We could construct our barometer using water as the liquid.
However, for water to balance the air, since water is about
13.5 times less dense than mercury, our tube would need to
be about 13.5 times higher, about 30 feet high, roughly three
stories on a typical building.
If the air pressure outside the mercury column increases, the
mercury is pushed higher in the tube. If the surrounding
atmospheric pressure is lowered, the mercury level in the
tube falls.
When a weather forecast states that “the barometric pressure
is 30.04 inches and falling,” it is describing the height of the
mercury column in a barometer (76 cm is about 30 inches). In
meteorology, a rising barometer, or a high pressure system, is usually associated with fair
weather. Falling barometers and low pressure systems are often associated with clouds,
storms, and precipitation.
Measuring Pressure
In the branches of science, pressure is measured in a variety of units.
Chemistry defines standard pressure as a gas pressure of exactly 760 mm (76 cm) mercury
as measured in a barometer. This is also known as exactly one atmosphere of pressure.
Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level on a fair-weather day is about one atmosphere.
The SI base units for pressure are termed pascals in honor of the 17th Century French
mathematician and scientist Blaise Pascal, whose experiments with gases led him to
propose the concept of vacuum. (Pascal’s contemporary, the scientist and mathematician
René Descartes, disagreed with the vacuum concept, writing that Pascal had “too much
vacuum in his head.”)
The following table of pressure units should be memorized. These equalities will be used
frequently to convert among pressure units.
Pressure Units
Standard Pressure ≡ 1 atmosphere ( ≡ means “is defined as equal to”)
≡ 760 mm Hg (mercury) ≡ 760 torr
= 101 kilopascals (kPa) (not exact; not a definition)
= 1.01 bars
Any two of those measures can be used as a conversion factor for pressure units.

Practice A
Memorize the table of pressure units, then use the equalities in these calculations. Answers
are at the end of this lesson.
1. The lowest atmospheric pressure at sea level was recorded in 1979 during Typhoon Tip;
a pressure of 870. millibars. What is this pressure in kPa?
2. If 2.54 cm ≡ one inch (exactly), and standard pressure is defined as exactly 760 mm Hg,
what is standard pressure in inches of mercury?
3. Standard pressure in English units is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). If a bicycle tire
has a pressure of 72 psi, how many atmospheres would this be?
4. 25.0 torr is how many kPa?
Gas Volumes
Gas volumes are measured in standard metric volume units: Liters (dm3) and mL (cm3).
Gas Temperature
Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of particles.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion, calculated by the equation
Energy of Motion = 1/2 (mass) (velocity)2, or KE = 1/2 mv2

Since the chemical particles of a substance have a constant mass, this equation means that
when molecules move twice as fast, they must have “2 squared,” or four times as much
kinetic energy. Their absolute temperature is four times higher.
One of the implications of this equation is that, though particles cannot have zero mass,
they can have zero velocity: they can (in theory) stop moving.
All molecules that have zero velocity would have the same temperature: ─273.15˚C, which
is defined as absolute zero. Absolute zero is the bottom of the temperature scale. Nothing
can be colder than absolute zero.
The Kelvin (or absolute) temperature scale simplifies the mathematics of calculations
based on gas temperatures. The Celsius scale defines 0 degrees as the melting and freezing
temperature of water, and 100 degrees as the boiling temperature of water at standard
pressure. The Kelvin scale keeps the same size degree as Celsius, but defines 0 as absolute
zero.
The equation relating the Kelvin and Celsius scales is K = oC + 273 (use 273.15 when
other measurements are quite precise). This equation must be memorized. The SI unit for
temperature is the kelvin. It helps to recall that a temperature in kelvins is always 273
degrees higher than the temperature in degrees Celsius.
When is the Kelvin scale needed? In any gas-law calculation where a gas temperature
changes, temperature in kelvins must be used.

In measurements, the abbreviation for kelvins is a capital K without a degree symbol. In

equations, the symbol for kelvins is a capital T (a lower case t is often used as a symbol for
temperature in degrees Celsius).
When measuring gases, it is preferred to record gas volumes at standard temperature,
which is defined as the temperature that an ice-water bath will always adjust to at standard
(typical room) pressure: zero degrees Celsius, which is 273 K.
Practice B
1. Memorize the equation relating kelvins to degrees Celsius, then complete the following
chart (boiling points are listed at standard pressure):
In Kelvin In Celsius
Absolute Zero ________ __________
Water Boils ________ __________
Nitrogen Boils ________ ─196 oC

Table Salt Melts 1074 K __________
Water Freezes (std. P) ________ __________
Std. Temperature ________ __________
2. In a problem involving gases, you calculate a temperature for the gas of ─310 degrees
Celsius. Your answer is…..?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED = ? kPa DATA: 870. millibars
SOLVE: ? kPa = 870. millibars ● 10─3 bar ● 101 kPa = 87.0 kPa
1 millibar 1.01 bars
2. WANTED = ? inches Hg DATA: 760 mm Hg (exact)
2.54 cm ≡ one inch (exact)
? inches Hg = 760 mm Hg ● 1 cm ● 1 inch = 29.92 inches Hg (exactly equals std. pressure;
10 mm 2.54 cm all of the numbers are exact.)
3. WANTED = ? atmospheres DATA: 72 psi
1 atm. = std. pressure = 14.7 psi
SOLVE: ? atmospheres = 72 psi ● 1 atm = 4.9 atm.
14.7 psi
4. ? kPa = 25.0 torr ● 1 atm ● 101 kPa = 3.32 kPa
760 torr 1 atm

Practice B
1. In kelvins In ºCelsius
Absolute Zero 0K ─273oC
Water Boils 373 K 100. oC
Nitrogen Boils 77 K ─196 oC
Table Salt Melts 1074 K 801 oC
Water Freezes 273 K 0 oC
Std. Temperature 273 K 0 oC
Note that when using K = oC + 273 you are adding or subtracting, and the significant figures are
determined by the highest place with doubt:. All of those numbers have doubt in the one’s place.
2. In a problem involving gases, you calculate a temperature for the gas of -310 degrees
Celsius. Your answer is…..? Mistaken. ─310 oC is below absolute zero (─273 oC). There
cannot be a temperature colder than absolute zero.
* * * * *
Lesson 17B: Gases at STP

Prerequisites: You should be able to do the calculations in this lesson if you have
completed Modules 2, 4, 5, and 8, plus Lessons 11B and 17A.
* * * * *
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
In experiments with gases, it is preferred to measure gas volumes at standard temperature
and pressure, abbreviated STP.
Standard Temperature ≡ 0oC = 273.15 K
Standard Pressure ≡ 1 atmosphere ≡ 760 mm Hg (mercury) ≡ 760 torr
= 101 kilopascals (kPa) = 1.01 bars
If a gas problem lists conditions at STP, or lists a P and T that are the same as STP, write
The STP Prompt

In calculations, if a gas is at STP, write in the DATA: 1 mole gas = 22.4 L gas at STP
Note that in this equality, “at STP” is attached only to the gas volume. Because gas volumes
vary with temperature and pressure, all gas volumes must have pressure and temperature
conditions stated if the volume is to be a measure of the number of particles in the sample.
In calculations, gas volumes (L, dm3, mL) must have a P and T attached for the volume to
be a measure of the moles of gas in the sample.
The rule is: Gas volumes must be labeled with a T and P. if the T and P are known.
No gas exhibits exact ideal gas behavior. When gases approach a pressure and
temperature at which they condense (become liquids or solids), the ideal gas assumptions of
the STP prompt begin to lose their validity. At pressures above standard pressure,

variations from ideal behavior can also become substantial. However, unless a problem
indicates non-ideal behavior, you may assume that the STP prompt applies to all gases at
STP.
Calculations For Gases At STP
The STP prompt is often used in conjunction with two other prompts.
Grams Prompt: If grams of known chemical formula are part of any unit in the
WANTED or DATA, write in the DATA,
(Molar Mass) grams formula = 1 mole formula
e.g. 18.0 grams H2O = 1 mole H2O
Avogadro Prompt: If any part of the WANTED or DATA involves a number of
particles or molecules or 10xx of a substance formula, write in the DATA,
1 mole anything = 6.02 x 1023 (molecules or particles) anything
Together, these three prompts allow you to solve most STP gas calculations using
conversions. You will also need to recall that if a problem asks for
• molar mass, you WANT grams per 1 mole;
• density, you WANT a mass unit (g or kg) over 1 volume unit (L, dm3, mL).
Try this problem in your notebook, then check your answer below.
Q1. 2.0 x 1023 molecules of NO2 gas would occupy how many liters at STP?
Answer
WANT: ? L NO2 gas at STP = (first, write the unit you WANT)
DATA: 2.0 x 1023 molecules of NO2 gas

6.02 x 1023 molecules of anything = 1 mol anything (Avogadro Prompt)
1 mol any gas = 22.4 L any gas at STP (STP Prompt)
Strategy: Want a single unit? Start with a single unit, and find moles first!
SOLVE:
? L NO2(g) STP = 2.0 x 1023 molecules NO2(g) ● 1 mol ● 22.4 L gas STP =
6.02 x 1023 molecules 1 mole gas
= 7.5 L NO2(g) at STP
* * * * *
In problems, the words grams, STP, and molecules are prompts about the relationships that
you will need in your DATA to solve a problem.
Note the difference between these calculations and stoichiometry. The above problem
involved only one substance. If stoichiometry steps are needed, you will see DATA for two
substances involved in a chemical reaction.

An effective technique in learning physical science (and math) is to work the examples in
your textbook. Use these steps: cover the answer, read the example, and try to solve. If
you need help, peek at the answer, and then try the example again.
Try that method, this time solving for a ratio unit.
Q2. Determine the density of Cl2 gas at STP, in grams per milliliter.
* * * * *
When solving for a ratio, if a calculation involves only one substance, the rule “want a ratio,
start with a ratio” will usually solve faster than “solve for the top and bottom units
separately.” Use that hint if needed.
* * * * *
Answer
WANTED: ? g Cl2 gas

mL at STP
DATA: 71.0 g Cl2 = 1 mol Cl2 (grams prompt)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. See Lesson 11B.)
? g Cl2 gas = 71.0 g Cl2 ● 1 mol gas ● 10─3 L = 0.00317 g Cl2

mL gas STP 1 mol Cl2 22.4 L gas STP 1 mL mL at STP
Your answer may have those 3 conversions, right-side up, in any order. Note that STP was
attached to the gas volume unit (mL).
Note also that
• the conversions for molar mass and particles per mole are valid whether the substance
is a gas, liquid, or solid.
• The STP prompt, however, only works for gases, and only works at STP.
Practice
Make certain that you can write all 3 of the above prompts from memory. Try that now in
your notebook. Then do all of problem one below. After #1, do every other problem, and
more if you need more practice.
1. Write the units WANTED when you are asked to find
a. Molarity e. Density
b. Molar Mass f. Speed or Velocity
c. Volume g. Gas Pressure
d. Mass h. Temperature
2. Calculate the g/L of SO2 gas at STP.

3. The density of a gas at STP is 0.00500 g•mL─1. What is its molar mass?
4. If 125 mL of a gas at STP weighs 0.358 grams, what is the molar mass of the gas?
5. Calculate the number of molecules in 1.12 L of NO2 gas at STP.
6. Calculate the volume of 7.6 grams of F2 gas at STP (in mL).
7. If 0.0350 moles of a gas has a volume of 880. mL, what is the volume of one mole of the
gas, in liters, under the same temperature and pressure conditions?
8. Calculate the density of Rn gas at STP, in kg•L─1.
ANSWERS
1 a. Molarity Moles e. Density any mass unit (kg or g)
1 L solution any volume unit (L, mL, dm3)
b. Molar Mass grams f. Speed any distance (cm, miles)
1 mole any time (sec, hour)
c. Volume L, mL, dm3, cm3 g. Gas Pressure atm., torr, mm Hg, kPa, bars
d. Mass kg, g, ng h. Temperature oC or K
2. Calculate the g/L of SO2 gas at STP.
WANTED: ? g SO2 gas (Write ratio units WANTED as fractions)

L SO2 gas at STP
DATA: 64.1 g SO2 = 1 mol SO2 (grams prompt)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Since grams is on top in the answer, you might start with
grams on top as the given ratio.)
? g SO2 gas = 64.1 g SO2 ● 1 mol gas = 2.86 g SO2(g)

L SO2 gas at STP 1 mol SO2 22.4 L gas STP L SO2 gas at STP
3. The density of a gas at STP is 0.00500 g•mL─1. What is its molar mass?
WANT: ? g (write the unit WANTED for molar mass: g/mol)

mol
DATA: 0.00500 g gas = 1 mL gas at STP ( g • mL─1 = g / mL ; list ratio unit DATA as equalities)
(Note that the grams prompt only works if you know a substance formula.)
SOLVE: (the conversions below may be in any order, so long as they are right-side up.)

? g = 0.00500 g gas ● 1 mL ● 22.4 L any gas at STP = 112 g

mol 1 mL gas at STP 10─3 L 1 mol gas mol
4. If 125 mL of a gas weighs 0.358 grams at STP, what is the molar mass of the gas?
WANT: ? g
mol
DATA: 0.358 g gas = 125 mL gas at STP
SOLVE: (The conversions below may be in any order.)
? g = 0.358 g gas ● 1 mL ● 22.4 L any gas STP = 64.2 g

mol 125 mL gas at STP 10─3 L 1 mol gas mol
Reminders
• Attach temperature and pressure conditions, if known, to gas volumes.
• In the interest of readability, most unit cancellations in these answers are left for you to do.
However, in your work, always mark your unit cancellations as a check on your conversions.
5. Calculate the number of molecules in 1.12 liters of NO2 gas at STP.
WANT: ? molecules NO2 gas =

DATA: 1.12 L NO2 gas at STP
6.02 x 1023 molecules anything = 1 mol anything (Avogadro Prompt)
SOLVE:
? molecules NO2(g) = 1.12 L NO2(g) STP ● 1 mol gas ● 6.02 x 1023 molec. = 3.01 x 1022 molec. NO2
22.4 L gas STP 1 mole
6. Calculate the volume of 76 grams of F2 gas at STP (in milliliters).
WANTED: ? mL F2 gas at STP =

DATA: 7.6 g F2 gas (single unit given)
38.0 g F2 gas = 1 mol F2 gas
1 mol any gas = 22.4 L any gas at STP
SOLVE: (Want a single unit?)
? mL F2(g) STP = 7.6 g F2(g) ● 1 mol F2 ● 22.4 L gas STP ● 1 mL = 4.5 x 103 mL F2(g) STP
38.0 g F2 1 mol gas 10─3 L

7. If 0.0350 moles of a gas has a volume of 880. mL, what is the volume of one mole of the
gas, in liters, under the same temperature and pressure conditions?
WANTED: ? L gas at given P and T
1 mol
(Strategy: If the problem is asking for a unit per one unit, it is asking for a ratio unit.
This problem does not specify STP, but you can solve for the requested unit.
Compare units: You WANT liters and moles. You are given mL and moles.)
DATA: 0.0350 mol gas = 880. mL gas at given T and P
SOLVE: (Since answer unit moles is on bottom, and answer unit liters is not in the data, you might
start with moles on the bottom in your given ratio.)
? L gas at given T and P = 880. mL gas at given T and P ● 10─3 L = 25.1 L gas at given T and P
1 mole 0.0350 mole 1 mL mole
8. Calculate the density of Rn gas at STP in kg•L─1.
Hint: The grams prompt applies to kilograms, too. If needed, adjust your work and try again.
* * * * *
WANTED: ? kg Rn gas ( kg • L─1 = kg / L . Write ratio units WANTED as fractions)
L at STP
DATA: 222 g Rn = 1 mol Rn (kg = g prompt)
SOLVE: (Start with a ratio. Try, in your given, to start with one unit where it belongs in the answer…,
but your conversions in solving for a ratio may be in any order that cancels to give the
WANTED unit.)
? kg Rn gas = 1 mol gas ● 222 g Rn ● 1 kg = 9.91 x 10─3 kg Rn
L Rn gas at STP 22.4 L gas STP 1 mol Rn 103 g L Rn gas at STP
* * * * *
Lesson 17C: Cancellation of Complex Units

Most calculations we have done so far have involved measurements either with single units
or with ratio units that have one unit on the top and one on the bottom. To solve gas law
and heat problems will require working with complex units: those with reciprocal units or
more than one unit in the numerator or denominator.
Why Not To Write “A/B/C”
Dividing complex fractions can be tricky. To illustrate, cover the answer below and then
try these problems.
A. 8 divided by 2 = B. 8 divided by 4 = C. 8/4/2 =
4 2
* * * * *

Answer
A. 2 divided by 2 = 1 B. 8 divided by 2 = 4
C. Could be 1 or 4, depending on which is the fraction: 8/4 or 4/2.
The format A/B/C for numbers or units is ambiguous, unless you know, from the context
or from prior steps, which is the fraction.
Let’s try problem C again, this time with the fraction identified by parentheses. Use the
rule: perform the operation inside the parentheses first.
D. (8/4)/2 = E. 8/(4/2) =
* * * * *
D. 2/2 = 1 E. 8/2 = 4
Knowing which is the fraction, the problem is easy. But if all that you know is 8/4/2, you
cannot be sure of the right answer. For this reason, writing numbers or units in a format
A/B/C should be avoided.
In these lessons, we will either use a thick underline, or group fractions in parentheses, to
distinguish a numerator from a denominator.
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

1. By definition: 1 divided by (1/X) = the reciprocal of 1/X = 1 = X
1
X
Complex fraction Rule 1: Simplify the reciprocal of a fraction by inverting the fraction.
Recall that 1/X can be written as X─1. Another way to simplify the above is to apply
the rule: when you take an exponential term to a power, you multiply the exponents.
(X─1)─1 = (X+1) = X .
Q1. Apply Rule 1 to the following problem, then check your answer below.
1/(B/C) =
* * * * *
Answer: The reciprocal of a fraction simplifies by inverting the fraction.
1/(B/C) simplifies by inversion (flips over) to C/B.
In symbols: 1 = C In exponents: (B/C) ─1 = (B ● C─1) ─1 = B─1 ● C

B B
C
Calculations in chemistry may involve fractions in the numerator, denominator, or both.
To handle these cases systematically, use the following rule.

Complex fraction Rule 2: When a term has two fraction lines ( either _____ or / ),
separate the terms that are fractions. To do so, apply these steps in this order.
a. If a term has a fraction in the denominator, separate the terms into a reciprocal of the
fraction ( 1/fraction in the denominator ) multiplied by the remaining terms.
b. If there is a fraction in the numerator, separate and multiply that fraction by the
other terms in the numerator or denominator.
c. Then simplify: invert any reciprocal fractions, cancel units that cancel, and
multiply the terms.
Let’s learn to apply these rules using examples.

Q2. Simplify: A/(B/C)
* * * * *
Answer: A/(B/C) = A = A ● 1 = A ● C = A●C
B B B B
C C
^Rule 2a ^Rule 2c.
Since there is a fraction in the denominator, separate that fraction into a reciprocal
times the other terms, then invert the fraction and multiply.
You can also solve using exponents: A ● (B ● C─1)─1 = A ● B─1 ● C
Q3. Simplify (A/B)/C =
* * * * *
Answer: Note these three different but equivalent ways of representing this
problem, and then how the answer differs from the previous example.
(A/B)/C = A = A ● 1 = A
B B C B●C
C
Rewrite for clarity^ ^Rule 2b
Since there is a fraction in the numerator, separate that fraction from other terms.
Q4. Simplify (A/B)/(C •(D/E)) =

* * * * *
(A/B)/ (C •(D/E)) = A = A ● 1 = A ● 1 ● 1 = A ●E
B B D B C D B●C ●D
C• D C E E
E
Rewrite for clarity^ ^Rule 2a ^Rule 2b ^Rule 2c
In solving problems, when you are writing terms with two or more fractions, you will need
to develop a systematic way to distinguish fractions in the numerator and denominator in
cases where confusion may occur.

Practice A: Simplify these.
1. X/(Y/Z) = 2. (D/E)─1 =
3. meters = 4. (meters/sec) =
meters sec
sec
5. meters/sec/sec =
Dividing Complex Numbers and Units

For some derived quantities and constants, units are complex fractions. Examples that we
will soon encounter include
The Gas Constant = R = 0.0821 atm • L
mole • K
The specific heat capacity of water = cwater = 4.184 joule/gram•K
(Joule is a unit that measures energy.) In those units, the dot between two units means that
the two units are multiplied together in either the numerator or denominator. In 4.184
joule/gram•K , grams and kelvins are both in the denominator.
4.184 joule/gram•K = 4.184 joule/(gram•K) = 4.184 joule • g─1• K─1
(If your course at this point uses the unit─1 notation frequently in calculations, you should
complete Lesson 27F after this lesson.)
When multiplying and dividing terms with complex units, you must to do the math for
both the numbers and the units. When units are fractions, unit cancellation follows the rules
of algebra reviewed in the section above. Note how the units simplify in this calculation.
360 joules = 360 joules ● 1 = 360 joules ● gram•K = 40. g

18.0 K ● 0.50 joules 18.0 K 0.50 joules 18.0 K 0.50 joules
gram·K gram·K
Solving uses Rule 2a: if there is a unit that is a fraction in the denominator, separate the
fraction into 1/fraction in the denominator multiplied by the other terms. Then, invert the
reciprocal, cancel units that cancel, and multiply.
Check the unit cancellation in the final step above.
Cancellation Shortcuts
When canceling numbers and units in complex fractions, you can often simplify by first
canceling separately within the numerator and denominator, and then canceling between the
numerator and denominator. However, when using this shortcut, you must remember that
canceling a number or unit does not get rid of it: it replaces it with a 1. Try this example.

Q. First cancel units in the denominator, then 360 joules =

between the numerator and denominator: 12 K ● 0.20 joules
gram·K
* * * * *
Answer
360 joules = 360 joules = 360 ● 1 = 150 g
12 K ● 0.20 joules 12 K ● 0.50 joules 12 ● 0.20 1
gram·K gram·K gram
In the third term, the 1’s are important. 1/grams and 1/1/grams are not the same.
When in doubt about unit cancellation, skip the shortcuts and use systematic Rules 1-2c.
Practice B: Apply the rules above to simplify these.

1. calories = 2. atm ● L =
calorie • gram (mole) • atm ● L
gram • ºC mole ● K
3. (mole) • atm ● L • (K) =

mole ● K
liters
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. X/(Y/Z) = X • 1 = X • Z 2. (D/E)─1 = 1 = E or (D─1 • E)

Y Y D D
Z E
3. meters = meters • 1 = = meters • sec = sec
meters meters meters
sec sec
4. (meters/sec) = meters • 1 = meters
sec sec sec sec2
5. meters/sec/sec = Cannot be evaluated unless you know “which is the fraction.”
Practice B
1. calories = 1 ● calories = gram • ºC ● calories = ºC

calorie • gram calorie gram calorie gram
gram • ºC gram • ºC
2. atm ● L = atm ● L ● 1 = atm ● L ● mole ● K = K

(mole) • atm ● L mole atm ● L mole atm ● L
mole ● K mole ● K

3. (mole) • atm ● L • (K) = (mol) • ( atm • L ) • (K) ● 1 = atm

mole ● K mol • K L
liters
* * * * *
Lesson 17D: The Ideal-Gas Law -- and Solving Equations

In calculations for a gas at STP, conversions using the STP prompt will often be the fastest
way to solve. However, if gas conditions are at temperatures or pressures that are not STP,
you will need to use gas equations to solve.
The most frequently used gas equation is the ideal gas law (often memorized as piv-nert).
For all “ideal” gases,
PV = nRT
where
• P and V are pressure and volume in any units;
• T is temperature in kelvins
• n represents the number of moles of gas; and
• R is a number with units called the gas constant.
In this equation, P, V, T, and n are variables. They can have any values, depending on the
conditions in the problem.
The gas constant (R) is not a variable. It does not change as you vary P, V, T and n.
When using R to solve problems, R must have the same units as those used that are used to
measure P and V in the problem. The number and units used for R will change depending
on which P and V units are used. However, just as 12 fluid ounces is the same as 355 mL
(our soda-can equality), the different numbers and units used for R do not change the
constant quantity that R represents.
If you know any three of the four variables in the ideal gas law, and you know a table value
for the constant R, you can solve for the fourth variable.
One of the interesting implications of the ideal gas law is that if any of the three variables in
PV=nRT are the same for samples of different gases, the fourth variable will have the same
value no matter what are the chemical formulas for the gases. When using PV=nRT, the
formula for the gas is not needed, and no matter what the substance formula for the gas is,
it will not change the answer.
For most gases, the ideal gas law is a good approximation in predicting behavior, so long as
the gas is not either at pressures substantially above one atmosphere or close to conditions
of pressure and temperature where it condenses to form a liquid or solid. In reality, all real
gases will condense (displaying “non-ideal” behavior) if the temperature is low enough
and/or the pressure is high enough, but most gases that are not close to their condensation
point will display close to ideal behavior and comply approximately with the predictions of
the ideal gas law.

Solving Problems Which Require Equations

Calculations in chemistry can generally be put into three categories: those that can be
solved with conversions, those that require equations, and those requiring both.
To solve problems using equations, we need a small amount of algebra.
We will use the gas laws to develop a system for solving calculations that require equations.
This system will be especially helpful if you take additional science courses, especially in
physics and engineering.
Let’s start with an easy problem, one in which we know the correct equation to use. This
relatively easy example can be solved several ways, but we will solve with a method that
has the advantage of working with more difficult problems. Please, try the method used
here.
For this problem, do the steps below in your notebook.
Q. A table of R values may usually be consulted when solving gas problems.
However, R can also be easily calculated for any set of units, based on values you
know for standard temperature and pressure and the volume of a gas at STP.
For example, one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 liters at standard
pressure (one atmosphere) and standard temperature (273 K).
Use this data and the ideal gas law equation to calculate a value for the gas constant
(R), using the units specified in this problem.
Steps For Solving Using Equations

1. It says to use the ideal gas law. Write its memorized equation.
2. Next, make a data table that includes each symbol in the equation.
DATA: P=
V=
n=
R=
T=
3. Put a ? after the symbol WANTED in the problem.
4. Read the problem again, and write each number and unit after a symbol. Use the units
to match the symbol to the data (one mole goes after n, 273 K goes after T, etc.).
Do those steps, then check below.
* * * * *
At this point, your paper should look like this.
PV = nRT
DATA: P = 1 atm.
V = 22.4 L
n = 1 mole
R= ?
T = 273 K

5. Write SOLVE, and, using algebra, solve the fundamental, memorized equation for the
symbol WANTED. Do not plug in numbers until after you have solved for the
WANTED symbol in symbols.
6. Plug in the numbers and solve. Cancel units when appropriate, but leave the units that
do not cancel, and include them after the number that you calculate for the answer.
Do those steps, then check your work below.
* * * * *
On your paper, you should have added this:
SOLVE: PV = nRT
? = R = PV = (1 atm)(22.4 L) = 0.0821 atm ● L
nT (1 mol)(273 K) mol ● K
Be certain that your answer includes both numbers and units.
A check inside the cover of your class textbook may show that this answer is accurate to
within one doubtful digit for one of the values listed for R.
Values for R vary depending on the units used to measure pressure and volume. If you
need a value for R and you do not have access to a table, use the following rule as applied
in the problem above.
To calculate a value for R using certain units, use PV=nRT and the values for P, V, and
T that are true for those units and one mole of gas at STP.
* * * * *
Summary: To solve an equation when you know which equation is needed.

1. Write the memorized equation.
Memorize equations in one fundamental format, then use algebra to solve for the
symbols WANTED.
For example, memorize: K = oC + 273 Do not memorize oC = K ─ 273

If Celsius is WANTED, knowing kelvins, write the memorized equation above,
then solve the equation for Celsius.
2. Make a data table. On each line, put one symbol from the equation.
3. Based on units, after each symbol, write the matching DATA in the problem.
4. Solve your memorized equation for the WANTED symbol before plugging in
numbers and units. Symbols move with fewer mistakes than numbers with their
units.
5. Put both numbers and units into the equation when you solve. If units cancel
correctly, it is a check that the algebra was done correctly. If the units do not cancel
properly, double-check your work.

Practice: Do them all.

1. Assign each of these gas measurements with a symbol from PV = nRT.
a. 0.50 moles b. 202 kPa c. 11.2 dm3 d. 373 K e. 38 torr
2. Solve PV = nRT for

a. n = b. T = c. V =
3. Use your calculated value for R (R = 0.0821 atm•L/mol•K) and the ideal gas law to
solve these two problems. Employ the method used in this lesson.
a. If the pressure of one mole of gas at STP increases to 2.3 atmospheres but the
volume of the gas is held constant, what must the new temperature be?
b. If the temperature of the one mole of gas at STP is kept at standard temperature, but
the volume of the gas container is reduced using a piston until it is 5.6 liters, what
will be the pressure?
ANSWERS
1. a. 0.50 moles n b. 202 kPa P c. 11.2 dm3 V d. 373 K T e. 38 torr P
2. If PV = nRT: (a) n = PV (b) T = PV (c) V = nRT

RT nR P
If you cannot do this algebra correctly every time, find a friend or tutor who can help you to review the
algebra for this and the following lessons in this module. It will not take long to master. Gas laws are not
difficult if you can do this algebra but are impossible if you cannot.
3a. PV = nRT
DATA: P = 2.3 atm.
V= 22.4 L
n= 1 mol
R= 0.0821 atm • L
mol • K
T=?
SOLVE: PV = nRT
? = T = PV = (2.3 atm)(22.4 L) = 630 K
nR (1 mol)( 0.0821 atm • L )
mol • K
That result is a large rise in temperature from 273 K. It is reasonable because for one mole of gas at 22.4
liters volume to cause a pressure of 2.3 atm. (rather than 1 atm, as at STP), the gas must be very hot, with
molecules moving much faster on average than at standard temperature.

The unit cancellation: do it in steps. From Lesson 17C, use Rule 2a: Separate a fractional unit on the
bottom into a reciprocal, and Rule 2c: A fraction on the bottom flips over when you bring it to the top.
(2.3 atm)(22.4 L) 1 = (2.3 atm)(22.4 L) ● mol • K = 630 K
(1 mole) ( 0.0821 atm • L ) 1 mol 0.0821 atm • L
mol • K
Check the unit cancellation in the final step above.
When solving with equations, always do the unit cancellation. If the units cancel correctly, the numbers
were probably put in the right place to get the right answer. This provides a needed check on your work.
3b. PV = nRT
DATA: P = ?
V= 5.6 L
n= 1 mole
R= 0.0821 atm • L
mol • K
T = 273 K
SOLVE: PV = nRT
? = P = nRT = nRT ● 1 = (1 mol)( 0.0821 atm • L )(273 K) ● 1 = 4.0 atm.
V V mol • K 5.6 L
A good rule: When solving an equation in symbols results in a fraction that include terms with fractional
units (such as R above) on the top or the bottom, re-write the equation with the symbols in the denominator
separated into a reciprocal, then plug in numbers into this separated format (see Lesson 17C).
Separating the symbol in the denominator simplifies unit and number cancellation. However, you may do
the math for the numbers and units in any way you choose, provided you do both numbers and units.
This answer tells us that, with all other conditions remaining the same, for the volume to become 1/4 as
much (22.4 to 5.6 liters), the pressure must increase by a factor of 4, to 4.0 atm.
* * * * *
Lesson 17E: Density, Molar Mass, and Choosing Equations

The ideal gas law has one constant (R) and 4 variables (P, V, T, and n). The PV = nRT
equation may be linked to other equations to find other variables. The key to this relating of
equations is to find a variable which the equations share.
In chemistry, the variable that most relationships share most often is the unit for counting
the number of particles involved in a chemical process: moles.
Grams, Molar Mass, and Ideal Gases
Knowing any four of the quantities in the equation PV=nRT, the fifth can be calculated.
For the grams, moles, and molar mass of any substance, if you know any two of those
quantities, conversions will find the third.
Because moles is a common factor in both of those two relationships, PV=nRT can be linked
to calculations involving grams and molar mass.

In calculations involving grams and molar mass with the ideal gas law, a useful strategy is to
solve in two parts, solving for the common variable (moles) in one part, then using that
answer to solve the other part.
• Find moles using whichever relationship, either PV=nRT or the grams to moles
conversion, provides enough data to find moles. If the final WANTED variable is in
one part, you will usually need to solve the other part first.
• Then use the found moles as DATA in the other part to solve for the variable
WANTED.
Keeping those two steps in mind, try this example in your notebook.
Q. A sample of gas has a volume of 5.60 liters at 2.00 atm pressure and standard
temperature. If the gas sample has a mass of 2.00 grams, what is the molar mass of
the gas? (Use R= 0.0821 atm·L/mol·K)
* * * * *
Answer
It says to use R. So far, we only know one relationship involving R.
PV = nRT
Knowing the specific equation needed, use those symbols for the DATA table.
DATA: P = 2.00 atm.
V = 5.60 L
n= ?
R = 0.0821 atm • L
mol • K
T = 273 K (std. T)
This problem has additional WANTED and DATA:
WANT: Molar Mass = ? g
mol
DATA: 2.00 g gas
The final WANTED unit is a grams to moles ratio. The data supplies grams. IF the
moles of the gas can be found, dividing grams by moles finds the molar mass.
In the PV=nRT part of the problem, 4 of the 5 quantities are known; algebra will find
the 5th, the moles needed to find the molar mass.
The strategy? Solve for the linked variable first in the part of the calculation that does
not include the final WANTED unit, then use that answer to solve the relationship that
includes the final WANTED unit.
SOLVE: PV = nRT You want to find the moles.
? = n = PV = (2.00 atm)(5.60 L) = 0.5000 moles
RT ( 0.0821 atm • L ) (273 K)
mol • K

(In calculations that use an answer from one part to solve a later part, carry an extra sf
until the final step.)
Use the answer for that part as DATA to find the WANTED.
WANTED: ? g = 2.00 g = 4.00 g
mol 0.5000 mol mol
(The answer fits the molar mass for helium, a noble gas.)
Practice A: Use the above methods. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. If a 1.76 gram sample of uranium hexafluoride gas is at 380. torr and 600. K, what
volume will it occupy? (Use R = 62.4 torr • L/mol • K)
2. A sample of neon gas has a volume of 8.96 L at 298 K and 2.00 atm. How many grams
of Ne are in the sample? (Pick an appropriate R from a prior example or problem.)
Density, Molar Mass, and Ideal Gases

The relationship between the ideal gas law, molar mass, and gas density is more
mathematically complex than the relationship involving grams and moles. For a complex
relationship, it is often best to derive an equation, then memorize it.
The relationship using density and molar mass for ideal gases can be derived as follows.
Molar Mass (MM) ≡ grams , so we can write grams = moles ● MM (1)
moles
Density (D) ≡ mass ; using grams for mass, Dgrams = grams (2)
volume Any V unit
Substituting equation (1) into (2),
Dgrams = moles ● MM , which can be rewritten as moles = Dgrams (3)
V V MM
Since PV = nRT can be re-written as P = moles ● RT ,
V
Substituting with equation (3) gives P = Dgrams ● RT (4)

MM
Equation (4) is a form of the ideal gas law that uses density and molar mass in place of
moles and volume. You can either work out the above derivation every time an ideal gas
problem involves density..., OR you can memorize these two equations:
The ideal gas law: PV = nRT and P = Dgrams • RT

MM
If an ideal gas problem mentions gas density or molar mass at conditions not at STP, it is
usually a prompt to use the form of the ideal gas law that includes density and molar mass.

When the Equation To Use Is Not Clear

So far, we have learned only two gas-law equations, but we are about to learn a few more.
Other science courses will have many equations to memorize. How do you decide which
equation to use when?
Correctly choosing which to use will require a system. The following system is easy to use.
It will work in chemistry and in other science courses.
A System for Finding the Right Equation

When you are not sure which equation to use, OR whether to use equations or conversions to
solve, do these steps.
1. As you have been doing, read the problem the first time looking only for the unit or
variable WANTED. Write WANTED, a ?, and the unit and/or the symbol that you are
looking for in the problem.
2. As always, list the DATA with units, substances, and descriptive labels. Add any
prompts. Make sure that every number in the problem is in your DATA table.
3. Analyze whether the problem will require conversions or an equation.
• Try conversions first. Conversions limit the number of equations you must
memorize. Conversion problems will have most data in pairs and/or ratio units.
• If the data is mostly in single units, you will likely need an equation. Recent course
lessons will likely indicate the equations that may be needed.
• Certain factors often hint at the need for an equation. For example, the mention of
R in a gas problem is almost always a prompt that you will need one of the forms of
the ideal gas law to solve.
4. If a lecture or textbook is frequently using certain equations, memorize them before you
do the practice problems. Write them at the top of your paper at the start of each
assignment, quiz, or test. Memorized material is easier to recall before you are
immersed in the details of problems and stress of tests.
5. If you recognize which equation is needed, write the equation, then make a DATA table
which includes every symbol in the equation. Fill in the table with the DATA from the
problem.
6. If conversions don’t work and you suspect you need an equation, but you are not sure
which equation is needed, try this:
Label each item of WANTED and DATA with a symbol based on its units. Use symbols
that are used in the equations for the topic you are studying.
For example,
• 25 kPa would be labeled with a P for pressure;
• 293 K would get a T for Kelvin scale temperature;
• 20oC gets a lower case t for degrees Celsius;
• Liters or mL or cm3 or dm3 would be assigned a V for volume;

• 25 grams would be labeled with a lower case m for mass;

• 18.0 grams per mole -- label MM for molar mass;
• 2.5 moles per liter, in a problem about aqueous solutions, would be labeled M
for molarity;
• 7.5 grams per liter, a mass over volume, would be labeled D for density.
Label the WANTED unit, as well as each item of DATA, with a symbol.
7. Compare the symbols listed in the WANTED and DATA to your written, memorized list
of equations for the chapter. Find the equation that uses those symbols. Write the
equation, as memorized, below the data.
If no equations match exactly, see if the problem’s symbols can be converted to give the
symbols for a known equation (for example, degrees Celsius can be converted to
kelvins, and grams can be converted to moles if you know a substance formula).
8. Watch for the variables that make similar equations different. For example, in the two
forms of the ideal gas law, the first uses volume and moles. The second uses molar
mass and density instead of volume and moles. The symbols that you assign to the
WANTED and DATA will identify which equation to use.
9. SOLVE the equation for the WANTED variable in symbols before plugging in numbers.
Symbols move quickly. If instead of moving symbols, you move numbers and their
units and their labels, more errors will tend to occur.
Practice B
Using the method above, try these in your notebook. If you get stuck, read a portion of the
answer and try again.
1. Assign symbols used in gas law equations to these quantities.
a. 122 g/mol b. 202 kPa c. 13.5 g/mL d. 30˚C
2. Solve P = Dgrams • RT for a) D = b) MM c) T

MM
3. If the density of a gas at 27oC and standard pressure is 1.79 g/L, what is its molar
mass?
4. Write values for standard pressure in 5 different units.
5. If one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 liters of volume at STP, calculate the value of R in
units of kPa • L/mol • K.
6. What is the density of oxygen gas (O2) in grams per liter at STP?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. If a 1.76 gram sample of uranium hexafluoride gas is at 380. torr and 600. K, what
volume will it occupy? (Use R = 62.4 torr·L/mol·K)
Hints: The data will include 1.76 g UF6
It says to use R. Write the only relationship that we know so far which uses R.
* * * * *
PV = nRT Make your data table to match the equation:
DATA: P = 380 torr n= ?
V = ? WANTED R = 62.4 torr • L
mol • K
T = 600. K
Plus: 1.76 g UF6
352.0 g UF6 = 1 mol UF6 (g prompt)
Strategy: Looking at the PV=nRT data table, if all of the quantities but one are known, we can solve
with algebra. Missing 2 variables, we can’t. But the plus data gives us a way to find moles of
the gas. The rule is: first solve the part without the final WANTED variable.
? mol UF6 = 1.76 g UF6 ● 1 mol UF6 = 5.000 x 10─3 mol UF6
352.0 g UF6
Adding those moles to the PV=nRT data table, the V WANTED can be found.
? = V = nRT = nRT ● 1 = ( 5.000 x 10─3 mol )( 62.4 torr • L )(600 K) ● 1 = 0.493 L

P P mol • K 380 torr
2. A sample of neon gas has a volume of 8.96 L at 298 K and 2.00 atm. How many grams
of Ne are in the sample? (Pick an appropriate R.)
WANT: ? g Ne
DATA: PV = nRT (It says to use a relationship with R)
P = 2.0 atm. V = 8.96 L n= ?
R = 0.0821 L • atm (Pick an R value that has units that match
mol • K the units used in the problem.)
T = 298 K
Plus: 20.2 g Ne = 1 mol Ne (grams prompt)
Strategy: You want grams. If you know the moles, you can find the grams by molar mass conversion.
Using PV=nRT, you can find the moles. Complete that part first.
? = n = PV = PV ● 1 = 2.00 atm ● 8.96 L ● mol • K = 0.7324 mol Ne
RT T R 298 K 0.0821 L • atm
Note how the term with the fractional unit (R) was separated to simplify cancellation.
Use the common variable from one part to solve the other part.
* * * * *

? g Ne = 0.7324 mol Ne ● 20.2 g Ne = 14.8 g Ne

1 mol Ne
* * * * *
Practice B
1. a. 122 g/mol MM b. 202 kPa P c. 13.5 g/mL D d. 30˚C t
2. Solve P = Dgrams • RT for a) D = P ● MM

MM RT
b) MM = Dgrams • R • T c) T = P ● MM
P Dg ● R
3. Use conversions or equations? To decide, list the data. If the data is mostly pairs or ratio units, try
conversions. If conversions won’t work (and on this problem they don’t), use the units and words in the
problem to assign symbols, and see if a known formula fits the symbols.
WANTED: ? g MM
mole
DATA: 27 oC t T = 27 oC + 273 = 300. K (3 sf – doubt in one’s place when adding)
Std. P = 1 atm. P
1.90 g = 1 L Dgrams
(Strategy: If the gas were at STP, we could use conversions to solve, but 27oC is not standard
temperature.
We have memorized two gas equations that use pressure and temperature:
PV = nRT and P = Dgrams • RT
MM
The second equation fits the data. (R is a constant that you are normally allowed to look up
in a table even if it is not supplied (and if not, it is easy to calculate)).
If an equation fits the symbols, try the equation. Solving for the wanted MM:)
MM = density • RT = 1.79 g • 1 • 0.0821 atm • L • 300. K = 44.1 g

P L 1 atm mol • K mol
Terms with fractional units (density and R) were separated for cancellation.
4. 1 Atmosphere ≡ 760 mm Hg ≡ 760 Torr = 101 kilopascals (kPa) = 1.01 bars
5. WANTED: R in kPa· L
mol· K
(R is in both “ideal gas law” equations. To decide which to use, list and symbol the data.)
DATA: std P = 101 kPa in the units wanted for R P
22.4 L V
1 mol n
std. temp = 273 K T

Strategy: Looking at all 5 symbols labeling WANTED and DATA, which equation works?
SOLVE: PV = nRT
? = R = PV = (101 kPa)(22.4 L) = 8.29 kPa • L
nT (1 mol)(273 K) mol • K
Using less rounded values for P, T, and V, the accepted value is 8.31 kPa • L / mol • K
6. What is the density of oxygen gas (O2), in grams per liter, at STP?
WANTED: ? g O2 gas
L O2 gas at STP
DATA: 32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2 (grams prompt)
Strategy: Analyze your units. Equalities lend themselves to conversions. You want grams over liters.
You know grams to moles and moles to liters. This is an easy conversion.
SOLVE:
? g O2 gas = 32.0 g O2 ● 1 mol gas = 1.43 g O2(g)
L O2 gas at STP 1 mol O2 22.4 L gas STP L O2 at STP
* * * * *
Lesson 17F: Using the Combined Equation

Many gas-law calculations involve the special case where the gas is trapped (the moles of
gas in a sample does not change) while P, V and/or T are changed.
If the number of gas moles is held constant, we can rewrite PV = nRT as
PV = nR = (constant moles)(gas constant R) = (a new constant)
T
When you multiply two constants, the result is new constant. While R is always a constant,
the new constant above will only be true for the number of moles in a problem.
However, if gas conditions are changed, but the moles of gas is held constant, the equation
above means that the ratio “P times V over T” will keep the same numeric value no matter
how you change P, V, and T.
Another way to express this relationship: so long as the number of particles of gas does not
change, if you have an initial set of conditions P1, V1, and T1, and you change to a new set
of conditions P2, V2, and T2, the ratio PV/T must stay the same. Expressed in the elegant
and efficient shorthand that is algebra,
nR = P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

IF 5 out of the 6 variables among P1, V1, T1, P2, V2, and T2 are known, the 6th variable may
be found using algebra, without knowing n or needing R.
We will call this relationship the combined equation (because it combines three historic gas
laws). For problems in which the moles of gas particles do not change, when one set of
conditions is changed to new conditions, the quickest way to solve is usually to use
P1V1 = P2V2 where P1, V1, and T1 are starting gas measurements,
T1 T2 and P2, V2, and T2 are the final gas measurements.
This equation is often memorized by repeated recitation of “P one V one over T one equals
P two V two over T two.”
Because the combined equation is derived from the ideal gas law, both equations require
the use of Kelvin temperature. However, if Celsius is specified in a problem, you can easily
convert between Kelvin and Celsius scale temperatures.
For a problem in which the equation needed is known, apply the system used for previous
equations.
• Write the fundamental equation.
• Set up a data table that contains the symbols in the equation.
In a problem that requires the combined equation, start with
P1V1 = P2V2 (when the moles of gas are held constant)

T1 T2
DATA: P1 = P2 =
V1 = V2 =
T1 = T2 =
Then,
• put the numbers and their units from the problem into the table.
• Label the symbol WANTED with a ?. Add the units WANTED if they are specified.
• SOLVE the fundamental equation in symbols for the WANTED symbol, using
algebra, before you plug in numbers.
• Then plug in numbers and units, and solve. Do unit cancellation as well as number
math.
Cover the answer below, and then try the method on this problem, using the combined
equation to solve:
Q. If a sample of gas in a sealed, flexible balloon at STP has a volume of 15.0 liters, and
the pressure is increased to 2.5 atmospheres while the temperature is increased to
373 K, what will be the new volume of the balloon?
* * * * *

P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
DATA: P1 = 1.0 atm. (std. P) P2 = 2.5 atm.

V1 = 15.0 Liters V2 = ?
T1 = 273 K (std T) T2 = 373 K
(For standard pressure, 1.0 atm was chosen because it matched the other P unit in the
problem. Consistent units are required for unit cancellation.)
SOLVE: ? = V2 = P1V1 T2 = (1.0 atm) (15.0 L) (373 K) = 8.2 L

P2 T1 (2.5 atm) (273 K)
If the units do not cancel to give the WANTED unit, check your work.
Practice A: Check answers at the end of this lesson as you go.

1. Solve the combined equation for
a. T2 = b. P1 = c. V2 =
2. A gas cylinder with a volume of 2.50 liters is at room temperature (293 K). The pressure
inside the tank is 100. atmospheres. When the gas is released into a 50.0 liter container,
the gas pressure falls to 2.00 atmospheres. What will be the new temperature of the gas
in kelvins, and in degrees Celsius?
Converting to Consistent Units:

In gas law equations, a capital T means
• temperature in kelvins must be used in the equation.
• If a temperature that is not kelvins is WANTED, Kelvins must be found first, and
then converted to the other temperature units.
For P and V, each variable must be converted to consistent units to solve. It does not matter
which units you choose (such as mL or L for Volume, or torr, atmospheres, or kPa for
Pressure), but it is simplifies calculations if you choose units used in the WANTED unit or
the other DATA in the problem, One unit for each quantity must be chosen, and all data
for that quantity must be converted to that unit.
Keeping that in mind, cover the answer below and try this problem.
Q. An aerosol-spray can contains 250. mL of gas under 3.5 atm. pressure at 27oC. How
many liters would the gas occupy at 50.5 kPa and std. T?
* * * * *
Answer: When one set of gas conditions is changed to new conditions, but moles are held
constant, try

P1V1 = P2V2 (If you need an equation, write it first. The more
T1 T2 often you write it, the longer it is remembered.)
DATA: P1 = 3.5 atm. (std. P) P2 = 50.5 kPa = 0.500 atm.

V1 = 250. mL = 0.250 L V2 = ? liters (L)
T = 27 oC + 273 = 300. K
1 T2 = 273 K
Needed Unit Conversions:
For T1 , need K. K = oC +273 = 27 oC + 273 = 300. K

For P1 , you could use kPa or atm. If you choose atm,
? atm = 50.5 kPa ● 1 atm = 0.500 atm.
101 kPa
Since liters is WANTED, and the initial volume is in mL, pick a unit and convert the
other to it. It’s best to pick the answer unit if it is specified.
? L = V1 = 250. mL ● 10─3 L = 0.250 L
1 mL
SOLVE: ? = V2 = P1V1 T2 = (3.5 atm) (0.250 L) (273 K) = 1.6 L

P2 T1 (0.500 atm) (300. K)
Practice B
1. A sample of hydrogen gas occupies 500. milliliters at 20.oC and 150. kPa. What would
be the temperature in degrees Celsius if the volume of the container is increased to 2.00
liters and the pressure is decreased to 0.550 atm.?
Simplifying Conditions
If temperature in a gas calculation using the combined equation does not change,
converting to kelvins is not necessary. Why?
If P1V1 = P2V2 , and T1 = T2 , then P1V1 = P2V2 ; P1V1 = P2V2

T1 T2 T1 T2
If the “before and after” temperatures are the same, T is not needed to solve.
If any two symbols have the same value in the problem, the values will cancel in the
combined equation because they are the same on both sides. This will simplify the
equation and the arithmetic.
Try this example in your notebook.
Q. A sample of chlorine gas has a volume of 22.4 liters at 27oC and standard pressure.
What will be the pressure in torr if the temperature does not change but the volume
is compressed to 16.8 L?

* * * * *
Answer
P1V1 = P2V2 (Write needed fundamentals before
T1 T2 you get immersed in details)
DATA: P1 = Std. P - use 760 torr to match Æ P2 = ? in torr

V1 = 22.4 L V2 = 16.8 L
T1 = 27oC = T2 T2
SOLVE: P1V1 = P2V2 ; P1V1 = P2V2

T1 T2
? = P2 in torr = P1V1 = (760 torr) (22.4 L) = 1,010 torr

V2 (16.8 L)
Practice C
1. A 0.500 liter sample of neon gas in a sealed metal container is at 30.oC and 380. mm Hg.
What would be the pressure of the gas in kPa at standard temperature?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. T2 If P1V1 = P2V2 , then T P V T
2 = 2 2 1
T1 T2 P1 V1
b. P1 = P2 V2 T1 c. V2 = P1 V1 T2
T2 V1 T1 P2
As a check, note the patterns above.
• The P’s and V’s, if in the same group, have the same subscript, but a T grouped with them will
have the opposite subscript.
• In the fractions, there is always one more term on the top than on the bottom.
• If you substitute consistent units for all of the symbols, the units cancel correctly.
If you have trouble solving for any of the six symbols, find a friend or tutor to help you learn the algebra.
2. If the moles of gas particles do not change, and one set of conditions is changed to new conditions, use
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

DATA: P1 = 100. atm. P2 = 2.00 atm.

V1 = 2.50 L V2 = 50.0 L
T1 = 293 K T2 = ? t2 = ?
SOLVE: (In gas problems, to find Celsius, solve for kelvins first.)
? = T2 = P2 V2 T1 = (2.00 atm) (50.0 L) (293 K) = 117 K
P1 V1 (100. atm) (2.50 L)
To find Celsius: K = oC + 273 oC = K ─ 273 = 117K ─ 273 = ─ 156 oC
Practice B
1. For trapped gas moles changing from original to new conditions, use P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
DATA:
P1 = 150 kPa. P2 = 0.550 atm. = 55.6 kPa
V1 = 500. mL V2 = 2.00 L = 2.00 x 103 mL
T1 = 20 oC + 273 = 293 K T2 = ? t2 = ?
For T1 , K must be used. K = oC + 273 = 20.oC + 273 = 293 K

For P1 , kPa or atm. could be used as units. If you choose kPa,
? kPa = 0.550 atm ● 101 kPa = 55.6 kPa
1 atm
SOLVE: (In gas problems, solve in kelvins first, then Celsius).
? = T2 = P2 V2 T1 = (55.6 kPa) (2,000 mL) (293 K) = 434 K
P1 V1 (150. kPa) (500. mL)
To find Celsius, first write the memorized equation, then solve:
K = oC + 273 oC = K ─ 273 = 434 K ─ 273 = 161 oC
Practice C
1. For trapped gas changing to new conditions, use P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
DATA:
P1 = 380. mm Hg. = 50.5 kPa P2 = ? kPa
V1 = 0.500 L = V2 (a sealed metal gas container will have a constant volume)
T1 = 30.oC + 273 = 303 K T2 = 273 K
For the pressures, you must change to consistent units: either kPa or mm Hg. If you choose kPa,
? kPa = 380. mm Hg ● 101 kPa = 50.5 kPa
760 mm Hg

SOLVE: P2 = P1 V1 T2 = (50.5 kPa) (273 K) = 45.5 kPa

T1 V2 (303 K)
* * * * *
Lesson 17G: Gas Law Summary and Practice

Gas Law Summary
If you have not already done so, design and master flashcards that include the following
rules.
1. Pressure Units
Standard Pressure ≡ 1 atmosphere ≡ 760 mm Hg (mercury) ≡ 760 torr
= 101 kilopascals (kPa) = 1.01 bars
2. If temperature changes in a gas problem, you must use Kelvin temperature.
K = oC + 273
3. To be a measure of moles, gas volumes must be labeled with a P and a T.
4. The STP prompt.
If a gas is at STP, write as DATA: 1 mole gas = 22.4 liters gas at STP
For gas calculations at STP, try the STP prompt and conversions first. Conversions
solve faster than equations.
5. The ideal gas law: PV = nRT and P = Dgrams • RT

MM
where R= the gas constant
= 0.0821 atm•L/mol•K = 8.31 kPa • L /mol•K
6. The combined equation. If the gas conditions are P1V1 = P2V2

changed but the moles of gas does not change, use Æ T1 T2
7. For solving all kinds of calculations, use a system.

• List the WANTED and DATA;
• Try solving with conversions first. If conversions do not work,
• Add symbols to the WANTED and DATA, and then write a memorized
fundamental equation that uses those symbols.
• Solve for the WANTED symbol before plugging in numbers.
• Cancel units as a check of your work.
8. For numbers, units, or symbols: 1/1/X = X ; A/(B/C) = (A · C)/B
* * * * *

Practice: The problems below involve a wide variety of gas relationships. Using the
rules above, you will have a system to solve. Try the odd problems, and some evens in a
later study session. Problem 7 is more challenging.
If you get stuck, read a part of the answer to get a hint, then try again.
1. Solve for the value of R in torr · L /mol · K .
2. The gas in a sealed flexible balloon has a volume of 6.20 liters at 30.ºC and standard
pressure. What will be its volume at ─10. ºC and 740. torr?
3. How many gas molecules will there be, per milliliter, for all gases at STP?
4. If gas in a sealed glass bottle has a pressure of 112 kPa at 25ºC, and the temperature of
the gas is increased to 100.ºC, what will be the pressure?
5. If the density of a gas is 0.0147 g/mL at 20.ºC and standard pressure, what is its molar
mass?
6. In 70.4 grams of UF6 gas, at a volume of 4.48 L and a pressure of 202.6 kPa, what is the
temperature in degrees Celsius? (R = 8.31 kPa •L/mol•K)
7. Hydrofluoric acid can be used to etch glass. If 961 mL of HF gas at SP and 20.ºC is
dissolved in water to make 250. mL of HF solution, what is the [HF]?
ANSWERS
1. WANTED: R in torr· L (Hint: Use measurements at STP)
mol· K
R is used in two memorized ideal gas equations. Add symbols to decide which equation to use.
DATA: std P = 760 in the units wanted for R
V 22.4 L at STP = 1 mol n
std. T = 273 K
Strategy: The symbols above are R, P, V, n, T. Use PV = nRT
SOLVE: ? = R = PV = (760 torr)(22.4 L) = 62.4 torr ● L

nT (1 mol)(273 K) mole ● K
2. WANTED: ? V at end V2
DATA: 6.20 L initial V1
30.ºC + 273 = 303 K initial T1
std P = 760 torr initial, using the P units in the problem P1
─10.oC + 273 = 263 K final T2
740 torr final P2
Strategy: The WANTED and DATA symbols match P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

SOLVE: ? = V2 = P1V1 T2 = (760 torr) (6.20 L) (263 K) = 5.53 L

P 2 T1 (740. torr) (303 K)
3. WANTED: ? molecules gas
mL gas at STP
DATA: 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 1 mole (“molecules” calls the Avogadro prompt)
Strategy: Molecules and mL are wanted. The conversions use molecules, moles, and liters. The
wanted is a ratio; all the data is in equalities. Try conversions.
SOLVE:
? molecules gas = 6.02 x 1023 molecules ● 1 mole gas ● 10─3 L = 2.69 x 1019 molecules
mL gas at STP 1 mole 22.4 L gas STP 1 mL mL gas at STP
4. WANTED: ? P -- problem uses kPa units, and wants P at end = P2
DATA: P = 112 kPa P at start = P1
t = 25oC initial ; K = 25oC + 273 = 298 K = T1
t = 100.oC final K = 100.oC + 273 = 373 K = T 2
Strategy: There are 2 P’s and 2 t’s, but no V’s. However, for a change in a sealed glass bottle, V1 will
equal V2.
SOLVE:
P1V1 = P2V2 ; P1 = P2 ; ? = P = P1T2 = 112 kPa • 373 K = 140. kPa
2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 298 K
5. WANTED: ? g MM
mol
DATA: m 0.0147 grams gas = 1 mL gas NOT at STP V mass/Vol is Density
20 oC = 20 + 273 = 293 K T
Std P = use 1 atm
Strategy: If the gas were at STP, we could use conversions, but it is not. Try adding symbols.
Choose any P unit since none is specified. Pick one using your units for R.
The D and MM symbols fit P = Dgrams • RT

MM
SOLVE:
? = Dg = MM = Dg • RT = 0.0147 g • 1 • 0.0821 atm L • 293 K = ???
mol P mL 1 atm mol K
Oops! The volume units don’t cancel. I must have done something wrong. Hmm. My
R uses liters, but the density was in mL. Let’s add a conversion so that L and mL cancel.

? g = MM = density • RT = 0.0147 g • 1 • 0.0821 atm L • 293 K • 1 mL = 354 g

mol P mL 1 atm mol K 10─3 L mol
(It is better to convert all the data to the consistent units needed to cancel your R before you plug into the
equation, but the above, though messy, works. If the units cancel properly, it’s probably right.)
6. WANTED: ? ºC t
DATA: 70.4 g UF6
352.0 g UF6 = 1 mol UF6 (grams prompt)
4.48 L gas V
202.6 kPa P
R = 8.31 kPa • L / mol • K
The symbols are t , V , P , R . You are missing n , but you can solve for moles from the data. Use?
* * * * *
PV = nRT n = ? mol UF6 = 70.4 g UF6 • 1 mol UF6 = 0.200 mol UF6
352.0 g UF6
T = PV = (202.6 kPa) (4.48 L) 1 = (202.6 kPa) (4.48 L) ● mol • K = 546 K
nR (0.200 mol) ( 8.31 kPa • L ) (0.200 mol) 8.31 kPa • L
mol • K
ºC = K ─ 273 = 546 ─ 273 = 273 ºC
7. WANTED: ? mol HF
L HF soln. t
DATA: 961 mL HF gas at SP and 20.ºC (= 0.961 L HF gas) V
250. mL HF soln. (= 0.250 L HF soln.)
(This problem has two volumes, one for the gas and one for the aqueous solution. Label your
volume units as gas or soln. so that you do not use the solution volume in the gas equation.)
Strategy: First, analyze the answer unit.
On top: since V, P, and T are known, moles of gas can be found with PV=nRT.
For the bottom unit, mL, and therefore liters of the solution, is known.
Any R can be used, provided P and V are converted to the R units chosen.
SOLVE: Find moles. PV = nRT
? = n = PV = 1 ● PV = mol ● K ● (1 atm)(0.961 L gas) = 0.03995 mol HF

RT R T ( 0.0821 atm ● L ) (293 K)
Separate a complex unit in the denominator, and carry an extra sf until the final step.
Using the answer for that part as DATA to find the WANTED unit.
WANTED: ? mol HF = 0.03995 mol HF = 0.160 mol HF = [HF]

L HF soln 0.250 L HF soln. L HF soln.
# # # # #

Module 18 — Gas Labs, Gas Reactions

Lessons 18A and 18B address graphing of experimental data and writing conclusions for
lab reports which include graphs of data. Those lessons use gas laws as examples, but they
may also be of benefit at any time that you are asked to interpret graphs of experimental
results in chemistry, physics, applied math, or engineering.
Lesson 18A: Charles’ Law; Graphing Direct Proportions

Timing: Lesson 18A should be done when you are asked to graph experimental data,
discuss the meaning of a direct proportion, or work with Charles’ law for gases.
Prerequisites: Lessons 17A on gas fundamentals and 17D on the ideal gas law.
* * * * *
Charles’ Law: A Direct Proportion
For the special case of gas measurements when volume and temperature are varied, but
moles and pressure are held constant, the ideal gas law PV = nRT can be re-written as
V = nR = (constant moles)(gas constant R) = (a new constant) = c
T P (constant Pressure)
Multiplying and dividing constants results in a new constant, a number with units that we
will term c. The above equation can then be written as
V = c for an ideal gas, when moles and pressure are held constant.
T
This is Charles’ law, discovered in the early 19th century by Jacques Charles, a French
scientist and hot air balloonist.
In the above equation, V and T are variables and c is a constant.
Charles’ Law means that in a gas sample, if moles and pressure are held constant , the ratio
V/T will stay the same if you change V or T.
A second way to express this relationship: as long as no particles of gas enter or escape, and
pressure is held constant, if an initial set of conditions V1 and T1 is changed to a new set of
conditions V2 and T2, the V/T ratio will be the same under both conditions. In equation
form:
nR = c = V1 = V2 so long as pressure and moles are held constant.
P T1 T2
In this second form of Charles’ law, if any three of the four V and T measurements are
known, the fourth can be found using algebra, without finding or knowing c.
A third way to write Charles’ law, with moles and pressure held constant, is
since V = c , we can write V = cT , where c is constant.
T

Using Charles’ law in the form V = cT , it is easy to see that

• if the absolute temperature (T) is doubled, since c is constant, V must double.
• If the volume is cut by half, it can only be because T in kelvins has been reduced by
half.
Any relationship that fits the general equation A = cB , where A and B are variables, and c
is constant, is called a direct proportion. The c in the equation is the proportionality
constant. Since V and T can vary, but c is constant, Charles’ law V = cT is a direct
proportion.
This leads to a fourth way to represent Charles’ law in equations: since V = cT is true,
V  T . The  is a symbol for “is proportional to.” The equation V  T is read, “V is
directly proportional to T.”
Directly proportional simply means if one of the two variables changes by any multiple
(quadruple, cut by 2/3, up by 40%), the other variable must change by the same multiple.
Using this fourth equation, Charles’ law can be translated into words as, “when moles and
pressure of a gas are held constant, volume is directly proportion to absolute temperature.”
To summarize, Charles’ law can be written in four equivalent ways:
Charles’ law: V = c or V1 = V2 or V = cT or V  T when P and n are constant.

T T1 T2
These four ways of writing Charles’ law should be memorized. The form of these four
equations can be used to describe any relationship between two variables that is a direct
proportion, and many direct proportions are encountered in science. If any one of the forms
of a equations representing a direct proportion is true, all four will be true.
The Loss of Ideal Behavior
One implication of Charles’ law is that as an ideal gas gets colder and colder, its volume
becomes smaller and smaller. At absolute zero, the gas volume would be zero.
In reality, when taken to lower temperatures and/or higher pressures, at some point all
gases condense into liquids or solids. A gas loses most of its volume when it condenses,
but that lower volume then stays close to constant as the liquid or solid is cooled or
compressed further.
In general, the ideal gas law best predicts gas behavior at high temperatures and a
pressures at or below standard pressure (1 atm.). As gases are placed under higher
pressure or approach a temperature and pressure at which they condense, most gases lose
their close to ideal behavior. Under those conditions, they no longer obey the ideal gas law
or laws such as Charles’ law that are derived from the ideal gas law.
* * * * *

Practice A: Answer all of the following without a calculator. Check answers at the end
of this lesson.
1. Which variables must be held constant for Charles’ law to predict gas behavior?
2. Write four equivalent ways of expressing Charles’ law.
3. A sample of gas is contained in a large syringe: a glass cylinder with a tightly sealed
but moveable piston. The pressure of the gas inside the syringe is equal to the
atmospheric pressure outside the syringe, which is held constant.
If the gas volume in the syringe is 30. mL at 200. K,
a. What would be the volume of the gas
i. at 400. K?
ii. at 300. K?
b. What must the temperature be if the volume of the gas is changed to
i. 15 mL?
ii. 90. mL?
4. A sample of trapped gas molecules in a glass container (a constant volume) is attached
to a pressure gauge. Pressure measurements are taken at a variety of temperatures.
a. Rewrite PV=nRT to conform to the conditions of this experiment, with the 2 variable
terms on the left, and the constants grouped on the right.
b. Will the P versus T relationship be a direct proportion? Why or why not?
c. The following measurements are recorded:
1) At 150. K, P = 74 kPa 2) At 200. K, P = 101 kPa 3) at 250. K, P = 125 kPa
Within experimental error, are these data consistent with a direct proportion? Why
or why not?
d. What pressure would you predict at a temperature of 450. K?
Graphing Direct Proportions

Many relationships can be investigated by changing one variable and measuring a second
variable, while holding all other variables constant. In science experiments, you are often
asked to graph the results of those experiments.
With experimental data, a frequent goal is to find a graph that is an approximate straight
line. The data can then be interpreted based on the equation for a line: y = mx + b .
As noted above, whenever a relationship can be expressed by an equation in the form:
A = (a constant) • B , where A and B can vary, then A and B are directly proportional. It is
also true that a graph of A versus B will produce a straight line which, if extended, passes
through the origin. Why?

The equation for a straight line on a graph is y = mx + b , where

• m is the constant slope of the graph (the rise over the run), and
• b is the y-intercept, the value of y at x = 0 (which is the value of y where the
graphed line crosses the y-axis).
If the value of the y-intercept (b) is zero, y = 0 when x = 0, and the straight line will pass
through the origin (0,0).
In the case of data for to variables that falls on a straight line on a graph that passes through
the origin,
• the equation for the line is y = mx + 0, which simplifies to y = mx . This equation
matches the form of a direct proportion: A = (a constant) • B .
• The variables plotted on the y and x axis are directly proportional, and the slope m
is the proportionality constant of the direct proportion y = mx.
If the value of the y-intercept (b) of a straight line is not zero, the y versus x relationship is
said to be linear, but it is not directly proportional.
To summarize,
Direct Proportion = Line Through Origin

When two variables that are directly proportional are graphed, the data falls on a straight
line thru the origin.
When graphed data for two variables falls close to a straight line through the origin, the
variables are directly proportional, and the values for the data and relationship can be
predicted by the equation y-axis variable = (constant slope of line)(x-axis variable) .
In science, a fundamental goal is to develop equations that measure how changes in one
quantity will affect other quantities. Those equations can be written with relative ease
when plots of experimental data fall on a straight line.
Graphing Charles’ Law
Charles’ law is a direct proportion. The form of Charles law V = cT fits the general
equation form: y = (a constant) times x.
If in a Charles’ law experiment, pressure and moles of a gas sample are held constant, the
temperature of the gas is varied and recorded in kelvins , and the resulting volumes are
recorded, the V versus T data can then be graphed.
Since V = cT matches the form y = mx + 0 , if V is plotted on the V
y-axis and T on the x-axis, the data falls on a line that looks like
the graph at the right, a straight line through the origin. Æ
T
Since V = cT matches the form y = mx, the value of the
proportionality constant (c) will equal the slope (m) of the line through the origin.
* * * * *

Explaining the Graph of a Direct Proportion

If any one of these statements is true, you may write that all of these statements are true.
1. When data for one variable Y is graphed on the y-axis, and data for the other variable X
is graphed on the x-axis, the data falls close to a straight line thru the origin.
2. A variable Y is directly proportional to a variable X.
3. Y = m X , where m is constant and is the slope of the line of Y plotted versus X.
4. Y X and X Y
5. Y1 = Y2 = c = m = the constant slope of a line fitting a graph of Y versus X.

X1 X2
6. For any measure of Y and X, the ratio Y over X will be constant.

Writing Lab Reports Based on Graphed Data
For a laboratory experiment, if a graph of data fits (allowing for experimental error) on a
straight line that would pass through the origin, all of the above statements about the two
graphed variables can be discussed in the conclusion to your lab report.
Often, you will find the relationship between the two graphed variables addressed in your
textbook. Reviewing what the text has to say about the relationship between the two
variables may improve your understanding of an experiment. In the conclusion of a lab
reports, it is often appropriate to discuss what an experiment’s results should have been
ideally, and why your results may differ from theoretical results.
Practice B: First learn the six rules in the summary above, then do these problems to test
your knowledge. Check answers frequently.
1. A sample of trapped gas molecules in a container with a constant volume is attached to
a pressure gauge. Measurements of pressure are taken at a variety of temperatures.
a. What are the symbols for the two variables in this experiment?
b. What are the symbols for the gas variables held constant in this experiment?
c. Starting from the ideal gas law, group all of the constants in this experiment into a
single constant c, then write one equation with “ = c “ on the right and the variables
of this experiment on the left.
d. Write four mathematically equivalent equations that express the relationship
between P and T.
e. Express this relationship in words.
f. In this experiment, if pressure is plotted on the y-axis, and absolute temperature on
the x-axis, what will be the shape of the graph?

2. For the graph at the right, label each of the following statements as True or False.
a. C and D are directly proportional.
b. D  C C
c. D = mC , (where m is slope)
d. C = mD
e. D = (1/m) C D
f. C1 = C 2
D1 D2
g. C1D2 = C2D1
3. The equation for converting degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit is: ˚F = (9/5) ˚C + 32
Sample data points for this relationship are: 32˚F = 0˚C , 68˚F = 20˚C , 212˚F = 100˚C.
a. Will a graph of the data for ˚F on the y-axis, versus ˚C on the x-axis, fit on a straight
line? Why or why not?
b. Is the relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius a direct proportion?
c. For a plot of ˚F on the y-axis versus ˚C on the x-axis, what will be the value of the
slope? What will be the value of the y-intercept?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. In Charles’ Law, pressure (P) and particles of gas (n) are held constant.
2. V = c or V1 = V2 or V = cT or V  T when P and n are constant.

T T1 T2
3a. i. at 400. K? 60. mL. The absolute temperature doubled; the volume must double.
ii. at 300. K? 45 mL. The Kelvin temperature rose 50%; the volume must rise 50%.
3b. i. 15 mL? 100. K. If the volume is cut in half, the temperature in kelvins is halved.
ii. 90. mL? 600. K. If the volume is tripled, the absolute temperature is tripled.
4. a. P = nR (Variables on the left, constants on the right.)
T V
b. Yes. The Part a equation can be written P/T = c . If either P or T doubles, the other variable must
double.
c. Yes. The ratio P/T is about the same for all 3 points, which is one test for a direct proportion.
d. In each case the value of P in kPa is one-half T , so P would be predicted to be about ½ of 450 =
~ 225 kPa.

Practice B
1. a. P and T b. V and n c. Since P = nR and n, R, and V are all constant, P = c .
T V T
d. P = c and P1 = P2 and P = cT and PT (when V and n are held constant.)
T T1 T2
e. When volume and moles are held constant, gas pressure varies in direct proportion to absolute
temperature.
f. A straight line through the origin.
2. a. C and D are directly proportional. True C
b. D  C True (if C  D, D  C)
c. D = mC , (where m is slope) False ( x ≠ my ) D
d. C = mD True ( y = mx )
e. D = (1/m) C True, since C = mD
f. C1 = C2 True; since C = mD, C/D = m = constant

D1 D2
g. C1D2 = C2D1 True; since part (f) is true, and (f) and (g) are the same algebraically.
3a. Straight line? Yes, because ˚F = (9/5) ˚C + 32 is in the form y = mx + b . However, the line will
not pass through the origin, since b ≠ 0.
b. Direct proportion? No. A straight line represents a direct proportion only when the y-intercept is
zero (the line passes through the origin). Here, the y-intercept is + 32. Another way to check: the y
over x ratio would be constant for a direct proportion. For the data above, ˚F over ˚C is not constant.
c. Slope? Since ˚F = (9/5)˚C + 32 is in the form y = mx + b, slope = (9/5) = 1.80
The y-intercept? b = + 32
* * * *

Lesson 18B: Boyle’s Law – Graphs of Inverse Proportions

Prerequisites: Lessons 17A, 17D, and 18A.
* * * * *
Boyle’s Law
When moles and temperature are held constant, the terms in the ideal gas law are
PV = nRT = (constant moles)(gas constant R)(constant T)
Since multiplying constants results in a constant, the above equation can be written as
PV = c where c is constant when n and T are held constant.
This is Boyle’s law, discovered in the mid-1600’s by the English scientist Robert Boyle. For
any gas with ideal behavior, if moles and temperature do not change, the product P times V
will stay the same as you change P and V.
Another way to express this relationship: if you have an initial set of conditions P1 and V1,
and you change to a new set of conditions P2 and V2, the product P•V must stay the same,
as long as no particles of gas enter or escape, and temperature is the same for both initial
and final conditions.
In equation form: nRT = c = P1V1 = P2V2 when n and T are held constant.
If 3 out of the 4 variables among P1, V1, P2, and V2 are known, the missing 4th variable may
be found using algebra, and without using R or knowing n, T, or c.
From the form PV = c, it can be seen that if the pressure is doubled, the volume must drop
by half for the product of P times V to remain constant. If the pressure is cut to one-third of
an original value, it can only be because the original volume has tripled. This type of
relationship is called an inverse proportion.
In words, for Boyle’s law, “if the number of particles and the temperature of a gas are held
constant, pressure will be inversely proportional to volume.”
Since PV = c can be re-written as P = c(1/V) , Boyle’s law can also be written as
P  1/V
This form is read as either “P is inversely proportional to V,” or as “P is directly proportional
to one over V.” Recall that 1/V can also be written as V─1 .
One implication of Boyle’s law is that as a gas is placed under higher and higher pressure,
its volume will approach zero. In reality, under increasing pressure, at some point all gases
lose their ideal behavior, condense to liquids or solids, and no longer obey the ideal gas
law.
Summary: Using flashcards, commit to long-term memory:
Boyle’s law can be written or P1V1 = P2V2

PV = c or P = c(1/V) or P  1/V
when moles and temperature are held constant.
* * * * *

Practice A: Check your answers at the end of this lesson after each part.
1. Write four equivalent mathematical equations expressing Boyle’s law.
2. What two gas variables must be held constant for Boyle’s law to predict gas behavior?
3. For the relationship A  1/B ,

a. If A is tripled, what must happen to B?
b. If B goes from 400 to 200, A must go from 300 to _________?
Graphing Inverse Proportions

P
When data for an inverse proportion such as PV= c is graphed,
the result is a portion of a hyperbola. Note that as x-values
increase, y-values decrease. As x-values approach zero, y-values
become large. This is the behavior of an inverse proportion.
PV=c can be written as P=c(1/V) . If data for P is plotted on the V
y-axis and values calculated for 1/V are assigned to the x-axis, this
form matches the general equation for a line y = mx + b passing P
through the origin (b=0, see Lesson 18A).
A graph of the data for points representing of P and 1/V should
therefore fall on a straight line through the origin, where the slope 1/V
(m) of the line is the value of the constant c. The equation that
explains and predicts values for P and V is P = m(1/V) .
If the value of the y-intercept (b) is not zero, the y versus 1/x relationship will not be a
direct proportion, and the data on the y- and x-axes will not be inversely proportional.
Summary for a Inverse Proportion
If any one of these is true, all are true.
1. Variable Y is inversely proportional to a variable X;
2. Variable Y is directly proportional to 1/X;
3. Y is equal to a constant times 1/X;
4. Y = m (X─1) , where m is the constant slope of a line on a graph of Y versus 1/X
5. Y  1/X (and X  1/Y)
6. Y1 X1 = Y2 X2 = c = m = the constant slope of a line graphing Y versus 1/X
7. For any measure of Y and X, Y times X will be constant.
8. When Y is graphed versus 1/X, the points fall on a straight line thru the origin.
For labs in which the experimental data results in a graph of Y versus 1/X with points that
fall close to a straight line thru the origin, the above statements about the two variables can
be evaluated and discussed in the conclusion to your lab report.
* * * * *

Practice B: Check your answers after each part or three.

1. For the graph at the right, label each of the following E
statements as True or False:
a. E and F are inversely proportional.
b. E = m(1/F) (where m is slope) 1/F
c. F = m(E─1)
d. F = cE (where c is a constant)
e. FE= (1/m)
f. FE= m
g. E1F1 = E2F2
2. To cover a constant distance, the rate of travel (such as km per hour) is, by the definition
of the terms, inversely proportional to the time required. Higher rate values will mean a
smaller time values.
a. Write the relationship between rate, and time, and a constant distance by
completing these two equivalent equations.
(constant d) = and rate =
b. Write the relationship between rate and time in two equivalent equations that use
the  sign.
c. Express the equations above in words.
d. If the time for travel triples, the rate of travel _______________________.
e. To travel a fixed distance at various rates, if rate is plotted on the y-axis, and time on
the x-axis, what will be the shape of the graph?
f. If rate is plotted on the y-axis, what must be plotted on the x-axis to produce a graph
which is a straight line through the origin?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Boyle’s law: PV = c or P1V1 = P2V2 or P = c(1/V) or P  V─1
2. Two variables held constant for Boyle’s law: T and n
3. It may help to re-write A  1/B as AB = c
a. If A is tripled? B is reduced to 1/3 of its original value.
b. If B goes from 400 to 200, A must go from 300 to 600 .
* * * * *

Practice B
1. a. E and F are inversely proportional. True E
b. E = m(1/F) (m is slope) True This is a form of y=mx+b
c. F = m(E─1) True. If (b) is true, this is true, by algebra. 1/F
d. F = cE (c is constant) False. This would be a direct proportion.
e. FE= (1/m) False. Part (b) is true, and therefore 1/m = 1/FE ≠ FE
f. FE= m True. This is equivalent to (b).
g. E1F1 = E2F2 True. If FE is equal to a constant (part F), this will be true.
2. a. Constant distance = (rate)(time) and rate = (constant d) / (time) or rate = (constant d) (1/time)
b. To use the proportional sign, start with a form y = (constant) x , which means y  x .
For this relationship, since rate = (constant d) (1/time), then rate  1/time ;
and since this equation can be rewritten as time = (constant d)(1/rate), then time  1/rate .
c. A few of several possibilities are, in traveling a constant distance, rate is inversely proportional to time;
rate is directly proportional to one over time; constant distance equals rate times time.
d. If the time for the travel triples, the rate of travel is 1/3 as fast.
e. Since rate and time are inversely proportional, the graph will be a section of a hyperbola.
f. Since rate and time are inversely proportional, rate versus 1/time fits on a line through the origin.
* * * * *
Lesson 18C: Avogadro’s Hypothesis; Gas Stoichiometry

Timing: Do this lesson when you are assigned gas reaction calculations.
Prerequisites: Modules 2, 4, 5, 8, and 10, plus Lessons 11B, 17A, and 17D.
* * * * *
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
In 1811, the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro made a remarkable discovery: that in
chemical reactions, volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure are used up and
formed in simple whole-number ratios. To explain his results, he proposed that “equal
volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of
molecules.” Avogadro’s hypothesis highlighted the importance of counting particles in
understanding chemical processes.
One implication of Avogadro’s hypothesis is that for ideal gases, the chemical formula and
molar mass of a gas have no effect on the volume that the gas will occupy.
• If samples the same gas, different gases, or mixtures of multiple gases have the
same pressure, temperature, and volume, they will contain the same number of gas
molecules.
• For two samples of gas at the same temperature and pressure, if one sample has
twice as many molecules, it will have twice the volume.

Gas Volumes and Coefficients

We have previously found that coefficients of a balanced equation can be read as ratios of
• particles (molecules, ions, or formula units);
• moles of particles (or any other multiple of particles); or
• moles/liter of particles that are all in the same volume (such as gas particles in a
sealed glass container, or dissolved particles that react in the same aqueous
solution).
Since coefficients are ratios of particles, and gas volume ratios at the same temperature and
pressure are also ratios of particles, based on Avogadro’s hypothesis we can add to the
above list. Coefficients of a balanced reaction equation that is all gases can also be read as
• volumes of gases, if the gases are measured at the same temperature and pressure.
Apply this rule to the following problem, and then check your answer below.
Q. Carbon monoxide oxidizes to form carbon dioxide. The balanced equation is
2 CO(gas) + 1 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g)
Assuming that all of the gases are at the same temperature and pressure, starting
with ten volumes of CO;
a. How many volumes of O2 would be needed to completely use up the CO?
b. How many volumes of CO2 would be formed in the reaction?
* * * * *
Answer
a. The reaction coefficients are ratios of gas volumes for gases are at the same T and P. Ten
volumes of CO would require five volumes of O2 to be used up completely.
b. Ten volumes of CO plus five volumes of O2 would be completely used up. Ten
volumes of CO2 would be formed.
Practice A: Answers are at the end of this lesson.

1. For the reaction 2 H2(gas) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g)
20. liters of hydrogen gas and 20. liters of oxygen gas, both at standard pressure and
120˚C, are mixed and ignited. The resulting gases are adjusted to the original
temperature and pressure. (At standard pressure and above 100.˚C, all of the H2O will
be in the form of steam, a gas.)
a. Which is the limiting reactant?
b. For which of the reactants will some amount remain after the reaction?
c. After the reaction, which gases are present?
d. How many liters of each of the reactants and products are present after the reaction
is complete?

Gas Stoichiometry
All reaction calculations can be solved using the same fundamental stoichiometry steps.
However, for gas reaction calculations, it will speed our work if we solve using these three
variations in the stoichiometry steps.
Method 1. IF the WANTED and given are both volumes of gases at the same temperature
and pressure (even if not at standard T and P (STP)),
• solve based on Avogadro’s hypothesis: by inspection or with one
volume-volume conversion.
Method 2. IF all of the gas volumes in the WANTED and given are at STP,
• solve using standard 7-step stoichiometry and the STP prompt.
Method 3. IF the WANTED and given are not gases at the same T and P, or not all gases
volumes in the DATA are at STP,
• solve using a rice table.
We will do one calculation for each type. A method 1 calculation was covered in the
previous section. Let’s try method 2.
Stoichiometry If All Gas Volumes Are At STP
In stoichiometry, if all gas volumes in the WANTED and DATA are at STP, you can solve
using the STP prompt and the standard steps of conversion stoichiometry.
Try the following problem in your notebook.
Q1. The unbalanced equation for the burning of propane gas is
C3H8(g) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + H2O(g)
How many grams of O2 gas are needed to burn 3.50 liters of propane at STP?
* * * * *
Answer
1. WANT: ? g O2 gas
(Burning means reacting with oxygen gas, so propane must be C3H8).
2. DATA: 3.50 L C3H8 at STP (WANTED # given formula)
1 mol gas = 22.4 L any gas at STP (STP prompt)
32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2 (g prompt)
For reactions, if WANTED formula ≠ given formula, use the stoichiometry steps.
Since the WANTED and DATA include only one gas volume and it is at STP, you can solve
using conversions.
3. Balance. C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) Æ 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
4. Bridge. 5 mol O2 = 1 mol C3H8 (the WANTED to given mol ratio)

* * * * *

Steps 5-7: When a single unit is WANTED, convert “final unit WANTED = # and unit of
given substance” to moles given, to moles WANTED, to units WANTED.
? unit WANTED = unit given >> mol given >> bridge-mol WANTED > unit WANTED
? g O2 = 3.50 L C3H8 gas STP ● 1 mol gas ● 5 mol O2 ● 32.0 g O2 = 25.0 g O2

22.4 L gas STP 1 mol C3H8 1 mol O2
To use conversions to solve gas stoichiometry, it is not necessary that all of the gases be at
STP. The requirement is simply that all gas volumes in the WANTED and given be at STP.
In the problem above, the oxygen gas may or may not be at STP, but that does not affect the
WANTED mass of oxygen. In a sealed sample of a gas, even if P, V, and/or T are changed,
the number of gas particles (moles) does not change, and, since each substance particle has
a constant mass, the total mass of the gas will be constant.
Practice B
1. The unbalanced equation for the burning of ethanol is
C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + H2O(g)
If the density of liquid ethanol is 0.789 g/mL, how many liters of CO2 gas at STP will be
produced by burning 2.50 mL of ethanol?
Stoichiometry If A Gas Volume Is Not At STP

The above two methods are for simple gas reaction situations, where either
• all reactants and products are gases at the same temperature and pressure, or
• all of the gases involved in the reaction are at STP.
For all other gas reaction calculations, our method to solve will be: use a rice table. Some
types of gas calculations can be solved more quickly by other methods, but those methods
don’t work in all cases. The rice table method takes more steps, but it has the advantage of
solving all reaction calculations. The rice table solves using the same steps for every type of
calculation: for solids and solutions, for gases whether at STP or not, and in problems
where you may or may not need to find the limiting reactant.
Our general rule is: use a rice table for complex reaction calculations. Stoichiometry
involving gases not at STP is complicated by the fact that we cannot use “all conversions”
to solve. The key steps in stoichiometry involve finding the moles of the given, and then
the WANTED, substance. To find moles of a gas not at STP, you need to use a gas equation
instead of conversions. When mixing equations and conversions, the rice table will provide
us with a consistent steps to solve.

When to Use a Rice Table

For any reaction calculation that asks you to find the mixture at the end of the reaction,
or for any reaction that is complicated, including
• when you are not sure whether you need to find a limiting reactant or not, or
• when a reaction involves a gas not at STP,
use a rice moles table to solve. The steps are write the WANTED unit, then
In gas stoichiometry, if Avogadro’s hypothesis cannot be used, and if the WANTED or

DATA includes a gas volume not at STP, we will need to use PV = nRT instead of a
conversion, to convert between the gas volume and its moles.
In solving gas reaction calculations using rice tables, the steps are
• If the given amount is a gas that is not at STP, use PV=nRT to find the moles of the
gas, then enter those moles into the rice moles table.
• If the WANTED amount is a gas not at STP, solve the rice table , then use PV=nRT to
change moles of WANTED gas in the End row to the units of gas WANTED.
Let’s learn this method by example. Solve the following problem using the steps below. If
you get stuck, read the answer until un-stuck, then try again.
Q2. A 0.972 gram sample of magnesium metal is reacted with an excess of
hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. The unbalanced equation is
Mg(s) +HCl(aq) Æ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
How many liters of H2 would be formed at standard pressure and 20.˚C?
(R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)
* * * * *
Answer
1. WANT: ? L H2 gas at SP and 20.˚C
WANTED is a gas volume for a gas not at STP, and not all substances are gases at
the same T and P. Use the rice steps to solve:
The only supplied substance data is g Mg. Convert to moles.
DATA: 0.972 g Mg (Start with a single unit)
1 mol Mg = 24.3 g Mg (grams prompt)
? mol Mg = 0.972 g Mg ● 1 mol Mg = 0.0400 mol Mg
24.3 g Mg
For a rice table, the first row needs a balanced equation.
1 Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) Æ 1 MgCl2(aq) + 1 H2(g)

Reaction 1 Mg 2 HCl 1 MgCl2 1 H2
Initial 0.0400 mol excess -- --

End 0 mol excess + 0.0400 mol + 0.0400 mol
In the rice table, in a reaction that goes to completion, one reactant must be limiting
(totally used up). If there are two reactants, and one is in excess, the other will be
limiting. The key row is the Change row, in which the ratios used up and formed must
be the same as the reaction ratios (coefficients) in row 1.
Once the rice table is solved in moles, we can convert to other WANTED units.
WANTED: ? L H2 gas at SP and 20.˚C
DATA: 0.0400 mol H2
To go from moles of a gas to liters not at STP, what equation is used?
* * * * *
PV =nRT
DATA: P = SP = 1 atm to match the P unit in the supplied R value
V = ? L H2 gas = WANTED
n = 0.0400 mol H2 (from the End row)
R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K (supplied)
T = 20.˚C + 273 = 293 K
SOLVE:
? = V = nRT = nRT● 1 = (0.0400 mol)(0.0821 atm • L )(293 K) ● 1 = 0.962 L H2 gas
P P mol • K 1 atm at SP and 20˚C
Summary: Gas Stoichiometry

1. IF the WANTED and given are both volumes of gases at the same temperature and
pressure (even if not at standard T and P (STP)),
• Solve by inspection or with one volume-volume conversion, based on
Avogadro’s hypothesis, using the coefficients of the balanced equation as
whole-number gas volume ratios.
2. If all of the gas volumes in the WANTED and given are at STP.
• Solve using standard 7-step conversion stoichiometry and the STP prompt.
3. If method 1 or 2 cannot be used, write the WANTED unit, then solve with a rice
table and these steps:
• All supplied units > all moles > rice moles table > WANTED units

Practice C
1. In living cells, the sugar glucose is burned by this unbalanced equation.
C6H12O6 + O2 Æ CO2 + H2O

How many liters of CO2, measured at 740. torr and 30.˚C, can be formed by burning
0.250 moles of glucose? (R = 62.4 torr·L/mol·K)
2. Sodium metal can be reacted with excess water to produce hydrogen gas. The
unbalanced reaction equation is:
Na + H2O Æ NaOH + H2
If 4.92 liters of H2 gas is produced at 101 kPa and 25˚C, how many grams of sodium
reacted? (R = 8.31 L·kPa/mol·K)
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. H2 b. O2. 20. L H2 uses up only 10. L O2. c. O2 and H2O d. Zero H2, 10. L O2, 20. L H2O.
Practice B
1. WANT: ? L CO2 at STP
2. DATA: 2.50 mL C2H5OH (WANTED # given formula)
1 mol gas = 22.4 L any gas at STP (STP prompt)
0.789 g liquid C2H5OH = 1 mL C2H5OH
46.1 g C2H5OH = 1 mol C2H5OH (g prompt from density )
* * * * *
For reactions, if WANTED formula ≠ given formula, use the stoichiometry steps.
Since the WANTED and DATA include only one gas volume, and it is at STP, you can solve using conversions.
3. Balance. C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
4. Bridge. 2 mol CO2 = 1 mol C2H5OH (the WANTED to given mol ratio)
* * * * *
Steps 5-7:.
? unit WANTED = unit given >> mol given >> bridge > unit WANTED
? L CO2 STP = 2.50 mL C2H5OH ● 0.789 g C2H5OH ● 1 mol C2H5OH ● 2 mol CO2 ● 22.4 L CO2 STP
1 mL C2H5OH 46.1 g C2H5OH 1 mol C2H5OH 1 mol CO2
= 1.92 L CO2 STP

Practice C
1. 1. WANTED: ? L CO2 gas at 740. torr and 30˚C (Want L, a single unit)
2. DATA: 0.250 mol C6H12O6 (This must be the single-unit given)
Burning is a reaction. For reactions, if WANTED ≠ given, use stoichiometry steps.
Since WANTED is a gas volume for a gas not at STP, and not all substances are gases at the same T
and P, use the rice steps to solve:
The only supplied substance amount is moles glucose, so the “convert DATA to moles” step is done.
1 C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Æ 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Reaction 1 C6H12O6 6 O2 6 CO2 6 H2O
Initial 0.250 mol excess -- --

Change ― 0.250 mol + 1.50 mol l
End 0 mol excess + + 1.50 mol
“Burning” by definition means reacting something with excess O2 . in a reaction that goes to completion,
one reactant must be limiting (totally used up). If there are two reactants, and one is in excess, the other is
limiting. The glucose is therefore the limiting reactant that determines all of the other amounts in the
Change row..
Since an amount of CO2 is the WANTED unit, we can leave out the other parts of the rice table.
WANT: ? L CO2 gas at 740. torr and 30.˚C
DATA: 1.50 mol CO2 gas at 740. torr and 30.˚C (from the End row)
To go from moles of a gas to liters not at STP, what equation is used?
* * * * *
PV =nRT
DATA: P = 740. torr
V = ? L H2 gas = WANTED
n = 1.50 mol CO2
R = 62.4 torr•L/mol•K
T = 30.˚C + 273 = 303 K
SOLVE:
? = V = nRT = nRT● 1 = (1.50 mol)(62.4 torr • L )(303 K) ● 1 = 38.3 L CO2 gas
P P mol • K 740. torr at 740 torr and 30.˚C
2. 1. WANT: ? g Na
2. DATA: 4.92 L H2 gas at 101 kPa and 25˚C
23.0 g Na = 1 mol Na (g prompt)

For reactions, if WANTED ≠ given formula, use stoichiometry steps.

Since the only supplied amount is a gas volume for a gas not at STP, and not all substances are gases
at the same T and P, use the rice steps to solve:
Job one is to convert all supplied units to moles.
At the first step, since 25˚C is not standard temperature, we cannot use the STP conversion to find
moles. To convert L H2 given to moles H2 can be done with the supplied data and
PV =nRT
DATA: P = 101 kPa
V = 4.92 L H2
n= ?
R = 8.31 kPa•L/mole•K
T = 25˚C + 273 = 298 K
SOLVE: ? = n = PV = (101 kPa)(4.92 L) = 0.200 mol H2 gas given
RT ( 8.31 kPa • L ) (298 K)
mol • K
2 Na + 1 H2O Æ 2 NaOH + 1 H2
Solve this rice table backwards, from the known final moles of H2.
* * * * *
Reaction 2 Na 1 H2O 2 NaOH 1 H2
Initial 0.400 mol excess 0 0

Change ―0.400 mol 0.200 mol 0.400 mol 0.200 mol
End 0 mol excess + + 1.50 mol 0.200 mol
Since the initial grams of Na are WANTED, convert from initial moles Na.
* * * * *
? g Na = 0.400 mol Na ● 23.0 g Na = 9.20 g Na
1 mol Na
* * * * *

Lesson 18D: Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Timing: Do this lesson when you are assigned calculations which include Dalton’s law,
partial pressure, vapor pressure, or gas mixtures.
Prerequisite: Lessons 18A and 18C.
* * * * *
Vapor Pressure
Liquids and solids have a tendency to become gases. At the surface of a liquid or solid, the
vibrating molecules can break free of the liquid or solid and become part of the vapor
above the liquid or solid.
This tendency to vaporize increases with increasing temperature. At higher temperature,
the particles in a liquid and solid move faster, and they break free from the surface more
often. For the particles that enter the gas phase, the kinetic energy of their collisions with
the container walls creates gas pressure.
The vapor pressure above a liquid or solid is a characteristic of a substance at a given
temperature. If the gas that leaves the solid or liquid is contained so that it cannot escape,
the pressure caused by the vapor is predictable. Vapor pressure always rises with
increasing temperature. If the substance and its temperature is known, this vapor pressure
can be looked up in tables of chemical data.
A sample of vapor pressures for water is listed in the table at H2O vapor
the right. ˚C
pressure
Boiling 20.˚C 17.5 torr
A liquid boils at the temperature at which its vapor pressure 25˚C 23.8 torr
equals the atmospheric pressure above the liquid. A liquid can
30.˚C 31.8 torr
be boiled at different temperatures by increasing or
decreasing the atmospheric pressure on the liquid. 100.˚C 760 torr
The “boiling” of a liquid is not the same as “evaporating.” Evaporation is a surface

phenomenon; measurable evaporation will occur from all liquids (and many solids) at any
temperature. However, a liquid “boils” only when gas bubbles can form anywhere in the
liquid, and not just at its surface.
Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressure
Mixtures of gases (if the gases do not react with each other) obey
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that the
gases would exert alone.
The pressure exerted by each gas in the mixture is called its partial pressure. The partial
pressure is the pressure that a gas would exert in the given volume if it alone were present.
For calculations involving gas mixtures, Dalton’s law is useful in these forms which should
be memorized.

Dalton’s Law Equations

To find the partial pressure of a single gas in a mixture:
Pgas one = (mole fraction gas one)Ptotal = (volume fraction gas one)Ptotal
For the total mixture:
Ptotal = Pgas one + Pgas two + … ( = Partial P gas one + Partial P gas two + … )
= (mole fraction gas one)Ptotal + (mole fraction gas two)Ptotal + …
= (volume fraction gas one)Ptotal + (volume fraction gas two)Ptotal + …
This string of equalities provides us with a number of relationships that can be used to
solve problems.
The mole and volume fractions in the above equations will always be numbers less than
one: decimals which total 1.00 for all of the fractions in a gas mixture.
Fraction = part Mole Fraction = moles of part
total moles of total
Equations 2 and 3 above are similar because, by Avogadro’s Hypothesis, for gases at the
same temperature and under the same pressure, their volumes are proportional to their
number of particles.
Use the above equations to solve the following problem.
Q. A mixture of 18.0 g of He gas and 16.0 g of O2 gas in a sealed glass bulb is at a
pressure of 120. kPa. What is the partial pressure of the He in the mixture?
* * * * *
WANT: ? PHe in kPa
DATA: 18.0 g He
4.00 g He = 1 mole He (g prompt)
16.0 g O2
32.0 g O2 = 1 mole O2
120. kPa (total pressure)
Strategy: There are 4 equations that involve partial and total pressure. Which one should
you use to solve? You know that
Ptotal = Partial Pressure He + Partial P O2 = PHe + PO2 = 120. kPa
Since that equation has one known and two unknowns, you will need to use one
of the other equations to gain more information. Which one? Check the data.
* * * * *
Should you use the equation using mole fractions, or volume fractions? We don’t
know the volumes, but from grams and the formula, we can find moles.
? Moles He = 18.0 g He • 1 mole He = 4.50 moles He
4.00 g He

? Moles O2 = 16.0 g O2 • 1 mole O2 = 0.500 moles O2

32.0 g O2
Equation (2) uses mole fraction.
Total moles = 4.50 moles He + 0.500 moles O2 = 5.00 moles total
? = Partial Pressure He = (mole fraction He)(Ptotal) = 4.50 moles He • 120. kPa = 108 kPa
5.00 moles total
Practice A
Memorize the forms of Dalton’s law, then use the equations to solve these.
1. By volume, air is a mixture of 78% N2 , 21% O2 , and 1% other gases. At standard
pressure, what is the partial pressure of the nitrogen gas in air, in mm Hg?
2. A mixture of Ne and Cl2 gases at standard pressure has a total mass of 24.3 grams. The
mass of the neon is 10.1 grams.
a. What is the mole fraction of the chlorine gas in the mixture?
b. What is the partial pressure of the chlorine gas (in kPa)?
Gas Collected Over Water

Dalton’s law is often used when collecting bubbles of a gas over water or above an aqueous
solution. The resulting gas is a mixture which includes water vapor. The partial pressure
of water vapor at a known temperature can be looked up in a table. Dalton’s law will then
allow calculation of the pressure of a gas that is collected over water.
Ptotal over water = Pgas wanted + Pwater vapor from table
The partial pressure is the pressure that a gas would exert in the given volume if it alone
were present. This means that the WANTED partial pressure in the equation above can be
used with the ideal gas law to calculate other variables for that gas.
Practice B
Use the table of H2O vapor pressure in the lesson above to solve these problems.
1. Approximately what would be the vapor pressure of water at 23˚C?
2. If the total pressure of the gas in a mixture of H2 gas and water vapor is 748 torr at 27˚C,
what is the partial pressure of the H2 gas?
3. A sample of oxygen gas (O2) is collected over water at 25˚C. If the volume of the gas is
6.0 liters and the total pressure of the gas mixture is 762 torr, how many moles of O2 are
in the sample? (R = 62.4 torr·L/mole·K)

4. 0.210 grams of lithium metal is reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid. The hydrogen
gas released is trapped in a tube above the aqueous acid solution. At the end of the
reaction, all of the lithium has reacted. The gas above the solution is a mixture of
H2 and water vapor, at 20˚C and 758 torr, with a volume of 0.370 liters.
a. Balance the reaction equation: Li(s) + HCl(aq) Æ LiCl(aq) + H2(g)

b. Based on the grams of lithium reacted, how many moles of H2 gas will be formed?
c. What will be the partial pressure of the H2?
d. The partial pressure of the hydrogen gas represents the pressure that it alone would
exert in the volume of the mixture. What would be the volume occupied by the
“dry” hydrogen gas (just the H2, with the water vapor removed).
i. At 20.˚C and its partial pressure?
ii. At 20.˚C and standard pressure? (Use the “combined equation” and not R).
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANT: PN
2
DATA: The equation that uses partial pressure and volume fraction of a single gas is

List the DATA next to the symbols of the equation you need.
Pgas one = PN2 = ?
volume fraction N2 = 78% = 0.78 as the decimal equivalent fraction
Ptotal in mm Hg = Standard pressure in mm Hg = 760 mm Hg
SOLVE: PN = volume fraction N • P
2 2 total = 0.78 • 760 mm Hg = 590 mm Hg
2a. WANT: mol fraction Cl2 = mol Cl2
mol total
DATA: 10.1 g Ne 1 mol Ne = 20.0 g Ne
24.3 g (Ne + Cl2) 1 mol Cl2 = 71.0 g Cl2
Standard Pressure = 101.0 kPa
SOLVE: To find the top unit in the WANTED fraction, first find g Cl2.
g Cl2 = 24.3 g ─ 10.1 g = 14.2 g Cl2

? mol Cl2 = 14.2 g Cl2 • 1 mol Cl2 = 0.2000 mol Cl2

71.0 g Cl2
To find the bottom WANTED unit (total moles), the moles of Ne are needed.
? mol Ne = 10.1 g Ne • 1 mol Ne = 0 5000 mol Ne
20.2 g Ne
mol total = 0.2000 mol Cl2 + 0 5000 mol Ne = 0.7000 mol total
WANTED: mol fraction Cl2 = mol Cl2 = 0.2000 mol Cl2 = 0.2857 = 0.286 mol Cl2
mol total 0.7000 mol total mol total
1b. WANT: PCl
2
DATA: The equation that uses partial pressure and volume fraction of a single gas is

List the DATA next to the symbols of the equation you need.
Pgas one = PCl2 = ?
mole fraction Cl2 = 0.286 as the decimal equivalent fraction from part a.
Ptotal in kPa = Standard pressure in kPa = 101 kPa
SOLVE: PCl = mol fraction Cl • P
2 2 total = 0.286 • 101 kPa = 28.9 kPa
Practice B
1. About 21 torr, estimated from the table.
2. Ptotal = Pgas one + Pgas two
Ptotal over water = Pgas wanted + Pwater vapor from table at 27˚C
Pgas wanted = Ptotal over water ― Pwater vapor = 748 torr ― about 27 torr = 721 torr
3. WANT: ? moles O2 n
DATA: “Over water” means a gas mixture is present. Use
Pwater vapor at 25˚C = 23.8 torr
25˚C t T = 25˚C + 273 = 298 K
6.0 liters O2 V
762 torr = total pressure. Ptotal
R = 62.4 torr·L/mol·K
Strategy: We want moles of gas. R is given, so we likely need R. Which of the two equations
using R should be used? Label the data; see which fits.

PV = nRT
But to use PV=nRT to find moles O2, we must know the pressure of only the O2.
Pwater vapor at 25˚C = 23.8 torr

Pgas wanted = Ptotal over water ― Pwater vapor = 762 torr – 23.8 torr = 738 torr for O2
This tells us the pressure the O2 gas would exert in the given volume if only the O2 were
present. That is what we need to know to use PV=nRT .
SOLVE: ? = n = PV = (738 torr)(6.0 L) = 0.24 moles O2 gas

RT ( 62.4 torr • L ) (298 K)
mole • K
4. a. Balance: 2 Li(s) + 2 HCl(aq) Æ 2 LiCl(aq) + 1 H2(g)
b. WANT: ? moles H2 gas
DATA: 0.210 g Li
6.94 grams Li = 1 mole Li
Since WANTED formula ≠ given formula, we need the steps of stoichiometry.
Since this part involves moles rather than a gas volume, try conversion stoichiometry
rather than a rice table.
Bridge. Add to DATA the WANTED to given mole ratio: 1 mol H2 = 2 mol Li
SOLVE: ? moles H2 gas = 0.210 grams Li ● I mole Li ● 1 moles H2 = 0.0151 moles H2

6.94 g Li 2 moles Li
c. What will be the partial pressure of the H2?
Ptotal = Pgas one + Pgas two
Ptotal over water = PH2 + Pwater vapor from table at 20˚C
PH2 = Ptotal over water ― Pwater vapor = 758 torr ― 17.5 torr = 740. torr
d. i. At 20.˚C and its partial pressure? ? V = 0.370 liters – the volume of the mixture.
ii. At 20.˚C and standard pressure (Do not use R).
WANTED: VH2 = L H2 (since the volume data is in liters) at 20.˚C and 760 torr V2
DATA: PH2 = 740. torr = P initial P1
0.370 L is the volume at 740. Torr = initial Volume V1
760 torr = Pressure at end. P2
t1 = 20.˚C = t2
Strategy: Assign symbols, pick equation, then solve for WANTED symbol.

SOLVE: P1V1 = P2V2 = P1V1 = P2V2 ;

T1 T2
? = V2 = P1V1 = (740. torr) (0.370 L) = 0.360 L at 20.˚C and SP

P2 (760 torr)
* * * * *
Summary: Gas Labs and Gas Reactions

1. Direct Proportions. If any one of these is true, all of these statements are true.
a. Variable Y is directly proportional to a variable X;
b. Y is equal to a constant times X;
c. Y = mX , where m is the constant slope of the line for Y versus X
d. Y  X (and X  Y)
e. Y1 = Y2 = c = m = the constant slope of a line graphing Y versus X
X1 X2
f. For any measure of Y and X, the ratio Y over X will be constant.
g. When Y is graphed versus X, the data fits on a straight line thru the origin.
2. Inverse Proportions. If any one of these is true, all of these statements are true.
a. Variable Y is inversely proportional to a variable X;
b. Variable Y is directly proportional to 1/X;
c. Y is equal to a constant times 1/X;
d. Y = c (X─1) , where c will be the slope of a line on a graph of Y versus 1/X
e. Y  1/X (and X  1/Y)
f. Y1 X1 = Y2 X2 = c = m = the constant slope of a line graphing Y versus 1/X
g. For any measure of Y and X, Y times X will be constant.
h. When Y is graphed versus 1/X, the points fall on a straight line thru the origin.
3. Avogadro’s Hypothesis: Equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and
pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.
4. Coefficients can represent particles, moles of particles, moles/liter of particles that are all
in the same volume, and volumes of gases measured at the same T and P.
5. For gas stoichiometry,
a. If WANTED and given are gas volumes at the same T and P, solve using coefficients.
b. If all gas volumes are at STP, do conversions using the STP prompt.
c. If the above two methods cannot be used, use PV = nRT at Step 5 to find moles of
gas given, and/or Step 7 to go from moles WANTED to units WANTED.
6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to
the sum of the pressures that the gases would exert alone.

7. Dalton’s law equations.

Pone gas = (mole fraction gas)Ptotal = (volume fraction gas)Ptotal
For the total mixture:
Ptotal = Pgas one + Pgas two (= Partial Pressure gas one + Partial P gas two) + …
# # # # #


calculator at all to solve, if you look for easy cancellations first.
# # # # #

Mendelevium
Mn
Md
25
101
54.9
(256)
Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.94
Module 19 — Kinetic Molecular Theory
These lesson in this download are beta versions. They are being posted in draft form to
provide help on as many topics as possible during this semester. If you have need for help
in this topic now, they will be useful, but not all topics are covered, and they will have a
higher than usual rate of typos and errors.
If you return to this topic, download a newer version of this packet at

www.ChemReview.Net .
* * * * *
Module 19 –
Kinetic Molecular Theory
and
Graham’s Law

1
Table of Contents
Module 6 – Atoms, Ions, and Periodicity..................................................................... 99
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 7D: Review Quiz For Modules 5-7............................................................................150
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
2

Lesson 10F: Limiting Reactants and RICE Tables .............................................................. 204
Lesson 10G: Counting Reactants ........................................................................................... 211
Lesson 10H: Review Quiz For Modules 8-10 ......................................................................... 221
Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
3

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
4

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
5

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
Module 34 – pH During Titration ............................................................................... 991
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures ...................................................................................................991
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization....................................................................................995
6

•••••
7

Lesson 19A: Squares and Square Roots
Timing: Complete this lesson before calculations involving root mean square velocity or
Graham’s law.
Prerequisites: Review Module 1 on Scientific Notation if needed.
Pretest: If you solve all of these problems correctly, skip to Lesson 19B. Express your final
answers in scientific notation. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. Do without a calculator: (7.0 x 106)2 =
2. Use a calculator. (9.5 x 10─4)2 =
3. Do not use a calculator. The square root of 1.6 x 10―11 =
4. You may use a calculator for all or part of this problem. (4.9 x 105)1/2 =
* * * * *
Squaring Numbers
Most calculators have an x2 or x^2 key, but different calculators use keys in different
sequences. To test using the square key, cover the answer below and do this calculation in
your head.
52 = ________
* * * * *
52 = 25. Now, using the calculator you will use on tests,
write a key sequence that is used to square 5: ________________________________________.

To test your key sequence, first solve in your head, then use your sequence to solve the
following problems. Make sure that you get the same answers both ways.
a. 62 = _____ b. 92 = _____ c. Do two ways on keys: 122 = _____ .

* * * * *
Answers: a. 36 b. 81 c. 12 x 12 = 144
Note that all of the calculations above can be done at least two ways. Always try to do
calculator calculations in two different ways to check your calculator use.
Taking Exponential Notation to a Power Without a Calculator

1. Memorize this rule: To take exponentials to a power, multiply the exponents. (As used
here, power and exponent have the same meaning.)
Examples: (103)2 = 106 (10―5)2 = 10―10

Without a calculator, write answers to these, then check below.
a. (106)2 = b. (10―5)2 = c. (10―12)2 =

* * * * *
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 1c Page 448

Answers: a. 1012 b. 10―10 c. 10―24

2. When taking exponential notation to a power, the fundamental rules apply:
Do numbers by number rules and exponents by exponential rules.
Example: (3.0 x 106)2 = 9.0 x 1012
Treat numbers as numbers. 3 squared is 9.
Treat exponents as exponents. (106)2 is 1012 .
a. (2 x 109)2 = b. (1 x 10―5)2 =
* * * * *
Answers: a. 4 x 1018 b. 1 x 10―10
On the two problems below, without a calculator, write answers, then re-write the
answers converted to scientific notation.
c. (5 x 107)2 = d. (8 x 10―4)2 =
* * * * *
Answers: c. 25 x 1014 = 2.5 x 1015 d. 64 x 10―8 = 6.4 x 10―7
Practice A: Do not use a calculator.

1. (10─3)2 = 2. (105)2 =
3. (2.0 x 104)2 = 4. (3.0 x 10─1)2 =

For the following, convert answers to scientific notation.
5. (8.0 x 1010)2 = 6. (6.0 x 10─11)2 =
Taking Exponential Notation to a Power With a Calculator

To square exponential notation, most calculators use the same keys that you used above.
However, you should also know how to square exponential notation
• without entering the powers of 10, and
• by estimating an answer without using a calculator at all.
Let’s learn by example.
a. Using a calculator as needed, try this calculation: (7.5 x 10─5)2 = ________________
Now let’s check the answer. Write your answers to parts b and c below without converting
to scientific notation at the end and without a calculator.
b. (7 x 10─5)2 = _____________________. c. (8 x 10─5)2 = _______________________.

* * * * *

For both: (10─5)2 = 10─10; (b) 7 x 7 = 49 x 10─10 (c) 8 x 8 = 64 x 10─10

d. Based on the (b) and (c) answers, write an estimate of what (7.5 x 10─5)2 should be.
* * * * *
7.5 is half way between 7 and 8, so you might estimate that half way between 49 and
64 is about 55 x 10─10.
e. Using a calculator, (7.5)2 = _______
f. Multiply: 7.5 x 7.5 = __________ . Does this match your part (e) answer ?
* * * * *
g. Based on (e) and (f), write a precise answer to (7.5 x 10─5)2. Compare your answer
to your estimate in (d) above. Then write your answer in scientific notation
with correct sf : ___________________________________

* * * * *
56.2 x 10─10 = 5.6 x 10─9 .
h. Now try (7.5 x 10─5)2 by plugging everything into the calculator. .
• A “standard TI-type” calculator may use 7.5 E or EE 5 +/- x2 =
• A graphing calculator might use 7.5 EE (-) 5 enter x2 enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 7.5 E or EE or EXP 5 +/- enter x2

An online search with your calculator name and model number and “exponential
notation” may offer a better approach.
Write the calculator answer, rounding to two digits: _______________________ .
h. Compare answers in steps (g) and (h). They should agree. They should also be
close to the value of your estimate in step (d).
You may use the calculator in any way you choose, but to check your calculator use,
estimating the answer by mental arithmetic should always be done at the end of a problem
or test.
Practice B: On these
• first write down an estimated answer, then re-write it in scientific notation;
• then use the calculator for the parts you wish and get a final answer in scientific
notation. Finally, compare the last two columns: they should be close.
Try any two. Need more practice? Do more.
1. (2.1 x 106)2 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_______________
2. (3.9 x 10─2)2 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_______________

3. (7.7 x 104)2 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =________________
4. (5.50 x 10─2)2 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =______________
Taking Square Roots

“Taking the square root” of a quantity is the same as taking a quantity to the 1/2 power.
a. x = x1/2 = x0.5
b. The square root of 4.7 can be written as 4.71/2 . 101/2 means the square root of 10.
To calculate a square root, some calculators have a button labled x or x1/2 .

Other calculators use this two-key sequence: 2nd or INV x2 or x^2 .
It is important to test calculator sequences using sample calculations that are easy to check.
Do the following calculation in your head.
The square root of 81 = _____
* * * * *
The square root of 81 = 9 . Now, by entering 81 and one of the key sequences above, find
two key sequences that give the same answer for the square root on your calculator.
* * * * *
One or more of these sequences may work. Others may work as well.
• On a standard TI-type, try 81 2nd or INV x2 =
and/or try 81 x or x1/2 =
and/or try 81 yx 0.5 =
• On a graphing calculator (if allowed), try 2nd x2 81 ) enter

and/or try 81 ^ ( 1 ÷ 2 ) enter
and/or try 81 ^ 2 1/x or x―1 enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 81 enter x or x1/2
and/or try 81 enter 0.5 yx

Write or circle one or if possible two key sequences that work and make sense to you. Then,
on the problems below, check your key sequence: try the calculation two ways using the
calculator.
a. 361/2 = b. 625 =
c. 7225 = d. (0.3025)1/2 =
* * * * *

Answers: a. 6.0 b. 25.0 c. 85.00 d. 0.5500

Roots of Divisible Powers of 10
To take the root of the exponential term is easy if the exponent is an even number. The
math is
1. To find the square root of an exponential term, write the term to the 1/2 power.
Example: Write the square root of 10―8 as (10―8)1/2 .
2. Apply the rule: to take an exponential term to a power, multiply the exponents.
Examples: The square root of 10―8 = (10―8)1/2 = 10―4
The square root of 1030 = (1030)1/2 = 1015
To take the square root of an even exponential in your head: cut the exponent in half.
Practice C:
1. Take these roots by entering the numbers into a calculator. Try each two ways.
a. 9025 = b. (0.00160)1/2 =
2. Do not use a calculator. Write answers to these as powers of 10.
a. The square root of 1018 = b. (1010)1/2 =
c. The square root of 10―16 = d. (10―12)1/2 =
Roots of Exponential Notation

On this problem, apply the fundamental rule: Treat numbers as numbers, and exponents
as exponents.
Without a calculator: (64 x 1012)1/2 = ______________________________
* * * * *
Answer: The square root of 64 is 8 . (1012)1/2 = 106
(64 x 1012)1/2 = 8.0 x 106
Not all roots can be solved by inspection, but by using a method similar to the above, we
can estimate square roots without the calculator, and get a precise square root without
entering the exponential term into the calculator.
For roots that cannot be solved by inspection, use these steps.
1. If the exponential term is not even, make the exponent one number smaller (which makes
its value 10 times smaller), and move the decimal to make the significand 10 times
larger. Making the significand larger makes it easier to estimate its square root.
Try that step on (1.764 x 10―7)1/2 =
* * * * *

(1.764 x 10―7)1/2 = (17.64 x 10―8)1/2

To make the exponent an even number, it is lowered from 10―7 to 10―8. When
you make the exponential smaller, make the significand larger.
2. Without a calculator, write a rough estimate of the significand that is in front of the
even exponential. Then find the exact root of the exponential. Combine these two parts
and write the estimate for the root.
Apply step 2 to the step 1 answer: (17.64 x 10―8)1/2 ≈ __________________

* * * * *
(17.64 x 10―8)1/2 = (17.64)1/2 x (10―8)1/2 =
To estimate a square root of 17.64, since 4 x 4 = 16, and 17 is a little higher than 16,
guess ≈ 4.1 . ( ≈ means approximately equals.)
Handle exponents as exponents. (10―8)1/2 = 10―4
Combine the two parts. Estimate ≈ 4.1 x 10―4

3. To get a precise answer,
• Start from the exponential notation that has the even exponent.
• Find the precise root of the significand on the calculator.
• Take the root of the exponential term without the calculator.
Try those steps on the above problem.
* * * * *
For (17.64 x 10―8)1/2 . The calculator 17.64 = 4.200
(10―8)1/2 = 10―4 . Answer = 4.200 x 10―4

4. Compare the step 3 calculator answer to the step 2 estimate. They should be close.
5. Now take the root by entering the original number in the problem into the calculator.
* * * * *
One or more of these key sequences (and others) may work.
• On a standard TI-type, try 1.764 EE 7 +/- 2nd or INV x2 =
and/or try 1.764 E or EE or EXP 7 +/- x or x1/2 =
• On a graphing calculator, try 1.764 EE (-) 7 enter ^ 0.5 enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 1.764 E or EE or EXP 7 +/- enter x or x1/2

The calculator answer should match the step 3 final answer.
Circle or write one or two key sequences that work: _____________________________

Whatever sequences you use, work through the logic of why they works. Without the why,
it will be difficult to remember the correct sequence.

Once you have debugged and practiced a key sequence to calculate square roots, entering
both parts of the exponential notation into the calculator may be faster than converting to
an even exponential. However, converting to the even exponent to estimate the root is one
way to check the calculator result at the end of a problem or test.
Roots of Non-Divisible Powers of 10
Changing an exponent to make it even can put a number in front of the exponential term that
was not there before. Try this example.
Q. Estimate this answer without a calculator: The square root of 105 = ____________
* * * * *
To find the root without a calculator, the power of 10 must be divisible by 2. Try
adjusting the exponent to make it smaller and divisible, and adjust the significand to
keep the same value for the number.
* * * * *
Answer: (105)1/2 = (1 x 105)1/2 = (10 x 104)1/2 = (101/2 x 102 ) ≈ 3.2 x 102
Making the exponent 4 puts a 10 in front. Now try taking the square root of 105 on the
calculator.
* * * * *
You may need to enter 1 x 105 .
* * * * *
3.16 x 102
Summary: Squares and Square Roots

1. If you are not certain that you are using calculator keys correctly, do a simple similar
calculation, first on paper and then on the calculator.
2. For complex operations, do each calculation a second time using different keys or
estimates with rounded numbers.
3. On complex calculations, it is often easier to do the numbers on the calculator but the
exponents on paper.
4. In calculations using exponential notation, handle numbers and exponential terms
separately.
• Handle numbers by number rules and exponents by exponential rules.
• To take an exponential to a power, multiply the exponentials.
• To take the square root of an even exponential, cut the exponent in half.
5. To take a square root of exponential notation without entering the exponential,
• adjust the significand and exponential to make the exponent even; then
• use the calculator to take the significand , take the exponential in your head,
and combine the two answers.

Practice D
1. Complete the problems below in your notebook using the following steps. Do as many
as you need to feel confident. Check your answer after each part.
A. First convert to and write the value with an even exponential term.
B. Write an estimated answer for the root.
C. Re-write the estimate in scientific notation.
D. Starting from the notation with the even exponent, use the calculator for the root
of the significand, take the root of the exponential in your head, write the
answer, then convert the answer to scientific notation.
E. Take the square root of the original exponential notation on the calculator.
F. Compare your answers in steps C, D and E.
a. (6.0 x 1023)1/2 A: Change To Even Expo = _______________________
B. Est. Root Of Even = _________________ C. Est In SciNote = _________________
D. SignifOfEven Calc, Expo Head =__________________ E. Calc = ___________
b. (1011)1/2 A: Change To Even Expo = _______________________
c. 1.25 x 10 - 7 A: Change To Even Expo = _______________________

* * * * *
Practice E: Save some for review. Work in your notebook. Use a calculator as needed.
1. 472 = 2. (0.25)2 =
3. (6.5 x 103)2 = 4. (2.0 x 10―5)2 =
5. (9.3 x 10―3)1/2 = 6. (5.7 x 10―4)0.5 =
7. 20.25 = 8. 0.01024 =
9. (2.20 x 104)0.50 = 10. The square root of 9.5 x 1015 =
11. (7.4 x 10―8)1/2 = 12. (6.5 x 10―11)2 =

ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. 4.9 x 1013 2. 9.0 x 10─7 3. 4.0 x 10─6 4. 7.0 x 102
Practice A
1. (10―3)2 = 10―6 2. (105)―2 = 10+10
3. (2.0 x 104)2 = 4.0 x 108 4. (3.0 x 10―1)2 = 9.0 x 10―2
5. (8.0 x 1010)2 = 64 x 1020 = 6.4 x 1021 6. (6.0 x 10―11)2 = 36 x 10―22 = 3.6 x 10―21
Practice B
1. (2.1 x 106)2 = 4.4 x 1012 2. (3.9 x 10─2)2 = 1.5 x 10―3
3. (7.7 x 104)2 = 5.9 x 109 4. (5.50 x 10─2)2 = 3.02 x 10―3
Practice C
1a. 9025 = 95.00 b. (0.00160)1/2 = 0.00400
2. a. The square root of 1018 = 109 b. (1010)1/2 = 105

c. The square root of 10―16 = 10―8 d. (10―12)1/2 = 10―6
Practice D
1a. (6.0 x 1023)1/2 = (60. x 1022)1/2 = (601/2 x 1011) = 7.7 x 1011
1b. (1011)1/2 = (10 x 1010)1/2 = (101/2 x 105) = 3.2 x 105
1c. 1.25 x 10 - 7 = (12.5 x 10―8)1/2 = (12.51/2 x 10―4) = 3.54 x 10―4

Practice E
1. 2.209 x 103 2. 6.2 x 10―2 3. 4.2 x 107 4. 4.0 x 10―10 5. 9.6 x 10―2 6. 2.4 x 10―2
7. 4.500 8. 0.1012 9. 1.48 x 10―2 10. 9.7 x 107 11. 2.7 x 10―4 12. 4.2 x 10―21
* * * * *
Lesson 19B: Kinetic Molecular Theory

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are assigned problems that include root mean square
velocity.
* * * * *
Kinetic Molecular Theory
The ideal gas laws can be derived from fundamental equations of physics based on a model
for gas behavior termed the kinetic molecular theory (KMT). This model assumes that
1. Gas molecules are in constant motion. (A gas will expand to fill its container.)
2. The diameter of gas molecules is very small compared to the distance between the
molecules. (Most of a gas is empty space.)

3. The measured absolute temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average

kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
4. Gas molecules have perfectly elastic collisions: when two molecules collide, the total
kinetic energy of the molecules is the same before and after the collision.
5. The pressure exerted by a gas arises from the collisions of the molecules with the walls
of the container. The rate at which particles strike the wall per unit of wall area, and the
temperature of the particles (their average kinetic energy) determine the pressure.
The assumptions of the KMT are not exactly true for any real gases, but they are close to
true for many gases if temperature is relatively high and pressure is relatively low
(standard pressure or below).
Practice A: On these, a) predict the answer using the ideal gas law, then b) explain the
answer in terms of KMT.
1. For a sample of gas with constant moles and volume, if the absolute temperature is
doubled, what happens to the pressure?
2. For a sealed sample of gas at constant temperature in a cylinder with a piston (such as a
syringe), if the piston is withdrawn until the volume of the gas is doubled, what
happens to the pressure?
Root Mean Square Velocity

For a gas at any point in time or temperature, because of collisions between molecules,
some molecules are stopped, many are going at close to the average speed, but some are
going very fast. This results in a distribution of velocities where the median (half above
and half below) and the mean (average) velocities are close, but are not quite the same.
For the KMT equations to be accurately mathematically, we must use a special type of
average velocity called the root mean square velocity (vrms ).
vrms = the square root of the average of the squares of the molecular velocities
__
vrms = ( v2 )1/2 where the line over the v2 means average (arithmetic mean)
and the 1/2 power means square root.
Averaging the squares of the velocities, and then taking the square root, results in a value
for νr m s that is close to, but slightly higher than, the arithmetic average of the velocities.
vrms = ( v2 )1/2 ≈ v ≡ the average velocity of the molecules
Velocities in Different Gases at the Same Temperature

Among the implications of the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) are:
1. If two samples of the same gas have the same temperature, their particles by definition
must have the same average kinetic energy and the same average velocity.

Why? If the temperature is the same, the average kinetic energy is by definition must
be same.
In terms of velocity, the kinetic energy of a particle in motion is by definition one half of
its mass times its velocity squared: KE = 1/2 mv2 . In the two samples, since the
average kinetic energy is the same, and the mass must be the same for molecules with
the same molecular formula, then the root mean square (~average) velocity of
molecules in the two samples must be the same.
2. If the root mean square (~average) velocity of gas molecules is doubled, their kinetic
energy and their temperature in kelvins must quadruple.
Why? The equation for kinetic energy is: KE = 1/2 mv2 .
The mass of molecules is constant, but doubling the average speed increases the kinetic
energy of the particles by v2 : the KE quadruples and the absolute temperature
therefore quadruples.
3. If two different gases are at the same temperature, either in separate samples or mixed
together, the molecules of the gas with the lighter molar mass must be traveling faster.
Why? The average kinetic in the two samples must be the same, so we can write:
KEave = 1/2 mava2 = 1/2 mbvb2 .
If the mass of the particles of gas a is smaller than for gas b, the velocity of the gas a
particles must be larger to equal the average kinetic energy of the particles of gas b.
Practice B
1. In a sample of gas with constant moles and volume, if the root mean squared velocity of
molecules is doubled, what happens to the pressure? Explain why in terms of KMT.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. If the absolute temperature of a sample of gas with constant moles and volume is doubled,
a. P(constant V) = (constant n and R)T . When T is doubled, P must double.
b. If T is doubled, the kinetic energy of the average particle is doubled, and the molecules strike the wall
twice has hard, creating twice as much pressure.
2. For a sealed sample of gas at constant temperature, if the volume of the gas is doubled,
a. PV = (constant n and R and T). If volume is doubled, P must be cut in half.
b. If volume is doubled, there are half as many particles per unit of volume, and the number of particles
hitting the each section of wall from any adjacent volume is cut in half, halving the pressure.

Practice B
1. For a sample of gas at constant moles and volume, if the vr m s (~ average velocity) of the gas is doubled,
the energy of motion of the gas molecules quadruples. Each molecule strikes the wall with 4 times as
much kinetic energy. The pressure quadruples.
* * * * *
Lesson 19C: Converting to SI Base Units

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are assigned calculations that include average kinetic
energy or root mean square velocity.
* * * * *
Finding the SI Base Units For Derived Quantities
In calculations based on the fundamental equations of physics, often SI base units must be
used in order for unit cancellation to be clear, and some SI base units are different than the
units commonly used in chemistry. For example, in chemistry we usually measure
• molar mass in grams per mole, but in SI base units, molar mass is measured in
kilograms per mole (kg/mol).
• Volume in liters or milliliters, but in SI base units, volume is measured in meters
cubed (m3).
Converting between the usual chemistry units and SI base units is simplified if we can
recall some fundamental relationships among physical quantities. Let’s review.
SI units can be divided into three types: base units measuring fundamental quantities (see
Lesson 11E), combinations of base units that measure derived quantities, and special unit
names that are abbreviations for the combinations measuring derived quantities.
In the SI system, each fundamental quantity is measured by a single defined unit in what
was known historically as the mks system. Among these are:
• The quantity distance (symbol = d) is measured in the unit meters (m).
• Mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg).
• Time (t) is measured in seconds (s).
• Particle counts (n) are measured in moles (mol).
• Absolute temperature (T) is measured in kelvins (K).
The base units for derived quantities always result from multiplying or dividing base units,
and/or from taking base units to a power. The base units that measure a derived quantity
can be determined from the definition of the derived quantity. For example,
• Area formulas always involve a distance times a distance (d2), so the SI base unit of
area is the distance base unit squared = meters squared = m2 .
• Velocity (v) is defined as δ d / δ t : (change in distance)/(change in time) , so the SI
base unit of velocity must be meters per second (m/s).

• Acceleration (a) is defined as change in velocity per unit of time (δ v / δ t ), so the SI

base unit for measuring acceleration is
δ v / δ t = (m/s)/s = m · 1 = m = m/s2 , which can also be written as m · s─2 .
s s s2
• Force (F) is defined as mass times acceleration (F = ma), so the SI base unit for
measuring force is
F = ma = (kg)(m/s2) = kg · m = kg · m/s2 , also written as kg · m · s─2 .
s2
When writing units, forms such as kg · m/s2 and kg · m · s─2 are equivalent, but the
“numerator over denominator” form is more helpful during calculations to convert
between units.
The determine the SI base units for a derived quantity, the steps are:
1. Write an equation that calculates the quantity using other quantities for which SI
base units are known.
2. For each quantity in the equation, substitute the base units that measure that
quantity into the equation, then simplify the units.
Apply those two steps to this problem.
Q1. Pressure is defined as force per unit of area. What are the SI base units for pressure?
* * * * *
The definition is: Pressure = Force/area
Force is defined as mass times acceleration (F = ma ) so Pressure = m · a/area
We know the base units for mass (kg) and acceleration (m / s2). We know that area is
distance squared, measured in base units of meters squared ( m2 ).
In symbols: P = F = m·a = m·a Substituting SI base units for m, a, and d:
Area area d2
The SI base units for Pressure (P) = kg · m · 1 = kg or kg · m─1 · s─2
s2 m2 m · s2
Try another.
Q2. “Mechanical work” is the form of energy used to define the SI energy unit. By
definition: Energy = work = force x distance. What are the SI base units for energy?
* * * * *
The definition is: Energy = work = force times distance, and force is defined as mass times
acceleration (F = ma ) so,
In symbols: Energy (work) = m · a · d (remembered as “work is mad!”)
We know SI base units for m, a, and d, so we substitute those units into the equation:
SI base units for Energy (E) = m · a · d = kg · m · m = kg · m2 or kg · m2 · s─2
s2 s2

Practice A
1. The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is the distance between the crests of the
wave. What must be the SI base unit for wavelength?
2. What are the SI base units for volume measurements?
3. What must be the SI base unit for molar mass?
4. Electrical power is defined as energy flow per unit of time. What are the SI base units
for power?
Abbreviations for SI Base Units

Base unit combinations that are complex are often given a special name that is equivalent to
the base unit combination and is used to abbreviate the base unit combination.
For example: For force, the SI abbreviated unit is termed the newton (N), a unit which
is an abbreviation for the SI base unit of force: kg · m/s2 .
The derived quantities that have abbreviated unit names, the derived quantity and its
abbreviated unit name must be memorized. For each abbreviated unit name, the two-step
process above will derive the SI base unit that is equivalent to the abbreviated unit. In
addition to newtons, abbreviation units that are used frequently in chemistry include
• Pressure (F/area) measured in the SI unit pascals ( Pa ) = kg /m · s2
• Energy (F · d or m · a · d) measured in the SI unit joules ( J ) = kg · m2/s2
This table summarizes some quantities and units that we will use in upcoming lessons.
Quantity Symbol Definition SI Unit SI Abbreviated Unit
distance d meter (m)
mass m kilogram (kg)
time t second (s)
particle count n mole (mol)
temperature T kelvins (K)
area Area d · d m2
volume V d · d · d m3
velocity v d/t m/s
acceleration a v/t m/s2
force F m·a kg · m/s2 newton (N)
pressure P F/Area kg /m · s2 pascal (Pa)
energy E F·d=m·a·d kg · m2/s2 joule (J)
molar mass MM mass/count kg/mol

In these lessons, we will use MM for molar mass. Many textbooks use an italic capital M
(M) to abbreviate molar mass, but MM may better help you to distinguish molarity from
molar mass when writing out equations by hand.
For each row, given any one item (except for the items in bold), you should memorize what
is needed to fill in the rest of row. The units in bold can be derived from the third column.
Practice B: Save a few for your next practice session.

1. Memorize any rows of the table above that are unfamiliar, then cement your knowledge
by filling in the blanks below.
Quantity Symbol Definition SI Base Unit SI Abbreviated Unit
distance
kilogram (kg)
t
mole (mol)
temperature
m2
d · d · d
m/s
v/t
m·a
pascal (Pa)
E
kg/mol
Converting Between SI Units and Non-SI Units Used in Chemistry

In calculations based on the fundamental equations of physics, SI base units must be used
so that units are consistent and cancel. It is often necessary to convert between an
abbreviated unit such as joules and the SI base units that the abbreviated unit stands for.
When using the equations of physics with the non-SI units often used in chemistry, a
conversion to SI units is often necessary.
The good news is that by using our systematic WANTED, DATA, SOLVE steps, these
conversions can be done with confidence and accuracy.
Try this example.
Q1. A pressure of 0.250 atm is what pressure in SI base units?
If you need help, peek at part of the answer below, then try again.
* * * * *

WANT: SI base units for pressure. Since P = F/Area = m · a /Area

P = kg · m · 1 = kg = the SI base unit for pressure, abbreviated as pascals.
s2 m2 m · s2
So WANTED = P in the SI base unit kg /m · s2 ( = pascals )
DATA: 0.250 atm
(What relationship is known between atm and the WANTED unit?)
1 atm = standard pressure = 101 kPa
(so above we know equalities relating atm to Pascals to base units.)
SOLVE: ? = kg /m · s2 = pascals = 0.250 atm · 101 kPa · 103 Pa = 2.52 x 104 Pa =
1 atm 1 kPa
= 2.52 x 104 kg /m · s2
Practice C
1. Using a periodic table, find the molar mass of the noble gas argon in SI base units.
2. What is the volume of one mole of an ideal gas at STP in SI base units?
3. If a gas presses on a square surface that is 4.0 meters x 1.0 meter with a force of 24.0
newtons, what is the pressure in pascals?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Since a wavelength is a distance, in SI base units it is measured in meters.
2. All equations for volume can be related to multiplying three distance units. In SI base units, multiplying 3
distances results in meters cubed: m3.
3. In chemistry, molar mass is usually measured in grams/mole. In SI base units, moles are used to count
particles, but mass must be measured in kilograms. In SI base units, molar mass is measured in kg/mol .
4. In symbols: Power = E/t = m · a · d/t Substituting the SI base units that measure those symbols:
E/t = m · a · d · 1 = kg · m · m · 1 = kg · m2 or kg · m2 · s─3
t s2 s s3
Practice B: See table in lesson.
Practice C
1. WANT: MM Ar in kg/mol In SI base units, mass must be in kilograms.
DATA: MM Ar = 40.0 g/mol
SOLVE: ? kg Ar = 40.0 g Ar · 1 kg = 0.0400 kg Ar
mol mol 103 g mol

2. WANT: Volume in SI base unit meters cubed: m3

DATA: One mole of an ideal gas at STP has a volume of 22.4 L .
1000 cm3 ⎛ - 2 meter ⎞ 3

10 3 ⎛ -6 3 ⎞
V in m3 = 22.4 L · ·⎜ ⎟ = 22.4 L · 1000 cm · ⎜ 10 m ⎟
1L ⎜ 1 cm ⎟ 1L ⎜ 3 ⎟ =
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 cm ⎠
= 22.4 x 10─3 m3 = 2.24 x 10─2 m3 or 0.0224 m3 = V
(To review distance to volume conversions, see Lesson 5F.)
3. WANT: Pressure in pascals
DATA: The equation calculating pressure is P = F/Area . List the symbols in that equation.
Force = 24.0 newtons = m · a = 24.0 kg · m /s2
Area = 4.0 meters x 1.0 meter = 4.0 m2
SOLVE: P = F = F · 1 = 24.0 kg · m · 1 = 6.0 kg = 6.0 pascals
Area Area s2 4.0 m2 m · s2
Solving for pressure in SI base units, the answer units must be equivalent to pascals, and they are.
* * * * *
Lesson 19C: KMT Calculations

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are assigned calculations that include average kinetic
energy or root mean square velocity.
* * * * *
Relating Kinetic Energy To the Ideal Gas Variables
By treating gas molecules as particles moving in a three-dimensional container, and
applying the definitions of physics for momentum, force, and pressure, and we can
calculate relationships between the terms in the ideal gas law and average kinetic energy
equation. The math is somewhat lengthy, but the result is the equation:
PV 2 KE
= RT = average, per mole Equation (1)
n 3
The first two terms can be rearranged to PV = nRT . This means that the ideal gas law can
be derived from the fundamental equations for the physics of moving bodies.
In the last two terms of Equation (1), since R is a constant (the gas constant), T α KEave ,
which means that the definition of temperature can be derived from the equations for
particles in motion.
In physics-based equations such as Equation (1), for units to cancel, SI base units must be
used. In KMT equations, those base units are
• distance in meters (m), mass in kilograms (kg), time in seconds (s), particle counts in
moles (mol), and absolute temperature in kelvins (K).

• During KMT calculations, the only units that can be used are m, kg, s, mol, and K ,
but those units may be multiplied, divided, or raised to a power.
Specifically, for the variables used in Equation (1),
• Pressures must be converted to kg /m · s2 , the base unit abbreviated pascals (Pa).
• Volumes must be in cubic meters (m3), and T must be in kelvins.
• Kinetic energy must be measured in kg · m2 /mol · s2, the energy unit abbreviated
as joules per mole (J/mol).
o Joules = kg · m2 /s2 and Joules/mole = kg · m2 /mol · s2
• The R (gas constant) value that must be used is 8.31 J/K · mol, which is one of the
many value/unit combinations for R. For unit cancellation to work in KMT
calculations, R must be written using the base units equivalent to joules:
o R = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol
Relating Kinetic Energy To Temperature
The last two terms of Equation (1), RT = 2/3 KEave , mean that for any sample of a gas, if
any one of the two variables of temperature and average KE per mole is known, the other
variable can be calculated. Try this example.
Q1. Calculate the average kinetic energy, in J/mol, for gas molecules at room
temperature (25ºC). Consult the unit rules in the bullets above as needed.
* * * * *
WANT: KEave in joules/mole = KEave in kg · m2 /mol · s2
DATA: 25ºC
The relationship between temperature and KE is the last two terms of Equation (1).
2 KE
RT = average, per mole
3
To provide for unit cancellation, KMT equations should be solved in SI base units.
To use this equation, list each symbol, add the SI base units that measure that
symbol, then an = sign and the DATA. Convert the data to the base units if needed.
R must be in SI base units = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol , and
T in K = ºC + 273 = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
SOLVING for the wanted symbol:
KEave = 3RT = ( 3 ) · 8.31 kg · m2 · ( 298 K ) = 3,710 kg · m2 = 3,710 J
2 (2) s2 · K · mol s2 · mol mol
(For help with the arrangement and cancellation of the units, see Lesson 17C.)
Note that by using unit cancellation, after conversion from base units to the energy unit
joules, the unit that results is the unit WANTED.

Relating Kinetic Energy To P, V, and Moles
PV 2 KE
Looking at the first and last terms only: = average, per mole
n 3
Equation (1) means that for any sample of a gas, if we know any 3 for the 4 variables P, V,
n, and average KE per mole, the fourth variable can be calculated. Using the special rules
for SI units in the bullets above, try this problem.
Q2. In a volume of 5.60 x 10─3 m3 of gas at a pressure of 50.5 kPa, the average kinetic
energy of the molecules is 3,400 J/mol. How many moles of gas are in the sample?
* * * * *
List WANTED and DATA, assign symbols, and choose the equation that relates the
symbols.
WANT: ? = moles of gas n
DATA: 5.60 x 10─3 m3 V
50.5 kPa P
3,400 J/mol KEave
Those variables are related by the first and last terms in Equation 1.
PV 2 KE
= average, per mole
n 3
To solve KMT equations, convert the units supplied to SI base units.
P in kg /m · s2 = P in pascals = 50.5 kPa · 103 Pa = 5.05 x 104 kg /m · s2
1 kPa
KEave in kg · m2 /mol · s2 = KEave in J/mol = 3.4 x 103 kg · m2 /mol · s2
SOLVE: First solve the fundamental equation in symbols, then substitute.

? = n = 3 P V = ( 3 ) · 5.05 x 104 kg · 5.60 x 10─3 m3 · mol · s2 =
2 KEave m · s2 ( 2 ) 3.4 x 103 kg · m2
= 1.2 x 10─1 mol = 0.12 mol

Check that the units cancel to result in the unit WANTED.
Relating Kinetic Energy and Velocity
For a single particle in motion, its kinetic energy can be determined from its mass and
velocity: KE = 1/2 mv2 .
To use that fundamental equation to calculate the average kinetic energy of the large
number of moving particles in a gas, the velocity used must be the root mean square
velocity: vrms (a value slightly higher than the average velocity).

In gas calculations, it is preferred to calculate average kinetic energy per mole. If we

calculate the average kinetic energy per mole of particles, the mass in KE = 1/2 mv2 is the
mass of a mole: the molar mass. Because we are calculating kinetic energy based on the
fundamental equations of physics, we must convert to the SI base units for molar mass:
kilograms per mole (MMkg).
Using kilograms per mole and root mean square velocity in the kinetic energy definition
equation, kinetic energy will be calculated in the SI units for gas kinetic energy: joules per
mole. During the calculation, joules per mole will need to be written in the base units that
joules is an abbreviation for:
o Joules = kg · m2 /s2 and Joules/mole = kg · m2 /mol · s2
To summarize: to relate kinetic energy, molar mass, and average velocity for a gas, the
fundamental equation is:
KEaverage, per mole = 1/2 (MMkg) (vrms )2 (Equation 2)
where the units must be SI units.

• KE is measured in joules/mole, which during KMT calculations must be written
as kg · m2 /mol · s2 .
• The mass is the mass of a mole of molecules in kilograms per mole (MMkg) .
• The velocity is the root mean square velocity (vrms ) of the molecules, in m/s .
Using the rules and unit definitions above, try this example.
Q3. If the average kinetic energy of He molecules is 3,420 J/mol, find their root mean
square velocity.
* * * * *
List the symbols and their base units, then = and the DATA.
WANT: vrms in meters/second = ?
DATA: KEave in J/mol = KEave in kg · m2 /mol · s2 = 3.4 x 103 kg · m2 /mol · s2
The equation that relates the average kinetic energy to vrms is Equation (2):
KEaverage, per mole = 1/2 (MMkg) (vrms )2
This equation also needs the molar mass of the gas, in kg/mol.
MMkg of He = ? kg He = 4.00 g He · 1 kg = 4.00 x 10─3 kg He
1 mol He 1 mol He 103 g 1 mol He
(The molar mass in kg/mol is always the value of the molar mass in g/mol times 10─3 ).
SOLVE for the WANTED variable in symbols first, but the math is easier if you solve in
steps: first solve for vrms 2 in symbols, then get a value, then take the square root.
* * * * *

vrms 2 = 2 KEave = 2 KEave · 1 = ( 2 ) 3.42 x 103 kg · m2 · 1 mol He =

MMkg MMkg mol · s2 4.00 x 10─3 kg He
vr m s 2 = 1.71 x 106 m2/s2 Taking the square root of both sides:
vrms = (vrms 2 )1/2 = (1.71 x 106 m2/s2 )1/2 = 1.31 x 103 m/s
Relating Temperature, Molar Mass, and Velocity
Starting from Equation 2: KEaverage, per mole = 1/2 (MMkg) (vrms )2
if we substitute the right side symbols that are equivalent to KEave into Equation (1), the
root mean square velocity can be defined as
3RT
vrms = (Equation 3)
MMkg
Equation (3) means that for any amount of a single gas, knowing any two of the 3 variables
of molar mass, root mean square velocity, or temperature, the third variable can be
calculated. Using the KMT rules and SI units that apply to Equations (1), (2), and (3), try
this example.
Q4. Using Equation 3, calculate the root mean square velocity at which the molecules of
O2 gas that you are breathing are traveling at room temperature (25ºC).
(R = 8.31 J/K · mol = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol)
If you get stuck, read a part of the answer, and then try again.
* * * * *
3RT
WANT: vrms Use vrms =
MMkg
DATA: List each equation symbol and SI base units that measure the symbol.
vr m s in meters/second = ?
R in SI base units = 8.31 J / mol = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol
T in K = ºC + 273 = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
MMkg of O2 = ? kg O2 = 32.0 g O2 · 1 kg = 0.0320 kg O2
1 mol O2 1 mol O2 103 g 1 mol O2
If needed, adjust your work, SOLVE for vrms 2 , then take the square root.
* * * * *
vrms 2 = 3 RT = 3 RT · 1 = ( 3 ) 8.31 kg · m2 · 298 K · 1 mol O2 =
MMkg MMkg s2 · K · mol 0.032 kg O2
vrms 2 = 2.32 x 105 m2/s2 Taking the square root of both sides:

vrms = (vrms 2 )1/2 = ( 23.2 x 104 m2/s2 )1/2 = 482 m/s

Think about how fast this means that molecules of oxygen are moving around you.
Note also that the final units are the SI units that a velocity must be. The unit cancellation
is a nice check that you have done the algebra correctly. Now let’s use Equation 3 to solve
for temperature.
Q5. If the molecules of neon gas in a neon sign are traveling at a vrms of 635 m/s, what
is the temperature of the gas in degrees Celsius? (Use R from Q4.)
* * * * *
WANT: ºC The equation that relates vrms and temperature finds kelvins first.
3RT
vrms = (Equation 3)
MMkg
DATA: List the equation’s symbols and their SI base units.

vrms = 635 m/s
R in SI base units = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol
T in K = ?
MMkg of Ne = ? kg Ne = 20.2 g Ne · 1 kg = 0.0202 kg Ne
1 mol Ne 1 mol Ne 103 g 1 mol Ne
SOLVE the fundamental memorized equation for T in symbols before substituting values.
One way to get T out of the radical is to square both sides: vrms 2 = 3 RT
MMkg
T = vrms2 · MMkg = (635)2 m2 · 0.0202 kg Ne · s2 · K · mol =

3R s2 1 mol Ne (3) 8.31 kg · m2
* * * * *
T = 327 K K = ºC + 273 ºC = K ─ 273 = 327 K ─ 273 = 54 ºC
Practice: Practice writing Equations (1), (2), and (3) until you can write them from
memory, then try these. Try the odds first, then the evens if you need more practice.
(Use R = 8.31 J/K · mol = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol ; Pa = kg/m · s2 )
1. In symbols, solve Equation (3) for R .
2. Find the root mean square velocity of steam molecules at 105 ºC.
3. A gas has a velocity of 4,290 miles per hour (!) at room temperature (25 ºC). What must
be the molar mass and the molecular formula for the gas? (1.61 km = 1 mile)
4. In 2.0 moles of gas at a pressure of 0.500 atm, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules is 10,200 J/mol. What is the volume of the sample in cubic meters?

5. The molecules in a sample of a noble gas have an average kinetic energy of 3,910 J/mol
and a vr ms = 243.7 m/s.
a. What is the temperature of the gas in ºC? b. Which gas is it?
6. A sample of 0.25 moles of gas has a pressure of 101 kPa and a volume of 11.2 liters.
Find the average kinetic energy (J/mol) of the molecules.
Need More Practice?

On any topic, if you find you need more practice, find the topic in any standard
textbook, and work the examples that are included in the reading for the topic. To
work the examples, cover the textbook answer with a cover sheet, try the problem in
your problem notebook, then check your answer. The text may solve problems
differently, but will result in the same answer as the methods here. If the answer
differs, you should be able to locate your error in the solution provided in the text.
Problems at the end of the chapter in a general chemistry text may be more complex
than the problems in these lessons, so, even if they are not assigned, you should work
a few “end of the chapter” problems that have answers you can check.
ANSWERS
3RT
1. vrms =
MMkg
vrms 2 = 3 RT ; R = vrms2 · MMkg

MMkg 3T
3RT
2. WANTED: vr m s , given t . The equation that relates vrms and T is vrms =
MM kg
DATA: vr m s in meters/second = ?
R in SI base units = 8.31 kg · m2/s2 · K · mol
T in K = ºC + 273 = 105ºC + 273 = 378 K
Steam is H2O in a gaseous state.
MMkg of H2O = ? kg H2O = 18.0 g H2O · 1 kg = 0.0180 kg H2O
1 mol H2O 1 mol H2O 103 g 1 mol H2O
SOLVE: If you need to take a square root, the steps are usually simplified if you find a value for the
square first, then take the square root.
vr m s 2 = 3 RT = 3 RT · 1 = ( 3 ) 8.31 kg · m2 · 378 K · 1 mol H2O =
MMkg MMkg s2 · K · mol 0.0180 kg H2O
vr m s 2 = 5.24 x 105 m2/s2 Taking the square root of both sides:

vr m s = ( 52.4 x 104 m2/s2 )1/2 = 724 m/s
3. WANT: MM: the molar mass and gas identity. The equation that relates MMkg , t , and vr m s is
3RT
vrms = (Equation 3)
MMkg
DATA: vr m s in this equation must be in SI units: meters/second. Find the m/s by conversions.
* * * * *
vr m s in m = 4,290 miles · 1.61 km · 103 m · 1 hour · 1 min. = 1.92 x 103 m/s
s hour 1 mile 1 km 60 min. 60 s
R in SI base units = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K· mol
T in K = ºC + 273 = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
MMkg = ?
SOLVE first in symbols for the WANTED variable: MM. One way to solve for MM is to square both sides.
vr m s 2 = 3 RT
MMkg
MMkg = 3 RT = ( 3 ) 8.31 kg · m2 · 298 K · s2 = 0.00202 kg/mol

vrms 2 s2 · K · mol ( 1.92 x 103 )2 m2
MMgrams = ? g = 0.00202 kg · 103 g = 2.02 g/mol Which gas could this be?
mol mol 1 kg
* * * * *
The only molecule with a molar mass that low is H2, a gas at room temperature with a molar mass
of 2.016 g/mol. This answer means that at room temperature, molecules of hydrogen gas are
moving at an average speed of over 4,000 miles/hour.
4. WANT: Volume in liters The variables that are supplied are n , P , and KEave .
The equation that relates KEave and n , P , and V is the first and last terms of Equation 1:
PV 2 KE
= ave
n 3
Write a data table that lists P, V, n, and KEave , all converted to SI base units.
* * * * *
DATA: n in moles = 2.0 mol
P in kg /m · s2 = P in Pa = 0.500 atm · 101 kPa/1 atm = 5.05 x 104 kg /m · s2
V in m3 = ?
KEave in SI units = 10,200 J/mol = 1.02 x 104 J/mol = 1.02 x 104 kg · m2 /mol · s2
* * * * *

SOLVE the equality using the first and last terms of Equation 1 for the WANTED symbol in symbols first:
If PV = 2 KEave ; then V = 2n · KEave = ( 2 )( 2.0 mol ) 1.02 x 104 kg · m2 · m · s2 =
n 3 3P mol · s2 (3) 5.05 x 104 kg
= 0.27 m3 Note that after unit cancellation, the unit is the unit WANTED.
5a. WANT: ºC
DATA: KEave = 3,910 J/mol
vr m s in m/s = 243.7 m/s
Which equation most easily relates the WANTED variable to the DATA?
PV RT 2 KE
= = ave The right two terms relate temperature and KEave.
n 3
Convert the DATA to SI base units. R is needed in SI base units as well.
KEave in SI units = 3,910 J/mol = 3,910 kg · m2 /mol · s2
R = 8.31 J/K · mol = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K ·mol
T = 2 KEave = ( 2 ) 3,910 kg · m2 · s2 · K · mol = 314 K
3R 2
mol · s2 (3) 8.31 kg · m
ºC = ? T = 314 K K = ºC + 273 ºC = K ─ 273 = 314 K ─ 273 = 41 ºC
5b. WANT: Identify the noble gas. Which variable in the 3 KMT equations will identify the gas?
* * * * *
The six noble gases have very different molar masses. Find MM and you can likely identify the gas.
WANT: Molar mass. Equation (2) includes molar mass and the two DATA symbols. Equation 3
could be solved using the part 5a answer and the data. If you use Equation 2:
KEaverage, per mole = 1/2 (MMkg) (vrms )2
WANT: MMkg = molar mass of unknown noble gas in kg/mol

DATA: KEave in kg · m2 /mol · s2 = KEave in J/mol = 3,910 kg · m2 /mol · s2
vr m s in m/s = 243.7 m/s
SOLVE: MMkg = 2 KEave = 2 KEave · 1 = ( 2 ) 3,910 kg · m2 · s2 =
vrms 2 vrms 2 mol · s2 ( 243.7 )2 m2
MMkg = 0.1317 kg/mol ; ? MMg = ? g = 0.1317 kg · 103 g = 131.7 g/mol

mol mol 1 kg
Which noble gas is this?
* * * * *
Xenon
6. WANT: KEave in joules/mole = KEave in kg · m2 /mol · s2
The variables that are supplied are n , P , and V .

The equation that relates KEave and n , P , and V is the first and last terms of Equation 1:
PV 2 KE
= RT = ave
n 3
Write a data table that lists P, V, n, and KEave converted to SI base units.
* * * * *
DATA: n in moles = 0.25 moles
P in kg /m · s2 = 101 kPa = 1.01 x 105 Pa = 1.01 x 105 kg /m · s2
1000 cm3 ⎛ - 2 meter ⎞ 3

10 3 ⎛ -6 3 ⎞
V in m3 = 11.2 L · ·⎜ ⎟ = 11.2 L · 1000 cm · ⎜ 10 m ⎟
1L ⎜ 1 cm ⎟ 1L ⎜ 3 ⎟ =
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 cm ⎠
= 11.2 x 10─3 m3 = 1.12 x 10─2 m3 = V
(To review distance to volume conversions, see Lesson 5F.)
* * * * *
SOLVE the equality between the first and last terms of Equation (1) in symbols first:
If PV = 2 KEave ; then KEave = 3 PV = (3) 1,010 kg · ( 1.12 x 10─2 m3 ) =
n 3 2n m · s2 (2) 0.25 mol
= (3) 1.01 x 105 kg · ( 1.12 x 10─2 m3 ) = 6800 kg · m2 = 6.8 x 103 J

m · s2 mol · s2 mol
Note that after unit cancellation, the unit is the unit WANTED.
* * * * *
Lesson 19D: Graham’s Law

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are assigned calculations using Graham’s law.
* * * * *
Diffusion and Effusion
Diffusion is the mixing of gases, and diffusion can be a slow process. At room
temperature, the gas molecules released by burning toast are traveling at speeds of many
hundreds of miles per hour. However, because these molecules collide with other
molecules in the air as they travel, they must travel a zig-zag path to your nose, and the
toast may burn a while before you notice.
Why the zig-zag? In ideal gases, the volume of the gas molecule is presumed to be
infinitesimally small, and molecules would rarely collide. In reality, the diameter of a gas
molecule is significant: in a typical gas at room temperature and pressure, the gas
molecules are roughly 10 diameters apart. When gas molecules are moving fast and are

roughly 10 diameters apart, they will collide and bounce off each other frequently. This
means diffusion is much slower than speed at room temperature and pressure.
Effusion is a term used to describe the rate at which a trapped gas escapes from its
container through a small hole into a vacuum. The rate of effusion is a measure of the vrms
of the gas molecules.
Gases with different molar masses will have different rates of effusion. If we place two
gases in a container with a small hole, surrounded by a vacuum, the ratio of the rates of
diffusion will be
Rate of effusion of gas a v rms of gas a 3RT/MM a 1 / MM a 1 / MM a

= = = =
Rate of effusion of gas b v rms of gas b 3RT/MM b 1 / MM b 1 / MM b
The above equation simplifies to the relationship known as
Rate of effusion of gas a MM b

Graham’s law: =
Rate of effusion of gas b MM a
In words: the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molar mass. Graham’s law can be used with molar masses measured in any units, as long
as both molar masses are measured in the same units.
Let’s try an example of a Graham’s law calculation.
Q. To avoid nitrogen narcosis (the bends), scuba diving tanks are often filled with a
mixture of oxygen (O2) and helium (He). Calculate the ratio of the effusion rate of
helium to oxygen.
* * * * *
WANTED: The ratio ( effusion rate He/effusion rate O2 ).
The equation that uses a ratio of effusion rates is Graham’s Law:

=
DATA: Gas A = He ; MM He = 4.0 g/mol
Gas B = O2 ; MM O2 = 32.0 g/mol
Either gas can be A or B. Any unit for molar mass can be used as long as the units
are consistent.
Rate of effusion of He MM O 2 32.0 g/mole 5.66

= = = = 2.83
Rate of effusion of O 2 MM He 4.00 g/mol 2
The rate of effusion (and vrms ) is 2.83 times higher for helium than for oxygen.

Practice: Memorize Graham’s law, then try these.

1. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6) that contains the more common U-238 isotope has a molar
mass of 352.05 g/mol. UF6 that contains the fissionable U-235 isotope has a molar mass
of 349.04 g/mol. Calculate the ratio of the rate of effusion for the lighter over the
heavier molecules of UF6 .
2. Chlorine gas (Cl2) is trapped in a sealed container and surrounded by a vacuum. When
a small hole is opened in the container, the nitrogen leaves the container at a rate of 1.50
mL/second. When a second gas is placed in the container under the same conditions, it
is found to exit at a rate of 6.32 mL/s . Find the molar mass of the second gas.
ANSWERS
1. WANT: The ratio (effusion rate 235 UF6 /effusion rate 238 UF6 .
The equation that uses a ratio of effusion rates is Graham’s Law:

=
DATA: Gas A = lighter = 235 UF6; MM 235 UF6 = 349.04 g/mol
Gas B = heavier = 238 UF6 ; MM 238 UF6 = 352.05 g/mol
Rate of effusion of lighter MM heavier 352.05 g/mole 18.763

= = = = 1.0043
Rate of effusion of heavier MM lighter 349.04 g/mol 18.683
2. WANT: MM Unknown (list the symbols as they are written in the equations being studied.)
DATA: MM Cl2 = 71.0 g/mol
Effusion rate Cl2 = 1.50 mL/s
Effusion rate Unk = 6.32 mL/s
The equation with two effusion rates is Graham’s law:
Rate effusion Cl 2 MM Unk 1.50 mL/s MM Unk

= ; =
Rate effusion Unk MM Cl 2 6.32 mL/s 71.0 g/mol
Solving with the ratio upside down does not change the answer.
SOLVE for the term with the WANTED symbol.
1.50
MM Unk = • 71.0 g/mol = 0.2373 • 8.426 = 2.00 (g/mol)1/2 Done?
6.32
* * * * *

MM Unk = ( MM Unk )2 = (2.00)2 ((g/mol)1/2)2 = 4.00 g/mol

The solved unit must match the WANTED unit.
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Kinetic Molecular Theory

1. For squares and square roots of exponential notation:
a. To take exponential terms to a power, multiply the exponents.
b. “Taking the square root” is the same as taking the quantity to the 1/2 power.
c. To take the square root of an even exponential term in your head: cut the exponent
in half.
2. Root mean square velocity = vrms = ( v2 )1/2 ≈ v ≡ average velocity of the molecules.
The vrms is slightly higher than the average velocity of the molecules.
3. Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT).

Based on the laws of physics for particles in motion with perfectly elastic collisions,
PV 2 KE
a. = RT = ave
n 3
b. KEaverage per mole = 1/2 ( MMkg ) ( vrms )2
3RT
c. vrms =
MMkg
In KMT equations, to provide for unit cancellation,

• All units must be composed of SI base units: meters, kilograms, seconds, moles,
and kelvins.
• R in SI base units = 8.31 J/mol = 8.31 kg · m2 /s2 · K · mol
• KE is measured in the energy unit joules/mole, which during KMT calculations
must be written as kg · m2 /mol · s2 .
• Molar mass must be converted to kilograms per mole (MMkg) .
• Velocity is the root mean square velocity (vrms ) of the gas molecules in m/s .
4. Graham’s law:
Rate of effusion of gas a v rms of gas a MM b

= =
Rate of effusion of gas b v rms of gas b MM a
If two different gases are at the same temperature, the lighter molecules have a higher
average velocity.
# # # # #

Module 20 — Graphing
Calculations in Chemistry
Modules 19 and above have been re-numbered.
Module 19 – Graphing is now Module 20.
Module 20 – Spectra is now Module 21
If you are looking for Spectra topics, check Module 21
* * * * *
Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 491

©2009 ChemReview.net v. 1h Page 417

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms...................................................................................................................101
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................159


Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 237


Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................491


Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 614
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 662
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827


Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................974


•••••

Timing: Begin this module when you are asked either to make a line graph of data, by
hand, as part of a lab report or other assignment.
Prerequisites: It will be helpful to do Lessons 17A, 18A and 18B prior to this module.
Provisions: You will need a pencil, eraser, and about 5-10 sheets of graph paper (quarter-
inch grid preferred), but you can begin the lessons without graph paper.
Pretests: If you feel confident about your graphing ability, try the last graph in the problem
set at the end of each lesson. If you can do the last graph easily, you should not need to do
the others. If the last graph is difficult, do the lesson.
* * * * *
Lesson 20A: Graphing Fundamentals

Graphs
P vs. V for Trapped Air
A graph is a way to display
numbers visually. 14
12
There are many types of
graphs, including bar graphs, 10
Pressure (atm)
pie charts, and histograms. In 8

these lessons, our interest will
6
be limited to line graphs: a
4
type of graph often used to
display experimental results. 2
An example of a line graph is 0
at the right. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Volume (L)
Computer software can also
create graphs. However, in
order to create a proper software graph, it is important to be able to do the basic graphing
operations without a computer.
Graphing Exercises
In the following lessons you will “learn by doing” several types of line graphs. The
exercises will proceed from relatively easy to difficult. The early examples can be solved in
easier steps, but the steps we practice on simple cases will make easier the more complex
and computer graphs that follow. Please try the rules suggested here.
Tip #1: Graph In Pencil
When making a graph by hand, use a pencil and eraser. Simple or rough graphs may be
sketched in ink, but complex graphs may require draft numbers that are later erased.

Graphing Numbers Near 0,0

In science experiments that study two variables, the data are often a series of pairs of
numbers and their units. A relationship between two variables can often be determined
from a graph of the points in two dimensions.
In such experiments, two measurements are recorded after each Table 1
change in conditions. To simplify our initial study of these
related pairs, we will begin with “math graphs” of numbers Data Points
without units. Table 1 at the right lists an example of these data x y
points. 20 297
Two-dimensional graphs in Cartesian coordinates have a 10 177
horizontal x-scale and a vertical y-scale. The x-axis is the heavy 4 105
line perpendicular to the y-scale at y = 0. The y-axis is drawn
─3.5 15
perpendicular to the x-scale at x = 0. Graphs with x and y-scales
may or may not show the x- and/or y-axis. 8 153
In science, data for related variables usually plot as points that

fall close to smooth curves or straight lines. Based on the shape and characteristics of the
graph, the goal is to develop an equation that describes the relationship between the two
variables.
To graph data, use the following steps. Complete these steps using the data in Table 1.
1. Decide which column will be plotted on the x-scale. For this data, that’s been done.
2. Fill-in a range chart for each scale.
For all of the data points to fit within a graphed area, each scale must be
• numbered to start lower than the lowest value on that scale and end higher than
the highest data, and
• evenly numbered so that the lines along each scale increase by the same value.
To number the scales, begin by filling in the range chart below. Use the data in Table 1.
The lowest value in the x column goes in the first blank.
Range Chart:
x-scale: Low #: __________ High #: __________ Minor unit: ___ Major: ____
y-scale: Low #:___________ High #: __________ Minor unit: ___ Major: ____
3. Consider adding zero to each range if the range does not include 0.
Some graphing exercises will specify a range to use on the scales. If not, you will need
to decide if the origin (0,0) should be shown on the graph. On most graphs, the answer
will be yes. Including (0,0) will help you to recognize the type of equation that the data
represents.
For a range does not include zero, to include zero in the range, change one of the
numbers in the range to zero. Change the number that increases the range.

The number changed to zero will usually be the lower number (but if both of the range
numbers are negative, the higher value is changed to zero).
For this current graph, include zero on both scales. Apply the rule above to the numbers in
the range chart, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
x-scale: Low #: ─3.5 High #: 20 Minor Unit: ____ Major: ____
y-scale: Low #: 15 0 High #: 297 Minor Unit: ____ Major: ____
The x-scale range already includes 0, so no change is needed. For the y-scale,
changing the 15 to 0 increases the range of the numbers on the axis.
4. Mark the boundaries of the plot area on your graph paper.
Decide how much space will be used to plot your points.
In science, graphs must include a title, the numbers on each scale, and a label for each
axis. We will include room for those science labels on this math graph even though the
labels of the two current columns are simply x and y.
Graphs may be done in the portrait or landscape mode. The graph may use all of a
sheet of graph paper, or a half or quarter sheet. Using the steps for graphing suggested
here, data can be plotted on a small or large section of graph paper.
How much paper to devote to each graph depends on how the graph will be used. A
small graph is useful for a quick check of relationships. An entire sheet of paper is
better if you need to calculate an accurate slope of a line, or for a case in which you
want to include zero on a scale, but the data is clustered away from zero.
For this
problem, either
graph on the
sample layout
provided at the
right on a copy
of this page, or
use a half-sheet
of your own
graph paper.
If using your
own paper, use
the same
number of
squares (12 up
and 16 across) as
at the right.

Lightly sketch the borders of the box of gridlines which you will plot the points inside.
Leave room at the top, bottom, and left for the title, numbers and scale labels.
5. Calculate the scale minor unit. Round UP.
The minor unit is the spacing number for the scale. When numbering the scale, we
increase the value of each line by this number.
To number each scale so that all of the data will fit, use this equation.
Scale minor unit = (High # on scale) minus (Low # on scale)

The count of the grid lines on the scale ─2
Then round UP to the next easy number to count by and divide into pieces.
The ─2 is a factor that helps to assure that the data will fit if we write the numbers on
every other line along the scale. To write numbers less often, this factor would need to
be a larger negative number.
What does the round up to the next easy number rule mean?
Counting by 2’s means 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ….
1’s, 2’s, 4’s, 5’s, 10’s, 20’s, 50’s, and 100’s are easy to count by and to divide into
parts.
You may also be able to count by 3’s, but in graphing, we need to be able to plot
values between numbered lines. Estimating where 4.8 falls on a line between 4 and 6
is probably easier than between 3 and 6.
On occasion, the division in the equation above results exactly in a round number that
is easy to count by and count between. If that is the case, use that round number as the
minor unit. If it does not, round up.
For the current graph, first calculate the x-scale minor unit. Use the equation above.
• In the numerator, enter the numbers from the range chart for the x-scale.
• In the denominator, count the number of lines on the scale in the box you
sketched to plot in. Start at 0 on the bottom left, and count the lines on the
graph paper that cross that scale, including the line at the right edge.
For example, in the sample layout above, count of grid lines along the x-scale. (The x-
scale is the horizontal scale (“the horizon is horizontal” = -------- .)
* * * * *
The count of the x-scale grid lines is 16.
Finish the math of the x-scale minor unit equation, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
x-scale minor unit = 20 ─ (─3.5) = 23.5 = 1.68 Round up to 2.
16 grid lines ─ 2 14
Counting by 2’s is easy, and plotting points between 0 and 2 is easy.

6a. Decide the major unit.

The major unit is the difference between the numbers that show on the scale. In these
lessons, we will write numbers on the scale at every other line. This means the major
unit is double the minor unit.
In the x-scale range chart above, write the minor and major unit for the scale.
* * * * *
x-scale: Low #: ─3.5 High #: 20 Minor: 2 Major: 4
Now calculate the y-scale minor unit, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
y-scale minor unit = 297 ─ 0 = 29.7 Round up to 40.
12 lines ─ 2
40 is familiar to count by. In the range chart above, for the y-scale, fill in the minor
and the major unit.
6b. Make both ranges slightly wider to be evenly divisible by the major unit.
Change the numbers in the range chart as follows.
a. Do not change a 0. Treat zero as evenly divisible by all numbers.
b. Do not change numbers that are already evenly divisible by the major unit for that
scale.
c. Cross out numbers that are not zero and not evenly divisible by the major unit.
Increase the range by substituting the next number that is evenly divisible by the
major unit for that scale. Make the high number higher and the low number lower.
For this current graph, try that step for the x-scale, then check below.
* * * * *
Range Chart:
x-scale: Low #: ─3.5 ─4 High #: 20 Minor: 2 Major: 4
The major unit for the x-scale is 4. ─3.5 is not evenly divisible by 4, so change ─3.5
to the next number lower that is evenly divisible by 4. Since the high value of 20 is
already evenly divisible by 4, no change is needed.
Try those steps above for the y-scale, then check below.
* * * * *
y-scale: Low #: 15 0 High #: 297 320 Minor: 40 Major: 80
The minor unit on y is 40; make the range wider and divisible by 80. Do not change
0. Change 297 to the next higher number that is evenly divisible by 80, which is 320.
(Making the higher number divisible by the major unit often does not change how
graphs scales are done by hand, but it is good practice for software graphing.)
7. Number and label each scale.
When graphing by hand, numbering the scales may involve some trial and error, but
the following rules will minimize erasing.

• The y-axis is a line perpendicular to x = 0.

• The x-axis is a line perpendicular to y = 0.
If the x- or y-scale includes an axis, we number next to the axis. If not, we number on
the left or bottom edge of the grid. Some graphs will have one or both axes in the
middle of the plot. Some graphs will not include x = 0, y = 0, or both.
There are complex sequencing schemes that will minimize erasing numbers, but a less
complicated way to number the scales is
a. At the bottom left corner of the grid, start with the lowest number in the range for
each scale. Lightly number the x-scale on the bottom edge, and the y-scale on the
left edge.
b. If a scale includes zero, draw the axis line all the way across the graph
perpendicular to that zero. Put the tick marks and numbers below an x-axis or scale,
and to the left of a y-axis or scale. Then move the numbers to the axis, writing firm,
final numbers with the same spacing as the light numbers. Erase the light numbers.
c. If a scale does not include an axis, simply replace the light numbers on the bottom
or left edge for that scale with heavier final numbers.
d. For each line on the scale, increase the count by the scale minor unit, but write the
count on every other line. The difference in value between the lines is the minor unit,
and the difference in value between the numbered lines is the major unit.
These steps will be more clear if we do an example. Using the range chart for Table 1
and rules above, start with the x-scale. Number either the sample grid provided on a
previous page or the graphing box on your own paper. Then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Since the x-scale includes zero, draw the heavy line perpendicular to zero.
Now number the y-scale. Since you already have the y-axis marked, write the numbers
to the left of the axis, instead of on the left edge of the grid.
If the y-scale includes y = 0,
draw the perpendicular
heavy line for the x-axis. 240
Replace the light x-scale
200
numbers with final numbers
below the axis. 160
120
Then, label each scale in
words. Use the labels for the 80
column plotted on the scale. 40

Add a title to the graph.
0
Base the graph title on the -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
title of the data table for the
graph. Then check your
work below.
* * * * *

Your result should look

like the graph at the right.
Table 1 -- Data Points
* * * * *
8. Plot the points. Use 300
your own graph paper 250
or the grid at the right.
200
Using the numbers in
Table 1, go out the x- 150
y
scale by the number in
100
the first column, then
up by the number in 50
the 2nd column, and
0
make a dot. For
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
visibility, either make
the dot somewhat x
thick, or circle it.
Add a point for each row in the data table.
Do that step, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
9. Draw the function.
For natural phenomena, two related quantities will often graph to produce a smooth
curve or a straight line.
Add a line or curve to your graph that represents where you think all measurements for
the two variables would fall if the data were without experimental error.
In drawing the line or curve,
do not change the data based
on where the points plot. Table 1 -- Data Points
You may, however, want to 480
check the plotting of points 400
that are far off the line or
320
curve.
240
y
Do not “connect the dots.”

The drawn function should 160
be a smooth curve or line 80
that passes close to most of
0
the dots, through or between
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
them, representing the best fit
between the data and a x
smooth function.
If the points plot close to a line, use a straight edge to add the best-fit line to the graph.
Do step 9, then check your answer in the next lesson.
* * * * *

Summary of Initial Rules: Graphing In Two Dimensions

1. Decide which variable to plot on x.
2. Write the range chart for each scale.
x-scale: Low #: _________ High #: __________ Minor Unit: ___ Major: ___
y-scale: Low #: _________ High #: __________ Minor Unit: ___ Major: ___
3. Consider adding 0 to each range, increasing the range.
In most cases, if a range does not include zero, change one number in the range to
zero. Change the number that increases the range.
4. Mark the boundaries of the grid plot on the graph paper.
5. Calculate spacing number for each scale. Round UP. Use this equation:

(The count of the grid lines on the scale) ─ 2
and then round UP to the next easy number to count by and count between.
6. Decide the major unit for each scale, then make both ranges slightly wider and
evenly divisible by the major unit for that scale. To number every second line on
a scale, make the major unit double the minor unit. Add the minor and major units
to the range chart.
7. Number the scales or axes. Label the scales. Title the graph.
8. Plot the points.
9. Draw the function: either a smooth curve or straight line near most points.
Practice: For more practice in graphing, do these.

1. Graph the data in Table 2. Include zero on both scales. Table 2
Use your own graph paper. Table 3 Data Points
Plot on a grid that includes 15
lines across the page and 8 Data Points x y
lines up, counting from zero x y 1.5 4.1
and including the lines on the 100 0.030 4.2 5.2
far borders of the grid. 6.3 6.0
225 0.0050
2. Graph the data in Table 3. 325 ─0.015 2.7 4.6
Include zero on both scales.
475 ─0.045
Use your own graph paper.
Plot on a grid that includes 16 lines across the page and 10 lines up, counting from zero
and including the lines on the far borders of the grid.

ANSWERS
1. At Step 3, the range chart is
x-scale: Low #: 1.5 0 High #: 6.3 Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
y-scale: Low #: 4.1 0 High #: 6.0 Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
At Step 5, the minor units are:
x-scale minor unit = 6.3 ─ 0 = 6.3 = 0.48 Round up to 0.5
15 lines on x-scale ─ 2 13 .
y-scale minor unit = 6.0 ─ 0 = 1 1 is round. Use it.
8 grids on y-scale ─ 2
At Step 6, the range chart is
x-scale: Low #: 1.5 0 High #: 6.3 7 Minor unit: 0.5 Major: 1
y-scale: Low #: 4.1 0 High #: 6.0 Minor unit: 1 Major: 2
If the major unit is

double the minor unit, Table 2 -- Data Points
we number every other 8
line. Change each
range number and
increase the range, if 6
needed, to be evenly
divisible by the major 4
y
unit. Zero is always

evenly divisible.
2
For this graph, at Step
9, all points should fall 0
exactly on a straight 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
line. x
2. At Step 3, the range chart is

x-scale: Low #: 100 0 High #: 475 Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
y-scale: Low #: ─0.045 High #: 0.030 Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
The y-scale, in going from negative to positive, already includes zero.
At Step 5, the spacing numbers are:
x-scale minor unit = 475 ─ 0 = 475 = 33.9 Round up to 40
16 lines ─ 2 14
Count the grid lines starting from 0.
y-scale minor unit = 0.030 ─ (─ 0.045) = 0.075 = 0.0094 Round up to 0.01
10 lines ─ 2 8

At Step 6, the range chart is

x-scale: Low #: 100 0 High #: 475 480 Minor unit: 40 Major: 80
y-scale: Low #: ─0.045 ─0.060 High #: 0.030 0.040 Minor unit: 0.01 Major: 0.02
To write numbers on every

other line, make the major
Table 3 -- Data Points
unit is double the minor unit.
Each number in a range is 0.04
moved away from the other,
if needed to be evenly 0.02
divisible by the major unit.
0
Zero is always evenly
divisible.
y 0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640
-0.02
At Step 9, all points should
-0.04
fall exactly on a straight line.
-0.06
x

Lesson 20B: The Specific Equation For a Line

Timing: Do this lesson if you are asked to derive an equation from graphed data in which
the data points fall close to a straight line.
Pretest: If you can do the last problem in this lesson, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Graphs of Straight Lines
If two variables graph as a straight line, a specific equation relating the variables can be
written using the general equation for a line (also called the slope-intercept formula):
y = mx +b
The equation y = mx + b has two variables ( y and x ) and two constants ( m and b ):
y = the value of the data point on the y-scale
x = the value of the data point on the x-scale
m = the slope of the line, and
b = the y-intercept = the value of y at x = 0, where the line crosses the y-axis.
Calculating the Slope
On a straight line, the slope is the same between any two points. The slope can therefore be
calculated between any two points. Each point is identified by its coordinates (x, y). The
point with the lower x value is designated (x1, y1), and the other point (x2, y2).
The equation that defines slope must be memorized.
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1

run change in x Δx x2 ─ x1
When an equation is needed to solve a problem, the steps are: Write the equation, make a
data table using the symbols in the equation, then solve for the WANTED symbol.
Using those rules, solve the following problem and then check your answer below.
Q. Calculate the slope between the points (2, 3) and (5, 18).
* * * * *
1. WANTED: m When a slope is needed, first write the equation for slope.
Writing an equation each time you need it helps to set up your data table, and helps to
store the equation in your long-term memory.

The symbol Δ means change in.

2. DATA:
m= ? x1 = ________ y1 = ________ x2 = ________ y2 = _________
To solve for the slope, the point with the lower x value is designated (x1, y1), and the
other point as (x2, y2).
Identify x1, then complete the data table above.
3. SOLVE: Substitute into the equation and solve for the WANTED unit.
If needed, finish those steps and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Answer
WANTED: m
DATA:

m= ? x1 = 2 y1 = 3 x2 = 5 y2 = 18 (the lower x is x1 = 2)
SOLVE: m = y2 ─ y1 = 18 ─ 3 = 15 = 5 =m
x2 ─ x1 5 ─2 3
The Slope of a Line on a Graph
A slope can be a positive number, negative number, zero, or infinity.
When a straight line on a graph is
• shaped /, the slope is a positive number;
• shaped \, the slope is a negative number;
• shaped ── , the slope is zero, and
• shaped │ , the value of the slope is infinity (∞).
Work this example, then check your answer below. Table 1
Q. In the previous lesson, for the data in Table 1 at the right, Data Points
all points plotted were on a straight line.
x y
a. Calculate the slope between the points in Table 1 that
20 297
have the highest and lowest x values.
b. Calculate the slope between any other two points in 10 177
Table 1. 4 105
* * * * * ─3.5 15
8 153

Answer
WANTED: m
DATA:

run change in x Δx x2 ─ x 1
a. Identify the point with the lowest x value, and label it x1 . Label the highest value as
x2 . Then fill in the data table using the equation’s symbols.
m= ? x1 = ─3.5 y1 = 15 x2 = 20 y2 = 297
SOLVE: m = y2 ─ y1 = 297 ─ 15 = 282 = 12 = m for the Table 1 data

x2 ─ x1 20 ─ (─3.5) 23.5
b. For any other two points, the slope must be 12. The slope between any two points
on a line must be the same.
* * * * *
Calculating the y-Intercept
In the slope-intercept formula y = mx + b , the value of the y-intercept (b), a constant, can be
found in two ways:
• By reading the graph and estimating the value of y at the point where the line
crosses the y-axis, or
• By calculating the y-intercept using the slope value and the coordinates of any one
point on the line.
At the right is the graph for the
Table 1 data. Reading the graph, Table 1 -- Data Points
estimate a value for the 480
y-intercept.
400
b = _______
320
The value of the y-intercept can
240
y
also be calculated mathematically.

The general equation for a line is 160
y = mx + b 80
The values for y and x will vary for 0

each point on the line, but m and b -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
are constants: they stay the same x

for all points on the line. If you
know the values for y and x for any two points on the line, you can find the slope (m) of the
line, as was done in the calculations above.

Once the value for the slope (m) and the coordinates (x,y) for any one point on the line is
known, you know values for three of the four symbols in y = mx + b. When values are
known for all of the symbols in an equation except one, the missing value, in this case the y-
intercept (b), can be found using algebra.
For the graph of the Table 1 data, all points fell exactly on the line. In that case, any points
in the data can be used to calculate numeric values for m and b.
Use the slope for the Table 1 data that was calculated above, plus the data for the highest x
value in the data, calculate a value for b, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
WANT: b
DATA: Writing the WANTED symbol helps to identify what equations may be
needed to solve the problem. At this point, we only know one equation
that uses b. Write that equation, then make a data table using the
symbols in the equation.
y = mx + b
m = 12 (solved above)
For the point with the highest x value in the Table 1 data,
x = 20 and y = 297 b= ?
Solve y = mx + b for the WANTED variable.
b = ? = y ─ mx = 297 ─ (12)(20) = 297 ─ 240 = 57 = b

Compare the calculated b value to your b value estimated from the graph above. Are they
close? Which is likely to be the more accurate value?
The Specific Equation for the Line
The general equation for a line is y = mx + b .
The specific equation for a line is obtained by substituting into y = mx + b the numeric
values for the two constants. The specific equation for the line on the graph above is
y = 12x + 57
The specific equation can be used to calculate what the values would be at other points on
the line. For any y, using the specific equation, you can calculate what x must be. For any
x, you can calculate y.
In science, this is a key benefit of graphing data. Based on a data sample that you find by
experiment, if you can find an equation that fits the data, you can predict results for other
cases without having to test every case.
Testing the Equation
To be certain that you have solved for the specific equation correctly, test the equation. To
do so, substitute into the specific equation for the line either the x or y value for a point on

the line where both x and y are known. Then use the specific equation to calculate a value
for the other variable, and compare the equation prediction to the known data.
Try it. Substitute x = 4 into the specific equation for the graphed line above. Calculate a
value for y. Compare that answer to the y value for x = 4 in Table 1.
* * * * *
y = 12x + 57 = 12(4) + 57 = 48 + 57 = 105 = y
That value matches the value for y in the table at x = 4.

Try another. Predict the value for x when y = 15.
* * * * *
y = 12x + 57 ; 15 = 12x + 57 ; ─ 42 = 12x ; x = ─ 3.5
This matches the x value at y = 15 in the data table.

Summary
1. The general equation for a line is y = mx + b , where m and b are constants. The
slope of the line is m, b is the y-intercept, and x and y are variables that are the
coordinates of the points on the line.
2. m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1

3. Once the slope (m) of the line is calculated, the value of the y-intercept (b) can be
calculated by substituting the coordinates for any one point on the line into the general
equation and solving for b.
4. Substituting the values of the constants m and b into the general equation gives the
specific equation for the line. If any value for one coordinate for a point on the line is
substituted into the specific equation, the equation will predict the value for the other
coordinate.
5. To find the specific equation for a line,
a. Find the value of the constant slope between any two points on the line.
b. Find the x and y coordinates of any point on the line, substitute those values plus
the value for m into y = mx + b , and solve for the constant value of b.
c. Substitute the numeric values of m and b into the general equation y = mx + b .
* * * * *

Practice: Start by doing the even problems. Do some odds if you need more practice.
1. Calculate the slope between these points. Try these without a calculator.
a. (40., 20.) and (10., 30.) b. (20., 50.) and the origin.
2. Two points determine a line. Calculate the specific equation for the line that passes
through the two points
a. in Problem 1a. b. In Problem 1b.
3. If the slope of a line is ─2 and one point on the line is (1, 7),
a. calculate the y-intercept.
b. Write the specific equation for the line.
c. What is the value for y on the line at x = 12 ?
4. Look back at the two graphs in the answers to the previous lesson. In which case will
the calculated slope be a negative number: the graph of Table 2 or Table 3?
5. Try this problem without a
calculator.
Problem 5
For the graph at the right,
6
a. Fill in this chart.
4
x1 = 0 y1 = _____ 2
x2 = 4 y2 = _____ 0
y
b. Calculate the slope. -2 0 1 2 3 4
c. Read the y-intercept. -4
d. Write the specific equation for -6

the line. -8
x
e. On this line, at x = 25, y = ?
6. For the graph at the right,
Problem 6
a. Calculate the slope.
60
b. Calculate the y-intercept. 56
52
c. Write the specific equation for
48
the line.
y
44
d. On this line, at y = 78, x = ? 40
36
32
28
1 2 3 4 5
x

7. The data in Table 2 at the right was graphed in the problems Table 2
at the end of the previous lesson. The data graphed as a
straight line, with each data point on the line. Data Points
x y
a. Calculate the slope for the line.
1.5 4.1
b. Calculate the value of the y-intercept.
4.2 5.2
c. Write the specific equation for the line.
6.3 6.0
d. Test the equation by calculating a predicted value of x 2.7 4.6
when y = 5.2 . Compare that calculated value to the
value at y = 5.2 in the data table.
8. The data in Table 3 at the right was graphed in the problems Table 3
at the end of the previous lesson. The data graphed as a
straight line, with each data point on the line. Data Points
x y
a. Use the data in the table to calculate the specific
equation for the line. 100. 0.030
b. Test the equation by calculating a predicted value of y 225 0.0050

when x = 225 . 325 ─0.015
475 ─0.045
ANSWERS
1. WANT m. The equation that uses m and data for two points is

1a. Define the lower x value as x1, so x1 = 10. , y1 = 30., x2 = 40., y2 = 20.
Plug those numbers into the equation for m and solve.
* * * * *
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 20. ─ 30. = ─ 10 = ─ 0.33
run change in x Δ x x2 ─ x1 40. ─ 10. 30
1b. Define the lower x as x1, so x1 = 0 , y1 = 0 , x2 = 20. , y2 = 50.
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 50. ─ 0 = 2.5

run change in x Δx x2 ─ x1 20. ─ 0

2. To find the equation for a line, first calculate the slope (m), then use the coordinates of any point on the line
plus the slope to find the y-intercept (b), using y = mx + b . To write the specific equation, substitute the
values for m and b into y = mx + b .
a. For problem 1a, the slope is ─ 0.33 (see above).
Two points were used to determine the line, so by definition both points are exactly on the line.
y = mx + b is the only equation we know that uses b.
Any point (x,y) exactly on the line can be used to calculate b. If we use the first point,
y = 30., m = ─ 0.33 x = 10. ,
30 = ─ 0.33(10) + b
30 = ─ 3.3 + b
b = 33.3 The specific equation for the line is y = ─ 0.33(x) + 33.3
b. Only two points were used to determine the line, so by definition both points are exactly on the line.
Any point exactly on the line can be used to calculate b. If we use the second point,
x = 20. , y = 50. m = 2.5 (see 1b).
y = mx + b
50 = 2.5(20) + b
50 = 50 + b
b = 0 The specific equation for the line is y = 2.5(x)
The value for b can also be solved by inspection. The y-intercept is the value of y when x = 0 .
For any line that passes through the origin, b = 0.
3a. WANT: b The only equation we know that uses b is
DATA: y = mx + b
m = ─2 , x = 1 , y = 7 .
SOLVE: y = mx + b ; 7 = ─2(1) + b ; 7 = ─2 + b ; b = 9
3b. WANT: specific equation for line. Use y = mx + b with the values substituted for the constants m and b.
From 3a above, b = 9 , m = ─2 , y = ─2(x) + 9
3c. WANT: y
DATA: x = 12
SOLVE: from part b, y = ─2(x) + 9 = ─2(12) + 9 = ─24 + 9 = ─15 = y
4. Table 2, because the data plots to give a / slope, must have a positive m value.
Table 3, because the data plots to give a \ slope, must have a negative m value.
5a. x1 = 0 y1 = 5 x2 = 4 y2 = ─7

5b. m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = ─ 7 ─ 5 = ─ 12 = ─3 = m

run Δx x 2 ─ x1 4 ─0 4
The slope is negative, consistent with the slant of the graphed line.
5c. The line crosses the y-axis at +5 . b = 5
5d. To get the specific equation, substitute the specific values for the constants m and b into y = mx + b
From above, m = ─3 , b = + 5 , y = ─3(x) + 5
5e. The specific equation calculates values for points on the line.
On this line, at x = 25, ? = y = ─3(x) + 5 = ─3(25) + 5 = ─70 = y
6a. WANT: m Write the equation for m, and a data table with the symbols needed to solve m.

DATA: If the lowest and highest x values on the graph are used,
m = ? ; x1 = 1 , y1 = 34 , x2 = 5 , y2 = 50
m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 50 ─ 34 = 16 = 4.0

run Δx x2 ─ x1 5─1 4
The slope is positive, consistent with the slant of the graphed line.
6b. The graph does not show x = 0, to the y-intercept does not show on the graph and must be calculated.
WANTED: b Write the one equation that you know that uses b: y = mx +b .
DATA: b = ? At x = 1, y = 34 ; y = mx +b ; 34 = 4.0(1) + b ; b = 30
6c. WANT: specific equation for line. Use y = mx + b with the values substituted for the constants m and b.
From above, m = 4 , b = 30 , y = 4x + 30
6d. Substitute y = 78 into the specific equation: y = 4x + 30 ; 78 = 4x + 30 ; 4x = 48 ; x = 12
7a. WANT: m Write the equation for m, and a data table with the symbols needed to solve m

DATA: If we use the lowest and highest x values in the data table,
m = ? ; x1 = 1.5 , y1 = 4.1 , x2 = 6.3 , y2 = 6.0
m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 6.0 ─ 4.1 = 1.9 = 0.40

run Δx x2 ─ x1 6.3 ─ 1.5 4.8
The slope is positive, consistent with the slant of the graphed line.

7b. WANTED: b Write the one equation that you know that uses b: y = mx +b
DATA: b = ? , m = 0.40, If we use point x = 2.7, y = 4.6,

y = mx + b
4.6 = 0.40(2.7) + b
4.6 = 1.08 + b
b = 3.52 = 3.5
7c. To write the specific equation, substitute the calculated values for m and b into y = mx + b .
The specific equation for the line is y = 0.40(x) + 3.5
7d. Substitute y = 5.2 into the specific equation y = 0.40(x) + 3.5 to find x .
5.2 = 0.40(x) + 3.5

1.7 = 0.40(x) ; x = 1.7/0.40 = 0.425 = 4.2 = x This answer matches Table 2 for y = 5.2
8a. WANT: the specific equation for the line. Start from the general equation for a line: y = mx + b .
To find the specific equation,
• calculate the slope (m) between any two points on the line, then
• use the coordinates of any point on the line plus m to find the y-intercept (b) using y = mx + b ;
• substitute the values for m and b into y = mx + b .
All of the points plotted very close to the line, so any two points may be used. If we use the lowest and
highest x values in the table,
x1 = 100. , y1 = 0.030 , x2 = 475 , y2 = ─ 0.045
m = slope = rise = y2 ─ y1 = ─ 0.045 ─ 0.030 = ─ 0.075 = ─ 0.00020 = ─ 2.0 x 10─4 = m

run x2 ─ x1 475 ─ 100. 375
Note that the slope is negative, consistent with the slant of the graphed line.
Any point on the line can be used to calculate b. If we use the data point x = 325, y = ─ 0.015,
y = mx + b
─ 0.015 = (─2.0 x 10─ 4)(325) + b
─ 0.015 = ─0.065 + b
b = + 0.050 The specific equation for the line is y = ─2.0 x 10─ 4(x) + 0.050
8b. WANT: y Substitute x = 225 into y = (─2.0 x 10─ 4) (x) + 0.050 .
y = (─2.0 x 10─ 4) (225) + 0.050 = ─0.045 + 0.050 = + 0.005 = y
This answer matches Table 3 for x = 225 .

* * * * *

Lesson 20C: Graphing Experimental Data

Pretest: If you can do the last problem at the end of this lesson, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Graphs in Science
Graphs of experimental data collected in laboratory experiments are similar to the “math”
graphs studied in the previous two lessons, but graphs in science differ in some respects.
• Most math graphs are assumed to have exact numbers. In science, graphs of
experimental data must allow for uncertainty in the data.
• Math graphs are usually done with numbers. Graphs in science are usually done
for measurements: numbers with units and labels.
Graphs in science explore how the physical world works. When the rules for our
environment can be expressed as equations, predictions about the behavior of natural
phenomena become easier, and the results can improve the safety and quality of our lives.
Studies of Two Variables
In science, to investigate the relationships among a number of variable, one strategy is to
design an experiment that holds all but two variables constant. For the two remaining
variables, we measurably change one variable and measure what happens to the other.
The two variables studied in experiments can often be classified as dependent and
independent.
• An independent variable is one that is changed in a controlled way or is measured
at a regular interval.
• A dependent variable responds to the change in the independent variable.
For example, in experiments we often measure a variable at specific points of time. Time is
then the independent variable: we control the interval at which we record measurements.
However, for an experiment in which we change a solution concentration by regular
amounts, then measure the time a reaction takes, time is the dependent variable. Which
quantities are dependent and independent depend on the experimental design.
In many experiments, there will be no controlled or regular interval at which the value of a
variable is measured, and neither variable will be considered to be dependent or
independent.
Data Tables
A graph must be accompanied by the data table upon which it is based. In a data table, it is
easier to see the numeric measurements recorded in an experiment. Graphs assist in
finding the relationships among variables.
A data table must have the following elements.
• A title that identifies what quantities are being studied;
• columns of measurements; and

• labels for each column showing the quantity being measured and its units.
In some cases, the quantity is clear from its unit and is omitted.
If one of the variables in an experiment is independent, it is generally listed in the first
column and graphed on the x-scale.
Graphs of Data Near 0,0
In an experiment, for a collection of solid (not hollowed) Table 4
cylinders that are all made of the same metal, mass and volume
is recorded for each cylinder. The data is at the right. Mass and Volume
for Metal Cylinders
We would like to know: are the numbers mathematically
Volume Mass
related? Can we answer questions such as: if a similar cylinder
in mL in grams
had a mass of 8,532 grams, what would be its volume?
2.7 21.2
To answer these questions, begin by graphing the data. The
4.0 29.5
steps listed below are similar to the steps used in math graphs
As we solve, we will address how science graphs may differ. 9.2 72.4
1. Decide which variable to plot on x. 12.6 99.2

7.6 61.9
In Table 4, no variable is more controlled than the other or
recorded at a regular interval. Either unit can therefore be
plotted on the x-scale. For this example, plot mL on x.
2. Fill in the range chart for each scale.
The data in science graphs includes units. All of the data on a given scale must have the
same units. In the range chart, including the units is optional, but doing so will serve as
a check that the numbers are placed correctly. Fill in the range chart using the data in
Table 4.
x-scale: Low #: __________ High #:__________ Minor unit: ___ Major: ___
y-scale: Low #:___________ High #:__________ Minor unit: ___ Major: ___
3. Consider adding 0 to each range if the range is not specified in the problem.
For this graph, add the origin to the range, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
x-scale: Low #: 2.7 mL 0 mL High #: 12.6 mL Minor Unit: _____ Major: _____
y-scale: Low #: 21.2 g 0 g High #: 99.2 g Minor Unit: _____ Major: _____
For the origin (0,0) to show on the graph, zero must be a part of both ranges.
In Table 4, to include the origin in the graph, zero will need to be added to both ranges.

4. Mark the boundaries of the plot area on your graph paper.

For this problem, either graph on the sample grid provided below or on a printed copy
of this page, or use a half-sheet of your own graph paper. Leave room at the top,
bottom, and left, for the title and scales. Use the same number of boxes up and across
that are shown in the sample grid below.
5. Calculate the scale minor unit. Round UP.

Calculate the scale minor unit for the x-scale, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
x-scale minor unit = 12.6 ─ 0 = 12.6 = 1.05 Round up to 2.
Calculate the minor unit for the y-scale, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28

y-scale spacing = 99.2 ─ 0 = 99.2 = 9.92 Round up to 10.

Enter the minor units to the range chart. Enter the major unit: double the minor.
6. Make both ranges slightly wider and evenly divisible by the scale major unit.
For this example, first adjust the range for the x-scale, then check below.
* * * * *
x-scale: Low #: 2.7 mL 0 mL High #: 12.6 mL 16 Minor Unit: 2 Major: 4
Zero is always evenly divisible. Make the high number higher. Move 12.6 to the
next higher number divisible by the scale major unit (4), which is 16.
Try that step for the y-scale, then check below.
* * * * *
y-scale: Low #: 21.2 g 0g High #: 99.2 g 100 Minor Unit: 10 Major: 20
Adjust the y-scale high number higher, from 99.2 to 100, since 100 is divisible by 20.
7. Number and label each scale.
The low number on each scale is 0. That results in the most familiar type of scale,
where the bottom left corner is the origin (0,0).
For this example, number each scale, then add a label to the scale. For the label, use the
heading of the data-table column that you are plotting on that scale.
Add a title at the top of the graph, based on the title of the data table.
8. Plot the points. As one indication that the data has uncertainty, either make each point
somewhat thick, or circle it.
9. Draw the function.
Add a line or curve to the graph. In natural phenomena, two related quantities will
usually graph to produce a smooth curve or a straight line.
The function should be a smooth curve or line that passes close to most of the points,
representing your best estimate of where the points would be if there were no
experimental error (do not “connect the dots”).
* * * * *
The position of the points on your graph, relative to the line, should match the graph
below. Note that the data does not fit exactly on a straight line.
Should the line for this graph go through the origin? Let’s work through the logic of the
experiment.
• If the volume of the metal cylinders approaches zero, what should their mass
approach?
If the mass of the cylinders approaches zero, what should their volume approach?
* * * * *

If the mass of a solid metal cylinder approaches zero, its volume must approach zero as
well. The line showing the relationship of mass to volume for the cylinders should
approach the origin (0,0).
However, including (0,0) as a point on the line would be questionable science. We did not
record data at (0,0), and if the instruments used in measurements had a systematic error, or
the scale on the instrument was read with a consistent error, the line might not pass though
(0,0). Graphing can help us to find such systematic errors.
That said, if the line representing the smooth function passes through (0,0), it would fit the
theoretical results for this experiment.
* * * * *
Mass and Volume for Metal Cylinders

120
100
Mass in grams
80
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Volume in mL

Practice
If unsure about an answer, check it after each part. Answers are at the end of the lesson.
1. In an experiment, a hollow glass container is filled with dry air and attached to a
pressure gauge. The system is then sealed so that no air can enter or escape. The glass
container is placed into beakers of ice water, boiling water, and liquid water at various
temperatures. The temperature of the water baths and the pressure exerted by the air in
the container is reported in Table 5.
a. Based on PV=nRT, what are the symbols for the Table 5
variables held constant in this experiment?
Sealed Fixed
b. What are the symbols for the two variables that can
Volume of air:
change in this experiment?
Temp. vs. Pressure
c. In this experiment, which is the independent variable?
ºC kPa
d. Assuming we will plot the independent variable on x,
write a range chart for the data. For this graph, do not 0.0 202
modify the ranges to add zero. 100. 276
e. Based on the grid below, calculate the scale minor unit 58 248
for each scale. 82 262
f. Adjust the ranges in the range chart based on the scale 20 250
major unit that is double the minor unit.
12 210
g. Plot the graph for Table 5. If you use your own graph
paper, use the same number of grid lines as the grid 44 230
below. Add the function to the graph.
h. Are there any outlier points where errors in measurement may have been made?
Kelvin vs. Fahrenheit temperature

temperature in degrees F
temperature in K

ANSWERS
1a. The variables V and n are held constant. (R is a constant, not a variable, in PV=nRT.)
1b. P and T vary in this experiment (though temperature is recorded in degrees Celsius instead of kelvins.)
1c. Temperature is the more controlled variable, and is therefore the more independent. If we place the
cylinder into ice water, or boiling water at standard pressure, we know and control what the temperature will
be. Once the system is sealed, we do not control what the pressure readings will be: the pressure is
dependent on the controlled temperature.
1d. The problem says to plot the independent variable on x.
x-scale: Low #: 0.0 ºC High #: 100. ºC Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
y-scale: Low #: 202 kPa High #: 276 kPa Minor unit: ____ Major: ____
1e. x-scale minor unit = 100 ─ 0 = 100 = 5 Don’t round.
If the division results in a round number that is easy to count by, use it.
y-scale spacing = 276 ─ 202 = 74 = 9.25 Round up to 10.
1f. x-scale: Low #: 0.0 ºC High #: 100. ºC Minor unit: 5 Major: 10
y-scale: Low #: 202 kPa 200 High #: 276 kPa 280 Minor unit: 10 Major: 20
The x-scale numbers are already divisible by 10. Do not change them.
For the y-scale, expand the range at both ends. Make both ends divisible by 20, making the low number
lower and high number higher.
1g. The graph should result in a smooth curve or a straight line. The data does not fit exactly on a line, but
most of the points fit close to a straight line. The function should be a best estimate of where the data
would be without experimental error.
1h. The point at 20
ºC would seem
Sealed, Fixed Volume: P vs. temp.
to be an outlier
(a point not 300
consistent with
the other data). 280
This often
Pressure in kPa
represents an
error in 260
measurement,
but on 240
occasion may
be accurate -- 220
and interesting.
* * * * * 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
temperature in degrees C

Lesson 20D: Deriving Equations From Linear Data

Timing: Do this lesson if you are asked to derive an equation from a graph in which
experimental data points fall close to a straight line.
Pretest: If you can do the last problem in this lesson, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Developing Equations From Graphs of Straight Lines
In investigating two related quantities in science, a key goal is to develop a mathematical
equation that accurately predicts how one quantity will change when the other is changed.
With such an equation, we can answer “what if” questions by solving an equation, without
having to experiment to determine every result.
If two variables graph as a straight line, the equation relating the variables can be
determined using
y = mx +b
Reading the Coordinates of Points on a Line

In determining the equation for a line, a key step is determining the slope.
When graphing experimental data, often the points will be “roughly linear,” falling close
to, but not exactly on, a straight line. For roughly linear data, we try to draw the line
“through the middle” of the points: where we think the data points would be if there were
no error.
To describe and predict the relationship between two variables, the slope of a line “through
the middle” of the points should result in a more accurate equation than a slope calculated
between two points that are not exactly on the line. For this reason, calculating the slope
from experimental data requires reading the coordinates of two points on the line, rather
than the values of two data points that are not exactly on the line.
Determining the coordinates of points on a line requires estimation.
The graph below represents the Table 4 relationship found in the previous lesson.
For each of the cases below, knowing the value for one variable, estimate the value for the
other variable on the graphed line.
a. At mass = 20.0 grams, volume ≈ _______________.
* * * * *
Your answer should be close to 2.6 mL. You may want to use an index card or
sticky note as a “T-square” to line up with the line and the two scales. Putting a
“tick mark” on scale with the WANTED unit may help in estimating the answer.
b. Try this one. At volume = 8.0 mL, mass ≈ __________________
* * * * *

Mass and Volume for Metal Cylinders

120
100
Mass in grams
80
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Volume in mL
Your answer should be close to 63 grams.

c. At volume = 4.0 mL, estimate the mass based on the graph = __________________
In Table 4 at the beginning of the prior lesson, the mass at 4.0 mL = ________ .
Do the following by estimating, based on the graphed line above.
d. At volume = 12.0 mL, mass ≈ __________________
e. If mass = 40.0 grams, volume ≈ _______________.
f. At mass = 90.0 grams, volume ≈ _______________.
* * * * *
Your answers should be close to these.
d. At volume = 12.0 mL, mass ≈ 94 g
e. If mass = 40.0 grams, volume ≈ 5.1 mL
f. At mass = 90.0 grams, volume ≈ 11.4 mL
How can you improve your estimates? Making a larger graph, using graph paper with
finer lines, using a numbering scale that allows for easy estimation, and using widely
separated points all help. However, in reading the coordinates of a point on a line, your
answers will have uncertainty.

Calculating the Slope of a Line

When calculating the slope of a line graphed from experimental data, the two points chosen
on the line should be widely separated to reduce the impact of uncertainty in reading the
point coordinates.
Try the following example, then check your answer below.
Q. For the line in the graph of the metal cylinders data above, calculate the slope of the
line between the two points where mass = 80.0 grams and mass = 0 grams.
* * * * *
WANTED: m
DATA:

run change in x Δ x x2 ─ x1
Finish the data table by listing the symbols that will be used to solve the equation.
* * * * *
At y = 80.0 g , reading the graph, the x value is about 10.2 mL.
At y = 0 g , since this line passes through the origin, assume x = 0 mL.
Finish the data table, then check below.
* * * * *
To calculate the slope, the lower x value is labeled x1 .
m=? x1 = 0 mL y1 = 0 g (assumption) x2 = 10.2 mL (estimate) y2 = 80.0 g
Solve for slope. Include units.
* * * * *
m = y2 ─ y1 = 80.0 g ─ 0 g = 7.85 g
x2 ─ x1 10.2 mL ─ 0 mL mL
In calculations based on a graph, the origin is considered to be exact. The 0 values for the
origin therefore have infinite sf and do not limit the sf in an answer.
Because points on the line that are not the origin can be difficult to read accurately, the
slope should be calculated a second time using two different widely separated points.
On the graph above, estimate the values for grams at mL = 2.0 and mL = 12.0 . Then
calculate the slope between those two points, and check your answer below.
* * * * *
Your estimates for y values should be close to these.
x1 = 2.0 mL y1 = 15.6 g (estimate) x2 = 12.0 mL y2 = 94.3 g (estimate)
* * * * *
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 94.3 g ─ 15.6 g = 7.87 g
run change in x Δx x2 ─ x1 12.0 mL ─ 2.0 mL mL

The slope between any two points on a line should be the same. In practice, two slope
calculations based on coordinate estimates should be close, but often will not be exactly the
same. What value should we use for the slope of the line? If the two slopes are close,
average the two answers. The calculated slope is then m = 7.86 g/mL.
If your two slope calculations are not close, check your reading of the point coordinates
and/or your slope calculation.
Practice A
1. Calculate the slope between these points. Include units.
a. Points (10. cm, ─40. ºC) and (─20. cm, 50 ºC) b. (─20 ºF, ─50 cm) and the origin.
2. Using the graph of P vs. ºC at the end of the answers to the previous lesson,
a. Estimate ºC at 270 pKa b. Estimate P at 5 ºC. c. Using those two points, find m.
Writing the Specific Equation For A Line Through the Origin

The equation y = mx + b has two variables ( y and x ) and two constants ( m and b ).
For the math graphs in Lesson 20B, to write the specific equation for a line on a graph, we
left the variables as y and x, but substituted values for m and b.
For graphs in science, when writing the specific equation for a straight line on a graph,
• In place of y and x, write the quantities and units plotted on the scale (such as mass
in grams) and
• In place of m and b, write the numeric value of the two constants with their units.
Based the calculations above for the metal-cylinders graph above, do those substitutions
into y = mx + b and write the specific equation for the line.
* * * * *
For this graph,
y = mass in grams (the quantity plotted on the y-axis)
m = 7.86 g/mL calculated above
x = volume in mL (the quantity plotted on the x-axis)
b = 0 , since the line goes through the origin.
Substitute those terms in y = mx +b.
* * * * *
The specific equation for the graphed line and the data is
(mass in grams) = 7.86 g • (volume in mL) + 0

mL

Testing the Equation

Once a specific equation is written, it should be tested. Table 4
• Pick a point in the data table that plotted close to the line. Mass and Volume
• Substitute one of the two coordinates for that point into for Metal Cylinders
the specific equation and calculate a value for the other Volume Mass
coordinate. in mL in grams
• Compare the calculated to the table value. 2.7 21.2
4.0 29.5
If the two values are close, the equation works.
9.2 72.4
Try it. For this example, use V = 9.2 mL, plug it into the
specific equation, and calculate a predicted mass. Compare the 12.6 99.2
prediction to Table 4 at that volume. 7.6 61.9
* * * * *
Specific equation: (mass in grams) = 7.86 g • (volume in mL) + 0

mL
Substituting V = 9.2 mL ,
(mass in grams) = 7.86 g • (9.2 mL) = 72 grams
mL
The table value at 9.2 mL is 72.4 g. The equation predicts, allowing for uncertainty,
the measured value.
Allowing for uncertainty, the equation should predict the volume given any mass in
the table, and predict the mass given any volume in the table.
The specific equation describes the line on the graph, and
The specific equation predicts the relationship between the two quantities
plotted on the graph.
Extrapolating From the Data

If the equation predicts results on several small samples, it can often be used for predictions
on larger samples. Use the specific equation above to answer this question.
Q. If a cylinder of the same material had a volume of 1,000. mL, what would be its mass?
* * * * *
(mass in grams) = 7.86 g/mL • (1,000 mL) = 7,860 g
However, though that is the predicted value, the prediction may not be accurate. For
experimental data, predicting values on the line between data points (interpolating) is
usually safe, but predicting results beyond the range of the measured data (extrapolating)
is risky. For example, predictions for real gases based on ideal gas laws break down as
gases approach conditions at which they condense into liquids or solids (such as low
temperature and high pressure). When evaluating experimental results, firm conclusions

should be drawn cautiously and limited to the conditions under which the experiment
was run.
Explaining the Specific Equation In Words

Writing the specific equation for the metal cylinders data above as
(mass in grams) = 7.86 g/mL • (volume in mL)
this equation matches the form y = (constant) • x which is the general equation for a
direct proportion.
In Lesson 18A, we discussed statements and equations that can be written when a graph
results in a straight line through the origin. Review those rules if needed, then express the
meaning of the data in Table 4 and the graph of that data, in words and equations.
* * * * *
If a graph results in a straight line through the origin, the variables plotted on y and x are
directly proportional. In general, for a graph of a line through the origin,
y = (slope) • x which means y = (constant) • x which means y/x is constant.
Based on the specific equation that fits the data for the cylinders,
• Mass in grams for these cylinders (y) is directly proportional to their volume (x):
Mass of each cylinder = (constant) (Volume of each cylinder)
• The ratio of mass to volume for the cylinders is constant, and is the slope of the line
on the graph.
Mass of cylinders = a constant value = the slope of the graph
Volume of cylinders
This last statement can be tested by dividing the Table 4
second column by the first for any point in the
data. Try that calculation for any two points in
Mass and Volume
Table 4. Fill in the table with each result.
for Metal Cylinders
* * * * *
Volume Mass
Does the mass/volume ratio equal the slope?
in mL in grams g/mL
At the end of a laboratory experiment, you are 2.7 21.2
usually asked to speculate on the meaning of the
4.0 29.5
results. Take a moment to ponder: in this
experiment, why would the g/mL ratio be 9.2 72.4
constant? 12.6 99.2
* * * * * 7.6 61.9
The problem stated that the cylinders were solid
(not hollow) and that all were made of the same metal. The data show that these cylinders
all had the same mass to volume ratio. The ratio of mass to volume for an object is its
density, so all of these cylinders have the same density. The data suggests that samples of a
given metal, if solid, have a constant density.

Will the density identify the metal? An online search on densities of metals may allow you
to tentatively identify the metal used in the cylinders for this experiment.
* * * * *
To our prior list of steps to use when graphing data, let us add step
10. If the graph is a straight line,

a. write the specific equation for the line.
Calculate the slope using two points on the line. Find b using x and y
values for any one point on the line and y = mx+b. Substitute values for m
and b, and quantities and units for y and x, into y = mx+b.
b. Test your specific equation.
For a point in the graph close to the line, pick one coordinate from the data
table. Use the specific equation to predict the value for the other
coordinate. The calculated and table value should be close.
c. Explain the equation in words.
If the graphed line goes through the origin, examine the statements and
equations that can be written for direct proportions.
Practice B
Volume vs. Absolute Temperature
30
a. If x1 = 0 K , y1 = _____
If x2 = 300. K , y2 ≈ _____ 20
Liters
b. Calculate the slope.

10
c. Read the y-intercept.
d. Write the specific equation for the line. 0
0 100 200 300
e. Translate the equation into words. kelvins
f. At x = 400 K, y = ?
2. On the grid at the right,
complete the graph of distance 100
versus time represented by the
following equation. 75
Distance in miles 50
= (25 miles/hr) (time in hours)

25
Draw the function. Add labels
for the title and the axes. 0
0 1 2 3

3. For a collection of solid metal cylinders, mass Table 6

and volume measurements are recorded for
each cylinder. The data is at the right.
Mass and Volume for
a. Graph this data using the steps in the Metal Cylinders – Set 2
summary above. Use your own graph
Volume Mass
paper or the sample below.
in mL in grams
b. What might explain the difference between 3.5 9.5
the data in Table 6 at the right and the data
7.1 55.9
for the similar experiment in Table 4?
4.2 33.1
c. Label the third column g/mL. Calculate a
value for that ratio for each data point, 5.6 15.1
including units. 13.1 35.4
d. Explain the results in the third column. 2.6 20.5

tem perature in degrees F
temperature in K

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. Define the lower x as x1: x1 = ─20. cm , y1 = 50. ºC , x2 = 10. cm , y2 = ─40. ºC
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = ─40. ºC ─ (50. ºC) = ─90 ºC = ─ 3.0 ºC

run change in x Δ x x2 ─ x1 10. cm ─ (─ 20. cm) 30 cm cm
1b. If numbers are on the same scale, they must have the same units, so the units of the 0 at the origin match
the units of the other numbers on that scale.
m = ? , x1 = ─20 ºF , y1 = ─50 cm , x2 = 0 ºF , y2 = 0 cm
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 0. cm ─ (─50. cm) = 50 = 2.5 cm

run change in x Δx x2 ─ x1 0 ºF ─ (─ 20. ºF) 20 ºF
2a. At 270 pKa, ºC ≈ 92 ºC b. At 5 ºC, kPa ≈ 206 kPa
2c. WANTED: m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1

run Δx x2 ─ x1
DATA: Make the data table using the symbols needed to solve the equation.
Set x1 as the lower x value in the two points.
* * * * *
Since ºC is plotted on x, set x1 = 5 ºC
m = ? x1 = 5 ºC , y1 = 206 kPa , x2 = 92 ºC , y2 = 270 kPa
SOLVE: m = y2 ─ y1 = 270 kPa ─ 206 kPa = 64 kPa = 0.74 kPa

x2 ─ x1 92 ºC ─ 5 ºC 87 ºC ºC
Practice B
1a. x1 = 0 K y1 = 0 L x2 = 300. K y2 = 24.6 L (your answer should be close)
1b. WANT = m Using the points above, m = y2 ─ y1 = 24.6 L ─ 0 L = 0.0820 L

x2 ─ x1 300. K ─ 0 K K
In practice, it may be difficult to calculate a slope on a graph to more than two sf.
1c. For a line through the origin, b = 0
1d. Into y = mx+ b , substitute the above values for m and b and the quantities and units on y and x .
Specific equation: (Volume in L) = 0.0820 L ( temperature in kelvins)
K
1e. Possible statements include: For this data,
• volume in liters and temperature in kelvins are directly proportional.
• The ratio of volume in liters to temperature in kelvins is 0.082 L/K .
1f. Substitute the value into the specific equation.
Specific equation: (Volume in L) = 0.0820 L ( 400 K) = 32.8 L
K

2. The equation is in the form

y = (constant)(x) , which is the form Distance vs. Time
of a direct proportion. Data that is
directly proportional plots as a 100
straight line through the origin.
75
Based in the equation, the slope
Miles
must be 25 mi/hr. You can use that 50
slope to draw the line. The rise is
25 miles when the run is one hour, 25
and the line has a constant slope.
0
3a. Remember that in science, data 0 1 2 3
usually plots as straight lines or Hours
smooth curves. Be on the lookout
especially for straight lines that
extend through the origin.
The graph is shown after the summary.
3b The data in Table 4 was found to fit one metal with constant density. This table may represent data for two
different metals, each with constant density.
3c. All of the values should be about 7.9 g/mL or 2.7 g/mL.
3d. The results are consistent with data for two different metals, one with a density of about 7.9 g/mL, the other
with a density of about 2.7 g/mL. An online search for metal densities may turn up a table that would
identify familiar metals fitting these results.
Summary of Initial Rules: Graphing In Two Dimensions

1. Decide which variable to plot on x. Often, this is the independent variable.
3. Consider adding zero to each range, increasing the range. In most cases, if a
range does not include zero, change the number to zero that increases the range.
4. Mark the boundaries of the plot on the graph paper.
5. Calculate the minor unit for each scale. Round UP. Use this equation:

6. Decide the major unit for each scale, then make both ranges slightly wider and
evenly divisible by the major unit for that scale. To number every second line
on a scale, make the major unit double the minor unit. Add the minor and major
units to the range chart.

7. Number the scales based on the minor unit. Label the scales. Title the graph.
8. Plot the points.
• Calculate m using two points on the line.
• Find b using y = mx+b , x and y for any one point on the line, and m.
•Substitute values for m and b, and quantities and units for y and x, into
y = mx+b.
b. Test the specific equation.
For a point on the graph close to the line, pick one coordinate from the data
table. Use the specific equation to predict the value for the other coordinate.
Compare the predicted and the data table values.
c. Explain the equation in words.
If the graphed line goes through the origin, explain the relationship using
the statements and equations that apply to direct proportions.
* * * * *
Mass vs. Volume - Metal Cylinder Set 2
80
70
60
50
Mass (g)
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Volume (mL)

Lesson 20E: Linear Data Not Directly Proportional

* * * * *
Data Clustered Away from Zero
The following table shows the correlation between temperatures in the Fahrenheit and
Kelvin scales.
In this data, the Kelvin temperatures are clustered far from Table 7
zero. When the numbers on a scale are clustered far from zero,
you have a choice. You can number the scale to include zero, Fahrenheit versus
or not. Kelvin temperatures
K ºF
To recognize the type of equation that the data represents,
including (0,0) will help. However, if the data on a scale is 373 212
clustered away from zero, choosing not to include zero will 293 68
help in calculating an accurate slope for the line. 273 32
For this graph, do not change the range to include zero. 233 ─ 40.
Graph this data using your own half-sheet of graph paper or the
sample grid below.
For this data, no variable is more controlled than the other. We will arbitrarily choose to
graph the Kelvin-scale temperatures on the x-scale.

temperature in K

Use the ten graphing steps. If you get stuck, check the answers below.
* * * * *
Step 2. x-scale: Low #: 233 High #: 373 Minor Unit: ___ Major: _____
y-scale: Low #: ─ 40 High #: 212 Minor Unit: ___ Major: _____
* * * * *
Step 5. x-scale minor unit = 373─ 233 = 140 = 8.75 Round up to 10.
18 x grid lines ─ 2 16
y-scale minor unit = 212 ─ (─40) = 252 = 18 Round up to 20.
16 y grid lines ─ 2 14
* * * * *
Step 6. x-scale: Low #: 233 220 High #: 373 380 Minor Unit: 10 Major: 20
y-scale: Low #: ─ 40 High #: 212 240 Minor Unit: 20 Major: 40
In adjusting the ends of the range to be divisible by the major unit, make the lower
numbers lower and the higher higher. If a number is already divisible, such as
─ 40, no change is needed.
* * * * *
9. See the graph on the following page.
* * * * *
10. If you get a straight line,
a) write the specific equation for the line.
Substitute into y = mx + b the quantities and units for the two variables and the
values for the two constants. F
For the variables in Table 7,
y= temperature in ºF
x= temperature in K
To calculate the constant slope, we must read coordinates of two points on the
line, not in the data, since the line may not pass through the points. But for this
data, which is defined rather than experimental, all of the points fall very close to
or exactly on the line.
Calculate the slope, for this graph by using the highest and lowest x scale values in
the data, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *


280
240
200
160
120
80
40
0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
-40
temperature in K
Using the highest x (373, 212) and lowest x (233, ─40),

x1 = 233 K , y1 = ─40 ºF , x2 = 373 K , y2 = 212 ºF
m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 212 F ─( ─40 F) = 252 F = 1.80 ºF = m

run Δx x2 ─ x1 373K ─ 233K 140 K K
Using m, calculate b.
* * * * *
b = the y intercept = the value of y where the line crosses the y-axis
= the value of y when x = 0 .
You cannot read the y intercept if a graph does not show x = 0, and this graph
does not.
To find b, we can either redo the graph, this time including 0 on both scales, or
we can calculate b mathematically. Let’s try the latter method.
If you have not already solved for b, use the data table point at x = 293 K, plus the value for
m above, and solve for y = mx +b for b.
* * * * *

WANT: b The only equation we know that uses b is

DATA: y = mx + b
m = (1.80 ºF/K)
At x = 293 K, y = 68 ºF
? = b = y ─ mx = ( 68 ºF ) ─ [(1.80 ºF/K)( 293 K)]
= ( 68 ºF ) ─ (527 ºF ) = ─ 459 ºF = b
Now write the specific equation for the line.
* * * * *
Use the quantities and units in place of y and x, and substitute the numerical constants
calculated above for m and b.
The specific equation for the line is ( temp. in ºF ) = ( 1.80 ºF/K )( temp in K ) ─ 459 ºF
b. Test your equation.

For a point in the data table that is on or very near the line, plug one coordinate (x or y) into
the specific equation, and see if the equation predicts the other.
Using the specific equation, test what the equation predicts for ºF at 273 K.
* * * * *
(temp. in ºF = (1.80 ºF/K)(temp in K) ─ 459 ºF
(temp. in ºF = (1.80 ºF/K)(273 K) ─ 459 ºF = 491 ºF ─ 459 ºF = 32 ºF
Compare the calculated to the table value. The equation predicts the data.
Do Step 10c. Explain the equation in words.
* * * * *
The specific equation converts between temperature measurements in kelvins and in
degrees Fahrenheit.
* * * * *

Practice
a. at 0.20 mol/L, s = ______ Time vs. Concentration
At 55 s , mol/L = _______ 60
b. Using those two points,

calculate the slope. 40
Seconds
c. Read the y-intercept.
d. Calculate the y-intercept 20
based on the data at 0.50
mol/L. 0
e. Write the specific equation 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
for the line. Mol/L
f. At 80. seconds, mol/L = ?
2. Using the graph

of the Table 5 data
at the right, Sealed, Fixed Volume: P vs. temp.
a. estimate the 300

y-intercept.
280
b. If the slope is
Pressure in kPa
0.74 kPa/ºC, 260

calculate the
y-intercept. 240
c. Write the
specific 220
equation for
the line. 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
d. On this line, temperature in degrees C
calculate the
ºC at 0 kPa.
e. For an ideal gas, what should be the answer to part e?
f. Is the graphed relationship a direct proportion? Why or why not?
g. What change could be made that would result in the graph plotting as a direct
proportion?

ANSWERS
1a. At 0.20 mol/L , seconds = 30. s b. At 55 s , mol/L = close to 0.58 M
1b. WANT = m = slope = rise = Δy = y2 ─ y1

run Δx x2 ─ x1
DATA: Set x1 as the lower x value in the two points.
m=? x1 = 0.20 M, y1 = 30. s , x2 = 0.58 M , y2 = 55 s
SOLVE: m = y2 ─ y1 = 55 s ─ 30 s = 25 s = 66 s
x2 ─ x1 0.58 M ─ 0.20 M 0.38 M M
Your answer should be close: 63-70 s/M
1c. Close to 16.5 s.
1d. WANT: b The only equation we know that uses b is
DATA: y = mx + b
m = 66 s/M , x = 0.50 mol/L , y = 50. sec (reading graph)
SOLVE: y = mx + b ;
50. s = (66 s/M) (0.50 M) + b ;
50. s = 33 s + b ;
b = 17 s (your answer should be close: 15-19 seconds)
1e. Specific equation: (Time in seconds) = (66 s/M)(concentration in mol/L) + 17 seconds

1f. WANT: mol/L
DATA: 80. s
Equation: (Time in seconds) = (66 s/M)(concentration in mol/L) + 17 seconds
or (s) = (66 s/M)(? mol/L) + 17 s

(80 s) = (66 s/M)(? mol/L) + 17 seconds
63 sec = (66 s/M)(? mol/L)
(63 sec)/(66 s/M) = (? mol/L)
? Mol/L = 0.95 M
2a. Should be close to the part b answer below.
2b. WANT: b The only equation we know that uses b is
DATA: y = mx + b Make a data table using those symbols.
m = 0.74 kPa/ºC
Knowing m, b can be calculated from the coordinates of any point on the line.
An easy point to use is the highest point, since it is on the line. Using the data in Table 5,
x = 100. ºC , y = 276 kPa

SOLVE: y = mx + b ;
276 kPa = (0.74 kPa/ºC) (100. ºC) + b ;
276 kPa = 74 kPa + b ; b = 202 kPa
2c. Pressure in kPa = (0.74 kPa/ºC)(temperature in ºC) + 202 kPa

2d. Substitute 0 kPa into the specific equation:
0 kPa = (0.74 kPa/ºC) (? ºC) + 202 kPa ; ─202 kPa/0.74 kPa/ºC = ? ºC = ─273 ºC
2e. For an ideal gas, the pressure, measured in any units, should be zero at absolute zero.
2f. The graphed relationship is not a direct proportion. A direct proportion must graph through the origin:
b must equal zero.
2g. If all of the temperatures were converted to an absolute temperature scale, such as the Kelvin scale, a
graph of pressure versus temperature values should go through the origin. For ideal gases, P is directly
proportional to T (absolute temperature).
* * * * *

Lesson 20F: Graphs of Inverse Proportions

* * * * *
Graph of Gas Pressure Vs. Volume
In an experiment, a large syringe marked with a scale in mL is Table 8
filled with air. The tip is sealed, and the syringe is then
clamped so that it is vertical, with its moveable plunger pointed Books on Syringe
upward. With Trapped Air
Pressure Volume
A series of identical chemistry textbooks is placed on top of the
plunger one at a time. As the air in the syringe is compressed, In Books In mL
the volume of air inside the syringe decreases. The books are 1 80.0
then removed one at a time. In Table 8, the data for books and 2 62.5
the average volume of air is recorded. 3 50.6
Graph the data in Table 8 on the grid below or on your own 4 43.0
paper. Though the more controlled variable is the number of
5 37.3
books exerting the pressure, for this graph plot books on the
y-scale. Include zero on both scales. 6 32.9
If you get stuck, take a look at the answers below.

* * * * *

Step 5. x-scale minor unit = 80 ─ 0 = 80 = 5 Leave at 5.

18 lines ─ 2 16
y-scale minor unit = 6─0 = 6 = 0.50 Leave at 0.5.
14 lines ─ 2 12
* * * * *
Step 6. x-scale: Low #: 32.9 0 High #: 80.0 Minor Unit: 5 Major: 10
y-scale: Low #: 1 0 High #: 6 Minor Unit: 0.5 Major: 1
* * * * *
The shape of the graph appears Books on Syringe with Trapped Air
to be a part of a hyperbola. A 7
hyperbola is the shape that 6
results when graphing two
Pressure (books)
5
variables that are inversely
proportional. 4
3
When y and x are inversely
proportional, y and 1/x are 2
directly proportional, and a plot 1
of y and 1/x should result in a 0
straight line through the origin. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
The equation for the line is Volume (mL)
y = (constant slope)(1/x)
Let’s test this hypothesis. Table 8B
In the graph above, mL was plotted on the x-scale. Books on Syringe
For the data in Table 8B, calculate 1/x, in this case
With Trapped Air
1/mL, and enter the result in the last column.
Pressure Volume
Check your answers on the next page. In Books In mL 1/mL
* * * * * 1 80.0
2 62.5
3 50.6
4 43.0
5 37.3
6 32.9

When 1/mL is calculated, the unit of the answer is Table 8B

written as mL─1.
Books on Syringe
Now graph pressure on the y-scale versus 1/volume With Trapped Air
on the x-scale. Include zero on both scales.
Volume Pressure 1/Volume
Set the initial range on the y-scale from ─6 to +6 In mL In Books In mL─1
books.
80.0 1 0.0125
Use the grid below or your own graph paper.
62.5 2 0.0158
Check your answers below.
* * * * * 50.6 3 0.0200
43.0 4 0.0233
37.3 5 0.0268
32.9 6 0.0304

Step 5. x-scale minor unit = 0.0304 ─ 0 = 0.0304 = 0.0019 Round up to 0.002

18 lines ─ 2 16
y-scale minor unit = 6 ─ (─6) = 12 = 1 Leave at 1
14 lines ─ 2 12
* * * * *
Step 6. x-scale: Low #: 0.0089 0 High #: 0.0304 0.032 Minor Unit: 0.002 Major: 0.004
y-scale: Low #: ─6 High #: 6 Minor Unit: 1 Major: 2
* * * * *
The graph is shown on the next page.
The graph is not as predicted. By Boyle’s Law, we Table 8C
know that P and V are inversely proportional. The
plot of P versus 1/V should therefore plot as a Books on Syringe
straight line through the origin. In this case, the With Trapped Air
graph is a straight line, but not through the origin. Volume Pressure P times
Another concern: because by Boyle’s law (PV = c) , In mL In Books V
P times V should equal a constant value. Multiply P 80.0 1
times V in the chart at the right for several cases. Is
the result close to constant? 62.5 2
In science, relationships tend to be simple, such as a 50.6 3

direct proportion that graphs as a straight line
through the origin. When the straight line for 43.0 4
variables in science does not go through the origin, 37.3 5
it often means that we have defined zero poorly.
32.9 6
Consider this data and graph. When the syringe
had one book piled on top, was there only one book of pressure on the gas in the syringe?
What are we forgetting? Write an answer to that question, then check below.
* * * * *
For the gas in the syringe, the pressure exerted by the gas inside equals the pressure
exerted on the plunger outside. What we tend to take for granted is atmospheric pressure.
We live on the bottom of an ocean of air. That air exerts a considerable pressure on all of
the surfaces around us.
How much pressure is atmospheric pressure? Let’s assume that the line on the graph
passes through true zero pressure. That way, pressure and 1/volume graph as a direct
proportion, as they should. Let’s keep the same size unit of pressure on the y-axis: books.
Estimate the y-intercept on the graph: ____________ books.
Now take that y-intercept number on the axis and make it true zero.
Keeping the same size pressure unit, what number for P does the old zero become? ______
* * * * *

Books on Syringe, P vs. 1/V

8
6
Pressure (books)
0
0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036
-2
-4
-6
1/Volume (1/mL)
Answers
The y-intercept should be close to ─ 2.5 books.
Numbering up from the new Table 8D
zero, using the same size P
unit, the old zero becomes Books on Syringe With Trapped Air
+2.5 books. The difference Volume Pressure True True P times
between the old zero books In mL In Books Pressure V
pressure and the true zero
80.0 1
pressure is the atmospheric
pressure: 2.5 books. 62.5 2
At one book on the original scale, 50.6 3
what is the number for the true
pressure? _______ 43.0 4
* * * * * 37.3 5
The original 1 book on the y- 32.9 6
axis becomes a true 3.5 books.
To find the true pressure for each number of books piled on the syringe, 2.5 books
(atmospheric pressure) is added to each original reading for the pressure.
Do that addition in the chart on the above, then complete the additional columns.
Is true pressure times volume constant? Check your answers below.
* * * * *

SF: Assuming that each book exerts Table 8D

exactly the same pressure, but the y-
intercept is only accurate to tenths, Books on Syringe
the true pressure is accurate to tenths, With Trapped Air
and the PV product in these cases Volume Pressure True True P
will have two sf. In mL In Books Pressure times V
Conclusion: The experimental data 80.0 1 3.5 280
show that true pressure times volume
is constant for a gas, if moles and 62.5 2 4.5 280
temperature are held constant.
50.6 3 5.5 280
Summary
43.0 4 6.5 280
When searching for relationships
among two variables, one strategy is 37.3 5 7.5 280
to graph the data, and from the shape 32.9 6 8.5 280
of the graph to develop a hypothesis
about the type of type of equation that the graph represents.
In the example above, the initial graph of the data seemed to be in the shape of a portion of
a hyperbola, indicating an inverse proportion between the two variables.
The data is then treated by functions so that, if the hypothesis is correct, the data is in the
form y = mx + b and graphs as a straight line. If the data is linear, an equation for a line
that predicts the data and relates the variables can be written.
If the straight line does not pass through the origin, it is often an indication that a better
definition for zero exists for one or both of the variables than the ones chosen in the
experiment. In measuring quantities, the most useful scales are those that define zero in a
way that results in direct proportions between that quantity and other quantities.
Let’s add these to our list of science graphing steps.
10d. If a straight line does not go through the origin, try to explain why it does not,
and/or consider a different definition for zero.
11. If the graph is a smooth curve but not a straight line, write the equation that you
think fits the general equation for the curve. Then, adjust the equation to fit the
format y = (constant) x , and plot the adjusted variables. If the graph is linear, do
step 10. If not, try a different equation to explain the curve.
Practice
1. For the linear graph in this lesson , using the original y-scale pressure values,
a. estimate these values by reading the graph.
At x = 0.0320 mL─1 , y = _________ At y = ─ 1 book, x = _________
b. Using those two points, calculate the slope of the line.
c. Write the specific equation for the line.

d. Change the format of the specific equation so that it matches the format for a direct
proportion.
e. Compare the part b answer to the last column in Table 8D. Why are they related?
2. In an experiment, liquids A and B are mixed together and stirred. The reaction mixture
changes color after time. To study the reaction rate, the time required after mixing for
different mixtures to change color is recorded. [A] is held constant, and [B] is varied.
Using the resulting data in Table 9,
a. Calculate 1/seconds and fill in the chart. Table 9
b. Graph [B] on the y-axis versus 1/seconds. [B] versus Time of Reaction
Include the origin on the graph.
[B] in M seconds 1/seconds
c. Calculate the slope of the line, with units.
0.100 25
d. Estimate the y-intercept by reading the
graph. 0.080 30.
e. Write the specific equation for the line. 0.050 48

f. Explain the results in words. 0.040 57
0.020 120
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.0000 0.0200 0.0400 0.0600

ANSWERS
1a. At x = 0.0320 mL─1 , y should be close to 6.5 books.
At y = ─ 1 book , x should be close to 0.0054 mL─1.
1b. WANT = m = slope = rise = Δy = y2 ─ y1

run Δx x2 ─ x1
DATA: m = ? x1 = 0.0054 mL─1, y1 = ─ 1 book , x2 = 0.032 mL─1 , y2 = 6.5 books
SOLVE: m = y2 ─ y1 = 6.5 books ─ (─ 1 book) = 7.5 books = 280 book • mL

x2 ─ x1 0.0320 mL─1 ─ 0.0054 mL─1 0.0266 mL─1
1c. (Original P reading in books = (280 book • mL) (1/Volume in mL─1) ─ 2.5 books
1d. (Original P reading in books + 2.5 books) = (280 book • mL) (1/Volume in mL─1)
or (True pressure) = (280 book • mL) (1/Volume in mL─1)
This equation matches the format y = mx , the format for a direct proportion. This equation will graph as
a straight line through the origin.
By adding the value + 2.5 books to the original pressure, this new form of the equation reflects the
adjustment to the original pressure needed to calculate true pressure, so that P = m(1/V) .
1e. Since the line equation is True P = m(1/V) , then (True P)(V) = m .
2a. See table at right. 2b. See next page. Table 9
2c. See below. [B] versus Time of Reaction
2d. b = 0 2e. [B] = (2.4 M • s) (1/s) [B] in M seconds 1/seconds
2f. As the [B] goes down, the time required for the reaction 0.100 25 0.040
goes up proportionally.
0.080 30. 0.033
Based on the graph, [B] = (constant slope)(1/s)
This means that [B] and (1/time) are directly proportional. 0.050 48 0.021
The above equation can be rewritten as
0.040 57 0.018
[B] • (s) = constant = graph slope = 2.4 M • s
0.020 120 0.0083
This format matches the xy = constant form of an inverse
proportion.
Therefore, [B] and time are inversely proportional.
2c. WANT = m = slope = rise = Δy = y2 ─ y1

run Δx x2 ─ x1
Read any two widely separated points on the line. If we estimate
DATA: m = ? x1 = 0.0 s─1, y1 = 0 M , x2 = 0.050 s─1 , y2 = 0.120 M

SOLVE: m = y 2 ─ y1 = 0.120 M ─ 0 M = 0.120 M = 2.4 M • s = m

x2 ─ x1 0.050 s─1 ─ 0 s─1 0.050 s─1
Timed Reaction: [B] vs. 1/s

0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
[B]
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060
1/seconds

SUMMARY: Graphing In Two Dimensions

1. Decide which variable to plot on x. Often, this is the independent variable.
3. Consider adding zero to each range, increasing the range. In most cases, if a
range does not include zero, change the number to zero that increases the range.
4. Mark the boundaries of the plot on the graph paper.
5. Calculate the minor unit for each scale. Round UP. Use this equation:

6. Make both ranges slightly wider and evenly divisible by the major unit for that
scale. To write a number at every second line on a scale, set the major unit as
double the minor unit.
7. Number the scales based on the minor unit. Label the scales. Title the graph.
8. Plot the points.
• Calculate m using two points on the line.
• Find b using y = mx+b , x and y for any one point on the line, and m.
• Substitute values for m and b, and quantities and units for y and x, into
y = mx+b.
b. Test the specific equation.
For a point on the graph close to the line, pick one coordinate from the data
table. Use the specific equation to predict the value for the other coordinate.
Compare the predicted and the data table values.
c. Explain the equation in words. If the graphed line goes through the origin,
write the statements and equations for direct proportions.
d. If a straight line does not go through the origin, try to explain why it does
not do so, and/or consider a different definition for zero.
11. If the graph is a smooth curve but not a straight line, write the equation that
you think fits the general equation for the curve. Then, adjust the equation to
fit the format y = (constant) x , and plot the adjusted variables. If the graph is
linear, do step 10. If not, try a different equation to explain the curve.

Module 21 — Energy Calculations
Calculations
In Chemistry
Module 20 – Energy is now Module 21
Module 21 on Hess’s law is now Module 22
Module 22 on Spectra is now Module 23
If you are looking for Hess’s law topics, check Module 22 in this packet
If you are looking for Spectra topics, check Module 23
At www.ChemReview.Net
* * * * *
Modules 21 and 22
Phase Changes, Energy, and (∆H)
Page i
Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms...................................................................................................................101
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................159
Page ii

Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 237
Page iii

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................491
Page iv

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 614
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 662
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827
Page v

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................974
Page vi

•••••
Page vii

Timing: Begin this module when you are assigned problems which involve phase changes
or calculations involving joules or calories.
Prerequisites: This module for the most part does not require many prior topics. You
should be able to do most of the calculations if you have completed Modules 2, 4, 5, and 8.
Lesson 21A: Phases and Energy

Three Phases
Chemistry is concerned with three phases for pure substances: solid, liquid, and gas. (In
physics, additional phases at very high and very low temperatures and pressures are
studied.)
Molecules have strong attractive forces between their atoms, but weaker attractive forces
between molecules. However, even these weak attractions mean that molecules are a bit
“sticky:” they tend to attract each other somewhat like two weak but attracting magnets
(the weak attractions are electrical, but the behavior is similar).
In the solid phase, molecules vibrate, but the attractions between molecules hold them in a
crystal structure where they are limited in the extent to which they can rotate and translate
(move from place to place).
In their liquid phase, the molecules move faster and gain some freedom: they can vibrate,
rotate, and translate. However, in the liquid phase molecules are still very close together,
with minimal space between them. This is why solids and liquids do not compress under
pressure.
In the gas phase, molecules are separated by a considerable distance. In a gas at room
temperature, the distance between molecules is typically about 10 times the diameter of the
molecule. This means that 99.9% of the gas is empty space. Gases can be compressed
because the empty space between the molecules can be reduced.
The molecules of a gas remain weakly attractive. If they are highly compressed, or if their
temperature is lowered (which slows down the speed at which they move), the molecules
tend to stick together when they collide, and the gas begins to condense into a liquid or a
solid.
Three Phase Changes
There are three phase changes among the three phases. The following terms are used to
describe phase changes.
• For solid/liquid changes: Solids melt to become liquids; liquids freeze or solidify
or fuse (all have the same meaning) to become solids.
• For liquid/gas changes: Liquids boil or evaporate to form gases; gases condense to
become liquids.
• For solid/gas changes: Solids sublimate to become gases. Gases can undergo
deposition to form solids.

Sublimation is a phase change is less commonly encountered at room temperature

and pressure, but you may be familiar with dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) or moth
crystals (para-dichlorobenzene). These solids do not pass through a liquid phase in
conversion between the solid and gas phases at room temperature and pressure.
Vapor deposition can be observed when water vapor forms ice crystals on a cold
glass.
Melting and Freezing
For a pure substance, the temperature at which it melts (its melting point) will equal the
temperature at which it solidifies.
Melting Point ≡ Freezing Point
The melting point, a characteristic of pure substances, can be used as evidence to identify an
unknown substance. However, even small amounts of impurity in a substance will weaken
its crystal structure and cause it to melt and freeze at a lower temperature.
Boiling Temperature and Pressure
The vapor pressure of a liquid substance (Lesson 18D) is a property that always has the
same value at a given temperature. A liquid will boil at any temperature at which its
vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure above it.
Boiling points are characteristic temperatures which can be used to identify a substance. A
normal boiling point is recorded at standard pressure (one atmosphere).
Boiling points must be recorded at a known pressure, because liquids boil at a temperature
that depends on the surrounding atmospheric pressure. The vapor pressure of a substance
increases with increasing temperature. A liquid will boil at temperature higher than its
normal boiling point if the atmospheric pressure above it is higher than standard pressure,
and lower than normal boiling point if atmospheric pressure is lower than standard
pressure.
This means that there are two ways to boil a liquid: you can heat it until its vapor pressure
rises to equal atmospheric pressure, or lower the pressure above the liquid, such as by
using a vacuum pump, or moving to an environment where the atmospheric pressure falls
enough to equal the vapor pressure characteristic for the liquid at its temperature.
Boiling Water
Atmospheric pressure is generally lower at a high altitude than at sea level. This means
that at high elevations, when you heat a liquid, its vapor pressure will equal atmospheric
pressure at a lower temperature. The liquid will therefore boil at a lower temperature at
high altitude than at sea level.
• Water boils at 100° C at 760 torr (standard) pressure, which is about the average
atmospheric pressure on a fair weather day at sea level. However, water boils at
about 95° C under the lower atmospheric pressure typically found in locations one
mile above sea level (such as Denver, Colorado). At high altitude, it takes more
time to “hard boil” an egg than at sea level because the boiling water around the
egg is not as hot.

• At 20° C, water has a vapor pressure of 17.5 torr (see Lesson 18D). Many
inexpensive vacuum pumps can reduce the atmospheric pressure in a bell jar to
below 17 torr, and water placed in the bell jar can be boiled at room temperature.
• In a pressure cooker, boiling water is at higher temperature than boiling water at
room pressure, and the changes required to “cook” food occur more quickly.
Boiling temperatures are affected by relatively small changes in the surrounding air
pressure, such as those caused by altitude changes. Melting points are generally affected
only by much larger changes in pressure.
Boiling versus Evaporating
Boiling is not the same as evaporating. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Measurable
evaporation will occur from all liquids (and many solids) at any temperature. A liquid boils
only when gas bubbles can form throughout the liquid and not just at its edges.
Practice A: Answer these questions, then, before going on to the next section, practice
until you can answer the questions from memory. (Check answers at the end of this
lesson.)
1. Name the three phase changes. Name two examples of each phase change.
2. Which phases of matter are compressible? Why?
3. Which has a higher temperature:
a. The melting point or the freezing point of a pure substance?
b. The melting point of a substance that is pure, or one that has impurities?
4. By definition, when does a liquid boil?
5. State two different ways to boil a liquid.
6. At what temperature does water boil at 101 kPa?
7. At approximately what temperature does water boil in a city that is one mile above sea
level? What explains the difference from the boiling temperature at sea level?
8. Why does it take longer to hard-boil an egg at a high altitude?
Energy
Chemistry is primarily concerned with matter and energy. Except in nuclear reactions,
matter and energy can be considered to be separate entities. Matter has mass, and can be
described in terms of particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons. Energy has no
mass. Sunlight, heat, and radio waves are a few examples of the many forms of energy.
A fundamental principle of science is the Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed (except in nuclear reactions). However, during chemical or
physical processes, energy can be transferred between substances, and to and from the
environment. Energy can also change its form.

Two forms of energy important in chemistry are

• kinetic energy, defined as energy of motion, and
• potential energy, defined as stored energy.
When a substance loses energy, the energy can do work as defined in physics (such as
moving a piston against resistance), or energy can be can transferred as heat to the
environment around the substance. A substance can gain energy when work adds energy
to the substance, such as by compressing a gas, or when the environment supplies heat to
the substance.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy of motion. The kinetic energy of an object or particle may be
calculated using the equation
KE = ½ (mass)(velocity)2.
This equation means that if particle B has twice the mass of particle A but is moving at the
same speed, Particle B has twice as much kinetic energy. If Particle C has the same mass as
particle A but is moving twice as fast as Particle A, it has four times as much kinetic energy.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. When the temperature
of particles goes up, their average kinetic energy increases. For this to occur, since the
particles of a substance cannot change their mass, they must, on average, move faster.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy. There are many ways to store energy.
Lifting an object against gravity is one way to add stored energy to an object. If the object
falls back to its former lower position, it must release that added energy.
• To raise a hammer, you must add energy. The energy is stored in the raised hammer
as energy of position. If the hammer fall down to its original position, it must
release the energy used to raise it. It can do so by creating heat where it hits. The
hammer can also do work, such as driving nails. Heat, work, and energy of position
are simply different forms of energy.
• Evaporation of water by sunlight can store energy when it results in the transfer of
liquid water from oceans to mountain streams. Lifting the water to a higher
position stores energy from the sun in the water. As the water falls back toward sea
level, the energy released in falling can be harnessed to spin turbines that create
electricity. This electrical energy can be converted to light or heat, or can be used by
electric motors to do work.
Energy and Particle Attractions
Physics studies many types of potential energy. In chemistry, our initial study is generally
limited to the potential energy involved in chemical reactions and phase changes.
Forms of energy that can be stored and/or released in chemical processes include heat,
electromagnetic energy (including light) and electrical energy (as in batteries). Doing
mechanical work on a chemical system (such as compressing a gas) can store energy in a

chemical system. A chemical process can also release energy that does work (such as
moving a piston).
Atoms, molecules, or particles can be held together by the attractions arising from the
protons and electrons within those particles. A “chemical bond” is a relatively strong
attraction. The attractions between molecules that cause them to be a liquid or solid at a
given temperature, rather than a gas, are weaker attractions.
Energy is always required to break chemical bonds, or to change a solid to a liquid to a gas:
Adding energy to separate particles stores energy in the particles. If the separated particles
return to the state they were in before they were separated, the same amount of energy that
was added and stored during the separation of the particles must be released.
Energy, Reactions, and Phase Changes
Change in the potential energy of a chemical system can be the result of chemical reactions or
phase changes.
In a chemical reaction, substance formulas change. Bonds between atoms break and new
bonds form. As a result of chemical reactions, there is nearly always a characteristic net
change in the energy stored in the substances. Energy must be added to break a bond, but
more or less energy will be released when a different bond forms. This means that in a
chemical reaction, net energy can either be stored or released.
In a phase change, the bonds between the atoms in a molecule do not change, and the
formulas for substances therefore do not change. However, as a substance changes phase
from solid to liquid to gas, the weak attractions between the molecules must be overcome
during each phase change, so energy must be added. As the substance changes from gas to
liquid to solid, that same amount of energy must be removed from the substance during each
phase change.
• When a substance is melted, a characteristic amount of energy must be added per
molecule to separate the molecules. The molecules store the energy that is added to
them as they change from solid to liquid. If the liquid substance changes back to a
solid, the same amount of energy added to melt the solid must be released in order
for the liquid molecules to solidify.
• When a substance boils, a characteristic amount of energy must be added per
molecule. For that substance to be condensed from gas to liquid, that same amount
of energy must be released.
Practice B: Answer, and be able to answer from memory, these questions.

1. Define kinetic energy, in words, then using symbols in an equation.
2. Batter #2 hits a baseball with a bat twice as heavy as Batter #1, swinging at the same
speed. How much more energy will Batter #2 impart to the ball than Batter #1?
3. Batter #3 hits the ball with the same bat as Batter #1, but swings twice as fast. How
much more energy will Batter #3 impart to the ball than Batter #1?
4. Define temperature.

5. Define potential energy.

6. Name two types of chemical processes that can change the energy stored in molecules.
7. How does the heat of melting of a substance (the heat/mole required to melt a certain
mass) differ from the heat of fusion (the heat/mole released when the liquid changes to
a solid)?
Energy and Phases

When energy is added to or removed from a pure substance, whether its kinetic or its
potential energy changes depends on whether the substance is in one phase or two.
Recall that by our definitions, a substance is composed of particles that all have the same
chemical formula.
• When a substance is present in only one phase (all solid, all liquid, or all gas),
adding or removing energy (such as by heating or cooling) changes the average
kinetic energy of its particles (their temperature), but does not change the potential
energy stored in the substance.
• During a phase change (such as melting or boiling), two phases must be present. If
energy is added to or removed from a substance during a phase change, the potential
energy stored in a substance changes, but the average kinetic energy of its particles
does not change, and its temperature therefore stays constant.
During a phase change, if the two phases present are well mixed or in close contact,
the temperature will be the same in both phases.
Potential Energy and Phases
The solid phase of a substance will always have less stored (potential) energy than its liquid
phase, which will always have less potential energy than its gas phase.
For a given substance: PEsolid < PEliquid < PEgas
Changes in potential energy may not be as apparent as changes in kinetic energy, which are
evident as temperature changes. Let us therefore examine some examples of energy
changes during phase changes.
Examples of Liquid-Gas Phase Changes
Boiling Water
Consider a tea kettle, in a kitchen at standard pressure, partially filled with cold water and
placed on a lit gas stove.
As long as the water in the kettle is below its boiling temperature, as it is heated by the flame
its temperature rises. This increase in kinetic energy is observable, and it means that the
water molecules, on average, are moving faster. What is not observable, but is true, is that
the potential energy stored in the water is not changing.
Boiling begins when the water temperature reaches 100°C. A thermometer will show that
once the water begins to boil, both the liquid water and the steam above the boiling water

have the same temperature. At standard pressure (101 kPa), for pure boiling water, that
temperature will always be 100°Celsius.
During any phase change for any substance, both phases will have the same temperature as
long as they are in close contact and well mixed. The particles in both phases have the
same average kinetic energy.
After 5 minutes of boiling, quite a bit of heat has been added to the water by the flame.
However, a thermometer will show that both the water and steam remain at 100˚Celsius as
long as any liquid water remains in the kettle.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Where is all the energy supplied by the flame
going? The flame’s energy is being stored in the gas particles (steam) that form during the
phase change.
A characteristic amount of energy must be stored in any molecules to separate them from
touching in their liquid to far apart in their gas phase.
If the flame remains lit beneath the kettle, the water will continue to boil until the last bit of
liquid water is converted to steam. At that point, instead of two phases inside the tea
kettle, there is only one phase (steam). Adding energy with one phase present will increase
the temperature of the steam: its kinetic energy instead of its potential energy. If all of the
water is allowed to boil to steam, there is longer a phase change to absorb the energy
supplied by the flame, and the temperature of the steam in the kettle (and the kettle itself)
will increase very quickly.
However, as long as some liquid water remains in the kettle, the highest temperature
possible for the water or the steam is 100° Celsius: much cooler than the flame below.
Warming Leftovers
On a practical note, this is why a little water should be added when heating leftovers in a
loosely covered pan. As long as there is some liquid water between the heat and the food,
the maximum temperature of the water and the food will be 100° Celsius, enough to warm
but not to burn most foods. If all of the water boils away, the food can burn quickly.
When water boils in the pan, it forms steam. When the steam reaches a cooler surface, it
can condense to form water. When the steam condenses on cool food in a pan, the same
amount of potential energy which was stored in the steam as it formed from water must be
lost from the steam. As the steam turns to water, energy is transferred to the food, and the
steamed food heats quickly.
Thunderclouds - Water Condensing
On a humid summer day, clear water vapor (a gas) in the atmosphere can condense to tiny
drops of liquid water (clouds). As the water vapor condenses, the considerable amount of
heat required to change liquid water to water vapor must be released. The condensation of
vapor to water heats the air around the water droplets. Since heated air is less dense than
cold air, it rises, creating an updraft that lifts both the moist air and the water droplets.
Because the atmosphere generally cools with increasing altitude, more water vapor in the
humid air forms more liquid water and more heat as it rises. As this cycle repeats, the
cloud becomes a fast rising “thunderhead.”

As the liquid water droplets become larger with increased condensation, the drops become
too heavy to be lifted by the updraft. The result is a thunderstorm. The falling raindrops
create a powerful downdraft that strikes the ground and fans out ahead of and with the
rain. The downdraft reverses the updraft feeding the thunderhead, eventually causing the
thunderstorm to dissipate.
Practice C: Answer these questions, then practice until you can answer the questions
from memory before going on to the next section.
1. If you add substantial energy to a substance, and it remains the same substance but its
temperature does not change, what does this tell you about the substance?
2. When does adding energy to a substance cause its temperature to rise?
3. For a given substance, which phase has the lowest amount of stored energy: solid,
liquid, or gas?
4. In a kitchen where the atmospheric pressure is close to standard pressure, water is
placed in a tea kettle and heated on a gas stove. At the point where the water first starts
to boil,
a. what is the temperature of the liquid water in the kettle?
b. What is the temperature of the steam above the water in the kettle?
5. After 5 minutes, about half of the water in the kettle above has boiled away.
a. What is now the temperature of the liquid water in the kettle?
b. What is the temperature of the steam above the water in the kettle?
6. During five minutes of boiling, the gas stove adds considerable energy to the water in
the tea kettle.
a. Has the kinetic energy of the water or steam changed?
b. Has the potential energy of the molecules that are still liquid water changed?
c. Has the potential energy of the molecules that were converted from water to steam
changed?
d. Where has the energy gone that was supplied by the stove in those 5 minutes?
What kind of energy has it become?
Liquid-Solid Phase Changes

Mixing the Solid and Liquid Phase
A stirred mixture of the solid and liquid phases of a substance will always adjust to the
temperature that is the melting point of the substance.
For example:
• H2O melts and freezes at 0° Celsius. At pressures at or near typical atmospheric

pressure, it is a characteristic of water molecules that a stirred mixture of water and
ice will always adjust to a temperature of 0° Celsius.

A mixture of ice and water is a good constant temperature bath or cold pack. It will stay
at 0°C for as long as both ice and liquid water are present.
• When warm water is added to melting ice, two phases are present, and the
temperature of this mixture must adjust toward the melting (= freezing) point of
water. As ice melts, the warm water molecules become colder. The kinetic energy
lost by the warm water is equal to the potential energy stored in the molecules of ice
that become liquid. The warm water continues to cool, and ice continues to melt,
until either the mixture reaches its melting point (0°C), or all of the ice melts.
Melting Ice
When ice melts, a solid becomes a liquid. To change a solid substance to its liquid, energy
must be added. The liquid particles have a characteristic higher amount of stored energy,
per particle, than the solid particles.
While ice is melting, its temperature does not change, but heat must be added from the
environment. This is why a mound of packed snow can take quite a while to melt even
when air temperatures are well above freezing. Considerable heat from the environment
must be stored in the solid ice molecules that become liquid water. The solid ice and the
liquid melt from the ice will both be at 0°C as long as they are in close contact, even on a
warm day.
Freezing Water In an Ice Tray
The liquid phase of a substance has inherently more stored energy than its solid phase. To
convert liquid molecules to solid molecules, stored energy be removed.
To change water into ice, the same amount of energy, per molecule, must be taken out of the
water that is put into the ice to melt it.
• When warm water in an ice tray is placed in the freezer, the temperature of the
water drops rapidly as its heat transfers to the freezer environment. When the
water’s temperature reaches 0°C, it begins to freeze.
• Unless potential energy leaves a liquid, the liquid cannot become solid. To freeze
water, the air in a freezer must be colder than 0° Celsius, so that heat energy will
flow out of the 0°C water. To provide an air temperature below 0°C, the freezer
compressor pumps heat out until the air is about ―20.°C inside most household
freezers. You can feel this heat being pumped out if you place your hand in the
space above the coils on the back or underside of a freezer while the compressor is
running.
• After freezing begins, the water/ice mixture in an ice tray will stay at 0°C until all of
the water freezes. During this time, the water and ice mixture will be the warmest
spot in the freezer; warmer than the material already frozen and at ―20°C.
• Once the ice-tray water is completely frozen, one phase is present, and the
temperature of the now solid ice cubes drops relatively quickly to the freezer’s air
temperature.
Ice cubes just removed from the freezer, at about ―20°C, are cold enough to both
cool and then freeze the moisture on your skin, which can cause the ice cubes to

stick to your fingers. However, at room temperature, ―20°C ice warms quickly.
When it reaches 0°C, the ice begins to melt. Ice at 0°C is not cold enough to freeze
skin moisture: melting ice will not stick to your skin.
Practice D: Answer, and be able to answer from memory, these questions.

1. A mixture of crushed ice and water is added to an insulated container. After a minute
of stirring, the temperature of the mixture no longer changes, and both ice and water
remain.
a. What is the temperature of the ice? What is the temperature of the water?
b. Which phase has higher kinetic energy?
c. Which phase has higher potential energy?
2. Warm water is added to an ice-water mixture in an insulated cup. After stirring for one
minute, the temperature is stable, and ice and water remain.
a. What is the temperature of the water in the cup?
b. What is the temperature of the ice?
3. During the one minute of stirring, the warm water lost some of its energy.
a. What kind of energy did it lose?
b. As the warm water lost its energy, what other change occurred?
c. Where is the energy that was lost by the warm water, and what kind of energy is it?
Summary: Phases, Phase Changes, and Energy

You may want to organize the following information into charts, numbered lists, and
flashcards that will help with learning and retention in memory.
1. The three phases and three phase changes:
• Solids melt to become liquids; liquids freeze or solidify or fuse (all have the same
meaning) to become solids.
• Liquids boil or evaporate to form gases; gases condense to become liquids.
• Solids sublimate to become gases directly; gases condense when they form solids.
2. The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
(except in nuclear reactions). However, energy can be transferred between substances
and to and from the environment. Energy can also change its form during chemical or
physical processes.
3. Two forms of energy are potential energy, defined as stored energy, and kinetic energy,
defined as energy of motion. Kinetic Energy = ½ (mass) (velocity)2
4. Chemical substances can store energy in the attractions (bonds) between atoms,
molecules, and particles. During chemical reactions and phase changes, when bonds
break and form, energy can be stored or released.

5. One way to store energy in a substance is to change its phase. The solid phase of a
substance always has less stored (potential) energy than its liquid phase, which always
has less potential energy than its gas phase.
Potential energy of a substance: solid < liquid < gas
6. When a substance is in one phase (all solid, liquid, or gas), adding or removing energy
will change the average kinetic energy of its particles (its temperature), but not its
potential energy.
7. During a phase change, when two phases are present, adding or removing energy
changes the potential energy, but not average kinetic energy (temperature), of the
particles.
8. During a phase change, temperature remains constant, and the temperature is the same
in both phases as long as they are in close contact.
9. The temperature at which a substance melts (its melting point) will equal the
temperature at which it solidifies (melting point ≡ freezing point).
10. When a mixture of the solid and liquid phases of a substance is stirred, the temperature
will adjust to the melting point of the substance.
11. The melting point is a characteristic of a substance. The melting point will be the same
no matter how the substance is formed. The melting point can be used as evidence to
identify a substance.
12. A liquid will boil at any temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the
atmospheric pressure above it. If the atmospheric pressure on a liquid is lowered, the
liquid will boil at a lower temperature. If the atmospheric pressure is raised, the liquid
will boil at a higher temperature.
13. Boiling points are a characteristic which can be used to identify a substance, but only if
the atmospheric pressure is known. Boiling points are far more sensitive to
atmospheric pressure than melting points.
14. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon; measurable evaporation will occur from all
liquids (and some solids) at any temperature. However, a liquid is boiling only when
gas bubbles can form anywhere in the liquid, and not just at its edges.
* * * * *

Practice E: At standard pressure, small cubes of ice are removed from a freezer and
placed in a tea kettle. A thermometer is inserted into the ice cubes and the kettle is placed
on a lit gas stove. The kettle is heated until one minute after all of the water has boiled
away.
The graph below charts the changes in the temperature of the H2O molecules as they
change from ice to water to steam.
The Tea Kettle Problem
140
120
100
80
Degrees Celsius
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-20
-40
Minutes
Questions
1. How many phase changes occur during the above process?
2. How many phases will have been present by the time the above process is completed?
3. What segment of the graph represents water boiling to steam?
4. How can a change in the kinetic energy of the H2O be recognized during the process?
5. How can a change in the potential energy of the system be recognized?
6. In what lettered segments of the graph does potential energy remain constant?
7. In what segments of the graph does average kinetic energy remain constant?
8. In what portions of the graph do the H2O molecules have the largest amount of stored
energy?
9. What portions of the graph show energy from the flame being converted into potential
energy?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Solid-Liquid. Examples include melting and freezing, solidifying, or fusing.
Liquid-Gas. Examples include boiling, evaporating, condensing.
Solid-Gas. Examples include sublimation and deposition.
2. Only the gas phase. There is substantial distance between particles only in the gas phase.
3. a. Melting point = Freezing point, by definition.
b. A pure substance melts at a higher temperature than the same substance with impurities.
4. When its vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure above it.
5. Raise the liquid’s vapor pressure by raising its temperature, or lower the atmospheric pressure above the
liquid, such as by moving to higher altitude or using a vacuum pump.
6. 101 kPa is standard pressure, so water boils at 100° C by definition.
7. Approximately 95 degree Celsius. At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower, and the water’s vapor
pressure will equal atmospheric pressure at a lower temperature.
8. The water boils at a lower temperature, and at a lower temperature, the changes needed to “cook” food
take longer to occur.
Practice B
1. Kinetic energy is energy of motion. KE = ½ (mass)(velocity)2.
2. Batter #2 hits with twice as much energy. 3. Batter #3 hits with four times more energy.
4. The average kinetic energy of molecules. 5. Stored energy 6. Chemical reactions and phase changes.
7. Heat of melting = heat of fusion. The heat added in melting must be released when a liquid solidifies.
Practice C
1. The substance is undergoing a phase change.
2. When only one phase is present, which means the substance is not undergoing a phase change.
3. Solid. 4a and 4b. Both the liquid water and the steam are at 100° C.
5a and 5b. Both the liquid water and the steam are still at 100° C. 6a. No. 6b. No. 6c. Yes
6d. The energy is now potential energy stored in those molecules that changed phase from liquid to gas.
Practice D
1a. Both are at 0° C. 1b. Both have the same KE. 1c. The liquid water has higher PE.
2a and 2b. Water and ice are both at 0°. If both solid and liquid are present, both must be at the melting point.
3a. The warm water lost kinetic energy: its temperature fell. 3b. The warm water melted some ice.
3c. The kinetic energy lost by the water in cooling to 0° is now potential energy that is stored in the ice
molecules that the warm water melted.
Practice E
1. Two (melting and boiling) 2. Three (solid, liquid, and gas) 3. D

4. The temperature changes (the line on the graph is not in a “plateau” region.)
5. Heat is being added from the stove for several minutes but the temperature remains constant, so the graph
has a “plateau” region.
6. A,C,E – when the kinetic energy is changing. 7. B and D – the temperature stays constant.
8. D and E – the gas phase (the steam) which forms during D, and then heats during E, has the most
potential energy.
9. B and D – during the two phase changes.
* * * * *
Lesson 21B: Specific Heat Capacity and Equations

Timing: If you have not already done so, before doing Lesson 21B, complete Lesson 17C
on cancellation of complex units.
If your class assignments require calculations that include PV work before specific heat and
calorimetry calculations, do Lesson 22A, then return here.
* * * * *
Units That Measure Energy
In chemistry, energy is usually measured in joules or calories.
1. The joule (abbreviated J) is the SI unit measuring energy.
A joule is defined in physics in terms of “work,” as the amount of energy needed to
accelerate 1 kg by 1 meter/sec2 in 1 meter [ work = (force)(distance) =
(mass)(acceleration)(distance) ].
Though joules are defined in terms of work, all forms of energy are equivalent and can
be measured in any energy units. In chemistry, joules is the unit most often used to
measure the heat energy lost or gained in a chemical process.
2. Calories are a metric unit that is also used in chemistry to measure energy.
A chemical calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
one gram of liquid water by one degree (Celsius or Kelvin).
3. Because all forms of energy are equivalent, all energy units can be related by equalities.
The conversion between calories and joules is: 1 calorie = 4.184 joules
4. In studies of nutrition, a food Calorie is often used to measure the heat released when
food burns.
1 food Calorie = 1,000 chemical calories = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.184 kilojoules (kJ)
Food Calories are written as Calories with a capital C, whereas chemical calories are
written with a lower case c.
Nearly all chemistry courses assign problems using joules to measure energy. Some may
also assign problems using chemical and/or food calories. You should learn the
relationships needed for your course.

Energy and Heat

An energy transfer between a system and its surroundings in a chemical or physical
process may involve heat (q) and/or work (w).
∆E = q + w
In chemistry, a gas formed in a reaction can create pressure to move a piston that is under
pressure. This meets the physics definition of work. In Lesson 22A, we will consider
calculations that involve work.
In this module, our focus will be on calculating heat energy (symbol q).
Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity (symbol small c) of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise one gram of the substance by one degree (Celsius or Kelvin).
In most calculations, specific heat capacity will be used to calculate the total energy change
in a process. We will therefore memorize the equation using specific heat capacity in this
form:
q = c · m · ∆t
This equation means:
The energy gained or lost by a substance =
= (specific heat capacity of the substance) x (its mass) x (its change in temperature)
The units of c are joules per (gram · degree) or calories per (gram · degree).
For example, the specific heat value for liquid water is written cwater = 4.184 J/g · K
Recall that in the notation used in these lessons and most textbooks, the dot between gram
and K means that the two units are multiplied in the numerator or denominator.
4.184 joule/gram•K = 4.184 J = 4.184 J • g─1• K─1

g•K
(If your course or textbook uses the unit─1 or unit─# notation in calculations, you may
want to complete Lesson 27F after this lesson.)
Specific heat capacity may also be measured in joules/kilogram · degree. You will learn
below how to convert data to the consistent units that will cancel properly in equations.
Change in Temperature
In science, the symbol ∆ (delta) means change in. The symbol ∆t (read “delta t”) means
change in temperature.
A change in temperature will be the same number of degrees when measured in the Celsius
or Kelvin temperature scales. Why? The Kelvin and Celsius scales have the same size
degree.
If, in Celsius, ∆t = 20°C ― 0°C = 20°C , the same measurements recorded in kelvins will
result in the same number for the change: ∆T = 293 K ― 273 K = 20 K .
This means that if the temperature units in a problem are based on ∆t measurements, the
word degree and the symbols °C and K are all equivalent.

Since specific heat capacity (c) is defined in the words and equation above as based on a
change in temperature (∆t), a value for c of “4.184 joules/gram·degree” can also be written
as “4.184 joules/gram·K.”
When units are equivalent, they can cancel. For ∆t values,
joules • °C = joules • °C = joules and calories • K = calories • K = calories
K K degree degree
Practice A: Assume that the temperature units below are all measurements of ∆t. Do
the unit cancellation, write the final unit, check your answers at the end of the lesson. If
you need a review of the rules for unit cancellation, see Lesson 17C.
1. joules • g • °C = 2. joules =
gram · K joules • g
gram · K
3. calories = 4. joules =
calorie • °C grams • °C
gram · degree
Values for Specific Heat Capacity (c)
Specific Heat Chemical substances have a characteristic specific

heat capacity in each phase: a fixed amount of
Substance Capacity
heat changes one gram of substance by one degree.
in joules/g·K
Some values for specific heat capacity are in the
H2O liquid table on the left.
4.184
As in the case of H2O in the table, for each
H2O solid 2.09 substance, each phase has a different c value.
Cu solid 0.385 Heat capacity values apply only while a substance
is in a single phase. Different numeric values and
Fe solid 0.444 units will be needed for heat calculations when a
substance is changing phase.
Specific Heat Capacity (The c Prompt)
To solve calculations that include specific heat capacity, we will use the memorized equation
for specific heat capacity. This equation will then be used as a basis for other calculations of
heat energy. Our rule will be:
The c Prompt: If you see the term “specific heat capacity” or its symbol c in a
problem, write at the top of your DATA table the equation which uses c:
q = c · m · ∆t
Use of this equation means that we will need to use an equation method, rather than a
conversion method, to solve problems.

Solving Problems Which Require Equations

In these lessons, we will refer to equalities that use symbols, such as q = c · m · ∆t , as
equations rather than formulas to distinguish them from chemical formulas such as H2O.
When solving problems using equations, steps will be added to our conversion method of
problem solving.
If you have already completed the Ideal Gas module in these lessons, you have learned the
following method for solving problems with equations. However, since many chemistry
courses cover energy calculations before gas laws, we will describe the steps of the method
in detail as it applies to energy problems as well.
* * * * *
Solving With Equations
Problems in physical science can generally be put into three categories: those that can be
solved with unit cancellation (conversions), those that require equations, and those
requiring both.
Solving problems with equations requires a small amount of algebra.
We will use the specific heat equation to illustrate a consistent method for solving
calculations that require equations. Starting with relatively easy examples, we will
develop a method that also works for more difficult problems.
Easy problems can be solved in other ways, but to learn the system which is especially
useful for the more difficult calculations that lie ahead, try the method used here.
Let us start with a example:
Q. When 832 joules of heat is added to a sample of solid copper (Cu), the
temperature rises from 15.0°C to 33.0°C. Based on the specific heat capacity in the
table above, how many grams of copper were in the sample?
To solve, complete the following steps in your notebook.
1. As always, begin by writing “WANTED: ?” and the unit you are looking for.
2. This problem mentions “specific heat capacity.” That’s the c prompt. In the DATA,
write the memorized equation which includes specific heat capacity (c).
3. Below the equation, make a data table with each symbol in the equation. For this
problem, the data section should look like this:
DATA: q = c · m · ∆t
q=
c=
m=
Δt =

4. After each symbol, based on the units, write each number and unit after a symbol.
• In this problem, q is the symbol for heat energy, and energy is measured in joules, so
q = 832 joules.
• For c = , from the table value for copper: c = 0.385 J/g·K
5. Put a ? after the symbol in the table that you are looking for in the problem. Add the unit
you are looking for. Circle this line in the DATA table.
Fill in the data table completely, and then check below.
* * * * * ( * * * mean: write your answer, then check the answer below.)
At this point, your paper should look like this:
WANTED: ? g Cu
q = 832 joules
c = 0.385 J/g·K
m = ? g Cu
Δt = 33.0°C ― 15.0°C = 18.0°C

6. SOLVE the fundamental memorized equation, using algebra, for the symbol that you
WANT. Do not plug in numbers until you have solved for the WANTED symbol.
(Symbols move more quickly than numbers and their units.)
Try that step, then check below.
* * * * *
SOLVE: q = c · m · ∆t . Solving for the symbol m WANTED,
? = m = q
c · Δt
7. After solving in symbols, plug in the numbers and solve. Cancel units that cancel, but
leave the units that do not cancel, and include them after the calculated number.
Do that step, then check below.
* * * * *
On your paper should be
SOLVE: q = c · m · ∆t
?=m= q = 832 joules = 832 J ● 1 = 832 J ● g·K = 120. g Cu
c · Δt 0.385 J ● 18.0°C 18.0°C 0.385 J 18.0°C 0.385 J
g·K g·K
Note that in solving, the term with a fraction in the denominator was separated, and then
simplified using the rules for reciprocals. This step will often help with unit cancellation in
specific heat capacity (c) calculations.
Double check the cancellation of the units for the last step above. Since degrees and °C and
K are all equivalent when they measure a Δt, they can cancel as units.

The above problem involved finding grams of Cu, but you did not need the grams prompt
(write the molar mass) to solve. This is because specific heat capacity is one of the rare
quantities in chemistry that is defined based on grams rather than moles. Other heat
problems will involve moles. The rule for heat problems will be: if you see both grams and
moles of a substance as units in a problem, write the molar mass in your data, because you
will almost certainly need the molar mass to solve.
* * * * *
Summary
If you need a mathematical equation to solve a problem, use these steps.
1. Write the fundamental, memorized equation in your data.
2. Make a data table with each of the symbols in the equation.
3. Use units to place each item of data after a symbol in the data table.
4. Memorize equations in one format, then use algebra to solve for symbols WANTED.
This will minimize what you need to memorize.
For example, memorize: q = c · m · ∆t .
Then if you WANT c or m or ∆t , use algebra to solve the equation for that symbol.
Don’t memorize: m= q and c = q and Δt = q
c •Δt m •Δt c •m
5. Solve the fundamental equation for the WANTED symbol before you plug in numbers.
6. Plug both numbers and units into equations. Use unit cancellation to check your
work.
Practice B: Use the steps above for these problems. Answers are below.
1. When 681 joules of heat are added to 240. grams of a pure solid, the temperature of the
solid rises by 22.0 degrees. What is the specific heat capacity of the solid?
2. If 361 joules are added to a 32.5 gram sample of iron (Fe) at 20.0°C, use the value for c
from the table above and solve for the final temperature of the sample.
ANSWERS
Practice A
You may use other methods of unit cancellation (see Lesson 17C) as long as you arrive at the same answers
as these. Degrees and °C and K are all equivalent when they are used to measure a change in temperature
(Δt). If one is on top and one is on the bottom when you multiply terms, they cancel.
1. joules • g • °C = joules 2. joules = 1 = K
gram · K joules • g 1
gram · K K

3. calories = 1 = grams 4. joules = joules

calorie • °C 1 grams • °C grams • °C
gram· degree gram
Practice B
1. WANTED: c=?
(Strategy: When “specific heat capacity” is mentioned, that calls the “c prompt.” Write:)
DATA: q = c · m · ∆t (and make a data table to match all those symbols.)
q = 681 J
c=?
m = 240. g
Δt = 22.0°C
SOLVE: Since q = c · m · ∆t
? = c = q = 681 J = 0.129 J
m · Δt 240. g • 22.0°C g • degree
(Solve in symbols before plugging in numbers and units. Do the math for both numbers and units.
Then make sure the answer unit matches what the unit should be for the symbol WANTED.)
2. WANTED: Final temperature

Strategy: When c is mentioned, that’s the prompt to write
DATA: q = c · m · ∆t Make a data table to match those symbols.
q = 361 J
c = 0.444 J/g•K for Fe
m = 32.5 g Fe
Δt = ? WANTED Final t = 20.0°C + Δt
SOLVE: Since q = c · m · ∆t , and we want Δt,
? = Δt = q = 361 J = 25.0 K = Δt
c•m 0.444 J • 32.5 g
g•K
Done? At the end, always go back and check what you found versus what was WANTED.
WANTED Final t = 20.0°C + Δt = 20.0°C + 25.0°C or K = 45.0°C final temperature
A Δt is the same number of degrees in the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
* * * * *

Lesson 21C: Energy, Water, and Consistent Units

The substance most often used to supply or absorb heat in a chemical process is liquid water.
Most courses require that the value for the specific heat capacity of water be memorized. In
heat calculations that involve liquid water, apply the
c Water Prompt: If a problem mentions energy or heat or joules or calories -- and liquid
water, write in your data table the equation using specific heat capacity,
q = c · m · ∆t . In the data table with those 4 symbols, write
c = cwater = 4.184 J/g·K (or cwater = 1 calorie/g·K)
Using this prompt, problems involving heat and water can be solved in the same way as
the specific heat problems in the previous lesson.
In calculations involving liquid water, recall that 1 mL liquid H2O = 1.00 gram liquid H2O.
Note that though the common name for H2O is water, in problems dealing with energy it is
important to distinguish between ice, water, and steam. These three phases for H2O have
different values for c. However, unless ice or steam is specified, in heat problems you
should assume that water means liquid water.
Consistent Units
For an equation to work, the units must match the requirements of the equation.
For example, the equation for specific heat capacity requires mass (usually grams,
occasionally kg). If the data is given in moles, you must convert moles to grams or
kg before you solve.
In addition, when solving equations, units must be consistent.
For example, in an equation involving mass, grams or kilograms may be used, but
not both. You must choose a mass unit, and then convert the other masses to that
unit. Which unit should you choose?
In most cases, you may solve equations in any consistent units, but some ways of choosing
consistent units will solve more quickly than others. We will return to the question of
which consistent units to choose in Lesson 23C, after we have experience with a wider
variety of equations.
For now, to solve heat problems, we will use this rule:
Convert DATA to the units used in the most complex unit.
For example: If a heat calculation includes a unit of “joules/kg·K ,” convert the units in
the DATA to joules and kilograms. (In heat problems, temperature unit conversions can
often be done by inspection, since a Δt value in degrees Celsius and kelvins is the
same).
The best time to convert to consistent units is early in a problem. The easiest way to convert
to consistent units is to do so in the DATA table.

Try this example in your notebook. If you get stuck, peek at a bit of the answer on the next
page, then try again.
Q. 16.0 moles of water at 25.0°C is supplied with 28.0 kJ from a bunsen burner. If all of
the heat is absorbed by the water, what will be the water's final temperature?
* * * * *
Answer
When you see joules and liquid water, that’s the c water prompt. Write the specific heat
capacity equation, a data table to match its symbols, and fill in c for liquid water.
q=
c = 4.184 joules/gram·K
m=
Δt =
Since the units supplied in the problem do not match the units of the complex unit,
write a ? and a unit beside each symbol that is consistent with the complex unit.
DATA: q = ? joules =
c = 4.184 joules/gram·K
m = ? grams =
Δt = ? WANTED final temp = 25.0°C + Δt
Add the remaining data from the problem to the table, convert to the consistent
units needed.
* * * * *
DATA: q = ? joules = 28.0 kJ = 28.0 x 103 J (done by inspection)
c = 4.184 J/g·K
m = ? g = 16.0 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 288 g H2O
1 mol H2O
Δt = ? WANTED final temp. = 25.0°C + Δt
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? = Δt = q = 28.0 x 103 J =
c·m 4.184 J • 288 g
g·K
= 28,000 J • g·K • 1 = 23.2 K = Δt
4.184 J 288 g
The final temperature is 25.0°C + 23.2 °C or K = 48.2 °C
* * * * *

Summary: Consistent Units

1. If an equation requires certain units, convert the DATA to those units (such as
converting temperature to K when T is used in gas equations.)
2. Convert to consistent units in the DATA table.
3. If an equation does not require certain units, but the units provided are not
consistent,
• Choose consistent units based on the most complex unit in the problem.
• Write the consistent unit after each symbol in the DATA table.
• If the WANTED unit is not consistent with the most complex unit, solve in the
unit used in the complex unit, then convert to the WANTED unit.
Practice: Do as many as you need to feel confident. More difficult problems are toward
the bottom. Answers are on the next page.
1. 36.0 mL of water is raised in temperature by 15.0°C. How many joules are needed?
2. 15.0 moles of liquid water loses 6.70 kJ of heat. At the end of the process, the water
temperature is 21.4° C. What was the original temperature of the water?
3. A quantity of water gives off 54 kilocalories as it cools from 75° to 5° C. How much
water is cooling?
4. How much heat (in joules) would it take to raise 4.50 moles of ice from ―20.0° C to the
temperature at which it begins to melt? (c for ice = 2.09 J/g·degree.)
ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ?J
(Strategy: When you see joules and liquid water, write: )
q = c · m · ∆t , make a data table with those symbols, and put c for water in the table.
DATA: q = ? J WANTED
c = 4.184 J/g·K for liquid water
m = ? g = 36.0 mL = 36.0 g for liquid water (1 mL water = 1.00 g water)
Δt = 15.0°C
(The mL of water are converted above to the mass units that match the c unit.)
SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 4.184 J • 36.0 g • 15.0°C = 2,260 J
g·K
2. WANTED: Initial temperature

(Strategy: When you see joules and liquid water, write)
q = c · m · ∆t and cwater (c water prompt)

DATA: q = ? J = 6.70 kJ = 6.70 x 103 J = 6,700 J (convert to units of c)

c = 4.184 J/g·K (c water prompt)
m = ? g = 15.0 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 270. g H2O
1 mol H2O
Δt = ? Final temp = 21.4°C, water lost heat, so ? = initial t = 21.4°C + Δt
SOLVE: ? = Δt = q = 6,700 J = 5.93 K = Δt
c·m 4.184 J • 270. g
g•K
The final temp. is 21.4°C; so INITIAL temp. = 21.4°C + 5.93 °C or K = 27.3 °C

(Since the water is losing heat, its initial must be warmer than the final temperature, and it is.
When grams are needed, but moles are given, do the conversion in the data table.)
3. WANTED: ? = mass of water
(Strategy: When you see joules and liquid water, write: )
q = c · m · ∆t (the “c water” prompt)
DATA: q = ? calories = 54 kilocalories = 54,000 calories (convert to units of c)
c = 1 calorie/g • K for liquid water (the “c water” prompt)
(choosing a value for c in calories will simplify solving, since q is in calories and units must be
consistent. However, the calories in q could also be converted to joules, and the value for c
using joules used. Both methods give the same answer.)
(SF: because the c for water is also the definition of a calorie, the 1 is exact.)
m = ? g (WANTED)
Δt = 75°C ― 5°C = 70.°C (subtracting, the place determines doubt)
SOLVE: q = c · m · ∆t , (solve in symbols before numbers)
?=m=?g = q = 54,000 calories = 770 g water
c · Δt 1 calorie • 70.°C
g•K
4. WANTED: q in joules
(Strategy: Note that although both are H2O, the c value for ice is not the same as for liquid water.
Since the problem mentions c, that’s our “c prompt.” Write the equation that uses c:)
q = ? J = WANTED
c = 2.09 J/g•K for ice
(The equation requires mass (m), the c unit uses grams, but the ice data is in moles. The
relationship between grams and moles is the molar mass.)
m = ? g = 4.50 mol H2O • 18.0 g H2O = 81.0 g H2O
1 mol H2O

Ice begins to melt when it reaches 0.0°C.

Δt = ―20.0°C to 0.0°C = 20.0°C
(The data has now been converted to the 3 units used by c. The equation can work because
the units cancel properly.)
SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 2.09 J • 81.0 g • 20.0°C = 3,390 J
g• K
* * * * *
Lesson 21D: Calculating Joules Using Unit Cancellation

In solving heat problems, a key step is often to calculate the energy lost or gained in a
chemical process. However, there are a number of equations that solve for energy. How
do we know which to use when?
Rather than memorizing a large number of equations, unit cancellation can be used to
calculate energy. Unit cancellation is simply the conversion-factor method with the rules
loosened a bit to accommodate complex units. The principle is the same: if you arrange the
units to cancel to result the WANTED unit, the numbers attached to the units will be in the
right place to produce the correct answer.
Unit cancellation can also be use to “design formulas,” or as hints to help to remember
complex formulas. However, unit cancellation must be used carefully.
Using heat calculations, let us compare solving with equations to unit cancellation.
Equations To Calculate Energy
1. The equation for calculating heat or energy using specific heat capacity (c) is
Heat energy lost or gained = q = c · m · ∆t In words, this equation means
The energy gained or lost = (specific heat capacity) x (mass) x (change in °C or K )
Other equations can be used to calculate energy. Three of those equations are:
2. The molar heat capacity (symbol capital C) of a substance is defined as the amount of
heat required to raise one mole of the substance by one degree.
The equation is: change in heat = q = C · moles · ∆t
3. For heats of combustion or phase changes, the equation for heat lost or gained is
q = (heat of process/mass or moles) · (mass or moles)
4. For bomb calorimeter calculations, the equation for heat lost or gained is
q = (heat capacity of calorimeter/degree) · ( ∆t )
Problems involving items 2, 3, and 4 are frequently encountered, but we would prefer not
to memorize those formulas. Calculations using those quantities can instead be solved
using the units supplied in the problems.
Note that
• All four equations above solve for energy (q), which may be in joules or calories.

• Not all of the equations involve temperature, but those that do always a change in
temperature, so degrees and °C and K will all be equivalent.
• None of the equations include proportionality constants; q is calculated by a
straightforward multiplication of numbers and their units.
Under these special circumstances, the units in a problem can be used, without needing a
memorized equation, to calculate energy.
Let’s learn the method by example.
Q1. If a problem’s data includes the unit joules
K
and the energy in joules is WANTED, what must you do to solve?
* * * * *
? joules = joules times (kelvins) .
K
To get joules from joules/K, multiply by the data whose units are kelvins. Let the units
tell you what to do.
The K in the unit above does not indicate whether K is a temperature, such as 273 K, or
a change in temperature, such as ∆t = 20 K or °C. However, in all of the energy
equations above, degrees, °C, and K all represent a ∆t, and not a T. In similar energy
calculations, you can assume that degrees, °C or K measure a change in temperature.
Try another example.
Q2. If a problem’s data has a unit of joules ,
mol · K
and the joules of energy is WANTED, what equation would you design?
* * * * *
? joules = joules times (moles) times (kelvins) .
mol · K
* * * * *
Unit cancellation rules are similar to conversion rules, but expanded.
• Complex ratio units, like J/g·K , can be used right-side up or upside down.
• Single units can be used on top, or inverted, as in “1/(X grams)”
• Units may be multiplied in any order. If you want a single unit, you can even start
with a ratio unit as long as the units cancel to give the WANTED unit at the end.
Unit cancellation is a kind of jigsaw puzzle. Arrange the data as pieces, right-side up or
upside down, so that the units on the right cancel to give the unit that you WANT on the
left. This will result in the right answer for the numbers and the units.
Using the two examples above as a guide, try this problem.
Q3. Solve for joules using these “numbers” and units: X joules/g·K , Y °C, and Z g.
* * * * *

Answer: ? joules = X joules • Y °C • Z grams = X•Y•Z joules .

g·K
The terms to multiply may be listed in any order. Try one more.
Q4. Solve for ? grams using: X joules/g·K , Y °C, and Z joules.
* * * * *
Answer
When complex units are involved, though no particular order is required, it will often
help in arranging the units if you start in your given with a unit that puts the answer unit
(grams in the above case) where you WANT it in the answer.
? grams = 1 grams·K • 1 • Z joules = Z grams
X joule Y °C XY
Practice A
Using the method above, try every other problem, and more if you need more practice.
Not sure how to proceed? Peek at the answer at the end of the lesson, then try again.
1. Solve for K using X joules, Y joules/g·K, and Z grams.
2. Solve for moles of liquid H2O using X degrees, 4.184 joules/g·K, and Z joules.
3. Solve for joules using X degrees, Y calories/g·K, and Z grams. (4.184 joules = 1 cal.)
4. Solve for calories using X degrees, Y joules/g·K, and Z kilograms.
Cases When Unit Cancellation Does Not Work

Unit cancellation by itself does not work for equations such as KE = 1/2 mv2 or Volume of
a sphere = 4/3 π r3 . Those relationships have constants that must be included in the
calculations to get correct answers.
Unit cancellation does work for relationships based on equations without constants, such as
q = c·m·∆t or distance = (rate)(time) or area of a rectangle = base • height, or even
E = mc2 .
It is important, therefore, to use unit cancellation in place of memorized equations only for
equations that do not have proportionality constants.
However, though the units alone do not always predict proper equations, if you are unsure
about recalling a correct equation, unit cancellation will often supply good hints about what
the symbols must be, and where they must be, in an equation that solves for the unit.
Using Unit Cancellation to Calculate Energy
Use the unit cancellation method above to solve this problem.
Q. A sample of aluminum weighs 16.5 grams. How many joules are required to raise
the temperature of the aluminum from 20.0°C to 50.0°C? The molar heat capacity of
aluminum is 24.3 J/mol·K .
* * * * *

Answer
WANTED : ? J
Strategy: This problem uses molar not specific heat capacity, so q = c·m·Δt cannot be
used. Instead, try unit cancellation. The symbols used for an equation data
table are not needed. Simply list as DATA the numbers and units, as was
done for conversion factors. To solve, arrange the units to cancel correctly.
DATA: 16.5 g Al
∆t = 50.0°C ― 20.0°C = 30.0°C
24.3 J/mol●K
27.0 g Al = 1 mol Al (See both grams and moles? Need molar mass)
Adjust your work if needed, and then check the answer below.
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? J = 24.3 J • 1 mol Al • 16.5 g Al • 30.0°C = 446 joules
mol•K 27.0 g Al
The terms that are multiplied can be in any order, so long as they are right-side up
compared to those above.
You could have solved this problem using the equation for molar heat capacity, in the same
way you used the equation for specific heat capacity. But, to do so, you need to memorize
the equation for molar heat capacity. With unit cancellation, you can solve without
memorizing the many equations that calculate q. Instead, let the units tell you what to do.
* * * * *
When should you use the original conversion rule “if you want a ratio, start with a ratio?”
When should you use the looser unit cancellation rules? A good rule of thumb is
• In a problem where all of the DATA can be listed as single units or equalities, the rule
“if you want a single unit, start with a single unit” will automatically arrange your
factors right-side up.
• In a problem that includes a complex unit, in a form such as x/y●z, the rule “in the
given, put the answer unit where you WANT it” will help to arrange factors.
The looser unit-cancellation rules work in both cases, but they can take a bit longer to
arrange. In both cases, the unit cancellation concept is the same.
Summary: Solving With Unit Cancellation

For energy calculations that do not use specific heat capacity (c), try unit cancellation.
1. List WANTED and DATA as done for conversion factor problems, without symbols.
2. Arrange the numbers and units so that the units cancel to give the WANTED units.
* * * * *

Practice B: Using the method above, try these. If you are not sure how to proceed, peek
at the answers, then try again.
1. The heat of vaporization of water is 9.7 kcal/mole. How much heat would it take to
vaporize 0.75 grams of water? (Solve in joules)
2. A “bomb calorimeter” is used to absorb and measure the heat released when a
substance is burned. If the heat capacity of a bomb calorimeter is 6.00 kJ/K, and a
reaction releases 42,600 calories of heat, what will be the increase in the calorimeter
temperature?
3. Calculate the heat needed to raise 2.5 moles of ice from ─40.0°C to 0.0°C. (The c for ice
is 2.09 J/g●K) (Though this problem mentions c, try solving with unit cancellation.)
ANSWERS
Practice A: Your factors may be in any order but must be right-side up compared to these.
1. Solve for K using X joules, Y joules/g·K, and Z grams.
?K = 1 g·K • 1 • X joules = X K
Y joules Zg YZ
2. Solve for moles of liquid H2O using X degrees, 4.184 joules/g·K, and Z joules.
? mol H2O = 1 mol H2O • 1 g·K • 1 • Z joules = Z mol H2O

18.0 g H2O 4.184 joule X degrees 4.184•18.0•X
When a heat problem includes g and mol of a substance formula, you will likely need molar mass.
Since moles was WANTED, and one of the units was complex, a given was picked with moles on top.
BUT – if the units cancel, ANY order may be used for the conversions.
3. Solve for joules using X degrees, Y calories/g·K, and Z grams.
? joules = Y calories • 4.184 joules • Z grams • X degrees = (4.184)YZX joules
g·K 1 calorie
Since a joules term was not supplied in the data, the energy term calories was placed on top to start,
where the energy term needs to be in the answer, and then converted to joules, but any order is OK.
4. Solve for calories using X degrees, Y joules/g·K, and Z kilograms.
? calories = Y joules • 1 calorie • Z kg • 103 g • X degrees = (1,000)YZX calories

g·K 4.184 joule 1 kg 4.184

Practice B
1. WANTED: ?J
Strategy: Since specific heat capacity is not mentioned, the equation using c cannot be used. Instead,
use unit cancellation or conversion factor rules. List the data, then arrange the units to give
the units WANTED.
DATA: 9.7 kcal/mol H2O ( or 9.7 kcal = 1 mol H2O)
0.75 g H2O
18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O (grams and moles of H2O are both in the data)
SOLVE: Since a heat unit is wanted, you can start with a heat unit on top:
? joules = 9.7 kcal • 1 mol H2O • 103 cal • 4.184 J • 0.75 g H2O = 1,690 joules
mol H2O 18.0 g H2O 1 kcal 1 cal
Since these units are all “simple” y/x ratios, you could also start with the single unit 0.75 g H2O using the
conversion factor rules to solve for ratios. The answer will be the same no matter what rules you choose
to help to arrange your conversions.
2. WANTED: ? ∆t
(Strategy: This problem mentions heat capacity, but not specific heat capacity, so we cannot use
the c prompt equation. Since the equation is not available, try unit cancellation. )
DATA: 6.00 kJ/K
4,260 calories
SOLVE: ? °C = 1K • 1 kJ • 4.184 J • 42,600 cal. = 29.7 K = ∆t
6.00 kJ 103 J 1 cal.
(The order of the conversions can be different, as long as the conversions are all same-side up and
you get the same answer. Note that capital K is the abbreviation for kelvins, and a lower case k is the
abbreviation for kilo-.)
3. WANTED: ? joules (joules is the SI energy unit, and heat is a form of energy)
(Strategy: Though the c-prompt can be used, in this problem try unit-cancellation rules.)
DATA: 2.5 moles H2O (the chemical formula for ice is H2O)
18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O (the problem includes moles and grams of H2O )
∆t = 40.0°C ― 0.0°C = 40.0°C
2.09 J/g•K
SOLVE: ? J = 2.09 J • 18.0 g H2O • 2.5 mol H2O • 40.0°C = 3,800 J
g•K 1 mol H2O
This problem can be solved with the equation q=cm∆t. Equations are usually safer to use, if you
know the equation, since unit cancellation does not work for relationships that include proportionality
constants. However, both the c-prompt equation and unit cancellation can be used to solve specific
heat capacity problems.
* * * * *

Lesson 21E: Calorimetry

The heat involved in a reaction or a phase change is often measured by having that heat
absorbed by another substance, such as by water in a calorimeter (an insulated container),
or by the material in the body of a bomb calorimeter.
In calorimetry problems, there are two entities: one that loses energy, and the other that
gains the lost energy. The key relationship is based on the fundamental law of conservation
of energy: in a chemical process, energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
To simplify calorimetry, we will use these rules.
1. When you see that a problem has two components: one losing and one gaining heat,
write at the top of your DATA:
In calorimetry: Energy lost by one = Energy gained by the other.
2. Divide the rest of your DATA table into two columns: E gainer and E loser. The two
columns will have the same value for the energy (joules or calories) lost and gained. The
strategy to solve will be to calculate the energy for the column that does not contain the
WANTED unit, then to write that energy in the column that includes the WANTED
unit, and then to solve for the WANTED unit.
The first task in a calorimetry problem is to identify and label which component is the heat
loser and which is the heat gainer. Some rules for identifying heat losers and gainers:
• If a substance burns (combustion) or explodes, it is losing its stored heat energy.
• If a substance gets colder, it is losing its kinetic energy.
• If a substance gets hotter without participating in a chemical reaction, it is gaining
heat.
Let’s try the method on a problem.
Q. A 18.0 gram food sample is placed in a bomb calorimeter with excess oxygen and
burned. The calorimeter temperature rises by 9.32°C. The heat capacity of the
calorimeter is 3.50 kJ/K . What is the energy content of the food, in J/g?
Do these steps in your notebook.
1. This is a calorimetry problem because it has two energy parts. The food loses stored
energy. The calorimeter gains that same amount of energy as kinetic energy: its
temperature increases. Write the fundamental calorimetry relationship in your DATA.
2. Below the fundamental relationship, set up your data table in two columns: E loser and
E gainer. Include the key relationship: E lost = E gained
E loser = food E gainer = calorimeter
E lost = = E gained =
3. Enter every number and unit in the problem into the data table. Carefully separate the
E loser from the E gainer data.
* * * * *

4. Your paper should look like this.

In calorimetry: Energy lost by one = Energy gained by other.
E Loser = food E Gainer = calorimeter
E lost = ? = E gained = ?
18.0 grams food burned 9.32°C = ∆t for calorimeter
WANTED = ? = joules/gram food 3.50 kJ/K for calorimeter
Two rules are important in a two-column DATA table.

• As with any problem with two entities, take care not to use DATA that applies
to one part to solve for the other part.
The exception is the linked variable, which has the same value in both columns
and parts.
• Almost always, the column with the WANTED unit will have two unknown
quantities, and the other column will have one: the linked variable (q). You will
need to solve for the column with one ? first.
In this problem, you do not know enough data to find joules lost by the food.
You do know enough to find the joules gained by the calorimeter. Do that
calculation first, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
6. With conversions in any order,
? joules gained by calorimeter = 9.32°C • 3.50 kJ • 103 J = 32,620 joules
K 1 kJ
Enter this answer in both columns of your DATA table. The energy gained by the
calorimeter must equal the energy lost from the 18.0 grams of food as it burned.
7. Solve for the WANTED unit, then check below.
* * * * *
8. SOLVE: WANTED = ? J = 32,620 J = 1,810 J (3 sf)
g food 18.0 g food g food
* * * * *
Summary: Calorimetry
When a problem has a heat or energy loser and a gainer, the steps are
1. Identify which substance is the energy loser and which is the energy gainer.
2. Make two separate data columns: one for the loser, one for the gainer.
3. Identify which part (loser or gainer) has the unit you WANT.
4. Use equations or units to calculate the energy (E or q) for the other part. Use the data
in the column for that part.
5. Write that energy for the other part as data for the WANTED part, and solve.
* * * * *

Practice: Use the method above. If you get stuck, peek at the answer and try again.
1. Water in an insulated container is used to trap the heat released when a flask of liquid
sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate (Na2S2O3 • 5 H2O) solidifies.
a. If there are 25.0 grams of H2O in the container, and the H2O temperature rises from
10.0°C to 37.6°C as the phase change occurs, how much energy is released by the
phase change?
b. If 2.0 moles of Na2S2O3• 5 H2O is used in the experiment, what is the heat released
by the solidification, in joules per mole?
2. A 40.0 gram metal sample is heated to 100.0°C in boiling water and then immersed in
an insulated calorimeter containing 25.0 grams of water at 26.6°C. After stirring, the
metal and water are both at 30.0°C. What is the specific heat capacity of the metal?
3. Large cubes of ice are dropped into an insulated calorimeter with 100. mL of warm
water at 49.6°C. The mixture is stirred until the temperature is 0.0°C, and the ice
remaining is then removed. The volume of the water is found to be 162 mL.
a. How many grams of ice melted?
b. What is the heat of melting of the ice, in J/g?
4. Methane (CH4) is the primary constituent of natural gas. Its heat of combustion is 890
kJ/mole. How many grams of methane would need to be burned to raise the
temperature of 55 gallons of water from 10.°C to 37°C? (1 gallon = 3.78 liters)
ANSWERS
1. This problem involves two substances and heat. Use the calorimetry rules.
• Write the fundamental calorimetry relationship.
• Identify the heat loser and gainer; keep two separate data tables.
• Energy lost = energy gained; find the energy from the other, use that to find the WANTED unit.
The liquid Na2S2O3 • 5 H2O loses potential energy as it becomes solid, and the water gains that energy.
This problem has already been divided: part (a) for the energy gainer, and (b) for the energy loser.
COMMON DATA: In calorimetry: Energy lost by one = Energy gained by the other.
Part a. WANT: ? Energy gained by water. (Solve in joules unless other units are requested.
Grams of H2O in a heat problem calls the “water c” prompt:
When you see energy and liquid water in a problem, write):
q = c · m · ∆t (and set up a data table to match this equation)
DATA: q=? J
c = 4.184 J/g·K
m = 25.0 g H2O
Δt = 37.6°C ― 10.0°C = 27.6°C up

SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 4.184 J • 25.0 g • 27.6°C = 2,887 J gained by water

g•K
Carry an extra sf until the final part. If needed, adjust your work, then complete part b.
* * * * *
Part b. WANT: ? J
mol Na2S2O3 • 5 H2O
Strategy: Use energy from first part. E lost = E gained.
DATA: 2,887 J lost in becoming solid
2.0 mol of Na2S2O3 • 5 H2O
SOLVE: ? J = 2,887 J = 1,400 J

mol Na2S2O3• 5 H2O 2.0 mol Na2S2O3• 5 H2O mol Na2S2O3• 5 H2O
2. The problem involves two substances and heat, so use the calorimetry rules:
• Identify the heat loser and gainer, keep two separate data tables;
• E lost = E gained. Find the energy from the not WANTED part. Use that to find the WANTED unit.
In this problem, the metal loses energy as it cools, and the water gains that energy.
WANTED: specific heat capacity (c) of the metal
Strategy: Solve for energy gained by the other part, the water, first.
For energy gainer – water
WANTED: ? Energy gained by water.
Strategy: When you see water in a heat problem, use the “c water” prompt. Write:
q = c · m · ∆t Do a data table with those symbols, add the water c value.
DATA: q=?=J
m = 25.0 g H2O
Δt = 30.0°C ― 26.6°C = 3.4°C up (2 sf )
SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 4.184 J • 25.0 g • 3.4°C = 356 J gained by water
g·K
For energy loser – metal

Strategy: Since you want specific heat capacity (c), you can use unit cancellation or use the
equation using c:
q = c · m · ∆t and set up a data table to match the equation

DATA: q = 356 J lost by metal (from other part. That’s the key relationship.)
cmetal = ? = WANTED
m = 40.0 g metal
Δt = 100.0°C ― 30.0°C = 70.0°C lower
SOLVE: Since q = c · m · ∆t
? = c = q = 356 J = 0.13 J
m · Δt 40.0 g • 70.0°C g• degree
Note that the answer units are the units expected for a c value.
3a. WANT: ? g ice melted.
DATA: The amount of ice that melted is 162 mL ─ 100 mL = 62 mL ice melted
For liquid water, 1.00 g = 1 mL, so 62 g of the water was made by the ice melting
= 62 g ice melted.
3b. In this part, you have a heat loser (the warm water) and a heat gainer (the ice that melted). That makes
this a calorimetry calculation.
In calorimetry: Energy lost by one = Energy gained by other.
WANTED: specific heat capacity (c) of the ice
Strategy: Solve for energy lost by the other part, the water, first.
For energy gainer – water
WANTED: ? Energy lost by water.
Strategy: When you see water in a heat problem, use the “c water” prompt. Write:
q = c · m · ∆t Do a data table with those symbols, add the water c value.
DATA: q=?=J
m = 100. mL H2O = 100. g H2O
Δt = 49.6°C ― 0.0°C = 49.6°C (subtraction: 3 sf )
SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 4.184 J • 100. g • 49.6°C = 20,760 J lost by water
g·K
For energy gainer – ice

WANTED: J
g ice melted
DATA: 20,760 J lost by water = 20,760 J gained by ice (from other part: the key relationship.)
g ice melted = 62 g ice melted (from Part a)
WANTED: J = 20,760 J gained by ice = 330 J
g ice melted 62 g ice melted g ice melted

4. The problem involves two substances and heat, so use the calorimetry rules.
• Identify the heat loser and gainer; keep two separate data tables.
• E lost = E gained, find the energy from the other, use that to find the WANTED unit.
In this problem, the methane loses stored energy as it burns, the water gains that energy.
a. Final WANTED: grams methane.
Strategy: Solve for energy gained by water first.
Energy gainer – water:
WANT: ? joules gained by water.
Grams of water in a heat problem calls the c water prompt:. Write:
q = c · m · ∆t and set up a data table to match the equation
DATA: q = ? = joules
m = ? g H2O = 55 gal H2O • 3.78 L • 1 mL • 1.00 g water • = 2.08 x 105 g H2O
1 gal 10―3 L 1 mL water
Δt = 37°C ― 10.°C = 27°C
SOLVE: ? = q = c · m · Δt = 4.184 J • 2.08 x 105 g • 27°C = 2.35 x 107 J
g· K
If needed, adjust your work to this point, and then finish the problem.
* * * * *
Energy loser – methane:
WANTED: ? g CH4 burned
DATA: 890 kJ = 1 mol CH4 burned. ( you may write x/y units as ratios or equalities)
2.35 x 107 joules (use E for other part to solve for WANTED)
16.0 g CH4 = 1 mol CH4 (since units for CH4 use g and moles, need molar mass)
Strategy: If you don’t see specific heat capacity, which solves with an equation, try using units.
Since all of these units are x/y simple ratios, as opposed to x/y•z complex ratios, you
might use the rule “If you want a single unit, start with a single unit.” The squiggles
above work backwards --from the answer unit through the conversions to the given
single unit. But any order of multiplying is OK.
SOLVE: ? g CH4 = 2.35 x 107 J • 1 kJ • 1 mol CH4 • 16.0 g CH4 = 420 g CH4
103 J 890 kJ 1 mol CH4
The factor which limits the sf in the answer is the Δt value, which only had 2 sf.
* * * * *

Summary: Energy Calculations

A summary for phases and phase changes is given at the end of Lesson 21A.
1. The Law of Conservation of Energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed
(except in nuclear reactions).
2. In chemistry, energy is usually measured in joules or calories.
a. Joules are the SI unit measuring energy. Joules are defined in terms of “work.”
b. Calories are a metric unit also used in chemistry to measure energy.
A chemical calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of one gram of liquid water by one degree (Celsius or Kelvin).
3. Because all forms of energy are equivalent, all energy units can be related by equalities.
1 calorie = 4.184 joules
4. 1 food Calorie = 1,000 chemical calories = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.184 kJ
Food Calories are abbreviated with a capital Cal., chemical calories with a cal.
5. The specific heat capacity (symbol small c) of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise one gram of the substance by one degree (Celsius or Kelvin).
The units of c are joules per (gram · degree) or calories per (gram · degree).
6. ∆ is a symbol meaning change in. ∆t means change in temperature.

A change in temperature is the same number of degrees whether measured in °C or K.
For ∆t measurements, the terms degree and °C and K are all equivalent.
When terms are equivalent, they can cancel.
7. The c Prompt: If you see the term specific heat capacity or its symbol c in a problem, write
at the top of your data the equation which uses c:
q = c · m · ∆t
8. IF you need an equation to solve a problem,
a. write the fundamental, memorized equation in your data.
b. Make a data table with each of the symbols in the equation.
c. Use units to match the data with the symbols in the data table.
d. Memorize equations in one format; use algebra to solve for symbols WANTED.
e. Solve the equation for the WANTED symbol before you plug in numbers.
f. Put both numbers and units into equations. Do the math for numbers and units.
9. The c water prompt: If a problem mentions energy or heat or joules or calories -- and
liquid water -- write the c prompt equation: q = c · m · ∆t , a data table listing those
symbols, and enter c = cwater = 4.184 J/g·K (or c = 1 calorie/g·K).

10. Units must be consistent in order to cancel. When units are not consistent, or do not
match what is needed in an equation,
• pick appropriate units (preferably those used in a complex unit in the problem),
• Write the chosen unit after each symbol in the DATA.
• Convert the other measurements to that unit in the DATA table, then solve.
11. Unit cancellation can be used in place of memorized equations when equation
relationships do not include constants. Most calculations of heat (q) in chemistry can
be solved with unit cancellation.
a. List WANTED and DATA as done for conversion problems, without labeling
measurements with symbols.
b. Arrange numbers and units so that the units cancel to give the WANTED units.
12. Calorimetry: When a problem has a heat or energy loser and a gainer, the steps are,
a. identify which substance is the energy loser, and which is the energy gainer.
b. Make two separate data columns: one for the loser, one for the gainer.
c. Identify which part (loser or gainer) has the unit WANTED.
d. Use equations or units to calculate energy (q) in the column that does not have the
final WANTED unit.
e. Write that energy value as data in the column with the final WANTED unit, then
solve for the WANTED unit.
# # # # #

Module 22 — Heats of Reaction (ΔH)

Timing: Begin this module when you are assigned ∆H calculations.
Prerequisites: You should be able to do most of the calculations in this module if you have
completed Lesson 10B (Balancing Equations).
* * * * *
Lesson 22A: Energy, Heat, and PV Work
Timing: Some courses address PV work at this point, before ∆H calculations; others include
PV work as part of a thermodynamics unit later in the course. Do this lesson at this time
when you are assigned calculations that involve PV work in your course. This topic is not
essential for the ∆H calculations in the remainder of this module.
* * * * *
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the field that studies why reactions go in the direction they do, as well
as the changes in energy and the arrangements of particles that occur during reactions and
processes. In Modules 22 and 23, our interest is primarily measuring the changes in energy
that occur during chemical processes. Other aspects of thermodynamics are addressed in
Module 36.
System Versus Surroundings
To study thermodynamics, it is helpful to divide the universe into two parts. In chemistry,
• The system is the particles of interest, which may be atoms, molecules, or ions.
• The surroundings is the environment outside of the system.
Universe = system + surroundings
To explain chemical changes, the system and its environment are accounted for separately.
For example, in a chemical reaction, if a collection of molecules lose energy, the same
amount of energy must be gained by the surrounding environment (as heat or work).
Conservation of Energy: The First Law
Energy is the capacity to do work. The first law of thermodynamics is the law of
conservation of energy:
In physical and chemical processes, energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
The exception to this law is nuclear reactions, in which energy can be created from, or
converted to, mass. Nuclear processes are the major reactions in stars, but some nuclear
reactions occur on earth in nuclear reactors and radioactive decay. However, unless
nuclear processes are specified, you should assume for problems in chemistry that the first
law is obeyed.

The first law means that in chemical or physical processes, there is no change in the total
energy of the system and its surroundings. In equation form,
ΔEuniverse = Efinal ─ Einitial = 0 (Equation 1)
During physical and chemical changes, though the total energy before, during, and after
cannot change, energy can change its form, such as from potential to kinetic, and energy
can transfer from a system to and from its surroundings as work or heat. In a physical or
chemical process, the energy of a system may change, but the total energy of the system and
its surroundings cannot change.
Internal Energy, Heat, and Work
In chemical processes, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but energy can change form,
and energy can flow into and out of a system.
• The internal energy of a system (Einternal or Esystem) is the combination of its
potential and kinetic energy.
• Energy can flow into and out of a system as heat (q) or work (w).
Heat is defined as a transfer of thermal energy between two systems that are at different
temperatures. When heat is added to a system, or work is done on a system (such as by
compressing a gas), the internal energy of the system increases.
If a process or reaction releases heat from the system to its surroundings, or if the
expansion of gas particles under pressure does work (such as creating a force that moves an
object), energy must leave the system.
The change in the internal energy of a system during a process can be calculated by
∆E = q + w (Equation 2)
The change in energy (∆E) is a termed a state function. In state functions, only the initial
and final states matter. The steps between the initial and final states do not matter. In
equation form,
∆E = Efinal ─ Einitial (Equation 3)
The values for q and w during a process do vary depending on how the change occurs
(though the total of q + w does not), so q and w are not state functions. By convention in
thermodynamics, symbols for state functions, such as ∆E, are written in upper case, and
non-state functions such as heat (q) and work (w) are assigned lower-case symbols.
Units and Signs
By the law of dimensional homogeneity (Lesson 11G), terms that are added or subtracted
must have the same units, and the units must be the same on both sides of an equation. In
the SI system, energy is measured in joules. For the units of ∆E, q, and w,
• in equation 3, since a change in energy is the difference between two values in
joules, the SI unit for ∆E must be joules.
• In equation 2, the SI units for heat and work must be the same as ∆E: joules. Heat
and work measure transfers in energy.

The variables ∆E, q, and w must be assigned signs: their values can be positive or negative.
In chemistry (but not necessarily in other sciences), we define the signs from the
perspective of the system: the chemical particles in a process. In chemistry calculations,
• if energy flows out of a system into its surroundings, ∆E is given a negative sign,
because the system loses internal energy.
o If the energy flowing out of a system of particles produces heat, such as
when a substance burns, the q value is given a negative sign, because the
system has lost heat energy. Such a process is termed exothermic.
o If a chemical process does work, such as when burning produces gases that
expand and move a piston that is under pressure, the w value for the process
is given a negative sign, because the system is losing internal energy as it
converts that energy to work.
• If energy flows into the system, ∆E is assigned a positive sign, because the system
gains energy.
o If heat is added to a system, such as to boil water, the q value for the process
is given a positive sign, because the system gains internal energy, and the
process is termed endothermic.
o If work is done on a chemical system, such as when you compress the air in
a bicycle tire with a hand pump, the w value for the process is given a
positive sign. The system gains internal energy from the work put into it.
Practice A: Chart and learn the rules above, then answer these questions from memory.
1. From the perspective of the particles in a chemical system,
a. if heat is added to the particles, is the sign of q positive or negative ?
b. If a gas expands by pushing a piston that is under pressure, is the sign of
w positive or negative ?
2. If a substance burns, but no work is done,
a. is the sign of q positive or negative ?
b. Is the sign of ∆E positive or negative ?
c. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
3. If a gas is compressed by a piston, but no heat is added to the gas,
a. is the sign of w positive or negative ?
b. is the sign of q positive or negative ?
c. Is the sign of ∆E is positive or negative ?
4. If 30.0 joules of heat is released by burning, and the gases produced do 25.0 joules of
work in moving an automotive piston, what is the ∆E for the process?

PV Work
In physics, we investigate many types of work. The most familiar may be the mechanical
work done in accelerating a mass over a distance: work = f • d = m • a • d . Other types of
work of interest in chemistry include electrical work (work done by moving charges) and
PV work (the work involved in the expansion or compression of a gas).
In chemistry, we are most interested in the work done during a chemical reaction or
process. For the special case of the expansion or compression of a gas, the PV work
involved can be calculated by
Work = ─ (external pressure) times (change in the volume of the gas)
or, in symbols, w = ─ Pexternal ∆Vsystem (Equation 4)
When a gas expands against external pressure, ∆V is positive. Since pressure is always
positive, and based on equation 2, the value for the work must be negative. This makes
sense: when a gas expands against pressure, it does work on its surroundings, but for
energy to be conserved, the system must lose internal energy.
In converting between the SI units of work (joules) and the units for PV work, you will
need this equality:
1 liter • atmosphere = 101 joules (Equation 5)
Enthalpy
Enthalpy (H) is a property defined as Hsystem = Esystem + PsystemVsystem
where Esystem is the internal energy of the system, and Psystem is the pressure exerted
by the system.
In chemistry, by convention in thermodynamic equations, if a symbol is not assigned a
subscript, the subscript is assumed to be system (as opposed to surroundings), and the
equation above is then written as
H = E + PV (Equation 6)
In chemical processes, we are most interested in the change in enthalpy:
Hfinal ─ Hinitial = ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV) (Equation 7)
The change in enthalpy (∆H) is a frequently factor in chemistry calculations. Let’s explore
what ∆H means.
In the special case where the external pressure on a system is held constant, equation 7
becomes
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV at constant pressure (Equation 8)
When we substitute our definition for “PV work,” w = ─ P∆V into equation 2:
∆E = q + w , equation 2 becomes

∆E = q ─ P∆V . Substituting this result into equation 8, ∆H becomes
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV = ( q ─ P∆V ) + PΔV = q or
ΔH = q at constant pressure . (Equation 9)

This last equation means:
If pressure on the system is held constant, and any work is limited to “PV work,”
change in enthalpy (∆H) represents the heat flow to or from a system: q .
The ∆H of a reaction is often termed the heat of reaction. The ∆H for a phase change may be
described with terms such as heat of melting, heat of fusion or heat of vaporization.
ΔH, ΔE, and ΔPE
For the special case of a chemical process in which pressure is constant and the change in
volume is small:
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV ≈ ΔE + P(~0) ≈ ΔE + ~0 ≈ q or
ΔH ≈ ΔE ≈ q if pressure is constant and the volume change is small
Reactions in which the change in volume is very small include

• Reactions that do not involve gases, and
• Gas reactions in which the moles of gas do not change.
Using the methods learned in Module 21, by calculating the heat transfer (q) during a
process at constant volume or pressure, we can calculate the ΔH value for the process.
Even for reactions in which the volume does change substantially, in most cases the size of
the PV-work term is small compared to the heat term (q), so that
ΔE = q + small w = ΔH ─ PΔV ≈ ΔH ─ small ≈ q or
ΔH ≈ ΔE ≈ q for most reactions (Equation 10)
This equation means that in most (though not all) processes, ∆H measures the approximate
change in internal energy of a system.
Finally, the internal energy of a system (E) is the combination of its kinetic and potential
energy. The temperature of a system is a measure of its average kinetic energy: if
temperature does not change, ΔEkinetic = 0 . For reactions run at constant temperature and
pressure with a small work term,
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV = (ΔEpotential +ΔEkinetic) + PΔV = (ΔEpotential + ~0 ) + ~0 ≈ q or
ΔH ≈ ΔEpotential ≈ q for most reactions at constant P and T (Equation 11)
For example, during a solid-liquid phase change for a substance under constant
pressure, the volume change is very small, and the temperature is constant. The
change in enthalpy, which is equal to the flow of heat into or out of the system, is
approximately equal to the change in the potential energy of the system.

Summary: Energy and Enthalpy

1. Energy is the capacity to do work. In any physical or chemical process,
ΔEuniverse = Efinal ─ Einitial = 0 and ∆Esystem = q + w
2. Energy (E), heat (q), and work (w) in the SI system are measured in joules (J).
3. Measurements of heat, work, and changes in energy and enthalpy are assigned signs
from the perspective of the system.
• If heat is added to the system, q is given a positive sign. If a reaction or process
releases heat from the system to the surroundings, q is given a negative sign.
• If work is done on the system, such as in compressing a gas, w is positive. If a
system does work, such as an expanding gas moving a piston that is under
pressure, the system loses energy and w is negative.
4. In any physical or chemical change: ∆E = q + w
5. In the case of PV work by a gas, w = ─ Pexternal ∆Vsystem
In converting from PV work units to energy units: 1 liter • atm = 101 joules
6. If no subscript is given after a thermodynamic symbol, assume the subscript is system.
7. The definition of enthalpy (H): H = E + PV
and Hfinal ─ Hinitial = ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV) if work is limited to PV work.
8. For reactions in which the external pressure on a system is held constant and work is
limited to “PV work,” ∆H will measure the heat flow into or out of the system.
ΔH = q .
9. If pressure is constant and the change in volume is small, and/or if the work term is
much smaller than q (true for most reactions): ΔH ≈ ΔE ≈ q
10. If temperature is also held constant, ∆H will approximate the change in the potential
energy of the system. ΔH ≈ ΔEpotential ≈ q
Practice B: Learn the equations above, then do these problems.

1. If a sample of gas is compressed from 4.5 to 2.5 liters by 606 joules of work done on the
system, what is constant external pressure on the gas, in atmospheres?
2. When hydrogen gas (H2) is burned under constant pressure, ΔH = ─284 kJ/mol . How
much heat in kJ is released when 0.12 g of H2 burns?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1 a. If heat is added to the particles, the sign of q is positive. The particles gained energy.
b. If a gas expands by pushing a piston that is under pressure, the sign of w is negative . The system
has done work on its environment, and in the process the system loses internal energy. In the
equation w = ─ Pexternal ∆Vsystem , ∆V is positive, and P must be positive, so w is negative.
2. a. q is negative . In burning, the surroundings gain heat. The system must lose heat.
b. ∆E = q + w . If q is negative and w is 0, ∆E must be negative. If the system loses heat with no work
involved, the system loses energy, and ∆E for the system must be negative.
c. If the surroundings gain heat, the reaction is exothermic.
3. a. w is positive . Work is done on the system. Energy is added to the system.
b. q is zero: neither positive nor negative.
c. ∆E = q + w . If w is positive and q is 0, ∆E must be positive.
4. WANTED: ∆E
DATA: ─30.0 J = q When heat is released to the surroundings, q is negative.
─25.0 J = w When work is done on the surroundings, w is negative.
SOLVE: ∆E = q + w = ─ 30.0 J + (─ 25.0 J ) = ─55.0 J
In both releasing heat and doing work, the system of particles loses internal energy.
Practice B
1. WANTED: external P in atm.
The equation that relates external pressure, work, and volume change is w = ─ Pexternal ∆V
In problems that use the PV-work formula, you will likely need the conversion 1 liter • atm = 101 joules
* * * * *
DATA: w = + 606 J When work is done on the system, w is positive.
∆V = final ─ initial = 2.5 L ─ 4.5 L = ─ 2.0 L The system loses volume.
SOLVE: w = ─ Pexternal ∆V .
Pexternal in atm. = ─ w = ─ 606 J = 303 J • 1 liter • atm = 3.0 atm
∆V ─ 2.0 L L 101 joules
2. Tip: You will need an equation plus conversions.
* * * * *
WANTED: q in kJ
The equation that relates q and ∆H is ΔH = q at constant pressure.
For conversions, list the DATA as equalities and single units.
DATA: ─284 kJ = 1 mol H2 (2 equivalent amounts)
2.016 g H2 = 1 mol H2 (grams prompt)
0.12 g H2 (the single-unit given).

SOLVE: ? kJ = 0.12 g H2 • 1 mol H2 • ─ 284 kJ = ─ 17 kJ = q

2.016 g H2 1 mol H2
* * * * *
Lesson 22B: Exo- and Endothermic Reactions

Timing: Begin this lesson when you are assigned ∆H calculations.
* * * * *
Change in Enthalpy (∆H)
Energy is stored in a substance during its formation. The amount of energy stored in a
substance is dependent on (1) its atoms and bonds, and how they are arranged, and (2) the
physical state of the substance: whether it is a gas, liquid, solid, or in solution.
Energy can be stored in the bonds of a substance. Some types of bonds have relatively
large amounts of stored energy compared to others. For example, the C─H bond stores
more energy than an O─H or a C─O bond.
Petroleum products have considerable commercial value in large part because they contain
high-energy C─H bonds that release their energy when burned to form O─H and C─O
bonds. That energy can be used to supply heat or to do work.
In general terms, the property enthalpy (H) is often described as the “heat content” of a
substance: a measure of the energy that can be extracted from a substance.
In most chemical reactions, the change in enthalpy (∆H) of a system during the process is a
measure of the heat flow (q) into or out of the system.
Terminology
1. The absolute enthalpy (H) of a system is not possible to measure, but the absolute
enthalpy (H) of a particle can be assigned a value relative to an arbitrary zero enthalpy.
In enthalpy measurements, an arbitrary zero enthalpy is assigned to elements in their
standard state, and the absolute enthalpy of other particles compared to those zero
values by measuring the ∆H for chemical reactions and processes.
2. ∆H is the symbol for change in enthalpy during a reaction or process. ∆H is defined as:
∆H = (enthalpy stored in products) minus (enthalpy stored in reactants)
∆H = Hfinal ─ Hinitial = Hproducts ─ Hreactants
3. The SI units of ΔH are can be expressed as either joules or joules/mol when they refer to
one mole of a substance. When ΔH is measuring a reaction in which the sum of the
product coefficients is more than one, the coefficients are assumed to be in moles, and
ΔH is measured in joules (J) or in kilojoules (kJ).

4. Energy and enthalpy changes in chemical processes can be classified as either

exothermic or endothermic.
a. Exothermic reactions are those in which heat is released to the environment (exo- is a
prefix from ancient Greek meaning “out of”). Heat flows out of the chemical
particles in exothermic reactions.
b. Endothermic reactions are those in which heat is required. Heat must flow endo, “to
the inside,” into the chemical particles.
ΔH Notation
The energy change in a reaction can be expressed in two ways: either as a reactant or
product inside the reaction equation, or written in ΔH notation after the equation.
Exothermic Reactions
The explosive burning of hydrogen gas is exothermic. The reaction can be written as
H2(gas) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) + 242 kilojoules (Equation 1)
This equation indicates that heat is a product of the reaction: energy is released to the
environment. When energy is a term in a reaction, the coefficients are understood to be in
moles.
Though the energy term can be written inside the equation as in equation (1), more often
we represent the energy factor is represented using ΔH notation. The above reaction is
written as
H2(gas) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = ― 242 kJ (Equation 2)
When equations include ΔH notation, the units of ∆H are always energy units (such as
joules or calories), and the coefficients of the reaction equation are read in moles.
In the above reaction, ∆H has a negative sign. For exothermic reactions, ∆H is defined as
negative. The minus sign indicates the chemical particles have lost stored energy in the
reaction. Some of the energy stored in the reactant particles is released into the
environment as the products are formed.
Endothermic Reactions
When the products of a reaction have a higher stored energy than the reactants, energy
must be added to the chemical particles for the reaction to take place. Cooking food,
melting ice, and boiling water are examples of chemical process that require energy to be
added. For these reactions, ∆H will have a positive sign, because the chemical particles gain
stored energy.
For example, the process of boiling water can be represented as either
H2O(liquid) + 44.0 kJ Æ H2O(gas) (Equation 3)
OR as
H2O(l) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = + 44.0 kJ (Equation 4)
For endothermic reactions, the ΔH value will always be positive.

This reaction is an example of why, when representing the energy involved in a chemical
process, the phase of each particle must be shown: (s), (1), (g), or (aq). The solid, liquid, gas,
and aqueous phases of a substance have different amounts of stored energy.
In reaction (4) the coefficients are omitted, but energy equations are assumed to be
balanced in moles, and omitted coefficients are understood to be 1 mole.
Writing Energy Terms Inside Reactions
The explosion of hydrogen gas in reaction (1) above was written as
H2(gas) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) + 242 kilojoules
By the rules of algebra, we could also write the above reaction as
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ― 242 kilojoules Æ H2O(g)
and mathematically this would be correct.
However, by the conventions of chemistry, we do not write negative signs in front of
energy terms that are written inside reaction equations. An energy term written inside a
reaction equation is always assigned a positive sign: written on the right side (as a product)
for exothermic reactions, and on the left (as something which needs to be added) for
endothermic reactions.
Energy terms are always positive inside equations, but may be positive or negative in ΔH.
Summary
To solve problems involving energy equations, first commit the following rules to memory.
Rules for Representing Energy Changes in Chemical Processes

When energy is included in a chemical equation:
1. The coefficients are in moles.
2. The phase of each particle must be shown: (s), (1), (g), or (aq).
3. In exothermic reactions, energy is released into the environment. The energy term
is shown
• EITHER with a positive sign on the products side;
• OR (preferred) with a negative ΔH value written after the reaction.
4. In endothermic reactions, energy must be added as the reaction proceeds. The
energy term is shown
• EITHER with a positive sign on the reactants side of the equation,
• OR with a positive ∆H value written after the reaction.
5. The SI units of ∆H are written in terms of joules or joules per mole when referring to
one mole of one substance, and in joules when measuring a reaction in which the
sum of the product coefficients is more than one.
After you learn the rules, complete the problems below to cement your knowledge.

Practice A: Answers are at the end of this lesson. Check your answer after each part.
1. Re-write these equations so that the heat term appears as a product or a reactant inside
the equation.
a. C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ
b. 1/2 N2 (g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ NO(g) ∆H = + 90.3 kJ
2. Label each reaction in (1) above as either exothermic or endothermic.

3. Re-write these equations using ∆H notation.
a. H2O2(l) + 187.6 kJ Æ H2(g) + O2(g)
b. C(s) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO(g) + 110.5 kJ

4. After each reaction in problem (3) above, add a label identifying the side that has more
energy stored in its particles: the reactants or the products.
Reversing Equations That Include Heat Terms

In theory, any chemical reaction can go backwards. In practice, many do.
Any reaction with a heat term inside will be true if written in the reverse direction.
Example: Since, from equation (3) above, H2O(liquid) + 44.0 kJ Æ H2O(gas)
This will also be true: H2O(gas) Æ H2O(liquid) + 44.0 kJ
Given a reaction in which a ∆H value represents an energy change, you may write the
reaction in the reverse reaction if you change the sign of ∆H.
Example: Since, from equation 4 above, H2O(l) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = + 44.0 kJ
This equation is also true: H2O(g) Æ H2O(l) ΔH = ─ 44.0 kJ
If an amount of energy must be added to change reactants to products, this same amount
will be released when products are changed back to reactants. In chemical and physical
processes, energy must be conserved.
Multiplying Equations That Include Heat Terms
Given a known balanced equation that includes an energy term, the coefficients representing
the moles of the reactants and products may all be multiplied or divided by the same factor,
provided you do the same to the energy term.
Examples
a. Since H2(gas)+ 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) + 242 kJ is true,
Then 2 H2(gas)+ 1 O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) + 484 kJ (all doubled) is also true.

b. Since H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = ― 242 kJ is true,
Then 2 H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ΔH = ― 484 kJ (all doubled) is also true.
Summary
Memorize these additional rules for energy terms in equations.
5. Reactions that include energy terms can be reversed (written backwards). If ∆H

notation is used, change the sign of ∆H.
6. All coefficients and energy terms in a balanced equation can be multiplied or
divided by a factor. If ∆H notation is used, do the same to the ∆H.
Once you have the above six rules firmly in memory, try the problems below.
Practice B: Do every other problem. Save the rest for your next practice session.
1. Write these reactions in the reverse direction. Express the energy term as a ΔH value.
a. UF6(l) Æ UF6(g) ΔH = + 30.1 kJ
b. C(s) + 2 H2(g) Æ CH4(g) ∆H = ― 74.9 kJ
2 Use these 4 “known” reactions to fill in the blanks below.

H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = ― 241.8 kJ (1)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(l) ΔH = ― 285.8 kJ (2)
1/2 N2 (g) + O2(g) Æ NO2(g) ΔH = + 33.8 kJ (3)
H2(g) + 1/8 S8(s) + 2 O2(g) Æ H2SO4(l) ΔH = ― 812 kJ (4)
a. 2 NO2(g) Æ N2(g) + 2 O2(g) ΔH = _______
b. 4 H2(g) + 2 O2(g) Æ 4 H2O(l) ΔH = _______
c. 8 H2SO4(l) Æ 8 H2(g) + S8(s) + 16 O2(g) ΔH = _______
ANSWERS
Practice A
1&2a. C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 393.5 kJ Exothermic
1&2b. 1/2 N2 (g) + 1/2 O2(g) + 90.3 kJ Æ NO(g) Endothermic
3&4a. H2O2(l) Æ H2(g) + O2(g) ΔH = +187.6 kJ (Products have more PE)
3&4b. C(s) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO(g) ΔH = ― 110.5 kJ (Reactants have more PE)

Practice B
1a. UF6(g) Æ UF6(l) ΔH = ― 30.1 kJ 1b. CH4(g) Æ C(s) + 2 H2(g) ∆H = + 74.9 kJ
2a. 2 NO2 (g) Æ N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) ΔH = ― 67.6 kJ
This reaction is table reaction # 3 doubled and written backwards: double and change sign of ΔH.
2b. 4 H2 (g) + 2 O2(g) Æ 4 H2O(l) ΔH = ― 1,143.2 kJ
This reaction is table reaction #2 quadrupled – be careful to distinguish the gas/liquid/solid states.
2c. 8 H2SO4(l) Æ 8 H2 (g) + S8(s) + 16 O2 (g) ΔH = + 6,496 kJ
This is table reaction #4 multiplied by 8: multiply ΔH by 8. Since this reaction is also written backwards
from reaction #4; change the sign of ΔH.
* * * * *
Lesson 22C: Adding ∆H Equations (Hess’s Law)

Timing: Do this lesson when you are assigned problems that require finding a ∆H by
adding equations with ∆H values attached.
* * * * *
Hess’s Law
Hess’s law of heat summation states that the enthalpy change in an overall chemical
process can be calculated by adding its individual steps.
This means that for reactions where the heat of reaction (∆H) is not known, ∆H can often be
calculated by adding reactions for which ∆H is known.
Rules For Adding Equations With ∆H Terms

All reactions with energy terms can be added.
• Multiple equations can be added to produce one net equation.
• Like particles on the same side of the arrows of multiple equations can add.
• Like particles on opposite sides of the arrows in the added reactions can
cancel.
• All particles to the left of the arrows add to become the reactants in the
final equation.
• All particles to the right of the arrows add to become the products of the
final reaction.
• The final ∆H will be the added ∆H values of the reactions being added.
The meaning of these rules may best be explained with an example. Apply the above rules
to the following problem, and then check the answer below.

Q. Find the heat of reaction for the burning of carbon monoxide

CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ???
by adding these two reactions.

CO(g) Æ C(s) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 110.5 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ

____________________________________________
* * * * *
Answer
When adding, first cancel like terms on opposite sides of the arrows in the equations being
added. Writing your equations with the arrows lined up one above the other will help
keep the two sides separated.
CO(g) Æ C(s) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 110.5 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = - 393.5 kJ

________________________________________________
If we add the reactions at this point, the result is:

CO(g) + 1 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
However, another cancellation can be made. The 1 O2 on the left can be split into
CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
The 1/2 O2 on the right now cancels a 1/2 O2 on the left, leaving 1/2 O2 on the left.
CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
After cancellation, this is the reaction that was WANTED.

When reactions add to give the reaction wanted, add the ∆H’s to find the ∆H wanted.
CO(g) Æ C(s) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 110.5 kJ
C(s) + 1/2 1 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ

________________________________________________
CO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 283.0 kJ
This process of adding equations will become easier with practice.

Practice A: Check answers as you go.

1. Add these equations and their ∆H values.
H2O(l) Æ H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 285.8 kJ
H2O(g) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ─ 44.0 kJ

__________________________________________________________
2. Add these equations and their ∆H values.

CH4(g) Æ C(s) + 2 H2(g) ∆H = + 74.9 kJ
2 H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 483.6 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ
________________________________________________
Finding An Unknown ∆H By Adding Equations

Hess’s Law means that when ∆H for an equation is not known, it can be found by adding
equations for which ∆H is known. The key is to arrange the known equations so that they
add to result in the equation with the unknown ∆H.
The following problem will illustrate a system for deciding which known equations to add,
as well as their multiple and direction.
Q. Find the ∆H for the burning of methyl alcohol,
CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
using these three equations for which ∆H values are supplied.

C(s) + 2 H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ CH3OH(l) ∆H = ─ 238.6 kJ (1)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 241.8 kJ (2)
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ (3)
Do the following steps in your notebook.

1. Write the WANTED equation, and then draw a dotted line beneath it.
2. Re-write the first term in the WANTED equation, with its coefficient, below the dotted
line.
(Putting a WANTED reactant on the side where it must be in the final added equation
will help to arrange the rest of the added equations).
* * * * *

At this point, your paper should look like this:

WANTED: CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ???
---------------------------------------------
CH3OH(l)
3. Find an equation that both includes the dropped particle and has a known ∆H.
* * * * *
CH3OH is part of equation (1) in the problem, which includes a ∆H.
Your goal is to write a known equation, reversed and/or multiplied if needed, so that the
dropped particle is on the side it is dropped on, with the same coefficient as the particle
dropped.
If needed, reverse the direction of the known equation so that the term dropped below
the line is on the side of the arrow, left or right, where it was dropped. If needed,
multiply the coefficients of the known equation so that the coefficient of the dropped
particle is the coefficient WANTED. Modify and write the ∆H value after the equation.
Try that step, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
In this problem, 1 CH3OH is needed on the left side of the arrow, so write known
equation (1) backwards.
CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ???
---------------------------------------------
CH3OH(l) Æ C(s) + 2 H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 238.6 kJ
Because we reversed the known equation, we reversed the sign of its ∆H.
4. A TIP that works often in problems involving burning or combustion (both mean reacting
with O2 gas) is “don’t worry about O2 until the end.” If the equations have been
chosen properly, when you add the terms at the end, O2 should have the coefficient
WANTED. This will be a check that you have selected the reactions properly.
5. Now compare the first particle on the right side of the arrow below the dotted line to the
particles WANTED on the right above the dotted line.
If what you have below the dotted line does not exactly match what is WANTED above
the dotted line, get rid of the UNwanted particle. Start a new equation on the line below
by writing the unwanted particle, with its coefficient, on the side where it will cancel the
same term in the first equation.
* * * * *
In this problem, after the arrow and below the dotted line, is C(s). What is WANTED
on the right that contains carbon is CO2. , so we need to get rid of C(s). Write C(s)
at the start of a new equation below, on the side where it will cancel when the
equations are added:


-------------------------------------------------------
C(s)
Then find an equation with a known ∆H that both includes the particle in the bottom
equation that you set up to cancel, and places its atoms in a compound WANTED above
the dotted line.
* * * * *
The equation that converts the C(s) you need to get rid of on the left to the CO2 you
WANT on the right is equation (3) supplied in the problem.
---------------------------------------------
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ
5. Now, ignoring O2, compare the particles below the dotted line to what is WANTED
above the dotted line. If there is any particle and coefficient below the dotted line that
does not match exactly what is WANTED above the line, put the coefficient and particle
that is not WANTED where it will cancel. Then find an equation that will convert the
unwanted particle to a WANTED particle.
Take a look: what coefficient and particle below the dotted line do you not want?
* * * * *
2 H2(g) . Try step 5, and then check the answer below.
* * * * *
After the arrow and below the dotted line, is 2 H2. What is WANTED that contains
hydrogen is 2 H2O. So, write 2 H2 below in a new equation where it will cancel, and
find an equation that converts H2 to the H2O WANTED.
---------------------------------------------
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ

2 H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 483.6 kJ
Equation (2) supplied in the problem, and its ∆H, is doubled.

6. Compare what is WANTED above the dotted line to what is written below the line.
If what is below adds to give what is above, add the equations below the dotted line.
Then add the ∆H values to get the WANTED ∆H.
Try adding the equations, and then add the ∆H values.
* * * * *
Your paper should look like this:
---------------------------------------------
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ

2 H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 483.6 kJ
_________________________________________________________
CH3OH(l) + 2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ???
3/2
Note that the O2 coefficient, after cancellation, matches what is WANTED. That’s
an indication that you have likely added the proper equations.
Once the equations below the dotted line add to give the equation WANTED, add
the modified ∆H values.
* * * * *
∆H = + 238.6 – 393.5 – 483.6 = ─ 638.5 kJ Done!
Summary: To find an unknown ∆H for a reaction equation,

• write the equation WANTED; write a dotted line below it.
• Drop the first coefficient and particle below the dotted line.
• Including that first coefficient and particle, write an equation with a known ∆H.
• Add other equations with known ∆H values that cancel particles you don’t want,
form particles you want, and add to give the equation WANTED.
Practice B: Use the method above on these. If you get stuck, check a part of the answer
and try again. More practice can be found in the next lesson.
1. Use the first two equations to find ∆H for the third: the heat required to melt ice.
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ─ 285.8 kJ
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(s) ∆H = ─ 291.8 kJ
H2O(s) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ?

2. The gas ethane (C2H6) is one of the constituents of natural gas, a major component of
the world energy economy. The equation for the burning of ethane is
C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
Use the formation equations below to find ∆H for the burning of ethane.
2 C(s) + 3 H2(g) Æ C2H6(g) ∆H = ─ 84.7 kJ (1)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 241.8 kJ (2)
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ (3)
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. H2O(l) Æ H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 285.8 kJ
H2O(g) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ─ 44.0 kJ

________________________________________________
H2O(g) Æ H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 241.8 kJ
2. CH4(g) Æ C(s) + 2 H2(g) ∆H = + 74.9 kJ
2 H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 483.6 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 393.5 kJ

________________________________________________
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) Æ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 802.2 kJ
Practice B
1. WANTED: H2O(s) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
H2O(s) Æ H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 291.8 kJ
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ─ 285.8 kJ
______________________________________________________
H2O(s) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = + 6.0 kJ
2. WANT: C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C2H6(g) Æ 2 C(s) + 3 H2(g) ∆H = + 84.7 kJ (equation (1) reversed)
2 C(s) + 2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 787.0 kJ (equation (2) doubled)
3 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ 3 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 725.4 kJ (equation (3) tripled)
______________________________________________________
C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 1427.7 kJ
* * * * *

Lesson 22D: Heats of Formation and Element Formulas

Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to solve problems using heats of formation.
* * * * *
Gas Versus Thermodynamic Standard Conditions
The history of chemistry and physics has given us multiple definitions for standard
conditions.
• For gas law calculations, standard temperature and pressure (STP) is defined as 0ºC
and 1 atmosphere pressure.
• For thermodynamic measurements, for substances to be in their standard state,
o elements must be at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure and (in most cases) in the phase
and/or solid structure that is most stable.
o Compounds that are gases must be at one atmosphere pressure.
o Substances in solutions must have a concentration of 1 mol/L.
o Solid and liquid compounds are in their standard state under nearly all conditions
if they are in the form that is most stable at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure.
You should be aware of the difference between gas and thermodynamic standard
conditions, but in most problems it will be clear from the context which definition of
“standard conditions” applies.
Defining Zero For ΔH
An absolute measure of the enthalpy of a substance is not possible. Instead, to measure
changes in enthalpy, an arbitrary zero point is chosen for the enthalpy scale:
All elements in their standard state are assigned a heat of formation of zero kJ/mol.
Writing the Standard State For Elements

To work with enthalpy equations, you will need to be able to write the standard state of
elements: both the molecular formula of the element and the state (gas, liquid, or solid) in
which it is most stable at room temperature (25ºC) and one atmosphere pressure.
Here are some rules for writing formulas and standard states for most of the elements you
will encounter in first-year chemistry.
1. Only two elements are liquids at room temperature: mercury (Hg) and bromine (Br2).
2. Over 75% of the elements are metals, and the formulas for all metals (except mercury)
are written as monatomic solids.
Examples of element formulas for metals: Na(s), Al(s), Ag(s), Hg(liquid)
3. Eight elements are diatomic: The 5 halogens, plus the gases hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen:
F2(g), Cl2(g), Br2(l), I2(s), At2(s), H2(g), O2(g), N2(g)

4. Except for hydrogen, all of the 11 elements that are gases at room temperature are
toward the top and right of the periodic table. The gaseous elements are 5 of the
diatomics: H2(g), O2(g), N2(g), F2(g), Cl2(g); plus all 6 of the monatomic noble gases.
5. Some periodic tables indicate the state of each element at 25ºC by the color of the
element symbol: often solids are black, the two liquids blue, and gases red.
6. If a table of heats of formation shows a particle with a value for its ΔH˚f of zero, the
formula shown will be that of the element in its standard state.
Example: In the table at the right, for the Formula ΔH˚f in kJ/mole
elements chlorine and hydrogen, the formulas in
their standard state are the formulas with the Cl(g) + 121.0
zero ΔH: Cl2(g) and H2(g).
Cl2(g) 0
The single-atom forms of each element can be
formed at room temperature, but, as their higher H2(g) 0
enthalpy indicates, they are less stable than the
molecules formed from two neutral atoms. They H(g) + 218.0
therefore tend to react readily with other
particles.
7. Other frequently encountered non-metal elements are S8(s) and P4(s).
Formation Equations
A formation equation is a balanced equation in which the reactants are all elements, the
product is one mole of one compound, and the elements and the compound are all in their
standard states.
Examples of formation equations are
For carbon dioxide: C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g)
For sulfuric acid: H2(g) + 1/8 S8(s) + 2 O2(g) Æ H2SO4(l)
Writing Formation Equations

To write a formation equation for a compound,
1. To the right of an arrow, write the compound formula with a coefficient of 1.
2. On the left, for each of the elements that make up the compound, write the formula
of the element in its standard state at 25ºC and 1 atmosphere pressure.
3. Add element coefficients (that often include fractions) to balance the equation.
Try this example.
Q. Write the formation reaction for ethanol: C2H5OH(l)
* * * * *

Steps 1 and 2: C(s) + H2(g) + O2(g) Æ 1 C2H5OH(l)
Step 3: 2 C(s) + 3 H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ 1 C2H5OH(l)
Practice A: Learn the rules above. Then, for each numbered problem, do every other
letter. Check answers as you go. Save a few for your next practice session.
1. Which of these are not elements in their standard state?
a. H2(g) b. CO(g) c. Co(s) d. Hg(g) e. N(g) f. Cl2(l)
2. Write the formulas for these elements in their standard state at room temperature.
a. Fluorine b. Iron c. Oxygen d. Carbon e. Nitrogen
3. Write balanced formation equations for these compounds.
a. NaCl(s) b. HCl(g) c. Al2O3(s) d. C2H6(g) e. NO2(g)
Heat of Formation
All compounds have a characteristic heat of formation: an amount of energy that will
always be required or released when one mole of the compound in its standard state is
formed from its elements in their standard state.
The symbol for a heat of formation is ΔH°f , where the subscript f means “formed from
elements in their standard state.” The superscript degree symbol ° means that the substance
formed is also in its standard state.
Heats of formation are often provided in tables.
Name Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mol
Graphite C(s) 0
Diamond C(s) + 1.9
Carbon Dioxide CO2(g) ─ 393.5
Methane CH4(g) ─ 74.9
Steam H2O(g) ─ 241.8
This table tells us that

1. Graphite (used in “pencil lead”) and diamond are composed of solid carbon.
2. Graphite and diamond are often represented by the same molecular formula: C(s).
However, they have different structural formulas, and graphite has slightly lower
enthalpy. Graphite is therefore the more stable of the two forms of pure carbon. The

system with lower enthalpy is termed “more stable” because more energy must be
added to change it.
Graphite is designated as the standard state of the element carbon at 25ºC. To form
diamond from graphite, a small amount of heat must be stored in the carbon atoms
(under appropriate temperature and pressure conditions).
Heats of formation are the ΔH values for formation equations. Formation equations may be
written with ΔH values labeled as ΔH, ΔH° or ΔH°f .
Examples
For carbon dioxide: C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ΔH°f = ― 393.5 kJ/mol
For sulfuric acid: H2(g) + 1/8 S8(s) + 2 O2(g) Æ H2SO4(l) ΔH°f = ― 812 kJ/mol
A formation equation can be treated as any other equation with a ΔH attached: it can be
multiplied, reversed, and added. If a formation equation is multiplied or reversed, the
ΔH°f becomes a ΔH because the reaction is no longer a formation reaction.
If you are given a ΔH°f value for a compound in a problem or in a table, you can write a
formation equation for the compound, attach the ΔH°f, and then reverse, multiply, or add
that equation to find ΔH values for other reactions.
Try this example.
Q. Using a ΔH°f in the table above, write the ΔH for
2 H2O(g) Æ 2 H2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = _______
* * * * *
To use a ΔH°f table value to find ΔH for a related equation, first write the formation
equation and attach its ΔH°f.
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ΔH°f = ─ 241.8 kJ/mol
Then reverse and/or multiply the formation reaction to get the WANTED reaction.
2 H2O(g) Æ 2 H2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = ─ 2(─ 241.8 kJ) = + 483.6 kJ
Note that the unit converts from kJ/mol to kJ when the sum of the product coefficients
is no longer one, and that the ΔH°f becomes ΔH when the reaction is multiplied or
reversed.

Practice B: Learn the rules above. Then, for each numbered problem, do every other
letter. Check answers as you go. Save a few for your next practice session.
1. Translate the table data at the right into formation Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mol
equations for each compound. Attach a ∆H value
to each equation. NH3(g) ─ 45.9
AgCl(s) ─ 127.0
NO(g) + 90.3
2. Using the table values from Problem 1, write the H2O(l) ─ 285.8
∆H values for these reactions.
a. AgCl(s) Æ Ag(s) + 1/2 Cl2(g) ∆H = _______
b. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) Æ 2 NH3(g) ∆H = _______
c. 3 H2O(l) Æ 3 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) ∆H = _______
3. Which of the reactions in Problem 2 are endothermic?

4. Circle the compounds involved in each of these reactions, then write the value for the
heat of formation (ΔH°f) for each compound.
a. 1/8 S8(s) + O2(g) Æ SO2(g) ∆H = ─ 296.8 kJ
b. 3/8 S8(s) + 9/2 O2(g) Æ 3 SO3(g) ∆H = ─ 1188 kJ
c. 2 NO(g) Æ N2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = ─ 180.6 kJ
d. 4 H2O(g) Æ 4 H2(g) + 2 O2(g) ∆H = + 967.2 kJ
5. Which equation(s) in Problem 4 are formation equations?

6. Use this table data to find ∆H values for the two reaction equations below, and then
add the two reactions and their ∆H values:
Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mole
NO2(g) + 33.8
NO(g) + 90.3
NO2(g) Æ 1/2 N2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = _____________
1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ NO(g) ∆H = _____________

______________________________________________________

7. Acetylene gas can be burned to produce the extremely hot flame used in a “cutting
torch.” The equation is
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 1255.8 kJ
Use the above equation plus the table values Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mole
below to find the heat of formation for acetylene.
H2O(g) ─ 241.8
CO2(g) ─ 393.5
Finding ΔHReaction Using ΔH°Formation
If standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°f) values are known for all of the substances in a
chemical reaction, the ΔH of the reaction can be calculated by substituting those values into
the definition equation for ΔH:
ΔHreaction = ΔHfinal ─ ΔHinitial or
= [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°f) of products] ─ [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°f) of reactants]
We will call this the ΔH summation equation. In symbols:

ΔHreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔHproduct ─ ∑ creactant ΔHreactant
Apply the equation to this example.
Q. Using the ΔH summation equation above and Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mole

the following table, find ΔH for this reaction.
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 SO3(g) SO2(g) ─ 296.8
* * * * * SO3(g) ─ 396.0
Answer
ΔH = [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°f) of products] ─ [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°f) of reactants]
= [2(─ 396.0 kJ)] ─ [2(─ 296.8 kJ) + 0 kJ] = ─ 198.4 kJ

In using the ΔH summation equation, ΔH° values are always zero for elements in their
standard state.
If the ΔH°f values for all of the compounds in an equation are known, this summation
method is likely to be quicker to find a reaction ΔH than writing out the formation
equations and applying Hess’s law. However, in problems with data that mix formation
and non-formation reactions, such as problem 7 in the previous practice set, the summation
method does not work, but writing out the formation reactions based on the table values,
then adding the formation and non-formation reactions using Hess’s law, does work.

A suggested strategy that may speed your work is

• Use the summation method if you know all of the needed ΔH°f values.
• If not, write out the equations and use Hess’s Law.
Practice C
1. Steam can be added to hot coal (which is Formula ΔH˚f in kJ/mole
primarily carbon) to produce a burnable mixture:
C(s) + H2O(g) Æ CO(g) + H2(g) CO(g) ─ 110.5
Use the summation equation and the values at the H2O(g) ─ 241.8
right to calculate ∆H for the above reaction.
2. For the burning of ethane, a component of natural Formula ΔH˚f in kJ/mole

gas, the equation is:
C2H6(g) ─ 84.7
C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
CO2(g) ─ 393.5
Use the summation equation and the values at the
right to calculate ∆H for this reaction. H2O(g) ─ 241.8
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. b, d, e, and f. b. CO(g) is a compound d. Hg(g) Mercury is a liquid at room temperature
e. N(g) Nitrogen as an element is N2 f. Cl2(l) Chlorine is a gas at room temperature.
2. a. Fluorine F2(g) Fluorine is a halogen. All halogen elements are diatomic. Fluorine is at the top
right of the periodic table, where several elements are gases at room temperature.
b. Iron Fe(s) Iron is a metal. All metal elements are monatomic solids (except mercury).
c. Oxygen O2(g) Oxygen is a gas at room temperature. The fact that the formula for the element
oxygen is O2 must be memorized.
d. Carbon C(s) The elemental form of carbon is graphite: “pencil lead.”
e. Nitrogen N2(g) The air we breathe is about 80% nitrogen gas. The diatomic formula for
elemental nitrogen gas is used frequently and must be memorized.
3. a. NaCl(s) In formation equations, elements in their standard state are the reactants, one mole of
the compound is the product, and coefficients must be added that balance the equation:
Na(s) + 1/2 Cl2(g) Æ NaCl(s)
Sodium is a metal. For metals, the formula is written as one atom; all are solids except Hg.

Chlorine is a halogen: all halogen elements are diatomic. In the halogen column, the elements above
bromine are gases, and below bromine are solids, at room temperature.
NaCl is a compound: it has more than one kind of atom. You must add coefficients that keep the same
particle formulas, but make one mole of the compound in a balanced equation.
b. HCl(g) 1/2 H2(g) + 1/2 Cl2(g) Æ HCl(g)
Hydrogen atoms are stable at room temperature as H2 gas; this element formula should be
memorized.
c. Al2O3(s) 2 Al(s) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ Al2O3(s) Aluminum is a metal.
d. C2H6(g) 2 C(s) + 3 H2(g) Æ C2H6(g)
Some texts write C(graphite), to distinguish graphite, diamonds, buckyballs, and other forms of pure
carbon. Graphite is the “standard state” form of carbon.
e. NO2(g) 1/2 N2(g) + O2(g) Æ NO2(g)
Practice B
1. a. 1/2 N2(g) + 3/2 H2(g) Æ NH3(g) ∆H = ─ 45.9 kJ/mol
When translating heats of formation into formation equations, elements are added as the reactants,
one mole of the compound is the product, and the heat of formation is the ∆H for the reaction.
b. Ag(s) + 1/2 Cl2(g) Æ AgCl(s) ∆H = ─ 127.0 kJ/mol
c. 1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ NO(g) ∆H = + 90.3 kJ/mol
d. H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(l) ∆H = ─ 285.8 kJ/mol
When a reaction has one product and its coefficient is one, the units of ∆H may be written as either kJ/mol
or as kJ. In equations with energy terms, coefficients are in moles.
2. a. AgCl(s) Æ Ag(s) + 1/2 Cl2(g) ∆H = + 127.0 kJ
When starting from the table, first write out the formation reaction, as in answer 3b. Then, since this
problem asks for the reverse of the formation reaction, change the sign of ∆H.
b. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) Æ 2 NH3(g) ∆H = ─ 91.8 kJ
Starting from the table, first write the formation reaction, as in answer 3a. Then, since this problem
doubles the formation reaction, double the ∆H.
c. 3 H2O(l) Æ 3 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 857.4 kJ
This problem is table equation 3d, tripled and reversed.

When a reaction does not have one substance with a coefficient of one as a product, the units of ∆H are
written as kJ.
3. Which in Problem 3 are endothermic? 4a and 4c. Endothermic reactions have a positive ∆H.

4. Compounds have more than one kind of atom.

a. 1/8 S8(s) + O2(g) Æ SO2(g) ∆H = ─ 296.8 kJ or kJ/mol
Assuming that all of the formulas in the reactants are elements in their “standard state” (and they are),
this is a formation reaction for one mole of SO2(g). The heat of this reaction (∆H) is therefore the
heat of formation of the compound: ΔH°f for SO2(g) = ─ 296.8 kJ/mol
b. 3/8 S8(s) + 9/2 O2(g) Æ 3 SO3(g) ∆H = ─ 1188 kJ
In this reaction, the elements are on the left, the compound is on the right, and 3 moles of compound is
formed. For a formation reaction involving heat, we must make one mole of the compound. To get
the formation reaction, multiply all terms of the given reaction by 1/3.
ΔH˚f = 1/3 x (─ 1188 kJ) = ─ 396.0 kJ .
c. 2 NO(g) Æ N2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = ─ 180.6 kJ
To get a formation reaction, elements must be on the left, so this reaction must be reversed.
Reversing this reaction, the sign of ∆H is reversed. This is double a formation reaction, so the ∆H
would be cut in half for the heat of formation. Heats for formation must be for one mole of compound.
ΔH°f for NO = 1/2 x (─ 180.6 kJ), reversed= + 90.3 kJ .
d. 4 H2O(g) Æ 2 H2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = + 967.2 kJ
This is the formation reaction for water vapor, quadruped and reversed. To find to the formation
reaction, write the reaction backwards, changing the sign of ∆H. Then multiply the coefficients and ∆H
by 1/4, to make one mole of water vapor.
ΔH°f for water vapor = 1/4 x (+ 967.2 kJ) reversed= ─ 241.8 kJ
5. Only 4a. Formation equations must have elements in their standard state on the left and one mole of
compound on the right.
6. NO2(g) Æ 1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 1 O2(g) ∆H = ─ 33.8 kJ (reverse of formation)
1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ NO(g) ∆H = + 90.3 kJ (this is the formation equation)
______________________________________________________
NO2(g) Æ NO(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 56.5 kJ
When you add the equations, 1/2 O2 cancels on both sides. When the equations are written so that the
arrows do not line up in a column, be careful to cancel substances on opposite sides of the arrows.
7. The heat of formation of acetylene is WANTED. That equation would be:
2 C(s) + H2(g) Æ C2H2(g) ∆H = ?
* * * * *
Arrange the given equations to add and cancel to result in the equation wanted. The equations may
be added in any order. In burning (combustion) reactions, the O2 coefficients should add correctly if
the equations to be added are correct. Here, the 5/2 O2 on both sides will cancel.

2 C(s) + H2(g) Æ C2H2(g) ∆H = ? (wanted equation)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2 C(s) + 2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 787.0 kJ (table rxn. doubled)
2 CO2(g) + H2O(g) Æ C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 1255.8 kJ (given rxn reversed)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 241.8 kJ (table reaction)
______________________________________________________
2 C(s) + H2(g) Æ C2H2(g) ∆H = + 227.0 kJ (wanted equation)
Practice C
1. C(s) + H2O(g) Æ CO(g) + H2(g)
ΔH = (sum of ΔH° values of products) ─ (sum of ΔH° values of reactants)
= (─ 110.5 + 0 ) ─ (─ 241.8 + 0) = 241.8 ─ 110.5 = + 131.3 kJ
2. C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
= [ 2(─ 393.5 kJ) + 3(─ 241.8) ] ─ [(─ 84.7 + 7/2(0) ] = ─ 1427.7 kJ
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Heats of Reaction (∆H)

If you have not already done so, you may want to organize this summary into charts,
numbered lists, and flashcards that help in memory retention.
2. If heat is added to the system, q is assigned a positive sign. If a reaction or process
3. If work is done on the system, such as in compressing a gas, w is assigned a positive
sign. If a system does work, the system loses energy and w is negative.
4. For any physical or chemical change ∆E = q + w
6. In converting from PV work units to energy units: 1 liter • atm = 101 joules
7. The definitions of enthalpy (H): H = E + PV and ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)

8. If the external pressure on a system is held constant, or if the volume is held constant,
and work is the “PV work” defined above, ΔH = q
9. In equations that include energy terms, the coefficients are in moles.
10. In energy equations, the phase of each particle must be shown: (s), (1), (g), or (aq).

11. In exothermic reactions, energy is released into the environment, and the energy term is
shown
• EITHER with a positive sign on the products side;
• OR (preferred) with a negative ΔH value written after the equation.
12. In endothermic reactions, energy must be added, and the energy term
• EITHER is shown with a positive sign on the reactants side of the equation,
• OR with a positive ∆H written after the reaction.
13. Reactions involving energy or heat can be reversed (the equation can be written
backwards). If a ∆H is attached to the equation, change the sign of ∆H.
14. All reaction coefficients and energy terms can be multiplied or divided by a number. If
∆H notation is used, do the same to the value of ∆H.
15. Equations with energy terms can be added to produce a new equation.
• Like particles on the same side in different equations can add, and on opposite sides
can cancel.
• When equations are added, ∆H values add according to their signs.
16. When ∆H for an equation is not known, it can be found by adding together equations
for which ∆H is known.
• Write the reaction equation WANTED, then a dotted line below it.
• Write the first coefficient and substance formula below the dotted line.
• Find an equation with a known ∆H that includes that first formula. Adjust the
direction and coefficients of the known equation to put the dropped particle and its
coefficient on the side where it is WANTED. Modify and include a ∆H.
• Add other equations and their known ∆H values arranged to cancel particles not
wanted, and add to result in the equation WANTED.
17. In a formation equation, the reactants are all elements in their standard state at 25°C and 1
atm pressure, and the product is one mole of a compound.
18. The heat of formation (ΔH°f) of a compound is the amount of heat required or released
when one mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their standard state.
19. All elements in their standard state are assigned a heat of formation of zero kJ/mole.
20. The standard enthalpy value for a compound (ΔH°) is its ΔH°f.
21. If heats of formation are known for all of the substances in a reaction, the ΔH of the
reaction can be found by substituting ΔH°f values into:
ΔH = ΔHproducts ─ ΔHreactants
ΔH = [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°) of products] ─ [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°) of reactants]

In symbols: ΔHreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔHproduct ─ ∑ creactant ΔHreactant
# # # # #

Calculations
In Chemistry
Module 22 on Light and Spectra is now Module 23 in this packet
Module 23 on Electron Configuration is now Module 24 in this packet
Module 24 on Bonding is now in Module 25
If you are looking for Bonding topics, check Module 25
* * * * *
Modules 23 and 24
Light, Spectra, and Electron Configuration
* * * * *
Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
•••••
Module 23 — Light and Spectra

Timing: Begin this module when wavelength and frequency calculations are assigned.
Pretests: If you believe that you know the material in a lesson, try two problems at the end
of the lesson. If you can do those calculations, you may skip this lesson.
* * * * *
Lesson 23A: Waves
Waves and Chemistry
Electromagnetic energy includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared
light, microwaves, and radio waves. Each of these types of energy occupies a different
region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Chemical particles can both absorb and release electromagnetic energy. This absorption
and release of energy can be a powerful tool in identifying chemical particles. The
interaction with energy can also cause chemical particles to change and react.
In some cases, the behavior of electromagnetic energy is best predicted by assuming that
the energy is a particle, but in other cases, energy is best understood as a wave. Let us
begin by investigating the properties of waves.
Wave Terminology
Å Crest |Å wavelength ( λ ) Æ|
Trough Æ
|Å wavelength ( λ) Æ|
The following are some of the components of a wave that are important in chemistry.
1. Wavelength: the distance between the crests of a wave, which is equal to the distance
between the troughs of a wave.
a. The symbol for wavelength is λ (the lower-case Greek letter lambda).
b. Since wavelength is a distance, the units of wavelength are distance units: meters,
centimeters, nanometers.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.2f Page 600

2. Frequency: the number of times a wave crest passes a fixed point, per second.
a. The symbol for frequency is υ (the lower-case Greek letter no).
b. The units of any frequency are events per unit of time. Though wave frequency is
often expressed as “cycles per second,” wave cycles are the entity being measured,
and 1/seconds is the unit. When writing wave units, the term “wave cycle” or
‘cycle” is often included as a label in conversion calculations, but is usually omitted
as understood in equation calculations. The unit of frequency, which must be
included in both conversion and equation calculations, is always 1/time.
The SI unit for frequency is 1/seconds (s―1). The unit second―1 is also called a hertz
(Hz). In calculations, you should either write hertz as s―1 or use the rule that hertz
and s―1 are equivalent and can cancel.
3. The speed of a wave is equal to its frequency times its wavelength.
wave speed = λ υ = (lambda)(nu).
Memorize the equation for wave speed in words, symbols, and names for the symbols.
Wave Calculations
Because wave relationships are often defined by multi-term equations, wave calculations
are generally solved using equations rather than conversions. Solve the problem below the
equation method (for review, see Lessons 17D or 21B).
Q. If ocean waves are traveling at 5.00 miles/hour, and the crests pass at a rate of 16.5
per minute, what is the wavelength, in feet? (1 mile = 5,280 feet)
* * * * * (When you see * * * * , cover below, solve, and then check below.)
Write the one equation learned so far for waves.
Wave speed = λ υ
List those three terms in a data table. After each term, write the data in the problem that
corresponds to the term. Add a ? and the desired unit after the WANTED symbol.
* * * * *
Wave speed = 5.00 miles/hr.
λ = ? feet
υ = 16.5 wave cycles/min. = 16.5 min.―1 (frequency units are 1/time)
When solving wave frequency calculations using equations, “wave cycles” is usually
omitted as understood to be the object being measured.
To use an equation, the DATA must be converted to consistent units. In this data, the units
are not consistent: distance is in both miles and feet, time is in hours and minutes.
If an equation does not include constants, the best units to convert to in the DATA table are
the units of the answer (in this problem, feet). Since hours and minutes are not in the
answer unit, choose one to convert to in the DATA table. The following answer converts the
wave speed to feet/min. If needed, complete that conversion and finish the problem.
* * * * *

(Need help with this type of conversion? See Lesson 4E.)

Wave speed = ? feet = 5.00 miles • 1 hour • 5,280 feet = 440. feet
min. hour 60 min. 1 mile min.
Once all of the DATA is in consistent units, the units will cancel properly in the equation.
Solve the equation for the WANTED symbol, then substitute the DATA. Include the
consistent units and check the unit cancellation.
* * * * *
SOLVE:
λ (in feet) = speed = speed • 1 = 440. feet • 1 = 26.7 feet
υ υ min. 16.5 min.―1
Note in the unit cancellation in the denominator:
min.• min.―1 = min.0 = 1 . Anything to the zero power equals one.
Wave calculations can be done in any unit system, but the above problem was complicated
by the use of English and non-consistent units. We will simplify the electromagnetic wave
calculations of chemistry by converting all DATA to the units used in the constants (most
often SI units) that apply to waves of energy.
Practice A: Use the equation method to solve this problem.
1. Street lights that use sodium vapor lamps emit an intense yellow light at two close
wavelengths. The more intense wave has a wavelength of 589 x 10―9 meters. If light
travels at the speed of 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 , what is the frequency of this intense yellow
wave?
Electromagnetic Waves
The movement of electric charge creates electromagnetic waves. The waves propagate:
they move outward from the moved charge. The energy that was used to move the charge
is carried outward by the waves.
All electromagnetic waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light: 3.00 x 108
meters/second in a vacuum. The speed of light is the speed limit of the universe: the
fastest speed possible for light or matter. In wave calculations, this important quantity is
given the symbol c.
Electromagnetic waves appear to slow when they travel through a medium that is denser
than a vacuum, but when passing through air or other gases at normal atmospheric
pressures, the speed of light does not slow sufficiently to affect most calculations in
chemistry.

For electromagnetic waves, this relationship will be true (and must be memorized):
c = λ υ = 3.00 x 108 m/s in vacuum or air
Since c is a constant, υ and λ are inversely proportional. As wavelength goes up, frequency
must go down. If υ goes up, λ must go down.
Further, as long as we work in consistent units and in air or vacuum, since c is constant, a
specific value for the frequency of an electromagnetic wave will always correlate to a
specific value for wavelength.
The Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum goes from very high to very low wavelengths and
frequencies. Regions of the spectrum are assigned different names that help in predicting
the types of interactions that the energy will display. However, all of these forms of energy
are electromagnetic waves. The difference among the divisions of the spectrum is the
length (and corresponding frequency) of the waves.
The following table (no need to memorize) summarizes some of the general divisions of the
spectrum.
Frequency (s―1) Wavelength (m) Type of Electromagnetic Wave

1024 3 x 10─16 Gamma Rays
1021 3 x 10─13
1018 3 x 10─10 X-rays
1015 3 x 10─7 Ultraviolet, Visible, Infrared Light
1012 3 x 10─4 Microwaves
109 3 x 10─1 UHF Television Waves
106 300 Radio Waves
Units For Frequency and Wavelength

Measurements of wavelengths and frequencies often Prefix Symbol Means
involve very large and very small numbers. Values are
often expressed using SI prefixes such as gigahertz
tera T x 1012
(GHz) or nanometers (nm). Prefixes needed most often giga- G x 109
are those for powers of three.
mega- M x 106
Engineering Notation
kilo- k x 103
Scientific notation writes numbers as a significand
between 1 and 10 times a power of 10.
milli- m x 10―3
Engineering notation writes numbers as a significand micro- μ x 10―6

between 1 and 1,000 times a power of 10 that is nano- n x 10―9
divisible by 3. In wave calculations, answers are often
preferred in engineering rather than scientific notation
pico- p x 10―12
to ease the conversion to the metric prefixes based on femto- f x 10―15
powers of three.

Examples: Converting scientific to engineering notation,

5.35 x 10―4 m = 535 x 10―6 m in engineering notation ( = 535 micrometers = 535 μm)
9.23 x 1010 Hz = 92.3 x 109 Hz in engineering notation ( = 92.3 GHz )
To convert any exponential notation to engineering notation, adjust the exponent and
decimal position until the exponent is divisible by 3 and the significand is between 1
and 1,000.
(To review moving the decimal, see Lesson 1A). Try this example.
Q. Convert to engineering notation, then to metric-prefix notation: 5.27 x 10―11 m
* * * * *
A. 5.27 x 10―11 m = 52.7 x 10―12 m in engineering notation = 52.7 picometers or 52.7 pm
52.7 x 10―12 is the only value for the given quantity that results in both an exponent
divisible by 3 and a significand between 1 and 1,000.
During calculations, work in general exponential notation. At the end, convert your
answers to either scientific or engineering notation, depending on the system preferred for
wave calculations in your course.
Practice B: Do every other question. Check answers at the end of the lesson. Complete
the rest during your next study session.
1. By inspection, convert these to units without prefixes and engineering notation.
a. 5.4 GHz b. 720 nm c. 96.3 MHz
2. Convert these first to engineering notation, then to measurements that use metric
prefixes in place of the exponential terms.
a. 47 x 10―7 m b. 347 x 104 Hz c. 1.92 x 10―8 m
d. 14,920 x 10―1 Hz e. 0.25 x 1011 Hz f. 7,320 m
Wave Calculations and the Speed of Light

To solve equations, the data must be in consistent units. The following rules will help in
choosing and converting to consistent units.
1. If the equation has constants, write the constant’s symbol, value and units in the DATA
table before listing the symbols and data for the variables in the equation.
2. In the DATA table, write each variable in the equation and its consistent unit.
To choose the consistent units to write after each variable symbol, apply these steps.
a. If the equation has constants, choose as variable units the units used in the constants.
Example: If the constant c (3.00 x 108 m/s) is in the equation needed to solve, label
the symbols that measure distance as “ in m = ” and frequency as “ in s―1 ”

b. If there are no constants are in the equation, label each variable with appropriate
units matching the units used in the WANTED unit.
3. If a WANTED unit is not specified, pick a WANTED unit to match the units used in the
constants of the equation. If no constants are used, write after the WANTED unit the SI
unit for dimension that is WANTED.
4. In the DATA, after each symbol and its consistent units, add an = sign, write the data
supplied in the problem, then convert DATA to the consistent units if needed.
5. First solve for the WANTED symbol in the consistent unit, then convert to the specified
WANTED unit if needed.
[Note: This method, solving in the units of the constants, is arbitrary. Your course may ask
that you solve all problems in SI units. In most cases, constants will be stated in SI units, so
both methods will solve in SI units. However, “solving in the units of the constants” will
save a few steps if data is provided in kcals, electron volts, BTUs, or other non-SI units, as
may be the case in some calculations.]
The problem below will help you to understand and remember the rules above.
Q. When neon gas at low pressure is subjected to high voltage electricity, it emits
waves of light. One of the more intense waves in the visible spectrum has a
frequency of 4.69 x 1014 Hz, perceived by the eye as red light. What is the
wavelength of this light in nanometers?
Solve using the steps above.
* * * * *
Answer
This problem involves a frequency (υ) and a wavelength (λ) for light. We know that light
travels at the speed of light (c), a constant. So far, we know only one equation that relates
those symbols. So, to start, your paper should look like this:
c= λυ
DATA: c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 (list constants and their values first)
λ
υ
For the speed of light (c), in conversion calculations the unit m/s must be used as a ratio and
written in the top/bottom format, but in equations, it will simplify unit cancellation if the
units are written in the “on one line” format: 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 .
Now we want to add a consistent unit after each variable symbol. Since this equation has a
constant (c), after each variable symbol, write a unit that both measures the variable and
matches one of the units used in the constant.
Do that step, then check below.
* * * * *

• λ is measured in distance units, so after λ write “in meters = ” since meters is the
distance unit used in the constant c.
• υ is measured in 1/time units, and c has time measured in seconds, so after υ write
“in s―1 = “
After the = sign for each variable, write the data for that variable that is supplied in the
problem. Then, in the DATA table,
• convert the supplied units to the consistent units if needed.
• Convert metric prefixes to consistent base units without prefixes, such as m and s―1,
using conversions or by inspection.
For the WANTED variable, after the = sign write “? WANTED” To solve for the WANTED
symbol:
• First solve the equation in symbols.
• Substitute the DATA in the consistent units, and solve for the WANTED symbol in
the consistent units.
• Then, if needed, convert to the final unit WANTED.
* * * * *
c= λυ
DATA: c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1
λ in m = ? , then convert to nm WANTED.
υ in s―1 = 4.69 x 1014 Hz s―1
SOLVE: ? = λ in m = c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 6.40 x 10―7 m
υ 4.69 x 1014 s―1
That solves in the consistent unit. To finish, convert to the WANTED unit.
* * * * *
? = λ in nm = 6.40 x 10―7 m • 1 nm = 6.40 x 102 nm = 640. nm
10―9 m
* * * * *
Using your answers to the above question, try this calculation.
Q2. How many of the red neon light waves above would fit into one centimeter?
(one wave cycle = 1 wave = 1 wavelength)
* * * * *
If you are not sure how to proceed, list the data, try to assign symbols, and see if the
symbols fit a known equation.
* * * * *

Here, the wanted unit is waves/cm, which is the inverse of wavelength, not wavelength.
Plus, none of the data has a frequency, so the data does not match the one equation we
know so far.
Note that the data includes an equality, and that all of the data can be listed as equalities or
ratios. That’s a hint that you should try conversions to solve.
* * * * *
WANT: ? waves (you want the waves per one cm, a ratio unit)
cm
DATA: one wave = 1 wavelength
one wavelength = 6.40 x 10―7 meters (given a choice, pick base units)
Though “waves” or “wave cycles” is usually left out of wave equation calculations as
understood, including “waves” may help when using conversions. If needed, adjust your
work and then finish the problem.
* * * * *
SOLVE: ? waves = 1 wave • 1 wavelength • 10―2 m = 15,600 waves
cm wavelength 6.40 x 10―7 m 1 cm cm
Quite a few waves of red light fit into a centimeter.
Summary: Frequency and Wavelength

1. Wavelength: the distance between the crests of a wave. The symbol is λ (lambda).
The units are distance units: either the base unit meters, or nanometers, etc.
2. Frequency: the number of times a wave crest passes a fixed point, per second.
The symbol is υ (nu). The units are events per unit of time ( 1/time ).
Frequency units = wave cycles per second = 1/seconds = s―1 = hertz (Hz).
In calculations, write hertz as s―1 so that units will cancel properly.
3. The speed of a wave is equal to its frequency times its wavelength.
Wave speed = λ υ = (lambda)(nu).
4. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (symbol c): 3.00 x 108 m/s in a
vacuum or in the earth’s atmosphere.
For all electromagnetic waves, c = λ υ = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 in vacuum or air.

5. To simplify solving wave calculations using equations,
a. In the DATA table,
• list the constants first.
• Convert the DATA to consistent units: those the constant of the equation if
there is one (for c, m and s), or those used in the answer unit, or an SI unit.
b. First solve in the consistent unit, then convert to the WANTED unit if needed.

Practice C: (Additional practice with λ and υ will be provided in lessons that follow.)
1. What are the SI units for
a. Wavelength b. Frequency c. Energy d. Speed
2. If an AM radio station broadcasts a signal with a wavelength of 390 meters, what is the
frequency of the signal on a radio tuner, in kHz?
3. If there are 225 waves per centimeter, what is the wavelength of the waves in meters?
ANSWERS (Hertz and s―1 are equivalent and either may be used.)
Practice A
1. Wave speed = λ υ
Speed = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1
λ = 589 x 10―9 m
υ = ?
? = υ = speed = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 0.00509 x 10+17 s―1 = 5.09 x 1014 s―1
λ 589 x 10―9 m
Practice B
1a. 5.4 GHz = 5.4 x 109 Hz or s―1 b. 720 nm = 720 x 10―9 m c. 96.3 MHz = 96.3 x 106 s―1
2a. 47 x 10―7 m = 4.7 x 10―6 m = 4.7 μm (if exponent is made larger, make significand smaller)
2b. 347 x 104 Hz = 3.47 x 106 Hz = 3.47 MHz 2c. 1.92 x 10―8 m = 19.2 x 10―9 m = 19.2 nm
2d . 14,920 x 10―1 Hz = 1.492 x 103 Hz = 1.492 kHz (significand must be between 1 and 1,000)
e. 0.25 x 1011 Hz = 25 x 109 Hz = 25 GHz f. 7,320 m = 7.32 x 103 m = 7.32 km
Practice C
1. a. Wavelength is a distance, and the SI unit for distance is the meter (m).
b. Frequency is defined as 1/time, the SI time unit is the second, so the unit of υ is s―1.
c. Energy The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).
d. Speed is defined as distance over time, so the SI units are meters/second (m · s―1)
2. (The data is a λ and wanted is a υ. The equation that relates those two variables is:)
c= λυ

DATA:
c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 (list constants used in the equation first)
λ in m = 390 m
υ in s―1 = ? , then convert to kHz
1 kHz = 103 Hz = 103 s―1 (listing metric conversions is optional)
? = υ in s―1 , then kHz = c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 0.77 x 106 s―1 • 1 kHz = 770 kHz
λ 390 m 103 s―1
3. (If you are not sure how to proceed, list the data, assign symbols, then see if the symbols fit a known
equation.)
WANTED: λ in m = ? (or meters/wave)
DATA: 225 waves = 1 cm
(If no equation seems to fit the DATA, try conversions to solve. If needed, use that hint and finish.
* * * * *
If the WANTED unit is re-written as meters/wave, a ratio is wanted, and a ratio is in the data to start from.
Arrange the given so that one unit is where is WANTED (Lesson 11B), but any order for these two
conversions works.)
SOLVE: ? meters = 1 cm • 10―2 m = 4.44 x 10―5 m
wave 225 waves 1 cm wave
The wavelength is 4.44 x 10―5 m.
* * * * *
Lesson 23B: Planck’s Constant

Energy and Frequency
In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck, studying the black-body radiation emitted by
objects at high temperature, discovered that energy is absorbed by or emitted from atoms in
bundles of a small but constant size, or in multiples of that constant size.
Planck’s discovery in equation form is written as
∆Eatom = ∆n · h · υ
where n is an integer, and

h is a number with units called Planck’s constant.
h = 6.63 x 10―34 joule · second = Planck’s constant
Building on Planck’s work, in 1905 Albert Einstein proposed an explanation for the
photoelectric effect: the observation that when light shines on a metal, the metal emits
electrons.

Einstein postulated that light can be considered to be made of small particles which he
called photons, and that the energy of the photons is correlated to their frequency as light.
These energy bundles he called quanta. A single bundle is a quantum. In Einstein’s
formulation, electromagnetic energy has characteristics of both a wave and a particle.
The general form of Planck’s formula that relates frequency and electromagnetic energy is
Ephoton = h υ where h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
Planck’s constant is small but positive. This means that as the energy of a wave increases,
its frequency increases. Higher frequency waves have higher energy.
Since calculations using Planck’s constant involve electromagnetic waves, we can
• use our previous equation for the speed of those waves, c=λυ ,
• solve that equation for υ: υ = c / λ , then
• write the photon energy equation as E = h υ or, substituting for υ , E= h·c
λ
These two general forms of Planck’s formula are equivalent. The first solves for energy in
terms of frequency, the second in terms of wavelength. The first should be memorized, and
the second either memorized (“for wavelength, the two constants are on top”) or derived as
needed.
Together, these equations mean that for electromagnetic waves, the three variables energy,
frequency, and wavelength are directly correlated: If you know any one, you can calculate
both of the other two.
Further, it will always be true that as photon energies go up, the corresponding frequencies
go up and wavelengths go down. Energy waves with high energy have high frequency and
short wavelength.
Calculations Using Planck’s Formula
Planck’s-formula calculations use the same rules as other equations.
• In the DATA table, list the constants first.
• List the WANTED symbols with consistent units: those the constant of the equation if
there is one (for h, J and s), or those used in the answer unit, or pick an SI unit.
• In the DATA table, convert DATA to the consistent units.
• First solve in the consistent unit, then convert to the WANTED unit if needed.
Let’s apply the method to a problem.
Q. Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation that enters the earth’s atmosphere from
space. The energy of a single cosmic ray photon can be as high as 50. joules. What
would be the frequency of this radiation?
Try the problem, then check below.
* * * * *

Answer
To decide which equation is needed to solve a problem, try this method: Begin by reading
the problem and writing as you go the symbol for each item of DATA you encounter, plus
the WANTED symbol.
For long problems, you will probably want to list the data methodically and then add
symbols before choosing the equations to use, but for short problems, simply listing the
symbols as you read the first time will often quickly identify the equation you need.
Try that technique on this problem.
* * * * *
50 J = E, ? = υ . The fundamental equation that relates E and υ is ?
* * * * *
E = hυ Write a data table and solve.
* * * * *
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s (list constants first, use their units)
E in J = 50 J
υ in s―1 = ?
? = υ ( in s―1 ) = E = 50. J = 7.5 x 1034 s―1
h 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
Photons with this is extremely high energy and frequency are produced by nuclear
processes in stars. Let’s try a problem with a more commonly encountered energy.
Q2. A microwave oven warms food by producing radiation with a typical
wavelength of about 12 cm. What is the energy of this wave?
* * * * *
Answer
The problem involves λ and E. The formula that uses λ and E is ?
* * * * *
E= h ·c
λ
DATA: c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1
h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s (list the two constants first, use their units)
E in J = ? ( h uses joules )
λ in m = 12 cm • 10―2 m = 0.12 m ( c uses meters )
1 cm
Adjust your work if needed, and then complete the problem.
* * * * *

E= h ·c = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 ) = 1.7 x 10―24 J

λ 0.12 m
Practice
1. The human eye can generally see energy waves in the range of 400 to 700 nm. When
hydrogen gas at low pressure is subjected to high voltage, it emits four waves of light in
the visible region of the spectrum: one red, one blue-green, one blue-violet, and one
violet.
a. A photon of red light from the hydrogen spectrum has an energy of 3.03 x 10―19 J.
What is the wavelength of this light in nanometers?
b. The blue-green line consists of waves with a frequency of 6.15 x 1014 Hz. What is
the energy of these waves?
c. The blue-violet line has a wavelength of 434 nm. What is the frequency of these
waves in Hz?
ANSWERS
1a. (Part (a) involves E and λ . The equation that relates those variables is)
E= h ·c
λ
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 (list the two constants, convert DATA to those units)
E in J = 3.03 x 10―19 J
λ in m = ? then convert to nm ( c uses meters )
1 nm = 10―9 m (listing fundamental metric conversions is optional in DATA )
* * * * *
λ (in m) = h · c = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 ) = 6.56 x 10―7 m
E 3.03 x 10―19 J
λ (in nm) = 6.56 x 10―7 m • 1 nm = 6.56 x 102 nm = 656 nm
10―9 m

1b. (Part (b) involves E and υ . The equation that relates those symbols is)
E=hυ
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s (list constants first, use their units for WANTED and DATA)
E in J = ?
υ in s―1 = 6.15 x 1014 Hz s―1 ( h uses seconds )
SOLVE: E (in J) = h υ = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 6.15 x 1014 s―1 ) = 4.08 x 10―19 J
1c. (The problem has λ and υ. The equation that relates λ and υ for electromagnetic waves is)
c= λυ
DATA:
c = 3.0 x 108 m · s―1 (list constants used in the equation first)
λ in m = 434 nm = 434 x 10―9 m
υ in s―1 = ? , then convert to Hz
1 Hz = 1 s―1
? = υ in s―1 , then Hz = c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 0.00691 x 1017 s―1 = 6.91 x 1014 Hz
λ 434 x 10―9 m
* * * * *
Lesson 23C: De Broglie’s Wavelength

Timing: Do this section if you are asked to solve calculations using the De Broglie
equation, and/or if you plan to take physics.)
* * * * *
De Broglie’s Wavelength Equation
In 1923, the French physicist Louis De Broglie proposed that, just as energy has particle-like
properties, particles can have wavelike properties. In the equation De Broglie derived to
predict the characteristics of these “matter waves,” the length of the wave associated with a
particle depends on the mass of the particle and its speed (or velocity). The equation is
λ= h
mass · speed
Though De Broglie’s equation can be applied to any moving particles, it is most often
applied to small particles such as electrons.
Apply De Broglie’s wavelength equation to the following problem. If you need a hint, read
a part of the answer below, then try again.
Q. Calculate the wavelength of an electron (mass of electron = 9.11 x 10―28 grams) that
is traveling at one-tenth the speed of light.
* * * * *

The problem involves wavelength (λ), mass, and speed. The equation that relates those
three variables is the De Broglie wavelength equation.
λ= h
mass · speed
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s

mass = 9.11 x 10―28 g (list the two constants first)
speed = 0.100 x 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 3.00 x 107 m · s―1
λ= ?
SOLVE: ? = λ = h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s =???
mass · speed (9.11 x 10―28 g)( 3.00 x 107 m · s―1)
We have a problem. The units do not cancel. You could ignore that, but if you do, you will
do a lot of work to arrive at an answer that is not correct.
When units do not cancel properly, something is likely wrong. Let us see if we can fix this
problem.
Joules is an abbreviation for a combination of SI base units used to measure distance, mass,
and time. In many calculations in chemistry, joules can be left “as is” in an answer unit, as
a measure of energy. The De Broglie wavelength equation, however, a case where, for the
units to cancel, joules must be converted to the base units that joules is an abbreviation for.
To convert joules to its base units, you have two choices. You can memorize the base units
that are equivalent to joules, or you can derive the base units from simple relationships if
you know a bit of physics. Let’s review the process for converting unit abbreviations such
as newtons, pascals, watts, and volts to the fundamental SI base units that those named units
are abbreviating. This conversion process will be helpful to know, especially if you take
future courses in chemistry, physics, or engineering.
Converting Joules to Base Units
What is a joule of energy?
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. There are many forms of energy:
including potential, kinetic, thermal, and electrical. There are many units that can be used
to measure energy, including calories, ergs, BTUs, and kilowatt-hours. The SI unit used to
measure energy is the joule.
Energy is a derived quantity. It can be defined in terms of the fundamental quantities of
distance, mass, and time. The easiest way to do so is to define energy in terms of what in
physics is termed “mechanical work.”

Work is defined as force times distance: Energy = work = F • d

Since force is equal to mass times acceleration (F = ma), we can write
Energy = work = F • d = (mass times acceleration) times distance = m·a·d , or
Energy = work = m·a·d (This relationship can be remembered as “work is mad!”)
The joule, the derived SI unit measuring energy, is defined in terms of the SI base units that
measure the fundamental quantities.
• The SI base unit used to measure mass is the kilogram (kg), not the gram.
(In the SI system, base units for all other fundamental quantities do not include a
metric prefix. The kilogram used for mass is the exception.)
• Acceleration is distance/time2, measured in its base units of meters/second2
( = m · s―2 ).
• Distance is measured in the SI-base unit of meters (m).
Based on Energy = work = m·a·d , the SI unit measuring energy (one joule) is defined as
the energy needed to accelerate one mass base unit (one kg) by one acceleration base unit
(1 m · s―2) for one distance base unit (1 m). By substituting into the definition of energy
Energy = m · a · d the base units used to measure each of those four terms:
1 Joule = 1 kg · (1 m · s―2 ) · 1 m , this produces a definition of
Joule = kg · m2 · s―2 This key equality relates joules to its SI base units.
In the unit for h, if we substitute those base units in place of joules, and measure the other
variables in the data in those base units, the units will cancel properly in De Broglie
wavelength and other calculations.
To summarize: To solve the De Broglie equation in the units of h, substitute for joules the
base units that joules are equivalent to. Either memorize the base units for joules, or
remember that “work is mad!” and substitute the SI base units that measure m, a, and d.
In general, SI derived units that are abbreviations for combinations of base units (such as
joules, newtons, watts, and pascals) can be converted to SI base units using these steps:
To convert an SI unit to its base units

1. Write the equation that defines the derived quantity in terms of quantities defined in
terms of fundamental quantities (distance, mass, time, and charge); then
2. Substitute into the formula the base units used to measure the fundamental quantities.
(For more on converting unit abbreviations such as Joules to SI base units, see Lesson 19C).
* * * * *
Now let’s return (a few pages back) to our De Broglie wavelength calculation.
In your DATA table, substitute for joules the base units of joules, adjust your DATA units to
match these new units for the constant, solve, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *

To arrange for the units to cancel, begin by substituting the base units for joules into h:
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J ( kg · m2 · s―2 ) · (s) (list constants first)
Write after the mass variable in the DATA table the units for mass used in the constant h,
then convert the mass DATA to those units.
mass in kg = 9.11 x 10―28 g • 1 kg = 9.11 x 10―31 kg
103 g
Mass, to have consistent units that will cancel in the equation, must be kg and not g.
Speed (distance over time) is supplied in the problem in the base units used in h.
speed (in m/s) = 0.100 x 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 = 3.00 x 107 m · s―1
Since the unit for the WANTED wavelength is not specified, pick a unit to attach to the
symbol that either uses the units in the constant or is an SI unit. In this and in most
problems, both choices will result in the same unit. Since wavelength is a distance, solve
for λ in the distance base unit: meters.
SOLVE:
? = λ (in m) = h = 6.63 x 10―34 ( kg · m2 · s―2 ) · s = 2.43 x 10―11 m
mass · speed (9.11 x 10―31 kg) (3.00 x 107 m · s―1)
Mark the unit cancellation on your paper carefully. If the units cancel to give the WANTED
unit, then it is likely that the numbers were put in the right place to get the right answer.
When should you substitute base units for units such as joules, pascals, volts, and newtons?
Do so only when it is necessary in order for units to cancel to obtain a WANTED unit. If
the WANTED unit and/or other DATA includes one of those complex derived units, you
will probably not need to convert to base units to solve.
Summary: Equations and Constants For Electromagnetic Waves

Be sure that these 7 relationships can be recalled from memory before doing the
following practice. Treat practice as a practice test.
1. Wave speed = λ υ
2. For electromagnetic waves, speed of light = c = λ υ = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1
3. Planck’s formula: E = h υ and E = h · c

λ
4. Planck’s constant = h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
5. The De Broglie wavelength equation: λ = h

mass · speed
6. Joule = kg · m2 · s―2 (memorize or derive as needed)

7. When working in problems that mix derived and fundamental SI units, convert all
DATA to mks: distance in meters, mass in kg, time in seconds.

Practice
1. If F = m · a , and the SI unit for force (the newton) is defined using the SI base units for
mass and acceleration, what base units are equivalent to the newton?
2. If the wavelength of a moving electron is measured to be 36.3 picometers, what is the
speed of the electron? (mass of electron = 9.11 x 10―28 grams)
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

In 1927, the German physicist Werner Heisenberg postulated the uncertainty principle:
that for very light particles such as electrons, it is not possible to be certain of both position
and velocity at the same time. Mathematically, his formulation is
(uncertainty in position) x (uncertainty in velocity) ≥ h/(4π · mass)
Since the mass of a particle is constant, all of the terms on the right side of this equation are
constant, and the two terms on the left are variables. The equation is therefore in the form
xy = c and is an inverse proportion. As the uncertainty of one variable on the left goes
down, the uncertainty of the other goes up.
This result is that if we know where an electron is, we cannot say precisely its velocity (its
speed and direction, which tells us where it will be next). If we know the velocity of the
electron, we cannot say precisely where it is. This means that the location of electrons must
be stated in probabilities rather than certainties.
If you need to solve calculations using the uncertainty equation, simply memorize the
equation and apply the rules for solving equations discussed above.
* * * * *
ANSWERS
1. Since F = m · a , oOne unit of force (one Newton) equals one base unit of mass (1 kg) times one base
unit of acceleration (one meter per second2 = 1 m · s―2).
newton = kg · m · s―2
2. (The problem involves λ, speed, and mass. Use the De Broglie equation.)
λ= h
mass · speed
(So that units cancel in the De Broglie equation, substitute the base units for joules into h:)
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ( kg · m2 · s―2 ) · s (list constants first)
For consistent units that will cancel, mass must be in kg and not g.
mass in kg = 9.11 x 10―28 g • 1 kg = 9.11 x 10―31 kg
103 g

For the WANTED speed, the units are not specified, so pick units for speed (distance per unit
of time) that are used in the constant (h): meters and seconds.
speed (in m/s) = ?
λ (in m) = 36.3 picometers • 10―12 m = 36.3 x 10―12 m
1 pm
To SOLVE: ? = speed (in m/s) = h = 6.63 x 10―34 ( kg · m2 · s―2 ) · s =
mass · λ (9.11 x 10―31 kg) (36.3 x 10―12 m)
= 6.63 x 10―34+31+12 ( kg · m2 · s―2 ) · s = 0.0200 x 109 m · s―1
(9.11 x 36.3) kg · m
= 2.00 x 107 m/s
* * * * *
Lesson 23D: The Hydrogen Atom Spectrum

Bohr and Atomic Spectra
When elements are heated to high temperatures, or vaporized and electrified, they glow:
they give off light. Viewed through a prism or a diffraction grating, this light separates into
thin lines of colors in the order of the colors of the rainbow: energy waves at sharply
defined wavelengths. This is called the line spectrum of the element.
Each element has a characteristic line spectrum. Astronomers can analyze the light from
distant stars to identify elements that are present in the stars.
In 1913, the Danish physicist Neils Bohr proposed that the light of an element’s spectrum
results from electrons falling from higher to lower fixed energy levels inside an atom, like
marbles falling down a staircase (but one in which each step has a different rise).
Based on a simple mathematical equation, En = ― 2.18 x 10―18 J/atom

n2
Bohr’s model predicted exactly the observed wavelengths of the hydrogen atom spectrum.
The energy levels inside the H-atom will be the basis for explaining the energy of the
electrons in all other elements as well. Understanding the behavior of the electrons in
atoms will help in predicting the reactions of atoms and larger particles: the central focus
of chemistry.
Bohr’s Model For the Hydrogen Atom
A neutral hydrogen atom consists of one proton in the nucleus at the center of the atom and
one electron outside the nucleus. (A hydrogen nucleus may also include one or two
neutrons, but these neutral particles do not affect the key electrical interaction between the
positive proton and the negative electron.) Nearly all of the volume of the atom is due to
the space occupied by the electron’s movement around the nucleus.
The hydrogen electron can be described as existing at energy levels that are similar to a
staircase. The H-atom electron must be found on one of the energy levels of the staircase: it
cannot rest between steps.

The steps of the H-atom staircase are uneven, but follow a consistent pattern. The first step
up from the bottom step is large, but the rise for each subsequent step is smaller.
The staircase has an infinite number of steps, numbered from n = 1 to n = ∞ . Step n = 1 is
the bottom step, and n= ∞ is at the top of the staircase.
All systems tend to go to their lowest potential energy. The H-atom electron is therefore
normally found at the bottom step n = 1, where it is said to be in its ground state.
However, if energy is added to the H-atom, such as from heat, energy waves, or high
voltage, the electron can be promoted up the staircase. If the H-atom electron is above the
bottom step, it is unstable and said to be in an “excited state.”
An H-atom electron promoted to an upper step is unstable, since it is not at its lowest
possible potential energy. The electron will therefore tend to fall back down the staircase.
It falls like a marble, either hitting every step or skipping some steps, until it reaches the
bottom step n = 1. The electron may “pause” on any step, but the electron cannot pause
between steps.
The electron falling down the staircase must lose energy. To do so, it emits energy waves
(photons). The energy waves it emits are the lines of the H-atom spectrum. To calculate
the energy of the lines in the spectrum, let’s add energy values to this H-atom model.
The H Energy Levels
Using this equation: En = ― 21.8 x 10―19 J (per each atom)
n2
calculate and fill-in each En value for the steps of the H-atom listed below.
To simplify upcoming calculations, write all of the En values as “ x 10―19 J .“ If you need
help, check the sample calculation below.
n = ∞ ________________ E∞ =
…
n = 6 ________________ E6 =
n = 5 ________________ E5 =
n = 4 ________________ E4 =
n = 3 ________________ E3 =
n = 2 ________________ E2 =
n = 1 ________________ E1 =
* * * * *

For the energy level n = 2, : E2 = ― 21.8 x 10―19 J = ― 5.45 x 10―19 J

22
Finish calculating the remaining energies if needed.
* * * * *
Your answers should match the following.
The H-atom Energy Levels

n = ∞ ________________ E∞ = 0 J
…
n = 6 ________________ E6 = ― 0.606 x 10―19 J
n = 5 ________________ E5 = ― 0.872 x 10―19 J
n = 4 ________________ E4 = ― 1.36 x 10―19 J
n = 3 ________________ E3 = ― 2.42 x 10―19 J
n = 2 ________________ E2 = ― 5.45 x 10―19 J
n = 1 ________________ E1 = ― 21.8 x 10―19 J
(The numbers above are accurate, but the spacing between the steps is not drawn to scale.)
The movement of electric charge creates electromagnetic waves. When the H-atom electron
moves falls from one level to another, it must release an energy wave with an energy equal
to the difference in energy between those two levels.
In your notebook, calculate the difference in energy between energy levels E3 and E2.
* * * * *
E3 minus E2 = ― 2.42 x 10―19 J ― (― 5.45 x 10―19 J) = + 3.03 x 10―19 J
In Practice A, Problem 1a of Lesson 23B, you calculated the wavelength of a wave with this
energy. What was the value that wavelength? According to Problem 1a, what color would
your eye perceive this wave to be?
* * * * *

656 nm. When the H-atom electron falls from level n= 3 to n = 2, it produces an
energy wave at a wavelength of 656 nm that your eye sees as red.
When the electron falls between other energy levels, it emits light with other colors, or light
in other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum that the eye cannot see.
Practice: The H-atom Spectrum

Do Problems 1 and 3 below. Do more if you need more practice.
In Lesson 23B, Practice A1, and in the lesson above, we calculated these values for the
H-Atom Visible Spectrum
Color Wavelength (nm) Frequency (Hz) Energy (J) Transition
red 656 3.03 x 10―19 J Step 3 Æ 2
blue-green 486 6.15 x 1014 4.08 x 10―19 J
blue-violet 434 6.91 x 1014
violet 410
Use this table as data for the problems below. Add your answers to the table as you do the
following calculations.
1. As the H-atom electron falls from level n = 5 to n = 2, based on the values for the energy
levels (En) that you calculated in this lesson,
a. what would be the energy of the wave emitted?

b. What would be the wavelength of the wave in nm?
c. What would be the color of the wave?
d. What information do these answers allow you to add to the table above?
2 Calculate the energy of the violet line of the H-atom visible spectrum
a. using Planck’s formula.
b. Use the energy-level diagram for the H-atom to determine which transition
produces a photon with the energy of the violet line.
3. If sufficient energy is added to the H-atom in its ground state (electron at n = 1), the
electron can be ionized: it can be taken an essentially infinite distance away from the
proton that is attracting the electron. The energy needed to remove the electron is the
energy needed to promote the electron from level n = 1 to n = ∞. This energy value is
termed the ionization energy of the atom.
a. Based on the energy level diagram for H, how much energy would be needed to be
added to take away (ionize) an H-atom electron?
b. If an ionized electron falls from level n = ∞ down to level n = 1 in one transition,
what will be the energy of the wave emitted by the electron?
c. How does this energy value compare to the energy values of the lines in the visible
spectrum listed in the chart above?

d. What will be the wavelength of this energy wave in nm?

e. If the human eye can generally see energy waves in the range of 400 to 700 nm, will
you be able to see this wave when looking at an H-atom spectrum?
4. One of the lines in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum of hydrogen has a frequency of
2.46 x 1015 Hz. Which transition does this represent?
5. Using alternate units, the ionization energy of hydrogen is 13.6 electron volts (eV) per
atom. Convert this ionization energy to joules per mole. (1 eV = 1.6 x 10―19 J)
6. If the ionization energy of a hydrogen atom is ― 21.8 x 10―19 J, what is the energy of
level n = 3 ?
ANSWERS
1. a. E5 ― E2 = ― 0.872 x 10―19 J ― (― 5.45 x 10―19 J) = + 4.58 x 10―19 J
b. This problem involves E (from part a) and λ . The equation that relates those variables is
E= h ·c
λ
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 (list the two constants, convert DATA to their units)
E in J = 3.03 x 10―19 J
λ in m = ? then convert to nm WANTED ( c uses meters )
1 nm = 10―9 m ( listing fundamental metric conversions is optional)
λ (in m) = h · c = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 ) = 4.34 x 10―7 m
E 4.58 x 10―19 J = 434 x (10―9 m) = 434 nm
c. Blue-violet. See values in the table above.
d. For the blue-violet wave, E = 4.58 x 10―19 J , and the electron is falling from step 5 Æ 2.
2. a. Only λ is known in the table; E is WANTED. The form of Planck’s formula that relates λ and E is
E= h ·c
λ
DATA: c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1
h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s (list constants first, use their units to solve)
E in J = ? ( h uses joules )
λ in m = 410 nm = 410 x 10―9 m (convert to the meters used in c )
E = h · c = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 ) = 4.85 x 10―19 J
λ 410 x 10―9 m

b. Based on the pattern in the spectrum data table, the violet line should represent the 6 Æ 2 transition.
Check it: E6 ― E2 = ― 0.606 x 10―19 J ― (― 5.45 x 10―19 J) = + 4.84 x 10―19 J
Allowing for rounding, this agrees with the 2a answer.
3. a. Enough energy must be added to promote the electron from n = 1 to n = ∞,
E∞ ― E1 = 0 J ― (― 21.8 x 10―19 J) = + 21.8 x 10―19 J
b. From n = ∞ down to n = 1, the energy difference is the same: E∞ ― E1 = + 21.8 x 10―19 J

The energy put in to pull away (ionize) the electron, starting from n = 1, must equal the total energy the
electron releases when it returns to n = 1.
c. + 21.8 x 10―19 J is a larger energy than those for the visible waves listed in the table.
d. Part (d) involves E (from part c) and λ . The equation that relates those variables is
E= h·c
λ
DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s
c = 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 (list the two constants, convert DATA to those units)
E in J = 21.8 x 10―19 J
λ in m = ? then convert to nm (for units consistent with c, solve in m first )
―9
1 nm = 10 m ( fundamental metric conversions are optional in DATA )
λ (in m) = h · c = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) ( 3.00 x 108 m · s―1 ) = 0.912 x 10―7 m
E 21.8 x 10―19 J = 91.2 x (10―9 m) = 91.2 nm
e. No. This wave has a shorter wavelength (and a higher frequency and energy) than the eye can see.
91.2 nm is in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum.
The high-energy ultraviolet lines of the H-atom spectrum can be seen by special films.
Prolonged exposure to UV radiation is dangerous to the eyes and skin. The sun produces high
amounts of UV radiation, but most is absorbed by the ozone layer in the earth’s upper atmosphere
before it can reach the earth’s surface. If the ozone layer decays, the incidence of skin cancer on
earth would likely increase substantially, among other harmful effects.
4. To find the transition using the energy-level diagram, the energy of the line is needed.
The equation that relates E and υ is E=hυ

DATA: h = 6.63 x 10―34 J · s (list constants first, use their units for WANTED and DATA)
E in J = ?
υ in s―1 = 2.46 x 1015 Hz s―1 ( h uses seconds )
SOLVE: E (in J) = h υ = ( 6.63 x 10―34 J · s ) (2.46 x 1015 s―1 ) = 1.63 x 10―18 J
Which transition has this energy?
* * * * *
Convert this E to 16.3 x 10―19 J for easier comparison to the numbers in the energy-level diagram.

* * * * *
E2 ― E1 = ―5.45 x 10―19 J ― (― 21.8 x 10―19 J) = + 16.4 x 10―19 J
That matches the energy value calculated from the frequency above, allowing for rounding.
For all of the transitions where the electron falls to n = 1, the H-atom will emit UV radiation.
5. WANTED: ? kJ
mol
DATA: 13.6 eV = 1 atom
1 eV = 1.6 x 10―19 J
A ratio is WANTED. The data is two ratios/equalities/conversions. Try conversions (Lesson 11B).
? kJ = 1.6 x 10―19 J • 1 kJ • 13.6 eV • 6.0 x 1023 atoms = 1.3 x 103 kJ
mol 1 eV 103 J 1 atom 1 mole mol
6. The ionization energy is the energy need to promote the electron from n = 1 to n = ∞.
That energy is also the value in the energy-level equation En = ― 21.8 x 10―19 J (per atom)
n2
For energy level n = 3, E3 = ― 21.8 x 10―19 J = ― 2.42 x 10―19 J
32
* * * * *
Lesson 23E: Quantum Mechanics

Schrődinger’s Wave Equation
Though the Bohr model explained the spectrum of hydrogen, other aspects of the model
were less successful at explaining the behavior of the hydrogen electron.
In 1926, the German physicist Erwin Schrődinger developed equations which described the
electron as if it were a wave, similar to the “standing waves” created by stringed
instruments. Solutions to these equations are termed the quantum mechanical (wave)
model. This model remains today our best explanation for the behavior of the hydrogen
electron, and it is the basis for predicting the behavior of electrons in all other elements as
well.
Solutions to the wave equation generally involve complex mathematics, and one question
often has multiple solutions. In many respects, however, the wave equation produces a
model for the hydrogen atom based on mathematical patterns that are elegant in their
simplicity.

Predictions of the Wave Equation

1. Inside the hydrogen atom are the levels described by Bohr: n = 1, 2, 3, …., ∞. When
used with the wave equation, these numbers are called principal quantum numbers.
Higher quantum numbers represent higher energy levels. These levels have the En
values calculated by Bohr’s En equation.
2. Around the H-atom nucleus are orbitals that describe the space where an electron is
likely to be found. The orbital has an energy and a shape, but, consistent with the
uncertainty principal, the location of an electron in an orbital is described in terms of
probability. The shape of the orbital describes where the electron will be 90% of the
time.
3. At each principal quantum number n, there are n2 total orbitals, and n different types of
orbitals.
a. At level n = 1, there is one orbital, the 1s orbital. An s orbital has a spherical
symmetry around the nucleus: in an s orbital, at a given distance from the nucleus
in all directions, there is an equal chance of finding an electron.
b. At level n = 2, there are two types of orbitals and four total orbitals: one 2s orbital
with spherical symmetry, and three 2p orbitals. The three p orbitals are
perpendicular to each other, and can be described as falling on x, y, and z axes
around the nucleus.
c. At level n = 3, there are three types of orbitals and nine total orbitals: one spherical
3s orbital, three perpendicular 3p orbitals, and five 3d orbitals. Most (but not all) of
the d orbitals are diagonal to the p orbitals.
d. At level n = 4, there are four types of orbitals and 16 total orbitals: one 4s, three 4p ,
five 4d, and seven 4f orbitals.
(It may help to remember the spdf order of the orbitals as “stupid pirates die fighting.”
4. The H-atom electron in its ground state is in the 1s orbital. If sufficient energy is added
to an H-atom, its electron can be promoted into one of the higher energy orbitals.
The above points can be summarized by a diagram. Below is the model for the
H-atom predicted by the wave equation for the first four principal quantum numbers. Each
line ( ___ ) represents an orbital.
The Hydrogen Atom: Orbitals For the First Four Energy Levels
4s __ 4p __ __ __ 4d __ __ __ __ __ 4f __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ( = 16 orbitals)
3s __ 3p __ __ __ 3d __ __ __ __ __ ( = 9 orbitals)
2s __ 2p __ __ __ ( = 4 orbitals )
1s __ ( = 1 orbital )
* * * * *

Quantum Numbers
In the wave equation for the H-atom, each electron in an orbital can be identified by a series
of quantum numbers that predict the characteristics of the orbital and of an electron in that
orbital.
1. Principal quantum numbers are the n values: the integers 1, 2, 3, … The value of n
will predict the size and energy of the orbital. For higher n values, the orbitals occupy
more volume and are at higher potential energy. An electron in orbitals with a higher n
will on average be further from the nucleus than electrons in orbitals with a lower n in
the same atom.
2. Angular momentum quantum numbers (symbol l – a lower-case script L ) at each n are
numbered from 0 to n─1. Each l value correlates with one of the types (s, p, d, or f) of
orbitals.
The s orbital is l = 0, p orbitals are l = 1, d orbitals are l = 2, and f ‘s are l = 3.
3. Magnetic quantum numbers (symbol ml ) have values from ─ l to 0 to +l . These
numbers identify the multiple p, d, and f orbitals at each n.
4. Electron spin quantum numbers (symbol ms ) identify the spin of an electron in an
orbital. An electron must have a spin of either +½ or ─½ . In these lessons, we will
represent an electron that has a positive spin as ↑ and one with a negative spin as ↓ .
A way to remember these rules for quantum numbers is to memorize the H-atom orbital
diagram above plus the quantum number diagram below for n = 4. Note the patterns of
the numbers going from the bottom up.
Relating Quantum Numbers and Orbitals
4s 4p 4d 4f ↑
ml = 0 -1 0 1 -2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
l = 0 1 2 3
n = 4
The electron shown above in the 4f level would be described as having the quantum
numbers n = 4, l = 3, ml = ─1, and ms = +½ .
The diagram for level n = 3 is similar to n = 4 above, except that it will lack the f orbitals.
The diagram for level n = 2 will have only s and p orbitals. The diagram for level n = 1 will
have only the single s orbital.
* * * * *

Practice
Memorize the two diagrams in this lesson, then do the problems below.
1. At level n = 4 of the hydrogen atom are
a. how many types of orbitals?
b. How many total orbitals?
c. Write the number and letter used to identify the types of orbitals, and list the
number of orbitals there will be of each type, at n = 4.
2. At level n = 5, the H atom has orbitals designated 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, and 5g. How many
orbitals are there of each type?
3. Add numbers to complete the chart below.
3s 3p 3d
ml =
l =
n =
4. At level n = 5, what quantum numbers are permitted for

a. l ? b. ml ? c. ms ?
5. Write the diagram for the first four (the lowest four) energy levels of the hydrogen
atom, then add to the diagram one electron that has quantum numbers
a. n = 3, l = 1, ml = 1, and ms = ―½ .
b. n = 4, l = 2, ml = ―2, and ms = +½ .
6. Write symbols and values for the four quantum numbers that characterize the
hydrogen atom electron when it is in the following orbitals.
a. 2s ↓ 2p
b. 3s 3p 3d ↓
c. 4s 4p 4d 4f ↑

ANSWERS
1. a. 4 types of orbitals b. 16 total orbitals c. 1 4s, 3 4p, 5 4d, and 7 4f
2. At n = 4, there are n2 = 16 total orbitals: 1 s, 3 p, 5 d, and 7 f .
At level n = 5, there must be n2 = 25 total orbitals. . 25 – 16 = 9 additional orbitals at n = 5.
At level n = 5, there must be one 5s, three 5p, five 5d, seven 5f, and nine 5g orbitals.
3. 3s 3p 3d
ml = 0 -1 0 1 -2 -1 0 1 2
l = 0 1 2
n = 3
4. a. l : 0 1 2 3 4 b. ml : -4 - 3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 c. ms : Always +½ and ―½ .
5. a. 4s 4p 4d 4f ( = 16 total )
3s 3p ↓ 3d ( = 9 total )
2s __ 2p __ __ __ ( = 4 total )
1s __ ( = 1 total )
b. 4s 4p 4d ↑ 4f ( = 16 total )
3s 3p 3d ( = 9 total )
2s __ 2p __ __ __ ( = 4 total )
1s __ ( = 1 total )
6. a. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, and ms = ―½ .
b. n = 3, l = 2, ml = ―1, and ms = ―½ .
c. n = 4, l = 3, ml = ―3, and ms = +½ .
* * * * *
# # # # #

Module 24 — Electron Configuration

of the lesson. If you can do those calculations, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Lesson 24A: The Multi-Electron Atom
Orbitals For the Other Atoms
Schrődinger’s wave equation predicts mathematically the observed behaviors of the
hydrogen atom. However, for atoms with more than one electron, the wave equation
provides less exact predictions of how an atom will behave.
Why? In the case of hydrogen, one proton and one electron attract. Mathematics is able to
precisely model the forces in this “two body” problem, but if a second electron is added to
the atom, the situation is more complex.
Because the protons are tightly packed into the nucleus, nuclei with more than one proton
behave as a single point of positive charge. Multiple electrons will be attracted to those
protons, but unlike the case of hydrogen with one electron, two or more electrons also repel
each other. How much will they repel? It depends in part on the types of orbitals that the
electrons occupy.
At n = 2, an electron in the 2s orbital will on average be closer to the nucleus than an
electron in a 2p orbital. This closer 2s electron, by repelling the 2p electron, will act to shield
the 2p electron slightly from the attraction of the protons in the nucleus. This means that
the 2p orbital will be slightly higher in energy than the 2s orbital.
The result of these factors and other factors is
• the wave equation predicts qualitatively, but not exactly, how electrons in atoms
other than hydrogen will behave, and
• the orbital diagram for multi-electron atoms will be different from that of hydrogen.
In neutral atoms other than hydrogen, the orbitals have different energy values in each
atom, but the orbitals are nearly always arranged in the same order. This means that for
the elements in the periodic table, there will be only two types of energy level diagrams to
learn: one for hydrogen, and one that works in most cases for all of the other atoms.
The Orbital Diagram for Multi-Electron Atoms
For elements other than hydrogen, these rules apply.
1. The orbital energy level diagram has “clusters” of energy levels. Large energy gaps
separate these clusters, but within the clusters, energy levels are close.
2. The lowest energy level in a cluster is always an s orbital. The energy of this s orbital is
relatively high compared to the energy of the orbitals below it, but the s orbital is
relatively close in energy to the orbitals above it in the cluster.

3. The d orbitals are shielded by both the s and p orbitals, so much so that in neutral
atoms, the d orbitals rise to between the energy of the s and p orbitals with one higher
principal quantum number.
For the five lowest energy clusters, the sublevels in order of increasing energy are
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p
4. The f orbitals are more shielded than the d orbitals, so much so that the 4f orbitals for
most elements have energy slightly above the 6s orbital, but below the 5d orbital.
For most elements, the 6th and 7th clusters have sublevels in this order:
6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p .
These rules result in the
Energy-Level Diagram for a Multi-Electron Atom
7p 6d
5f 32
7s
6p 5d
4f 32
6s
5p
4d 16
5s
4p
3d 16
4s
3p 8
3s
2p 8
2s
1s 2

The numbers at the right side of the diagram show the number of electrons that the cluster
will hold.
When a series of orbitals is at the same energy, such as in the three p orbitals or five d
orbitals, the orbitals are said to be in a sublevel, and the orbitals are termed degenerate.
At this point, you need to be able to draw the bottom four clusters of the above diagram from
memory. At a later point, the complete diagram will need to be memorized, but as you will
see, patterns that relate the orbital diagram to the periodic table will make this task much
easier.
The Orbital Electron Configuration
A key step in understanding the chemical behavior of atoms is to write the electron
configuration of the element. This electron configuration can be determined by filling the
orbital-energy-level diagram with the element’s electrons.
Rules for Filling the Orbital Energy Level Diagram
To write the orbital electron configuration for an element, use these steps.
1. Find the number of electrons in the element. The atomic number is the number of
protons in an atom. In a neutral atom, this is also the number of electrons.
2. Put the electrons into the orbitals one at a time. Each electron will fall to the unfilled
orbital with the lowest energy. This rule, that the orbitals fill from the lowest energy
up, is called the aufbau principle.
3. An orbital becomes filled when it has two electrons; it cannot have more than two. In
an orbital with two electrons, the electrons must have opposite spins. (This rule is termed
the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that no two electrons in an atom can have the
same four quantum numbers.)
In an orbital with two electrons, the electrons are said to be paired and the orbital is
filled. An orbital with only one electron is half-filled and is said to have an unpaired
electron.
4. If a series of orbitals is at the same energy, fill each orbital with one electron, and give
all the electrons in this sublevel the same spin (by convention, positive spins are
assigned first), before you start to pair electrons. (This is Hund’s rule.)
Example: The neutral element carbon has 6 electrons. Fill the orbital diagram with
the six electrons from the bottom up. Each s orbital is filled with two
electrons that have opposite spins.
For the 2p orbitals, since the three p orbitals are at the same energy, put one
electron in each orbital before you start to pair electrons.
The resulting carbon electron configuration is
2p ↑ ↑
2s ↑↓
1s ↑↓
Carbon has two filled orbitals, two half-filled orbitals, and two unpaired electrons.

Practice
Memorize the orbital energy-level diagram for the bottom 4 clusters (from the 1s to the 4p
orbitals), then do the problems below. Use a periodic table. Check your answers at the end
of the lesson after each part.
1. The following are electron configurations for neutral atoms. Name the atoms.
2p ↑ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
a. 2s ↑↓ b. 2s ↑↓
1s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓
2. Draw the orbital electron configuration for

a. Nitrogen b. Neon c. Phosphorous d. Nickel
3. How many unpaired electrons are found in neutral atoms of
a. Nitrogen (2a above) b. Nickel (2d above)
ANSWERS
1. a. 5 electrons = Boron (B) b. 9 electrons = Fluorine (F)
2.
2p ↑ ↑ ↑ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
a. 2s ↑↓ b. 2s ↑↓
1s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓
4p
3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
d. 4s ↑↓
3p ↑ ↑ ↑ 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
c. 3s ↑↓ 3s ↑↓
2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
2s ↑↓ 2s ↑↓
1s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓
3. a. Nitrogen: 3 unpaired electrons b. Nickel: Two unpaired electrons
* * * * *

Lesson 24B: Abbreviated Electron Configurations

Shorthand Electron Configurations
The shorthand electron configuration is a way of quickly conveying the electron
configuration of an atom without drawing the orbital diagram.
Example: The shorthand configuration for silicon (Si) is: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
To write the shorthand electron configuration for an element, use these
Steps:
1. Before writing the shorthand configuration for individual atoms, write the orbitals for
the multi-electron atom in order of increasing energy (from the bottom up). This list is
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p …
The order of the orbitals in the list

above does not seem regular, but it can 7s 7p
be remembered with the help of the 6s 6p 6d 6f
memory device at the right. 5s 5p 5d 5f 5g
4s 4p 4d 4f
First draw the order for the orbitals of the 3s 3p 3d
hydrogen atom (as shown), and then add 2s 2p
the diagonal arrows pointed left and up. 1s
As you write the orbital numbers and letters, leave a gap in front of each of the s
orbitals in the series. This gap indicates the large gap in energy between the clusters in
the orbital diagram, a factor that is important in determining electron behavior.
In listing the orbitals and clusters in order, it may also help to note that each of the
clusters begins with the number of the cluster followed by an s, and ends (except for the
first cluster) with the number of the cluster followed by a p.
2. To write the shorthand electron configuration for an individual element, find the
number of electrons in the element (the atomic number).
3. Rewrite the orbitals in the order listed above. As you go, fill each orbital full of
electrons. Add superscripts to indicate the number of electrons that fill each orbital.
• An s orbital is filled when it has 2 electrons.
• A p orbital sublevel is full when it has 6 electrons.
• A d orbital sublevel can hold 10 electrons.
• An f orbital sublevel can hold 14 electrons.
A full 1s orbital is written as 1s2 (read as “one s two”).
A full 3d sublevel is written: 3d10 (read as “three d ten”).

4. When not enough electrons remain to fill an orbital, write the number of remaining
electrons as a superscript, then stop.
Examples:
a. Sodium is atomic number 11; the element Na has 11 electrons.
Its shorthand electron configuration is written as: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
The total for the superscripts must equal the number of electrons:
2 + 2 + 6 +1 = 11
Note that all of the sublevels before the last sublevel are filled.
b. Iridium (Ir) has 77 electrons. Its shorthand configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d7
To check your answer, add up the superscripts. The total must be the
number of electrons in the element.
4. As another check, note that for each atom, its highest cluster starts with the number of the
row in which the element is found in the periodic table, followed by an s.
Examples:
a. Sodium is in the third row of the periodic table (rows go across).
Its shorthand electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
The highest cluster in which sodium has electrons begins with 3s .
b. Iridium is in the sixth row of the table. Its shorthand configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d7
5. To find the number of unpaired electrons in an element, draw the orbital diagram, but do
so only for the sublevel that is unfilled in the highest cluster.
Examples:
In sodium above, all of the levels below 3s1 are filled. They will contain no unpaired
electrons. The final term is 3s1, which is shorthand for the orbital configuration
3s ↑ . Sodium therefore has one unpaired electron.
In iridium above, all of the orbitals below 5d7 are filled. In the highest occupied
cluster, the one sublevel with unfilled orbitals has the electron configuration 5d7,
which is shorthand for the orbital configuration 5d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ . Iridium has 3
unpaired electrons.
* * * * *

Practice A
Use a periodic table. Check your answers after each part.
1. Write the memory device that lists the orbitals in order of increasing energy, then write
the orbitals on one line, in order of increasing energy, from 1s to 7p.
2. Write the shorthand electron configuration for
a. Oxygen b. Sulfur c. Fe d. Br e. Kr
3. Write the number of unpaired electrons in
a. Oxygen b. Sulfur c. Fe d. Br e. Kr
4. a. What is the shorthand electron configuration for strontium?
b. Sr is in which row of the periodic table?
c. Into which orbital did strontium’s last (highest energy) electron go?
Abbreviated Electron Configurations

Shorthand electron configurations can be abbreviated by using the symbol for the
appropriate noble gas to represent totally filled lower-energy clusters.
Example:
Lead, atomic number 82, has a shorthand electron configuration
Pb: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
but this configuration can be abbreviated as
Pb: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
The symbol [Xe] represents the five filled lower clusters.
Because the abbreviated configuration is the fastest of the three types of configurations to
write, it is the one used most often.
Abbreviated configurations are also helpful because they separate the electrons that do not
change in chemical reactions (those in the lower filled clusters) from those that do. In
chemistry, the focus of our attention is the electrons written to the right of the noble gas
symbol, since those are the electrons that participate in bonding and in chemical reactions.
The electrons that change in chemical reactions are the electrons in the highest unfilled
cluster.

Writing Abbreviated Electron Configurations For Elements

1. Use the symbol for the appropriate noble gas to represent totally filled lower-energy
clusters.
[He] = 1s2 = 2 electrons
[Ne] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 = 10 e─
[Ar] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 = 18 e─
[Kr] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 = 36 e─
[Xe] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 = 54 e─
[Rn] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 = 86 e─
Note that except for helium, all of the noble gas electron configurations end in p6, and
the number in front of the p6 is the row of the periodic table that the noble gas completes.
Example:
Aluminum is atomic number 13. The shorthand electron configuration for a neutral
Al atom is
Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
To write the abbreviated configuration, note that Al has 13 electrons. The noble gas in
the chart above that can be used to represent the filled lower clusters is neon, which
has 10 electrons. The abbreviated electron configuration for Al is
Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1
The symbol [Ne] represents two filled lower clusters containing 10 electrons.
2. For a simplified way to write abbreviated configurations for elements, use these steps.
a. Find the element in the periodic table. Note its number of electrons.
b. Write in brackets [ ] the symbol of the noble gas at the end of the row above the
element.
c. After the [noble gas], write the number of the row in the periodic table that the
element is in, followed by an s. This will get you started on writing the orbitals in
the highest unfilled cluster.
Example: Find vanadium (V) in the 4th row of the table. Ar is at the end of the
row above V.
Start vanadium’s abbreviated configuration by writing V: [Ar] 4s
d. Write the remaining orbitals in the cluster. Starting from the number of electrons in
the noble gas, add electrons to fill the sublevels until you run out.
e. To check your configuration, add the number of electrons in the noble gas (equal to
its atomic number) plus the superscripts to the right of the noble gas symbol. This
total must equal the number of electrons in the element (its atomic number).

Try the steps in Rule 2 on this question.

Q. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for tungsten (W), atomic number 74.
* * * * *
Tungsten is in the 6th row of the periodic table. The noble gas at the end of the 5th row
is xenon (Xe). Start the electron configuration by writing
W: [Xe] 6s
Complete the list of orbitals in the 6th cluster.
W: [Xe] 6s 4f 5d 6p
Xe has 54 electrons and W has 74. Fill the unfilled cluster until you run out of
electrons.
W: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d4 is the abbreviated configuration. Check: 54 + 2 + 14 + 4 = 74
* * * * *
3. The valence electrons establish many of the properties of an element, because they are
the electrons most likely to be involved in chemical reactions and covalent bonding.
Compared to the electrons in lower clusters, the valence electrons are “loosely bound.”
For the main group elements (in the tall columns of the periodic table), the valence
electrons are defined as all of the s and p electrons in the highest unfilled cluster (the s’s
and p’s to the right of the noble gas symbol).
Examples:
Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1 has two s and one p electron to the right of the noble gas symbol.
Aluminum therefore has 3 valence electrons.
I: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5 has two s and five p electron to the right of the noble gas
symbol, so iodine has 7 valence electrons. For main group elements, the d and f
electrons are not considered to be valence electrons.
For elements in the transition metals and rare earths, the valence electrons are those in
the highest cluster in the s orbital, but in some cases may also include the d or f
electrons. In reactions of the transition metals, the d and f electrons are not as loosely
bound as the s electrons, but d and f electrons may be lost in some chemical reactions.
Try the following question.
Q. How many valence electrons are in lead (Pb)?
* * * * *
Pb: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2 has two s and two p electron to the right of the noble
gas symbol; lead has 4 valence electrons. For main group elements, the valence
electrons are limited to the s and p electrons in the highest cluster that contains
electrons.
* * * * *

Practice B: Use a periodic table. Check your answers after each part.
1. List in order the sublevels in the 4th cluster of the orbital energy-level diagram.
2. What noble gas symbol would be used to represent five full orbital clusters?
3. When writing an abbreviated electron configuration, what would be the first sublevel
that would be written after these noble gas symbols?
a. [He] b. [Kr] c. [Rn]
4. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for these elements.
a. Li (3) b. Cl (17) c. Iodine (53) d. Yttrium (39) e. Polonium (84)
5. Write the number of valence electrons for these Problem 4 elements.
a. Li (3) b. Cl (17) c. Iodine (53) e. Polonium (84)
6. What is the highest number of valence electrons that a main group element can have?
7. For the 2nd element in the 4th row of the periodic table,
a. what is its abbreviated electron configuration?
b. What ion does this element tend to form?
c. What would be the electron configuration for the ion that this element tends to
form?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p.
2. a. Oxygen: 1s2 2s2 2p4 b. Sulfur: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
c. Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 d. Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
e. Kr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3. To find the number of unpaired electrons, look only at the highest sublevel with electrons.
a. Oxygen: 2p4 = 2p ↑↓ ↑ ↑ = 2 unpaired e─
b. Sulfur: 3p4 = 3p ↑↓ ↑ ↑ = 2 unpaired e─
c. Fe: 3d6 = 3d ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ = 4 unpaired e─
d. Br: 4p5 = 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ = 1 unpaired e─
e. Kr: 4p6 = 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ = 0 unpaired e─
4. a. Sr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 b. Row 5 c. 5s

Practice B
1. 4s 3d 4p 2. [Xe] at the end of the 5th row.
3. a. [He] 2s The number of the s orbital is the row number that the atom is in. b. [Kr] 5s c. [Rn] 7s
4. a. Li (3): [He] 2s1 b. Cl (17): [Ne] 3s2 3p5 c. Iodine (53): [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5
d. Yttrium (39): [Kr] 5s2 4d1 e. Polonium (84): [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4
5. Valence electrons: a. Li (3) one b. Cl (17) seven c. Iodine (53) seven
e. Polonium (84) six
6. Eight. The highest number of s and p electrons possible in the highest cluster is 2 in the s and 6 in the p.
7. a. Ca: [Ar] 4s2 b. Ca2+ c. [Ar] . To form the 2+ ion, calcium loses its two valence electrons.
* * * * *
Lesson 24C: The Periodic Table and Electron Configuration

The Shape of the Table
Elements in the families of the periodic table have similar behavior because those elements
have similar configurations in their highest energy electrons.
The correlations between the periodic table and electron configuration include:
1. The periodic table starts with hydrogen, which has proton and one electron. One
proton and one electron are then added for each element moving to the right across the
rows of the periodic table.
When a cluster in the orbital energy level diagram is filled, the result is the electron
configuration of a noble gas.
After a noble gas, a new row of the table is started. This convention places all of the
noble gases in the last column. All noble gases have totally filled clusters.
2. The number of electrons a cluster can hold equals the number of elements in each row of
the periodic table.
• The lowest cluster of the orbital diagram can hold two electrons. The first row
of the periodic table has two elements: H and He.
• The second and third clusters in the orbital energy diagram each hold 8
electrons. The second and third rows of the periodic table both have 8 elements.
Across these rows, 8 electrons are added to the elements, one electron at a time.
• The fourth cluster has the orbitals 4s 3d 4p . These three sublevels can hold 18
electrons. The fourth row of the table has 18 elements.
• The sixth cluster has the orbitals 6s 4f 5d 6p . These four sublevels can hold 32
electrons. The sixth row of the table has 32 elements.

3. Elements in the same column of the table have similar electron configurations.
• All of the elements in column one have an electron configuration ending in s1.
H ends in 1s1, Li in the 2nd row ends in 2s1, Fr in the 7th row ends in 7s1.
• All halogens (Group 7A) have electron configurations ending in p5. All
halogens have seven valence electrons: two s and five p electrons in their highest
cluster.
• All of the elements in the carbon family (Group 4A) have their electron
configuration ending in p2. All have four valence electrons: two s and two p
electrons.
• The number of valence electrons for an atom is the number of the main (A)
group (using the A-B group notation) for its column of the periodic table. All
elements in Group 7A (the halogens) have seven valence electrons.
4. The shape of the periodic table is determined by the order in which the orbitals fill in the
orbital energy-level diagram.
• All elements in the first two columns of the table have their highest energy
electron going into an s orbital. For elements in the first column, all electron
configurations end in s1. In the second column, all end in s2.
• All of the elements in the six tall columns at the right in the table have their
highest energy electron going into a p orbital (except helium). In Group 3A, all
electron configurations end in p1. In the last column, all end in p6 (except for
helium, which ends in s2 to fill the first cluster).
• All transition metals have their highest energy electron going into a d orbital.
The transition metals are placed between the s tall columns and the p tall columns
because the d orbitals fill after the s, but before the p orbitals.
The first transition metal, scandium (Sc), has an electron configuration that ends
in 3d1. The second, titanium (Ti) ends in 3d2. The last transition metal in that
row, zinc (Zn) has an electron configuration that ends in 3d10.
Mercury (Hg), two rows below zinc in the table, has an electron configuration
that ends in 5d10. As you might expect, cadmium (Cd), in the row between zinc
and mercury, has an electron configuration that ends in ….?
* * * * *
4d10.
• The rare-earth elements, in the two rows below the table, have their highest
energy electrons going into f orbitals. Since there is room for 14 electrons in the
seven f orbitals, there are 14 elements in each of the two rows of the rare earth
elements. In the first row of the rare earths, called the lanthanides because the
row begins with lanthanum, the 4f orbitals are filling. In the second row, the
actinides, the 5f orbitals are filling.

The following diagram help in remembering the above.
1s2
2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6
4s2 (d filling) 3d10 4p6
5s2 ““ 4d10 5p6
6s2 ““ 5d10 6p6
7s2
4f14
5f14
This diagram is easy to remember if you have access to a periodic table. Simply memorize
the position of the six circled orbitals above, and then fill in the rest of that column based on
the patterns.
To write a shorthand electron configuration, start with the top row (1s2), go across each
row, and write the orbitals that are in bold. Leave a small gap when you start a new row.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6….
Knowing the above chart, all seven clusters of the orbital diagram are easy to write in order.
This diagram will also quickly identify the configuration of the highest energy orbital.
Example: Tellurium (Te) has 52 electrons. Find Te in the periodic table. Mark where it
will be in the above table. Decide from the position of the box the configuration of the
highest energy orbital.
Based on its position, Te’s highest energy orbital will have the configuration: _______
* * * * *
5p4 . For the shorthand configuration, simply write all of the bold orbitals above, in
order from the top and across the rows, until you get to Te’s 5p4 , then stop. Try it.
* * * * *
Te: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p4
To write the abbreviated configuration, write the [noble gas] at the end of the column above
Te, then write the bold filled orbitals in the row that Te is in, with the last orbitals being the
highest energy sublevel for Te. Try it.
* * * * *
Te: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p4
As a check for both types of configurations, count the electrons. You should get 52.
* * * * *

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

In 1872, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev proposed the first periodic table as a way to
predict chemical behavior. The existence of protons and electrons would not be discovered
for decades. In fact, at the time, many of the elements currently in the periodic table had
not yet been discovered. Mendeleev courageously and accurately predicted that elements
would be discovered to fill the holes in his table. Based on the patterns in his table, he
correctly described what many of their characteristics would be. Mendeleev’s 1872 table is
remarkably similar to the modern periodic table.
We know today what Mendeleev did not: why the elements are organized the way they are
in his table. The shape of the table is determined by the order of the electron orbitals that
are predicted to exist by Schrődinger’s wave equation. The elements in columns have
similar behavior because they have similar electron configurations.
Practice: Use a periodic table. If needed, check your answers after each part.
1. What is the abbreviated electron configuration (using the noble gas symbol) for the first
element in the 7th row of the periodic table?
2. Which orbitals are being filled in the 6th row of the periodic table, in order?
3. Where in the periodic table are of all the elements that have electron configuration
ending in
a. s2 b. p6 c. p2
4. Name the four elements whose electron configuration ends in d2 .
5. Which p orbitals are filling in the 5th row of the periodic table?
6. Which d orbitals are filling in the 4th row of the table?
7. Which f orbitals are filling in the 7th row of the table?
8. What do the rare earth elements have in common with regard to their electron
configuration?
9. Why do the rare earth elements fit into the periodic table before the transition metals
begin, rather than after?
10. Write the orbital configuration of just the highest unfilled sublevel for these elements.
a. Iodine (53) b. Cobalt (27) c. Rubidium (37)
11. Write the shorthand electron notation (1s2 2s2…) for these elements.
a. Gallium (31) b. Molybdenum (42)
12. Write the abbreviated electron configuration (using noble gas symbols) for
a. Barium (56) b. Osmium (76) c. Rutherfordium (104)

ANSWERS
1. [Rn] 7s1 2. 6s 4f 5d 6p 3a. In Group 2A (the 2nd tall column). 3b . Noble gases below He.
3c. In the 2nd tall column to the right of the transition metals (the carbon family).
4. Titanium (Ti), Zirconium (Zr) Hafnium (Hf), and Rutherfordium (Rf).
5. 5p . The principal quantum number of the filling p orbitals is the row number in the table.
6. 3d . The principal quantum number of the d orbitals filling is one less than the row number.
7. 5f . The principal quantum number of the f orbitals filling is two less than the row number.
8. In most cases, the highest energy electron is going into an f orbital.
9. In most cases, the f orbitals are at lower energy than the d orbital with one higher principal quantum
number; the f orbitals fill before the d’s.
10. a. Iodine 5p5 b. Cobalt 3d7 c. Rubidium 5s1
11. a. Ga: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
b. Mo: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d4
12. a. Ba: [Xe] 6s2 b. Os: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d6 c. Rf: [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d2
* * * * *
Lesson 24D: Electron Configurations: Exceptions and Ions

Exceptions to the Standard Predictions
Not all of the actual electron configurations follow the rules above, but many of the
exceptions can be predicted. In predicting exceptions, the rules are
1. A series of orbitals at a sublevel (orbitals with the same energy) often have lower
potential energy if they are empty, half-filled or totally filled. The expected electron
configurations predicted by the standard rules often rearrange to form these energy
configurations that gain them special stability.
Example:
Write the standard predicted electron configuration for chromium (24): [ ]
How many unpaired electrons would chromium have?
* * * * *
By the standard rules, Cr = [Ar] 4s2 3d4
4p
The highest unfilled cluster would be 3d ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
4s ↑↓
As seen in the orbital diagram, chromium would have four unpaired electrons.
But chromium has an exceptional configuration. Based on the rule above, predict what
it might be.
* * * * *

If one of the chromium 4s electrons is promoted slightly, up to the 3d orbitals, both the
4s and the 3d orbitals become half-filled.
4p
This configuration is 3d ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ = [Ar] 4s1 3d5
4s ↑
If a system can go to lower potential energy, it strongly tends to do so. Measurements
of the behavior of neutral chromium atoms find that they have the six unpaired
electrons predicted by this exception rule.
Other elements below chromium in the same column may have similar behavior, but the
exceptions do not always occur. Experimental measurement of the number of unpaired
electrons is often required to determine the actual electron configuration of an element or
ion when exceptions are possible.
2. The electron configurations of the rare-earth elements contain many exceptions,
especially in the early columns. The reason is that the d and the f orbitals are very close
in energy. Many of the exceptions have a non-standard-prediction d1 electron, such as
Ce (58): [Rn] 6s2 4f1 5d1 and U (92): [Rn] 7s2 5f3 6d1
But, by a slim majority, most rare earth elements have the s2 f* d0 configuration
predicted by the standard rules for filling the orbital energy-level diagram.
Some periodic tables list La and Ac in the 14 columns below the table. Others place La
and Ac in the transition metals, and instead list Lu and Lr at the end of the 14 lower
columns. Arguments can be made for both conventions.
Practice A: Use a periodic table. If needed, check your answers after each part.
1. Write the abbreviated electron configuration (using noble gas symbols) that would be
predicted, using the standard rules, for
a. Nickel (28) b. Palladium (46)
After each configuration above, write the predicted number of unpaired electrons.
2. By experiment, palladium is found to have no unpaired electrons. Write what this
exceptional electron configuration is likely to be, and explain why it would be stable.
3. Find the three coinage metals (copper, silver, and gold) in the periodic table. These
elements have been treated as a special group since ancient times. All are metals that
retain their shine and resist corrosion when compared to most metals. Their
exceptional stability arises in part from their exceptional electron configurations.
a. Write the standard prediction of the abbreviated configuration for gold (79).
b. What would be the exceptional configuration for gold, and why would it be stable?
c. In its exceptional electron configuration, how many unpaired electrons does gold
have? How many valence electrons?

Electron Configurations For Ions

Elements tend to form ions that have the same number of valence electrons as a noble gas.
The noble gases have eight valence electrons (except for helium that has 2).
To write electron configurations for monatomic ions, follow these steps.
1. First write the neutral electron configuration.
2. To form negative ions, add electrons in the standard order.
3. To form positive ions, take away electrons from the highest cluster. Take the electrons
out in this order: take first the p’s then the s’s, then the d’s, then the f’s.
Note that in making positive ions, the electrons are taken out of a neutral atom in a
different order than they go in. Electrons are lost first from the orbitals with the highest
principal quantum number. This means that for main group elements, the valence p then s
electrons are taken away first.
Why? When an electron is taken away, the repulsion of all the electrons is reduced, and the
shielding of the d and f orbitals is reduced. In postitive ions, this drops the d and f orbitals
to a lower relative energy than they have in elements.
For example, the 3d orbitals, which in a neutral atom are higher in energy than the 4s
orbitals, in 4th row positive ions drop to an energy lower than the 4s orbitals.
Apply the three rules above to these two examples, then check your answers below.
Q1. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for the chloride ion, Cl─.
Q2. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for the tin (IV) ion, Sn4+.
* * * * *
A1. Neutral chlorine is [Ne] 3s2 3p5, chloride ion has one more electron: [Ne] 3s2 3p6
This gives chloride the same electron configuration as argon, the nearest noble gas.
When two atoms have the same electron configuration, they are said to be
isoelectronic. Iso- is a prefix from ancient Greek meaning equal.
A2. Neutral tin is [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2, and Sn4+ is [Kr] 4d10 . The 4+ ion has lost four
electrons, first the two 5p electrons, then the two 5s electrons. This gives the tin ion
zero valence electrons. Ions tend to have either zero or 8 valence electrons, giving
them the same stable valence configuration as the nearest noble gas.
It is difficult to add an electron to, or to remove an electron from, a noble gas electron
configuration. Atoms with electron configurations close to that of a noble gas are very
reactive, usually undergoing reactions that result in their attaining a noble gas electron
configuration. That tendency is a driving factor in a wide range of chemical reactions.
* * * * *

Practice B: Use a periodic table. If needed, check your answers after each part.
1. Add a charge to these symbol to show the monatomic ion that the following elements
tend to form (review Lesson 7B if needed).
a. Cs b. S c. At d. Al e. Mg f. F
2. Write the electron configurations for each ion in Problem 1.
3. Which ion in Problem 1 is isoelectronic with the noble gas xenon?
4. Silver (atomic number 47) forms a 1+ ion.
a. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for Ag+.
b. How many unpaired electrons are in Ag+?
5. Iron (26) forms two cations: Fe2+ and Fe3+.
a. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for both ions.
b. What is the number of unpaired electrons in each ion?
c. Which ion lost more than its valence electrons?
d. Why might that ion lose more than its valence electrons?
6. Write the electron configuration for the two ions formed by copper. Which ion has a
configuration that is not predicted by the standard rules for filling the energy level
diagram, and why might this ion form?
ANSWERS
Practice A
4p
1a. Ni: [Ar] 4s2 3d8 ; 2 unpaired electrons: 3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
4s ↑↓
5p
b. Pd: [Kr] 5s2 4d8 2 unpaired electrons: 4d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
5s ↑↓
2. Pd: is actually [Kr] 5s0 4d10 This configuration has empty s and full d orbitals. Orbitals at the same
energy that are empty, half-filled, or totally filled have lowered potential energy.
3. a. Au: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d9
b. Au: [Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10 This gives half-filled s , filled f , and filled d orbitals. Orbitals at the same
energy that are empty, half-filled, or totally filled have special stability.
c. The single 6s electron is the one unpaired and the one valence electron.

Practice B
1. a. Cs+ b. S2─ c. At─ d. Al3+ e. Mg2+ f. F─
2. a. [Xe] b. [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar] c. [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 or [Rn]
d. [Ne] e. [Ne] f. [Ne]
3. Only 1a: Cs+ . The abbreviated configuration for At─ can be written using [Xe] to start, but At─ is
isoelectronic with radon (Rn) (see 2c answer).
4. a. Neutral Ag would have a standard predicted configuration of [Kr] 5s2 4d9 ,
but if a coinage metal has a neutral configuration of s1 d10 , this results in half-filled s and totally filled
d orbitals. The actual configuration for neutral silver is Ag: [Kr] 5s1 4d10
a configuration that has only once valence electron. Since silver’s most common ion is one plus, this
fits the prediction that it only has one valence electron as an element.
To make Ag+, take away the one valence electron. Ag+ = [Kr] 4d10
b. Ag+ = [Kr] 4d10 has no unpaired electrons. All of the orbital sublevels are filled.
5. a. Write the neutral atom configuration first. Fe: [Ar] 4s2 3d6
Fe2+ has lost two its two valence electrons. Fe2+: [Ar] 3d6
Fe3+ has lost one more electron than Fe2+: Fe3+: [Ar] 3d5
b. Fe2+ has four unpaired electrons. Fe2+: [Ar] 3d6 = 3d ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Fe3+ has five unpaired electrons. Fe3+: [Ar] 3d5 = 3d ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
c. Fe3+ has lost its valence electrons, plus one more.

d. By losing one extra electron, Fe3+ has gained a 3d5 configuration, which has degenerate d orbitals
that are half-filled and therefore have special stability.
6. Copper’s two ions are copper (I) and copper (II).

The neutral copper electron configuration predicted by the standard rules is [Ar] 4s2 3d9 . However, the
actual, measured copper electron configuration is [Ar] 4s1 3d10 . In this exceptional configuration, by
promoting one s electron to the d orbitals, Cu gains a totally filled series of d orbitals which have extra
stability.
In some cases, copper behaves as if it has one valence electron, and in other cases as if it has two.
The Cu2+ configuration is [Ar] 3d9 . In this configuration, the copper forms an ion by losing two electrons.
The Cu+ configuration is [Ar] 3d10 . In this exceptional configuration, Cu+ has a totally filled series of d
orbitals which have extra stability.
# # # # #

Calculations
In Chemistry
Module 24 on Bonding is now Module 25 in this packet
Module 25 on Kinetics is now Module 27
If you are looking for Kinetics topics, check Module 27
* * * * *
Module 25 — Bonding
* * * * *
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page ii

Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page iii

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page iv

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page v

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page vi


•••••
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1p Page vii

Timing: Begin this module when Lewis (electron dot) diagrams or molecular shapes are
assigned.
Prerequisites: For this topic, you will need a set of molecular models. These can be
purchased at college bookstores or online. In some courses, models are provided in your
“lab drawer.” As an alternative, patterns for cardboard models are provided in Lesson 25B,
but commercial models are recommended.
of the lesson. If you can do those, you can skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Introduction
Bonds are forces that hold atoms together to form larger, independent particles. The nature
of the chemical bond is a question at the heart of chemistry, but the answer is not
completely understood. An explanation of bonding must take into account protons and
electron pairs, wave equations and orbitals, electrical attraction and repulsion, neutral
molecules, and polyatomic ions. A theory that successfully unites all those factors does not
yet exist.
However, a variety of bonding models predict most bond behavior. We will begin with
two simple models, Lewis diagrams and VSEPR, that allow us to predict the composition
and shape of a significant percentage of the molecules within and around us.
* * * * *
Lesson 25A: Lewis (Electron Dot) Diagrams
Ionic Versus Covalent Bonds
In ionic bonding, charged particles (ions) are held together by electrical attraction.
Monatomic ions usually have the valence electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Covalent bonding is often described as electron sharing. As in ionic bonding, each atom is
often found surrounded by electrons in a noble gas configuration, but in covalent bonding,
a pair of electrons can serve as valence electrons for two adjacent atoms. These shared
electrons are the covalent bond that holds the two atoms together.
In reality, bonds are not “either ionic or covalent.” All ionic bonds have some covalent
character that is evident under certain conditions. Covalent bonds often have some ionic
character. Whether a molecule is considered to be primarily ionic or covalent is best
determined by its behavior.
Atoms bonded covalently in a molecule or a polyatomic ion do not easily separate when
melted or dissolved. The forces holding bonds together inside a covalent molecule are
strong compared to the forces between the molecules. Compared to the ions in ionic
compounds, covalently bonded molecules are more easily pulled apart from each other, so
that they typically melt and boil at temperatures much below that of ionic compounds.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v.1w Page 648

Lewis (Dot) Diagrams

Lewis diagrams (also called Lewis formulas or structures, or electron dot diagrams) can
be drawn to represent covalent bonds in covalent molecules and polyatomic ions.
Example: The Lewis diagram of H2 is H:H
Lewis diagrams are useful for predicting the bonding, shape, and solubility of substances.
Rules for Drawing Lewis Diagrams for Elements
1. Write the symbol for the element.
2. Determine the number of valence electrons for the element.
An easy way to count the valence electrons is to note that the number the main groups
(the tall columns) of the periodic table that the element is in, from one to eight, is the
number of valence electrons for an element.
• All first column elements have one valence electron.
• All elements in the carbon family have four valence electrons.
• All noble gases have 8 valence electrons (except helium has 2).
3. Assume that each symbol has four-sided box around it. On each side can go at most
two electrons. Using dots to represent the valence electrons, draw the valence electrons
around the element symbol. Put one electron on each of the four sides of the symbol
before you start to pair electrons.
• •
Examples: Boron: • B • 3 valence e─ Nitrogen: •N • 5 valence e─
••
Boron has three unpaired electrons. Nitrogen has three unpaired electrons and one
lone pair of electrons. In dot diagrams, the four sides are equivalent: you may place the
paired and unpaired electrons on any side.
Using Dot Diagrams To Predict Bonding Ratios
1. To draw dot diagrams for stable molecules and ions, the key principal is the octet rule:
an element tends to be found surrounded by eight valence electrons. (Hydrogen, an
exception, wants only two.)
Combinations that can result in all atoms being surrounded by eight valence electrons
(two for H atoms) tend to be stable combinations: those that are likely to be found in
nature and formed in chemical reactions. A species that does not have a satisfied octet
may exist, but it is likely to be unstable. It will tend to be a very reactive species.
2. To make stable molecules, depending on the type of problem, most textbooks use two
methods for drawing dot diagrams.
Method 1: If a molecular formula is not known, a model that is helpful in predicting the
molecular formula for simple single-bonded molecules is to combine the dot diagrams of
its elements so that the unpaired electrons pair and are shared between two atoms, and
all of the atoms are surrounded by 8 valence electrons (2 for hydrogen).
Method 2: If the formula and the central atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion is known,
a better model that predicts bonding for both simple and more complex molecules is to

combine the valence electrons without regard to which atom contributes the valence
electrons. This method, if you know the formula and the central atom in the molecule,
will allow you to predict whether the bonds will be single, double, or triple bonds. This
in turn will allow you to predict the shape of the molecule.
For simple molecules, both methods give the same answer. Method 2 is used most
often, because in most problems we begin from a formula and central atom for the
molecule. Method 2 also predicts the bonding in many more cases. However, most
textbooks have examples of both methods.
Let’s begin with an example of Method 1.
Q. Draw the Lewis diagram for a stable molecule that contains only chlorine atoms
with single bonds.
Do the following steps, and then check your answer below
Method 1. If you do not know the molecular formula (the number and kind of atoms in the
covalent molecule), but the molecule has single bonds:
1. Draw the Lewis diagram for the neutral elements using the rules for element diagrams
above.
2. Combine the Lewis diagrams of the elements so that the unpaired electrons pair and are
shared between two atoms. Combine the Lewis diagrams until each symbol is
surrounded by eight valence electrons (H wants two).
* * * * *
Answer
A neutral chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. Place one on each of the four sides
of the symbol, then start to pair electrons. This results in 3 lone pairs and one unpaired
valence electron around chlorine. A neutral chlorine has seven valence electrons and it
wants eight.
•• •• •• ••
: Cl • + • Cl : Æ : Cl : Cl : = Cl ─ Cl = Cl2
•• •• •• ••
Slide two chlorines together so that their unpaired electrons pair. Each chlorine is now
surrounded by eight valence electrons. The octet rule is satisfied. The two shared
electrons are a bond between the two chlorines. Each chlorine atom also retains its 3
lone pairs.
In a particle with more than one atom, the lone pairs are also termed unshared pairs or
non-bonding pairs.
Method 1 is an over-simplified model, but it does predict the bonding in many simple
molecules when the molecular formula (and therefore the total number of valence
electrons) is not known.
Let’s try a simple example using Method 2.
Q. Draw the Lewis diagram for a water molecule (H2O).
Do the following steps, and then check your answer below.

Method 2. When you know the molecular formula:

1. Count the total number of valence electrons in the neutral atoms in the molecule.
2. Arrange the valence electrons around the atoms to satisfy the octet/duet rule: Each
symbol wants to be surrounded by eight valence electrons (H wants two). Do not worry
about which atom contributes which electrons.
* * * * *
Answer
1. Each neutral hydrogen has one valence electron (and wants 2). The one neutral oxygen
has six valence electrons (and wants 8). The total for the molecule is 8 valence electrons.
2. The Lewis diagram for water can be written in two equivalent ways.
•• •• •• ••
H:O:H or H:O: = H─O─H or H─O : = H─O─H
•• •• •• │
H H
^ Two equivalent ^ ^ Two equivalent ^ ^ A structural
Lewis dot diagrams bond-dot Lewis diagrams formula
The first two structures are the “electron dot” form of the Lewis diagram, showing all of
the valence electrons. Because all four sides of the oxygen are equivalent, the 90° and
180° drawings of the two Lewis diagrams are equivalent: both represent the same
molecule.
Between the atoms, the shared electrons are the bonding pairs. In addition, the oxygen
has two lone pairs of electrons.
The third and fourth structures show an alternate way of writing a Lewis structure,
with the bonding pairs (two shared electrons) written as a line, to represent a bond, but
the lone pairs (the unshared or non-bonding pairs) represented by dots.
The last formula is a structural formula. Structural formulas give some information
about the location of the atoms in a molecule, but usually do not include the location of
the lone pairs.
All of the diagrams show that in water, there are two bonds, with the oxygen is in the
middle. The Lewis diagram shows the lone pairs that will be needed to explain the
shapes of molecules.
The atom with the highest number of bonds in most cases is considered the central atom
in the molecule. The central atom in a formula is usually the atom closest to Group 4A
(the carbon family) in the periodic table.
The Lewis diagram predicts that in water, two H and one O are a stable, favored
combination because by sharing electrons, all of the atoms can be surrounded by the
number of valence electrons wanted: 2 for H, 8 for other atoms.
* * * * *
Many of the frequently encountered covalent molecules in first-year chemistry, as well as
second-year organic chemistry, consist of hydrogen plus the second-row non-metals. In

general, elements in the second row of the periodic table have the following characteristics
when they bond covalently. These patterns apply, with many additions and exceptions, for
elements below the second row. Learn this table so that given the terms in the first column
you can fill in the blanks.
For neutral single-bonded atoms:
Second Row Symbol Li Be B C N O F Ne

Main Group Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valence Electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 or 0
Bonds 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Lone Pairs 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4
In predicting formulas for covalent molecules, it is helpful to remember that “carbon bonds
4 times, nitrogen 3 times, oxygen twice, and hydrogen and halogens once.”
Practice: Use a periodic table. If needed, check your answers after each part. In
covalent compounds, elements will most often be non-metals found at the top right of the
periodic table, plus hydrogen.
1. How many valence electrons are in these neutral atoms?
a. Silicon b. Phosphorous c. Bromine d. Sulfur
2. Draw the Lewis diagram for each element in #1.
a. Silicon b. Phosphorous c. Bromine d. Sulfur
3. Using Method 1, draw a Lewis diagram and then a structural formula for these.
a. F2 b. HCl
4. Using Method 2, draw a Lewis diagram and then a structural formula for these.
a. CH4 b. PCl3
5. For each of the molecules in Problem 3, list the number of covalent bonds and
the total number of lone pairs of electrons.
Bonds: 3a. _____ 3b. _____ 4a. _____ 4b. _____
Lone Pairs: 3a. _____ 3b. _____ 4b. _____ 4b. _____
6. Predict how many bonds will typically be found around these neutral atoms.
a. Selenium b. Iodine c. Silicon d. Nitrogen

ANSWERS
1. Valence electrons: a. Silicon 4 b. Phosphorous 5 c. Bromine 7 d. Sulfur 6
• •• •• •
2. Dot diagrams: a. • Si • b. • P • c. : Br : d. :S :
• • • •
It does not matter which of the four sides have the paired or unpaired electrons.
•• •• ••
3a. :F : F : = F─F 3b. H : Cl : = H ─ Cl
•• •• ••
H H
•• | •• •• ••
4a. H : C : H = H─C─H 4b. : Cl : P : Cl : = Cl─P─Cl
•• | •• •• •• |
H H : Cl : Cl
••
5. Bonds: 3a. 1 3b. 1 4a. 4 4b. 3
Lone Pairs: 3a. 6 3b. 3 4a. 0 4b. 10
6. a. Selenium 2 (main group 6) b. Iodine 1 c. Silicon 4 d. Nitrogen 3

* * * * *
Lesson 25B: Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles

VSEPR
The shapes and bond angles of most molecules can be predicted with reasonable accuracy
using Lewis diagrams. This technique is called valence shell electron pair repulsion
theory (VSEPR). The term simply means that all electron pairs, whether they are lone pairs
or bonds, will repel each other, and they will separate by the maximum possible angle
around the nucleus of an atom.
Below, we will discuss in detail the shapes around atoms in the columns of the periodic
table. A chart at the end will summarize these rules.
Predicting the Shape of a Covalent Molecule
1. Draw the Lewis diagram for the molecule.
2. The general shape of a molecule will be predicted by the number of directions in which
the electron pairs are found around the central atom. For the general shape, it will not
matter whether they are bonds or lone pairs, or single, double, or triple bonds.
All of the electron pairs must be considered to determine the shape and bond angles,
but the shape is named based only on the positions of the atoms. The lone pairs help to
determine the shape, but they are ignored in naming the shape, of a covalent molecule.

a. One pair: If a bonded atom is surrounded by only one electron pair, it has one
bond to a second atom. The shape around this atom is said to be linear. Since it
takes three points to determine an angle, and two atoms are two points, an atom
with only one bond has no bond angles.
Example: H : H = H─H = H2
Each H atom has one linear bond and no bond angles.
b. Two pairs: If an atom in a molecule is surrounded by two electron pairs, both will
be bonds. The two electron pairs will separate as much as possible by assuming a
linear shape around the central atom. This shape will result in three atoms in a line,
and with three points to determine an angle, the bond angle will be 180°.
•• ••
Example: : Cl : Be : Cl : = Cl ─ Be ─ Cl = BeCl2
•• ••
The Be in BeCl2 has two linear bonds. The shape around the central atom, and
the shape of the molecule, is linear with 180° bond angles.
Note that BeCl2 is electron deficient: it violates the octet rule. BeCl2 does form,
but as an electron-deficient molecule it has some unusual properties.
c. Three pairs: If a central atom is surrounded by electron pairs in three directions,
the shape that allows the electron pairs to get as far apart as possible is termed
trigonal planar. The three bonds are in a plane (flat) with 120° bond angles.
•• •• F F
Example: :F: B:F: = B = BF3
•• •• •• | 120°
:F: F
••
The shape of the BF3 molecule is trigonal planar. All bond angles are 120°.
Like BeCl2, a BF3 Lewis diagram can be drawn using single bonds, but it
violates the octet rule. BF3 does form and has three equivalent bonds, but as
you might predict with its electron deficient structure, it has many unusual
properties.
d. Four pairs: Due to the octet rule, most stable atoms are surrounded by four electron
pairs. The three-dimensional tetrahedral shape allows those four pairs to get as far
apart as possible. In a tetrahedron, all of the angles are 109.47°.
You will need a tetrahedral molecular model for the sections below. If you have not
purchased models, build the cardboard model on the next page, then return here.

Building A Cutout Tetrahedral Model

If you do not have access to a commercial molecular model kit, a tetrahedral
model can be constructed from the patterns below.
Steps:
1. Obtain a sheet of foamboard or thick or corrugated cardboard at least one-
half the size of this sheet of paper.
2. Either copy this page, or cover this page with thin paper and trace onto the
paper, the three shapes below. Cut out the three paper patterns.
3. Using the patterns and blunt scissors, carefully cut the foamboard or
cardboard to make 2 circles, 4 rectangles, and 3 ovals.
4. Cut slots in the 9 pieces at the thick lines. The slots should be to the depth
shown by the thick lines. Cut the slots to a width that matches the thickness
of the cardboard, so that the pieces slide together in the slots tightly, but
with minimal binding.
5. On the four bonds, round off the corners of the atom ends just a bit.
6. Push together the two circles using the deep slot in each. Arrange them so
that they are at right angles, simulating a spherical shape.
7. Add two bonds to each circle to give four bonds total. Push the slots on the
bonds into the shallow slots on each circle. Try to get the bonds to be
perpendicular to the circle to which they are attached.
With four bonds, the model represents central atoms in the carbon family. The
four electron pairs around the central atom are in a tetrahedral shape. Since all of
the electron pairs are bonds to atoms, the atoms around the central atom are in a
tetrahedral shape. Since the position of the atoms decides the shape of the
molecule, the molecule is tetrahedral, and the angle between any two bonds is
109°.
Models for other families will be made by substituting lone pairs for bonds.
Atom
Bond
••
Lone Pair

a. For a single-bonded central atom in the carbon family (main group 4), all four
electron pairs around a central atom are bonds, and the arrangement of the bonds
is said to be tetrahedral, with ~109° angles between all of the bonds.
H H
•• | 109°
Example: H:C:H = C = CH4 = tetrahedral, 109° angles
•• H H
H H
A three-dimensional tetrahedron is difficult to represent on two-dimensional
paper. In the diagram above, the - - - - line represents a bond going behind the
plane of the paper, and the ∆ represents a bond coming out of the paper. A 3-D
model will assist in working with this important shape.
Build a CH4 molecule from your molecular model pieces. Place the
assembled model on a flat surface, then flip it so that it rests on three
different points. Flip it again. Note the high symmetry of a three-
dimensional tetrahedron: the shape of the molecule should be the same no
matter which three atoms the model sits upon.
b. A single-bonded central atom in the nitrogen family (main group 5) most often is
surrounded by three bonds and one lone pair.
There are four electron pairs around the central atom, and the pairs assume a
tetrahedral shape to get as far apart as possible. Because this electronic
geometry is tetrahedral, the angles between all of the electron pairs, bonds, and
the atoms are tetrahedral (~109°).
However, the lone pairs, though they count in determining the shape around a
central atom, are not considered when naming the shape. The shape is named
based on the position of only bonds and atoms.
For this case of one lone pair and three bonds around a central atom, the four
atoms are in the shape of a low pyramid. The central atom is above the plane of
the three atoms to which it bonds. Since the pyramid rests on 3 points, the
shape of the atoms is called a trigonal pyramid, and the molecular geometry is
termed trigonal pyramidal.
••
•• | ~109°
Example: H:N:H = N = NH3
•• H H
H H
Build this NH3 molecule from your kit. Starting from CH4 , replace one
bond with a lone pair. The four electron pairs are still in a tetrahedral shape.
Then take off the lone pair to look at just the shape and angles of the bonds
and atoms. With the central nitrogen atom on top, check that the atoms form
a low pyramid with tetrahedral (~109°) angles.

The shape of NH3 is trigonal pyramidal, with ~109° bond angles.
c. A single-bonded neutral atom in the oxygen family (main group 6) is most often
surrounded by two bonds and two lone pairs. These four electron pairs repel to
assume a tetrahedral shape with ~109° angles around the central atom.
As always, the lone pairs count in deciding the shape, but do not count when
naming the shape of the bonds around the central atom or the molecule. The
two bonds and the three atoms are said to be in a bent shape, with ~109° angles.
••
•• | ~109°
Example: H :O: = O = H2O
•• • H
•
H H
Build this water molecule. Place two bonds and two lone pairs around the
central atom. This puts the four electron pairs into a tetrahedral shape.
Switch the position of one bond and one lone pair. Does this create a new
molecule?
* * * * *
No. Due to the symmetry of a tetrahedron, all four electron pairs around
the central atom are in equivalent positions. The same molecule results no
matter where the two bonds and two lone pairs are attached.
In Lewis diagrams, we treat four sides around an element symbol as
equivalent because four electron pairs repel into a tetrahedral shape, and
the four sides of a tetrahedron are equivalent.
Now remove the two lone pairs. The geometric shape of the bonds and
atoms, and of the H2O molecule, is bent. Its one bond angle is ~109°.
d. If four electron pairs surround a central atom, but only one is a bond, the
electronic geometry is tetrahedral. However, since there are only two atoms,
and the atoms determine the name of the shape, the shape of the molecule is
linear. Since there is only one bond, there is no bond angle.
••
•• | ~109°
Example: H : Cl : = Cl = H ─ Cl = HCl
•• H •
•
••
The shape around the chlorine, and of the HCl molecule, is linear with no
bond angles.

3. FINE TUNING: We can increase the accuracy of VSEPR bond-angle predictions with
the following rule:
Lone pairs repel slightly more than bonds. The lone pairs need more room.
If lone pairs are present in a tetrahedral shape, the angles around the lone pairs will be
slightly larger than 109°. This will push the angles between bonds to be slightly less than
109°.
Lone pairs tend to occupy slightly more space than bonds, because in bonds, the
electron pairs are more localized along the axis between the atomic nuclei. This means
that the lone pairs repel other pairs slightly more than bonds. The angle between the
lone pairs is therefore slightly larger than the angle between bonds.
For example, the general model predicts that in a water molecule, the shape is bent
with bond angles of ~109°. However, because water has two lone pairs, they repel
each other and the bonds slightly more than the bonds repel each other. This “lone
pair scrunch” forces the bonds into an angle slightly smaller than 109°.
In water, the shape is bent as predicted, but the actual, measured bond angle is
104.5°, slightly less than the tetrahedral angle that the general rules predict. The
angle in water is a typical value for central atoms surrounded by two lone pairs and
two bonds.
••
Angle more than 109° between lone pairs > |
Water: O
• H
•
H < Angle less than 109° between atoms
In what cases for single-bonded compounds will bond angles be less than 109°? Only
cases with one lone pair and three bonds, or two lone pairs and two bonds: those with
central atoms in the nitrogen or oxygen family, which are those in the 5th or 6th tall
column of the periodic table.
For single-bonded carbon family neutral atoms, the bond angles are 109° rather than less
than 109°. When there are no lone pairs around the central atom, there is no lone pair
effect on the angles.

Summary
For the second row of the periodic table, and with frequent exceptions for rows below the
second row, central atoms in neutral compounds will generally have the characteristics
listed in the table below. Learn this table so that given the terms in the first column you can
fill in the blanks, based on the rules for the behavior of electron pairs.
For neutral, single-bonded atoms:
Second
Row Li Be B C N O F Ne
Symbol
Main
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number
Valence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Electrons
Bonds 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Lone
0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4
Pairs
Shape Linear Linear Trigonal Tetrahedral Trigonal Bent Linear No

Planar Pyramidal Bonds
Bond
None 180° 120° 109° <109° <109° None
Angles
Practice: Use a periodic table, plus models if needed. Check answers after each part.
1. For a molecule in which the central atom is surrounded by two bonds and two lone
pairs,
a. What is the shape of the electron pairs?
b. What is the shape of the atoms?
c. What is the bond angle?
2. From memory, list the predicted shapes of the bonds around central atoms for the
elements in the second row of the periodic table, in order.
3. From memory, under each shape in Problem 2, write the predicted bond angles.

4. Complete this table based on VSEPR predictions for neutral, single-bonded atoms.
Molecule NF3 SiH4 AlCl3 SI2
Lewis
(Dot)
Diagram
Shape of
Electron
Pairs
Shape of
Molecule
and Bonds
Bond
Angles
5. Which molecule in Problem 4 would likely be the least stable and most reactive? Why?
ANSWERS
1. The four electron pairs repel to into a tetrahedral shape. The three atoms are bent, with a bond angle of
slightly less than 109°.
2. Linear, Linear, Trigonal Planar, Tetrahedral, Pyramidal, Bent, Linear, No Bonds
3. None 180° 120° 109° <109° <109° None
4.
Molecule NF3 SiH4 AlCl3 SI2
Dot •• •• •• H •• •• •• •• ••
:F:N :F: •• : Cl : Al : Cl : :I : S : I :
Diagram •• •• ••
H : Si : H •• •• •• •• •• ••
••
:F: H : Cl : (also could be
•• •• drawn at 90°)
e─ Pairs Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Trigonal Planar Tetrahedral
Molecule Trigonal
Tetrahedral Trigonal Planar Bent
and Bonds Pyramidal
Bond Angles <109° 109° 120° <109°
5. AlCl3 would be predicted to be the least stable and most reactive because Al has an unsatisfied octet.
* * * * *

Lesson 25C: Electronegativity

The Electronegativity Scale
What decides if a particular bond will be ionic or covalent? Our previous “rule of thumb”
has been that if a bond is between a metal and a non-metal atom, it will likely be ionic, but
if it is between two non-metals, it will be covalent. A more precise view is that bonds have
a mixture of ionic and covalent character. This latter model for bonding will allow more
accurate predictions of the properties and behavior of bonds and substances.
Atoms have differing attractions for electrons. Electronegativity (a model developed by
Linus Pauling) predicts how strongly each atom attracts the electrons in a bond.
The electronegativity scale assigns each element a value between 0.7 and 4.0. Fluorine
(EN = 4.0) is the strongest electron attractor of all the elements. Cesium and francium (EN =
0.7) are the weakest electron attractors.
The following table lists the electronegativity values of the elements. (These numbers are
termed the Pauling values. Other models may use slightly different EN values.)
The electronegativity values (EN) for the second row elements should be memorized. This
is easy, since the 2nd row numbers start at 1.0 and increase by 0.5 for each element to the
right. The frequently used values for hydrogen (2.1) and chlorine (3.0) should also be
memorized.
Electronegativity Values
Row 1 2.1
Row 2 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Row 3 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 1.8 3.0
Row 4 0.8 1.0 1.3-1.9 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Row 5 0.8 1.0 1.3-2.2 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
Row 6 0.7 0.9 1.1-2.4 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
Row 7 0.7 0.9
In the table, note that

• hydrogen’s value of 2.1 is in the middle range of values.
• Only four elements have EN values of 3.0 and above: N, O, F, and Cl.
• Values generally (but not always) increase toward the top right corner of the
periodic table: to the right across a row and up a column.
To predict bond behavior, the electronegativity model divides bonds into three types:
Ionic, polar covalent, and non-polar covalent.

Ionic Bonds
In general, if the difference between the electronegativities of two bonded atoms
• is greater than 1.7, the bond will generally have ionic character;
• is 1.7 or less, the bond is likely to have covalent character.
An ionic bond can be thought of as a bond in which the difference in electron attraction is
so strong that the more electronegative atom removes valence electrons from the other
atom to form two charged particles.
Polar Versus Non-Polar Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are divided into two types: polar and non-polar.
For a covalent bond between two atoms that have the same or very similar
electronegativity values, the electrons on average will be found at an equal distance
between the two nuclei.
Examples: F─F Cl ─ Cl N ─ Cl
EN: 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
A covalent bond in which the electrons are equally shared is said to be non-polar.
As the difference in the electronegativity of two bonded atoms increases, the bond becomes
more polar. The electrons are still shared, but they tend to be found closer to the more
electron-attracting atom.
This uneven electron sharing creates a dipole: an uneven distribution of electric charge. The
more electronegative atom takes on a partial negative charge, while the weaker electron
attractor takes on a partial positive charge.
In chemistry, dipoles are generally represented using two types of notation. In math and
science, a δ (a lower-case Greek delta) is often used as a symbol meaning partial. In this
notation, a polar bond is labeled with two deltas: The atom that is the stronger electron
attractor, with the higher electronegativity value, has its partial negative charge labeled δ –
(pronounced delta minus), and the weaker electron attractor is labeled δ+ (delta plus).
Examples: δ+ C — O δ— δ+ N — F δ— δ— O — H δ+
An alternate way to represent a dipole is to use an arrow over top of a bond. The arrow
points toward the end of the bond with the stronger electron attractor; toward the side
where on average the electrons are more likely to be found.
Examples: CÆO N ÆF OÅH
As the difference in electronegativity in bonds rises, from zero to as high as 3.3, the
character of the bond changes gradually from non-polar to polar to ionic. However, in
general, if the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is
• from 0 to 0.4, the bond is considered to be covalent and non-polar;
• from 0.5 to 1.7, the bond is considered to be covalent but polar;
• above 1.7, the bond is considered to be ionic.

The choice of the breakpoints at 0.4 and 1.7 is arbitrary. Some textbooks use values such as
0.3 or 0.7 and 2.0. In any case, the electronegativity differences should be seen as a gradual
shifting from non-polar, to polar, to ionic character.
Practice: Memorize the electronegativity values for H, Cl, and the second row elements.
Then use those values and a periodic table that does not include electronegativity values on
the problems below. If needed, check your answers after each part.
1. For each of the bonds below,
a. write the electronegativity value above each atom from memory.
b. Below the bond, label each atom as δ+ or δ—.
c. On the next line down, calculate the electronegativity difference.
d. On the next line down, label the bond as non-polar, polar, or ionic.
e. On the next line down, re-write the bond using an arrow in place of the bond to
show the direction of the dipole.
i. C—H ii. N — Cl iii. C — F iv. O — B
ANSWERS
1a. 2.5 2.1 3.0 3.0 2.5 4.0 3.5 2.0
C—H N — Cl C—F O—B
1b. δ— δ+ no δ δ+ δ— δ— δ+
1c. 0.4 0 1.5 1.5
1d. non-polar or non-polar polar polar
slightly polar
1e. CÅH N — Cl (no dipole) CÆF OÅB
* * * * *

Lesson 25D: Molecular Polarity

Polar versus Non-Polar Molecules
• Why do salad oil and water-based vinegar, after being shaken, separate into two
layers, yet alcohols and water dissolve into each other without forming two layers?
• Why do soaps and detergents dissolve in water, but also dissolve oils from food and
skin that normally do not dissolve in water?
• Why do salts and sugars dissolve in water, but most rocks do not?
• Can we predict formulas for pharmaceuticals that will relieve pain and cure
disease?
The answers to these practical and important questions are often found in the shapes and
polarities of bonds and molecules.
In the previous lesson, electronegativity was used to classify bonds as ionic, polar and non-
polar. Molecules can also be classified as having ionic, polar, and non-polar character.
In classifying the polarity of combinations of atoms, the rules are:
1. A compound with just one ionic bond will generally (but not always) have ionic
behavior, even if it also has many non-polar bonds.
2. A molecule with all covalent bonds will be polar if
• it has polar bonds and
• the dipoles do not cancel due to molecular symmetry.
3. A molecule will be non-polar if
• it has all non-polar bonds, or
• it has polar bonds, but the dipoles cancel due to symmetry.
Flow Chart: Predicting the Polarity of Molecules
Compounds that are combinations of metals and non-metals strongly tend to be ionic.
Formulas that you recognize as ionic solids will also be ionic.
In other cases, to predict whether a neutral molecule will have ionic, non-polar, or polar
behavior, apply the steps in the following flow chart in order.
1. Assign electronegativity (EN) values to each atom.
2. Based on the EN differences, label the bonds as ionic, non-polar, or polar.
3. If one bond is ionic, the molecule is ionic.
4. If all of the bonds are non-polar, the molecule is non-polar.
5. If steps 3 and 4 do not apply, one or more of the bonds must be polar.
a. Draw the Lewis diagram and sketch the shape of the molecule.
b. On the sketch, replace the bonds with arrows representing the dipoles. Use
geometry and symmetry to see if the dipoles cancel. If needed, make a 3-D model.
c. If the dipoles cancel, the molecule is non-polar. If the dipoles do not cancel, there is a
net dipole, and the molecule is polar.

Dipole Cancellation
You may have had practice adding vectors in math or physics classes. Dipoles are one of the
types of quantities that add in two or three dimensions using vector addition. Even if you
have not practiced vector addition, dipole addition can often by simplified by this rule:
Equal but opposite dipoles cancel.
Let’s learn the method by example. Based on the flow chart rules above, apply the steps
above to the following cases, and then check your answers below.
Q. Label these compounds as ionic, covalent polar, or covalent non-polar. Use a periodic
table without EN values (all of these atoms have values you should know). Because
these molecules are two-dimensional, you should not need models to evaluate
symmetry.
1. Cl2 2. LiCl 3. O=C=O (linear) 4. HCl
* * * * *
1. In Cl2, both atoms have the same electronegativity value. The difference in EN values
between the two atoms is zero. When the EN difference is 0 to 0.4, the bond is non-
polar, and the molecule is covalent non-polar.
In Cl2, the shape for two atoms must be Cl—Cl . There is equal sharing of the electrons
in the bond between the two atoms. On average, the two electrons in the bond will be
found half-way between each atom, so there is no bond dipole.
* * * * *
2. Li has a 1.0 EN and Cl has a 3.0 EN. The difference is 2.0, which is above 1.7, so the
bond is likely to have ionic behavior. If one bond (or more) in a compound is ionic, the
compound is ionic. The more electronegative atom will tend to take the two electrons
in the bond. The result is an Li+ ion and a Cl─ ion.
* * * * *
3. CO2 is a linear molecule with two double bonds. In calculating an EN difference, it
does not matter whether the bond is single, double, or triple. The carbon EN is 2.5,
oxygen’s EN is 3.5, the EN difference is 1.0, so both bonds are polar.
When bonds are polar, the symmetry test must be applied to see if the dipoles cancel.
Add the dipoles to the molecular shape: OÅCÆO . When dipoles are equal but in
opposite directions, they cancel due to symmetry. That is true in this case. OÅCÆO has
polar bonds but is a non-polar molecule because the dipoles cancel.
* * * * *
4. H has a 2.1 EN and Cl a 3.0 EN. The difference is 0.9, which is in the range of 0.5 to 1.7,
so the bond is polar. The shape for this molecule must be H—Cl . Because Cl is more
electronegative than H, the dipole points toward Cl: H Æ Cl . Since this bond is polar
and there are no other bonds to cancel its dipole, the molecule has a dipole and is polar.
* * * * *

Practice A: Use a periodic table that does not include electronegativity values (you
should know these from their table position). If needed, check answers after each part.
Based on VSEPR and electronegativity, predict whether these compounds will be ionic,
covalent polar, or covalent non-polar.
H
\
1. BeH2 2. LiF 3. C=O (flat shape) 4. BCl3
/
H
Polarity In 3-D Molecules

In the section above, we considered two-dimensional molecules. For compounds that are
three-dimensional, it helps to make a model to judge the dipoles and symmetry. For three-
dimensional molecules with tetrahedral pairs, the following are general rules.
1. If a central atom in the carbon family has four single bonds to the same atom, even if the
bonds are polar, the dipoles will cancel due to symmetry. The molecule will be non-polar.
Examples: CH4, SiF4 are non-polar molecules.
2. For a single-bonded central atom that obeys the octet rule in the nitrogen or oxygen
family, the molecular shape is trigonal pyramidal or bent. If any of the three bonds are
polar, and if all of the dipoles point to, or all point away from, the central atom, the
molecule is polar because the dipoles cannot cancel.
Examples: NH3, OF2 are polar molecules.
3. In more complex cases, a model should be made and the dipoles analyzed.
Some examples will help with these rules. Do the parts below one at a time, checking your
answers after each part.
Q. Using the flow chart and symmetry rules, label these compounds as ionic, covalent
polar, or covalent non-polar. Use a periodic table without electronegativity values.
Make molecular models if needed.
1. H2O 2. CCl4 3. NH3 4. CHF3
* * * * *
To evaluate molecular polarity, use the flow chart. First evaluate bond polarity. If the
bonds are polar, evaluate symmetry to see if the dipoles cancel.
1. H2O: H has an EN of 2.1, O has an EN of 3.5. The difference of 1.4 makes the bond
polar. When the bond is polar, evaluate the symmetry.
H H H H H H
•• | <109°
Water = : O: H = O = O added = O
•• • H
•
••

H2O has tetrahedral 3-D electron pairs but 2-D bonds and atoms. Bonds, not lone pairs,
contain the dipoles. The bonds in water have a bent shape with <109° angles. Both of
the dipoles point toward oxygen, so they do not cancel. The bonds are polar and the
water molecule is polar. The dipole in water can be represented by an arrow (above) or
using δ+ notation. .
H The net dipole points from the H side toward O.
δ+ O δ— The H side is δ+ and the O side is δ—.
H
Even with its polar bonds, if water were H-O-H linear in shape, it would not have a net
dipole. However, the bonds in water are bent rather than linear. This means that
Water is polar.
The polarity of water is an important factor in many reactions in chemistry and biology.
* * * * *
2. CCl4: C is EN 2.5 and Cl is EN 3.0, so the C—Cl bond weakly polar, and the dipoles
point toward Cl.
CCl4 is tetrahedral with 4 equal bond dipoles. Turning the model so that two bonds are
up and two down, the top and the bottom two dipoles cancel side to side. The
resultants are two dipoles, one pointing up and the other down. These two resultant
dipoles also cancel, because they are equal but in opposite directions.
••
: Cl : Cl Cl
•• •• •• | 109°
CCl4 = : Cl : C : Cl : = C = C
•• •• •• Cl Cl Cl Cl
: Cl : Cl Cl
••
When a central atom is surrounded by four tetrahedral bonds to the same atom, the
molecule is always non-polar due to symmetry.
* * * * *
3. NH3: First evaluate bond polarity. The EN of N is 3.0, and of H is 2.1. The difference
of 0.9 means that the bonds are polar, with the dipoles pointing toward N.
Polar bonds can mean polar or non-polar molecules, depending on whether the dipoles
cancel. To check for dipole cancellation, draw the Lewis diagram: NH3 has tetrahedral
electron pairs with one lone pair and 3 bonds. Make the tetrahedral model, then take
off the lone pair, to focus on the bonds that determine the polarity. If the model is
placed so that the central N is up, all of the dipoles point upward from the H’s toward
N. The dipoles are equal but not opposite: they do not cancel. NH3 is polar.

••
•• |
NH3 = H:N:H = N = N
•• H H H H
H H <109° H
In pyramidal molecules, three dipoles in the same direction, pointing either to or
from a central atom, always result in polar molecules.
* * * * *
4. CHF3: The bonds between C (2.5) and F (4.0) are strongly polar toward F, with an EN
difference of 1.5. The C—H bond is only slightly polar. The molecule may be non-polar
if the C—F dipoles cancel. To check for dipole cancellation, draw the Lewis diagram.
CHF3 has tetrahedral electron pairs with 4 bonds. Then assemble the tetrahedral
model. If the model is held so that the H atom is up, all of the dipoles point down. The
dipoles are not equal and opposite: they do not cancel. By VSEPR and electronegativity
rules, CHF3 is predicted to be a polar molecule.
H H H
•• •• •• | 109°
CHF3 = : F : C: F : = C = C
•• •• •• F F F F
: F : F F
••
Practice B: On these, use a periodic table and a table of electronegativity values. Be

prepared to build tetrahedral models. If needed, check your answers after each part.
Based on VSEPR and electronegativity, predict whether these compounds will be ionic,
covalent polar, or covalent non-polar.
1. SBr2 2. PCl3 3. SiH4 4. SiH3Cl
ANSWERS
Practice A
All of the molecules in Practice A are two dimensional: their shapes can be drawn on paper.
1. BeH2 First assign EN values to categorize the bonds. 2.1 H – 1.5 Be = 0.6 > 0.4 = polar bonds.
If bonds are polar, draw the Lewis diagram and shape to see if the dipoles cancel.
The central atom Be has a linear shape for its bonds and 180° bond angles.

Add the dipoles by vector addition. Because they are equal and in opposite directions: they cancel. The
VSEPR prediction is that the molecule is non-polar.
EN: 2.1 1.5 2.1
BeH2 = H : Be : H = H─Be─H = H Be H = non-polar
2. LiF First assign EN values to categorize the bonds. 4.0 F – 1.0 Li = 3.0 > 1.7 = ionic bonds.
If one bond is ionic, the compound is ionic.
3. H2C=O Assign EN values to categorize the bonds.
2.1 H – 2.5 C = 0.4 = slightly polar bond toward C. 3.5 O – 2.5 C = 1.0 = a polar bond toward O.
Electronegativity differences apply in the same way to single and double bonds.
If one or more bonds are polar, draw the Lewis diagram, sketch the shape, add the dipoles, and see if the
dipoles cancel. Since this molecule is flat, it can be analyzed on paper.
H H H
C==O = C O C= O = a polar molecule.
H H H
4. BCl3 Assign EN values to categorize the bonds. 3.0 Cl – 2.0 B = 1.0 > 0.4 = polar bonds.
If bonds are polar, draw the Lewis diagram and shape to see if the dipoles cancel.
•• •• Cl Cl Cl Cl
BCl3 = : Cl : B : Cl : = B = B
•• •• •• | 120°
: Cl : Cl Cl
••
The central atom B is predicted by VSEPR to have a trigonal planar shape for its bonds and 120° bond
angles. Adding the dipoles by vector addition, they are equal and in opposite directions: they cancel. The
VSEPR prediction is that the molecule is non-polar.
Practice B
1. SBr2 : Assign EN values to categorize the bonds. 2.8 Br – 1.8 S = 1.0 > 0.4 = polar bonds.
If bonds are polar, either draw the Lewis diagram and shape, add the vectors and see if they cancel.
Since sulfur is in the oxygen family, it generally bonds twice. Bromine, a halogen, generally bonds once.
Sulfur, with more bonds, is therefore the central atom. Central atoms in the oxygen family form neutral
covalent molecules that are bent, with slightly less than 109° bond angles. Bent molecules are two
dimensional; their polarity can be evaluated on paper.
Since the two dipoles are 109° apart and not 180°, they are equal but not opposite. Adding the two dipoles
by vector addition gives a net, resultant dipole. The molecule is predicted to be polar.
Br Br Br
S — Br = S Br = = S — Br = a polar molecule.
Shape dipoles net resultant dipole
Or use the rule that bent and trigonal pyramidal molecules with three of the same polar bonds are always
polar molecules.

2. PCl3 : First label the bonds. 3.0 Cl – 2.1 P = 0.9 = polar bonds.
If any of the bonds are polar, draw the Lewis diagram and shape, then add the dipole vectors to see if they
cancel.
Since phosphorous is in the nitrogen family, it typically bonds 3 times. Chlorine, a halogen, usually bonds
once. Phosphorous, bonding more, is therefore the central atom. Central atoms in the nitrogen family form
neutral covalent molecules that are trigonal pyramids with slightly less than 109° bond angles.
••
•• •• •• |
PCl3 = : Cl : P : Cl : = P = P
: Cl : Cl <109° Cl
••
Lone pairs are not bonds and do not have dipoles. The three bond dipoles are equal but not in opposite
directions, so they do not cancel. The molecule is polar.
Bent and trigonal pyramidal molecules with the same polar bonds are always polar molecules.
3. SiH4: For a central atom in the carbon family, whenever four of the same atoms are attached, any dipoles
will cancel due to tetrahedral symmetry. SiH4 is a non-polar molecule.
4. SiH3Cl Assign EN values to categorize the bonds.
2.1 H – 1.8 Si = 0.3 = non-polar Si—H bonds. 3.0 Cl – 1.8 Si = 1.2 = a polar Si—Cl bond with the
dipole toward Cl. If any bonds are polar, draw the Lewis diagram and shape, add the vectors and see if
they cancel.
Since silicon is in the carbon family, it bonds four times. Chlorine and hydrogen bond once. Silicon,
bonding more, is the central atom. For neutral covalent compounds with their central atoms in the carbon
family, molecules are tetrahedral with 109° bond angles. Make a model to investigate the symmetry.
H H H
•• | 109°
SiH3Cl = H : Si : H = Si = Si
•• H Cl H Cl
: Cl : H H
••
SiH3Cl has one polar bond un-cancelled by others. The molecule is predicted to be polar.
* * * * *

Lesson 25E: Solubility

How much of a substance will dissolve in a given liquid is complex: it depends on the
size, geometry, electronic properties, temperature, and relative amounts of the particles
of the substance and the liquid. However, some useful general rules can predict
solubility for a large number of substances and solvents.
If a liquid composed of non-polar molecules (such as a salad oil) is shaken with a liquid
composed of polar molecules (such as vinegar, which is primarily water), when the shaking
stops, the two liquids will slowly separate into two layers.
When two liquids composed of polar molecules, such as water and alcohols, are mixed, the
liquids dissolve in each other. One solution without layers is the result.
Why the difference?
For solubility, the general rule is: like dissolves like.

y Polar liquids will dissolve polar or ionic particles.
y Non-polar liquids dissolve non-polar molecules.
y Polar and non-polar substances do not dissolve in each other.
The most common polar solvent is water.
H H H H H H
•• | <109°
Water = : O: H = O = O added = O
•• • H
•
••
An example of a non-polar liquid is carbon tetrachloride, in which the four equal and
opposite dipoles cancel to give a non-polar molecule.
••
: Cl : Cl Cl
•• •• •• | 109°
CCl4 = : Cl : C : Cl : = C = C
: Cl : Cl Cl
••
If H2O and CCl4 are shaken together, after the shaking stops, the two liquids separate
into two layers, just as with oil and vinegar dressing. In oil and vinegar, the salad oil
will rise above the denser water. If water is mixed with CCl4, the denser CCl4 will be
the bottom layer, with the water on top.
When mixed liquids separate into layers, they are said to be immiscible (pronounced
em-miss-ible). When liquids dissolve in each other, as in the case of water and ethanol,
they are termed miscible.

Choosing a Solvent
Water is a good solvent for many ionic solids, polar sugars, and polar alcohols. Those
substances do not dissolve well in CCl4 and other non-polar solvents.
Carbon tetrachloride at one time was used as a “dry cleaning fluid.” It dissolved non-
polar oils from clothing without the use of the water that could damage some fabrics.
(More modern dry cleaning liquids are also non-polar, but not as hazardous as CCl4.)
Oils do not dissolve well in water. Soaps and detergents are substances added to water
to remove skin oils from fabrics. These long-chain molecules combine a polar group on
one end to dissolve in polar water and non-polar groups on the other to dissolve oils.
This structure allows soaps to dissolve oils and dissolve in water at the same time.
To choose a solvent to dissolve a substance, we begin by analyzing whether its particles
are ionic, polar, or non-polar, then apply the solubility rule: “like dissolves like.”
Let’s try a few examples. Below, complete the PH3 column first, check your answers on
the next page, and then complete the remaining columns.
Molecule PH3 NaCl HBr
Lewis
Diagram
Shape of
Electron Pairs
Shape of
Molecule
Bond
Angles
Bond Polarity
Molecule
Polarity
Dissolves in
Oil or Water?
* * * * *

Answers
PH3 : PH3 is predicted to have tetrahedral
••
•• | electron pairs, a trigonal pyramidal
H:P:H = P shape, and bond angles of < 109°.
•• H H
H H <109°
For the bond polarity: EN of P = 2.1, EN of H = 2.1 . The P—H bond is non-polar.
Because all of the bonds are non-polar, the molecule is non-polar. Non-polar molecules
dissolve in non-polar solvents, such as oils, gasoline, or CCl4. They tend not to dissolve
in water.
* * * * *
••
NaCl (table salt): = Na : Cl :
••
In a covalent molecule, NaCl would have tetrahedral electron pairs around chlorine.
Two atoms in a molecule always have a linear shape with no bond angles.
For bond polarity: The EN of Na = 0.9, the EN of Cl = 3.0. The EN difference is 2.1,
which is greater than 1.7, so the bond is ionic. Any ionic bonds in a compound means
that the compound will have primarily ionic behavior.
Ionic compounds tend to dissolve in polar solvents like water more than in oils.
A Lewis diagram can be drawn representing a covalently bonded NaCl, as above, but
NaCl most often behaves as two separate ions rather than as a covalent compound with
shared electrons.
Table salt dissolves readily in water because polar solvents dissolve ionic compounds.
If table salt is added to salad oil alone, the salt will fall to the bottom and remain
undissolved, because non-polar solvents do not dissolve ionic compounds.
* * * * *
••
HBr = H : Br : = H—Br (linear)
••
HBr has tetrahedral electron pairs around bromine, a linear shape, and no bond angles.
For the bond polarity: The EN of H = 2.1, the EN of Br = 2.8.
The difference is 0.7, in the range of 0.5 to 1.7, so the bond is polar.
Adding the dipole to the linear shape gives H Æ Br . The molecule is polar.
Polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water, but not in non-polar oils. For
solubility, like dissolves like.
* * * * *

The Reliability of VSEPR and Solubility Predictions

“Like dissolved like” is a simplified solubility rule, and there are many exceptions.
Factors other than bond polarity and geometry, including molecular size, affect
solubility. Most molecules are soluble to at least a slight extent in all solvents. Bond and
molecular polarities are better described as a continuum than as a simple case of “polar
versus nonpolar.” The VSEPR and electronegativity models are useful in predicting
shape and solubility, but there are many exceptions.
For example, in PH3 above, the predicted VSEPR bond angles would be about 107°, but
actual bond angles are about 94°. For some substances, more sophisticated models will
be needed to explain experimental results. That said, the rules for VSEPR,
electronegativity, and “like dissolves like” accurately predict the shape, polarity, and
solubility of most substances.
Practice. You may use a periodic table and a table of electronegativity values. Be
prepared to build tetrahedral models. If needed, check your answers after each part.
Fill in the following chart for the substances shown. Based your predictions on the
general rules for VSEPR, electronegativity, and solubility.
Molecule SCl2 SeI2 GaBr3
Lewis
Diagram
Shape of
Electron Pairs
Shape of
Molecule
(Name and
Sketch)
Bond
Angles
Bond Polarity
Molecule
Polarity
Dissolves in
Oil or Water?

ANSWERS
Molecule SCl2 SeI2 GaBr3
•• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••
Lewis
: Cl : S : Cl : : I : Se : I : : Br : Ga : Br :
Diagram •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••
(also could be (also could be : Br :
drawn at 90°) drawn at 90°) ••
Shape of Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Trigonal Planar

Electron Pairs
Shape of Bent Bent Trigonal Br
Molecule Cl I Planar Ga
(Name and
Sketch) Cl — S I — Se Br Br
Bond <109° <109° 120°

Angles
Bond Polarity 3.0 – 1.8 = 1.2 = polar 2.6 – 2.4 = 0.2 = nonpolar 2.6 – 1.8 = 0.8 = polar
Molecule Polar Non-Polar Non-Polar

Polarity (bent with polar bonds) (non-polar bonds) (the 3 dipoles cancel)
Dissolves in Water Oil Oil

Oil or Water?
* * * * *
Lesson 25F: Double and Triple Bonds

Double Bonds
Atoms in main groups 4 and above of the periodic table can satisfy the octet rule by
forming double bonds that have two pairs of electrons between the atoms. In the Lewis
diagram, the valence electrons for each double-bonded atom are placed on three sides of
the element symbol instead of the four sides used for single bonds.
Drawing Double Bonded Lewis Diagrams
If you know the molecular formula for a substance and you know that the molecule
contains a double bond, draw the Lewis diagram using these steps.
1. Count the total number valence electrons in the particle.
2. Determine which atoms in the formula have the double bond between them.
Because hydrogen bonds only once, it will not double bond. (The octet rule can be
used for double-bonded halogens, but in most cases halogens will bond only once).

3. Write the two double-bonded atoms next to each other so that there are two pairs of
valence electrons (four electrons total) between them.
Two double-bonded atoms = ::

4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons around each atom symbol. If the
remaining bonds are single bonds, each bond will have two valence electrons.
Double-bonded atoms may have lone pairs of electrons.
Satisfy the octet rule for the remaining atoms (but duet rule for H).
An example of a compound with one double bond is ethene (also called ethylene), C2H4.
Use the rules above to draw the Lewis diagram for ethene. Try steps one and two, and
then check your answer below.
* * * * *
1. C2H4 has 4 valence electrons from each carbon and one from each hydrogen, for a
total of 12 valence electrons.
2. Since hydrogen is in column one, it can bond only once and it can form only single
covalent bonds. That leaves the two carbons to form the double bond.
Try step 3.
* * * * *
3. Combine the two double-bonded atoms to form the double bond. It will have two
pairs: four valence electrons. Note how the triangles faces meet in arranging the
valence electrons around the double-bonded atoms.
Two double-bonded carbons = C::C

Try step 4.
* * * * *
4. Distribute the remaining 8 valence electrons and four atoms. Satisfy the octet for
each carbon and the duet for each hydrogen.
H H
•y y•
Double-bonded C2H4 = C::C
y• •y
H H
Double Bond Shape
The shape around a double-bonded atom can be predicted using the fundamental
VSEPR rule: The directions with the electron pairs around each atom get as far apart as
possible.
In determining shape, the pairs in a double bond have about the same repulsion as a
single lone pair, only slightly more repulsion than a single bond. In determining shape,

what matters primarily is the number of directions in which electron pairs are found
around the central atom.
The shape that lets the electron pairs get as far apart as possible around each carbon is
trigonal planar. The shape of the bonds around a double-bonded atom is flat, with
~120° bond angles.
H H
The H-C-H angles are < 120°.
Double-bonded C2H4 = C == C All atoms are in the
plane of the paper.
H H
Practice A: Use a periodic table. If needed, check your answers after each part. Do
Problems 1 and 3, and 2 if you need more practice.
Draw Lewis diagrams, sketch the shape, and add the bond angles for each of these
molecules.
1. H2CO with one double bond. 2. N2H2 with one double bond.
3. Try CO2 with two double bonds and C in the middle. Follow the octet rule.
Triple Bonds
Triple bonds most often occur for atoms in main groups 4 and 5 (the carbon and
nitrogen families). In triple bonds, the valence electrons are put on two sides of the
element symbol, with three pairs of valence electrons between the two triple-bonded
atoms.
To draw Lewis diagrams for triple-bonded atoms, use these steps.
1. Total the valence electrons for the elements in the molecule.
2. Determine the two atoms that triple bond.
3. Write symbols for the two triple-bonded atoms. Place the valence electrons on two
sides, with three pairs of valence electrons between them.
4. Distribute the remaining atoms and valence electrons to satisfy the octet/duet rule.
An example of a triple-bonded compound is ethyne (also called acetylene), C2H2 , a gas
that is used in torches that cut steel.
Try steps one and two above for C2H2, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
1. C2H2 has 4 valence electrons from each carbon and one from each hydrogen.
4+4+1+1= a total of 10 valence electrons.
2. H can only form single bonds, so the triple bond must be between the two C’s.

3. Place three electron pairs between the two triple-bonded C atoms.

Two triple-bonded carbons = C:::C
Try steps 4 and 5.
* * * * *
4. Match the unpaired electrons on the single-bonded atoms to the remaining unpaired
electrons on the double bonded atoms. Satisfy the octets (and duet for H).
Triple-bonded C2H2 = H:C:: :C:H

Check that each carbon is surrounded by 8, and each hydrogen by 2, valence
electrons.
Triple Bond Shape

The shape that lets electron pairs in two directions around a central atom get as far apart
as possible is linear with 180° bond angles.
C2H2 = H — C ≡≡ C — H = linear shape with all 180° bond angles.
Practice B: Try to do these without a periodic table. If needed, check your answers
after each part.
Draw Lewis diagrams, sketch the shape, and add the bond angles for each of these
molecules.
1. HCN with a triple bond. 2. N2 with a triple bond.
Predicting Single, Double, or Triple Bonds From the Formula

For many relatively simple molecules, if you know the formula, you can use the
octet/duet rule to predict whether the molecule will have single, double, or triple bonds.
The steps are: count the valence electrons, and then draw Lewis diagrams that satisfy
the octet/duet rule.
Q. Draw a Lewis diagram and then a structural formula for O2, and then check your
answer below.
* * * * *
O2 has 12 total valence electrons. Lewis diagrams that satisfy the octet rule are
yy yy yy yy
O::O = O == O = O == O = O2
yy yy yy yy
Lewis Dot Lewis Dot-Bond Structural Molecular

Diagram Diagram Formula Formula
* * * * *

Practice C: Try to do these without a periodic table. If needed, check your answers
after each part.
Draw a Lewis diagram and then a structural formula for
1. C2Cl2 2. O3 3. H2S
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. H H
yy yy All bond angles are 120°.
H2CO = C::O = C == O All atoms are in the
yy yy plane of the paper.
H H
The double bond must be between C and O, since H only bonds once.
The electron pairs in a double bond are placed on two triangle shapes ◄► around the atoms. The
shape lets electron pairs on 3 sides of an atom get as far apart as possible is trigonal planar.
2. H H
yy yy All bond angles are 120°.
N2H2 = N::N = N == N All atoms are in the
yy yy plane of the paper.
H H
Note that octets and duets are satisfied. The shape can also be drawn as N == N
/ \
H H
3. yy yy
CO2 = O::C::O = O == C == O The bond angle is 180°.
yy yy The molecule is linear.
All octets are satisfied.
Practice B
1. Triple-bonded HCN = H:C:::N: = H — C ≡≡ N

The molecule is linear with a 180° bond angle between the three atoms
2. Triple-bonded N2 = :N:::N: = N ≡≡N

Both N’s have satisfied octets. The molecule is linear with no bond angle (it takes three atoms to have
an angle in the molecule).

Practice C
1. C2Cl2 has 4+4+7+7 = 22 total valence electrons. The chlorines generally bond only once because
they are halogens. A Lewis diagram that satisfies the octet rule for all four atoms is
•• ••
: Cl : C : : : C : Cl : = Cl — C ≡≡ C — Cl
•• ••
2. O3 has 6+6+6 = 18 total valence electrons. The chlorines must bond only once because they are
halogens. One Lewis diagram that satisfies the octet rule for all four atoms is
yy yy
O3 = O::O = O == O
y yy yy
y O O
yy yy
An equally valid diagram (called a resonance structure) can be drawn with the single and double
bonds switched in position. When resonance structures are possible for a particle, the properties
of the particle will be a blend of the two resonance structures, and the particle will have special
stability.
3. H2S has 1+1+6 = 8 total valence electrons. A Lewis diagram that satisfies the octet rule for S and duet
rule for H is
•• ••
H2S = H : S : H or H :S: = S ─H
•• •• /
H H
These two Lewis diagrams are not two different structures; they represent the same molecule. If four
sides are shown around a central atom, the four sides are equivalent. H2S will have tetrahedral
electron pairs and a bent shape, with bond angles of slightly less than 109°.
* * * * *
Lesson 25G: Dot Diagrams For Ions

Ion Dot Diagrams
Dot diagrams for ions are drawn by adding and subtracting electrons from the Lewis
diagrams for neutral particles.
1. To make Lewis diagrams for monatomic ions,
a. draw the Lewis diagram for the neutral atom.
b. Take away electrons to form positive ions. Add electrons to form negative ions.
Most often, a positive ion shows no valence electrons around the symbol, and a
negative ion has 8 valence electrons (hydride ion, H─, has 2 valence electrons).
c. Put brackets [ ] around the Lewis diagram, then add the charge as a superscript.

Examples: Neutral Na atom = Na y ; Na+ ion = [ Na ]+ ;

y
Neutral Al atom = y Al y ; Al3+ ion = [ Al ]3+,
y yy
Neutral S atom = :S: ; S2─ ion = [ : S : ]2─
y yy
2. To make Lewis diagrams for polyatomic ions,

a. Count the valence electrons as you would for a neutral particle, then add valence
electrons to form a negative ion, and take away valence electrons to form a
positive ion.
b. Construct the Lewis diagram as you would for a neutral particle, but use the
corrected number of valence electrons.
c. Put the Lewis diagram in brackets, and add the charge as a superscript.
Let’s try an example. Represent the following reaction by drawing Lewis diagrams for
each particle.
NH + H+ Æ NH +
3 4
* * * * *
H +
•• ••
H:N:H + [ H ]+ Æ H: N:H
•• ••
H H
Note that in NH4+, the octet rule for N and the duet rule for H are satisfied.
• Using VSEPR, predict the shape and bond angles for NH3.
• Using VSEPR, predict the shape and bond angles for NH +. 4
* * * * *
For NH3, with one lone pair, the shape is a trigonal pyramid with bond angles of
<109° (build the model if needed). The actual bond angles in NH3 are ~107°.
In NH4+, the N is surrounded by four electron pairs. When four pairs surround a
central atom, the electron pairs are tetrahedral. Since all four pairs are bonds, the
molecular shape is also tetrahedral. Since there are no lone pairs, the bond angles
are 109°, rather than <109°.
Let’s try a negative ion. Draw the Lewis diagram for the hydroxide ion, OH─.
* * * * *
•
A neutral OH particle would be unstable due to its unsatisfied octet: H:O:
••
•• ─
An OH─ is stable , with a satisfied octet and duet: H:O:

••
Practice: Try these without a periodic table. Check your answers after each part.
Draw Lewis diagrams, sketch the shape, and write the bond angles for these ions.
1. The hydronium ion, H3O+, formed by the reaction H2O + H+ Æ H3O+ .
2. CN─, the cyanide ion, with a triple bond.
ANSWERS
1. •• •• + If needed, build a model.
H : O : + [ H ]+ Æ H:O:H With one lone pair and 3
•• •• bonds, the shape is a trigonal
H H pyramid; bond angles <109° .
2. CN─ = [:C: : :N:]─ = ─C ≡≡ N (linear, no bond angle)

* * * * *
Lesson 25H: Orbital Models For Bonding

The Hybridized-Orbital Model For Bonding
The octet rule is easy to use, and it accurately predicts the formulas and shapes for most
covalently bonded molecules. A bonding model that is a bit more complex, but explains
many facets of bonding that the octet rule does not, is based on the wave equation model of
the atom.
The orbital configuration for elements (Lesson 24A), based on the wave equation model for
the atom, explains the electron configuration in single neutral atoms.
For example, according to the wave equation model, the configuration of the valence
electron orbitals for carbon as a single neutral atom is :
2p ↑ ↑
2s ↑↓
This prediction, that carbon has two unpaired electrons, is consistent with
measurements of single carbon atoms. However, in Lewis diagrams for bonding, a
single-bonded carbon is assigned four equivalent unpaired electrons.
•
Carbon: •C• 4 unpaired electrons
•

This configuration accurately predicts carbon’s bonding behavior in millions of carbon

compounds. How do we explain the apparent discrepancy between number of
unpaired electrons predicted the wave equation model and the octet rule?
One mathematical solution to the wave equation does predict separate s and p orbitals.
That solution accurately predicts much of the behavior of electrons in isolated single atoms
of elements. However, as with quadratic equations, wave equations can have more than
one correct solution. An alternate but valid solution to the wave equation predicts that
stable orbitals can form in molecules if the single s and the three p orbitals are hybridized.
Hybridization results in four equivalent orbitals termed sp3 hybridized orbitals (pronounced
“s p three”). The wave equation predicts that these four hybridized orbitals will have the
same energy and will be equally spaced around the central atom, matching the behavior of
carbon when it forms single bonds. For a series of orbitals at the same energy, the electrons
go into the orbitals one at a time before they start to pair.
For a single-bonded carbon, the hybridized configuration is: 2sp3 ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Lower potential energy is favored in physical and chemical systems. Hybridized orbitals
are not the lowest energy arrangement for single carbon atoms, but bonded atoms have
lower energy than the atoms by themselves. Hybridized orbitals allow more unpaired
electrons and therefore more bonds. The bonds reduce the energy of the system. Because
the hybridized orbitals allow more bonds, they are usually favored when atoms bond.
Hybrid Orbitals For Double Bonds
Other mathematical solutions to the wave equation explain double and triple bonds.
In molecules with one double-bond, the wave equation permits the hybridization of a
single s and the two of the three p orbitals to form three sp2 orbitals (pronounced “s p two”).
This leaves one p valence orbital that does not hybridize.
In the case of a molecule with one double-bond, the bond has two parts. A single bond
called a σ (sigma) bond is created by the overlap of an unpaired electron from an sp2 orbital
on each atom. A second bond between those atoms, called a π (pi) bond, is formed by the
pairing of an unpaired electron from the p orbital of each atom. A single π bond has
electron density both above and below the plane of the σ bonds.
p pi p
H H
Double-bonded C2H4: 120° C sigma C
H H
Hybrid Orbitals For Triple Bonds

In each triple-bonded atom, the valence s and one of the three valence p orbitals are
hybridized to form two sp hybrid orbitals. This leaves two p orbitals that are not hybridized.
Between two atoms that are triple-bonded are one σ bond, created by the overlap of
unpaired electrons in an sp orbital, and two π bonds at right angles to each other around the

σ bond. The π bonds are formed by pairing the unpaired electrons in the two p orbitals of
each atom.
Summary
The following table compares the terminology for multiple bonding for these two models
of bonding.
If two atoms are In the dot (Lewis) diagram In the hybridized-orbital model
attached by a model
Two pairs of shared From each atom, overlap of one sp2

Double bond valence electrons between orbital to form one σ bond, and one p
two atoms. orbital to form one π bond.
Three pairs of shared From each atom, overlap of one sp
Triple bond valence electrons between orbital to form one σ bond, and two p
two atoms. orbitals to form two π bonds.
The shapes and bond angles predicted by the hybridized orbital and Lewis diagram models
are the same.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule and spx Hybridization

Both the octet rule and spx hybridization models successfully predict many of the
characteristics of most covalent molecules, but there are molecules that are quite stable
that these models do not explain.
Row 3 Exceptions
Frequently encountered exceptions to the octet rule occur for non-metal central atoms in
rows 3 and above. For example,
• When combining with chlorine, phosphorous forms both PCl3, with the lone pair
predicted by the octet rule, and PCl5, which violates the octet rule. In PCl5, all 5
of the phosphorous valence electrons are used for bonds.
In PCl5, the shape predicted by VSEPR that allows the 5 electron pairs to get as
far apart as possible is a trigonal bipyramid (which can be described as a Y in the
plane of the paper with a pin stuck down through the middle).
Cl
Cl |
PCl5: 120° P Cl
Cl
Cl 90°
PCl5 is often labeled as having dsp3 hybridization, suggesting that the empty 3d
orbitals in phosphorous may participate in hybridization with the 3s and 3p to
maximize the opportunity for bonding.

• Combining with chlorine, sulfur forms both SCl2, with the two lone pairs
predicted by the octet rule, and SCl6, in which all 6 valence electrons are used for
bonds.
In SCl6, the shape that allows the 6 electron pairs to get as far apart as possible is
octahedral, which can be described of as an X in the plane of the paper with a
pin stuck down through the middle. All bond angles are 90°.
Cl
Cl | Cl
SCl6: 90° S
Cl Cl
Cl 90°
These single-bonded octahedral molecules are sometimes referred to as examples of

d2sp3 hybridization, suggesting the bonding of six unpaired electrons using the
empty 3d orbitals in sulfur.
Noble Gas Exceptions
The octet rule predicts that a noble gas, which has a filled valence cluster, should be stable
without bonding. This rule holds for the noble gases helium and neon, which form no
stable compounds. However, noble gases in rows 3 and above form a few compounds.
One is XeO3, a molecule which can be isolated (but tends to decompose explosively). XeO3
has several possible single and double-bonded Lewis-diagrams that do not violate the octet
rule.
Practice: Use a periodic table.

1. Based on VSEPR, sketch the shape and name the shape would you predict for
a. Arsenic pentabromide b. Selenium hexafluoride
2. For molecules that contain at most one double or triple bond between two atoms,
label the following types of bonds in those molecules as single, double, or triple bonds.
a. One σ bond and one π bond b. One σ bond and two π bonds
c. σ bonds but no π bonds

ANSWERS
1a. Br 1b. F
AsBr5: Br | SeF6: F | F
As Br Se
Trigonal Br Octahedral F F
Bipyrimid Br F
2. a. One σ bond and one π bond -- a double bond

b. One σ bond and two π bonds -- a triple bond
c. σ bonds but no π bonds -- a single bond
* * * * *
Summary: Bonding
1. The Octet Rule: Most atoms want to be surrounded by 8 valence electrons (H and
He want 2). The electrons can be shared, as in covalent bonds, or gained or lost from
neutral atoms, as in ionic bonds.
2. In covalent molecules, atoms in the carbon family tend to bond 4 times, nitrogen
family 3 times, oxygen family two times, and halogen family one time. A covalent
hydrogen forms one bond.
3. In drawing dot diagrams, if the bonds around an atom include
• All single bonds, place the valence electrons on 4 equivalent sides around the
atom;
• One double bond, place the electrons on 3 sides;
• One triple bond, place the electrons on 2 sides.
4. The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model for predicting shapes:
Electron pairs tend to get as far apart as possible around an atom. Lone pairs and
double bonds repel other pairs slightly more than single bonds.
5. When there are 4 electron pairs around an atom, the pairs tend to be in a tetrahedral
shape, but the shape of the molecule is named based on where the bonding pairs are.
6. Electronegative atoms have more attraction for electrons. Electronegativity tends to
increase as you go toward the top right corner of the periodic table. Across row 2,
the EN values increase by 0.5 per atom, from Li (0.5) to F (4.0).
7. A molecule will tend to be polar IF its bonds are polar, and if the dipoles do not
cancel due to symmetry when added by vector addition.
8. The Solubility Rule: like dissolves like. Polar solvents such as water tend to dissolve
polar and ionic compounds. Non-polar molecules tend to dissolve in non-polar
solvents.
# # # # #

Module 26: Properties of Mixtures
These lesson in this download are beta versions. They are being posted in draft form to
provide help on as many topics as possible during this semester. If you have need for help
in this topic now, they will be useful, but not all topics are covered, and they will have a
higher than usual rate of typos and errors.
If you return to this topic, download a newer version of this packet at

www.ChemReview.Net .

Module 26 on Mixtures has been added and is in this packet
The former Module 26 on Equilibrium is now Module 28
If you are looking for Equilibrum topics, check Module 28
* * * * *
Module 26
Properties of Mixtures
Module 26 – Properties of Solutions .......................................................................... 648

1

Timing: Start this module when you are asked to calculate the molality of a solution, or a
boiling point elevation, or a freezing point depression.
Prerequisites: This module may be started at any point after Module 11 – Molarity.
* * * * *
Lesson 26A: Measures of Mixtures

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are asked to calculate the molality of a solution.
* * * * *
Types of Mixtures
Recall that by our definitions for discussing matter,
• An element is matter that contains only one kind of atom: Ne and O2 are elements.
• A compound contains particles with more than one kind of atom, and the neutral
units all have the same molecular formula: the same ratio between the atoms. NaCl
and H2SO4 are compounds.
• A substance may be an element or a compound, but all of the neutral units of a

substance must have the same molecular formula.
• A mixture contains more than one substance.
• A solution is one type of mixture. A solution with two components combines a
large amount of a liquid substance termed the solvent, and a second substance that
dissolves in the solvent termed the solute. The solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid.
Mixtures can be divided into two types: those that are uniform and those that are not.
• Many rocks are non-uniform: they have visibly different components in different
places, and the components do not mix at room temperature.
• For a non-reacting mixture in which the particles can move about freely, if the
mixture is stirred, the components of the mixture will distribute themselves
randomly at the molecular level. At the visible level, the result of this random
distribution is a uniform concentration: the number of chemical particles in any
visible unit of volume will be the same, within experimental error, each time we
measure.
In chemistry calculations, you should assume that gas mixtures and solutions with
dissolved components have a uniform concentration: that they are well mixed before and
during their use.
Molarity, Mass Fraction, Mole Fraction, and Molality
1. In most calculations involving uniform mixtures, the measurement of the composition
that is most useful is the concentration in moles per liter.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1f Page 687

Molarity (M) = moles of substance (Equation 1)

Liter of mixture
Molarity is most often associated with the concentration of aqueous solutions, but it can
also be used to measure components dissolved in non-water solvents such as n-octane
(a liquid found in gasoline), or the concentration of a gas.
For some properties of uniform mixtures, other measures of the solution composition are
needed to make predictions about the solution’s behavior. Three of those measures are
2. Mass fraction = mass of a substance in any consistent mass units. (Eq. 2)
Total mass of mixture
3. Mole fraction ( χ ) = moles of a substance (Equation 3)

Total moles of particles in mixture
The symbol for mole fraction χ is from the ancient Greek: a lowercase letter chi.
For these fractions that measure a part of a total, the value of the fraction must always be
0.XX… : a number between zero and one. A fraction may also be expressed as a percent
( = fraction x 100% ).
4. Molality (m) = moles of substance (Equation 4)
kilogram of solvent
For very dilute solutions, the numeric value for the molality of a solution will be very
close to the molarity, but when solutions are relatively concentrated, the values for
molarity and molality will differ significantly.
Molarity, mole fraction, and mass fraction can be measured for any mixture, but
molality is a measure that is applied only to solutions with a liquid solvent.
Molality calculations are unusual in that, though kilograms of a solvent are involved,
you often will not need the molar mass to solve. What is more often required in
molality calculations is the density of the solvent: its mass to volume ratio. For water,
the most common solvent, you will be expected to have memorized:
For liquid water: 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O and/or 1.00 kg H2O = 1 L H2O
Dilute aqueous solutions are nearly all water, and the density of those solutions is the
same as for pure liquid water, within the error found in most calculations.
For dilute aqueous solutions: 1.00 g soln. = 1 mL soln. and 1.00 kg soln. = 1 L soln.
The definitions in Equations (1) to (4) must also be memorized. Each of these ratios can be
thought of as measures of concentration, but if no type of concentration is specified, you
should assume that “concentration” means molarity: moles/liter.
In dealing with solutions, the unit moles per liter (molarity) is abbreviated with an upper
case M, and moles per kilogram of solvent (molality) is abbreviated with a lower case
italicized m . However, because the letter M has many uses in chemistry, and your
handwriting may not easily distinguish among lower and upper case and/ot regular vs.
italicized letters, you may want to write out molar and molal during calculations that may
use both.

Calculating Concentration In Non-Molar Units

The four properties above can be solved using conversions or equations, but using our
equation method will help to separate the calculation of the “total” terms into manageable
pieces. For consistency in this module, we will solve for all four properties by equations.
Each of the four measures is an equation with a simple ratio. Our method to solve
equations uses the same steps every time. Those steps are:
• Write the symbol or term and unit WANTED.
• Write the equation needed to solve. If you are not sure which equation to use, list
the supplied DATA, assign symbols to each item, and recall which memorized
equation relates those symbols.
• List each symbol or term in the equation in a DATA table. After the term or symbol,
write the unit needed consistent units or the units the equation requires.
• IN the DATA table, solve for the unit needed for each term. Use conversions or
equations. Get each item of DATA ready for the equation, one item at a time.
Getting the DATA ready in the DATA table helps to simplify the SOLVE step.
• Solve the equation for the WANTED symbol in symbols, then plug in the DATA.
For the four equations above:
• If an amount of a mixture is not specified, assume a 1.00 Liter or 100. gram sample –
whatever simplifies the math of your first calculation. Since all 4 of these measures
are ratios, a calculation can be based on any convenient size sample.
• Label each item of data with units, molecular formulas, and distinguishing words.
Apply those steps to this example.
Q1. Alcoholic beverages are a mixture of water and ethyl alcohol (formal name ethanol,
formula C2H5OH , often abbreviated as EtOH ). In the United States, the “proof” of
an alcoholic beverage is the double the percent ethanol by volume: 100 proof means
the mixture is 50% ethanol by volume and 50% water. The density of pure ethanol
at 4ºC is 0.790 g/mL . In 1.00 liters of 24.0 proof wine (an ethanol and water
mixture with small amounts of other substances) at 4ºC, calculate:
a. The volume of alcohol and volume of water.
b. The mass fraction of the wine that is ethanol.
c. The mole fraction that is ethanol.
d. The molality of the ethanol solution.
e. The molarity of the ethanol.
Check your answers after each part. If you get stuck, look at a part of the answer below,
then try again.
* * * * *

Part a. By volume, 24.0 proof is 12.0% ethanol (half the proof), so 88.0% is water.
In 1.00 L, the 12.0% = 0.12 fraction of the volume that is ethanol = 0.120 L =
= 120. mL EtOH . The remaining 880. mL must be water.
(If needed, see Lesson 9A on fractions and percent.)
Part b. WANT: Mass fraction that is EtOH = ? The equation is
Mass fraction = mass of substance in any consistent mass units.
DATA: List separately and solve for each term in the equation -- one at a time.
Mass fraction EtOH = ?
Mass of ethanol = 120. mL EtOH • 0.790 g EtOH = 94.8 g EtOH
1 mL EtOH
Total mass of mixture = mass of ethanol + mass of water = ?
Mass of water: At 4ºC, water has a density of 1.00 g/mL, so 880. mL = 880. g H2O
Total mass of mixture = 94.8 g EtOH + 880. g H2O = 975 g total
SOLVE:
Mass fraction EtOH = mass of EtOH = 94.8 g EtOH = 0.0972 g EtOH
Total mass soln. 975 g total g soln.
Part c. WANT: Mole fraction EtOH = ? The equation is
Mole fraction ( χ ) = moles of substance
DATA: List separately and solve for each term in the equation -- one at a time.
Molar mass of C2H5OH = 46.0 g/mol
Moles of ethanol = 94.8 g EtOH • 1 mol EtOH = 2.06 mol EtOH
46.0 g EtOH
Moles of H2O = 880. g H2O • 1 mol H2O = 48.9 mol H2O

18.0 g H2O
Total moles of particles in mixture = 2.06 + 48.9 = 51.0 moles total
Mole fraction ( χ ) = moles of EtOH = 2.06 mol EtOH = 0.0404 mol EtOH
total moles 51.0 moles total mol total
Part d. WANT: Molality EtOH = ? The equation is
Molality (m) = moles of solute
kg of solvent
For the molality of ethanol, ethanol must be the solute, so water is the solvent.
DATA: Moles of ethanol = 2.06 mol EtOH from above.
kg of solvent H2O = 880. g H2O • 1 kg = 0.880 kg H2O
103 g

SOLVE:
Molality EtOH = moles EtOH = 2.06 mol EtOH = 2.34 m EtOH
kg of solvent H2O 0.880 kg H2O
Part e. WANT: Molarity EtOH = ? The equation is

Molarity (M) = moles of solute = 2.06 mol EtOH = 2.06 M EtOH
Liters of soln. 1.00 L soln.
Practice: Memorize Equations (1) - (4), then do two problems below. Save one for your
next practice session.
1. How many grams of H2SO4 must be added to 0.500 L of water to form 4.00 m H2SO4 ?
2. Find χ for the solution in Problem 1.
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid (a solution of the gas HCl and water) is typically sold
as a 12.0 M HCl solution with a solution density of 1.19 g/mL. Calculate
a. The mass fraction that is HCl.
b. The mole fraction HCl c. The molality of the HCl solution.
ANSWERS
1. WANT: ? g H2SO4
DATA: 98.1 g H2SO4 = 1 mol H2SO4 (grams prompt)
The molality is known. The one equation we know that uses molality is
Molality H2SO4 = moles H2SO4
kg of solvent H2O
That equation does not solve for grams H2SO4, but it includes moles H2SO4, and moles to grams we
can do. List the terms in the equation, solve for the term missing in symbols, then substitute data.
Molality H2SO4 = 4.00 m H2SO4 = 4.00 mol H2SO4 / kg H2O
Moles H2SO4 = ?
kg of solvent H2O = 0.500 L • 1.00 kg H2O = 0.500 kg H2O
1 L H2O
( For molality calculations, it is helpful to memorize the equality: 1.00 kg liquid H2O = 1.00 L H2O )
Solving the molality equation for the unknown symbol:
? = mol H2SO4 = ( Molality H2SO4 )(kg H2O) = 4.00 mol H2SO4 • 0.500 kg H2O = 2.00 mol H2SO4
kg H2O
WANTED = ? g H2SO4 = 2.00 mol H2SO4 • 98.1 g H2SO4 = 196 g H2SO4

1 mol H2SO4

2. WANT: χ H SO = mole fraction H SO The equation is

2 4 2 4
Mole fraction ( χ ) = moles of substance

DATA: moles of substance = mol H2SO4 = 2.00 mol H2SO4 from Problem 1 .
mol of H2O = 0.500 kg H2O • 103 g • 1 mol H2O = 27.8 mol H2O
1 kg 18.0 g H2O
Total moles in mixture = 2.00 + 27.8 = 29.8 moles total
SOLVE: χ H2SO4 = mol H2SO4 = 2.00 mol = 0.0671 mol H2SO4

Total moles of particles in mixture 29.8 mol mol mixture
3a. WANT: Mass fraction HCl = ? The equation is
Mass fraction = mass of substance in any consistent mass units
Strategy: List DATA, then list and solve the 3 terms of the equation separately.
DATA: 12.0 mol HCl = 1 L solution
1.19 g soln = 1 mL soln.
36.5 g HCl = 1 mol HCl (mass of substance in equation = grams prompt)
Strategy: Assume a sample size that simplifies the math. Since you want a mass
measure, it is easier to assume a volume: assume exactly 1 liter of soln.
? Total g of mixture = 1 liter • 1 mL • 1.19 g soln = 1,190 g soln.
10─3 L 1 mL soln
? g of HCl = 1 liter • 12.0 mol HCl • 36.5 g HCl = 438 g HCl
1 L HCl 1 mol HCl
SOLVE: Mass fraction HCl = mass of HCl = 438 g HCl = 0.368 g HCl
Total mass soln. 1,190 g soln. g soln.
3b. WANT: χ HCl = Mole fraction HCl = ? The equation is

Mole fraction = mole of substance
Strategy: Solve the 3 terms of the equation separately using conversions.
DATA: Use the DATA and answers from Part A. Assume the same exactly 1 liter of solution.
Mol of substance HCl = 1 liter • 12.0 mol HCl = 12.0 mol HCl
1 L HCl
Since the mixture total mass is 1,190 g, of which 438 g is HCl and the rest is water,
Grams water = 1,190 ─ 438 = 752 g H2O
mol of H2O = 752 g H2O • 1 mol H2O = 41.8 mol H2O

18.0 g H2O

Total moles of particles in mixture = 12.0 mol HCl + 41.8 mol H2O = 53.8 moles total
SOLVE: Mole fraction HCl = mol HCl = 12.0 mol HCl = 0.223 mol HCl
Total mol soln. 53.8 mol total mol soln.
Check: In parts a and b, the fractions have a value between 0 and 1, as they must.
3c. WANT: Molality HCl = m HCl = ? The equation is: Molality (m) = moles of solute
kg of solvent
For a molality of HCl, HCl is the solute and H2O the solvent.
Assume the same exactly 1 liter solution. Use the DATA and answers above.
Make a DATA table with the terms in the equation and conversions to the needed units.
DATA: Moles of HCl = 12.0 mol HCl from above.
kg of solvent H2O = 752 g H2O • 1 kg = 0.752 kg H2O
103 g
SOLVE: Molality HCl = moles HCl = 12.0 mol HCl = 16.0 m HCl
kg of solvent H2O 0.752 kg H2O
Note that in this highly concentrated solution, the molarity and molality values are quite different.
* * * * *
Lesson 26B: Parts Per Million

Timing: Complete this lesson only if you are assigned calculations that include ppm.
* * * * *
Low But Important Concentrations
For substances that are have high impact even in low concentration, such as toxic
substances in the environment, concentrations may be expressed in parts per million
(ppm): the parts of a substance per million total parts. Parts per million can be a volume
ratio, but unless otherwise specified, assume that ppm is a mass ratio.
Parts per million can be defined with an equation that includes a fraction:
Parts per million of a substance in a mixture = ppm = grams substance x 106
grams total
A measurement expressed as a ppm is similar to a percent:
• A percent is (part/total) times 100 ;
• A ppm is (mass part/mass total) times 1,000,000 (106) .
A percent allows a fraction with a value between 0.01 and one to be expressed as number
between 1 and 100. A ppm allows a fraction with a value between 0.000 001 and 0.000 1 to
be expressed as a number between one and 100. Both are ways to express concentrations
that avoid decimal equivalents or negative exponentials.

When % or PPM is WANTED

Conversions calculations are done using fractions. Our rule will be:
If percent or ppm is WANTED, first solve for the part/total fraction, then multiply by
100 or 1,000,000 to find percent or ppm.
Using those steps, try this sample calculation.
Q. In earth’s current atmosphere, at room temperature and standard pressure, air has
an average molar mass of 29.0 grams per 24.0 liters. The carbon dioxide in air has
an average concentration of 0.471 mg/liter. What is this concentration of CO2 in
parts per million?
* * * * *
WANTED: ? parts per million CO2 in air = ? grams CO2 x 106
gram air
The rule is: if % or ppm is WANTED, solve for the fraction first.
DATA: 29.0 g air = 24.0 L air RT&SP (gas volumes need a P and t)
0.471 mg CO2 = 1 L air RT&SP
The labels distinguishing CO2 and air are needed to arrange the conversions.
Solve for the fraction as a ratio unit, then convert to ppm.
* * * * *
─3 ─3
SOLVE: ? g CO2 = 0.471 mg CO2 • 10 g • 24.0 L air RT&SP = 0.390 x 10 g CO2
g air 1 L air 1 mg 29.0 g air g air
Your conversions may be in a different order, but should be “right-side up” compared to
those above. Now use the definition to change the fraction to ppm.
─3
ppm = g substance x 106 = 0.390 x 10 g CO2 x 106 = 390. ppm CO2
g total g air
When DATA Is Supplied As % or PPM

In the special case where percent or ppm is supplied as DATA, you can either
• Start by converting to the fraction using the definition equations, then use the
fraction in conversions,
ppm ≡ g substance x 106 ; fraction ≡ g substance = ppm x 10─6 g substance
g total g total 1 g total
• or (this is easier) write the % or ppm in the DATA as a conversion in this format.
If “X % by mass” is supplied, write as DATA: X g substance = 100 g total
If “X ppm” is supplied, write as DATA: X grams substance = 106 grams total

This “write the conversion directly” method works because a

• percent is the number of parts per hundred parts total, and
• ppm is the number of grams per million grams total.
Using this special format for % and ppm DATA, calculations can be solved without
converting the percent or ppm to a decimal fraction first.
The same approach would apply to a volume % or ppm, using mL or L instead of grams or
kilograms.
Apply that special rule for ppm DATA to this problem.
Q2. For dilute aqueous solutions, 1.0 ppm of a substance is how many mg/L? Assume
the density of a dilute aqueous soln. is: 1.00 g soln = 1 mL soln.
* * * * *
WANT: ? mg substance
L aq. soln.
DATA: 1.0 g substance = 106 g total solution (using the ppm DATA conversion)
1.00 g soln = 1 mL soln.
SOLVE:
? mg substance = 1.0 g substance • 1 mg subst. • 1.00 g soln • 1 mL soln. =
L aq. soln. 106 g solution 10─3 g subst. 1 mL soln 10─3 L soln
= 1.0 mg substance
L if dilute aq. soln.
Since our given quantity was 1.0 ppm, this answer provides a useful equality:
# ppm = # mg substance/L if dilute aqueous solution
In dilute aqueous solutions, the number of ppm and the number of mg substance/L soln will
be the same. In calculations involving ppm and aqueous solutions, writing the ppm as the
mg/L in the DATA will often provide answers using fewer conversions.
For substances that are not in dilute aqueous solutions, such as mixtures of gases or highly
concentrated aqueous solutions, the 1.00 g solution ≠ 1 mL equality is not true, and
# ppm ≠ # mg/L. In those cases, write: ppm# g substance = 106 g total to solve.
To summarize:
ppm ≡ g substance x 106 When ppm is WANTED, find the fraction,

g total then use this definition to change to ppm.
In DATA:
• List ppm# g substance = 106 g total
• Or, for a dilute aqueous solution, list ppm# mg substance = 1 L soln
and solve with conversions.

Practice: First learn the rules above, then do the problems below.
1. In a trout stream where the water temperature is 5ºC, dissolved oxygen has a
concentration of 0.40 mmol/liter. What is this concentration of O2
a. in parts per million? b. in mg/L?
2. If a dilute saline solution is composed of 550 ppm NaCl, find the [NaCl] in mmol/dL .
ANSWERS
1a. WANTED: ? parts per million O2 in water = ? grams O2 x 106
gram H2O soln.
The rule is: if % or ppm is WANTED, solve for the fraction first.
DATA: 0.40 mmol O2 = 1 L H2O soln
Since grams H2O and O2 are wanted, you may need the molar masses of both (g prompts).
32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2
18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O (For m , you may need solvent density instead )
A small number of mol/L in water means a dilute aqueous solution. You can assume that
1.00 g dilute aqueous solution ≈ 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL solution is the density
Use conversions to solve for the ratio unit fraction, then convert to ppm.
* * * * *
─3 ─3
SOLVE: ? g O2 = 0.40 mmol O2 • 10 mol O2 • 32.0 g O2 • 10 L H2O • 1 mL dil aq. soln =
g H2O 1 L H2O 1 mmol O2 1 mol O2 1 mL H2O 1.00 g H2O soln.
= 13 x 10─6 g O2 / g H2O soln. Now convert from the fraction to ppm.

─6
ppm = g substance x 106 = 13 x 10 g O2 x 106 = 13 ppm O2
g total g H2O soln.
1b. WANT: mg O2 / L in a dilute aqueous solution
The rule for dilute aqueous solutions is: # ppm = # mg/L , so the answer should be 13 mg/L
But let’s use the data above to be sure.
─3
SOLVE: ? mg O2 = 0.40 mmol O2 • 10 mol O2 • 32.0 g O2 • 1 mg O2 = 13 mg O2 / L H2O
L H2O 1 L H2O 1 mmol O2 1 mol O2 10─3 g O2
2. WANT: ? millimoles NaCl

deciliter dilute aqueous solution

DATA: In a dilute aqueous solution, when ppm DATA is supplied, you can use the ppm DATA rule:
550 g NaCl = 106 g total
But using the rule # ppm = # mg substance/L soln. will usually solve faster.
550 mg NaCl = 1 L dilute aq. soln Both ratios will work to solve. We will use this one.
58.5 g NaCl = 1 mol NaCl (the mg NaCl in the DATA ratio is a grams prompt)
SOLVE: Want a ratio? Pick a ratio to start from.
? milimole NaCl ─1
= 550 mg NaCl • 1 mol NaCl • 10 L soln = 0.94 mmol NaCl
deciliter dilute soln 1 L soln 58.5 g NaCl 1 dL soln. dL soln.
Since milli- is wanted, and m- is on top in the first conversion, and the prefixes are independent of the numbers
and units, you can leave the m- in the conversions on top where it is WANTED
Numbers, prefixes, and exponential terms can all be grouped separately in the WANTED unit and in the
conversions. Like units on the top and bottom cancel if multiplied. If a prefix is WANTED, and the prefix
appears in the conversions where it is WANTED, you may leave it un-cancelled.
* * * * *
Lesson 26C: Colligative Properties And Gas Pressures

Timing: Complete this lesson if you are assigned calculations that include Raoult’s law or
Henry’s law.
* * * * *
Vapor Pressure Review
Recall that all liquids (and some solids) have a significant tendency to release molecules
into the gas or vacuum above them. This tendency is measured by the vapor pressure of
the substance: the gas pressure exerted by the molecules of the gas above the liquid or
solid at equilibrium (equilibrium meaning that the container is closed, the temperature is
constant, and net changes in the system are not occuring).
The vapor pressure of a substance
• Depends on temperature: as temperature increases, the vapor pressure of a
substance increases.
• Is characteristic: a given substance at a given temperature will always have the
same vapor pressure.
A liquid boils when its vapor pressure is the same as the atmospheric pressure in the gas
above it.
Mixtures of gases (if they do not react with each other) obey Dalton’s law: the total pressure
of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that the gases would exert alone.
The pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture is its partial pressure: the pressure that the gas
would exert in the given volume if it alone were present.

Dalton’s Law Equations

For the partial pressure of a single gas in a mixture:
For a mixture of gases:
Ptotal = Pgas one + Pgas two + … ( = Partial P gas one + Partial P gas two + … )
Gas calculations frequently involve gases collected over water, where the gas mixture
contains the gas formed and water vapor. The vapor pressure of the water at a given
temperature can be found in tables and subtracted from the total pressure to give the
partial pressure of the gas formed.
Colligative Properties
Colligative properties are those that depend on the relative numbers of particles in a
mixture, as measured by the molarity, molality, or mole fraction.
Among the colligative properties are:
• For a gas dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature, the partial pressure of a gas
above the solution varies in proportion to the mol/L of the gas in the solution.
• IF a non-volatile (non-gas-forming) solute is dissolved in a pure liquid solvent, at a
given temperature, the vapor pressure above a solution is proportional to the mole
fraction of particles that are solvent in the solution.
• IF a solute is dissolved in a pure liquid solvent, it lowers the freezing point of the
solution, relative to the freezing point of the pure solvent, by an amount
proportional to the molality (m) of the solute.
• IF a non-volatile (non-gas-forming) solute is dissolved in a pure liquid solvent, it
elevates the boiling point of the solution, relative to the boiling point of the pure
solvent, by an amount proportional to the molality (m) of the solute.
• The mol/L of particles dissolved in a solution can be used to predict the osmotic
pressure of a solvent that can pass through a semi-permeable membrane.
Let’s consider these properties one at a time.
Solubility of Gases in Solutions (Henry’s Law)
The solubility of a gas in a liquid, in moles per liter, varies depending on the partial
pressure of that gas above the liquid. The equation for this relationship termed
Henry’s law: Concentrationgas in solution = khenry • Pgas above (Equation 6)
where khenry is the Henry’s law constant, a value that stays constant at a given
temperature for a given solvent and gas.

Henry’s law has the form y = (constant) x ; a direct proportion. This means that at
constant temperature,for a mixture at equilibrium,
• as the pressure of a gas above a liquid doubles, the concentration of the gas
dissolved in the liquid doubles;
• the ratio of the partial pressure to the mol/L that dissolves is constant.
Henry’s law can be used for any consistent units of concentration: any moles or mass units
of gas per any units of solution volume.
Henry’s law can also be written with the y and x terms reversed,as
Pgas above = khenry • Concentrationgas in solution .
Which form of the equation is being used can be identified by the units of khenry and the
logic of unit cancellation: Equation (6) above will have concentration units on top, the
second form must have pressure units on top.
Henry’s law does not work for gases that react with the solvent. For example, when HCl
gas dissolves in water, it reacts ~100% to form ions.
HCl(gas) + H2O Æ H+(aq) + Cl─(aq)
When a covalent gas molecule reacts to form ions, the particles no longer behave as a
dissolved gas in the solution, and Henry’s law does not make accurate predictions about
the behavior of the gas.
However, if a reaction of a gas with a solvent is slight, Henry’s law results in reasonably
accurate predictions. For example, carbon dioxide gas reacts with water, but only slightly:
CO2 + H2O Å Å Æ [ H2CO3 ] goes to the right only about 1%.
For the case of carbon dioxide dissolving in water, Henry’s law is relatively accurate.
Practice A: Memorize Henry’s law and apply it to this problem.

1. At room temperature, if the solubility of CO2 gas in water at 25 ºC is 1.45 g/L when the
gas above the water is at 1.0 atm pressure, what is the solubility of CO2 at 4.0 atm
pressure?
2. In a trout stream where the water temperature is 5ºC, dissolved oxygen has a
concentration of 0.40 mmol/liter. If 21% of the volume of air is O2, what is the Henry’s
law constant at standard pressure and 5ºC, in mol/kPa • L?

Vapor Pressure Above A Solution (Raoult’s Law)

If a relatively non-volatile (non-gas forming) substance is added to a volatile liquid at a
constant temperature, the vapor pressure of the solution is lowered compared to the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent. The equation that calculates the resulting vapor pressure is
Raoult’s law: Pabove soln. = χvolatile solvent particles • P ºsolvent (Eq. 7)
where P ºsolvent = the vapor pressure of the pure solvent liquid at that temperature.
Raoult’s law is logical: it means that if only 80% of the particles in a solution are made of a
volatile (gas forming) liquid, and the other particles do not form a gas, then the vapor
pressure above the solution will be 0.80 times the vapor pressure of the pure liquid.
Practice B: Memorize Raoult’s law, then apply it to this problem.

1. The vapor pressure of pure water at 80.ºC is 47.2 kPa. The antifreeze ethylene glycol
( C2H6O2, molar mass = 62.0 g/mol) is relatively non-volatile compared to water
(meaning it boils at a much higher temperature). If 1.00 kg of ethylene glycol is mixed
with 2.00 kg of water, what will be the vapor pressure of the mixture?
The van’t Hoff Factor

Solvents are liquids, and liquids ionize only slightly at normal laboratory temperatures.
However, many solutes do ionize when they dissolve in a solvent. Other solutes dissolve,
but do not ionize. For example,
• sugars and alcohols dissolve in water because they are polar, but they are not ionic.
They dissolve, but do not ionize, in water.
• When a soluble ionic compound dissolves to form a dilute aqueous solution, the
compound separates nearly 100% to form ions.
An aqueous solution of an soluble ionic compound is termed an electrolyte because it
conducts electricity. One way to calculate the number of particles in an electrolyte is to use
the van’t Hoff factor ( i ): defined as the number of separate particles that a single neutral
formula unit of a soluble ionic compound forms when it dissolves in water.
For example: for these solutes that dissolve and ionize ~100% in dilute aqueous
solutions,
NaCl Æ Na+ + Cl─ , one neutral NaCl formula unit forms two ions,
so i = 2 for NaCl .
K SO Æ 2 K+ + 1 SO 2─ , one neutral K SO formula unit forms three ions,
2 4 4 2 4
so i = 3 for K2SO4 .
For substances that dissolve in a solvent but do not ionize, for each particle of a soluble
solute added, one solute particle exists in the solution, so i = 1 for soluble non-electrolytes.

In Raoult’s law, we must count the moles of separate particles in the solution: both solvent
and solute. The rules we need are logical:
Moles of solute particles in solution = ( i ) (moles of un-ionized solute added)
For example, if 1.0 mol NaCl is added to water, since i = 2 , 2.0 moles of solute
particles are formed in the water.
Total moles of particles in a solution = moles of solvent + moles of solute particles
= moles of solvent + ( i ) (moles of un-ionized solute added)
The i values can also be used to calculate the molarity and molality of solute particles.
Molaritysolute particles in solution = ( i ) Molarityun-ionized solute
In 0.10 M NaCl , [solute particles ] = [ions] = (2)(0.10 M) = 0.20 M solute particles
Molalitysolute particles in solution = ( i ) Molalityun-ionized solute
In 0.30 m NaCl , msolute particles = mions = (2)(0.30 m )= 0.60 m solute particles
Practice C: First learn the rules for van’t Hoff factors, then try these.
1. Predict the van’t Hoff factor for each of these substances in very dilute solutions.
a. NaBr b. KNO3 c. Na3PO4 d. O2
2. What will be the [solute particles] in these aqueous solutions?
a. 0.20 M KCl b. 0.12 M K3PO4
3. If [solute particles] = 1.0 M in Na2SO4 solution, [Na2SO4} = ?
4. In 0.25 L of a 0.80 M NaCl solution, how many moles of ions are present?
5. If the mole fraction of an aqueous KCl solution is 0.10 mol KCl/mole total, what is the
mole fraction of ions in the solution?
Raoult’s Law For Electrolyte Solutions

Raoult’s law and other colligative properties depend on the fraction of particles that are
solute and solvent. If a solute particle separates into ions when it dissolves, this separation
affects the fraction of particles that are solvent. A solvent molecule is a particle, and each
separate ion is a particle, in the measurements that decide colligative properties.
For Raoult’s law and other colligative properties, the rule is
Each ion is a separate particle when counting the moles, molarity, or molality of solute
particles in the solution.
Keep the above in mind during the following example.

Q. Predict the vapor pressure (in kPa) of an aqueous solution that combines 17.0 moles
of water with 1.00 moles of K2SO4 at 100.0 ºC.
* * * * *

WANT: Pabove soln. in kPa To find the vapor pressure above a solution that
contains a non-volatile solute, we use
Raoult’s law: Pabove soln. = χsolvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent
Set up a data table that contains the equation’s symbols.

DATA: Psbove soln. = ? kPa
χparticles that are solvent = ? = mol solvent/Total moles of soln. particles
Solve the χparticles equation one term at a time.

Moles solvent particles = 17.0 mol water.
Moles solute particles = (3) 1.00 moles K2SO4 = 3.00 mol solute particles
(In water, for every 1 mol K2SO4 added, 3 moles of ions form, so i = 3 for K2SO4.)
Total moles particles = 17.0 mol water + 3.00 mol solute particles = 20.0 mol total
χparticles that are solvent = ? = 17.0 mol solvent/20.0 moles total =
= 0.850 mol particles solvent/mol particles total

Pº
solvent = ? At 100.0 ºC, what is the vapor pressure of pure water in kPa?
* * * * *
By definition, 100.0 ºC = the boiling point of water at standard pressure (101 kPa).
By definition, a liquid boils when its vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure
So, at 100.0 ºC , the vapor pressure of pure water must be 101 kPa.
If needed, adjust your work and complete the problem.
SOLVE: Pabove soln. = χsolvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent
= 0.850 • 101 kPa = 85.8 kPa = vapor pressure above soln.

Actual van’t Hoff Values
The van’t Hoff factors above are predicted values based on an assumption of 100%
ionization. For very dilute solutions, the predicted van’t Hoff factor is generally accurate,
but in more concentrated solutions, or for ionic compounds that have moderate covalent
character, the actual value for the van’t Hoff factor will be less than predicted.
One way to determine these actual van’t Hoff factors is to the actual value of colligative
properties experimentally.
For example, in NaCl, the predicted i = 2 , in 0.001 M NaCl, the experimental
i = 1.97; in more concentrated 0.10 M NaCl, the experimental i = 1.87 .
The values indicate that ions in water are most stable when they are separated and
surrounded by water molecules, but that the Na+ and Cl─ ions also remain attracted to
each other. The ions behave as if they are separated most of the time, but not all the time.

In calculations, however, unless otherwise specified, you should use the whole-number i
values predicted by the rules above.
Practice D
1. In a solution that combines 12.0 moles of water with 1.0 mole of a soluble ionic solid,
the vapor pressure of the solution at 25 ºC is 17.8 mm Hg. If the vapor pressure of pure
water at 25 ºC is 23.8 mm Hg, what is the experimental van’t Hoff factor for the ionic
solid?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Henry’s law is a direct proportion. If the pressure of the gas above the liquid is quadrupled, the
concentration of the gas in the solution will be quadrupled when an equilibrium is reached.
1.45 g/L x 4 = 5.80 g CO2/L dissolves at 4.0 atm pressure.
2. WANT: khenry in mol/kPa • L = ?

DATA: Henry’s law: Concentrationgas in solution = khenry • Pgas above
Make a table with those symbols. Convert DATA to the WANTED units.
khenry in mol/kPa = ? Convert the DATA to moles, liters, and kPa
Concentrationgas in solution in mol = 0.40 mmol • 10─3 mol = 4.0 x 10─4 mol
L L 1 mmol L
Pgas above = ?
Since air is a mixture of gases, to find the partial pressure, use Dalton’s law.
For a single gas in a mixture:

PO = mol fraction O • P
2 2 total = 0.21 volume fraction • 101 kPa = 21 kPa
SOLVE the equation for the WANTED symbol in symbols first.
Khenry in mol/kPa • L = Concentrationgas in soln = 4.0 x 10─4 mol • 1 = 1.9 x 10─5 mol
Pgas above L 21 kPa kPa • L
Practice B
1. WANT: Pabove soln. in kPa
To find the vapor pressure of a gas above a solution with a non-volatile solute, use
Raoult’s law: Pabove soln. = χ solvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent

DATA: Psoln. = ? kPa

Pº
solvent = 47.2 kPa
χsolvent particles = ? = mol fraction of solvent = mol solvent/ total moles of particles
mol of H2O solvent = 2.00 x 103 g H2O • 1 mol H2O = 111.1 mol H2O
18.0 g H2O
mol of C2H6O2 = 1.00 x 103 g C2H6O2 • 1 mol C2 H6O2 = 16.13 mol C2H6O2
62.0 g C2H6O2
Moles total = 111.1 mol H2O + 16.13 mol C2H6O2 = 127.2 mol total
χsolvent = ? = mol fraction of solvent = 111.1 mol solvent/127.2 moles total =
= 0.8734 mol solvent/mol total (if you carry an extra sf)
SOLVE: Pabove soln. = χ solvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent
= 0.8734 • 47.2 kPa = 41.2 kPa = soln vapor pressure

Practice C
1a. NaBr i = 2 b. KNO3 i = 2 c. Na3PO4 i = 4 d. O2 i = 1
O2 is covalent and does not ionize. For substances that do not ionize, i = 1 .
2a. [Particles] in 0.20 M KCl? KCl dissolves and separates ~100% in water.
To find the [ions] in an aqueous solution, write the REC steps.
KCl Æ K+ + Cl─ One particle ionizes to become two, so i = 2 .
0.20 M 0.20 M 0.20 M The [ions] = [dissolved particles] = 0.40 M
Since one particle becomes two ions, the [ions] is twice the [un-ionized compound] .
[solute particles] = ( i )[un-ionized solute] ; [solute particles] = (2)(0.20 M KCl) = 0.40 M solute particles
2b. 1 K3PO4 Æ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─ Since one particle becomes four ions, i = 4 .
[solute particles] = ( i )[un-ionized solute] = (4)(0.12 M K3PO4) = 0.48 M solute particles
3. Since Na2SO4 Æ 2 Na+ + 1 SO42─ Since one particle becomes three ions, i = 3 .
? = [un-ionized solute ] = [solute particles] / ( i ) = 1.00 M ions/3 = 0.33 M Na2SO4
4. ? mol ions = 0.25 L soln • 0.80 mol NaCl • 2 mol ions = 0.20 mol ions
1 L soln 1 mol NaCl
5. The solution is 0.10 mol KCl/mole total, and the solution is aqueous. Since mole fraction is a ratio, it works
for any size sample. If we have one mole of KCl, we must have how many moles of water?
* * * * *
We must have 9 mol water -- to total 10 moles of solute and solvent for the 0.10 mole fraction. However,
KCl ionizes. In that solution with one mol KCl, how many moles of ions are there? How many moles of
water? What is the mole fraction that is ions?
* * * * *

One mole of KCl forms two total moles of ions in water.

Total moles of mixture = 2.0 mol ions + 9.0 mol solvent = 11.0 mol total
χ ions = mol ions = 2.0 mol ions = 0.18 mol ions
Total moles of mixture 11.0 mol total mol total particles
Practice D
1. WANT: i actual
To find the vapor pressure of a gas above a solution with a non-volatile solute, use
Raoult’s law: Pabove soln. = χ solvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent
DATA: Pabove soln. = 17.8 mm Hg

Pº
solvent = 23.8 mm Hg
χ
solvent particles = ? = mol fraction of solvent = mol solvent/ total moles of particles
χsolvent particles = Pabove soln. = 17.8 mm Hg = 0.75
Pº 23.8 mm Hg
solvent
mol of H2O solvent = 12.0 mol H2O
Moles of un-ionized solute = 1.0 moles
χsolvent particles = 0.75 = 12.0 mol H2O solvent / Y moles total
Y moles total = 12.0 mol / 0.75 = 16 moles total particles

16 moles total particles = 12.0 moles H2O + ( i ) 1.0 mole un-ionized solute
i must = 4 .
* * * * *
Lesson 26D: Colligative Properties Of Solutions

Boiling and Melting Points of Solutions
Recall that a pure substance has a sharp and predictable melting point , and the melting
temperature of a substance is the same as its freezing temperature.
At a given pressure, a pure substance has a sharp and predictable boiling point. Boiling
points are much more sensitive to atmospheric pressure than melting points. A liquid boils
when its vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure above it.
If a small amount of a soluble but non-volatile (non-gas-forming) substance is dissolved in
a pure liquid, the range of temperature in which the liquid stays liquid expands at both
ends. Adding soluble but non-volatile particles elevates the boiling point, compared to the
boiling point of the pure liquid solvent. Adding soluble particles depresses the

melting/freezing point of the mixture, compared to the freezing point for the pure liquid
solvent.
For example:
• If salt, alcohol, or ethylene glycol (sold as anti-freeze) is dissolved in pure water, the
water will not freeze until a temperature substantially lower than 0 ºC. These
chemicals can therefore be used to prevent water from freezing in a car radiator and
engine block. Freezing of radiator fluid would not be good because when water
freezes, it expands. This expansion would crack open the coils in the expensive
radiator and the cooling channels in the more expensive engine block. Ethylene
glycol is preferred as an antifreeze because salt water corrodes metals, and most
inexpensive alcohols will boil out of an alcohol/water mixture at typical engine
operating temperatures.
• Ethylene glycol is relatively non-volatile compared to water: it boils at much higher
temperature. As a result, this same anti-freeze that lowers the freezing point of
water elevates water’s boiling point. This means that in the summer, the
water/antifreeze mixture in the engine block stays liquid until a higher temperature
than water alone. If the engine gets hotter than normal, the mixture stays liquid
until a higher temperature, and a liquid is far more efficient as a coolant than the
steam that would form if the fluid were to boil. If your radiator fluid in the summer
is water without ethylene glycol added, under the extra head added due to an air
conditioner, the cooling fluid tends to boil away at the engine operating
temperature, the engine overheats, and expensive parts break.
• When making home-made ice cream, a container of cream and sugar is surrounded
by ice. Salt is then added to the ice around the cream container. The ice/salt/water
mixture adjusts to its freezing point, which is lower than for water alone, and is
lower than the ice cream solution (water, sugar, and fat) freezing point. NaCl is
both inexpensive and can lower the freezing temperature of salt/ice/water as low
as ─21ºC.
The amount of the elevation of the boiling temperature or the depression of a melting
temperature, can be predicted by these equations:
Elevation of boiling temp. = ↑ΔTbp solvent = Kbp solvent • msolute particles
or Elevation BP = ↑ΔTbp solvent = Kbp solvent • i • mun-ionized solute (8)
Depression of freezing/melting temp. = ↓ΔTfp = Kfp solvent • msolute particles
or Depression FP/MP = ↓ΔTfp solvent = Kfp solvent • i • mun-ionized solute (9)
In those equations,
• Kbp = molal boiling point constant and Kfp = molal freeing point constant
• the constants K are values that are characteristic for each solvent and can be looked
up in tables. The K value does not depends on the solvent, not the solute.

• The m is determined by the solute. The higher the molality (concentration) of the
solute particles in the solvent, the more the boiling point will elevate and freezing
point will depress.
• i = the van’t Hoff factor = the number of particles in the solution per un-ionized
solute particle.
• msolute particles = i • mun-ionized solute
In colligative properties, it is the number of separate particles of solute in the solution that
must be measured to predict the value of the property. Each ion is a separate particle. To
keep in mind the effect of ionization on colligative properties, it is a good idea to memorize
the form of the equations that includes the symbol i .
Some examples of Solvent BP at Kbp MP/FP Kfp
K values for 1 atm (ºC) (ºC· kg/mol) (ºC) (ºC· kg/mol)
boiling and
Water (H2O) 100 0.51 0 1.86
melting/freezing
are in the table at Ethanol (C2H5OH) 78 1.22 ─ 115 1.99
the right.
Benzene (C6H6) 80. 2.53 6 5.12
Note that the K
value for melting/freezing is a higher value. This is true in all cases. For a given solvent,
the melting/freezing point will change more, for a given molality of solute, than the boiling
point.
In experiments, K values for solvents can easily be measured, and if the FP depression is
carefully measured for a known mass of an unknown solute, the molality of the solute can
be found. From the moles in the molality, the g/mol (molar mass) can be calculated. The
change in the FP is usually measured, rather than the change in BP, because the higher Kfp
will have a larger change and therefore a lower uncertainty when measured
experimentally.
The boiling point elevation equation predicts only the behavior of solutions where
relatively non-volatile solutes (usually solids with relatively high boiling points) are added
to the solvent, so that the only the solvent vaporizes significantly. In calculations for
freezing point depression, the equation can usually be relied upon for predictions if the
solute melting point is not close to that of the solvent.
To learn to use those equations, try this example.
Q. Using the answers for 24.0 proof wine in Q1 of the first lesson in this module, plus
the table above, what will be the freezing temperature of 24.0 proof wine?
(Alcohols do not ionize in water, and pure ethanol freezes below ─100ºC.).
* * * * *
Since the water is the larger component in the solution, treat water as the solvent and the
ethanol as the solute. Adding a substance that dissolves in the water will lower the normal
freezing point of pure water, which by definition is 0ºC. The equation is
Depression of FP/MP = ↓ΔTfp solvent = Kfp solvent • i • mun-ionized solute

DATA: Molality EtOH = 2.34 m EtOH = 2.34 mol/kg from the first lesson.
Kfp solvent = Kfp water = 1.86 ºC · kg/mol
i = 1 because alcohols do not ionize in water.
SOLVE:
↓ΔTfp = Kfp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute = (1.86 ºC· kg )( 1 )( 2.34 mol ) = 4.35 ºC
mol kg
The prediction is that the ethanol will depress water’s normal freezing point by 4.35 ºC,
from 0ºC for pure water to ─ 4.35ºC for the wine.
Non-Ideal Behavior
In colligative property calculations, an assumption is “ideal behavior:” that no reaction
takes place between the solvent and solute, and that solute particles do not attract each
other. In alcohols mixed with water, there is a “hydrogen bond” weak attraction between
the ─OH group in water and the ─OH group present in all alcohols. This hydrogen-bond
attraction is one form of “non-ideal” behavior that limits the accuracy of the prediction
using the equation.
In addition, the equations for boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are
approximations derived from more complex equations, and those approximations assume
both ideal and dilute solutions. As solutions become more concentrated, the predictions of
the equations are less accurate.
Practice A: Memorize Equations (8) and (9), then complete the problems below. Use
data as needed from the table in the lesson.
1. 68.4 grams of an unknown sugar is dissolved in 500. mL of water. At standard
pressure, the boiling point of the solution is found to be 100.20 ºC. In water, sugars
dissolve but do not ionize. Find
a. The molality of the sugar solution. b. The estimated molar mass of the sugar.
2. If 11.7 grams of NaCl is dissolved in 250. mL of water, what will be the freezing point of
the solution?
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is the movement of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane: a barrier that
allows solvent molecules to pass through, but not solute particles. The solvent can pass
flow in both directions, but the net flow is in the direction that tends to equalize the
concentration of the particles on both sides of the membrane.
If a container contains a membrane that separates the pure solvent from a solution of the
solvent, and the container is open to the atmosphere on both sides, the movement of
molecules from the pure solvent into the solution by osmosis can cause the solvent level on
the solution side of the membrane to be higher than the pure solvent side. At equilibrium,

when no further net change is occurring, the pressure difference due to the higher fluid on
the solution side is equal to what is termed the osmotic pressure of the solution.
The osmotic pressure can also be defined as the minimum pressure on the solution side of
the system above that is needed to stop the osmosis.
If two solutions with the same solvent but different concentrations are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, the solution with the higher concentration of solute is termed
hypertonic and the less concentrated is hypotonic. If the two solutions have the same
osmotic pressure, they are isotonic.
The osmotic pressure of a solution can be predicted by the equation
Osmotic pressure = Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized solute R T = MparticlesRT (Eq. 10)

In this equation:
Π (capital pi) = osmotic pressure in any pressure units
i = the van’t Hoff factor = the number of ions that form in the solution per un-
ionized solute particle.
(For molecules that do not ionize, i = 1 ; for Na2SO4 , i = 3 , etc.)
Mun-ionized solute = the molarity of the un-ionized solute
{ Mparticles = ( i )( Mun-ionized solute ) }
R = the gas constant in liters and the pressure unit used in the problem.
T = absolute temperature in kelvins
As a reminder that the number of separate particles in the solute must be measured, it is
best to memorize the form of the equation that includes ( i ). Apply the equation to this
example.
Q1. Predict the osmotic pressure in atm. of a 0.200 M K3PO4 solution at 25 ºC .
(R = 0.0821 L · atm/mol · K).
* * * * *
WANT: Osmotic P = Π = ? Write the equation: Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized soluteRT
As always, use a DATA table to break the problem into pieces. In the table, convert the
supplied data to the units needed for the equation and its constants.
DATA: i=4 In water, 1 K3PO4 Æ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─
Mun-ionized solute = 0.200 M K3PO4
R = 0.0821 L · atm/mol · K
T in K = 25 ºC + 273 = 298 K
SOLVE:
Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized soluteRT = ( 4 ) 0.200 mol • 0.0821 L · atm • 298 K = 19.6 atm
L mol · K

Measurements of osmotic pressure are often used to find the molar mass of large molecules
(polymers and large biomolecules). Knowing the mass of dissolved particles, osmotic
pressure, temperature, and solution volume, the mol/L and then the grams/mole can be
calculated. Try this example.
Q2. 26.0 mg of a large biomolecule is dissolved in water to form 2.50 mL soln. at 10 ºC .
The osmotic pressure of the solution is found to be 0.750 kPa. Assuming that the
biomolecule does not ionize, find its molar mass (R = 8.31 kPa · L/mol · K).
* * * * *
WANT: Molar mass = g/mol We know the g of sample. Can we find its moles?
DATA: The osmotic pressure equation is Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized solute R T
Π = 0.750 kPa
Mun-ionized solute = ? = Molarity of biomolecule since it does not ionize.
R = 8.31 kPa · L/mol · K

T in K = 10 ºC + 273 = 283 K
26.0 mg molecule = 2.50 mL soln. (2 measures of same solution)
SOLVE: Msolute = Π = 0.750 kPa · mol · K = 3.19 x 10─4 mol
RT 283 K 8.31 kPa · L L
Can the molar mass be solved from here?
* * * * *
Molar Mass = ? g biomolecule = 26.0 m g · 1L = 3.26 x 104 g
mol 2.50 m L 3.19 x 10─4 mol mol
Recall that prefixes are abbreviations of exponentials. Exponentials and prefixes can be
grouped separately from numbers and units, and like prefixes can cancel.
The answer is a large molar mass, but that is consistent with a large biomolecule.
Practice B: Memorize the numbered equations in this module, then complete the
problems below.
1. List the 5 colligative properties covered in this module. After each, write the equation
that predicts the value for the property.
2. Which colligative properties are calculated based on
a. Molality? b. Molarity?
3. To mix physiological saline solution, 9.07 g of NaCl is dissolved in water to make one
liter of solution. Predict the osmotic pressure in kPa of this solution at the mammalian
normal temperature of 37 ºC (R = 8.31 kPa · L/mol · K).

For More Practice

• Find these topics in your regular chemistry textbook.
• For each topic, find the examples embedded in the textbook reading on the topic.
• Cover the example answer with a sticky note or cover sheet.
• Work the problem in your problem notebook, then check your answer.
Problems can be solved in many ways, and the text may solve problems differently,
but the answer should be the same as the answer found using the methods here. If
your answer differs, the answer worked out in the text will help you to find your error.
For more practice, work “end of the textbook chapter” problems that have answers
you can check.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. WANT: ? m = ? mol sugar/kg solvent
DATA: For BP elevation, the equation is ↑ΔTbp solvent = Kbp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute
↑ΔTbp solvent = + 0.20 ºC , since pure water at std. P boils at exactly 100ºC by definition.
Kbp solvent = Kbp water = 0.51 ºC kg/mol from table above.

i = 1 since sugar does not ionize
mun-ionized solute = ?
SOLVE: mun-ionized solute = ? = ΔTbp solvent = 0.20 ºC mol = 0.39 mol sugar/kg water
( i ) Kbp solvent (1) 0.51 ºC kg
1b. WANT: ? MM sugar = ? g sugar/mol sugar
DATA: g sugar = 68.4 g sugar
Since you know the grams of sugar in the sample, you only need the moles.
Molality solution = 0.39 mol sugar/kg water
Kg water = 500. mL water = 500. g water = 0.500 kg water
Since m = mol solute/kg solvent
Mol sugar = (molality sugar)(kg H2O) = (0.39 mol sugar/kg H2O)(0.500 kg H2O)
= 0.195 mol sugar (keeping an extra sf until the end)
SOLVE: ? MM sugar = ? g sugar/mol sugar = 68.4 g sugar/0.195 mol sugar = 350 g sugar/mol sugar

2. WANT: Final freezing point = ? Find ↓ΔTfp solvent = ?

DATA: For boiling point elevation, the equation is ↓ΔTfp solvent = Kfp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute
In the DATA table, compute a value for each symbol.
Kfp solvent = Kfp water = 1.86 ºC · kg/mol from the table above
i = 2 for NaCl. In water, 1 NaCl Æ 1 Na+ + 1 Cl─ One particle ionizes to form two.
Molality NaCl un-ionized = mol NaCl = ?
kg of solvent H2O
Mol NaCl = 11.7 g NaCl • 1 mol NaCl = 0.200 mol NaCl

58.5 g NaCl
kg of solvent H2O = 250 mL H2O = 250 g H2O = 0.250 kg H2O solvent
Molality NaCl un-ionized solute = mol NaCl = 0.200 mol NaCl = 0.800 m NaCl
kg H2O 0.250 kg H2O
SOLVE:
↓ΔTfp solvent = Kfp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute = ( 1.86 ºC · kg/mol )(2)( 0.800 mol / kg ) = ↓2.98 ºC
Since pure water freezes at 0 ºC , and adding a solute lowers the solvent freezing point, the freezing
temperature of this salt water mixture = ─ 2.98 ºC
Practice B
1. See summary at the end of this module.
2a. Henry’s law relating gas solubility in a solvent to pressure holds within experimental error for any measure
of concentration, including both molarity and molality.
Molality (m) is used to calculate freezing point depression and melting point elevation in a solution,
compared to the properties of the solvent if pure.
2b. Molarity is used to predict osmotic pressure. Molarity can be used with Henry’s law.
3. WANT: osmotic pressure = Π = ? The equation is Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized solute RT
DATA: 9.07 g NaCl = 1 L solution
58.5 g NaCl = 1 mol NaCl (grams prompt)
Make the DATA table to match the terms in the equation:
i = 2 for NaCl In water, 1 NaCl Æ 1 Na+ + 1 Cl─
Mun-ionized solute = ?
Molarity NaCl = M NaCl = mol HCl = 9.07 g NaCl • 1 mol NaCl = 0.155 M NaCl
L soln 1L 58.5 g NaCl
R = 8.31 kPa · L/mol · K
T in K = ºC + 273 = 37 ºC + 273 = 310. K
SOLVE: Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized solute RT = ( 2 ) 0.155 mol • 8.31 L · kPa • 310. K = 799 kPa
L mol · K
* * * * *

SUMMARY: Properties of Mixtures

You may want to flashcard these equations.
1. Five measures of the composition of a mixture of two substances are:
a. Molarity (M) = moles of substance
Liter of mixture
b. Mass fraction = mass of a substance in any consistent mass units
c. Mole fraction ( χ ) = moles of a substance

Total moles in mixture
For fractions that measure a part of a total, the value of the fraction must be a
number between zero and one.
d. Molality (m) = moles of substance
kilogram of solvent
In molality calculations, when water is the solvent, or for the density of dilute
aqueous solutions, use
1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O and/or 1.00 kg H2O = 1 L H2O
e. Parts per million = ppm ≡ g substance x 106

g total
2. Percent and PPM
a. If percent or ppm is WANTED, solve for the part/total fraction, then convert to
percent or ppm.
b. In the special case where percent or ppm is supplied as DATA, either
• start by converting to the fraction using the definition equations, then use the
fraction in conversions, or
• write the percent or ppm in the DATA as a conversion in this format.
If “X % by mass” is supplied, write as DATA: X g substance = 100 g total
If “X ppm” is supplied, write as DATA: X g substance = 106 g total
For dilute aq. soln, if ppm is supplied, write: # ppm = # mg substance/L
3. van’t Hoff factor ( i ) = the number of separate particles that a substance forms when it
dissolves in water.
Examples: Predict i = 3 for K2SO4 ; i = 2 for NaCl ; i = 1 for non-electrolytes.
Moles of solute particles dissolved = ( i ) (moles un-ionized solute)
Molarity of solute particles dissolved = ( i ) (molarity un-ionized solute)
Molality of solute particles dissolved = ( i ) (molality un-ionized solute)

4. For colligative properties, the rule is
Each ion is a separate particle when counting the moles, molarity, or molality of
solute particles in the solution.
5. Five Colligative Properties

All colligative properties assume that in a mixture, the particles will not significantly
react. If the particles ionize but do not otherwise react in a solvent, colligative properties
can be calculated based on the van’t Hoff factor for the number of ions in the solution.
a. Henry’s law: Concentrationgas in solution = khenry • Pgas above
where the Henry’s law constant = khenry is constant at a given temperature for a
given gas and solvent combination. Concentration may be measured in any
consistent units.
b. Partial pressure of solvent above a solution with non-volatile solute:
Raoult’s law: Pabove soln. = χsolvent (volatile) particles • P ºsolvent
c. Elevation of boiling pt. = ↑ΔTbp solvent = Kbp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute
d. Depression of FP/MP = ↓ΔTfp = Kfp solvent • i •mun-ionized solute
where the K values for elevation and depression are a characteristic property of
the solvent. This means that for each solvent, the elevation and depression will
vary depending on the molality of the solute particles dissolved in the solution,
but not what those particles are.
e. Osmotic pressure = Π = ( i ) Mun-ionized solute R T = Mdissolved particles R T
# # # # #

Calculations
In Chemistry
Module 25 on Kinetics is now Module 27 and is in this packet
The former Module 27 on Acid-Base Fundamentals is now Module 29
If you are looking for Acid-Base pH topics, check Module 29
* * * * *
Module 27 -- Kinetics
Module 27 – Kinetics......................................................................................................715
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e ii
Table of Contents
Module 6 – Atoms, Ions, and Periodicity .................................................................... 99
Lesson 6A: Atoms .................................................................................................................... 99
Lesson 7D: Review Quiz For Modules 5-7 ........................................................................... 150
Lesson 8A: The Mole ............................................................................................................. 154
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e iii

Lesson 10F: Limiting Reactants and RICE Tables ...............................................................204
Lesson 10G: Counting Reactants............................................................................................211
Lesson 10H: Review Quiz For Modules 8-10..........................................................................221
Module 11 – Molarity..................................................................................................... 224
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e iv
Module 20 – Graphing .................................................................................................. 477
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e v
Lesson 23A: Waves ..................................................................................................................600
Module 25 – Bonding ....................................................................................................648
Module 27 – Kinetics......................................................................................................715
Lesson 28D: K Values ..............................................................................................................813
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e vi
Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 960
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures................................................................................................... 991
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization ................................................................................... 995
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e vii

•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2e viii

Module 27 — Kinetics
Prerequisites: It will be helpful if you have completed Module 20 – Graphing before this
module.
* * * * *
Lesson 27A: Reaction Rates

Reaction kinetics includes the study of
• the speed (the rate) of chemical reactions;
• the mechanism of chemical reactions: the “intermediate” particles that form in the
transition from reactants to products; and
• reaction energetics: how much energy is needed to form intermediates, and how
reaction rates are affected by temperature.
Why is kinetics important? We would like to speed up certain reactions that are important
to society, such as the
• burning of gasoline in internal combustion engines, so that incompletely burned
combustion products do not escape into the environment; and
• converting graphite (pencil lead) into “industrial diamonds” for drills and cutting
tools.
Other reactions, we would like to slow down, such as
• the conversion of the iron in steel to iron oxide (rust), and
• the decay of ozone (O3) in earth’s upper atmosphere, which protects life forms from
the harmful elements of solar radiation.
Kinetics helps in understanding, and potentially controlling, these processes.
Definitions
A rate is a change in a quantity per unit of time. A rate is a ratio that always has a time unit
in the denominator.
• Speed (or velocity) is a measure of how fast an object is moving: the rate of change
of position per unit of time, in units such as miles per hour or meters per second.
• An interest rate is the percentage of a loan amount you must pay, per month or per
annum (per year), in addition to re-paying the principal.
The rate of a chemical reaction measures how fast the reactants are used up, and/or how
fast the products are formed.
A reaction mechanism breaks down an overall chemical reaction into individual steps,
identifying the temporary particles that form in the transition from reactants to products.
The rate of a reaction is determined by the slowest step in the mechanism: the rate-
determining step. Rate-law equations measure the characteristics of the rate-determining
step of a reaction.
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 2v Page 715

Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to go faster, but are not used up in the
reaction.
• Metals such as platinum and palladium are used in a car’s catalytic converter to
help ensure that incompletely burned gasoline reacts with oxygen.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts: carbon-based molecules that regulate living
processes.
Average and Instantaneous Reaction Rates
In chemical reactions, the rate at which one reactant is used up, or one product is formed, is
defined as the rate of change of the concentration of the reactant or product.
Rate = change in [A]
change in time
For most reactions, a graph of the concentration of a reactant or product ([A]) versus time
will produce a smooth curve (an exception is the zero-order reaction, discussed below, for
which the graph is a line).
Two types of reaction rates are the average rate and the instantaneous rate.
• The average reaction rate between two times t1 and t2 is defined as
Average Rate = change in [A] = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1

change in time Δt t2 ─ t1
This equation must be memorized.

On a graph [A] versus time, the average rate will be the slope of the line between
the two points (t1, [A]1) and (t2, [A]2).
• The instantaneous rate is, in the notation of calculus, d[A]/dt , the rate at a specific
time t. At a given time, the instantaneous rate can be calculated by graphing
measurements for [A]
0.12
versus time, drawing a
line tangent to the
curve at the time, and 0.1
DATA
calculating the slope of Average Rate
the tangent line. 0.08 Instantaneous
Rate
For most reactions, the two
[X]
0.06
slopes, representing the values
for the average rate between
0.04
two close points, and the
instantaneous rate at a time
half-way between the two 0.02
points, will be close but not the

same. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (Seconds)

Average Rate Calculations

To calculate an average reaction rate from concentration versus time measurements:
1. Select the two measurements of concentration versus time to be averaged.
2. Assign the lower time to be t1, and
3. Apply the average rate definition:
Average Rate = change in [A] = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1
change in time Δt t 2 ─ t1
Use those steps on the following example.
Q1. For the data at the right, calculate the average rate of the Time [A]
reaction for the time between three and five minutes.
0 0.500M
1.0 min. 0.395 M
(When you come to a * * * * * line, cover below the line 2.0 min. 0.325 M
and answer the questions above the line in your notebook.) 3.0 min. 0.275 M
* * * * * 4.0 min. 0.240 M
Assign t1 to be 3.0 min. [A]1 is therefore 0.275 M. 5.0 min. 0.215 M
Using the equation for average rate:
Average Rate = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1 = 0.215 M ─ 0.275 M = ─ 0.030 mol

Δt t2 ─ t1 5.0 min. ─ 3.0 min. L • min.
Note about this result:
1. The negative sign for the rate reflects that [A] is decreasing with time.
2. The units can be written in several equivalent ways.
M = M • min.─1 = mol • 1 = mol = mol • L─1 • min.─1

min. L min. L • min.
Follow the math from step to step between these equivalent forms.
3. Note the similarity between the equation for average rate between two times and the
formula for the slope of a line on a graph:
m = slope = rise = change in y = Δy = y2 ─ y1
The equation for the average rate between two times matches the form of a slope
formula in which the x values are always time values.
The average rate of a reaction is the slope of a line between two points on a graph
that represent the concentrations plotted at y1 and y2 at times t1 and t2 plotted on
the x-axis.

Practice A
1. For the reaction A + 2B Æ 2C, the average rate of reaction of A is ─1.50 x 10─3 M • s─1
during the first 2.00 minutes of the reaction. If [A]= 0.240 M after 2.00 minutes, what
was the initial [A]?
Rates of Disappearance versus Appearance

If the balanced equation for a reaction is known, and the rate at which any one of the
reactants is used up or products form is known, all of the rates of disappearance of
reactants and appearance of products can easily be calculated. The coefficients of a
balanced equation supply the simple whole-number ratios needed for these calculations.
Try applying that rule to the following example.
Q. The Haber process uses nitrogen gas (isolated from air) and hydrogen gas (which
can be produced from water) plus catalysts and energy to produce ammonia.
Ammonia can be converted to fertilizers that improve food production.
The Haber process reaction is: N2(g) + 3 H2(g) Æ 2 NH3(g)
At a time when the nitrogen gas is reacting at a rate of 0.060 M/s,
a. What is the rate of reaction of the hydrogen gas?
b. What is the rate of ammonia formation?
Solve, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
a. For every one N2 molecule used up, three H2 must be used up, so the rate of change
in hydrogen gas concentration is: (─ 0.060 N2 M/s) x (3 H2/N2) = ─ 0.180 H2 M/s.
Note that though a rate of disappearance can be labeled as positive, what is measured
rate equations is a rate of change in concentration, so that in calculations, a rate at
which substances are used up must be assigned a negative sign.
Try Part B.
* * * * *
b. For every one nitrogen molecule used up, two ammonia molecules must be formed.
The rate of ammonia formation must be 0.060 M/s x 2 = + 0.120 M/second .
Practice B: Check your answer after each part. Time [N2O5]

1. The gas dintrogen pentoxide decomposes to form nitrogen 0 0.200 M
dioxide gas and oxygen gas. The balanced equation is
1.0 min. 0.141 M
2 N2O5 Æ 4 NO2 + 1 O2 2.0 min. 0.100 M
Measurements of [N2O5] are recorded at the right. 3.0 min. 0.0707 M
a. Calculate the average rate of reaction of N2O5 during the 4.0 min. 0.0500 M
first three minutes of the reaction.

b. Calculate the average rate of oxygen gas formation during the first three minutes of
the reaction.
c. Calculate the average rate of NO2 formation between 2.0 and 4.0 minutes.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED: Initial [A] , which in symbols is [A]0 , the concentration of A at time = 0.
The problem provides the average rate, and the average rate equation is the only one we know so far.
. Average Rate = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1 = ─ 1.50 x 10─3 M • s─1
Δt t 2 ─ t1
DATA: [A]2 = 0.240 M [A]1 = [A]0 = ? t2 = 2.00 min. = 120. seconds t1 = 0 s
The rate constant uses seconds, but the data includes minutes. In equations, the units must be consistent.
The easier conversion is to seconds. If needed, adjust your work and complete the calculation.
* * * * *
SOLVING in symbols first: ? = [A]0 = [A]1 = ─ { ( ─1.50 x 10─3 M • s─1) ( t2 ─ t1 ) ─ [A]2 } =
= ─ { ( ─ 1.50 x 10─3 M • s─1) (120 s ) ─ 0.240 M } = ─ ( ─ 0.180 M ─ 0.240 M ) = 0.420 M = [A]0
Practice B
1a. Average Rate = Δ[N2O5] = [N2O5]2 ─ [N2O5]1 = 0.0707 M ─ 0.200 M = ─ 0.043 mol
Δt t2 ─ t1 3.0 min. ─ 0 min. L • min.
1b. For every two N2O5 used up, one is O2 is formed.
Average Rate of O2 formation = ─ 0.043 M /min. x 1/2 = + 0.022 M/min.
1c. The only data available during that time period is for N2O5 being used up, but if we know that average
rate, we can use coefficients to calculate rates for the other reactants and products.
Average Rate = Δ[N2O5] = [N2O5]2 ─ [N2O5]1 = 0.0500 M ─ 0.100 M = ─ 0.025 mol N2O5
Δt t 2 ─ t1 4.0 min. ─ 2.0 min. L • min.
In the balanced equation, NO2 is being produced at double that rate. Substances being used up should
be given a negative, and substances being formed a positive, rate of change in concentration.
(─ 0.025 M/min N2O5 ) x 2 = + 0.050 M/min. NO2
* * * * *

Lesson 27B: Rate Laws

A rate law (also called a differential rate law) expresses how the rate of a reaction depends
on the concentration of reacting particles.
When studying the impact of a single reactant particle A on a reaction rate, the rate law
equation is
Rate = Δ[A] = k [A]n
Δt
where k is the rate constant and n is an exponent that is termed the order of the
reactant.
The rate constant k is a number with units that will always be the same when a given
reaction is carried out at the same temperature. For most reactions, the rate constant will
change significantly even with a small temperature change. Typically, an increase in
temperature of 10˚C will roughly double a reaction rate.
In a chemical reaction: A + B + C Æ D + E , the rate of the forward reaction will be
predicted by the rate law:
Rate = k [A]n[B]o[C]p
where the exponents n, o, and p are the order of each reactant. If each exponent and the
rate constant k can be calculated, a complete rate law for the reaction can be written.
To understand the mechanism of a chemical reaction, the first step is to “determine the
form of the rate law” by determining the order (the exponent) for each [reactant] in the
rate-law equation.
Zero Order Reactants
If the exponent in a rate equation is zero (n = 0) for a reactant, the reaction is termed
zero order for that reactant, and the rate equation is: rate = k[A]0 = k (anything to the
zero power equals one).
If a reaction has only one reactant, and that reactant is zero order, the reaction proceeds
at a constant rate: the rate does not depend on the concentration of the reactant.
Reactions where the rate is determined by a catalyst are often zero order.
First Order Reactants
For a first-order reactant, n = 1, and rate = k[A]1 = k[A] . The rate of the reaction is
directly proportional to the concentration of A: if the reactant concentration is doubled,
the reaction rate is doubled.
The decay of radioactive isotopes is one type of process with first-order kinetics.
Second Order Reactants
For a second-order reactant, n = 2, and rate = k[A]2 . If the [reactant] is doubled, the
reaction rate will be four times as fast.

Summary: Commit this chart to memory.

Order Zero First Second
Rate Law rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
When [A] doubles: rate stays same rate doubles rate quadruples
In a rate law, the value of the exponents is not determined by the coefficients of the
balanced equation. The order (the exponent) for each reactant must be determined by
experiment.
Three methods that can determine the order for a reactant are:
• Varying the reactant concentration, and analyzing the initial rate of the reaction;
• Arithmetic analysis of how the reactant concentration changes with time; and
• Graphical analysis of how reactant concentration changes with time.
Let’s consider these one at a time.
Finding the Order: Concentration versus Initial Rate
When determining the order of a reactant by varying its concentration, the initial rate of
the reaction is measured: the rate just after the reaction begins, when very few of the
products have been formed.
Why measure the initial rate? In theory, all chemical reactions are reversible: a reaction
that goes forward can go backward. In practice, some reactions go forward and backward
easily; the reversible color change of an acid-base indicator is one example. Other reactions
strongly tend to go only one direction: most “burning” goes strongly to completion.
Analysis of reaction-rate data can be difficult if a reaction is going both forward and
backward, but for a reaction to go backward, the products must exist. After reactants are
first mixed, when not much of the products have been formed, the reaction is going
forward far more than it is going backward. This simplifies kinetics calculations.
Use the characteristics of zero-, first-, and second-order reactants to solve this question.
Q. For the reaction: A Æ B , based on the Expt. [A] Initial Rate (mol/L•s)
data at the right,
a. determine the order of A.
1 0.20 M 1.3 x 10─4
b. Write the rate law. 2 0.40 M 2.6 x 10─4

* * * * *
Answer
3 0.60 M 3.9 x 10─4
a. The data shows that in Experiment 2, [A] is doubled compared to Experiment 1, and
the reaction rate doubled as well. Comparing Experiment 3 to Experiment 1, when
[A] was tripled, the reaction rate tripled.
This reaction fits the definition of “first order in A.”
b. The rate law is: Rate = k[A], where the exponent of [A] is one.

Try one more example.
Q. For the reaction: C Æ D , the Expt. [C] Initial Rate (mol / L • s)

data at the left is collected.
a. Determine the order of C. 1 0.10 M 1.0 x 10─4
b. Write the rate law.
2 0.20 M 4.0 x 10─4
c. Using the results of Expt. 2
and the rate law, calculate a 3 0.40 M 16.0 x 10─4
value for the rate constant (k).
* * * * *
Answer
a. In Experiment 2, the [C] is doubled compared to Expt. 1, and the reaction rate
quadrupled. Comparing Expt. 3 to Expt. 1, when [C] is four times higher, the
reaction rate is 16 times higher. This reaction is “second order in C.”
b. This behavior fits the rate law: rate = k[C]2 .
If needed, adjust your work and then try Part C.
* * * * *
c. Since k is a constant in the rate law equation, data from any one of the three
experiments, substituted into the rate law, should give the same value for k.
Solve Rate = k[C]2 for k in symbols first, then substitute data from Expt. 2 in the
chart above.
* * * * *
k = Rate = 4.0 x 10─4 (mol/L • s) = 4.0 x 10─4 mol ● L2 = 1.0 x 10─2 L
[C]2 [0.20 mol/L]2 0.040 L · s mol2 mol · s
Recall that in simplifying the units, when a fractional unit is in the denominator, it helps to
separate the fractional unit into a reciprocal, then invert the reciprocal (see Lesson 17C).
The units of the answer above can be written in several equivalent ways, including
L = 1 = M─1 •s─1 = L •mol─1 •s─1

mol · s M·s
Concentration versus Initial Rate for More Than One Reactant

In an overall chemical reaction: A + B + C Æ D + E , the rate of the forward reaction
will be predicted by the rate law equation:
The overall reaction order for the reaction is the sum of the reactant exponents.
For a reaction with more than one reactant, it is relatively easy to determine the order of
each reactant if, in a series of experiments, the concentration of each reactant is varied while
the other reactant concentrations are held constant.

This is a key principle of experimental design: when multiple variables affect an outcome,
vary one and measure the impact on the second while holding the others constant.
Try this problem.
Q. For the reaction A + B Æ C, the data Initial Rate
at the right is collected. Expt. [A] [B]
(mol / L • s)
a. Determine the order of A and B.
b. Write the overall rate law. 1 0.10 M 0.10 M 2.1 x 10─5
c. Find the overall reaction order. 2 0.20 M 0.10 M 8.0 x 10─5
d. Using the rate law and Expt. 1 data,
find a numeric value and units for k. 3 0.20 M 0.20 M 16.1 x 10─5
* * * * *
Answers
a. Comparing Experiment 2 to Experiment 1, [B] is held constant, while [A] doubles,
and the reaction rate approximately quadruples. Allowing for experimental error,
this indicates that the power of [A] is 2, and A is therefore a second-order reactant.
Comparing Experiment 3 to Experiment 2, the [A] is held constant, while the [B]
doubles, and the reaction rate approximately doubles. This fits the profile for B
being a first-order reactant.
b. What is the overall rate equation for this reaction? Rate = k[A]2[B]1 = k[A]2[B] .
c. The “overall reaction order” for the reaction is the sum of the exponents: 2 + 1 = 3.
The reaction is said to be “third-order overall.”
d. Since k is constant in all of the experiments, you can use data from any one of the
experiments to calculate k. Since Rate = k[A]2[B] , if we use Expt. 1 data:
k= Rate = 2.1 x 10─5 mol/L • s = 2.1 x 10─5 mol/L • s =

[A]2[B] (0.10 mol/L)2 (0.10 mol/L) 10─3 mol3/L3
= 2.1 x 10─2 mol ● L3 = 2.1 x 10─2 L2

L•s mol 3 mol2 • s
* * * * *
Relationships to Memorize
1. Average Rate = change in [A] = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1 = slope between points
change in time Δt t2 ─ t1 (t1, [A]1) and (t2, [A]2).
2. Order: Zero First Second

Rate Law: rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
If [A] doubles, the rate: Stays the same Doubles Quadruples
3.. For reaction A + B + C Æ D + E , the rate-law equation is: Rate = k [A]n[B]o[C]p

4. Overall reaction order = sum of the exponents in the rate law.

5. Knowing the rate of disappearance or appearance for any one of the reactants or
products, coefficients will calculate the rates for the other reactants and products.
Practice A: Finding Order From Concentration versus Initial Rate

Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. For the reaction X + Y Æ Z , the Initial Rate

data at the right is collected. Expt. [X] [Y]
(mol / L • s)
a. Determine the order of X and Y.
1 0.25 M 0.10 M 1.0 x 10─5
b. Write the overall rate equation.
2 0.25 M 0.20 M 4.0 x 10─5
c. Find the overall order for the
reaction. 3 0.50 M 0.10 M 4.0 x 10─5
d. Calculate a value for k.
2. For the reaction A + B Æ C, the Initial Rate

data at the right is collected. Expt. [A] [B]
(mol / L • s)
a. Determine the order of A and B.
1 0.20 M 0.50 M 3.5 x 10─5
b. Write the overall rate equation.
2 0.40 M 1.0 M 1.4 x 10─4
c. Find the overall order for the
reaction. 3 0.40 M 0.50 M 1.4 x 10─4
Finding the Order Using Rate, Time, and Half-Life

The half-life of a reactant measures how much time is required for half of the reactant to be
used up.
In problems where the goal is simply to determine the order of a reactant from
concentration versus time data, the order can often be determined by half-life analysis.
Half Lives and Order
If sufficient data is available, the order of a reactant can be determined by estimating the
percentage of the original concentration remaining at a time equal to double the first half-life.
• For zero-order reactants: after the first half-life, half of the reactant is used up. At a
time equal to double the first half-life, all of the reactant is used up. A zero-order
reactant is used up at a constant rate.
• First-order reactants have a constant half-life: the time for the second half-life is the
same as the first.
For first-order reactants: after the first half-life, half of the reactant is used up, and
half remains. At a time equal to double the first half-life, half of that remaining 1/2
is used up, and 1/4 of the original amount remains. After triple the first half-life, 1/2
of the 1/4, = 1/8th of the original amount remains.

• For second-order reactants: after the first half-life, half of the reactant remains. At a
time equal to double the first half-life, 1/3 of the reactant remains. At a time equal to
triple the first half-life, 1/4 of the original reactant remains.
For second-order reactants, the time to reduce 1/2 to 1/4 is twice as long as to
reduce the original amount by half; the second half-life is twice as long as the first.
Summary: memorize these relationships.
1 Order Æ Zero First Second
2 Rate Law rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
3 If [A] doubles, the rate: Stays the same Doubles Quadruples
At double the first half-
4 None 25% 33%
life, [A] remaining is:
To Use the “Double the First Half-Life” Method to Determine Reaction Order
If sufficient data is available:
1. Estimate the first half-life: the time required for one-half of the original [reactant] to be
used up.
2. Estimate what percentage of the original concentration is remaining at a time that is
double the first half-life.
3. Use the “double the first half-life” rules to determine the order of the reactant.
Let’s apply this method to a problem. Time [C]
Q1. For the reaction: C Æ D , time and [C] are measured as a 0 1.00 M
reaction proceeds. Based on the rules above,
10. s 0.71 M
a. estimate the first half-life of C in the reaction.
20. s 0.50 M
b. Determine the order of reactant C in the rate law, 30. s 0.35 M
* * * * * 40. s 0.25 M
Answer 50. s 0.17 M
The original concentration is cut in half after 20. seconds, so the first half-life of C is 20 s.
Double the first half-life is 40 s. The [C] at 40 s is 1/4 (25%) of the original concentration.
This behavior fits: rate = k[C]1 = k[C] . This reaction is first order in C.
Try another example. Time [R]
Q2. For the reaction: R Æ S , [R] and time are measured. 0 0.200 M
a. Estimate the first half-life of R in the reaction. 5.0 s 0.125 M
b. Estimate the [R] after double the first half-life. 9.0 s 0.095 M
c. Determine the order of reactant R, 14 s 0.074 M
* * * * * 18 s 0.063M
22 s 0.054 M

Answer
a. The original concentration is cut in half, to 0.100 M, after about 8 s.
b. Double the first half-life is about 16 s. The [R] at about 16 s is about 0.069 M.
Is this zero, first, or second order?
* * * * *
c. Since 0.069 M/0.200 M = 0.345; about 34% of the original concentration remains
at double the first half-life, which is close to 33%. This approximately fits the
profile for a second-order reactant: rate = k[R]2 .
In many problems, not enough data is provided to allow analysis at “double the first half-
life,” and this method cannot be used. In those cases, however, the reaction order can often
be determined by the graphical analysis methods that we will learn in the next lesson.
Practice B: Order From Concentration, Time, and Half-life

1. For the reaction: X Æ Y , [X] and time are measured as a Time [X]
reaction proceeds.
0 0.100 M
a. Estimate the first half-life of X in the reaction. 25 s 0.079 M
b. Determine the order in X. 50. s 0.065 M
c. Write the rate equation. 100. s 0.048 M
d. Calculate the average rate of the reaction during its first 150. s 0.038 M
100 seconds. 200. s 0.032 M
e. Which of these can be written as an answer unit for
part d? After each, write YES or NO.
1) M 2) M •s─1 3) mol •L─1 •s─1 4) mol

s L •s
2. For the reaction: D Æ E , [D] and time are measured at the Time [D]
right. Write the rate-law expression.
0 0.050 M
3. For the reaction: A Æ B , 25 s 0.044 M

Time [A]
[A] and time are measured. 50. s 0.038 M
0 0.100 M
Write the rate equation. 100. s 0.025 M
1.0 hour 0.095 M
200. s 0M
2.0 hours 0.090 M
3.0 hours 0.085 M
4.0 hours 0.081 M

ANSWERS
Practice A: Order From Concentration versus Rate
1 a. The rate of the forward reaction will be Initial Rate

predicted by the rate equation: Expt. [X] [Y]
(mol / L • s)
Rate = k [X]n[Y]p
1 0.25 M 0.10 M 1.0 x 10─5
To find the order for X, choose two
experiments where the other variable [Y] is 2 0.25 M 0.20 M 4.0 x 10─5
held constant while [X] is changed. In
experiments 1 and 3, [Y] is held constant. 3 0.50 M 0.10 M 4.0 x 10─5
Comparing experiments 1 and 3, [X] is doubled, and the rate goes up four times. This indicates that
the reaction is “second order in X;” the exponent of [X] in the rate equation is two.
To find the order for Y, choose two experiments where the other variable [X] is held constant while [Y]
is changed. In experiments 1 and 2, [X] is constant.
Comparing experiments 1 and 2, [Y] is doubled, and the rate goes up four times. This indicates that
the exponent for [Y] is 2, and the exponent of [Y] in the rate equation is two.
b. The overall rate equation is: Rate = k [X]2[Y]2

c. The overall order for the reaction is the sum of the exponents: 2 + 2 = 4.
d. Since k is constant, you can use the rate law with data from any one of the experiments to calculate k.
Solving Rate = k [X]2[Y]2 for k, if we use data from Experiment 3:
? = k = Rate = 4.0 x 10─5 mol / L • s = 4.0 x 10─5 mol / L • s =
[X]2[Y]2 (5 x 10─1 mol / L)2 (1 x 10─1 mol / L)2 25 x 10─4 mol4 / L4
= 0.16 x 10─1 mol ● L4 = 1.6 x 10─2 L3

L•s mol4 mol3 • s
2 a. The rate of the forward reaction will be Initial Rate

predicted by the rate equation: Rate = k Expt. [A] [B]
(mol / L• s)
[A]n[B]p
To find the order for A, choose two 1 0.20 M 0.50 M 3.5 x 10─5
experiments where the other variable (B) is
held constant: experiments 1 and 3. 2 0.40 M 1.0 M 1.4 x 10─4
To compare the rates more easily, rewrite 3 0.40 M 0.50 M 1.4 x 10─4
the values of the initial rates so that they all
have the same exponential term. It is
easiest if you give all of the values the same exponential term as the smallest exponential term in the
series, and change the others (see Lesson 1B) to match the exponential of the smallest.
If you needed that hint, try the problem again.
* * * * *

For experiments 2 and 3, the rate becomes 14 x 10─5.

Comparing experiments 1 and 3, [A] is doubled, and the rate goes up 14/3.5 = 4 ; it quadruples. This
indicates that the exponent of [A] in the rate equation is two (when the concentration goes up by a
factor of 2, the rate goes up by a factor of 2 squared). The reaction is said to be “second order in A.”
To find the order for B, choose two experiments where the other variable (A) is held constant:
experiments 2 and 3.
From experiment 3 to 2, [B] is doubled, but the rate stays the same. This indicates that the exponent
for [B] is 0.
b. The overall rate equation is: Rate = k [A]2[B]0 = k [A]2

c. The overall order for the reaction is the sum of the exponents: 2 + 0 = 2 .
Practice B: Order From Concentration, Time, and Half-life
1. a. The initial concentration is reduced to one-half after about 95 seconds. Time [X]
b. Double the first half-life would be about 190 s. At that point, about 34% 0 0.100 M
of the initial concentration remains (0.034/0.100). After double the first
25 s 0.079 M
half-life, 0% remains if zero order, 25% if first order, and 33% if second
order. The data fit second order in X. 50. s 0.065 M
c. Rate = k [X]2 100. s 0.048 M
d. Average rate = change in [X] per unit of time. Set t1 as the lower t value 150. s 0.038 M
(t = 0). 200. s 0.032 M
Average rate = Δ [X] = [X]2 ─ [X]1 = 0.048 M ─ 0.100 M = ─ 0.052 M = ─ 5.2 x 10─4 M
Δt t2 ─ t1 100 s ─ 0 s 100 s s
e. All are YES. All four forms are equivalent
2. a. The initial concentration has been cut in half after 100 seconds. Time [D]
Double the first half-life is 200 s. At 200 s , no D remains. This fits
0 0.050 M
behavior that is “zero order in D.”
25 s 0.044 M
Rate = k [D]0 = k
50. s 0.038 M
Zero order in D would also mean a constant rate of change for [D].
Check: do the [D] numbers drop by about the same amount every 50 100. s 0.025 M
seconds? 200. s 0M
3. Some problems will not offer enough data to get close to “double the first half-
life.” This is an example. Though [A] seems to be falling at a constant rate, which would indicate zero
order, zero and first order have similar rates initially. This problem does not provide enough data to use the
“double the first half-life” method, and at this point the rate equation cannot be determined.
* * * * *

Lesson 27C: The Integrated Rate Law – Zero Order

Prerequisites: Lessons 27A and 27B. In addition, you will need to know the rules for
graphing in Graphing Module 20.
* * * * *
Two Forms of the Rate Law
In a chemical reaction: A + B + C Æ D + E , the rate of the forward reaction will be
predicted by the rate equation:
In the previous lesson, the rate constant and the order of the reactants was determined by
measurements of the concentration of each reactant versus
• the initial rate of the reaction, and
• the concentration at a time that is double the first half-life.
A third method of determining the rate law is to graphically analyze the measurements of
concentration versus time.
The rate law above uses concentration and rate as variables. To calculate a rate law
graphically, the rate laws are stated using concentration and time as variables.
To begin, commit the following chart to memory.
Rate Law Summary
2 Differential Rate Law rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
4 At double the first half-
None 25% 33%
1 = +kt + 1
5 Integrated Rate Law [A]t = ─kt + [A]0 ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
[A]t [A]0
In the chart:
• The Row 2 equations are usually called the rate laws, but the more proper term, to
distinguish them from Row 5, is the differential rate laws. In calculus, the
instantaneous rate is defined in terms of the differential d[A]/dt .
• Row 5 is termed the integrated rate laws because those laws can be obtained by
integrating (using calculus) the form of the rate law in Row 2.
• In the differential rate laws, concentration and rate are variables. In the integrated
rate laws concentration and time are variables.
• The ln in the first-order integrated rate law represents the natural logarithm; and
• [A]0 represents the initial concentration of a reactant, the concentration at time = 0.

The two rate equations in each column are mathematically equivalent: the differential and
integrated rate laws for each order are the same relationship stated in two different ways.
Since the Row 2 equations are more simple, why bother with Row 5? Row 5 has one
advantage: all three of the Row 5 equations are in the form y = mx + b , which is the
general equation for a line.
(The zero- and first-order differential-rate laws can be matched to y = mx + b, but the
second order rate law is in the form y = mx2, which is algebraically quite different. The
form y = mx + b fits all three of the integrated rate laws.)
Let’s briefly review the rules for the equation for a line.
Analyzing Linear Data
When values of x and y are graphed in Cartesian (x,y) coordinates, if the points fall on a
straight line, the data will fit the equation y = mx + b . In this equation,
• y and x are variables, and m and b are constants.
• m is the slope of the line. A line has a constant slope; m will have the same value
between all points on the line. If m is positive, the slope of the line is up (/); if m is
negative the slope is down (\).
• To calculate m, memorize: m = slope = rise = change in y = Δ y = y2 ─ y1
run change in x Δ x x2 ─ x1
• b is the y-intercept: the value of y when x = 0, which is the value of y when the line
crosses the y-axis. b will be positive if a line crosses the y-axis above the origin of
the graph and negative if the line crosses below the origin.
• Once the value of the slope is calculated, b can be calculated by substituting into
y = mx +b for any data point on the line.
• While m and b have constant values in the equation for a line, y and x can change.
If a value is chosen for either y or x, and the values for the constants m and b are
known, the equation y = mx + b can be solved for the other variable.
• If the values for any three of the terms y, m, x, and b are known, the equation can be
solved for an unknown fourth term.
Practice A: Answers are at the end of this lesson. If you are unsure about an answer,
check after each part. If you need additional help with this topic, see Module 20.
1. If graphed data fits the equation: y = mx + b
a. What ratio will be constant between any two points?
b. What formula is used to calculate slope?

2. Using the data at the right, with ˚C values on the x-axis, ˚F ˚C

a. Calculate the slope between any two points. Include units. ─40. ─40.
b. Calculate the slope between any other two points. 32 0
c. Are the slope results consistent with the equation 68 20.
y = mx + b ? Why or why not? 122 50.
d. Substituting the variable symbols in the data, write the 212 100.
equation for the line.
e. What is the numeric value and unit of m ?
f. Using the equation, the m value, and any x and y value in the data table, calculate
the y-intercept.
g. Write the equation for the line, substituting both the symbols for the y- and x-axis
variables and the numeric values and units for the two constants.
h. Test the equation. Pick a ˚C value from the table that you have not used in your
calculations. Plug that ˚C value into your Step g equation and calculate a ˚F.
Compare the calculated ˚F to the actual ˚F in the table at that ˚C.
i. Starting from the data table, what were you able to accomplish by the steps above?
The Zero-Order Integrated Rate Law

Compare the zero-order integrated rate law: [A]t = ─k t + [A]0
to the equation for a line: y = mx + b
The two equations have the same form:
• Like y and x, [A]t and t are variables: quantities that are varied to study the rate.
• [A]0 is constant: the [A] at the start of the experiment (when t = 0).
• ─k is a constant. Its value is minus the rate constant for the reaction.
If data for [A] and t obey the zero-order rate law above, then
• A graph of [A]t versus t must be a straight line; and
• A value for k can be calculated from the slope of the graph of [A]t versus t .
• The slope of the line (a constant) must be equal to minus the rate constant k;
Once k is known at the temperature conditions of the reaction, a complete rate law,
including values for the constants, can be written. Whenever the reaction is run at that
temperature, that rate law can then be used to predict [A] at any stated t, or to predict the
time when [A] will reach a certain value.
This fulfills a central purpose of science: to develop equations that accurately predict
results of a process under a variety of conditions.

Calculating the Slope to Find the Rate Constant

To practice using rate laws, let’s go back to data from the previous lesson that we thought
might be zero order and apply graphical analysis.
Q. For the reaction: D Æ E , measurements of [D] and time Time [D]

are recorded at the right.
0 0.050 M
Do the following steps. 25 s 0.044 M
a. Assuming the reaction is zero order in D, write the 50. s 0.038 M
differential and integrated forms of the rate law for this
100. s 0.025 M
reactant.
150. s 0.013 M
* * * * *
Differential Rate Law: rate = k[D]0 = k
Integrated Rate Law: [D]t = ─kt + [D]0
b. Match the symbols in the zero-order integrated rate law to the symbols in the
equation for a line.
y=
m=
x=
b=
* * * * *
The zero-order integrated rate law: [D]t = ─k t + [D]0
The equation for a line: y = m x + b
y = [D]t = the variable concentration of D at a variable time t
m = ─k = a constant = minus the rate constant

x= t = time, a variable
b = [D]0 = 0.050 M = the concentration of D initially, at t = 0 .
c. What data plotted on y and x will result in a straight line with a slope = ─k ?
* * * * *
When y = mx+b , a graph of y vs. x will be a straight line with a slope m.
For this data, plotting [D] on y and t on x should result in a straight line with a
slope = m = ─k
d. Graph the data in the table above that should result in a straight line. Either use a
graphing program or use your own graph paper and the “graphing by hand” rules
in Module 20.
* * * * *

Your graph should look

similar to the graph at the [D] versus time
right. 0.05
The straight line means that 0.04

the data fits the behavior
[D] in mol/L
expected for a zero-order 0.03
reaction. 0.02
e. Calculate the slope between two 0.01

widely separated points on the
line. 0
0 50 100 150
seconds
* * * * *
The calculation below uses the two points at the left and right sides of the plot.
However, the value for the slope should be the same no matter which two
points on the line are used to calculate the slope. On a straight line, the slope
between any two points is the same: a constant.
Setting x1 = t1 = 0 s (the lower time), y1 will then = 0.050 M.
m = slope = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 0.013 M ─ 0.050 M = ─0.037 M =

run Δ x x2 ─ x1 150 s ─ 0 s 150 s
= ─ 2.5 x 10―4 M/s

f. The graph is consistent with [D]t = ─kt + [D]0 ; the integrated rate law equation for
a zero order reactant.
If the values of the two constants ─k and are [D]0 are known, the integrated rate
law can be used to make predictions about [D] and t.
Find the numeric value and units of the rate constant in the integrated rate law that
fits this data.
* * * * *
The integrated rate law is: [D]t = ─kt + [D]0
and the equation for a line is: y = mx + b
m = ─k , so k = ─m = + 2.5 x 10―4 mol • L─1 • s─1
g. Write the value of [D]0 that can be substituted into the integrated rate law for the
data above.
* * * * *
[D]0 is the [D] in the data at time = 0 seconds, so [D]0 = 0.050 M
h. Write the integrated rate law, substituting the numeric values of the two constants
found above in place of the symbols for the two constants.
* * * * *

[D]t = ─kt + [D]0 ; [D]t = ─ ( + 2.5 x 10―4 mol/L • s)( t ) + 0.050 M
g. Test the equation: plug in data for a time in the data table that was not used to
calculate the slope. See if the equation predicts the [D] in the data at that time.
To match the answer below, use t = 50 s.
* * * * *
Use [D]t = ─ ( 2.5 x 10―4 mol/L • s)( t ) + 0.050 M .
At t = 50 s,
= ─ ( 2.5 x 10―4 mol/L • s)(50 s) + 0.050 M = ─ (12.5 x 10―3 mol/L) + 0.050 M
= ─ ( 0.0125 mol/L) + 0.050 M = 0.0375 M = 0.038 M
which agrees with the data in the table at t = 50. s. The integrated rate law, with its
constants added, correctly predicts the experimental result.
* * * * *
Summary: Use these steps to calculate the constants for a zero-order-rate equation
from experimental data.
1. Write the zero-order integrated rate law: [A]t = ─k t + [A]0
and, under it, the equation for a line: y = mx + b

2. Graph the values of y and x in the data table for the experiment. If the data
points fall close to a straight line, the data fit the prediction for a reactant that is
zero order in A.
3. Calculate the slope for two widely separated points on the graph.
m = Δy/Δx = Δ[A] / Δt
3. Write the equation that explains and predicts the data.
a. Use the slope (m) to write a value for k.
b. Write the zero-order integrated rate law substituting numeric values in
place of the symbols for the two constants: k and [A]0.
c. Test the rate law: pick an unused time from the data table, plug that time
into the rate law, and see if the equation predicts the [A] that is in the data
at that time t.
d. If yes, the data is consistent with a zero-order reactant.
If no, and if the graph was a line, check your values for k and [A]0.
* * * * *

Practice B. Use the steps above for these calculations.
1. For the data at the right, Time [A]

a. Graph the data, putting the independent variable (see 0 0.500 M
Lesson 19C if needed) on the x-axis. 1.0 min. 0.460 M
b. Does the data fit the prediction for zero-order in A? Why 2.5 min. 0.400 M
or why not?
3.5 min. 0.360 M
c. Calculate the slope between two widely spaced points of
5.0 min. 0.300 M
data.
7.0 min. 0.220 M
d. Write a rate law that fits the data. Include values and
units for the two constants in the rate law.
e. Test your rate law: see if it correctly predicts [A] at
t = 3.5 min.
2. If experimental data fits the linear equation ln[A] = ─kt + ln[A]0
a. What values would be plotted on the y-axis, and what on the x-axis, to produce the
graph of a line?
b. What term in the equation above would be the y-intercept?
c. What ratio would be constant between any two points?
d. What is the relationship between k and the slope?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. If y = mx + b, constant ratio? The slope: Δy / Δx

m = slope = rise = Δy = Δ˚F = ˚F2 ─ ˚F1 ˚F ˚C

run Δx Δ˚C ˚C2 ─ ˚C1 ─40. ─40.
2 a. Using the 2nd and last points, setting x1 as the lower x number, 32 0
˚F2 ─ ˚F1 68 20.
m= = ( 212 ─ 32 ) ˚F = 1.80 ˚F/˚C = m
˚C2 ─ ˚C1 ( 100 ─ 0 ) ˚C 122 50.
212 100.
b. All slopes should calculate to the same result.
c. y = mx +b is the equation for a line, and a line has a constant slope, so two equal slopes are
consistent with the equation for a line.
d. Equation for line: ˚F = (m)( ˚C) + b

e. See Part A answer: m = 1.80 ˚F/˚C

f. Since y = mx + b , if we choose the easy case, in which x = ˚C = 0 ˚C , y = ˚F = 32 ˚F,
Substituting into the rate law: 32 ˚F = (m)( 0 ) + b , so 32 ˚F = b .
g. y = mx +b , ˚F = (m)(˚C) + b ; ˚F = ( 1.80 ˚F/˚C ) ˚C + 32 ˚F
h. If we choose 50 ˚C, ˚F = ( 1.80 ˚F/ ˚C ) ( 50 ˚C ) + 32 ˚F = 90˚F + 32 ˚F = 122 ˚F

In the data table, 50˚C = 122˚F . The equation correctly predicted the ˚F result.
i. You were able to derive an equation which explains the numbers in the table and predicts results for
measurements not in the table. In science, that’s considered “cool.”
The above relationship is generally remembered as ˚F = 9/5 (˚C ) + 32 which matches the equation
for the DATA developed above.
Practice B
1a. The independent (more
controlled) variable in this [A] versus time
experiment is the time at 0.5
which the measurements
0.4
were taken.
[A] in mol/L
Your results should be similar 0.3

to the graph at the right. The
0.2
points fall close to a straight
line. 0.1
1b. If the points on a graph of [A] 0
versus time fall close to a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
straight line, the data fits zero minutes
order behavior.
1c. If you use any two widely spaced points, your answer should be close to the slope found below.
If the points chosen are at the left and right sides of the graph above,
At x1 = t1 = 0 minutes (the lower time), y1 = 0.500 M
Estimating that at x2 = t2 = 8 minutes, y2 ≈ 0.18 M.
m = rise = Δ y = y2 ─ y1 = 0.18 M ─ 0.500 M = ─0.32 M = 0.040 M/min. =

run Δ x x2 ─ x1 (8.0 ─ 0) min. 8.0 min. = ─ 4.0 x 10―2 M/min.
1d. Since the slope is constant,

• the data is consistent with the equation y = m x + b , and since y = [A] and x = time for the graph,
• the data is consistent with the zero-order rate law: [A]t = ─k t + [A]0 where
k (the rate constant) = ─m = minus the slope; so k = + 4.0 x 10―2 M/min ,

and [A]0 = the [A] in the data at t = 0, which is 0.500 M,. Since [A]t = ─k t + [A]0 ;

the proposed specific rate law is [A]t = ─ ( + 4.0 x 10―2 M/min)( t ) + 0.500 M
1e. [A]t = ─ ( + 4.0 x 10―2 M/min)( t ) + 0.500 M =

= ─ ( + 4.0 x 10―2 M/min)( 3.5 min. ) + 0.500 M =
= ─ 14 x 10―2 M + 0.500 M = ─ 0.14 M + 0.500 M = 0.36 M
This calculated [A] matches the data at t = 3.5 minutes. The proposed rate law works.
2a. This equation is linear: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
because it matches the form y = mx + b
For linear data, the plot of y versus x is a line, so for the specific equation above, ln[A] vs. t plots
as a line.
2b. The y-intercept? b = ln[A]0
2c. Constant for a line, in general: Δy / Δx ;
For this specific equation: m = slope = rise = Δy = Δln[A] = ln[A]2 ─ ln[A]1
run Δx Δt t2 ─ t1
2d. k = ─ m (or m = ─ k )
* * * * *
Lesson 27D: Logarithm Calculations

Prerequisites: Lessons 1A to 1C only.
Timing: This lesson must be done before first-order-integrated rate law calculations, but it
may be helpful at any time where base 10 or base e calculations are encountered in science
classes.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last 4 calculations in Practice D at the end
of this lesson. If you can do those calculations, skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Logarithms
To solve first-order integrated rate law calculations, it will be necessary to
• Take the natural log of numbers, and
• Convert natural logs to numbers.
To do so, you will need to calculate using the ln function and the number e. Let’s review
the rules for powers and logarithms.
As always, on the problems below, cover the answers below the * * * * * line and write
your answer the questions that are above the line.
I. Numbers, Bases, and Exponents
Any positive number can be represented as another number to a power.
Computer science often calculates in “base 2:” 24 = _________, 210 = 1,024
* * * * *

24 = 16.
Try this one on your calculator: 3.52.7 = ________
(Use the calculator that you will use for quizzes and tests. Do not use a graphing
calculator if it has too much storage to be allowed during tests in your course.)
* * * * *
• A standard TI-type calculator might use: 3.5 yx 2.7 =
• On a graphing calculator (if allowed), try: 3.5 ^ 2.7 enter
• On a reverse Polish (RPN) calculator, try: 3.5 enter 2.7 yx

Find a key sequence that gives a result of 29.4431…
In science, we most often calculate in base 10 and base e. Base 10 is more familiar, and
the rules are parallel for all bases, so let’s consider base 10 calculations first.
II. Powers of 10
Numeric values can be conveyed by a wide variety of methods, including being
written as standard numbers, or in exponential notation, or as a number to a power.
In science, values are often written as 10 to a power, where the power of 10 can be
either an integer or a number with decimals.
For example:
You know that 102 = the number ________ and 103 = the number ___________.
Without a calculator, estimate the value of this number: 102.5 = _______________.

* * * * *
100 = 102 < 102.5 < 103 = 1,000 ; half-way between 100 and 1000 is 550…, but the
answer is sure to be “somewhere between 100 and 1,000.”
Now, use a calculator to get an exact answer. 102.5 = what number? __________.
* * * * *
• On a standard TI-type calculator, you might try: 2.5 10x
10 yx 2.5
nd
and/or = and/or 2.5 2 or INV log . Try all three.
• On a graphing calculator, you might try: 10 ^ 2.5 enter
• On an RPN scientific calculator, try: 2.5 enter 10x

Write down a sequence that works for you and gives this result: 316
Compare 316 to your estimate. They should be close: maybe off by 2 or 3 times, but
not off by a whole decimal place or power. Most errors in your operation of a
calculator will be caught if you use the rule: “estimate, then calculate.”
(On sf/rounding: when converting between numbers and exponentials, the statistical
justification for significant figures breaks down. We will add a systematic rule when
we study acid-base pH. Until then, round answers to 3 or 4 places.)

Q. Use the estimation logic above and your calculator key sequence to write either
numbers or numbers in scientific notation for the problems below.
Recall that in scientific notation, the decimal is written after the first digit in the
significand (for review, see Lesson 1B. If you are unsure about an answer, check
it below before doing the next part.
a. 103.9 = (estimate): _____________________ (calculate): ________________
b. 1021.7798 = (estimate): __________________ (calculate): ______________

* * * * *
Answers
a. 1,000 = 103 << 103.9 < 104 = 10,000 ; less than 10,000, but close: ~9,000 ? 7,943
Compare your estimate to the calculator answer.
b. 1021.7798 = (estimate): 1 x 1021 < 1021.7798 < 1022 = 10 x 1021

so the number will be between 1 x 1021 and 10.0 x 1021. ~8.0 x 1021 ??
On the calculator: 6.02 x 1021 Compare your estimate to the calculator answer.
Here’s an estimating rule: compare the number written as 10 to a power to the
number written in scientific notation. The exponents of the two 10’s must be within one
of each other.
Try that rule and your calculator on these.
c. 103.7 = (in scientific notation): _______________________ (expos ± one?)___
d. 10─9.7 = (in scientific notation): _____________________ (expos ± one?) ____
e. 10─13.2 = (in scientific notation): ________________________ (expos ± 1 ?)___

* * * * *
c. 103.7 = 5,010 or 5.01 x 103 . (expos ± one? 3.7 and 3 = √ )
To enter a negative number, usually a +/- or (─) key must be used.
On a standard TI-type calculator, try: 3.7 +/- 10x
On an RPN calculator, try: 3.7 +/- enter 10x
d. 10─9.7 = 2.00 x 10─10 (expos ± 1?) √

Note how your calculator displayed the exponent. You will need to translate
the calculator display into scientific notation when writing answers.
e. 10─13.2 = 6.31 x 10─14 (expos ± 1?) √

* * * * *

Practice A: Use the calculator that you will use on tests. Answers are at the end of this
lesson.
1. 10+16.5 = _______________________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
2. 10─16.5 = ______________________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
3. 102.2 = ________________________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
4. 10─11.7 = ______________________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
5. 10─0.7 = ________________________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
III. Logarithms
a. A logarithm is simply an exponent.
A logarithm answers the question: if a number is written as a base number to a

power, what is the power?
b. A logarithm can be a power of any base.

Since 24 = 16, the base 2 log of 16 is written: log216 = 4,
In science, base 10 and base e are used most often.

The symbol for a base 10 log is simply log . If no base is specified, you should
assume that log means a base 10 log.
The symbol for a base e log (a natural log) is ln .
IV. Base 10 Logs
a. The log function on your calculator finds a base 10 log.
The log function answers the question: if a number is written as 10 to a power,
what is the power?
Using that rule, do these without your calculator.
Write the log of 1) 102 2) 1000 3) 0.001
* * * * *
1) The log of 102 is 2. 2) log 1000 = log 103 = 3 3) log 0.001 = log 10─3 = ─3
b. The equation defining log is log 10x = x . It must be memorized, but it may be
easier to remember by repeatedly reciting this example: the log of 100 is 2.

c. For numbers greater than one, a log value will be a positive number.
Positive numbers between 0 and 1 have a negative log, as in example 3) above.
To check that you are doing calculator operations properly, do a simple calculation,
first in your head or on paper, then using the calculator. Make sure that the two
answers agree. Let’s try that method on some simple examples.
Using your head, write the log of 1) 100 2) 10,000 3) 0.01
Using a calculator, write the log of 1) 100 2) 10,000 3) 0.01
* * * * *
Using your head: 1) The log of 100 = the log of 102 = 2.
2) The log of 10,000 = log 104 = 4 3) The log of 0.01 = log 10─2 = ─2
For part 1) on a calculator,
• A standard TI-type calculator might use: 100 log
• On an RPN calculator, try: 100 enter log
• Some graphing calculators do not have a log button. You can learn a work-
around (log x = ln x/2.303) or buy an inexpensive calculator with log and ln
buttons.
Did the calculator agree with the answers done in your head? It must.
d. In cases where you cannot solve the log in your head, you can estimate the log.
Try this in your head: if log 100 = _____, and log 1000 =_____, log 500 ≈ ______.
* * * * *
Log 100 = 2, and log 1000 = 3 , so log 500 is between 2 and 3, about 2.5?
Now do log 500 on the calculator: _________ .
* * * * *
2.70 When estimating in this manner, the digits before the decimal for the
estimate and on the calculator should agree, but the numbers after the decimal
point will often vary.
Do this one in your head and then the calculator:
Log 20 = (estimate): ______________________ (on the calculator): ________
* * * * *
Log 10 = 1, and log 100 = 2 , so log 20 is between 1 and 2; about 1.2 ? 1.30
e. For easy checking: the log of a number, and the exponent of the number when it is
written in scientific notation, will agree within ± one.
See if that rule works to calculate, then check:
1) Log(7.4 x 106 ) = (on the calculator): ________________ ( expo ± 1 ? ___)
* * * * *

1) Log(7.4 x 106 ) = (on the calculator): 6.87 ( expo ± 1 ? √ )

Do these on your calculator:
2) Log(7.4 x 10─6 ) = ___________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
3) Log 2,000 = ____________________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)

* * * * *
2) Log(7.4 x 10─6 ) = ─ 5.13 (expo ± 1 ? √ )
Keys: 7.4 E or EE 6 +/- log or if RPN: 7.4 E or EE 6 +/- enter log
3) Log 2,000 = log(2 x 103) = 3.30 (expo ± 1 ? √ )
Summary: Log Rules To Memorize

1. A logarithm is simply an exponent: the power to which a base number is raised.
2. A logarithm answers the question: if a number is written as a base to a power,
what is the power?
3. Calculator log buttons find the power for a number written as 10 to a power.
4. Checking log results: when a number is written in scientific notation, its power of
10 must agree with its base 10 logarithm within ± 1.
5. Equations: The definition of a log is log 10x = x ; the log of 100 is 2 .
Practice B: Practice with the calculator you will use on tests.
1. 10─5.4 = (in scientific notation):________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
2. 10─11.5 = _____________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
3. 10─0.5 = (number): _________( scientific notation): ______________(expos ± 1 ?) ____
4. Log(6.8 x 1012 ) = ___________________________________ ( expo ± 1 ? __)
5. Log(6.8 x 10─12 ) = ______________________________ (expo ± 1 ? __)
6. Log 4.6 = ____________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? __)
7. Log 0.0020 = ____________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? __)

V. Converting From Logs to Numbers

a. Knowing a log, we need to be able to write the number.
This is called taking the antilog, but it is easier to remember what this means (and
what buttons to press) if you remember what a log is. A log is __________.
* * * * *
A log is an exponent. If the log of a number is 2, the number is: ___________
* * * * *
Since a log is an exponent of 10, if the log is 2, the number is 102 = 100 .
As an equation, the rule is: 10log x = x .

Repeat to remember: “10 to the log x equals x.”
As an easy example, remember: 10log 100 = 102 = 100

Try these without a calculator, then check your answer below.
If these are the logs of numbers, write the numbers.
1) 6 2) ─2 3) 0
* * * * *
1) If log is 6 , number is 106 2) If log is ─2 , number is 10─2 = 0.01
3) If log = 0 , number = 100 = 1 (anything to the zero power is one)
b. Knowing the log, to find the number, take the antilog: write the log as a power of
10, then convert that exponential term to a number (or to scientific notation).
On a calculator,
• input the log, then take the antilog: press INV LOG or 2nd LOG or
• input the log, then press 10x . A log is simply an exponent of 10.
• On some calculators, the steps are: input 10, x^y , input the log value, = .
The first key sequence is logical: to go from number to a log, take the log; to go
from log to number, go backward (take the antilog).
The second and third sequences are logical. To find the number, make the log
what it is: a power of 10.
Write a key sequence (or two) that works on your calculator for this calculation:
• If the log is 2, what is the number? ______________________________

Test that sequence on these.
1) If the log is 1 , the number is (in your head): __________ (calculator): _______
2) If the log is ─2 , the number is (in your head): __________ (calculator): _______
* * * * *

1) If the log is 1 , the number is: 101 = 10
2) If log = ─2 , the number is: 10─2 = 0.01 . (Use: 2 +/- to change sign.)
Using the same key sequences, try these on your calculator.
3) If log x = 8.7 , x = ___________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
4) Log A = ─10.7 , A = ___________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)

Note the same “is it reasonable?” quick check. The log and the exponent of the
number in scientific notation should agree, ± 1.
* * * * *
3) Log x = 8.7 , x = 501,200,000 or 5.012 x 108 (expo ± 1 ? √ )
4) Log x = ─10.7 , x = 2.0 x 10─11 (expo ± 1 ? √ )
In cases like 3) and 4), your calculator may answer in exponential notation and display
the exponent far to the right -- where you may miss it when looking for just the
significant digits. That’s another reason to estimate to check your answers.
Summary: Add these to your memorized log rule list.

6. Knowing the log, to find the number, take the antilog. A log is a power of 10.
7. 10log x = x . Recite and repeat to remember: “10 to the log x equals x.”

8. On a calculator, to convert a log value to a number,
• input the log value, then press INV LOG ; or 2nd LOG ; or
• Input the log, then press 10x . or input 10, x^y , input the log , = .
Practice C
1. Log x = 12.4 , x = _____________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
2. Log A = ─5.9 , A= ____________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
3. Log D = ─0.25 , D = ____________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
4. Log x = 1.1 , antilog = ____________________________ (expo ± 1 ? ___)
5. 10─3.3 = ____________________________________ (expos ± 1 ?) ____
6. Log (2.0 x 10─9 ) = __________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? __)
7. Log 0.50 = ________________________________________ (expo ± 1 ? __)

VI. Base e Rules

a. The Symbol e
A lower-case e is the symbol for the natural exponential.
The symbol e is an abbreviation for a useful number: 2.718… (which should be
memorized). The number e has many interesting mathematical properties. The
number e is important in science because it is found in many equations that predict
natural phenomena.
One example is first-order reaction rates. A process with a constant rate of growth
will obey the equation
[A]t = [A]0 · ekt where k is the rate constant and t is the time after t = 0 .
For decay, this first-order rate law can be written in these two equivalent ways:
[A]t = [A]0 · e─kt or as ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
To calculate first-order rate laws from time data, we will use both e and ln.
b. Calculating with natural exponentials
We know that e1 = __________(what number?)
* * * * *
2.718…. Using 1 and the ex button, write or circle the key sequence that
produces that answer for e1 on your calculator.
* * * * *
• A standard TI-type calculator might use: 1 ex .
• On an RPN scientific calculator, try: 1 enter ex .
Use the same key sequence to do these, and then check your answers below.
1) e2 = 2) e2.5 = 3) e─1 = 4) e─2.5 =

* * * * *
1) e2 = 7.389 2) e2.5 = 12.18
Recall that to enter a negative number, you usually use a +/- key.
3) e─1 ( = 1/e = 1/2.718.. ) = 0.3679 4) e─2.5 ( = 1/e2.5 ) = 0.08208
c. Calculating Natural Logs

The ln function (the natural log) answers this question: if a number is written as e
to a power, what is the power?
Just as log 10x = x , the natural log definition is ln ex = x

Use the natural log definition to do these without a calculator.
1) ln e0 = ______ 2) ln e1 = ______ 3. ln e─4 = ________

* * * * *

1) ln e0 = 0 2.) ln e1 = 1 3) ln e─4 = ─4
By definition, ln e = _____ .
* * * * *
ln e = ln e1 = 1.
Try this one in your head: ln(2.718) should equal about ____________ .
* * * * *
ln(2.718) ≈ ln e ≈ ln e1 ≈ 1.
Now on your calculator, do the same calculation: ln(2.718) = ___________
* * * * *
Is the calculator answer close to the mental arithmetic answer?
Write down the key sequence that works: ln(2.718) = ____________________
Your calculator will take the natural log of any positive number. Try these.
1) ln 314 = ________________
* * * * *
1) ln 314 = 5.75
To check an answer, after writing it down, use the ex key and see if you return to
the number you were taking the ln of. Try that as a check on these:
2) ln 0.0050 = _________________ (after writing answer, use ex . Check? ___
3) ln (6.02 x 1023) = _________________________ Check? ___
4) ln (19.29 x 10─15) = _________________________ Check? ___

* * * * *
2) ln 0.0050 = ─ 5.30 3) ln(6.02 x 1023) = 54.75 4) ln(19.29 x 10─15) = ─ 31.58
Note in part 4), a calculator does not require the input of scientific notation.
However, if you use the ex key to check your answer, it will likely return the
original number converted to scientific notation.
When units are attached to a number, the unit may be included in the ln value.
For example, the answer to ln(2.718 M) can be written 1.00 ln M
Using that convention, try these on the calculator:
5) ln(10 M) = __________________ 6) ln(0.050 M) = _______________
* * * * *
5) ln(10 M) = 2.303 ln M 6) ln(0.050 M) = ─3.00 ln M
Often, however, when the log or ln of a number and unit is taken, in many
textbooks the unit in the answer is simply omitted. We will discuss how to handle
these non-homogeneous cases later in this lesson.

d. Converting ln Values to Numbers
A base 10 definition: 10log x = x
A base e definition: eln x = x Note the similarities.

Using the bottom equation, for some calculations involving ln and e you will not
need a calculator. Try this:
eln(─11) = ________
* * * * *
eln(─11) = ─11
The equation eln x = x also means that if you know the ln value, to find the
corresponding number, make the ln value a power of e.
If the ln value = 1, the number (in your head) is ___________
* * * * *
e1 = 2.718…
Knowing that answer, do the same ln to number conversion on your calculator by
taking the antilog.
If the ln value = 1, the number obtained using the calculator is ___________
* * * * *
Input the ln, then press INV or 2nd ln or press ex .
Write down or circle the key sequence that converted ln = 1 to the number 2.718…
Use your key sequence to convert the following ln values to numbers. Write first
write the number in terms of e, then the number, then the number in scientific
notation.
1) If ln = 6 , number = e = (number): ________ = (sci. notation):_____________
* * * * *
1) If ln = 6 , number = e6 = (nbr): 403 = (sci. notation): 4.03 x 102
In base e calculations, unlike base 10, there is no obvious correlation between the
scientific notation exponent and the base e logarithm that helps in checking your
answer. However, you can check by taking the ln of the number answer and see if
it returns to the original ln value.
Try these.
2) If ln = ─4.5 , number = e = (nbr): _________ = (sci. notation):_____________
3) ln = 57.2 , number =________________________
4) ln [A] = 0.03 ln M , [A] = e = (nbr. and unit): _________________

* * * * *

2) If ln = ─4.5 , number = e─4.5 = 0.0111 = 1.11 x 10─2
3) ln = 57.2 , number = e57.2 = 6.94 x 1024
4) If ln [A] = 0.03 ln M , [A] = e0.03 ln M = 1.03 M

Note that the unit in 3) is the unit expected for a concentration WANTED.
If a concentration is WANTED, but a log or ln value does not include a unit,

add the unit M to the answer.
Apply that rule to the following problems. Write the answer as a number or in
scientific notation. When in doubt, check answers as you go.
5) ln [Z] = ─12.5 , [Z] =________________________

* * * * *
5) [Z] = e ─12.5 = 3.73 x 10─6 M (add the unit of concentration: mol/L)
6) ln [R] = ─ 0.17 , [R] =________________________
7) [D] = e ─1.39 , [D] =________________________
8) ln(0.250 M) = _______________________
9) ln [A] = ─ 2.63 , [A] = ______________

* * * * *
6) [R] = e ─0.17 = 0.844 M 7) [D] = 0.249 M
8) ln(0.250 M) = ─ 1.386 ln M 9) [A] = e─ 2.63 = 0.0721 M

* * * * *
e. Notes on Notation with e and ln
• Some calculators use an E at the right side of the answer screen to show the
power of 10 for numbers in scientific notation. This is not the same as the
symbol e for the natural exponential.
• Be careful to distinguish “taking the ln” from “the ln value.”
Ln(7.389) = _____________ . Try it. You should get close to 2.
But if ln = 7.389 , the number with that ln is __________ Try it.
* * * * *
If ln = 7.389, the number is e7.389 = 1,618
If you get lost on a natural log calculation, a good strategy is to do a similar and
simple base-10 mental and calculator computation, and then apply the same logic
to the natural log case. Simple base 10 calculations can often be figured out in your
head, and the formulas and steps for base 10 and base e calculations are parallel.

f. Converting between base 10 and natural logs

A general rule for logarithms of any base is logb(x) = ln(x)/ln(b) , where b is the
base. For base 10 logs, this equation becomes
Log10(x) = ln(x)/ln(10) = Log10(x) = ln(x)/2.303
This relationship is generally memorized as 2.303 log(x) = ln(x)
The value of a natural log is always 2.303 times higher than the base 10 log.
Summary: Add these rules to your memorized log-rule list.
9. The symbol e is an abbreviation for a number with special properties: e = 2.718...
10. The ln (natural log) answers the question: if a number is written as e to a power,
what is the power?
11. Note the patterns: A useful memory device is
log 10x = x and 10log x = x . “The log of 10 to the x is x; 10 to the log x is x.”
ln ex = x and eln x = x . Write the base 10 rules, then substitute e and ln.
Note the logic: A log is an exponent.
12. Knowing the ln, to find the number, take the antilog. On a calculator,
• input the ln value, then press INV ln ; or
• Input the ln value, then press ex . An ln is simply an exponent of e.
13. 2.303 log(x) = ln(x)
Practice D: Do the odd-numbered problems, and the evens for later review or
additional practice.
1. e5.2 = 2. e─1.7 = 3. e─20.75 =
4. ln 1066 = 5. ln 0.0050 = 6. ln(3 x 108) =
7. ln(19.29 x 10─6) = 8. ln e6.2 = 9. eln(─42) =
10. If ln = ─6.8 , number = e = (number in sci. notation):___________________
11. If ln D = 7.4822 , D = 12. If ln = ─12.5 , antilog =
13. If log [A] = ─9 , [A] = 14. If log x = 13.7 , x =
15. Log A = ─13.7 , A = 16. 10─11.7 =

17. ln [B] = ─13.7 , [B] = 18. e ─11.7 =
19. ln(0.050 M) = 20. e ─0.693 ln M =

21. If log(x) = 5.0 , ln(x) = 22. if ln(x) = 34.5 , log(x) =
23. Given that ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0173 s─1) ( t ) + 0.693
a. If t = 20. s, [A] = ? b. If [A] = 0.710 M, t = ?
24. Given that ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0241 ln M•yrs.─1 ) ( t ) ─ 4.61 ln M
a. If [A] = 0.0025 M, t = ? b. If t = 28.8 years, [A] = ?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. 10+16.5 = 3.16 x 1016 (expos ± 1 ?) √ 4. 10─11.7 = 2.00 x 10─12
2. 10─16.5 = 3.16 x 10─17 (expos ± 1 ?) √ 5. 10─0.7 = 2.00 x 10─1
3. 102.2 = 1.58 x 102 (expos ± 1 ?) √

Practice B
1. 10─5.4 = 3.98 x 10─6 (expos ± 1 ?) √ 2. 10─11.5 = 3.16 x 10─12 (expos ± 1 ?) √
3. 10─0.5 = (number): 0.316 (std. notation): 3.16 x 10─1 (expos ± 1 ?) √
4. Log (6.8 x 1012 ) = 12.83 5. Log (6.8 x 10─12 ) = ─11.17

6. Log 4.6 = 0.663 7. Log 0.0020 = ─2.70
Practice C
1. Log x = 12.4 , x = 2.51 x 1012 5. 10─3.3 = 5.01 x 10─4
2. Log x = ─5.9 , x = 1.26 x 10─6 6. Log (2.0 x 10─9 ) = ─8.70
3. Log x = ─0.25 , x = 0.562 = 5.62 x 10─1 7. Log 0.50 = ─0.30

4. Log x = 1.1 , antilog = 12.6 = 1.26 x 101
Practice D
1. e5.2 = 181 2. e─1.7 = 0.183 3. e─20.75 = 9.74 x 10─10
4. ln 1066 = 6.97 5. ln 0.0050 = ─5.30 6. ln (3 x 108) = 19.52
7. ln (19.29 x 10─6) = ─10.86 8. ln e6.2 = 6.2 9. eln(─42) = ─42
10. If ln = ─6.8 , number = e─6.8 = (number in std. notation): 1.11 x 10─3
11. If ln D = 7.4822 , D = 1776 12. If ln = ─12.5 , antilog = 3.73 x 10─6

13. If log [A] = ─9 , [A] = 10─9 M 14. If log x = 13.7 , x = 5.01 x 1013
15. Log A = ─13.7 , A= 2.00 x 10─14 16. 10─11.7 = 2.00 x 10─12
17. ln [B] = ─13.7 , [B] = 1.12 x 10─6 M 18. e ─11.7 = 8.29 x 10─6
19. ln(0.050 M) = ─3.00 ln M 20. e ─0.693 ln M = 0.500 M
21. If log(x) = 5.00 , ln(x) = ? 2.303 log(x) = ln(x) . ; ln(x) = (2.303)(5.00) = 11.5
22. If ln(x) = 34.5 , log(x) = ? 2.303 log(x) = ln(x) . ; log(x) = 34.5/2.303 = 15.0
23. Given that ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0173 s─1) ( t ) + 0.693
a. Strategy: to find [A]t , first solve for ln[A]t

? = ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0173 s─1 ) ( 20.0 s ) + 0.693
= ─ 0.346 + 0.693 = 0.347
WANTED is [A] at 20 s. Known is: ln[A]20 s = 0.347 Solve for [A]20 s.
* * * * *
[A] = eln[A] = e0.347 = 1.41 M (If a concentration is wanted, add M as unit)
b. Strategy: Solve for t in symbols first.
* * * * *
t = ln[A] ─ 0.693 = ln[0.710 M] ─ 0.693 = ─ 0.342 ─ 0.693 =
─ 0.0173 s─1 ─ 0.0173 s─1 ─ 0.0173 s─1
= ─ 1.035 = 59.9 s = t ( 1/ s─1 = s --- see lesson 27F )
─ 0.0173 s─1
24. Given that ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0241 ln M/yr. ) ( t ) ─ 4.61 ln M
a. Strategy: Solve for t in symbols first.

* * * * *
t = ln[A] + 4.61 ln M = ln[0.0025 M] + 4.61 ln M = ─ 5.99 ln M + 4.61 ln M =
─ 0.0241 ln M/yr. ─ 0.0241 ln M/yr. ─ 0.0241 ln M/yr.
= ─ 1.38 ln M = 57.3 years = t
─ 0.0241 ln M/yr.
b. Strategy: to find [A]t , first solve for ln[A]t
? = ln[A]t = ( ─ 0.0241 ln M/yr. ) (28.8 yr. ) ─ 4.61 ln M
= ─ 0.694 ln M ─ 4.61 ln M = ─ 5.30 ln M

WANTED is [A]. Known is: ln[A] = ─ 5.30 ln M Solve for [A].
* * * * *
[A] = eln[A] = e─ 5.30 ln M = 0.0050 M
* * * * *

Lesson 27E: Integrated Rate Law – First Order

Prerequisites: Complete Lesson 27D before this lesson.
* * * * *
For first-order reactants, the integrated rate law is
ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
The most commonly encountered reaction that is first order is the nuclear process of
radioactive decay, which is always first-order. However, the steps of standard chemical
reactions can also be first order as well.
The easiest way to learn to use this rate law is by example.
First-Order Calculations
In some rate law calculations, the order of a reactant is supplied, and the problem can be
solved by simply writing and solving the appropriate rate law.
For the following problem, begin by listing and assigning symbols to the WANTED and
DATA. Then decide what equation relates those symbols. Solve the equation in symbols
before plugging in numbers. If you get stuck, read the answer until unstuck, then try
again.
Q. Radon-222 is a noble gas nuclide that decays to form other elements. The rate for
this radioactive decay is first order, with a rate constant of 0.181 ln M/day. If the
original [Rn-222] in a sample is 2.5 x 10─4 M, what will be the [Rn-222] after two
weeks?
* * * * *
WANTED: [Rn]after 2 weeks = [Rn]t
DATA: 0.181 ln M/day = k

2 weeks = t = 14 days (convert to units consistent with the rate constant)
Initial concentration = 2.5 x 10─4 M = [Rn] 0
The rate is first order. We know two equations for first-order rates:
Differential law: Rate = k [A] and Integrated law: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
Which equation is the best match with the symbols in the data?
* * * * *
When the rate data includes time, the integrated law will usually be needed to solve.
Write the specific equation: ln [Rn]t = ─kt + ln [Rn]0
See if you can solve for the WANTED amount.

* * * * *
Strategy: To find [Rn]t, first solve the rate equation for ln[Rn]t, then use [Rn] = eln [Rn]
* * * * *

? = ln [Rn] = ─kt + ln [Rn]0
= ─ (0.181 ln M/day)(14 days) + ln(2.5 x 10─4 M)

= ─ 2.53 ln M ─ 8.29 ln M = ─ 10.82 ln M = ln [Rn]14 days
(Math help? See Lesson 27D, section VI.) If needed, finish solving for the WANTED unit.
* * * * *
WANT: [Rn]after 14 days = eln [Rn] = e(─ 10.82 ln M) = 2.0 x 10─5 M Rn
* * * * *
Units of Concentration
In rate-law calculations, the units for concentration may be either moles/liter or units
proportional to moles per liter. The units must also be consistent: the same for all
measures of concentration in a given problem.
Some of the “proportional to moles per liter” units found in rate problems are
• grams per unit of volume for a substance; such as g/cm3;
• atoms of a substance per unit of volume: e.g. atoms/liter;
• counts of radioactive decay/time
• atoms per unit proportional to volume for a given substance: such as
“atoms/gram dried cotton;”
• pressure of a gas in any pressure units: kPa, torr, or other pressure units;
• partial pressure of a gas in any pressure units.
Why is gas pressure proportional to concentration? Since, for an ideal gas, PV=nRT,
rearranging terms we can write
n/V = moles/liter = P/RT = P x (the constant 1/RT at constant temperature).
This equation can be re-written as: [ideal gas] = (a constant) x P which is one of the
forms for a direct proportion (Lesson 18A). At a constant temperature (which is required
for a rate constant to be constant), molar concentration is therefore directly proportional to
pressure for a gas with ideal behavior.
Units of the First-Order Rate Constant
The units for first-order rate constants (k) can be expressed as either “ln(concentration
units)/time units,” or as “1/time” units, such as “sec─1.” In most textbooks, the 1/time
format for first-order k units is used. Mathematically, either practice can be justified.
From this point forward, these lessons will generally use the practice in most textbooks:
to drop the unit when an ln is taken of a quantity.
However, if units are dropped from ln values, solving for concentration may not produce
a unit as part of the answer. When 1/time units are used for k, you must add units to any
concentration calculated in the problem, and those units must be consistent with the
concentration unit (or unit proportional to concentration) used elsewhere in the problem.
If no unit for concentration is supplied, assume the unit is moles/liter.

Practice A
1. The earth’s atmosphere has a small amount of carbon dioxide that contains 14C, called
carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon. While a plant is alive, C-14 is stored in its
cells during photosynthesis. Living plants have a relatively constant and predictable
concentration of radioactive carbon. After the plant is harvested and/or dies, the
radioactive carbon is no longer replenished, and the concentration of C-14 in the non-
living plant material falls as C-14 undergoes radioactive decay at a first-order rate.
By measuring the amount of C-14 in the remains of the plant, how long ago the plant
was harvested can be determined. The rate constant for the decay of C-14 is
1.21 x 10─4 year─1. If the [C-14] in freshly harvested cotton fibers is 2.00 x 1010
atoms/gram, and the [C-14] in a cotton garment found in a burial tomb is found to be
1.12 x 1010 atoms/g, how many years ago was the cotton harvested?
2. Using the same k value for C-14 and the same [C-14] at harvest supplied in Problem
One, calculate the atoms per gram that would be found in a sample after 10,000. years.
3. Using the same k value for C-14 and the same [C-14] at harvest supplied in Problem
One, calculate the half-life of C-14: how many years are required for the [C-14] to be
reduced to 1/2 of the concentration at harvest.
4. If in an experiment, a first-order rate equation for a decay reaction is found to be
ln [B] = ─ (0.200 year─1)(t) ─ 3.22 , what was the original [B]?
First-Order Reactions and Graphical Analysis

Some rate law calculations require that the order of a reactant be determined from
experimental data before applying a rate law to solve. When the order of a reactant is not
known, it can be determined by graphical analysis. Graphical analysis is also used to find
the specific rate law equation that explains the data.
For the following question, cover below the * * * * * line, then answer the questions
above the line.
Q. For the reaction: A Æ B , time and [A] are ln[A]

measured as a reaction proceeds. The data is seconds [A] in M
in ln(M)
recorded at the right.
0 2.00
a. Use the “first half-life” method and [A] to
20.0 1.41
determine the order of the reaction, and then
check your answer below. 40.0 1.00
* * * * * 60.0 0.710
80.0 0.500
100. 0.353
120. 0.250

The first half-life is 40. s. Double the first half-life is 80 s. At t = 80 sec., [A] =
25% of the original concentration. This fits the behavior of first order in A.
b. Using a calculator, add values for ln[A] to the last column of the table above,
then check your answers below.
* * * * *
Sample: If [A] = 2.00 M, seconds [A] in M ln[A]

ln[A] = ln(2.00 M) = 0.693 ln M = 0.693 0 2.00 0.693
We will use the shortcut: if you take the ln 20.0 1.41 0.344
of a unit, omit the unit in the answer. 40.0 1.00 0
Your values should match those at the right. 60.0 0.710 ─ 0.342
c. On the two grids below, graph the data: 80.0 0.500 ─ 0.693
first [A] vs. time, then ln[A] vs. time.
100. 0.353 ─ 1.04
120. 0.250 ─ 1.39
[A] versus time
2
1.5
[A ] in m ol/L
0.5
0
0 40 80 120
seconds
ln[A] versus time

d. For which graph does the
data fit closer to linear 1
behavior?
0.5
e. For the graph that is linear,
calculate the slope of the 0
ln[A]
line. 0 40 80 120
-0.5
f. Based on the two graphs,
does the data better fit the -1
behavior of a reaction that
is zero order in A, or first -1.5
order in A? seconds
* * * * *

d. Your graphs should be similar to these.
ln [A] versus time

[A] versus time
1
2
0.5
1.5
[A ] in m o l/L
ln [A ]
0
1
0 40 80 120
-0.5
0.5
-1
0
0 40 80 120 -1.5
seconds seconds
The linear graph is the plot of ln[A] vs. time.

e. For the slope calculation, using the lowest and highest x values on the graph:
At t1 = lowest time = 0 s, ln[A] = 0.693 ; at t2 = 120 s, ln[A] = ─ 1.39
m = rise = Δln[A] = ln[A]2 ─ ln[A]1 = (─1.39 ─ 0.693) = ─ 0.0174 s─1

run Δt t 2 ─ t1 (120 ─ 0) s
* * * * *
f. For this data,
• The slope of [A] vs. time, which was constant for zero-order reactants, is
not constant for this first-order reactant data.
• The slope of ln[A] vs. time is constant;
Let’s analyze the first-order rate law to see why this is the case.
1. Write the two forms of the rate law for a reaction A Æ B that is first-order in A.
* * * * *
Differential rate law: Rate = k [A]
Integrated rate law: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
2. Compare the first-order integrated rate law: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0

to the equation for a line on a graph: y = mx + b
Write the symbols in the first-order integrated rate law next to the corresponding
symbols in the equation for a line.
y=
m=
x=
b=

Then, for the data in the problem above, after the symbols for the two constants, add
the values for the two constants. Include numbers and units.
* * * * *
y = ln[A]t = a variable amount.
m = ─ k = the constant slope = ─ 0.0174 s─1 from Part (e) above.

x = t = time, a variable.
b = ln [A]0 = ln ( [A] initially, at t = 0 ) = ln(2.00 M) = + 0.693
3. Write the value for k, with its units.

* * * * *
Since m = ─ k , k = ─ m = ─ (the slope) = + 0.0174 s─1
4. Write the first-order integrated rate law,
a. as memorized; then
b. re-write the law, keeping the same variable symbols, but substituting for the two
constants the values and units of the constants. This result is the calculated
integrated rate law.
* * * * *
a. The rate law using symbols: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0
b. Substituting the constants: ln[A]t = ─ ( + 0.0174 s─1 ) ( t ) + 0.693
5. Test your rate law: choose a time in the original data table that was not used to calculate
the slope. Enter that time into the calculated integrated rate law and calculate [A].
Then compare that calculated [A] to the actual [A] in the data table. See if the law, with
your calculated constants, predicts the [A] in the data at that time.
(Use t = 60.0 s to match the answer below.)
* * * * *
Equation: ln[A]t = ─ ( + 0.0174 s─1 ) ( t ) + 0.693
DATA: (list the symbols for the variables in the equation, but don’t re-write
the known constants.)
ln[A]t = ?
t = 60.0 s
WANTED: [A]t at t = 60.0 s
Strategy: To find [A]t, use the equation to find ln[A]t, then use [A] = eln[A]
If you needed that hint, adjust your work and finish from there.
* * * * *

? = ln[A]t = ─ ( + 0.0174 s─1 ) ( t ) + 0.693

= ─ ( + 0.0174 s─1) (60.0 s) + 0.693 { ( s─1 )( s1 ) = s0 = 1 }
= ─ ( 1.044) + 0.693 = ─ 0.351
WANTED is [A] at 60.0 s. Known is: ln[A]60 s = ─ 0.351
Solve for [A]60 s.
* * * * *
[A] = eln[A] = e ─ 0.351
[A] = 0.704 M (add the unit for concentration used in the problem: mol/L)
In the original data table at t = 60. s, [A] = 0.710 M
Allowing for rounding and experimental error, this calculated answer and the data
in the original table agree. In predicting the experimental data, the first-order
integrated rate law, with its calculated constants, worked.
* * * * *
6. Test your equation again: use the calculated rate law to find the time at which [A] will
equal 0.353 M.
* * * * *
Rate Law: ln[A] = ─ ( + 0.0174 s─1 ) ( t ) + 0.693
DATA: [A] = 0.353 M
ln[A] = ln (0.353 M) = ─ 1.041
t=?
Solve the equation in symbols for the wanted symbol.
* * * * *
t = ln[A] ─ 0.693 = ─ 1.041 ─ 0.693 = ─ 1.734
─ 0.0174 s─1 ─ 0.0174 s─1 ─ 0.0174 s─1
t= 99.7 s
Compare this calculated time to the time in the original table at [A] = 0.353 M.
The first-order integrated rate law, with its calculated constants added, explains and
predicts, within experimental error, the results of the experiment.
Practice B. Answers are at the end of this lesson.

1. Write the integrated rate law for a
a. zero order reactant: _________________________________________
b. First-order reactant: _________________________________________

2. To get a straight line graph using [A] and time data,
a. For a zero-order reactant, plot _________ on the y-axis and _____ on the x-axis.
b. For a first-order reactant, plot __________ on the y-axis and _____ on the x-axis.
3. What ratio that uses concentration and time must be constant for a
a. zero-order reactant: ___________________________
b. First-order reactant: ___________________________

4. What will be the term for the y-intercept in an integrated rate law that is
a. Zero order: ___________________________
b. First-order: ___________________________
5. If reactant A is first order, and [A] versus time data is collected,
a. Will a plot of [A] versus time have points on a line? ______________
b. What plot will produce points on a line? _______________________
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. The WANTED and DATA include terms for both time and a first-order rate constant. What equation
includes those terms?
The first-order integrated rate law: ln [A] = ─kt + ln [A]0
That equation will work for any units that are proportional to concentration. Assume that atoms/g is
proportional to molar concentration for cotton.
DATA: ln[A] = ln[C-14]after decay
= ln(1.12 x 1010 atoms/g) = + 23.14

k = 1.21 x 10─4 year─1
t=?
ln [A]0 = ln [C-14]0 = ln(2.00 x 1010 atoms/g) = + 23.72
Solving for the WANTED symbol in symbols first:
t = ln [A] ─ ln [A]0 = (+ 23.14 ─ 23.72) = ─0.58 yr. = 4,800 yr.
─k ─
─ 1.21 x 10 yr4 ─ 1 ─ 1.21 x 10─ 4

2. For first-order decay, use the first-order integrated rate law: ln [A] = ─kt + ln [A]0
WANTED: [C-14]after 10,000. years, in atoms/gram
DATA: Use the equation symbols to make the data table.
ln[A] = ln[C-14]after 10,000.years = ?
k = 1.21 x 10─4 year─1

t = 10,000. years
Strategy: To find the [C-14]after decay, use the rate law to find ln[C-14]after decay first.
Then use: ? = [C-14] = eln [C-14]

If you needed that hint, adjust your work and finish.
* * * * *
ln[C-14]after decay = ─ (1.21 x 10─4 year─1 )(10,000 yrs ) + 23.72
= ─ 1.21 + 23.72
= + 22.51
WANTED is [C-14 ]10,000 yrs. Known is: ln[C-14]10,000 yrs = + 22.51
Solve for [C-14].
* * * * *
[C-14]10,000 yrs = eln[C-14] = e+22.51 = 5.97 x 109 atoms/g
When solving for concentration, add the concentration unit used elsewhere in the DATA.
3. For first-order decay, use the first-order integrated rate law: ln [A] = ─kt + ln [A]0
WANTED: Half-life of C-14
Strategy: Half-life is time it takes for initial concentration to be cut in half.
Since [C-14]original = 2.00 x 1010 atoms/g
[C-14]at half-life = 1.00 x 1010 atoms/g (half as much)

If you needed that hint, adjust and try the problem again.
* * * * *
DATA: ln [C-14]at half-life = ln(1.00 x 1010 atoms/g) = 23.03
k = 1.21 x 10─4 year─1
t = ? years
Solve the rate equation for the WANTED symbol, in symbols first.

t = ln [A] ─ ln [A]0 = (+ 23.03 ─ 23.72) = 0.69 yr. = 5,700 yr.

─k ─4
─ 1.21 x 10 yr ─1 1.21 x 10 ─4
Does this answer make sense? In problem one, a little less than half of the initial C-14 had decayed in
4,800 years, so 5,700 years for exactly half is in close agreement.
In problem 2, the 10,000 year time of decay was a little less than two 5,700 year half lives. After 2 half
lives, 25% of the original amount should be remaining for first-order decay. In problem 2, 10,000 years is
a little less than 2 half lives and 0.597 x 1010/2.00 x 1010 = 30%, or a bit more than 25% of the original,
remains. This is about what would be expected by estimation.
These three answers are consistent.
4. WANTED: [B]0 (Write the symbol for the WANTED initial concentration of B)
DATA: This is a first-order reaction. The first-order equation that includes [B]0 is
ln [B] = ─ kt + ln [B]0 . Compare that to the form of the given equation:
ln [B] = ─ (0.200 year─1)(t) ─ 3.22
ln [B]0 = ─ 3.22 (Finish from here)
* * * * *
[B]0 = eln[B]0 = e─ 3.22 = 0.0400 M B
If a concentration is wanted, add M as unit unless other units proportional to the molarity are
used in the problem.
Practice B
1. a. Zero order: [A] = ─kt + [A]0 b. First-order: ln [A] = ─kt + ln [A]0
2. a. To get a straight line for a zero-order reactant, plot [A] on the y-axis and t on the x-axis.
b. For a first-order reactant, plot ln [A] on the y-axis and t on the x-axis.
3. a. Constant ratio for a zero-order reactant: Δ[A] /Δt b. First-order reactant: Δ ln[A] /Δt
4. a. The y-intercept in an integrated rate law that is zero order: [A]0 b. First order: ln [A]0
5. a. Will a plot of first order [A] vs. time have points on a line? No b. What plot will? ln [A] vs. t
* * * * *

Lesson 27F : Reciprocal Math

Timing: This lesson should be done before calculations using the second-order integrated
rate law.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last lettered part of each calculation in
Practice B at the end of the lesson. If you can do those calculations, skip the lesson.
Prerequisites: Complete Lesson 17C (Complex Unit Cancellation) before this lesson.
* * * * *
Rules For Reciprocals
Second-order rate laws will require work with reciprocals of both numbers and units.
Some rules for reciprocals are as follows.
1. The reciprocal of X is 1/X. Three equivalent ways to write the reciprocal of X are:
1 = 1/X = X─1 Also: 1 = 1/X3 = X─3

X X3
2. The reciprocal of 1/X is X. The reciprocal of the reciprocal of X is X.
In equation format: 1 = 1/(1/X) = (X─1)─1 = X

1
X
3. On a calculator, to convert a reciprocal to a number, either
a. divide the denominator into one,
Example: 1/8 = (1 divided by 8) = 0.125
b. or, take the reciprocal of the denominator using the reciprocal 1/x or x─1 key.
Example: to convert 1/8 to a number, input 8 1/x or x─1 . Try it.

4. If you know the value of the reciprocal of a number, and you want the number, take the
reciprocal of the reciprocal value.
Example: Since 1/(1/x) = x if 1/A = 0.25, A = 1/0.25 = 4
Practice A. Learn the rules, then apply them below. If you are unsure of an answer,
check at the end of the lesson before doing the next problem. Doing every other problem
today, and the rest tomorrow, will help in remembering the rules.
1. Trying these without a calculator, convert these reciprocals to numbers.
a. 1/(3/4) = b. 1/(1/8.2) = c. 1/e─1 =
2. Using a calculator as needed, convert these reciprocals to numbers.
a. 1/7.9 = b. 1/0.40 = c. (2,000)─1 =
d. (0.75)─1 = e. 1/e3 = f. (1/6.2)─1 =

3. If 1/A = 0.0625, A = 4. If 1/D = 12.5, D =
5. Convert these to numbers in scientific notation. Use a calculator.
a. 1/(4.7 x 103) = b. 1/(9.2 x 10─11) =
c. (2.5 x 10─2)─1 = d. (1/(2.5 x 10─2))─1 =
More Reciprocal Rules

5. To take the reciprocal of a unit of measurement, change the sign of its exponent.
Examples: 1/s = 1/s1 = s─1 1/(mol ● s─1) = mol─1 ● s

6. To take the reciprocal of a number to a power, change the sign of the power.
Examples: 1/1010 = 10─10 1/10─10 = 1010 1/e─6 = e6
7. To multiply exponentials, add the exponents. To take an exponential to a power,
multiply the exponents.
Examples: (104)3 = 1012 s ● s─1 = s0 = 1 (e─6)─1 = e6
Practice B. If you are unsure of an answer, check the answer at the end of the lesson
before doing the next problem. Do the math for both the number and its units. Do every
other part, and more if you need more practice.
1. Convert these to numbers without denominators. Do not use a calculator.
a. 1/102 = b. 1/10─10 = c. 1/log(100) =
d. (3─2)─1 = e. 1/(4─2) =
2. Convert these to numbers in scientific notation. Do not use a calculator.
a. 1/(5.0 x 105) = b. 1/(5.0 x 10─5) =
Simplifying Reciprocals
8. To take the reciprocal of a fraction, invert the fraction.
1 = 1/(B/C) = (B ● C─1)─1 = B─1 ● C = C/B

B
C
9. When a term has two fraction lines ( either _____ or / ), separate the terms that are
fractions. To do so, apply these steps in this order (from Lesson 17C).
a. If a term has a fraction in the denominator, separate the terms into a reciprocal of the
b. If there is a fraction in the numerator, separate that fraction from the other terms in
the numerator or denominator.

c. To simplify the fraction, invert any reciprocal fractions, cancel units that cancel,
and multiply the terms.
Practice C. If you are unsure of an answer, check the answer at the end of the lesson
before doing the next problem. Do the math for both the number and its units. Do every
other part, and more if you need more practice.
1. Write the following without a denominator by using positive and negative exponents.
a. mol b. 1/(mol ● s─2) =

L ● sec.
c. (meters/s2) ─1 = d. (meters/s─2) ─1 =
e. 1 = f. 1/s─1 =
mol
L●s
2. Write these units as simple fractions, with a numerator and denominator, in which all
of the exponents are positive (for additional review, see Lesson 17C).
b. 1/(sec./L) b. 1 c. M─1
mol M─1 ● s─1
L●s
3. Convert mol/L to M for molarity, and then write these units without a denominator.
a. 1/(mol/L) b. 1
mol
L●s
4. In these, convert M to moles/liter, then express the unit without a denominator by
using positive and negative exponents.
a. M● s─1 = b. 1/(M ● s─1) =
c. M─1 = d. (M/s─1)─1 =
s
5. Simplify: convert to a number and unit on one line, without a denominator.
a. 1/(8.00 mol) b. 1/(0.25 mol/L)
c. (0.450 M─1•s─1 ) ( 25.0 s )
d. (0.500 M─1•s─1 )( 15.0 s) + 1.20 M─1
6. Solve 1/[A] = +kt + 1/[A]0 for a. k b. t c. 1/[A]0 d. [A]
7. Given this equation: 1/[A] = (0.250 M─1•s─1 ) ( t ) + 2.00 M─1

and t = 30.0 s, solve for [A].
8. Given the same equation as in problem 7, if [A] = 0.174 M, solve for t.

ANSWERS
Practice A
There are many ways to do these calculations. Use any legal methods that get the same answer.
1. a. 1/(3/4) = 4/3 = 1.33 b. 1/(1/8.2) = 8.2 c. 1/e─1 = (e─1)─1 = e1 = 2.718…
2. a. 1/7.9 = 0.13 b. 1/0.40 = 2.5 c. (2,000)─1 = 0.0005 or 5 x 10─4
d. (0.75)─1 = 1.33 e . 1/e3 = 1/20.09 = 0.0498 f. (1/6.2)─1 = 1/(1/6.2) = 6.2

2. If 1/A = 0.0625, A = 1/(1/A) = 1/0.0625 = 16.0 3. If 1/D = 12.5, D = 1/12.5 = 0.0800
4. a. 1/(4.7 x 103) = 2.1 x 10─4 [ keys might be: 4.7 E or EE 3 1/x ]

b. 1/(9.2 x 10─11) = 1.1 x 1010 [ keys might be: 9.2 E or EE 11 +/- 1/x ]
c. (2.5 x 10─2)─1 = 40. [ enter the number, then, to take a ─1 power, use 1/x ]
d. (1/2.5 x 10─2)─1 = [(2.5 x 10─2) ─1]─1 = (2.5 x 10─2) +1 = 2.5 x 10─2
Practice B
1. a. 1/102 = 10─2 b. 1/10─10 = 10+10 c. 1/log(100) = 1/2 = 0.5
d. (3─2)─1 = 32 = 9 e. 1/(4─2) = (4─2)─1 = 42 = 16
2. a. 1/(5.0 x 105) = 1/5.0 x 1/105 = 0.20 x 10─5 = 2.0 x 10─6
b. 1/(5.0 x 10─5) = 1/5.0 x 1/10─5 = 0.20 x 105 = 2.0 x 104

Practice C
1. a. mol = mol ● L─1 ● sec─1 b. 1/(mol ●s─2) = (mol ●s─2)─1 = mol─1 ● s2
L ● sec
c. (meters/s2)─1 = (meters ● s─2)─1 = meters─1 ● s2
d. (meters/s─2)─1 = (meters ● s2)─1 = meters─1 ● s─2
e. 1 = 1/( mol ● L─1 ● s─1) = mol─1 ● L ● s f. 1/s─1 = (s─1) ─1 = s

mol
L●s
2. One way to do these is to use the rule: to take the reciprocal of a fraction, invert the fraction.
a. 1/(sec./L) = L b. 1 = L●s c. M─1 = 1/s─1 = s

sec. mol mol M─1 ● s─1
L●s
3. a. 1/(mol/L) = 1/M = M─1 b. 1 = 1 = (M ● s─1) ─1 = M─1 ● s
mol M
L●s s

4. a. M● s─1 = mol ● s─1 = mol ● L─1 ● s─1

L
b. 1/(M ● s─1) = (mol ● L─1 ● s─1) ─1 = mol─1 ● L ● s
c. M─1 = (mol ● L─1) ─1 ● s─1 = mol─1 ● L ● s─1

s
d. (M/s─1) ─1 = (mol ● L─1 ● s) ─1 = mol─1 ● L ● s─1
5. a. 1/(8.00 mol) = 0.125 mol─1 b. 1/(0.25 mol/L) = (1/0.25)( 1/(mol ● L─1) = 4.0 mol─1 ● L
c. (0.450 M─1 •s─1 ) ( 25.0 s ) = 11.2 M─ 1
d. (0.500 M─1 • s─1 )( 15.0 s ) + 1.20 M─1 = 7.50 M─1 + 1.20 M─1 = 8.70 M─1
6. a. k = 1/[A] ─ 1/[A]0 b. t = 1/[A] ─ 1/[A]0

t k
c. 1/[A]0 = [A] ─1 ─ kt d. [A] = ( kt + 1/[A]0 )─1
7. Given 1/[A] = (0.250 M─ 1•sec─ 1 ) ( t ) + 2.00 M─ 1 and t = 30.0 s, solve for [A].
Strategy: Since the equation solves for 1/[A], first solve the equation for 1/[A], then take
the reciprocal of 1/[A] to find [A].
* * * * *
Equation: 1/[A] = ( 0.250 M─1 • sec─1 ) ( t ) + 2.00 M─1
DATA: Use the equation’s symbols for variables to make the data table.
1/[A] = ?
t = 30.0 s
Solve: ? = 1/[A] = (0.250 M─1 • s─1 )( 30.0 s ) + 2.00 M─1 =
= 7.50 M─1 + 2.00 M─1 = 9.50 M─ 1 = 1/[A]
[A] = 1/ ( 1/[A] ) = 1/ (9.50 M─1 ) = 0.105 M = [A]

8. Given the same equation and [A] = 0.174 M, solve for t.
Equation: 1/[A] = ( 0.250 M─1 • s─1 ) ( t ) + 2.00 M─1

DATA: Use the equation’s variables in the data table.
1/[A] = 1/(0.174 M) = 5.75 M─1
t = ? Solve in symbols before substituting numbers.
t = 1/[A] ─ 2.00 M─1 = 5.75 M─1 ─ 2.00 M─1 = 3.75 M─1 = 15.0 s
( 0.250 M─1 • s─1 ) ( 0.250 M─1 • s─1 ) ( 0.250 M─1 • s─1 )
* * * * *

Lesson 27G: Integrated Rate Law – Second Order

The following table summarizes the rate law equations used for zero-, first-, and second-
order reactants. You need to be able to write these 9 rows from memory.
* * * * *
Summary: Rate Laws
2 (Differential) Rate Law rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
4 None 25% 33%
Integrated 1 = +kt + 1
5 [A] = ─kt + [A]0 ln[A] = ─kt + ln[A]0
Rate Law [A] [A]0
6 To graph a line, plot: [A] on y, t on x ln[A] on y, t on x 1/[A] on y, t on x

This slope is constant
7 Δ[A] / Δt Δ ln[A] / Δt Δ 1/[A] / Δt
between any 2 points:
8 Rate constant (k) = Minus the slope Minus the slope The slope
t1/2 = [A]0 t1/2 = 0.693 t1/2 = 1
9 Half-life and k
2k k k[A]0
To do the problems below, begin by memorizing the table’s first 8 rows for second-order
reactants. Practice until you can write those 8 rows from memory. Then, cover below the
* * * * * lines below with a cover sheet and answer the questions above the line.
1. Write two forms of the rate law for a reaction A Æ B that is second-order in A.
* * * * *
Second-order differential rate law: Rate = k [A]2
Second-order integrated rate law: 1/[A] = +kt + 1/[A]0
2. Compare the second-order integrated rate law: 1/[A] = +kt + 1/[A]0
to the equation for a line on a graph: y = mx + b
Write the symbols in the second-order integrated rate law next to the matching symbols
in the equation for a line.
y=
m=
x=
b=
* * * * *

y = 1/[A]
m = +k
x = t
b = 1/[A]0
3. Fill in the blanks on these. For a reaction that is second order in A,
a. What ratio that uses [A] and time will be constant? _____________________
b. What will be the y-intercept term in the integrated rate law? __________
c. If [A] versus time data is collected,
i. Will a plot of [A] versus time have points on a line? ________
ii. What plot will produce points on a line? _________________________

* * * * *
a. Δ 1/[A] /Δt b. 1/[A]0 c. i. No ii. 1/[A] versus t
To learn the method for graphical analysis of second-order data, try this example.
Q. For the reaction: D Æ E , [D] and time are Time [D] 1/[D]
measured.
0 0.400 M
a. Based on the data at the right, estimate the 10.0 s 0.250 M
first half-life of D in the reaction.
18.0 s 0.192 M
b. Estimate [D] after double the first half-life;
28.0 s 0.149 M
c. Determine the order of reactant D.
36.0 s 0.127 M
d. Write the differential rate law. 44.0 s 0.110 M
* * * * *
a. The original concentration is cut in half, to 0.200 M, after about 16 s.
b. Double the first half-life is about 32 s. [D] at about 32 s is about 0.130 M.
c. Since 0.130 M/0.400 M = 0.32; about 32% of the original concentration
remains at double the first half-life, which is close to 33%. This fits the
profile for a second-order reactant.
d. rate = k[D]2
e. If this data represents a second-order reactant, what ratio using [D] and t should
be constant?
* * * * *
e. The ratio Δ (1/[D])/Δt , which is the slope component in the second–order
integrated rate law, should be constant.
f. Using a calculator, calculate values for 1/[D] in the table above. Enter the
results in the last column, then check your answers below.
* * * * *

Time [D] 1/[D]

f. Sample calculations:
0 0.400 M 2.50 M─1
For 1/[D]: If [D] = 0.400 M,
10.0 s 0.250 M 4.00 M─1
1/[D] = 1/0.400 M = 2.50 M─1
* * * * *
18.0 s 0.192 M 5.21 M─1
Your values should match those at the right. 28.0 s 0.149 M 6.70 M─1
g. On the two grids below, graph the data: first 36.0 s 0.127 M 7.87 M─1
[D] vs. time, then 1/[D] vs. time. 44.0 s 0.110 M 9.10 M─1
[D] versus time 1/[D] versus time

0.5 10
0.4 8
1/[D ] in L/m ol
[D ] in m o l/L
0.3 6
0.2 4
0.1 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
seconds seconds
h. For which graph is the data closer to linear behavior?

i. For the graph that is linear, calculate the slope of the line between two widely
spaced points.
j. Based on the graph, does the data better fit the behavior of a reaction that is zero
order in D, or second order in D?
* * * * *
h. The second graph should be very close to linear behavior (see next page).
i. For slope between 0 and 50 s, at t1 = the lowest time = 0 s, 1/[D] = 2.50 M─1
At t2 = 50 s, 1/[D] ≈ 10.0 M─1
m = slope = Δ 1/[D] = 1/[D]2 ─ 1/[D]1 = (10.0 ─ 2.50) M─1 = 0.150 M─1

Δt t 2 ─ t1 (50.0 ─ 0) s s
For real experimental data, the slope between points will vary, and the slope of the
“best line” among the points will be a judgment call with uncertainty.

[D] versus time 1/[D] versus time

0.5
10
0.4 8
1 /[D ] in L /m o l
[D ] in m o l/L
0.3 6
0.2 4
0.1 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
seconds seconds
j. When a graph is linear, the equation for the line is

y-axis variable = (constant slope)(x-axis variable) + y-intercept
Since the first graph above is not linear, but the second is, the data in the table
fits the equation
1/[D] = (constant slope)(time) + y-intercept
The value of the y-intercept is the value of y when time = 0, which is
represented in symbols as 1/[D]0 . The equation for the line above is therefore
1/[D] = (constant slope)(time) + 1/[D]0
which matches the form of the second-order integrated rate law:

1/[D] = +kt + 1/[D]0
For data that is second-order in D, the slope ratio Δ(1/[D])/Δt should be

constant. In the second graph above it is.
k. For this experiment, the numeric values and units for the constants are:
k = ___________________________ and 1/[D]0 = _________________________

* * * * *
k. For the above reaction, in symbols, the rate law is: 1/[D] = +kt + 1/[D]0
Since the rate law is in the form Æ y = mx + b
for this data: k = m = the constant slope = 0.150 M─1•s─1 from part i,
and 1/[D]0 = 1[D] at 0 s = 1/0.400 M = 2.50 M─1
l. Write the specific rate law for this data, keeping the same variable symbols but
substituting the values and units of the two constants.
* * * * *

1. In symbols: 1/[D] = +kt + 1/[D]0

Substituting the constants, the rate law for this data is:
1/[D] = (0.150 M─1•s─1 ) ( t ) + 2.50 M─1
m. Test the rate law: choose a time value in the original data table that you did not
use to calculate a slope. Plug that time into the rate law. See if the law, with
your calculated constants, accurately predicts the [D] in the data at that time.
(Use t = 36.0 s to match the answer below.)
* * * * *
m. Rate Law: 1/[D] = (0.150 M─1•s─1 ) ( t ) + 2.50 M─1
DATA: 1/[D] = ?
t = 36.0 s
WANTED: [D]
Strategy: To find [D], use the rate law to find 1/[D], and then take the
reciprocal to find [D].
* * * * *
? = 1/[D] = (0.150 M─1•s─1 )( 36.0 s ) + 2.50 M─1
= 5.40 M─1 + 2.50 M─1 = 7.90 M─1 = 1/[D]
[D] = 1/( 1/[D] ) = 1/(7.90 M─1 ) = 0.127 M = [D]

Compare that answer to the original data table for t = 36.0 s. Does the rate
equation predict the experimental result?
n. Test your equation again: use the equation to calculate the time at which [A]
will equal 0.192 M.
* * * * *
n. Rate Law: 1/[D] = +kt + 1/[D]0
DATA: [D] = 0.192 M
1/[D] = 1/(0.192 M) = 5.21 M─1
k = (0.150 M─1•s─1 )
t= ?
1/[D]0 = 1/0.400 M = 2.50 M─1
Strategy: Solve the equation for t, first in symbols, then plug in values.
* * * * *
t = 1/[D] ─ 1/[D]0 = 5.21 M─1 ─ 2.50 M─1 = 2.71 M─1 = 18.1 s
k k 0.150 M─1•s─1

Compare this calculated time to the time in the original table at [A] = 0.192 M.
The answers agree within one doubtful digit. Once an integrated rate law with its
calculated constants is known, the concentration of the reactant at any time, and the
time required to reach any concentration, can be calculated.
Practice: If you are unsure of the answer to any part, check it before doing the next part.
Additional second-order calculations will be found in the next lesson.
1. In the reaction: A Æ B , time and [A] are Time [A]

measured as a reaction proceeds.
0 0.500 M
a. Using the “double the first half-life” method, 60.0 s 0.444 M
determine the order of the reaction.
150. s 0.381 M
b. Write the differential and the integrated rate
225 s 0.340 M
law that fits this data, in symbols.
450. s 0.255 M
c. What two variables will need to be plotted to
produce a line with a constant slope? 900. s 0.174 M
d. Graph the data to determine the rate constant for the reaction. You may use the
grid below, your own graph paper, or graphing software.
e. Write the integrated rate law with values for the two constants.
f. Calculate the predicted [A] at t = 1450 sec.
g. How long will it take for [A] to equal 0.100 M?
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000

ANSWERS
1 a. The first half-life is about 460 s. Double the first half-life is about 920 s. At t = 920 s, [A] ≈
0.170/0.500 = about 34% of the original concentration. This fits the behavior of second order in A.
b. Second-order differential rate law: Rate = k [A]2
Second-order integrated rate law: 1/[A] = +kt + 1/[A]0
c. Calculate values for 1/[A], Time [A] 1/[A] in L/mol

(see values at right) 0 0.500 M 2.00
then graph 1/[A] versus t. 60.0 s 0.444 M 2.25
150. s 0.381 M 2.62
225 s 0.340 M 2.94
450. s 0.255 M 3.92
900. s 0.174 M 5.75
d. For second order reactions, the slope
of the graph of 1/[A] versus t is the 1/[A] versus time
value of the rate constant. 6.00
To find the rate constant, calculate 5.00

1/[A] in L/mol
the slope of the line. 4.00

3.00
* * * * *
2.00
Using the second-order integrated 1.00
rate law and the estimated data points
0.00
from the graph at 0 s and 900 s, the 0 200 400 600 800 1000
rate constant is: seconds
k = m = Δ 1/[A] = 1/[A]2 ─ 1/[A]1 = (1/0.174 ─ 1/0.500) M─1 = 5.75 ─ 2 = 0.00416 M─1

Δt t 2 ─ t1 (900 ─ 0) s 900 s
Your slope may differ slightly. Taking the slope of a line that is a “best fit” involves uncertainty.
e. Integrated Rate Law: 1/[A] = (0.00416 M─1 • s─1 ) ( t ) + 2.00 M─1
f. To find [A], use the rate law to find 1/[A] and then take its reciprocal.
1/[A] = (0.00416 M─1 • s─1 )( 1450 s ) + 2.00 M─1 = 8.04 M─1
[A] = 1/(1/[A]) = 1/8.04 M─1 = 0.124 M
g. Rate Law: 1/[A] = +kt + 1/[A]0
t = 1/[A] ─ 1/[A]0 = (1/0.100 ─ 2.00) M─1 = 8.00 M─1 = 1,920 s

k k 0.00416 M─1 • s─1
* * * * *

Lesson 27H: Half-Life Calculations

Half-Lives: Simple Multiple Cases
The half-life of a reactant (symbol t1/2) is the time required for a [reactant] to reach 50% of
its initial concentration. Recall that for a
• Zero-order reactant, at double the first half-life, all of the reactant is used up.
• First-order reactant, the half-life is constant.
o At double the first half-life, 1/4 of the original concentration remains;
o At triple the first half-life, 1/8 of the original concentration remains.
• Second-order reactant,
o At double the first half-life, 1/3 of the original concentration remains;
o At triple the first half-life, 1/4 of the original concentration remains.
o Each successive half-life requires twice the time of the preceding half-life.
For half-life calculations involving these easy multiples, problems can often be solved
quickly using the rules above. These easy multiple rules can also be used to estimate
answers as a check for problems that are not easy multiples.
Practice A
1. The radioactive nuclide Pu-239 undergoes first-order decay with a half-life of 24,400
years.
a. After how many years will Pu-239 decay to 25% of its original concentration?
b. After how many half-lives will the [Pu-239] be 1/16th of its original concentration?
2. For a second-order reactant, if the first half-life is 25 seconds,
a. How long is the second half-life?
b. How much time will be required for the reactant concentration to reach one-third
of its original concentration?
c. What percentage of the original reactant concentration will remain after 175
seconds?
3. For zero-order reactants,
a. if the first half-life for a reactant is 15 seconds, how much remains after 30. s?
b. If all of a different reactant is used up after 80. seconds, what is its half-life?

Half-Life Calculations for Non-Simple Multiples

These equations relate half-life and rate constants.

t1/2 = [A]0 t1/2 = 0.693 t1/2 = 1
9 Half-life and k
2k k k[A]0
These formulas can be derived by substituting t1/2 for t and 1/2 [A]0 for [A]t in each
integrated rate law, but it will likely speed your work to simply memorize them. It helps
to note that all of these equations solve for t1/2 and have k in the denominator.
If a half-life is known, these equations will find values for the rate constant k without
calculating slopes.
First-Order Reactants
First-order reactants are a special case. Note that in the three half-life equations above,
first-order reactants are the only type for which the half-life does not depend on the
original concentration of the reactant.
The integrated rate law for first-order reactants is
ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0 which can be re-written as ln[A]t ─ ln[A]0 = ─kt
Using the rule that “the log of a quotient is the subtraction of the logs,” the second
equation above can be written as
[A]t
ln
[ ]
[A]0
= ─kt which can be written ln(fraction remaining) = ─kt
Each of these equations is simply an alternate way to write the first-order integrated rate
law. They apply to any reactions that are first-order, but radioactive decay is the first-
order process encountered most frequently. Radioactive decay calculations often involve
fractions or percentages, and the fraction form above will be the most convenient to use.
(For rules to convert between percentages and fractions, see Lesson 9A.)
A useful prompt is:
If a calculation labeled first order and/or radioactive decay includes fraction or percentage
or half-life,
Write in the DATA: ln(fraction remaining) = ─kt and t1/2 = 0.693/k
Using those two equations above, try this calculation.

Q. Iodine-131 is a radioactive isotope that is used in nuclear medicine. The half-life
for the first-order decay of I-131 is 8.1 days. What percentage of an initial [I-131]
will remain in a sample after 48 hours?
* * * * *

WANT: Percent [I-131]48 hrs. = % [A]t
DATA: t1/2 = 8.1 days = first-order half-life

t = 48 hours = 2.0 days (choose a consistent time unit for the data)
Strategy: Write the equations that relate the symbols in the problem.
For first-order reactants: ln[A]t = ─kt + ln[A]0 but in first order calculations
that include percentage, write and use ln(fraction remaining) = ─kt
and the equation for first-order half-life: t1/2 = 0.693/k
Percentage remaining = fraction remaining x 100%

If you needed those hints, adjust your work and solve from here.
* * * * *
From half-life, k can be found. Knowing k and t, ln(fraction) can be found.
Fraction = eln(fraction) and Percentage [I-131] = Fraction x 100%

* * * * *
Since t1/2 = 0.693/k , k = 0.693/t1/2 = 0.693/8.1 days = 0.0856 day─1 = k
ln( [A]t / [A]0 ) = ─kt = ─ ( 0.0856 day─1)(2.0 days) = ─ 0.171 = ln(fraction)
Fraction = eln(fraction) = e─0.171 = 0.843 = 84 % I-131 remains after 2 days
Practice B: If you are unsure of the answer to a part, check it before doing the next part.
1. Strontium-90 is a radioactive nuclide found in fallout: dust particles in the cloud
produced by the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. In chemical and biological
systems, strontium behaves much like calcium. If dairy cattle consume crops exposed
to dust or rain containing fallout, dairy products containing calcium will contain Sr-90.
Similar to calcium, Sr-90 will be deposited in the bones of dairy product consumers,
including children. In part for this reason, most (but not all) nations conducting nuclear
tests signed a 1963 treaty which banned atmospheric testing.
Strontium-90 undergoes first-order decay with a half-life of 28.8 years. What
percentage of an original [Sr-90] will have decayed in bones after 40.0 years?
2. The element Polonium was first isolated by Dr. Marie Sklodowska Curie and named for
her native Poland. The radioactive nuclide Po-210 is found in some types of tobacco. If
20.0% of Po-210 remains in a sample after 321 days of first-order decay, what is the half-
life of Po-210?

Zero- and Second-Order Reactants

Zero- and second-order half-life calculations apply the two half-life equations:
Zero-order half-life: t1/2 = [A]0/2k Second-order half-life: t1/2 = 1/(k[A]0)
Try the following example in your notebook.
Q. For a second-order reactant D, at 25°C, 50% of the original 0.180 M D remains after
3.00 minutes. Calculate
a. The rate constant for the reaction.
b. [D] after 9.0 minutes.
c. The time required for [D] to reach 0.025 M.
* * * * *
Answer
a. WANT: k
Part A may be done in several ways, but the quickest is to use the half-life equation.
By definition, the first half-life is the time when 50% of the original reactant remains.
DATA: t1/2 = 3.00 min.
The equation that relates k and t1/2 for second-order reactants is
t1/2 = 1/(k[A]0)
Solve in symbols for the WANTED k first, and then find a value for k.
* * * * *
k= 1 = 1 = 1.85 M─1•min─1
t1/2 ([A]0) (3.00 min) (0.180 M)
* * * * *
b. WANT: [D]9.0 min = [D]t
DATA: t = 9.0 min

The equation that uses t, k from Part a and [A]t for second-order reactants is the
second-order integrated rate law.
1/[D]t = +kt + 1/[D]0
To find [D]t , find 1/[D]t and then take its reciprocal.
* * * * *
Substituting the constants: 1/[D]t = (1.85 M─ 1•min─1 )( t ) + (1/0.180) M─1
Substituting t: 1/[D]9.0 min = (1.85 M─1•min─1 )( 9.0 min ) + 5.56 M─1
= 16.7 M─1 + 5.56 M─1 = 22.3 M─1 = 1/[D]9.0 min

[D]9.0 min = ?
* * * * *

[D]9.0 min = ? = 1/( 1/[D]9.0 min ) = 1/( 22.3 M─1 ) = 0.045 M
Is this answer reasonable? Use what you know about half-lives to estimate the result.
* * * * *
Note that 9.0 minutes is triple the first half-life. For second-order kinetics, after triple
the first half-life, 25% of the [original] remains. For [D], 25% of the original 0.180 M =
0.045 M. The “double the first half-life” rules can be a check or an alternate way to
solve Part b.
* * * * *
c. WANT: t
DATA: [D] = 0.025 M
The equation that uses [D] and t for this second-order reactant is
In symbols: 1/[D]t = +kt + 1/[D]0
With constants: 1/[D]t = (1.85 M─1•min─1 )( t ) + 5.56 M─1

Solving for t:
t = 1/[D] ─ 1/[D]0 = 40.0 M─1 ─ 5.56 M─1 = 34.4 M─1 = 19 min.

k k 1.85 M─1•min─1
Practice C: If you are unsure of the answer to a part, check it before doing the next part.
1. For a reaction A Æ D that is second order in A, k = 6.0 x 10─3 L•mol─1•s─1.

a. If after 150. s, [A] = 0.200 M, what was the original [A]?
b. Calculate the first half-life of A.
2. For a catalyzed reaction D Æ E, a graph of [D] versus time results in a straight line with
a slope of ─ 8.0 x 10─6 M/s.
a. What is the order in D?
b. Write the differential and integrated rate laws for the reaction.
c. If the initial [D] = 0.250 M, calculate the half-life for the reaction.
3. By definition, the half life t1/2 is the time required to reach 1/2 [A]0 . Substitute t1/2 for
t and 1/2 [A]0 for [A]t , then solve for t1/2 in the integrated rate laws for
a. The zero order law b. The first order law c. The second order law
Compare these answers to the equations in Row 9 of the Kinetics Rules chart.

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. First-order half-life is constant. Half remains after one half-life, half of that half (25%) remains after two half
lives. Two half lives = 2 x 24,400 years = 48,800 years.
1b. Half remains after one half-life, 1/4th after two, 1/8th after three, 1/16th after four half-lives.
2a. For second-order reactants, double the first: 50. sec.
2b. One-third of the [original] remains after double the first half-life: after 50 seconds of reaction.
2c. For second-order reactants, each successive half-life is double the preceding. If half remains after the
first 25 sec, 1/4th remains 50 seconds after that, and 1/8th remains 100 seconds after that. 25+50+100 =
after 175 seconds, 1/8th = 0.125 = 12.5% remains.
3a. None. 3b. 40 sec.
Practice B
1. WANT: % [Sr-90]40.0 yrs. decayed = % [A]t decayed = 100% ─ percent remaining
DATA: t1/2 = 28.8 yrs. = first-order half-life
t = 40.0 yrs.
Strategy: Write the equations that use the symbols and relationships in the problem.
For first-order half-life: t1/2 = 0.693/k
For first-order percentage calculations, use the ln(fraction) form: ln( [A]t / [A]0 ) = ─kt
where fraction is fraction remaining after decay. Percentage = Fraction remaining x 100%
From half-life, k can be found. From k and t, ln(fraction) and then fraction can be found.
SOLVE: t1/2 = 0.693/k ; k = 0.693/t1/2 = 0.693/28.8 yrs. = 0.02406 yrs.─1 = k
ln( [A]t / [A]0 ) = ─kt = ─ ( 0.02406 yrs.─1 )( 40.0 yrs. ) = ─ 0.9624 = ln(fraction)
Fraction = eln(fraction) = e─0.9624 = 0.382 = 38.2 % Sr-90 remains after 40 years
If 38.2% remains, 100% ─ 38.2% = 61.8% has decayed after 40 years.
2. WANT: t1/2
DATA: 20.0% Po-210 remains (fraction remaining = 0.200)
t = 321 days.
Strategy: Write the equations that use the symbols in the problem.
For first-order half-life: t1/2 = 0.693/k
For first-order percentages, use ln(fraction remaining) = ─kt
Knowing the fraction and t, k can be found from the fractional form of the rate law. Solving
the fractional form in symbols first:
k = ─ { ln(fraction) }/t = ─ { ln(0.200) }/(321 days) = ─ (─1.61) / (321 days) = 5.01 x 10─ 3 days─1
t1/2 = 0.693/k = 0.693 / 5.01 x 10─ 3 days─1 = 138 days = half-life of Po-210

Practice C
1a. WANT: [A]0
DATA t = 150. s
k = 6.0 x 10─3 L • mol─1 • s─1
[A]t = 0.200 M
The second-order law that uses t , k , [A]0 and [A]t is: 1/[A]t = +kt + 1/[A]0
Solving for the term with the WANTED symbol: 1/[A]0 = ─ kt + 1/[A]t
Substituting : 1/[A]0 = ─ (6.0 x 10─3 L • mol─1 • s─1 )( 150. s ) + (1/0.200) M─ 1
= ─ 0.90 M─1 + 5.00 M─1 = 4.10 M─1 = 1/[A] 0
[A]0 = 1/( 1/[A]0 ) = 1/( 4.1 M─1 ) = 0.244 M
1b. WANTED: t1/2
DATA: k = 6.0 x 10─3 L • mol─1 • s─1
The second-order equation that includes t1/2 and k is t1/2 = 1/(k[A]0) .
[A]0 = 0.244 M
t1/2 = 1/(k[A]0) `= 1/{(6.0 x 10─3 L • mol─1 • s─1 )( 0.244 mol/L )} =
= 1/( 1.464 x 10─3 s─1 ) = 683 s = t1/2
2a. If concentration vs. time is linear, the reaction is zero order. 4b. rate = k and [A]t = ─ kt + [A]0
2c. WANTED: t1/2
DATA: For zero-order half-life: t1/2 = [D]0/2k
[D]0 = 0.250 M
k = minus the slope of [D] vs. t = + 8.0 x 10─ 6 M/sec.
SOLVE: t1/2 = [D]0/2k = 0.250 M = 1.6 x 104 s
16 x 10─ 6 M/sec
3a. [A]t = ─ kt + [A]0 3b. ln[A]t = ─ kt + ln[A]0 3c. 1/[A]t = + kt + 1/[A]0

1/2[A]0 = ─ k t1/2 + [A]0 ln (1/2[A]0 ) = ─ k t1/2 + ln[A]0 1/[(1/2[A]0) = +k t1/2 +1/[A]0
─1/2[A]0 = ─ k t1/2 k t1/2 = ln[A]0 ─ ln (1/2[A]0 ) 2/[A]0 = +k t1/2 +1/[A]0
t1/2 = [A]0/2k k t1/2 = ln( [A]0 /1/2[A]0 ) 2/[A]0─1/[A]0 = +k t1/2
k t1/2 = ln(2) (2 ─1) /[A]0 = +k t1/2
t1/2 = 0.693/k t1/2 = 1/k/[A]0
* * * * *

Summary: Kinetics
1. Average Reaction Rate = change in [A] = Δ[A] = [A]2 ─ [A]1
change in time Δt t2 ─ t1
2. If the rate of reaction of one component is known, the rates of appearance and
disappearance of other reactants and products can be calculated from the coefficients.
3. The Rate Laws

2 (Differential) Rate Law rate = k[A]0 = k rate = k[A]1 = k[A] rate = k[A]2
4 None 25% 33%
ln[A] = ─kt + ln[A]0
[A]t
5
Integrated
Rate Law
[A] = ─kt + [A]0
or ln
( )
[A]0
= ─kt 1 = +kt + 1
[A] [A]0
or
ln(fraction) = ─kt
6 To graph a line, plot: [A] on y, t on x ln[A] on y, t on x 1/[A] on y, t on x
7 This slope is constant: Δ[A] / Δt Δ ln[A] / Δt Δ 1/[A] / Δt
8 Rate constant (k) = Minus the slope Minus the slope The slope
t1/2 = [A]0 t1/2 = 0.693 t1/2 = 1
9 Half-life and k
2k k k[A]0
Log Rules
1. A logarithm is an exponent: the power to which a base number is raised.
2. A logarithm answers the question: if a number is written as a base number to a power,
what is the power?
3. On a calculator,
• The log button calculates the power of a number written as 10 to a power.
10x or 2
nd
• or INV log buttons convert from “10 to a power” to a number.
4. Checking log results: when a number is written in scientific notation, its power of 10
must agree with its base 10 logarithm within ± 1.
5. The definition of a log is log 10x = x ; the log of 100 is 2 .
6. 10log x = x . Recite and repeat to remember: “10 to the log x equals x.”

7. Knowing the log, to find the number, take the antilog. On a calculator,
• input the log value, then press INV LOG ; or 2nd LOG ; or
• Input the log value, then press 10x . A log is simply an exponent.
8. The symbol e is an abbreviation for a number that has special properties: 2.718…
9. log 10x = x and 10log x = x . “The log of 10 to the x is x; 10 to the log x is x.”
ln ex = x and eln x = x . Write the base 10 rules, then substitute e and ln.
10. Knowing the ln, to find the number, take the antilog:
• input the log, then press INV ln ; or
• Input the log, then press ex . An ln is simply an exponent of e.

Reciprocal Rules
1. Three equivalent ways of representing the reciprocal of X are: 1 = 1/X = X─1
X
2. The reciprocal of 1/X is X. The reciprocal of the reciprocal of X is X.
In equation format: 1 = 1/(1/X) = (X─1)─1 = X
1
X
3. To convert a reciprocal to a number, using a calculator, either divide the number into
one or use the reciprocal 1/x or x─1 key.
4. If you know the value of the reciprocal of a number, and you want the number, take the
reciprocal of the reciprocal value.
5. To take the reciprocal of a unit of measurement, change the sign of its exponent.
6. To take the reciprocal of a number to a power, change the sign of the power.
7. To multiply exponentials, add the exponents. To take an exponential to a power,
multiply the exponents.
8. To take the reciprocal of a fraction, invert the fraction.
9. When a term has two fraction lines ( either _____ or / ), separate the terms that are
fractions. To do so, apply these steps in this order.
b. If a term has a fraction in the denominator, separate the terms into a reciprocal of the
b. If there is a fraction in the numerator, separate that fraction from the other terms in
the numerator or denominator.
c. To simplify fractions, invert reciprocal fractions, cancel units, and multiply terms.
1 = 1/(B/C) = (B ● C─1)─1 = B─1 ● C = C/B
B
C
# # # # #

The former Module 28 on Weak Acids is now Module 30
If you are looking for Weak Acid topics, check Module 30
* * * * *
Module 28: Equilibrium
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms...................................................................................................................101
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................159
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page ii

Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 237
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page iii

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................491
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page iv

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 614
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 662
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 827
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page v

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................974
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page vi

•••••
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page vii

Module 28 — Equilibrium
Pretests: In this module, if you think you are familiar with the topic of a lesson, try a few
problems at the end of the last problem set in the lesson. If you get those right, move to the
next lesson.
* * * * *
Introduction
Chemical reactions can be divided into three types.
1. Reactions that go nearly 100% to completion. Burning paper is one such reaction.
Once the reaction begins, the reaction goes until one of the reactants (the paper or
oxygen) is essentially used up.
2. Reactions that don’t go. Trying to convert carbon dioxide and water into paper is very
difficult to do in a chemist’s laboratory (though plants are able to accomplish most steps
in this reaction by the remarkable process of photosynthesis).
3. Reactions that are reversible and go partially to completion. In reversible reactions, as
the reaction proceeds, the reactants are gradually used up. As a result, the forward
reaction slows down. As product concentrations increase, they more frequently collide
and react to re-form the reactants. Finally, both the forward and reverse reactions are
going at the same rate. As long as no substances or energy are added to or removed
from the reaction system, the two rates will remain equal and no further reaction seems
to take place. The system is said to be at equilibrium.
For equilibrium to exist,
• all reactants and products must be present in at least small quantities, and
• the reaction must be in a closed system: no particles or energy can be entering or
leaving.
At equilibrium, no reaction seems to be occurring, but this appearance is deceiving.
Equilibrium is dynamic: the forward and reverse reactions continue. However, because
the rates of reaction of the forward and reverse reactions are the same, there is no net
change.
In theory, all reactions that occur are reversible, and all reactions go to equilibrium. In
practice, many equilibria favor the products so much that nearly all of the limiting reagent
is used up, and the reaction is considered to go “to completion.”
In the reaction calculations that we have done in previous lessons, the reactions have been
those that go essentially to completion. For those reactions, if the limiting reactant is
known, calculation of the amounts of reactants used up and products formed can be done
using conversion stoichiometry rules. However, when reactions go only partially to
completion, there is no limiting reactant completely used up that decides how much of the
products will form. Reactions that go to equilibrium require a detailed accounting system
to count how many of the reactant particles are used up and product particles form.
©2009 ChemReview.net v. 3a Page 797

Lesson 28A: Le Châtelier’s Principle

Timing: Depending on the sequence in your course, problems based on Le Châtelier’s
Principle may be assigned either at the beginning or end of a unit on Equilibrium. This
lesson may be completed at either point. When Le Châtelier’s Principle is assigned in your
class, read the introduction above and then complete this lesson.
* * * * *
Shifts In Equilibrium
Equilibrium is important because many reactions, including those in biological systems, are
in practice reversible. For reversible reactions, we want to
• predict what happens when a system at equilibrium is disrupted, and
• shift an equilibrium to make as much of a wanted substance as possible.
Shifts in an equilibrium can be predicted by
Le Châtelier’s Principle
If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change, processes occur which tend to
counteract that change.
Le Châtelier’s Principle predicts the direction that a reversible reaction will shift when a
reaction mixture at equilibrium is subjected to changes in concentration, temperature, and
pressure.
Changes in Concentration
Another way of stating Le Châtelier’s Principle is useful to predict shifts in equilibrium due
to changes in concentration of either gases or substances dissolved in a solution.
To Predict Equilibrium Shifts Due to Concentration Changes

For reversible reactions at equilibrium, write the balanced equation using a two-way
( ÅÆ ) arrow, then apply the following rules.
a. Increasing a [substance] which appears on one side of an equilibrium equation
shifts an equilibrium to the other side. The other substance concentrations on the
same side as the [increased substance] are decreased, and the substance
concentrations on the other side are increased.
b. Decreasing a [substance] which appears on one side of an equilibrium equation
shifts the equilibrium toward that side. The other [substances] on the same side are
increased, and the [substances] on the other side are decreased.
Memorize the rules in the two boxes above, then apply the rules to this problem.
Q. Chromate ions react with acids to form dichromate ions in this reversible reaction.
2 CrO42― + 2 H+ ÅÆ Cr2O72― + H2O

(aq) (aq) (aq) (l)
(chromate ion -- (acid) (dichromate ion --
yellow in solution) orange in solution)

Below, cover below the * * * * * line, and answer the questions above the line.
1. If acid (H+) is added to a yellow chromate ion solution at equilibrium,
a. Which direction will the equilibrium shift (left or right)? _________________
b. The [CrO42―] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
c. The [dichromate ion] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
d. What color change will tend to occur? ___________________________________
* * * * *
Answers
a. The equilibrium will shift to the right. Increasing the concentration of the
H+ found on the left side shifts the equilibrium to the right side.
b. The [CrO42―] will decrease. Increasing the concentration of a substance that
appears on one side decreases the concentration of the other substances on
that side.
c. The [dichromate ion] will increase. Increasing the [H+] that appears on the
left increases the concentration of the substances on the right.
d. Since adding acid decreases the [chromate] and increases the [dichromate],
the solution color shifts from yellow toward orange.
These shifts are consistent with what we know about chemical reactions.
• When [H+] increases, there will be more collisions between the H+ and the
chromate ions. Though the percentage of collisions that result in a reaction stays
the same if the temperature remains constant, more collisions means more
forward reaction. Increasing the [H+] means that the rates of the forward and
reverse reaction, equal at equilibrium, are thrown out of balance. The increased
forward reaction uses up chromate and forms more dichromate.
In terms of Le Châtelier’s Principle, when H+ is added, the system response is to
decrease the [H+] by increasing the rate at which H+ is used up.
• As more dichromate forms, its collisions with the water increase, and the speed
of the reverse reaction increases. A new balance is reached, but only after some
of the yellow chromate has been used up and more orange dichromate has
formed.
* * * * *
2. If a base is added to the orange solution that results after adding acid,
a. What will happen to the acid concentration? _________________
* * * * *
a. Bases neutralize acid (see Lesson 14A). This lowers the [H+].
b. Which direction will the equilibrium shift (left or right)? _________________
c. The [CrO42―] will (increase or decrease) ____________________.

d. The [Cr2O72―] will (increase or decrease) ____________________.
e. What color change will occur? ______________________________________

* * * * *
b. Decreasing the concentration of H+, which is in the equation on the left side,
will shift the equilibrium toward that side.
c. Shifting to the left means that the [CrO42―] will increase.
d. Decreasing the concentration of a term on the left shifts the equilibrium to
the left and decreases the concentration of the terms on the right. The
[Cr2O72―] will decrease.
e. Adding base decreases the [acid]. The equilibrium shifts toward the side
with the acid term, increasing the [yellow chromate] and decreasing the
[orange dichromate]. The color changes from orange toward yellow.
In terms of what we know about chemical reactions, these shifts are logical.
• When [H+] decreases, the balanced rates at equilibrium are upset. There will be
fewer collisions between the acid and the chromate ions. Fewer collisions mean that
the reverse reaction is now faster than the slowed forward reaction. The reverse
reaction uses up orange dichromate and forms yellow chromate until a new
balanced equilibrium is reached.
Driving a Reversible Reaction
Given a reversible reaction at equilibrium, if the system is opened and a reactant or product
is allowed to escape (such as letting a gas product escape from a solution reaction), the
reversible reaction, no longer in a closed system at equilibrium because a particle is
escaping, will shift toward the side that contains the escaping particle. This type of shift
can be used to drive a reversible reaction toward a side with products that are wanted.
Practice A: First learn the rules, then do the problems applying the rules from memory.
Check your answers after Part a.
1. For the Haber process reaction: N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3
(g) (g) (g)
a. If the [H2] is increased,
1. Equilibrium will shift to the (left or right?) _____________________.
2. [N2] will (increase or decrease?) _____________________.
3. [NH3] will (increase or decrease?) _____________________.

b. If the [N2] is decreased,
2. [H2] will (increase or decrease?) ________________________.
3. [NH3] will _________________________.

Changes in Temperature
For a reaction at equilibrium, the rules for an energy term follow Le Châtelier’s Principle in
a manner similar to concentration.
• Adding energy shifts the equilibrium away from the side with the energy term, and
• removing energy shifts the equilibrium toward the side with the energy term.
Energy can be added to a system by increasing its temperature. Energy can be removed by
cooling a system. When energy is produced by a shift in equilibrium, the temperature of
the system goes up. When energy is used up, the system’s temperature goes down.
* * * * *
Apply those rules to the following problem. Check Part 1 answers before doing Part 2.
Q. For the reaction: N2 + O2 + 90.0 kilojoules ÅÆ 2 NO
(g) (g) (g)
1. If the temperature of the reaction vessel is increased,
a. The equilibrium will shift to the (left or right?) _________________
b. The [O2] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
c. The [NO] will _____________________________.

2. If the [O2] is decreased,
a. The equilibrium will shift to the ______________________
b. The [N2] will _________________________.
c. The temperature will _________________________.

* * * * *
Answers
1. a. The equilibrium shifts to the right. Energy is a term on the left, so if energy
is added, the system uses up energy by shifting the equilibrium to the right.
b. The [O2] decreases. Adding a term that appears on one side uses up terms
on that side.
c. The [NO] increases. Increasing energy that is a term on the left causes more
of substances on the right to form.
2. a. The equilibrium shifts to the left.
b. The [N2] increases.
c. The temperature of the mixture increases. Shifting the equilibrium to the

left makes more of the terms shown on the left, including more energy.
* * * * *

When using Le Châtelier’s Principle, if an energy term is expressed in ΔH notation, it helps

to convert the energy to a term written inside the equation with a positive sign.
Examples: To apply Le Châtelier’s Principle for energy
Convert a negative ΔH to a positive term on the right.
N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3 ΔH = ―92.4 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
Re-write as: N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3 + 92.4 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
Convert a positive ΔH to a positive term on the left.
H2O ÅÆ H2O ΔH = + 44 kJ
(l) (g)
Re-write as: H2O + 44 kJ ÅÆ H2O
(l) (g)
Practice B First learn the rules, then do the problems.

1. Convert these reactions to notation where the energy term is written as a positive
quantity on the left or right. (For additional practice, see Lesson 22A.)
a. N2 + 2 O2 ÅÆ 2 NO2 ΔH = +68 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
b. C + O2 ÅÆ CO2 ΔH = ―394 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
2. In the equilibrium for this synthesis of methyl alcohol,
CO + 2 H2 ÅÆ CH3OH + energy
(g) (g) (g)
a. If the temperature is decreased,
1. equilibrium will shift to the (left or right?) _____________________.
2. [CH3OH] will (increase or decrease?) _____________________.
b. If the [H2] is increased,
1. equilibrium will shift to the _____________________.
2. [CH3OH] will _____________________.
3. The temperature in the vessel will ____________________.
3. In a closed system, for the reaction: PCl3 + Cl2 ÅÆ PCl5 ΔH = ―93 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
a. Write the reaction with energy as a positive term in the equation.
b. If the temperature is increased,
1. equilibrium will shift to the ____________. 2. [PCl5] will __________________.
c. If the [Cl2] is increased,

1. equilibrium will shift to the _______________. 2. [PCl3] will ________________.
3. The temperature in the vessel will (inc. or dec.?) ____________________.

Changes in Pressure
Pressure will affect an equilibrium which has gases, but only if one side of the equation has
more moles of gas than the other. In the balanced equation for a reversible reaction at
equilibrium that includes one or more gases,
• Increasing the pressure on the system will shift the equilibrium toward the side with
fewer total moles of gas.
• Decreasing the pressure on the system will shift the equilibrium toward the side
with more moles of gas.
• Changing the pressure does not shift the equilibrium if the total of the gas
coefficients is the same on both sides.
To find which side has more moles of gas, simply add the coefficients of the gas molecules on
each side of the balanced equation.
Usually, the volume of a reaction vessel containing gases is increased or decreased by using
a tightly sealed but moveable piston attached to the reaction vessel. Pushing in the piston
to decrease the volume of the container increases the pressure on the gases and the
balancing pressure exerted by the gases. Pulling the piston out a distance increases the
container volume and decreases the pressure on and of the gases.
For a system at equilibrium (which must be closed so that no particles can escape),
• Decreasing the volume increases the pressure, shifting the equilibrium toward the
side with fewer gas molecules
• Increasing the volume decreases the pressure, shifting the equilibrium toward the
side with more gas molecules
Write and recite the rules in the box above until they are committed to memory. Then
apply the rules to the following problem. Check your answers after each numbered part.
Q. For the reaction at equilibrium: 2 NO2 ÅÆ N2O4 + energy
(g) (g)
1. If the pressure on the gases in the reaction vessel is decreased,
b. The [NO2] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
c. The [N2O4] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
d. The temperature in the vessel will (increase or decrease?) __________________.
2. If the volume of the reaction container is decreased,
b. The [NO2] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
c. The [N2O4] will (increase or decrease?) ____________________.
d. The temperature in the vessel will (increase or decrease?) __________________.
* * * * *

1a. The equilibrium will shift to the left. Decreasing pressure favors the side with more
gas molecules.
1b. [NO2] increases as the equilibrium shifts left. 1c. [N2O4] decreases.
1d. The temperature in the vessel will decrease. As a term on the right side, energy
must be used up as the equilibrium shifts to the left.
2a. Decreasing the volume increases the pressure. The equilibrium will shift to the
right. The left side has two moles of gas and the right has only one. When the
pressure is increased, the system’s response is to oppose the change and decrease
the pressure. A way it can do so is to make fewer gas molecules.
2b. The [NO2] will decrease as the equilibrium shifts to the right.
2c. The [N2O4] will increase as the equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer gas moles.
2d. The temperature in the vessel will increase. As a term on the right side, energy
must be formed as the equilibrium shifts to the right.
Practice C
1. In the equilibrium for the formation of nitrogen dioxide:
1/2 N2 + O2 + 34 kilojoules ÅÆ NO2
(g) (g) (g)
a. Which side has fewer gas molecules?
b. If the pressure on the gas mixture is increased,
2. [NO2] will _____________________.
c. If the volume of the reaction vessel is increased,
1. Equilibrium will shift to the _____________________.
2. [O2] will (increase or decrease?) _____________________.
2. In the equilibrium: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ÅÆ 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
(s) (g) (g) (l)
If the pressure on the reaction vessel is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the
(left or right?) _________________
3. If, for an equilibrium that is found in sealed carbonated beverages,
CO2 + H2O ÅÆ H+ + HCO3― , the cap is left off the bottle,
(g) (l) (aq) (aq)
a. in which direction will the reaction shift? _____________________
b. What will happen to the acidity of the beverage? ________________________.

Concentration Changes: Special Cases

There are two special rules for concentration changes.
1. Adding or removing a solid or a liquid from a reaction at equilibrium does not shift the
equilibrium.
Solids have a constant concentration determined by their density. Adding or removing

solid does not change the solid’s concentration and does not shift an equilibrium.
Example. If solid table salt (NaCl) is added to a glass of water, initially all of the salt
dissolves. However, if enough salt is added and stirred, the solution becomes
saturated: at a given temperature it reaches the limit of dissolved salt it can hold.
This result is in agreement with Le Châtelier’s Principle. The equilibrium for this
reaction: NaCl(s) ÅÆ NaCl(aq) cannot not be reached until some solid remains
after stirring, since equilibrium requires that all reactants and products be present.
However, once equilibrium is reached, adding more salt crystals increases the
amount of solid salt on the bottom, but it does not increase the concentration of the
solid salt or the dissolved salt. Adding solid does not shift an equilibrium.
In a solid substance, the particles are tightly packed: about as concentrated as they
can get. If you hit a solid substance with a hammer, the particles may separate into
pieces, but they will not permanently compress. Changing a concentration shifts an
equilibrium, but a solid’s concentration cannot be changed.
Pure liquids also have a constant concentration. Adding or removing a pure liquid
from a system at equilibrium will not change the concentration of the liquid, and
therefore will not shift the equilibrium.
2. If a solvent for a reaction is a term in the equation, adding more solvent, or using up
or forming solvent in the reaction, does not shift the equilibrium, because the high
concentration of a solvent is difficult to change.
By definition, a solvent is a substance present in very high concentration compared to
the other substances in a solution. This means that in reasonably dilute solutions, the
solvent concentration remains essentially constant even if it is used up or formed in a
reaction occurring in the solvent.
The most common solvent encountered in chemistry and in living systems is liquid
water. Adding more water to an aqueous solution at equilibrium will not substantially
shift the equilibrium. Even reactions that use up or form water will not significantly
shift the concentration of water if water is the solvent for the reaction.
The Effect of a Catalyst

Adding a catalyst to a mixture at equilibrium will not shift the equilibrium. However, a
catalyst will cause the reaction equilibrium to be reached more quickly.
* * * * *

Practice D. Memorize the rules for Le Châtelier’s Principle, then work these problems.
Check your answers after each lettered section. Save the last problem as a review for your
next study session.
1. For the reaction at equilibrium at high temperature
C + 2 Cl2 ÅÆ CCl4 + energy
(s) (g) (g)
a. If the [Cl2] is decreased,
2. [CCl4] will (increase or decrease?) _____________________.
3. [C] will _____________________.
4. The amount of carbon will _____________________
5. The temperature in the reaction vessel will ___ ___________________.

b. If the pressure in the reaction vessel is decreased,
1. Equilibrium will shift to the _____________________.
2. [Cl2] will ________________________.
3. The temperature in the reaction vessel will ___________________.
c. If a catalyst is added, equilibrium will shift to the _____________________.
2. Consider this reaction at equilibrium.
CH3COO― + H2O ÅÆ CH3COOH + OH―

(aq) (l) (aq) (aq)
a. If water is added,
b. If the [OH―] is increased,
2. [CH3COOH] will _________________. 3. [H2O] will _____________________.
c. If H+ is added,
1. equilibrium will shift to the ____________. 2. [CH3COO―] will _____________.
3. For the reaction at equilibrium,

2 H2O + 2 Cl2 + energy ÅÆ 4 HCl + O2
(g) (g) (g) (g)
a. if the [O2] is increased,
1. equilibrium will shift to the ______________. 2. [HCl] will ________________.

b. If the [HCl] is decreased,

2. [O2] will _____________________. 3. [Cl2] will _______________________.
c. If the temperature in the reaction vessel is decreased,
2. [O2] will ______________________. 3. [H2O] will _________________________.
d. If the total pressure on the gases in the vessel is increased,

2. [O2] will________________________. 3. [Cl2] will _______________________.
e. If a piston is used to increase the volume of the vessel,
2. [O2] will ______________________. 3. [H2O] will _______________________.
f. If a catalyst is added to the reaction mixture,
1. equilibrium will shift to the ________________. 2. [O2] will ________________.
g. What conditions of temperature and pressure will favor the production of the
highest [Cl2] at equilibrium?
(High or low for each): ________________ Pressure and ____________ Temperature.

4. For the reaction at equilibrium:
4 PCl5 + energy ÅÆ P4 + 10 Cl2
(g) (s) (g)
a. If the temperature in the reaction vessel is decreased,
1. equilibrium will shift to the ____________. 2. [Cl2] will _________________.
3. [PCl5] will ______________________. 4. [P4] will ________________________.
b. If a piston is used to decrease the volume of the vessel,

2. [Cl2] will ______________________. 3. [PCl5] will _______________________.
4. The number of gas molecules in the vessel will _________________________.

c. What conditions of temperature and pressure will favor the production of the
highest [Cl2] at equilibrium?
(High or low for each): ________________ pressure and ____________ temperature.

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. For N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3
(g) (g) (g)
a. If [H2] is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts right. 2. [N2] will decrease. 3. [NH3] will increase.
b. If [N2] is decreased: 1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [H2] will increase. 3. [NH3] will decrease.
Practice B
1a. N2 + 2 O2 + 68 kJ ÅÆ 2 NO2 1b. C + O2 ÅÆ CO2 + 394 kJ
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
2. For CO + 2 H2 ÅÆ CH3OH + energy
(g) (g) (g)
a. If the temperature is decreased: 1. Equilibrium shifts right. 2. [CH3OH] will increase.
b. If [H2] increases: 1. Equilibrium shifts right. 2. [CH3OH] increases. 3. Energy is on the right, so the
temperature increases.
3. a: PCl3 + Cl2 ÅÆ PCl5 + 93 kJ
(g) (g) (g)
b. If temperature is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [PCl5] will decrease.
c. If [Cl2] is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts right. 2. [PCl3] will decrease. 3. Temp. increases.
Practice C
1. For 1/2 N2 + O2 + 34 kilojoules ÅÆ NO2
(g) (g) (g)
a. Which side has fewer gas molecules? Left has 1.5 moles, right has 1 mole.
b. If pressure is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts right. 2. [NO2] will increase. 3. Temp. decreases.
c1. If volume is increased, pressure is decreased; equilibrium shifts to left side which has more gas moles.
c2. [O2] will increase. c3. The temperature will increase.
2. For the equilibrium: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ÅÆ 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
(s) (g) (g) (l)
Pressure will not shift the equilibrium, since both sides have the same 6 moles of gas.
3. For CO2(g) + H2O(l) ÅÆ H+ + HCO3― if the cap is left off the bottle,
(aq) (aq)
a. As the CO2 escapes, the forward rate slows, and the net reaction shifts left.
b. Carbonated beverages are mildly acidic. As the CO2 escapes, the [H+], which determines the level of
the acidity, will decrease.
Practice D
1. For C + 2 Cl2 ÅÆ CCl4 + energy
(s) (g) (g)
a.. If the [Cl2] is decreased: `1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [CCl4] will decrease.```3. [C] will not change,
because C is solid. 4. Amount of carbon increases. ``5. Temp. decreases.
b. If pressure is decreased: 1. Equilbrium shifts left because left has 2 gas moles and right has one.
Decreasing pressure favors side with more gas moles. 2. [Cl2] increases. 3. Temp. decreases.

c. Catalysts do not shift the position of an equilibrium.

2. For CH3COO― + H2O ÅÆ CH3COOH + OH―
(aq) (l) (aq) (aq)
a. If water is added: 1. The equilibrium does not shift. In an aqueous reaction, water is the solvent,
and adding solvent does not shift an equilibrium.
b. If [OH―] is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [CH3COOH] will decrease.
3. [H2O] will not change. Adding solvent does not shift an equilibrium.
c. If H+ is added: 1. H+ neutralizes OH―, lowering [OH―]. Equilibrium shifts right.
2. [CH COO―] decreases.
3
3. For 2 H2O + 2 Cl2 + energy ÅÆ 4 HCl + O2
(g) (g) (g) (g)
a. If [O2] is increased: 1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [HCl] will decrease.
b. If [HCl] is decreased: 1. Equilib. shifts right. 2. [O2] will increase. 3. [Cl2] will decrease.
4. Energy is used up when the reaction goes left, so temperature will decrease.
c. If temperature is decreased: 1. Equilibrium shifts left. 2. [O2] will decrease.
3. [H2O] will increase. If water is in the gas state as steam, its concentration can change.
d. If the total P is increased: 1. The right has 5 gas moles, the left has 4; lowering pressure favors the
left side which has fewer gas moles. 2. [O2] will decrease. 3. [Cl2] will increase. 4.
Temperature will increase.
e. If V increases: 1. P decreases; equilib. shifts right. 2. [O2] increases. 3. [H2O] decreases.
f. If catalyst is added: 1. Equilibrium will not shift 2. [O2] will not change.
g. For highest [Cl2] at equilibrium: High pressure and low temperature favor the left side that has Cl2.
4. For: 4 PCl5 + energy ÅÆ P4 + 10 Cl2
(g) (s) (g)
a. If temp. is decreased: 1. Equilib. shifts left. 2. [Cl2] will decrease. 3. [PCl5] gas increases.
4. [P4] , since it is a solid, will not change.
b. If V decreases: 1. P increases, and equilibrium shifts to left side with fewer moles of gas.
2. [Cl2] decreases. 3. [PCl5] gas increases. 4. Number of gas molecules decreases.
c. What conditions favor highest [Cl2]? Low pressure and high temperature.
* * * * *

Lesson 28B: Powers and Roots of Exponential Notation

Timing: Complete this lesson before calculations involving K (the equilibrium constant).
Prerequisites: Review Module 1 on Scientific Notation if needed.
* * * * *
Pretest: If you solve these problems correctly, you may skip to Lesson 28C. Express your
final answers in scientific notation. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. Do this problem without a calculator. (3.0 x 103)3 =
2. Use a calculator. (4.5 x 10─4)2 =
3. Do not use a calculator. Write the cube root of 8.0 x 1024.
4. Use a calculator for all or part of this problem. (2.5 x 105)1/3 =
* * * * *
Taking Numbers to a Power
Many calculators have an x2 key. To calculate both squares and higher powers, most
calculators also have power functions labeled xy or yx or (y)^x or ^ .
To learn to use the power keys, you may check your calculator manual, or experiment
using simple examples for which you know the answer, or (preferably) do both.
Cover the answer below the * * * * * , then do this calculation in your head.
23 = _____
* * * * *
23 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 .
Now, by entering 2 and using the keys noted above, see what key sequence will give the
same answer on your calculator.
Write your key sequence: _______________________________________________.
To test your key sequence, first solve in your head, then use your sequence on the
following problems. Make sure that you get the same answers in your head and on the
calculator.
a. 24 = _____ b. 34 = _____ c. Do two ways on keys: 122 = _____ .

* * * * *
Answers: a. 16 b. 81 c. 12 x 12 = 144
On each problem below, use your power-key sequence to do the calculation. Then use the
calculator to multiply each number by the number of times indicated by the power (as in 23
= 2 x 2 x 2 ). Write the answer. Compare your answers.
d. 163 = _________ e. 2.54 = _______ f. Do two ways on keys: 0.502 = _______

* * * * *

Answers: d. 4096 e. 39.0625 f. 0.25

Note that all of the calculations above can be done at least two ways. Always try to do
calculator calculations two different ways to check your work.
Taking Exponential Notation to a Power Without a Calculator

1. Memorize this rule: To take exponential terms to a power, multiply the exponents. (As
used here, power and exponent have the same meaning.)
Examples: (103)2 = 106 (105)―2 = 10―10
(10―3)―4 = 10+12 (Recite: “a minus times a minus is a plus.”)

a. (106)2 = b. (105)―5 = c. (10―12)―3 =

* * * * *
Answers: a. 1012 b. 10―25 c. 1036
2. When taking exponential notation to a power, the fundamental rules apply:
Do numbers by number rules and exponents by exponential rules.
Example: (2.0 x 104)3 = 8.0 x 1012

Treat numbers as numbers. 2 cubed is 8.
Treat exponents as exponents. (104)3 is 1012 .
a. (3 x 103)2 = b. (2 x 10―5)3 =
* * * * *
Answers: a. 9 x 106 b. 8 x 10―15
On the two problems below, without a calculator, write answers, then re-write the
answers converted to scientific notation.
c. (5 x 104)2 = d. (2 x 10―3)4 =
* * * * *
Answers: c. 25 x 108 = 2.5 x 109 d. 16 x 10―12 = 1.6 x 10―11
Taking Exponential Notation to a Power With a Calculator

To take exponential notation to a power, most calculators use the same keys that you used
above to take numbers to a power. However, you should also know how to take
exponential notation to a power

To square exponential notation, most calculators use the same keys that you used above.
However, you should also know how to square exponential notation
Let’s learn by example. For this calculation: (3.5 x 10─4)3
a. Using a calculator as needed, write an answer (3.5 x 10─4)3 = _________________
Now let’s check the answer. Write your answers to parts b and c below without converting
to scientific notation at the end and without a calculator.
b. (3 x 10─4)3 = _____________________. c. (4 x 10─4)3 = _______________________.

* * * * *
For both: (10─4)3 = 10─12; (b) 3 x 3 x 3 = 27 x 10─12 (c) 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 x 10─12
d. Based on the (b) and (c) answers,

write an estimate of what (3.5 x 10─4)3 should be: _________________________.
* * * * *
3.5 is half way between 3 and 4, so you might estimate that half way between 33 =
27 and 43 = 64 … is about 45 x 10─12.
e. Calculate (3.5)3 using a yx -type calculator function: _______________________
f. Calculate (3.5)3 on the calculator without the yx or ^ -type keys.

* * * * *
Multiply 3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5 = ________ . Does this match your part (e) answer ?
g. Based on (e) and (f), write a precise answer to (3.5 x 10─4)3. Compare your answer
to your estimate in (d) above. Then convert your answer to scientific notation
and apply sf : __________________________

* * * * *
42.9 x 10─12 = 4.3 x 10─11 in scientific notation.
h. Now try (3.5 x 10─4)3 by plugging everything into the calculator. You will probably
need keys labeled xy or yx or ^ or (y)^x .
• A “standard TI-type” calculator may use 3.5 E or EE 4 +/- yx 3 =

• A graphing calculator might use 3.5 EE (-) 4 enter ^ 3 enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 3 .5 E or EE or EXP 4 +/- enter 3 yx

An online search with your calculator name and model number and “exponential
notation” may offer a better approach. Try to work through the logic for key

sequences Then practice the calculation until you can repeat it without looking at
hints or directions.
Write the calculator answer, rounded to proper sf :. _________________________.
h. Compare answers in steps (g) and (h). They should agree. They should also be
close to the value of your estimate in step (d).
Which method is easier: Numbers on the calculator but exponents in your head, or all on
the calculator? Which method is easier to remember?
You may do calculations using any method you choose, but doing numbers on the
calculator and exponents by mental arithmetic can speed and simplify your work.
In addition, every calculation should be done two different ways as a check on your
calculator use. Estimating the number math “in your head” is one way to check a
calculator answer.
Practice A: Convert final answers to scientific notation. Do not use a calculator on these
first four.
1. (10─3)2 = 2. (10─5)─2 =
3. (2.0 x 104)4 = 4. (3.0 x 10─1)3 =

On 5-8 below,
• first write down an estimated answer, then re-write it in scientific notation;
• then use the calculator for whatever parts you wish and get a final answer in
Try any two. Need more practice? Do more. Check answers as you go.
5. (2.1 x 106)2 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_________________
6. (3.9 x 10─2)3 Est = _____________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_________________
7. (7.7 x 104)4 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_________________
8. (5.5 x 10─2)3 Est = ______________ Sci Note = ______________ Calc =_________________
Roots
To calculate a square root, some calculators have a square root button: √x or x1/2 .
Other calculators use this two-key sequence: 2nd or INV x2 .

However, to take a cube root or higher, you will need to use a different key sequence. You
will also need to know multiple ways to take roots in order to check your calculations. One
way to do this is to treat taking a root of a term as taking the term to a fractional power.

Roots as Exponents
“Taking the root” of a quantity is the same is assigning the quantity the fractional
exponent (or reciprocal exponent) of the root.
y
a. x = x1/y .
b. The cube root of x can be written as x1/3 . 161/4 means the fourth root of 16.
Taking Higher Roots
Both square and higher roots may be calculated using the 2nd or INV key followed by the
keys used to calculate powers, such as yx or (y)^x or ^ .
It may also be possible to calculate roots by entering fractional exponents as powers using
the reciprocal key 1/x or x―1 or the division operation (1/x = 1 ÷ x ) .
Knowing at least two ways to calculate roots is necessary in order to check your calculator
answers.
A web search with the name and model number of your calculator, plus the word root, may
help in learning ways to calculate a root. Once you determine two key sequences that
work, it is important to practice and test those sequences by entering sample calculations
that are easy to check. Do the following calculation in your head.
The cube root of 8 = 81/3 = _____

* * * * *
8 = 2 x 2 x 2 , so 81/3 = 2
Now, by entering 8 and using the inverse, or reciprocal, or division, and/or power keys,
see what key sequences give the same answer for the root on your calculator.
* * * * *
One or more of these sequences may work. Others may work as well.
• On a standard TI-type, try 8 2nd or INV yx 3 =
and/or try 8 yx ( 1 ÷ 3 ) =
and/or try 8 yx 0.33333333 =

• On a graphing calculator (if allowed), try 8 ^ ( 1 ÷ 3 ) enter
and/or try 8 ^ 3 1/x or x―1 enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 8 enter 3 1/x yx
and/or try 8 enter 0.33333333 yx

Try to understand the logic of two or more successful key sequences.

Write one and if possible two key sequences that work and make sense to you. Then, on the
problems below, check your key sequence. First try the problem “in your head” and write
your answer. Then try the calculation in two ways using the calculator.
a. 161/4 = b. 1251/3 =
c. (0.001)1/3 = d. (0.008)1/3 =
* * * * *
Answers: a. 2 b. 3 c. 0.1 d. 0.2
One way to check a root calculation is to reverse the process: Take the answer to the power of
the root. This should result in the original number. For example,
• If the cube root of 125 = 1251/3 = 5, then 53 should equal _________.

• Now take the root, and then reverse the process, using your root and power key
sequences.
Roots of Divisible Powers of 10
When estimating roots for numbers in exponential notation, it is important to be able to
take a root of 10x without a calculator. In some cases, this is easy.
• Roots of exponential terms can be taken without a calculator if the power of 10,
when multiplied by the fractional exponent, results in a whole number.
• Another way to say this: the root of 10x can be found without the calculator if x is
evenly divisible by 2 to find a square root, and by 3 to find a cube root, etc.
To calculate the root of an evenly divisible exponential term, use these steps.
1. Write the roots as a fractional exponent.
Write the square root of 10x as (10x)1/2, and the fourth root of 10x as (10x)1/4.
2. Apply the rule: to take an exponential term to a power, multiply the exponents.
Examples: The square root of 104 = (104)1/2 = 102
The cube root of 10―9 = (10―9)1/3 = 10―3
Practice B:
1. Take these roots by entering the numbers into a calculator. Try each two ways.
a. The square root of 9,025 = b. (0.004096)1/3 =
2. Do not use a calculator. Write answers to these as powers of 10.
a. The square root of 1012 = b. (106)1/2 =
c. The cube root of 10―6 = d. (10―12)1/4 =
3. Which root is this equivalent to: x0.125 ? 4. Without a calculator: 810.25 =

Roots of Exponential Notation

To find a root of numbers written in exponential notation, apply the fundamental rule:
Treat numbers as numbers, and exponents as exponents.
Cover the answer below and, without a calculator, try: (8.0 x 1012)1/3 =
* * * * *
Answer: Treat numbers as numbers. The cube root of 8 is 2.
Treat exponentials as exponentials. (1012)1/3 = 104
(8.0 x 1012)1/3 = 2.0 x 104
For roots that cannot be solved by inspection, use these steps.
1. If the exponential term is not evenly divisible by the root, make the exponent smaller
until the exponent times the fractional power results in a whole number.
Try that step on (8.04 x 10―5)1/3 =
* * * * *
(8.04 x 10―5)1/3 = (80.4 x 10―6)1/3
To make the exponent divisible by 3, it is lowered from 10―5 to 10―6. When you
make the exponent smaller, make the significand larger.
2. Without a calculator, write a rough estimate of the root of the significand in front of the
evenly divisible exponent. Find the exact root of the exponential term. Combine these
two parts and write the estimate for the root.
Apply step 2 to the step 1 answer: (80.4 x 10―6)1/3 ≈ __________________
* * * * *
(80.4 x 10―6)1/3 = (80.4)1/3 x (10―6)1/3
To estimate a cube root of 80, since 4 x 4 x 4 = 64, and 80 is a little higher than 64,
guess ≈ 4.2. ( ≈ means approximately equals.)
Handle exponents as exponents. (10―6)1/3 = 10―2
Combine the two parts. Estimate ≈ 4.2 x 10―2

3. To get a precise answer,
• Write the value that has the evenly divisible exponent.
• Find the precise root of the significand on the calculator.
• Take the root of the exponential term without the calculator.
Try those steps on the above problem.
* * * * *
(8.04 x 10―5)1/3 = (80.4 x 10―6)1/3 The calculator cube root of 80.4 is 4.32 .
(10―6)1/3 is 10―2. Answer = 4.32 x 10―2

4. Compare the step 3 calculator answer to the estimate. They should be close.
5. Now take the root by entering the original number in the problem into the calculator.
* * * * *
One or more of these key sequences (and others) may work.
• On a standard TI-type, try 8.04 EE 5 +/- 2nd or INV yx 3 =
and/or try 8.04 E or EE or EXP 5 +/- yx ( 1 ÷ 3 ) =

• On a graphing calculator, try 8.04 EE (-) 5 enter ^ ( 1 ÷ 3 ) enter
• On an RPN calculator, try 8.04 E or EE or EXP 5 +/- enter 3 1/x yx

The calculator answer should match the step 3 answer.
Circle or write one or two key sequences that work: _____________________________
Whatever sequence you use, work through the logic of why it works. Without the why, it
will be difficult to remember the correct sequence.
Once you have debugged and practiced a key sequence to calculate roots, doing the entire
calculation on the calculator may be faster than converting to an evenly divisible root.
However, using that conversion to estimate the root is a way to check the calculator result.
Complex calculations should be done in two ways.
Roots of Non-Divisible Powers of 10
Changing an exponent to make it divisible by the root can put a number in front of the
exponential term that was not there before. Try this example.
First, estimate this answer without a calculator: The square root of 107 = ____________
* * * * *
To find the root without a calculator, the power of 10 must be divisible by 2. Try
changing the exponent to 6, to make it smaller and divisible. This puts the number 10
in front of the exponential term.
* * * * *
Answer: (107)1/2 = (10 x 106)1/2 = (101/2 x 103) ≈ 3.2 x 103
Now try taking the square root of 107 on the calculator.
* * * * *
You may need to enter 1 x 107 to take the root on the calculator.
* * * * *
3.16 x 103
* * * * *
Summary: Roots and Powers
1. If you are not certain that you are using calculator keys correctly, do a simple similar
calculation, first on paper and then on the calculator.
2. For complex operations on a calculator, do each calculation a second time using
estimates on paper with rounded numbers or use different steps or keys.

3. On complex calculations, it is often easier to do the numbers on the calculator but the
exponents on paper.
4. In calculations using exponential notation, handle numbers and exponential terms
separately. Do numbers by number rules and exponents by exponential rules.
• To take an exponential to a power, multiply the exponentials.
5. To take roots of exponential notation without a calculator,
• convert roots to fractional exponents, then
• adjust the significand and exponential to make the exponent evenly divisible by the
root.
Practice C
a. 4 x 4 x 4 = _______ , so (_______)1/3 = 4.
b. Using your calculator, find the cube root of 64: _______
c. 64 = 6.4 x 101, so (6.4 x 101)1/3 should equal ________.
Find this root using the calculator: (6.4 x 101)1/3 = __________________
d. 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.4 = 0.064 = 6.4 x 10―2, so (6.4 x 10―2)1/3 in your head = _________
See if you get the same answer to (6.4 x 10―2)1/3 on the calculator.
2. Complete the problems below using the following steps. Do as many as you need to
feel confident. Check your answer after each part.
A. First convert to an exponent with a divisible root.
B. Write an estimated answer for the root.
C. Starting from the divisible root, use the calculator for the root of the number,
take the root of the exponential in your head, write the answer, then convert the
answer to scientific notation. Round the significand to two digits.
D. Take the root of the original exponential notation on the calculator.
E. Compare your answers in steps B, C and D.
a. (6.0 x 1023)1/3 Divisible = ___________________ RootEst. = __________________
Estimate in SciNote = ___________________ Calculator =____________________
b. (1015)1/4 Divisible = ___________________ RootEst = __________________
c. The cube root of 1.25 x 10―7 = Divisible = ______________ Est = _________________

d. (1.6 x 10―11)1/4 Divisible = ___________________ RootEst = __________________
e. (1.25 x 10―13)1/3 Divisible = ___________________ RootEst = __________________
Practice D :
1. 24 = 2. (0.25)4 =
3. (4.5 x 103)5 = 4. (2.0 x 105)6 =
5. (3.3 x 10―3)8 = 6. (4.7 x 10―4)4 =
7. (81)1/4 = 8. The fifth root of 0.01024 =
9. (6.20 x 104)1/8 = 10. The sixth root of 9.5 x 1015 =
11. (3.3 x 10―3)1/9 = 12. (6.5 x 10―3)7 =
ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. 2.7 x 1010 2. 2.0 x 10─7 3. 2.0 x 108 4. 6.3 x 101
Practice A
1. (10―3)2 = 10―6 2. (10―5)―2 = 10+10

3. (2.0 x 104)4 = 16 x 1016 = 1.6 x 1017 4. (3.0 x 10―1)3 = 27 x 10―3 = 2.7 x 10―2
5. (2.1 x 106)2 = 4.4 x 1012 6. (3.9 x 10―2)3 = 59 x 10―6 = 5.9 x 10―5
7. (7.7 x 104)4 = 3,515 x 1016 = 3.5 x 1019 8. (5.5 x 10―2)3 = 166 x 10―6 = 1.7 x 10―4
Practice B
1a. 95 1b. 0.16 2a. 106 2b. 103 2c. 10―2 2d. 10―3
3. x0.125 = x1/8 = the eighth root 4. 810.25 = 811/4 = ( 811/2 )1/2 = ( 9 )1/2 = 3
Practice C
1a. 64 1b. 4 1c. 4 1d. 0.40 or 4.0 x 10―1
2a. (6.0 x 1023)1/3 = (600 x 1021)1/3 = (6001/3 x 107) = 8.4 x 107
2b. (1015)1/4 = (103 x 1012)1/4 = (1000 x 1012)1/4 = (10001/4 x 103) = 5.6 x 103
2c. (1.25 x 10―7)1/3 = (125 x 10―9)1/3 = (1251/3 x 10―3) = 5.00 x 10―3
2d. (1.6 x 10―11)1/4 = (16 x 10―12)1/4 = (161/4 ) x (10―12)1/4 = 2.0 x 10―3
2e. (1.25 x 10―13)1/3 = (125 x 10―15)1/3 = (1251/3 ) x (10―15)1/3 = 5.00 x 10―5

Practice D
1. 16 2. 3.9 x 10―3 3. 1.8 x 1018 4. 6.4 x 1031 5. 1.4 x 10―20 6. 3.7 x 10―14
7. 3.0 8. 0.4000 9. 3.97 10. 4.60 x 102 11. 0.53 12. 4.9 x 10―16
* * * * *
Lesson 28C: Equilibrium Constants

Prerequisites: Read the introduction to Module 28 and complete Lesson 28B before
starting this lesson.
* * * * *
The Law of Mass Action
At a fixed temperature, for the general reversible reaction
aA + bB ÅÆ cC + dD
the Law of Mass Action states that for a reaction at equilibrium, the ratio
[C]c[D]d = product of the [Products] will be constant.

[A]a[B]b product of the [Reactants]
This ratio is called the equilibrium constant, symbol K. In an equilibrium constant,
• The concentrations of the substances on the right side of the reaction equation are
multiplied on top,
• The concentrations of substances on the left side are multiplied on the bottom.
• The coefficient for each substance becomes the power of its concentration.
An equilibrium constant equation has two parts:
• The equilibrium constant expression is the ratio which shows the symbols for the
substance concentrations and their powers.
• The equilibrium constant value is the number that is the value of the ratio.
• An equilibrium constant equation is the combination of the expression and value.
Example:
For the reaction S2 + 2 H2 ÅÆ 2 H2S
(g) (g) (g)
The equilibrium constant expression is K = [H2S]2

[S2][H2]2
and the equilibrium constant value is 1.1 x 107 at 973 K.
(We abbreviate kelvins as K and the equilibrium constant as an italicized K.)
The equilibrium constant equation at 973 K is K = [H2S]2 = 1.1 x 107

[S2][H2]2
As temperature changes, K values change, but the K expression stays the same.

Equilibrium Constant Expressions

To write a K expression, all that is needed is a balanced equation for a reaction. Cover
below the * * * * * line below and then try this problem.
Q. For the Haber process reaction: N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3
(g) (g) (g)
write the equilibrium constant expression.
* * * * *
K= [NH3]2 with all concentrations measured at equilibrium.
[N2][H2]3
This equation means that at a given temperature, if a reaction is run until equilibrium is
reached,
• whether starting with all of the substances written on the left side of the equation, or
all substances on the right, or any mixture of those substances,
• no matter how much of each substance is present at the beginning, nor how much
an equilibrium is subsequently shifted by adding or removing substances,
when equilibrium is reached, the concentrations of the substances can differ, but the ratio
calculated by this equilibrium constant will always have the same numeric value.
Practice A
Write the equilibrium constant expression for these reactions.
1. CH4 + 2 O2 ÅÆ CO2 + 2 H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)
2. 2 C4H10 + 13 O2 ÅÆ 8 CO2 + 10 H2O

(g) (g) (g) (g)
Concentrations That Are Constant

The correlation between a balanced equation and its equilibrium constant expression is
simple, but there is one important exception.
Only concentrations that can change are included in K expressions.

Solids, pure liquids, and solvents have concentrations that do not change during reactions.
In place of symbols for the concentrations of solids, pure liquids, and solvents (including
liquid water), a 1 is substituted in K expressions.
By convention, if the concentration of a particle involved in a reaction is essentially

constant, that constant value is included in the value of the equilibrium constant.
Mathematically, the effect of writing constant concentrations as 1 moves the value for the
constant concentration into the K value and out of the K expression.
The concentrations that are assigned a value of 1 in a K expression are the same as those
that do not shift an equilibrium when applying Le Châtelier’s Principle.

Using the rules above, try the following example.

Q. Write the equilibrium constant expression for this reaction.
CaCl2 ÅÆ Ca2+ + 2 Cl―
(s) (aq) (aq)
* * * * *
K = [Ca2+] [Cl―]2
The reaction equation shows that the ions on the right are aqueous, meaning that the
solvent for the reaction is water. When dissolved in a solvent, the concentration of ions
can vary. Terms for concentrations that can vary are included in K expressions.
Because the reactant on the left is a solid, its concentration is assigned a value of 1.
Most K expressions will be fractions with a numerator and a denominator. For some
reactions, however, including the one above, the numerator or denominator of K will be
1. The 1 must be included if it is alone in the numerator, but it is otherwise omitted as a
term when writing a K expression.
Substance states (solid, liquid, gas, or aqueous) must be written either in the balanced
equation or in the K expression. If the balanced equation is written and includes states, the
states can be omitted in the K expression.
Water: The “constant concentrations = 1” rule means that a [H2O] term will be given a
value of 1 when the water is a solid (ice), a pure liquid, or a solvent at high concentration.
However, if the water is present in a reaction in its gas phase, as vapor or steam, since all
gases are compressible, its concentration can vary, and the term for [H2O ] must be
(g)
included in the K expression.
In addition, when liquids are mixed with other liquids, they may dissolve in each other, as
occurs with alcohols and water. If the concentrations are relatively close in value, the
liquid concentrations can vary, and neither liquid is considered as the solvent.
Concentrations that can vary are included in K expressions. The general rule is:
For H2O, [H2O(g)] is included in K expressions; but [H2O(s)] and [H2O(l) if pure or
a solvent] are replaced by a 1 .
Vapor Pressure: All solids and liquids have a vapor pressure: they will release gas particles
into a system at equilibrium. However, because vapor pressure depends only on
temperature, vapor pressure creates a constant pressure and concentration at each
temperature. Because it is constant, the vapor pressure of solids and liquids is omitted as a
factor in K expressions (but is a factor in the value of K).
Practice B: Write the equilibrium constant expression for these reactions.

1. 2 C2H6 + 7 O2 ÅÆ 4 CO2 + 6 H2O
(g) (g) (g) (l)
2. BaO + CO2 ÅÆ BaCO3
(s) (g) (s)

3. CH3COOH + OH― ÅÆ CH3COO― + H2O

(aq) (aq) (aq) (l)
4. Ca3(PO4)2 ÅÆ 3 Ca2+ + 2 PO43―
(s) (aq) (aq)
Equilibrium Constant Calculations

To solve equilibrium calculations in a systematic fashion by adding a step or two to our
standard equation solving methods. The rule will be, “For calculations involving K and
concentrations, write the WRECK steps.”
The WRECK steps are
1. W (WANTED): Write the WANTED unit and/or symbol.
2. R (Reaction): Write a balanced equation for the Reaction.
3. E (Extent): After the reaction, add the Extent of the reaction, such as: “(goes partially)”
or “(goes ~100%).”
4. Conc@Eq.: List or calculate the concentrations at equilibrium for each of the particles
in the reaction equation.
5. K: If the reaction goes to equilibrium, write the K equation.
6. SOLVE the K equation for the WANTED symbol.
7. If a concentration is calculated using an equilibrium equation, its unit, moles/liter, must
be added to the answer.
K values have units based on the K expression. However, by convention, K values are
written as numbers without units. When a concentration is solved using a K equation, you
must add units to the concentration value that are consistent with the other concentrations
in the problem. Usually those units will be mol/L (M).
Because K values do not include units, unit cancellation will not catch mistakes.
K calculations must therefore be solved with special care.
Try the above 7-step method on the following problem. If you get stuck, read a bit of the
answer until you are unstuck, and then complete your work.
Q. For the reversible reaction H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI , if the concentrations at
(g) (g) (g)
equilibrium are [H2] = 0.020 M and [I2]= 0.32 M, and K = 25, find [HI] .
at eq.
* * * * *
Answer
For calculations involving K and concentrations, write the WRECK steps.
1. W (WANTED): ? = [HI] in mol/L
eq.
2. R (Balanced Reaction Equation): H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI
(g) (g) (g)
3. E (Extent): If a reaction goes to equilibrium; it goes partially to completion.

4. C: [HI] = ? (WANTED)
eq.
[H2] = 0.020 M
eq.
[I2] = 0.32 M
eq.
5. K: [HI]2
K = = 25 at equilibrium.
[H2][I2]
6. SOLVE the K equation for the WANTED symbol.
Until this point, our rules have been:
• always include units when you solve, and
• solve in symbols before substituting numbers, because symbols move more
quickly than numbers with their units.
For the special case of K calculations,
• units are omitted, since K values are not given with units, and
• you may plug numbers into the original equation, and move numbers to solve,
since numbers without units will likely move as easily as symbols.
Because they are done without units, K calculations may solve quickly, but your
substitution and algebra must be checked and double checked, because unit
cancellation will not catch mistakes.
Substitute the data numbers directly into the K equation above, solve, then check below.
* * * * *
[HI]2 = 25 at equilibrium.
(0.020) (0.32)
[HI]2 = (25) (0.020) (0.32) = 0.160 (Carry an extra sf until the final step.)
[HI] = square root of [HI]2 = ([HI]2)1/2 = (0.160)1/2 = 0.40 mol/L

eq.
7. When solving K for a concentration, M or mol/L must be added to the answer.
Significant figures in K calculations: Coefficients are exact, and in terms such as [HI]2
above, since the 2 is based on coefficients, the 2 is exact. All numbers based on coefficients
have infinite sf and do not restrict the sf in an answer.
Practice C
1. Given the reaction: 4 NH3 + 5 O2 ÅÆ 4 NO + 6 H2O (all gases)
At a certain temperature the equilibrium concentrations are:
[NH3] = 0.050 M, [O2] = 0.0020 M, [NO] = 0.50 M, [H2O] = 0.20 M.
What is the value of K at this temperature?

2. Given the reaction: 2A + B ÅÆ 4 C (all gases) , concentrations at equilibrium are

[B] = 0.125 M and [C] = 0.50 M. If K = 200. , find [A].
3. For the reaction at equilibrium: CO2 + H2 ÅÆ CO + H2O
(g) (g) (g) (l)
in a 2.0 liter container is found 0.40 mol CO2, 0.60 mol H2O, and 0.90 mol H2. If the
value of the equilibrium constant is 4.8, how many moles of CO are in the mixture?
ANSWERS
Practice A
2 8 10
1. K = [CO2] [H2O] 2. K = [CO2] [H2O]
[CH4] [O2]2 [C4H10]2 [O2]13
Practice B
1. K = [CO2]4 2. K = 1 3. K = [CH3COO―]
[C2H6]2 [O2]7 [CO2] [CH COOH] [OH―]
3
4. K = [Ca2+]3 [PO43―]2
Practice C
1. For calculations involving K and concentrations, write the WRECK steps.
WANT: ?=K
Rxn: 4 NH3 + 5 O2 ÅÆ 4 NO + 6 H2O (all gases)
Extent: Goes to equilibrium, use K equation.
Conc@Eq. (See list in problem)
4 6 (Since H2O is a gas, it is included in the K equation.)
K: K = [NO] [H2O]
[NH3]4 [O2]5
SOLVE: The equation as written solves for the WANTED symbol. Plugging in numbers:
?=K= [0.50]4 [0.20]6 ―1 4 ―1 6 ―4

= [5.0 x 10 ] [2.0 x 10 ] = (625 x 10 )(2.0) x 10
6 ―6
[0.050]4 [0.0020]5 [5.0 x 10―2]4 [2.0 x 10―3]5 (625 x 10―8)(2.0)5 x 10―15

6 ―10
= (2.0) x 10 = 2.0 x 10+13 (K values are written without units.)
(2.0)5 x 10―23
The arithmetic may be done in any way that results in a correct answer.
If you need practice at exponential notation calculations, review Lessons 1C and 28B.


WANT: ? = [A]
Rxn: 2A + B ÅÆ 4 C (all gases)
Extent: Goes to equilibrium, use K.
Conc@Eq. (See list in problem)
4
K: K = [C]
[A]2 [B]
SOLVE: First solve K for the term that includes the WANTED symbol.
[A]2 = [C]4 = (0.50)4 = 0.0625 = 0.00250 Then solve for the WANTED symbol.
K [B] (200.)(0.125) 25
? = [A] = ([A]2)1/2 = (0.0025)1/2 = 0.050 M (When solving K for concentration, add M)

WANT: ? = mol CO
R+E: CO2 + H2 ÅÆ CO + H2O (Goes to equilibrium, use K.)
(g) (g) (g) (l)
Conc@Eq. [CO] = ? [CO2] = ?
Data is given in moles, but the K equation requires concentration (mol/L). All of the gases are
in a 2.0 liter container.
If you needed that hint, adjust your work and continue.
* * * * *
To find mol/L, divide mol by L.
[CO2] = 0.40 mol in 2.0 liters = 0.20 mol/L
[H2] = 0.90 mol/2.0 L = 0.45 M
K: K = [CO] = 4.8 ([ Liquids] is left out of K expressions.)

[CO2][H2]
SOLVE: [CO] = K • [CO2] • [H2] = (4.8)(0.20)(0.45) = 0.432 M CO (carrying extra sf)

Done? Always check your WANTED unit (especially after a long calculation).
? = mol CO = 2.0 L • 0.432 mol CO = 0.86 mol CO
L
A good habit at the end of each calculation is to (a) box your final answers, but (b) each time you make the
box , look back at the WANTED unit or symbol at the start of your answer to make sure that you found the
unit WANTED.
* * * * *

Lesson 28D: Equilibrium Constant Values

K Values And The Favored Side
Equilibrium constant values are always positive numbers, and the values are most often
written in scientific notation. At equilibrium
• If the substances on the right side of an equation have higher concentrations than
the substances on the left, the products are said to be favored, and the value of K
will be a number greater than one.
• If the substances on the left have higher concentrations than those on the right, the
reactants are favored, and the value of K will be a number between zero and one (in
scientific notation, a positive number times a negative power of 10).
• The more a reaction favors the products (goes to the right), the higher will be the
value of its equilibrium constant.
Examples: For these reactions at 25oC,

A. 2 N2 + O2 ÅÆ 2 NO K = 1.0 x 10―30
(g) (g) (g)
B. Ag+(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) ÅÆ Ag(NH3)2+(aq) K = 1.7 x 107
C. HSO4―(aq) ÅÆ H+(aq) + HSO42― (aq) K = 0.013
Reaction A has a K value that is positive, but is much less than one. At
equilibrium, the substances on the left side (the reactants) will be favored.
Reaction B has a K value that is much greater than one. At equilibrium, the
substances on the right side (the products) will be favored.
For K values much larger than one, the reactions go close to completion. For K
values much smaller than one, the reaction goes only slightly.
Reaction C has a K value that is smaller than one, favoring the left side, but
compared to most K values, K is not far from one. At equilibrium in Reaction
C, you would expect to find a more balanced mixture of reactants and products
than in Reaction A or B.
K Values For Reversed Reactions

Equilibrium is the result of a reversible reaction. Reversible reactions can be written in
either direction.
For example, the conversion of nitrogen dioxide to dinitrogen tetroxide is reversible.
It can be written as either
2 NO2 ÅÆ N2O4 Kf = [N2O4] or as N2O4 ÅÆ 2 NO2 Kr = [NO2]2
(g) (g) (g) (g)
[NO2]2 [N2O4]

The two equilibrium constants are different, but related:

Kf = [N2O4] = 1 = 1 or Kf = 1/Kr
[NO2]2 [NO2]2 Kr
[N2O4]
The relationship Kf = 1/Kr will be true for all reactions. Stated in words:
If a reaction equation is reversed, the new K value is the reciprocal of the original K.
K Values When Coefficients Are Multiplied

When writing a K value, either the balanced equation or the K expression must also be
written to indicate the coefficients used to balance the equation. Coefficients are ratios, and
only one set of ratios will balance an equation, but different coefficients can be used to
balance the equation so long as the coefficients are in the same ratio.
The value of K will depend on the coefficients used to balance the equation, but if the K
value is known for any one set of coefficients, the value for K for different coefficients can
easily be determined.
Example: Consider 2 NO2 ÅÆ N2O4 K1 = [N2O4]
(g) (g)
[NO2]2
and 4 NO2 ÅÆ 2 N2O4 K2 = [N2O4]2 = ( K1 )2

(g) (g)
[NO2]4
The coefficients of the second equation is simply double the first. The ratios are the
same, and both equations are balanced. The K values will be different, but related. If
the coefficients are doubled, the new K value for the K expression based on those
doubled coefficients is the original K value squared.
This relationship will be true for all K values:
If a value of K is known for a reaction with one set of coefficients, those coefficients can
be multiplied by any positive number, and the new value of K will be the original K to
the power of the multiplier.
In equation form, this rule can be written,

If K = # for the reversible reaction: aA + bB ÅÆ cC + dD
then K = (#)n for the equation: naA + nbB ÅÆ ncC + ndD

The factor n can be any positive number: an integer, decimal, or fraction.
This rule illustrates why, when you write a K value, the reaction coefficients on which it is
based must also be shown by writing either the K expression or the balanced equation.

Practice
For the following reactions at 25oC:
1. Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) ÅÆ Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) K = 1 x 1015
2. PbCl2(s) ÅÆ Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl―(aq) K = 2 x 10―5
3. AgI(s) ÅÆ Ag+(aq) + I―(aq) K = 1.5 x 10―16
a. Write the K expression for each reaction.

b. Which equilibrium most favors the substances on the right side of the equation?
c. Which reaction will form the least amount of product?
d. What will be the K expression and K value for the equation
Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) ÅÆ Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq)
e. What will be the K expression and K value for the equation

1/2 PbCl2(s) ÅÆ 1/2 Pb2+(aq) + Cl―(aq)
f. What will be the K expression and K value for the equation

1/2 Cu2+(aq) + Ag(s) ÅÆ 1/2 Cu(s) + Ag+(aq)
ANSWERS
2+
1a. K = [Cu ] 2. K = [Pb2+] [Cl―]2 3. K = [Ag+] [I―]
[Ag+]2
1b. Reaction 1, with the largest K value, most favors the right side (products).
1c. Reaction 3, with the K value much smaller than the others, will most favor the left side (reactants), and will
form the smallest concentrations of products.
1d. The Part d equation is reaction 2 written backwards. Both the K expression and K value will be the
reciprocals of reaction 1.
+2
K expression = [Ag ] K value = 1 = 1 = 1 x 10―15
[Cu2+] Kf 1 x 1015
1e. The Part e reaction is reaction 2 with all coefficients multiplied by 1/2. In the Part e K expression, the new
coefficients become the powers of the concentrations. The K value for Part e will be the reaction 2 K
value to the 1/2 power: the square root of the K in reaction 2.
K expression = [Pb2+]1/2 [Cl―] K value = (2 x 10―5)1/2 = (20 x 10―6)1/2 = 4.5 x 10―3
1f. Part f has reaction 1 written backwards and multiplied by 1/2. When writing the reaction backwards,
invert the K value. When multiplying coefficients by 1/2, take the original K value to the 1/2 power.

+
K expression = [Ag ] K value = square root of 1 = ((1 x 1015)―1)1/2 = (10 x 10―16)1/2
[Cu2+]1/2 Kf = 3.2 x 10―8
* * * * *
Lesson 28E: Kp Calculations

Prerequisites: Gas lessons 17A, 17D, 18D, and the prior lessons in Module 28.
* * * * *
Kc Versus Kp
For the special case of reactions that include gases but do not include substances dissolved
in a liquid solvent, an equilibrium constant can be calculated based on either the gas
molar concentrations or the partial pressures of the gases.
To distinguish between these two kinds of equilibrium constants,
• Kc is written instead of K for equilibrium constants based on concentration, and
• Kp is written for equilibrium constants based on pressures.
At a given temperature, for the general reaction
wA(gas) + xB(gas) ÅÆ yC(gas) + zD(gas)
at equilibrium these ratios will be constant:
y z
Kc = [C]y[D]z and Kp = (PC) •(PD) where P represents partial pressure.
[A]w[B]x w
(P ) •(P ) x
A B
In most respects, the rules for Kc and Kp are the same.
• Coefficients of the balanced equation become powers in the Kp expression.
• If a Kp value is listed, the coefficients and direction of the reaction must be shown.
• If an equation is reversed, the Kp value will be the reciprocal of the original.
• If coefficients are multiplied by a positive number, Kp will have a value of the
original Kp value to the power of the number.
• Kp values have units, but the units are usually omitted in values and in
calculations.
• Pressures for solids and pure liquids are written as 1 in Kp expressions.
The differences between Kc and Kp include
• Kp is calculated based on atmospheres as the pressure unit. In calculations that use
Kp, all pressures must be converted to atmospheres.
• When calculating a partial pressure using Kp values, atmospheres must be added
as the unit of the answer.

If K is written without a subscript, it is assumed to be a Kc. Because Kc can be used for

reactions that include both gases and substances dissolved in a solvent, and Kp cannot , Kc
is encountered more frequently.
Kp and Kc calculations are solved using the same steps. Use the rule: “For calculations
using K and concentrations or pressures, write the WRECK steps.”
Try the following problem. If you get stuck, read the answer until unstuck and try again.
Q. For the reaction PCl5(g) ÅÆ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
at 250oC, Kp = 1.78 . If at equilibrium the partial pressures are 0.820 atm. for Cl2
and standard pressure for PCl5, calculate the partial pressure of PCl3.
* * * * *
Answer
For calculations using K and concentrations or pressures, write the WRECK steps.
1. W (WANTED): ? = PPCl in atm.
3
2. R (Balanced Reaction Equation): PCl5(g) ÅÆ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
3. E (Extent): This reaction goes to equilibrium (only partially to completion).
4. Conc@Eq. (In Kp calculations, use partial pressures in place of concentrations.)
PPCl = ?
3
PCl = 0.820 atm.
2
PPCl
5 = standard pressure ≡ 1 atm. (exact)
5. K (Write the K equation): Kp = PPCl3 • PCl2 = 1.78

PPCl
5
You may either plug the numbers into the equation above and solve or solve in symbols
then numbers.
PPCl P
3 = Kp • PCl5 = 1.78 • 1 atm. = 2.17 atm.
PCl 0.820 atm.
2
When using Kp to find a partial pressure, all pressure units in the DATA must be
converted to atmospheres. If a pressure is WANTED, the unit atm. must be added to
the answer.
Practice A
1. Write the Kp expression for each of these reactions.
a. SiO2(s) + 4 HF(g) ÅÆ SiF4(g) + 2 H2O (g)
b. CuSO4•5H2O(s) ÅÆ CuSO4(s) + 5 H2O (g)

2. For the reaction CH4(g) + 2 H2S (g) ÅÆ CS2(g) + 4 H2(g) at 700oC,

Kp = 8.9 x 10―4 . If the partial pressures at equilibrium are 0.32 atm. for H2 , standard
pressure for CH4, and 50.5 kPa for CS2, calculate the partial pressure of H2S.
Converting Between Kc and Kp
When all of the variable terms in a K expression are gases, either Kc or Kp equations can be
applied to solve calculations, but the values of Kc and Kp may or may not be the same.
The rules are:
1. If the two sides of the balanced equation have the same number of total moles of gases,
the values for Kc and Kp are the same.
2. If the two sides of the equation have a different total number of moles of gas, Kc and
Kp will have different values.
3. If either the Kc or Kp value is known at a given temperature, the other value can be
calculated using
Kp = Kc (RT)Δn where
• R is the Gas Constant using liters and atmospheres (R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)

• T is absolute temperature in kelvins, and
• Δn = (the sum of the coefficients of the gases in the products) MINUS (the
sum of the coefficients of the gases in the reactants)
The number for Δn may be positive or negative, and it may be a fraction.
This conversion equation, including the Δn definition, must be memorized. As always
when using K equations, the coefficients and reaction direction must be indicated in the
calculation. In this Kp equation, the units for R and T must be as specified above, but units
do not cancel in the calculation.
To learn to use the Kp to Kc conversion equation, write it and the Δn definition until
memorized, then try the following problems.
Q1. Solve the conversion equation for the case in which the sum of the coefficients for
the gases on both sides of the reaction equation are equal.
* * * * *
Kp = Kc (RT)Δn If the moles of gas on both sides are the same,

Δn = 0, Kp = Kc (RT)0 = Kc (1) = Kc This matches rule 1 above:
If the gas coefficient totals are equal on both sides, Kp = Kc
Q2. For the Haber Process reaction: N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3

(g) (g) (g)
if Kc = 9.5 at 300.oC, find Kp .
* * * * *

WANTED: Kp
DATA: Kc = 9.5
The fundamental equation that relates Kp and Kc is Kp = Kc (RT)Δn .
R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K (Kp calculations solve in liters and atm.)
T = 300oC + 273 = 573 K (T must be in kelvins)

Δn = (right side total gas coefficients MINUS left) = 2 ― 4 = ― 2 (exact)
If needed, adjust your work and finish from here.
* * * * *
SOLVE: Kp = Kc (RT)Δn = 9.5 • { (0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)(573 K) }―2
= 9.5 • (47.04)―2 = 9.5 • 4.52 x 10―4 = 4.3 x 10―3

In K calculations, units often do not properly cancel, and units are not attached after K
values.
* * * * *
Non-Ideal Behavior
The K rules we have been using are based on ideal gas and solution behavior, including
the assumption that particles in gases or solutions do not attract when they collide. In
practice, all particles attract to some extent. This causes effective pressures and
concentrations to be less than predicted based on ideal behavior.
Effective concentrations and pressures should be used in K calculations, and corrections
can be made to reflect the real activity of particles. In most cases, however, the
consequences of non-ideal behavior are small in comparison to other sources of
experimental error in K calculations.
Practice B
1. Convert these to scientific notation. Use a calculator as needed. Try to do each
calculation two different ways.
a. (3.33)― 1 = b. (3.5 x 103)―2 = c. (4.8 x 10―3)―2 =
2. If Kp = Kc (RT)Δn and Δn = +2, which of these could be used to solve for Kc ?
a. Kc = Kp • R2 • T2 b. Kc = Kp • R―2 • T―2 c. Kc = Kp d. Kc = Kp
R2 T2 (RT)2
3. Calculate Δn for these reactions.
a. N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3
(g) (g) (g)
b. NH3 ÅÆ 1/2 N2 + 3/2 H2
(g) (g) (g)
c. CH4(g) + 2 H2S (g) ÅÆ CS2(g) + 4 H2(g)

d. 1/2 N2 + O2 ÅÆ NO2
(g) (g) (g)
e. 2 C2H6 + 7 O2 ÅÆ 4 CO2 + 6 H2O
(g) (g) (g) (g)
f. H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI
(g) (g) (g)
4. For which reactions in Problem 3 will Kp = Kc ?
5. If, for the reaction 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ÅÆ 2 SO3(g) at 27oC, Kc = 1.3, calculate Kp.
6. If the Haber Process reaction is written as NH3 ÅÆ 1/2 N2 + 3/2 H2

(g) (g) (g)
with a Kp of 670 at 600.oC,
a. What is the value of Kp for N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3 at 600.oC?

(g) (g) (g)
b. What is the value of Kc for N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3 at 600.oC?
(g) (g) (g)
ANSWERS
Practice A
PSiF (PH O)2 5
1a. Kp = 4• 2 1b. Kp = (PH2O)
(PHF)4
2. For calculations involving K and concentrations or pressures, write the WRECK steps.
WANT ? = PH S in atm.
2
R + E: CH4(g) + 2 H2S (g) ÅÆ CS2(g) + 4 H2(g) (goes to equilibrium)
C: PCS = 50.5 kPa • 1 atm. = 0.500 atm.

2
101 kPa
PH = 0.32 atm.
2
PCH = standard pressure = 1 atm. (exact)
4
PH S = ?
2
To use Kp, all pressures must be converted to atmospheres.
Kp = PCS (PH )4
K: 2• 2 = 8.9 x 10―4
PCH • (PH S)2
4 2
(PH S)2 = PCS (PH )4
2 2• 2 = (0.500) • (0.32)4 = 5.89
PCH • Kp 1.0 • 8.9 x 10―4
4
P P 2 1/2 1/2
H2S = ( ( H2S) ) = (5.89) = 2.4 atm. (solving K for P, add atm. as unit)

Practice B
1a. 3.00 x 10―1 b. 8.2 x 10―8 c. 4.3 x 104
2. Kp = Kc (RT)2 = Kc R2T2 ; Kc = Kp = Kp = Kp R―2T―2
(RT)2 R2T2 ;
Answers b, c, and d are equivalent to the given equation, answer a is not.
3. a. 2 ― 4 = ―2 b. 2 ― 1 = +1 c. 5 ― 3 = +2
d. 1 ― 1.5 = ―0.5 or ―1/2 e. 10 ― 9 = +1 f. 2 ― 2 = 0
4. Only 3f. Kp = Kc only if Δn = 0.
5. WANT: Kp
DATA: Kc = 1.3
The fundamental equation that relates Kp and Kc is Kp = Kc (RT)Δn .

R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
T = 27oC + 273 = 300. K
Δn = (right side total gas coefficients MINUS left) = 2 ― 3 = ―1
SOLVE: Kp = Kc (RT)Δn = Kc (RT)―1 = (1.3) • { (0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)(300. K) }―1
= (1.3) • (24.63)―1 = (1.3) • (4.06 x 10―2) = 0.053

6a. The part a reaction is the Question 4 reaction reversed and doubled. The new Kp value will be the
reciprocal, squared, of the original Kp.
Kp new = ((670)―1)2 = (670)―2 = 2.2 x 10―6
6b. Kp was found in part a. Kc is WANTED. The equation relating Kp and Kc is Kp = Kc (RT)Δn .
WANTED: Kc
DATA: Kp = 2.2 x 10―6
R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
T = 600.oC + 273 = 873 K
Δn = (right side total gas coefficients MINUS left) = 2 ― 4 = ―2
SOLVE: Kp = Kc (RT)Δn = Kc (RT)―2 = Kp
Kc = Kp (RT)2 = (2.2 x 10―6) • { (0.0821)(873) }2 = (2.2 x 10―6) • (71.67)2
= (2.2 x 10―6) • (5.14 x 103 ) = 0.011

* * * * *

Lesson 28F: K and Rice Moles Tables

So far in our K calculations, concentrations or pressures at equilibrium have been known.
However, if pressures or concentrations are known for an initial mixture of reactants (but no
products yet formed), as well as for any one reactant or product after the reaction has
reached equilibrium, pressures and concentrations at equilibrium for all substances, and a
value for K, can be calculated.
To solve this equilibrium stoichiometry, we will use our “chemistry accounting system.”
For complex reactions, we make a rice moles table: rice for the labels of the rows:
Reaction, Initial, Change, End/Equilibrium,
and moles for the numbers that go into the table. We have previously employed rice tables
to calculate mixture amounts at the end of a reaction (Lesson 10H). In reactions that go to
completion, the limiting reactant has a count of zero in the End row.
In reactions that go to equilibrium, all reactants and products must be present at
equilibrium, so none of the reactant or product counts go to zero. However, a rice table will
track what does happen in the reaction. Our rule will be,
Rice Tables. In reaction calculations, to find the moles, concentrations, or gas

pressures at equilibrium (or amounts for any reaction that is complex), use a rice table.
Let’s illustrate this method with a variation on our previous “production process” problem.
Q. The Classic Chemistry Composition Corporation is producing spiral-bound
notebooks. Each notebook has one spiral binder, two identical covers, and 40 sheets
of paper. The initial inventory contains 95 spirals, 220 covers, and 4,250 sheets. After
the night shift produces and ships an order of notebooks, the day shift counts 60
covers remaining. How many notebooks were shipped? How much of each booklet
component remains?
To solve, complete the following table, then check your answer below.
Reaction ___ Spiral ___Covers ____ Sheets ____ Booklet

Initial Count
At Equilibrium (End)
* * * * *
The initial data:
Reaction 1 Spiral 2 Covers 40 Sheets 1 Booklet

At Equilibrium (End) 60

Adjust your work if needed, and then fill-in all of the boxes in the table.
* * * * *
Calculate the one change for which there is data. From that number, use the ratios of the
process to complete the Change row. Include a ― sign for components used up and a + sign
for those formed. Then calculate the amount of each component present at the end.
* * * * *
Reaction 1 Spiral 2 Covers 40 Sheets 1 Booklet
Change (use + and ―) ― 80 ― 160 ― 3,200 + 80
At Equilibrium (End) 15 60 1,050 80
* * * * *
This same method can be used to find values for moles for chemical substances at
equilibrium. Cover the answer below and construct a rice moles table to solve this problem.
Q. A reaction that occurs at high temperatures (and can cause air pollution from car
engines) is: N2 + O2 ÅÆ 2 NO (all gases). If 1.00 moles of N2, 2.00 moles of
O2, and no NO are initially mixed, and at equilibrium, 1.80 moles of O2 remains,
how many moles of N2 and NO are present at equilibrium?
* * * * *
WANT: moles of N2 and NO at equilibrium.
Strategy: To solve for values at equilibrium, use a rice moles table.
Reaction 1 N2 1 O2 2 NO
At End/Equilibrium 1.80 mol
• calculate the change that you can.

• Use the coefficients to complete the Change row. Coefficients show the ratios in
which the moles of reactants are used up and moles of products form.
•Calculate the Equilibrium row.
* * * * *
The one change that can be calculated is
Change (use + and ―) ─ 0.20 mol
At Equilibrium 1.80 mol
* * * * *

From the O2 moles change and the ratios of reaction (the coefficients), the other changes
can be calculated. Be sure to include the + and ─ signs. :
Change (use + and ―) ─ 0.20 mol ─ 0.20 mol + 0.40 mol
At End/Equilibrium 1.80 mol
* * * * *
Using the row labels, the WANTED moles at equilibrium can be found.
Change (use + and ―) ─ 0.20 mol ─ 0.20 mol + 0.40 mol
At End/Equilibrium 0.80 mol N2 1.80 mol O2 + 0.40 mol NO
Practice A
1. For the reaction H2(g) + CO2(g) ÅÆ H2O(g) + CO(g) , the initial gas mixture is
composed of 2.00 moles of H2 and 1.00 moles of CO2. At equilibrium, 0.30 moles of
CO gas is found. Calculate the moles of the other substances present at equilibrium.
Rice Tables Using Concentration and Pressure

Which units can be use in a rice moles table?
1. Moles can always be used. Rice calculations are based on coefficients, and coefficients
can always be read as moles.
2. Concentrations (molarity) and gas pressures can also be used in rice tables if all of the
moles and pressures in a problem are measured in the same volume.
Why? Coefficients are mole ratios. However, if all of the moles are contained in the
same volume, dividing each of the moles by that same volume will not change the mole
ratios. The mole and the mol/L ratios will be the same, and the rice table can be used to
calculate either the moles or the mol/L used up and formed.
Pressure ratios will also be the same as mole ratios if volume is held constant.
The logic? Since PV= nRT , P = n (constant 1/V)(gas constant R)(constant T). This
simplifies to P = (constant) n , so P and n are directly proportional (Lesson 18A) if
V and T are constant. T must be constant if the system is at equilibrium. Since
coefficients are mole ratios, they will also hold for any ratios that are directly
proportional to moles (n), which P is in this case.

3. If gases or solutions are mixed together as part of a problem, measurements of the initial
moles per liter and gas pressures cannot be substituted directly into a rice table, because
the initial and final liters that the moles are in is not the same.
For example, if 10 mL of 0.50 M Reactant A is mixed with 20 mL of 0.50 M Reactant B
to conduct a reaction, both A and B are diluted as the solutions are mixed. Using the
concentrations before mixing as concentrations that apply to a reaction that occurs
after mixing would cause an error.
4. If all initial amounts are converted to moles, the rice table can be used. Dilution does not
change the moles of substance present. Final mol/L can then be calculated if the total
solution volume at equilibrium is known;
Bottom line?
• Rice tables can always be solved in moles.

• Rice tables can use values for molarity and gas pressure IF the volume in which the
substances are measured is the same in all parts of the problem.
Practice B: Check your answers after each part.

1. For the reaction 2 SO2 + O2 ÅÆ 2 SO3 , in a sealed glass vessel with
(g) (g) (g)
temperature held constant, the initial gas mixture contains [SO2] = 1.00 M,
[O2] = 0.60 M, and no SO3. At equilibrium, [SO3] = 0.40 M.
a. Calculate the concentrations of all reactants and products at equilibrium.
b. Use your Part A answer to calculate a value for the equilibrium constant under
these conditions.
Using Rice Tables With K Calculations

The values calculated in a rice table can be used in K calculations, as was done in Part B of
the Practice B problem above. However, care must be taken to write the units in the rice
table. Why?
• Rice moles tables can always be solved in moles, and moles are often supplied in
problem data. K equations, however, require consistent units of either mol/L for
solutions or gases or atmospheres for gases. K equations cannot be solved in moles.
• If data in a K calculation is supplied in moles, as is often the case, at some point the
data must be converted to moles per liter at equilibrium before it is used in a Kc
equation.
This means that in both the rice table and the DATA table that is used with K calculations, it
is important distinguish measurements in moles (mol) from moles/liter (M).
When data is supplied in moles, it is often easiest to solve the rice table in moles, then to
convert the moles at equilibrium found in the table to moles per liter, then to substitute
those values into K calculations.

Using those hints, try the following problem, then check your answer below.
Q. For the reaction H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases), initial amounts are 0.100 moles of
H2, 0.090 moles of I2, and no HI. At equilibrium, 0.020 moles of H2 are present.
a. Calculate the moles of all of the substances present at equilibrium.

b. If the reaction takes place in a 2.0 liter vessel, calculate the value of K.
* * * * *
a. WANT: moles of H2 , I2 , and HI at equilibrium.
Strategy: To solve for values at equilibrium, use a rice table.
* * * * *
Reaction 1 H2 1 I2 2 HI
Change ( use + and ― ) ― 0.080 mol ― 0.080 mol + 0.16 mol
At Equilibrium 0.020 mol 0.010 mol 0.16 mol
In rice tables, the units must be stated and must all be the same.
The bottom row answers Part A.
If you have not already done so, complete Part B.
* * * * *
b. Part B involves K and concentrations. A K equation relates those terms.
The rule is: for calculations using K equations, write the WRECK steps.
1. WANTED unit or symbol. If the type of K is not specified, assume K means Kc .
2. Reaction: H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases)
3. Extent: The reaction goes to equilibrium. Use a K equation to solve.
4. Conc@Eq. The important rule is:
To find Concentrations at equilibrium (step C in the WRECK steps), calculate

the values in the bottom row of a rice table. Convert to moles/liter if needed.
In the rice moles table for this problem, we know moles at equilibrium, but a Kc
equation requires mol/L. If needed, adjust your work.
* * * * *
All of these moles are in 2.0 L. In the DATA table, convert moles to the
unit that matches each symbol: mol/L at equilibrium.
[HI]eq. = 0.16 mol at eq./2.0 L = 0.080 M at eq.
[H2]eq. = 0.020 mol/2.0 L = 0.010 M

[I2]eq. = 0.010 mol/2.0 L = 0.0050 M

5. K (Write the K equation): Kc = [HI]2 all measured at equilibrium

[H2][I2]
6. SOLVE: K = (0.080)2 = 64 x 10―4 = 130

(0.010)(0.0050) 5.0 x 10―5
At the point when values are substituted into a K equation, the units are omitted, but
until that step, the units must be included with all DATA. Careful labeling of DATA
with units and symbols is essential in order to keep track of which data to use at each
step.
Practice C
1. For the reaction 2 NO + Cl2 ÅÆ 2 NOCl (all gases), 0.40 mol NO and 0.60 mol Cl2
are originally mixed in a 4.0 L sealed glass vessel. At equilibrium, 0.20 moles of NO
gas remains.
a. Calculate the moles of Cl2 and NOCl present at equilibrium.
b. Calculate the value for K under the above conditions.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED: moles of H2, CO2, and H2O at equilibrium.
Strategy: To find values at equilibrium when some of the data is not at equilibrium, use a rice table.
Initial data:
Reaction 1 H2 1 CO2 1 H2O 1 CO

Initial 2.00 mol 1.00 mol 0 0
Change + 0.30 mol
At Equilibrium 0.30 mol
Calculate the change row based on coefficients, then find the moles at equilibrium WANTED.
Reaction 1 H2 1 CO2 1 H2O 1 CO

Initial 2.00 mol 1.00 mol 0 0
At Equilibrium 1.70 mol 0.70 mol 0.30 mol 0.30 mol

Practice B
1a. WANTED: [ ]eq for all 3 substances, in mol/L .
DATA: measurements at equilibrium are WANTED, so a rice moles table is needed.
Since this reaction involves gases in a container with a fixed volume, moles, mol/L or gas pressures can be
used in the rice moles table. Since the data is in mol/L, and you want mol/L, use mol/L as the units in the
rice table.
Reaction 2 SO2 1 O2 2 SO3

Initial 1.00 M 0.60 M 0M
Change (use + and ―) ― 0.40 M ― 0.20 M + 0.40 M
At Equilibrium 0.60 M 0.40 M 0.40 M
1b. For K calculations, write the WRECK steps.

WANTED = Kc
Reaction and Extent: 2 SO2 + O2 ÅÆ 2 SO3 (goes to equilibrium mixture)
(g) (g) (g)
Conc@Eq. Use the values in the bottom row of the rice table.
Kc = [SO3]2 These must be values at equilibrium, the values in the bottom row of the
[SO2]2 [O2] rice table.
SOLVE: Kc = (0.40)2 = (0.16) = 1.1

2
(0.60) (0.40) (0.36)(0.40)
Practice C
1a. WANTED: moles of reactants and products at equilibrium.
DATA: To find measurements at equilibrium when some supplied data is not, use a rice table.
Since the WANTED unit is moles, solve the rice table in moles.
Reaction 2 NO 1 Cl2 2 NOCl

Initial 0.40 mol 0.60 mol 0
At Equilibrium 0.20 mol 0.50 mol 0.20 mol
1b. For calculations using K, write the WRECK steps.

WANTED: Kc = ?
Reaction and Extent: 2 NO + Cl2 ÅÆ 2 NOCl (all gases) (goes to an equilibrium mixture)
Conc@Eq. To find concentrations at equilibrium, use the bottom row of the rice moles table.
In the above rice table are moles. A Kc equation requires mol/L at equilibrium. All of these
moles in the table are in 4.0 L. In the data table, convert moles to the unit of each symbol:
mol/L, then solve the K equation.

[ NOCl ]eq. = 0.20 mol at eq./4.0 L = 0.0500 M at eq. (carry extra sf until end)
[ NO ]eq. = 0.20 mol/4.0 L = 0.0500 M
[ Cl2 ]eq. = 0.50 mol/4.0 L = 0.125 M
Kc = [NOCl]eq.2
[NO]eq2 [Cl2]eq.
Solve: K = (0.0500)2 = 1 = 8.0

(0.0500)2(0.125) 0.125
* * * * *
Lesson 28G: K Calculations From Initial Concentrations

In K equations, concentrations or gas pressures must be measured at equilibrium.
In some cases, knowing only concentrations or pressures in the initial mixture before the
reaction begins, the concentrations or pressures at equilibrium can be calculated with the
help of algebra.
Let’s learn this method using an example.
Q. The reaction H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases) is carried out in a closed system with
constant volume, at a temperature where Kc = 144. In the initial mixture before the
reaction begins, [ H2 ] = [ I2 ] = 0.500 M. What will be the concentration of each
substance at equilibrium?
K calculations are solved using the WRECK steps. Complete the following steps for the
problem above.
Steps 1-3: WRE. Write the WANTED unit, balanced Reaction equation, and Extent to
which the reaction goes to completion.
Step 4. Conc@Eq. In finding the concentrations or pressures in a reaction mixture at
equilibrium, there are several variations in K calculations. Let’s compare.
a. When concentrations at equilibrium are supplied in a problem, the answers to this
step are supplied, and a rice table is not needed (Lesson 28C).
b. When concentrations or gas pressures at equilibrium are not known, we use a rice
table to find them.
i. If the initial moles, mol/L or gas pressures are known for reactants, and any one
value is known at equilibrium, the bottom row of the rice table (values at
equilibrium) can be solved using arithmetic (Lesson 28F).
ii. If moles, mol/L or gas pressures are known for all of the initial reactants, the
bottom row of the rice table can often be solved using algebra. A key step is
assigning signs to x values in the Change row of the rice table.

For the problem above, make a rice table. In the Change row, represent the change that
will take place to reach equilibrium using terms such as +x, ―x, +2x, ―3x, etc.
Fill in the Equilibrium row using terms that include x.
Complete Steps 1-4 above, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Answer
1. WANT: [H2], [I2], and [HI] at equilibrium.
2. Reaction: H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases)
3. Extent: Since the reaction has a K value, it goes to equilibrium.
4. Conc@Eq.
The concentrations are supplied for the initial reactants only, with no products
yet formed. As the reaction begins, some of the [H2] and [I2] reactants are
used up, and some products form. In the Change row, the signs for all of the
reactant terms must therefore be negative, and the signs for all of the product
terms must be positive.
If needed, use that hint to fill in the Change row, then complete the table.
* * * * *
According to the coefficients, if [H2] changes by ―x, [I2] must also change by ―x
as it reacts with H2, and [HI] must increase by +2x .
Initial 0.500 M 0.500 M 0M
Change ―xM ―xM + 2x M
At Equilibrium
Complete the bottom row using terms with numbers and x’s.
* * * * *
Initial 0.500 M 0.500 M 0M
At Equilibrium (0.500 ― x) M (0.500 ― x) M 2x M
As a check, use this rule: The numbers in front of x’s in rows 3 and 4 must be the same as the
coefficients in row 1. Coefficients determine the Change ratios.
Step 5. K: Write the K equation and solve for x. Substitute the Equilibrium row terms
into the K equation.
* * * * *

Hint: you will need to take a square root.

* * * * *
K: K = [HI]2 = 144 using mol/L measured at equilibrium.
[H2][I2]
K= (2x)2 = 144 Take the square root of both sides,

(0.500 ― x)2 then solve for x.
* * * * *
(2x) = (144)1/2 = 12.0 Finish solving for x.
(0.500 ― x)
* * * * *
2x = 12 (0.500 ― x)
2x = 6 ― 12x
14x = 6 ; x = 6/14 = 0.429
Step 6. Solve for the WANTED unit. Substitute x into the equilibrium row to find the
WANTED values for each equilibrium concentration.
* * * * *
H2 I2 HI
At Equilibrium 0.500 ― 0.429 = 0.071 M 0.071 M + 2(0.429) = 0.858 M
Step 7. Check. Substitute those equilibrium concentrations into the K expression.

Calculate a value of K. Compare to the K value given in the problem.
* * * * *
7. Check: K = [HI]2 = (0.858)2 = 0.736 = 146 versus K = 144 in the data.
[H2][I2] (0.071)2 0.00504
When your check K agrees with the K supplied in the problem, allowing for the doubtful
digit, your answer is likely correct.
* * * * *
Summary: Solving K Calculations – The WRECK Steps
1-3: WRE. Write the WANTED unit, balanced Reaction equation, and Extent to which the
reaction goes to completion.
4. Concentrations@Equilibrium.
a. If concentrations at equilibrium are given in a problem, use them. A rice table is
not needed.

b. When concentrations or gas pressures at equilibrium are not known, make a rice
table. The bottom row values are the concentrations at equilibrium, or can be
used to calculate those concentrations, that are needed in the K equation.
i. If initial moles, mol/L or gas pressures are known for reactants, and any one
value is known at equilibrium, the bottom row of the rice table can be solved
using arithmetic.
ii. If moles, mol/L or gas pressures are known for all of the initial reactants, the
Equilibrium row of the rice table can often be solved using algebra.
A key step is assigning signs and x values to the Change row of the rice table.
The Change row will have terms such as ―x, +2x, etc.
5. K: Write the K equation. Substitute the Equilibrium row terms into the K equation,
then solve for x if needed.
6. Solve for the WANTED unit. If needed, substitute x into the Equilibrium row to find
the values for each equilibrium concentration.
7. Check. Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the K expression. Calculate a
value for K. Compare to the K value supplied in the problem.
Practice: If you get stuck, read a part of the answer below, then try again.
1. Try solving without a calculator: (2x)2 = 64

(0.200 ― x)2
2. Use a calculator as needed: (2x)2 = 81

(0.600 ― x)2
3. Based on the following rice table,
Reaction 1 CO 1 H2O 1 CO2 1 H2
Initial 0.200 M 0.200 M 0M 0M

Change
At Equilibrium
a. Complete the Change row using terms with x’s.

b. Write the concentrations at equilibrium using terms with numbers and x’s.
c. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction.
d. If K = 0.49, calculate the value of x.
e. Calculate values for the concentrations at equilibrium.
f. Check your answers by using them to calculate a value for K.

4. In a closed system with constant volume, for the reaction H2 + Cl2 ÅÆ 2 HCl (all
gases) at 3050 K, Kp = 225. In the initial mixture before the reaction begins, PH2 =
PCl = 0.750 atm. What will be the partial pressure of each substance at equilibrium?
2
ANSWERS
1. (2x)2 = 64 Taking the square root of both sides: 2x = 8.0
(0.200 ― x)2 0.200 ― x
2x = 8.0(0.200 ― x)
2x = 1.6 ― 8x
10x = 1.6, x = 0.16
2. (2x)2 = 81 Taking the square root of both sides: 2x = 9.0

(0.600 ― x)2 0.600 ― x
2x = 9.0(0.600 ― x)
2x = 5.4 ― 9x
11x = 5.4, x = 0.49
3. a. The numbers in front of x must match the coefficients of the balance equation.
Since the table shows reactants but no products in the initial mixture, to reach equilibrium, some of the
reactants must be used up. The reactants must therefore have negative signs in the Change row.
Some products must be formed, so the signs in the Change row for the products must be positive.
b. See table below.

Initial 0.200 M 0.200 M 0M 0M
Change ―xM ―xM +xM +xM
At Equilibrium 0.200 ― x M 0.200 ― x M +xM +xM
c. K = [CO2] [H2]
[CO][H2O]
d. K = [CO2] [H2] = (x)2 = 0.49

[CO][H2O] (0.200 ― x)2

Taking the square root of both sides: x = 0.70

(0.200 ― x)
x = 0.70(0.200 ― x)
x = 0.14 ― 0.70x
1.7x = 0.14, x = 0.0824
e. 1 CO 1 H2O 1 CO2 1 H2
0.200 ― 0.0824 =
At Equilibrium 0.118 M 0.0824 M 0.0824 M
0.118 M
f. K = [CO2] [H2] = (0.0824)2 = 0.006790 = 0.49 Matches K. Check.

[CO][H2O] (0.118)2 0.01392
4. Calculations using Kp values and gas partial pressures in atmospheres solve in the same manner as K
calculations using concentration. To solve K calculations, write the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
WANT: PH and PCl and PHCl at equilibrium.
2 2
R and E: H2 + Cl2 ÅÆ 2 HCl (goes to equilibrium)
Conc@Eq. If pressures at equilibrium are not known, a rice table is needed.
Rice tables can be solved in partial pressures if volume is held constant.
Reaction 1 H2 1 Cl2 2 HCl

Initial 0.750 atm 0.750 atm 0 atm
Change ― x atm ― x atm + 2x atm
At Equilibrium (0.750 ― x) atm (0.750 ― x) atm 2x atm
In the change row, the coefficient of x must match the coefficient for that term in the balanced
equation, and the reactant and product terms must have opposite signs.
If only the initial concentrations or pressures are known, the reactant concentrations or pressures must
decrease in going to equilibrium, and products must be formed. This means that the signs in the
Change row must be negative for the reactants and positive for the products.
K: Use the K equation to solve for x.
K = (PHCl)2 = 225 using partial pressures at equilibrium.
PH • PCl
2 2
K= (2x)2 = 225
(0.75 ― x)2
Take the square root of both sides, then solve for x.
* * * * *

(2x) = (225)1/2 = 15.0 Finish solving for x.

(0.75 ― x)
* * * * *
2x = 15 (0.75 ― x)
2x = 11.25 ― 15x
17x = 11.25 ; x = 11.25/17 = 0.662
Step 6. Solve for the WANTED unit. Substitute x into the equilibrium row to find the WANTED values
for each equilibrium concentration.
* * * * *
H2 Cl2 HCl
At Equilibrium 0.750 ― 0.662 = 0.088 atm 0.088 atm + 2(0.662) = 1.32 atm
2
Step 7. Check: K = (PHCl)2 = (1.32) = 1.742 = 225 versus K = 225 in the data.
PH • PCl (0.088)2 0.007744
2 2
If the check K agrees with the supplied K, allowing for the doubtful digit, your answer is likely correct.
* * * * *
Lesson 28H: Q: The Reaction Quotient

Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to calculate values for Q.
* * * * *
The reaction quotient (Q) is the number that results when concentration or pressure values
for a mixture of reactants and products that may not be at equilibrium are substituted into
the K expression.
For a reversible reaction, if K is known, Q will identify the direction in which a reaction
mixture will need to shift (toward products or reactants) to reach equilibrium.
In a closed system, if a mixture of reactants and products is not at equilibrium, the reaction
will continue in the direction that takes the mixture toward equilibrium. The speed at which
a reaction proceeds is determined by reaction kinetics, but the direction that the reaction will
shift is determined by Q and K.
To determine
• whether a mixture for a given reversible reaction is at equilibrium, or
• the direction a reaction mixture must shift to reach equilibrium,
the concentrations or pressures in the reaction mixture are substituted into the K expression.
This calculates a value for Q.

Then,
• If Q < K, the mixture must shift right, toward products, to reach equilibrium.
• If Q > K, the mixture must shift left, toward the reactants, to reach equilibrium.
• If Q = K, the mixture is at equilibrium.
Those three cases must either be memorized or be derived when you need them.
The logic of these shifts makes sense. For the general reaction
aA + bB ÅÆ cC + dD
Q = [C]c[D]d = product of the [products] = K if measured at equilibrium,

[A]a[B]b product of the [reactants]
• If Q is a larger number than K, for the Q ratio to reach K, as it must at equilibrium,
product concentrations must go down, and reactant concentrations must go up.
That means the reaction mixture must “shift toward reactants” to reach K.
• If Q < K, the [products] must go up, and the [reactants] down. The mixture must
shift toward the products.
The equation for the expression for K and Q is the same, but the numeric values for K and Q
will often differ. Q can be calculated from measurements in any reaction mixture. A K
value must be based on measurements at equilibrium.
As with K values, values for Q have units, but Q by convention is written as a number
without units.
To summarize, this rule must be memorized.
The Q Rule
To determine which direction a mixture will shift to get to equilibrium,
• substitute the mixture concentrations or pressures into the K expression to
calculate Q, then compare the numeric values of Q and K.
If Q < K, the mixture will shift to the right, toward the products.
If Q > K, the mixture will shift to the left, toward the reactants.
If Q = K, the mixture is at equilibrium and will not shift.
If the Q < K rule for a shift in one direction is memorized, the cases for Q = K and Q > K
should be easy to write as needed.
Using the Q rule, try the following problem.

Q. For the reaction in a closed system:
N2 + 3 H2 ÅÆ 2 NH3 At 400.oC, Kc = 3.8 x 104.

(g) (g) (g)
A mixture of those gases not yet at equilibrium contains [N2] = 0.12 M,
[H2] = 0.030 M, and [NH3] = 0.60 M.
a. Calculate the reaction quotient.
b. As the mixture continues to react, will [NH3] increase or decrease?
* * * * *
Answer
a. WANT: Q = number found by substituting the current concentrations or pressures
into the K expression.
DATA: mixture concentrations: [N2] = 0.12 M, [H2] = 0.030 M, [NH3] = 0.60 M.
Q= [NH3]2 = (0.60)2 = (0.36) = 1.1 x 105

[N2][H2]3 (0.12)(0.030)3 (0.12)(2.7 x 10―5)
b. To find the direction a mixture will shift to reach equilibrium, compare Q to K.

Since Q = 1.1 x 105 and Kc = 3.8 x 104 = 0.38 x 105, and Q is larger than Kc . This means
that the reaction direction must shift to the left to reach equilibrium. The [NH3] in the
products must therefore decrease as the reaction continues, because the Q value must
shift toward a final value of Kc .
Practice
1. Circle the largest numeric value of the three in the series.
a. 2.0 x 106 or 32.5 x 104 or 0.026 x 107
b. 2.0 x 10―6 or 32.5 x 10―4 or 0.026 x 10―7

2. For a given reversible reaction, what is the difference between
a. the K expression and the Q expression?
b. A K value and a Q value?
3. For a mixture, if Q = 0.0010, does the mixture have more reactants or more products?
4. For a given mixture in a reversible reaction, Q = 2.0 x 104 and Kc = 4.0 x 105 . To reach
equilibrium from this mixture, will the reaction shift toward the left or the right?
5. For the reaction PCl5ÅÆ PCl3 + Cl2 , Kc = 0.56 , a gas mixture in a closed
(g) (g) (g)
system is found to contain [PCl5] = 0.50 M, [PCl3] = 0.20 M, and [Cl2] = 0.40 M. As the
mixture continues to react, will the reaction shift to the left or right?

ANSWERS
1. To compare values, change to a consistent power of 10. Below we choose the largest power in the series.
When the exponential terms are the same, the significand will determine which value is higher.
a. 0.20 x 107 or 0.0325 x 107 or 0.026 x 107
b. 0.020 x 10―4 or 32.5 x 10―4 or 0.000 026 x 10―4

2a. The K and Q expressions are the same.
2b. The K value for a given reaction at a given temperature is always the same, but it only applies to a reaction
mixture at equilibrium. The Q value can vary. Q can be measured for any mixture of reactants and
products, at any point in the reaction.
3. Q = (product of [products)/(product of [reactants]). If Q is less than one, the bottom term of the ratio must
be larger. This mixture must have higher concentrations of reactants than products.
4. Q is less than Kc. Based on the K and Q expression, to reach K, the [products] must increase, so the
reaction must shift to the right. Anytime Q < K, the reaction must shift right to reach equilibrium.
5. WANT: Which direction the reaction will shift.
To find which way a mixture must shift to reach equilibrium, compare Q to K.
The Kc value is known. To calculate Q, substitute the current concentrations into the Kc expression.
Q = [PCl3] [Cl2] = (0.20) (0.40) = 0.16 , which is less than Kc = 0.56 in the data.
[PCl5] (0.50)
Since Q is less than K, the [products] on top must increase to reach K. To get to equilibrium from the
current mixture, the reaction must shift to the right.
* * * * *
Lesson 28I: Calculations Using K and Q

Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to calculate concentrations or gas pressures at
equilibrium starting from mixtures of reactants and products that are not at equilibrium.
* * * * *
So far, we have solved calculations involving equilibrium concentrations or gas pressures
in four situations.
• If concentrations or gas pressures at equilibrium are known, K calculations are done
by substituting those values into the K expression.
• If concentrations or gas pressures are known for an initial mixture that is all
reactants (with no products), as well as for any one reactant or product after the
reaction has reached equilibrium, values at equilibrium can be found using a rice
table and arithmetic.

• If concentrations or gas pressures are known for an initial mixture that is all
reactants (with no products), values at equilibrium may be able to be found using a
rice table and algebra.
• In a mixture of reactants and products for a reversible reaction, the direction that the
reaction will shift to reach equilibrium can be determined by comparing K and Q.
In our fifth type of calculation, we will calculate concentrations or gas pressures for a
known reaction at equilibrium, starting from a non-equilibrium mixture of the reactants and
products. In these cases, concentrations and gas pressures at equilibrium can often be
calculated using a rice table, Q and K values, and familiar algebra.
Equilibrium Calculations Based on Mixtures of Reactants and Products
In all of our K calculations to this point, our initial mixtures have been reactants only, with
no products. This has meant that the sign of the terms in the change row in the rice table
has always been negative for the reactants and positive for the products. This is logical: if
there are only reactants, the reaction has not yet started. If the reaction goes at all, some
reactants must be used up and some products formed.
However, if a closed system has a mixture of reactants and products, and the reaction is not
yet at equilibrium, whether the mixture will need to shift to the right toward the products
or left toward reactants to reach equilibrium is not obvious. To calculate which way the
equilibrium will shift, we must compare K and Q.
• If a reaction mixture must shift to the right to reach equilibrium, the signs in the
Change row of the rice table will be negative for the reactants, and positive for the
products. As a reaction shifts to the right, reactants are used up and products form.
• If a reaction mixture must shift left to reach equilibrium, the signs for the terms in
the Change row will be positive for the reactants, and negative for the products,
since in shifting left, products are used up and reactants form.
The above means that for K calculations involving mixtures of reactants and products, the
signs in the Change row of a rice table must be assigned carefully, based on K versus Q.
For K calculations based on an initial mixture of reactants and products, let’s learn to apply
these rules using an example.
Q. For the reaction H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases) , at a temperature where Kc = 16,
in a closed system with constant volume, if in the mixture [ H2 ] = [ I2 ] = 0.100 M
and [ HI ] = 0.500 M, what will be the concentrations of each substance at
equilibrium?
K calculations are solved using the WRECK steps. Complete the following steps for the
problem above.
Steps 1-3: WRE. Write the WANTED unit, balanced Reaction equation, and Extent to
which the reaction goes to completion.

Step 4. Conc@Eq. This step is where K calculations differ.

If the concentrations at equilibrium are not known, make a rice table.
If the data in the problem is for a mixture of reactants and products, Q is
compared to K to determine in which direction the mixture must shift to reach
equilibrium. The direction of the shift determines the signs in the Change
row.
• If the reaction mixture must shift to the left to reach equilibrium, the
Change row for reactants will have + #x terms, and the products ― #x.
• If the mixture must shift to the right, the Change row for products will
have + #x terms, and the reactants ― #x.
In the Change row of a rice table, all of the reactant terms must have the
same sign, and all of the product terms must have the opposite sign.
Complete those steps, and then check your answer below.

* * * * *
1. WANT: [H2], [I2], and [HI] at equilibrium.
2,3. R+E: H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases) (goes to equilibrium. Use K).
4. Conc@Eq. Since the concentrations at equilibrium are not given, a rice table
is needed.
For a mixture of reactants and products, to decide the signs in the
Change row, compare Q to K to determine the direction the
mixture must shift.
Q = [HI]2 = (0.500)2 = 25.0

[H2][I2] (0.100)2
Since Q = 25.00 > K = 16 , the reaction must shift to the left,
toward the reactants, to get to equilibrium.
Now write the rice table. In the Change row, represent the change that will take
place to reach equilibrium using terms like +x, ―x, +2x, ―3x, etc.
Complete the Equilibrium row using terms that include x.
Finish Step 4, and then check your answer below.
* * * * *
As the reaction shifts toward reactants to reach equilibrium, some of the [H2] and [I2]
reactants are formed. In the change row, the signs for all reactant terms must therefore be
positive, and the signs for all product terms must be negative.
* * * * *
According to the coefficients, if [H2] changes by +x, [I2] must change by +x, and the change
in [HI] must be ―2x . The coefficients in the top row and the numbers in front of the x’s in the
Change row must be the same.

Initial 0.100 M 0.100 M 0.500 M
Change +xM +xM ― 2x M
At Equilibrium
Complete the bottom row.

* * * * *
Initial 0.100 M 0.100 M 0.500 M
Change +xM +xM ― 2x M
At Equilibrium (0.100 + x) M (0.100 + x) M (0.500 ― 2x) M
Step 5. K: Write the K equation, then solve for x. Substitute the equilibrium row terms
into the K equation.
* * * * *
K= [HI]2 = (0.500 ― 2x)2 = 16 Take the square root of both sides,
[H2][I2] (0.100 + x)2 then solve for x.
* * * * *
(0.500 ― 2x) = (16)1/2 = 4.0 Finish solving for x.
(0.100 + x)
* * * * *
0.500 ― 2x = 4.0 (0.100 + x)
0.500 ― 2x = 0.4 + 4x
6x = 0.100 ; x = 0.100/6 = 0.0167
Step 6. Solve for the WANTED units and symbols. Substitute the x values into
equilibrium row terms.
* * * * *
H2 I2 HI
At Equilibrium 0.100 + 0.017 = 0.117 M 0.117 M 0.500 ― 2(0.017) = 0.466 M
Step 7. Check. Substitute those equilibrium concentrations into the K expression.

Calculate a value of K. Compare to the K value given in the problem.
* * * * *

7. Check: K = [HI]2 = (0.466)2 = 15.9 versus K = 16 in the data.

[H2][I2] (0.117)2
The check K agrees with the given K, allowing for the doubtful digit.
* * * * *
Summary: Solving K Calculations
To calculate concentrations or pressures at equilibrium from those that are not at
equilibrium, write the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
1,2,3. WRE. Write the WANTED symbol or unit, balanced Reaction equation, and
Extent of the reaction.
4. Conc@Eq. Find all concentrations or partial pressures at equilibrium.
If values at equilibrium are not known, make a rice table.
If all known values are initial reactants, Change row reactant signs are all negative.
For a mixture of reactants and products not at equilibrium, the mixture will shift to
reach equilibrium. Find the reaction direction using Q. The direction of the shift
decides Change row signs (+ #x or ─ #x).
5. K: Solve K for x.
6. Find the WANTED unit using the x values.
7. Check. Calculate K using equilibrium values. Compare to K in the data.
Practice: For hints, read a part of the answer.

1. When solving for an equilibrium concentration using a rice moles table, if K = 25 and
Q = 55,
a. will the reaction shift to the right or left to reach equilibrium?
b. Will the sign of the reactant terms in the change row of the table be positive or
negative?
2. A mixture for a reversible reaction has the following rice table.
Reaction 1A 1B 2C
Initial 0.50 M 0.50 M 2.0 M
Change +xM +xM ─ 2x M
At Equilibrium
a. Write an expression for the equilibrium constant Kc .

b. Calculate a Q value for the initial mixture.
c. Will the mixture shift toward reactants or products to reach equilibrium?
d. In the table, complete the concentrations at equilibrium in terms of x .
e. If the value for the equilibrium constant is 4.0, calculate the value of x.

f. Calculate the concentrations of A, B, and C at equilibrium.

g. Check your answer by using the part f answers to calculate a K value.
3. In the reaction CO + H2O ÅÆ CO2 + H2 all gases in a closed system, if Kp = 0.36
and the initial concentrations are 0.50 M for each reactant and 1.00 M for each product,
a. What will be the value of Kc ?
b. What will be concentration of each substance at equilibrium?
ANSWERS
1a. Since Q is higher than K, to reach equilibrium, the reaction mixture must shift to the left, toward the
reactants, to reach equilibrium.
1b. When the reaction must shift to the left to reach equilibrium, the reactant terms in the Change row of the
rice table will have positive signs, because their concentration will increase during the shift.
2a. The rice table coefficients show that the reaction is A + B ÅÆ 2C , so K = [C]2
[A][B]
2b. To calculate Q, substitute the initial concentrations into the K expression.
Q = [C]2 = [2.0]2 = 4.0 = 16

[A][B] [0.50][ 0.50] 0.25
2c. Since the signs for the reactants in the change row are positive, the reactant concentrations will be
increasing as the mixture shifts toward equilibrium. The reaction is shifting to the left toward reactants.
2d. At Equilibrium 0.50 M + x 0.50 M + x 2.0 M ─ 2x
2e. To calculate x, substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the K equation.
K = 4.0 = [C]2 = [2.0 M ─ 2x]

2
= 4.0
[A][B] [0.50 M + x]2
To find x, begin by taking the square root of both sides.

[2.0 M ─ 2x] = 2.0
[0.50 M + x]
2.0 M ─ 2x = 2.0(0.50 M + x)
2.0 M ─ 2x = 1.0 M + 2x
4x = 1.0 M ; x = 0.25 M
2f. Substitute for x in the bottom row of the rice table.
[A] = 0.50 M + 0.25 M = 0.75 M = [B] ; [C] = 2.0 M ─ 2(0.25 M) = 1.5 M
2g. K = [C]2 = [1.5]2 = 2.25 = 4.0 This agrees with the K supplied in part e.
[A][B] [0.75][0.75] 0.562

3a. Since the moles of gas are the same on both sides, Kp = Kc = 0.36
3b. To calculate equilibrium measures from non-equilibrium measures, do the 7 steps: WRECK, solve, check.
1. WANT: The four concentrations at equilibrium.
2,3. R+E:CO + H2O ÅÆ CO2 + H2 (all gases) (goes to equilibrium, use K to solve).
4. Conc@Eq. If concentrations at equilibrium are not known, a rice table is needed.
For a mixture of reactants and products, to determine the signs in the Change row,
determine the direction the equilibrium must shift by comparing Q and K.
Q = [CO2] [H2] = (1.00)(1.00) = 1 = 4.0
[CO][H2O] (0.50)(0.50) 0.25
Since 4.0 = Q > 0.36 = K, the mixture is shifting toward reactants to reach equilibrium.
In the Change row, if the reaction is shifting toward reactants, reactants must get a +
sign, and products a ―. All reactant terms must have the same sign, and all product
terms must have the opposite sign. Write Equilibrium row in terms of x.

Initial 0.50 M 0.50 M 1.00 M 1.00 M
Change +xM +xM ―xM ―xM
At Equilibrium 0.50 + x M 0.50 + x M 1.00 ― x M 1.00 ― x M
4. K: Solve the K equation for x using the equilibrium row terms.
Kc = [CO2] [H2] = (1.00 ― x)2 = 0.36

[CO][H2O] (0.50 + x)2
Taking the square root of both sides: (1. 00 ― x) = (0.36)1/2 = 0.60

(0.50 + x)
Solving for x: (1.00 ― x) = 0.60 (0.50 + x)
1.00 ― x = 0.30 + 0.60x
0.70 = 1.60 x
x = 0.438 M (carry an extra sf until the last step)
6. Solve for the WANTED units.
WANTED: [reactants] = [CO] = [H2O] = 0.50 M + x = 0.50 M + 0.438 = 0.94 M
[products] = [CO2] = [H2] = 1.00 M ― x = 1.00 M ― 0.438 = 0.56 M

(Hundredths has doubt in both. Adding and subtracting, the place decides the doubtful digit.)
2
7. Check: K = [CO2] [H2] = (0.56) = 0.35 calculated ≈ 0.36 in original data. Check!
[CO][H2O] (0.94)2
* * * * *

Lesson 28J: Solving Quadratic Equations

Timing: Do this lesson if you are asked to solve quadratic equations as part of K or other
calculations. Even if you feel confident about the math of quadratic equations, this lesson
may contain information on the use of quadratics in science problems that will be helpful to
review.
* * * * *
Quadratic Equations
In the calculations in the prior lesson, the numbers and formulas were chosen to allow
solving for K values by simply taking a square root. In other K calculations, you may need
to solve a quadratic equation for x.
The general format for a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0 , where a, b, and c are
numbers. A quadratic equation has x2 terms, but no x powers higher than 2. In a quadratic
equation, the terms a, b, and c will be numbers, and x is the unknown.
Once a quadratic equation is in the general format, and the numbers a, b, and c are known,
x can be solved using quadratic formula:
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2
2a
The quadratic formula will result in two values for x that solve the equation
mathematically.
Both the general format and the quadratic formula must be memorized. The quadratic formula
may be best memorized by repeated recitation: “x equals minus b plus or minus the square
root of b squared minus 4ac, all over 2a.”
Tools available online (search quadratic formula calculator) as well as some calculators will
solve a quadratic equation for x after you have values for a, b, and c. However, you may
not be allowed to use those tools on quizzes and tests. This lesson will review how to solve
quadratic formulas with minimal calculator use.
The following steps will solve the type of quadratic equations most often encountered in
first-year chemistry. Let’s begin with a simple example.
Q. 4x2 + (x ─ 2) = 3
Solve for x using the steps below.
Steps To Solve Quadratic Equations
1. Move all terms to one line and eliminate parentheses.
2. Group the terms into the general quadratic format: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Write the values for a, b, and c.
Complete those steps, then check below.
* * * * *

1. All terms are on one line. Removing parentheses:

4x2 + (x ─ 2) = 3
4x2 + x ─ 2 = 3
2. Move the terms into the general format: ax2 + bx + c = 0
by rearranging the terms to get a zero on the right side.
4x2 + x ― 5 = 0
Write the values: a = 4, b = 1, c = ― 5 .
Now try step 3, then check your answer below.
3. Substitute the values for a, b, and c into the quadratic formula:
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2
2a
and solve (you may use a calculator or online program if permitted in your class). The
result will be two values for x.
Check the two values by substituting them into the original equation.
* * * * *
3. Substituting a, b, and c into the quadratic formula:
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─(1) ± {(1)2 ─ 4(4)( ― 5)}1/2 = ─1 ± (1 + 80)1/2 =

2a 2(4) 8
= ─1 ± (81)1/2 = ─1 ± 9 = 8 and ― 10 = +1 and ― 1.25

8 8 8 8
Check: Substitute each value for x into the original equation.
4(1)2 + (1 ─ 2) = 4 ─ 1 = 3 4(― 1.25)2 + (― 1.25─ 2) = 6.25 ― 3.25 = 3
Both values check.
Practice A. Solve for x, then substitute your answers into the original equation to check
them. The second problem is more challenging.
1. x2 ― 3x ― 28 = 0 2. 2 = (1 + 2x)2
(2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x)
Solving Quadratic Equations in Science Problems

The above three steps will solve quadratic equations mathematically and give two values
for x. In science problems, however, one of those x values will usually result in a quantity
that cannot work in the problem. An example would be an x that results in negative values
for quantities such as mass and volume that can only be positive. The other value will be a
number that, when plugged into the values in the problem, does result in measurements
that are real. The x value that makes sense is the one that is used to complete the problem.

When solving quadratic equations in science problems, we will add Step

4. Substitute the two x values into the data one at a time, and see which one makes sense.
Use the four steps above to solve the following problem. If you get stuck, read the below
answer until unstuck, adjust your work, and finish.
Q. For the reaction in a closed system: A + B ÅÆ C , K = 10. At equilibrium,
concentrations are [C] = (1.40 + x) M, [B] =(0.40 ― x) M, and [A] = (1.00 ― x) M.
a. Solve for x. b. Solve for [A], [B], and [C].
* * * * *
Answer
a. For K calculations, write the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
1. WANT: x
2,3. R&E: A + B ÅÆ C (Since a K value is given, reaction goes to equilibrium)
4. Conc@Eq [C] = (1.40 + x) M, [B] =(0.40 ― x) M, and [A] = (1.00 ― x) M
Since the Conc@Eq values are known, a rice table is not needed.
5. K: Write the K expression, then solve for x.
K= [C] ; so: 10. = (1.40 + x)

[A][B] (1.00 ― x)(0.40 ― x)
If a K equation cannot be solved by taking a square root, see if the equation has x2
terms that indicate a quadratic equation.
In first-year chemistry, assigned problems will nearly always be those that can be
solved by either taking a square root or solving a quadratic.
In this case, the denominator, when multiplied out gives an x2 term, an indication
that you can use the quadratic formula to solve.
The arithmetic shown below can be done in different ways, but the four general steps to
solve a quadratic given above should be followed.
1. Move all terms to one line. 10 (0.40 ― x) (1.00 ― x) = (1.40 + x)
Eliminate parentheses. 10 ( 0.40 ― 1.40x + x2 ) = 1.40 + x
4 ― 14x + 10x2 = 1.40 + x
2. Group terms into the general quadratic format. On the left side, write a single x2
term, a single x term, and a single number term. On the right side must be zero.
* * * * *
General: ax2 + bx + c = 0 In this problem: 10x2 ― 15x + 2.6 = 0
3. Substitute the values for a, b, and c into the quadratic formula and solve for x.
To begin, fill in these blanks: a = ______ , b = _______ , c = ___________
* * * * *

a = 10 , b = ― 15 , c = 2.6 . Substituting these values:
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─(― 15) ± {(― 15) 2 ─ 4(10)( 2.6)}1/2 =

2a 2(10)
= + 15 ± (225 ─ 104)1/2 = +15 ± (121)1/2 = 15 ± 11 = 26 and 4 = 1.3 and 0.2

20 20 20 20 20
Now search online for quadratic formula calculator. Use it to check the answers
calculated above. You may want to compare several different online tools.
If during tests you are allowed to use a calculator that will solve quadratic
equations, use the print or online manual for the calculator to determine which
steps to use, then solve the quadratic above.
4. Only one x value will work in the problem. Substitute the two resulting answers for
x into the problem data and see which one makes sense.
* * * * *
Since [ B ] = (0.40 ― x) , if x = 1.3, [B] would equal ― 0.90 Molar. Concentrations
cannot be negative. The x value that gives a positive number for every concentration
is x = 0.20 . That x value is the one that works to solve the problem.
This answers Part a of the problem. Complete part b.
* * * * *
b. [A] = (1.40 + x) = (1.40 + 0.20) = 1.60 M (when adding, track the place with doubt)
[B] = (0.40 ― x) = (0.40 ― 0.20) = 0.20 M
[C] = (1.00 ― x) = (1.00 ― 0.20) = 0.80 M
In problems that calculate a value for K, you can check your work by substituting the
calculated answers back into the K expression, then comparing the calculated K to the K
given in the problem. Let’s add this to our to our quadratic solving process as Step
5. Check: If K was given in the problem, substitute your answers into the K equation and
calculate K. The result should be the K given in the problem.
Do step 5, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Check: K= [A] = 1.60 = 1.60 = 10. This matches the original K value.
[B][C] (0.20)(0.80) 0.16 The value x = 0.20 works.
* * * * *
SUMMARY: Solving Quadratic Equations In Science Calculations
1. Move all terms to one line and eliminate parentheses.
2. Group the terms into the general quadratic format: ax2 + bx + c = 0
3. Substitute the values for a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.
4. Substitute the two x values into the data one at a time, and see which one makes sense.
5. Check: Substitute your answers into the original equation.

Practice B
1. For this reaction in a closed glass cylinder H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases)
at a temperature where Kc = 2.0, initial concentrations are [H2] = 2.5 M, [I2] = 1.5 M, and
[HI] = 1.0 M. What will be the concentration of each substance at equilibrium?
2. For the reaction PCl3 + Cl2 ÅÆ PCl5 (all gases) in a container with a fixed volume,
at an equilibrium temperature where Kp = 20., initial partial pressures are 0.20 atm. for
PCl3, 0.040 atm. for Cl2, and 0.58 atm for PCl5. What will be the partial pressure of
each gas at equilibrium?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. x2 ― 3x ― 28 = 0
This equation is already in the general format of a quadratic equation: a = 1, b = ― 3, c = ― 28 .
Substitute into the quadratic formula.
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─(― 3) ± {(― 3) 2 ─ 4(1)( ― 28)}1/2 = + 3 ± (9 + 112)1/2
2a 2(1) 2
= + 3 ± (121)1/2 = + 3 ± 11 = 14 and ―8 = +7 and ― 4
2 2 2 2
Check: (7)2 ― 3(7) ― 28 = 49 ― 21 ― 28 = 0
(― 4)2 ― 3(― 4) ― 28 = 16 + 12 ― 28 = 0
2. 2 = (1 + 2x)2 Group terms on one line and eliminate parentheses.
(2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x)
2 (2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x) = (1 + 2x)2

2 (3.75 ― 4x + x2) = (1 + 4x + 4x2)
7.5 ― 8x + 2x2 = 1 + 4x + 4x2
Move terms into the general format: ax2 + bx + c = 0
2x2 + 12x ― 6.5 = 0 ; a = 2, b = +12, c = ― 6.5 .
Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula and solve for the two x values.
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─(12) ± {(12)2 ─ 4(2)( ― 6.5)}1/2 = ─12 ± (144 + 52)1/2 =
2a 2(2) 4
= ─12 ± (196)1/2 = ─12 ± 14 = 2 and ― 26 = +0.5 and ― 6.5 = x
4 4 4 4
Check: (1 + 2x)2 = (1 + 2(0.5))2 = 4 = 2
(2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x) (2.5 ― 0.5) (1.5 ― 0.5) (2) (1)

(1 + 2x)2 = (1 + 2(― 6.5))2 = (―12)2 = 144 = 2

(2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x) (2.5 ― (― 6.5) (1.5 ― (― 6.5)) (8) (9) 72
Practice B
1. For K calculations, do the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
1. WANTED: [H2], [I2], and [HI] at equilibrium.
2,3. R+E:H2 + I2 ÅÆ 2 HI (all gases) (goes to equilibrium. Use K to solve.)
4. Conc@Eq. If concentrations at equilibrium are not known, a rice table is needed.
For a mixture of reactants and products, to determine the signs in the change row,
determine the direction the equilibrium will shift by comparing Q and K.
Q = [HI]2 = (1.0)2 = 1.0 = 0.27
[H2][I2] (2.5) (1.5) 3.75
Since Q = 0.27 < K = 2.0 , the reaction must shift to the right to get to equilibrium.
This means that the changes in the [products] must be positive ( + # x terms).
Initial 2.5 M 1.5 M 1.0 M
At Equilibrium
Each change box has an x. The number in front of x is the coefficient at the top of that column. Signs
must all be positive on the side the reaction is shifting to, and all negative on the other side.
Complete the equilibrium row using terms that include x.
* * * * *
Initial 2.5 M 1.5 M 1.0 M
At Equilibrium (2.5 ― x) M (1.5 ― x) M (1.0 + 2x) M
5. Solve K for x. Substitute the equilibrium row terms into the K equation.
K= [HI]2 = (1.0 + 2x)2 = 2

[ H2 ][ I2 ] (2.5 ― x) (1.5 ― x)
This cannot be solved by a square root. Since the top and bottom when multiplied out have x2
terms, try the quadratic steps to solve.
* * * * *
This quadratic equation is solved in Problem 1c above.
The answers are x = +0.5 and x = ― 6.5
6. Solve. Substitute the value of x to find the WANTED eq. row values.

[ H2 ]eq. = 2.5 ― x . Either 2.5 ― 0.5 = 2.0 M or 2.5 ―6.5 = ―4.0 M

Since real concentrations cannot be negative, use x = 0.5 .
[ I2 ]eq = 1.5 ― x = 1.5 ― 0.5 = 1.0 M
[ HI ]eq = 1.0 + 2x = 1.0 + 2(0.5) = 2.0 M
7. Check: substitute those [ ]eq. into the K expression. Calculate a K to compare to the data.
K = [HI]2 = (2.0)2 = 4.0 = 2.0 versus 2.0 in the problem. Check.

[H2][I2] (2.0) (1.0) 2.0
2. For K calculations, do the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
1. WANT: ? = PPCl , PPCl , and PCl , in atm at equilibrium
3 5 2
2,3. R+ E: PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ÅÆ PCl5(g) (goes to equilibrium, use K).
4. Conc@Eq. If pressures at equilibrium are not known, a rice table is needed.
For a mixture of reactants and products, to determine the signs in the Change row,
determine the direction the equilibrium will shift by comparing Q and K.
PPCl
Q = 5 = 0.58 atm. = 72
PPCl • PCl (0.20 atm.)(0.040 atm.)
3 2
Since Q = 72 > K = 20. , the reaction must shift to the left to reach equilibrium.
The means the reactants in the Change row will have positive signs.
Write rice table with Change row terms such as +x, ―x, +2x, ―3x, etc.
Complete the Equilibrium row using those x terms.
* * * * *
Reaction 1 PCl3 1 Cl2 1 PCl5

Initial 0.20 atm 0.040 atm 0.58 atm.
Change +x +x ―x
At Equilibrium (0.20 + x) atm. (0.040 + x) atm. (0.58 ― x) atm.
Each Change box has an x. The number in front of x is the coefficient in that column. Signs must all
be positive on the side the reaction is shifting to (left), and all negative on the other side.
5. Solve K for x. Substitute the equilibrium row terms into the K equation.
Kp = PPCl
5 = (0.58 ― x) = 20
PPCl • PCl (0.20 + x)(0.040 + x)
3 2
The problems you are assigned will be solved either by taking a square root or solving the
quadratic. This equation cannot be solved by taking the square root, but it does have x2 terms if
the denominator parentheses are removed. Arrange the terms to fit the general quadratic format.
* * * * *

Group all terms on one line and eliminate parentheses.

20 (0.20 + x) (0.040 + x) = (0.58 ― x)
20 (0.0080 + 0.24x + x2) = 0.58 ― x
0.16 + 4.8x + 20x2 = 0.58 ― x
Group terms into the general format: ax2 + bx + c = 0
20x2 + 5.8x ― 0.42 = 0
Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula and solve for the two x values.
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─(5.8) ± {(5.8) 2 ─ 4(20)( ― 0.42)}1/2 = ─5.8 ± (33.64 +33.6)1/2 =
2a 2(20) 40
= ─5.8 ± (67.24)1/2 = ─5.8 ± 8.2 = 2.4 and ― 14 = +0.060 and ― 0.35
40 40 40 40
Which x value makes sense?
PPCl = 0.20 + x = 0.20 + 0.060 = 0.26 atm. or 0.20 ― 0.35 = ― 0.15 atm.
3
Since pressure cannot be negative, the valid value of x = 0.060.
6. SOLVE for Eq. values. Substitute the value for x to find the WANTED eq. row values.
PCl = 0.040 + x = 0.040 + 0.060 = 0.100 atm.
2
PPCl = 0.58 ― x = 0.58 ― 0.060 = 0.52 atm.
5
7. Check: substitute those atm. into the K expression. Calculate a K to compare to the data
Kp = PPCl
5 = 0.52 = 20. and the Kp value in the problem is 20. Check!
PPCl • PCl (0.26)(0.100)
3 2
* * * * *
Summary – Equilibrium
If you have not already done so, you may want to organize this summary into charts,
numbered lists, and flashcards.
1. Reactions can be divided into three types: those that go nearly 100% to completion,
those that don’t go, and reactions that are in practice reversible and go partially to
completion. Reversible reactions continue until both the forward and reverse reactions
are going at the same rate, and no further reaction seems to take place. The reaction is
then said to be at equilibrium.
For equilibrium to exist:
• All reactants and products must be present in at least small quantities, and
• The reaction must be in a closed system: no particles or energy can be entering or
leaving the system.

2. Le Châtelier’s Principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change, processes

occur which tend to counteract that change.
Le Châtelier’s Principle predicts shifts in concentration, temperature, and pressure.
To apply Le Châtelier’s Principle, write the reactants and products of the reversible
reaction with “two-way arrows” in-between. Then,
a. Increasing a [substance] which appears on one side of a equilibrium equation shifts
an equilibrium to the other side. The other substance concentrations on the same
side as the [increased] are decreased, and the substance concentrations on the other
side are increased.
b. Decreasing a [substance] which appears on one side of a equilibrium equation shifts
the equilibrium toward that side. The other [substances] on the same side are
increased, and the [substances] on the other side are decreased.
c. Adding energy shifts the equilibrium away from the side with the energy term, and
removing energy shifts the equilibrium toward the side with the energy term.
e. Energy can be added to a system by increasing its temperature. Energy can be
removed by cooling. When energy is produced by a shift in equilibrium, the
temperature of the system goes up. When energy is used up, the system’s
temperature goes down.
f. Increasing the pressure on a gas, such as by reducing the volume of the container, will
shift the equilibrium toward the side with fewer total moles of gas, based on adding
the gas coefficients on each side of the balanced equation.
g. Decreasing the pressure on a gas, such as by increasing the volume of the container,
will shift the equilibrium toward the side with more moles of gas.
h. If gas moles are equal on both sides, pressure changes will not shift an equilibrium.
i. Adding or removing a solid, pure liquid, or solvent does not shift an equilibrium.
because shifting an equilibrium does not change the concentration of a solid, pure
liquid, or solvent (but it may change the amounts present).
3. The Equilibrium Constant
a. For the general reaction aA + bB ÅÆ cC + dD at a given temperature,
at equilibrium, the ratio [C]c[D]d = K will be constant.

[A]a[B]b
b. The ratio with powers and symbols for concentrations is called the equilibrium
constant (K) expression. The K value is the number that is the ratio. If the
temperature changes, the K value will change, but the K expression does not.
c. Generally, only concentrations that can change are included in K expressions. Terms
for solids, pure liquids, and solvents (including liquid water) are written as 1 in K
expressions. This moves the constant value of those terms into the value of K.

4. K Values
a. An equilibrium constant value is a positive number. At equilibrium,
• If the substances on the right side of an equation have higher concentrations
than those on the left, the value of K will greater than one.
• If the substances on the right side of an equation have lower concentrations than
those on the left, the value of K will be a number between zero and one (in
scientific notation, a positive number with a negative power of 10).
• The more a reaction goes to the right, the higher will be the value of K.
b. If a value of K is known for a reaction written in one direction, the value of K for
the reverse reaction will be the reciprocal of the original K. Kf = 1/Kr
c. If a value of K is known for a reaction with one set of coefficients, those
coefficients can be multiplied by any positive number, and the new value of K
will equal the original K to the power of the multiplier. K = (#)n
5. Kp Equations
At a given temperature, for a reaction in which all substances are gases

wA(gas) + xB(gas) ÅÆ yC(gas) + zD(gas)
at equilibrium these ratios will be constant:
y z
Kc = [C]y[D]z and Kp = (PC) •(PD) where P represents partial pressure.
[A]w[B]x (PA)w•(PB)x
Kc and Kp calculations are done in the same manner, except
• The values of Kc and Kp will not be the same if the two sides of the balanced
equation have a different number of total moles of gases.
• In problems involving Kp values, gas pressures must be measured in or
converted to the unit atmospheres.
• When calculating a gas pressure using Kp values, atmospheres must be added
as the unit of the answer.
6. Converting Between Kc and Kp
When all terms in a K expression are gases, if either a Kc or a Kp value is known at a
given temperature, the other value can be calculated using
Kp = Kc (RT)Δn where
• R is the Gas Constant, using R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K

• T is absolute temperature in kelvins, and
• Δn = (the sum of the coefficients of the gases in the products) MINUS (the
sum of the coefficients of the gases in the reactants).
The number for Δn may be positive or negative, and it may be a fraction.

If the total for the gaseous coefficients on the two sides of the reaction equation are
equal, Δn = zero, and Kp = Kc .
7. Rice Moles Tables. In chemical reaction calculations, we can track the counts of
particles before, during, and at the end of a reaction with a rice moles table. Rice
tables have 4 rows: balanced Reaction equation, Initial, Change, and
End/Equilibrium.
Rice tables can always be solved in moles, and can also be solve in concentration or
gas pressure units if the volume is the same for all measurements.
8. The reaction quotient (Q) is the number that results when concentration or pressure
values for a mixture that may not be at equilibrium are substituted into the K expression.
9. The Q Rule: To determine the direction a mixture will shift to reach equilibrium,
compare Q to K. (If Q > K, the mixture will shift toward reactants).
10. For calculations involving K values and concentrations or gas pressures,
write the WRECK steps, solve, and check.
1,2,3. WRE. Write the Wanted unit or symbol, balanced Reaction equation, and
reaction Extent.
4. Conc@Eq. Find all concentrations or partial pressures at equilibrium.
If values at equilibrium are not known, make a rice table.
If all known values are for initial reactants, Change row reactant signs are negative.
If known values are for a mixture of reactants and products not at equilibrium, find
the reaction direction using Q. Direction decides Change row signs (─#x or +#x).
If the reaction must shift right to reach equilibrium, Change row signs for products
will be positive. If reaction must shift left, reactant Change row signs are positive.
In the Change row, all of the reactant terms must have the same sign, and all of
the product terms must have the opposite sign.
5. K: Solve K for x using algebra (take square root or solve the quadratic formula).
6. Solve for the WANTED unit using the x values.
7. Check. Calculate K using the solved values. Compare to K in the data.
# # # # #

The former Module 29 on Brønsted-Lowry Definitions is now Module 31
If you are looking for Brønsted-Lowry Definition topics, check Module 31
* * * * *
Module 29: Acid-Base Fundamentals
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page ii

Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page iii

Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page iv

Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page v

Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page vi

•••••
©2007 ChemReview.net v. 2a Page vii

Module 29 — Acid-Base Fundamentals

Timing: Acid-base neutralization calculations were covered in Module 14. Begin this
module when you are assigned calculations that include Kw or pH.
* * * * *
Lesson 29A: Acid-Base Math Review

Pretest: This lesson reviews the math frequently used in acid-base calculations. If your
exponential math is good, simply do the last lettered part of questions 5-8 in the Practice.
If more review is needed, study the rules below and then do more of the practice set. For
more detailed review, see Lessons 1A to 1C.
* * * * *
Rules For Exponential Notation
1. To multiply exponential terms, add the exponents.
2. To divide exponentials, subtract the exponents.
3. Numbers expressed in exponential notation have two parts: 5.25 x 103
^ ^
significand exponential
4. Answers in exponential notation should be converted to scientific notation, so that the
decimal in the significand is after the first digit that is not a zero.
• Moving the decimal point Y times to make the significand larger, make the exponent
of 10 smaller by a count of Y.
• Moving the decimal point Y times to make the significand smaller, make the
exponent larger by a count of Y.
“If you make one larger, make the other smaller.”
5. When changing numbers to exponential notation, the number of times you move the
decimal becomes the positive or negative number in the power of the exponent.
6. In scientific notation, numeric values larger than one will have positive significands and
positive powers of 10. Values between zero and one will have positive significands and
negative powers of 10.
7. In calculations using exponential notation, handle the two parts separately. Do number
math by number rules and exponential math by exponential rules.
8. If an exponential term does not have a number in front, add a “1 x ” in front of the
exponential so that the number-number division is clear.
Practice
Do the problems below without looking back at the rules. If you find that you need to look
back, write a summary of the 7 rules above, recite your rules, then continue with the
practice.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 2g Page 856

To speed your progress, do every other problem. If you need more practice, do more parts
of that problem. Practice until you can do this math easily. Check your answers at the end
of this lesson.
Try problems 1-7 without a calculator.
1. If you need help, see Rule 1. a. (10─8)(10+2) = ___________
b. (10─3)(10─12) = ___________ c. (x)(10─12) = 10─14 ; x = _______
d. [H+](10─9) = 10─14 ; [H+] = _______ e. (10─3) [OH─] = 10─14 ; [OH─] = _______
2. Need a hint? See Rule 2.
a. 10─14 = b. 10─14 = c. 10─14 =

103 10─5 10─11
3. Convert these to scientific notation. For help, see Rule 3.
a. 324 x 10+12 = ___________ b. 0.050 x 10─11 = ___________
c. 0.65 x 10─7 = ___________ d. 879 x 10─5 = ___________
4. Convert these numbers to scientific notation. See Rule 4 for help.

a. 5,260 = b. 0.010 = c. 0.0075 =
5. Write and memorize the decimal equivalents of these fractions:

a. 1/2 = b. 1/20 = c. 1/3 = d. 1/4 =
e. 1/5 = f. 1/50 = g. 1/8 = h. 1/80 =
6. Convert your final answer to scientific notation. Need a hint? See Rule 6.
a. (2.0 x 101) (3.0 x 10─11) =
b. 1.0 x 10─14 = c. 1.0 x 10─14 =

2.0 x 104 3.0 x 10─4
d. [H+](2.0 x 10─8) = 10 x 10─15 ; [H+] =
e. (2.5 x 10─2) [OH─] = 10 x 10─15 ; [OH─] =
7. Converting numbers to scientific notation, then try to solve without a calculator.
a. 1.0 x 10─14 = b. 1.0 x 10─14 =

0.040 0.0030
c. [H+](0.20) = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [H+] =
d. (0.0125) [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [OH─] =

8. Use a calculator for the numbers, but not the exponentials. Convert answers to
a. 1.0 x 10─14 = b. 1.0 x 10─14 =

3.25 x 10─5 8.8 x 10─4
c. 10─14 = d. 10─14 =
2.4 x 103 4.3 x 10─4
e. [H+](6.7 x 10─12) = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [H+] =
f. (1.25 x 10─7) [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [OH─] =
ANSWERS
1a. (10─8)(10+2) = 10─6 1b. 10─15 1c. 10─2 1d. 10─5
1e. (10─3) [OH─] = 10─14 ; [OH─] = 10─11
2a. 10─17 2b. 10─9 2c. 10─3
3a. 324 x 10+12 = 3.24 x 10+14 3b. 5.0 x 10─13 3c. 6.5 x 10─8 3d. 8.79 x 10─3
4a. 5,260 = 5.26 x 10+3 4b. 0.010 = 1.0 x 10─2 4c. 0.0075 = 7.5 x 10─3
5a. 1/2 = 0.50 5b. 1/20 = 0.05 5c. 1/3 = 0.33 5d. 1/4 = 0.25
5e. 1/5 = 0.20 5f . 1/50 = 0.020 5g. 1/8 = 0.125 5h. 1/80 = 0.0125
6a. (2.0 x 101) (3.0 x 10─11) = 6.0 x 10─10 6b. 5.0 x 10─19 6c. 3.3 x 10─11
6d. 5.0 x 10─7 6e. (2.5 x 10─2)[OH─] = 10 x 10─15 ; [OH─] = 4.0 x 10─13
7a. 2.5 x 10─13 7b. 3.3 x 10─12 7c. 5.0 x 10─14
7d. (0.0125) [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.80 x 10─ 12 = 8.0 x 10─13
1.25 x 10─2
8a. 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.31 x 10─9 8b. 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.11 x 10─10
3.25 x 10─5 = 3.1 x 10─10 8.8 x 10─4 = 1.1 x 10─11
8c. 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 4.2 x 10─18 8d. 2.3 x 10─11 8e. 1.5 x 10─3
2.4 x 103 2.4 x 103
8f. (1.25 x 10─7)[OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.80 x 10─7 = 8.0 x 10─8
1.25 x 10─7
* * * * *

Lesson 29B: Kw Calculations: H+ and OH─

The Ionization of Water O H
A water molecule has 3 atoms with the oxygen in the
middle, a bent shape, and two bonds. H
At temperatures above absolute zero, the bonds in water bend and stretch. The molecules
also collide. At room temperature, for about one in 500 million molecules, one of the bonds
in liquid water is broken. The result is the formation of two ions, H+ and OH─, that can
move about separately in the water solution.
This ionization of water is reversible and can be represented by the equation
1 H2O(liquid) ÅÅÆ 1 H+(aq) + 1 OH─(aq)
>99.999% un-ionized <0.001% ionized

In pure (distilled) liquid water, the number of H+ and OH─ ions must be equal, since they
must be formed in a 1 to 1 ratio when water ionizes. The concentration of the H+ and OH─
ions must also be equal, since the equal moles of the two ions will be contained in the same
liters of solution. At room temperature, the ion concentrations are very small:
1.0 x 10─7 moles per liter for each. The concentration of the un-ionized water molecules is
very large in comparison: about 55 mol/L.
However, even at these low concentrations, small changes in the balance between H+ and
OH─ can have a large influence on reactions that are important in chemistry and biology.
Water’s Ionization Constant: Kw
For the reversible ionization of water: H2O(liquid) ÅÆ H+(aq) + OH─(aq)
the equilibrium constant expression could be written as:
K = [H+][OH─]
[H2O]
However, in aqueous solutions (those where water is the solvent), the concentration of the
non-ionized water molecules is high (about 55 M) for the relatively dilute solutions used in
most lab experiments, and it does not change substantially during dilution or reactions.
In equilibrium constants, concentrations that remain close to constant during reactions are
generally included as part of the numeric value for K and omitted from the K expression.
The result is a simplified equilibrium constant expression (Kw) for the relationship between
H+ and OH─ in an aqueous solution:
K (55 M) = Kw = [H+][OH─]
At room temperature (25oC), the value for Kw is 1.0 x 10─14. This small numeric value
(0.000 000 000 000 010) indicates that the reaction favors the reactants: very few water
molecules separate into ions.

As temperature increases, the molecules of water collide with higher energy, the bonds
bend and stretch more vigorously, and the bonds break more often. Of importance in
biology, at body temperature in mammals (37˚C), the [H+] in water is about 1.6 x 10─7, as
opposed to 1.0 x 10─7 at 25oC.
However, for acid-base calculations in chemistry, you may assume that conditions are at
25oC unless otherwise noted. In acid-base calculations, we will use this Kw equation:
Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 at 25oC
This relationship between [H+] and [OH─ ] is an inverse proportion. If substances are
added to water to make one ion concentration go up, the other must go down by the same
proportion: if one triples, the other must become 1/3 of its original concentration.
Acid-Base Terminology
In pure water, the concentration of H+ and OH─ ions must be equal. However, if acids or
bases are dissolved into water, we can upset this balance.
By what are termed the classical definitions of acids and bases:
• An acid is a substance that ionizes in water and forms [H+] ions.
• A base is a substance that ionizes in water and forms [OH─] ions.
These are also called the Arrhenius definitions, after the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius
who first proposed the existence of electrically charged chemical particles (ions).
When acids or bases are added to water, the water continues to ionize slightly, and the Kw
equation will continue to predict the relationship between the [H+] and [OH─] ions. In an
acidic or basic solution, if either [H+] or [OH─] is known, the concentration of the other ion
can be calculated using the Kw equation. A useful rule is: in calculations that include both
[H+] and [OH─] in the WANTED and DATA, write the Kw equation. We will call this the
Kw prompt: See [H+] and [OH─]? Write: Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
Some problems will ask for the [H+] and [OH─] in acid or base solutions very
approximately, and those calculations can be done by mental arithmetic.
Try this problem.
Q. In a solution with a [OH─] of about 10─2 M, what is the [H+]?
* * * * *
Answer
WANT: [H+]
DATA: [OH─] ≈ 10─2 M
Prompt: See [H+] and [OH─]? Write: Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14

Substitute the known [OH─]:

[H+](~10─2) = 10─14 ; by inspection, [H+] must ≈ 10─12 M.
In other problems, you will calculate the ion concentrations more precisely. Try this
calculation in your notebook, then check your answer below.
Q. If the [H+] in an aqueous solution is 5.0 x 10─3 M, find the [OH─].
* * * * *
Answer
WANT: [OH─] = ?
DATA: [H+] = 5.0 x 10─3 M
Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 (Kw prompt)
SOLVE: Solve the equation for the wanted symbol, then plug in the DATA.
? = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.20 x 10─11 = 2.0 x 10─12 M

[H+] 5.0 x 10─3
Recall that in solving K equations, units are omitted during calculations, but if the
WANTED unit is a concentration, the unit mol/L (M) is added to the answer.
* * * * *
Kw Check
When using the Kw equation, do a check at the end: estimate [H+] times [OH─] (circled
above). The result must = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14 . Try the multiplication above in
your head.
Practice: Do parts b and d of both, plus problem 3. Need more practice? Do more parts.
1. In these aqueous solutions, find the [H+] if the [OH─] is
a. 10─11 moles per liter b. 0.010 Molar
c. 5.0 x 10─11 M d. 0.036 M
2. In these aqueous solutions, find the [OH─] if the [H+] is
a. 10─9 moles per liter b. 1.0 Molar
c. 3.0 x 10─5 M d. 1.25 M
3. If 20.0 millimoles of OH─ ions are dissolved in 400. mL of solution, find the [OH─] and
[H+].

ANSWERS
1 a. Since [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [H+](10─11) = 10─14 ; [H+] = 10─3 M
b. 0.010 Molar = [OH─] ; = 1.0 x 10─2 M
[H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [H+](1.0 x 10─2) = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [H+] = 1.0 x 10─12 M
c. 5.0 x 10─11 M = [OH─] ; WANT [H+]; the equation relating the two symbols is
[H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 . Solving for the wanted symbol:
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.20 x 10─3 = 2.0 x 10─4 M H+

[OH─] 5.0 x 10─11
d. 0.036 M = [OH─] ; WANT [H+]; the equation using those symbols is [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.28 x 10─12 = 2.8 x 10─13 M H+

[OH─] 3.6 x 10─2
2 a. 10─9 moles per liter = [H+], want [OH─], the equation relating those symbols is
[H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; (10─9) [OH─] = 10─14 ; [OH─] = 10─5 M
b. 1.0 Molar = [H+], want [OH─] , that calls the Kw prompt:
write [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; (1.0) [OH─] = 10─14 ; [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 M
c. 3.0 x 10─5 M = [H+], want [OH─] , write [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ;
[OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.33 x 10─9 = 3.3 x 10─10 M OH─
[H+] 3.0 x 10─5
d. 1.25 M = [H+]; [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.80 x 10─14

[H+] 1.25 = 8.0 x 10─15 M OH─
3. WANTED = ? = [OH─] = mol OH─

L soln.
DATA: 20.0 mmol KOH = 400. mL soln. (two measures of same solution)
(If you WANT a ratio, all of the DATA will be in equalities.)
SOLVE: ? mol OH─ = 20.0 mmol OH─ ·= 0.0500 mol OH─
L soln. 400. mL soln. L soln
(Since a prefix is an abbreviation for an exponential, the same prefix on the top and bottom can cancel.
Knowing [OH─], [H+] can be solved using the Kw prompt.)
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.20 x 10─12 = 2.0 x 10─13 M H+

[OH─] 5.00 x 10─2
* * * * *

Lesson 29C: Strong Acid Solutions

Prerequisites: If you have difficulty with the calculations in this lesson, review Lesson 12B.
* * * * *
Definitions
By the classical (Arrhenius) definitions in chemistry, a compound that is a
• strong acid ionizes essentially 100% in water and forms an H+ ion;
• strong base ionizes essentially 100% in water and forms an OH─ ion;
• weak acid or base ionizes only partially when dissolved in water.
An H+ ion has one proton and no electrons, so the H+ ion is often referred to as a proton.
Acids can be classified as monoprotic (containing one hydrogen atom that can ionize) or
polyprotic (containing more than one).
Acid-Base States
Molecules that are acids and bases can react in a variety of ways.
For example, one type of acid-base reaction is the mixing of hydrogen chloride gas
and ammonia gas to form solid ammonium chloride.
HCl(g) + NH3(g) Æ NH4Cl(s)
However, most acid-base reactions are conducted in water, and unless a different state is
noted, in these lessons, if no state for an acidic or basic particle is shown, assume that the
state is aqueous (aq).
Strong Acids
In chemistry, we often have a need for strong acid solutions. The strong acids most
frequently encountered are HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4.
• HCl and HNO3 are strong monoprotic acids. Both are highly soluble in water and
ionize essentially 100% to release one H+ ion.
Other strong monoprotic acids include HClO, HClO4, and HMnO4, but because
these substances may undergo redox as well as acid-base reactions, they are used
less often for reactions that require a strong acid.
• H2SO4 is a strong diprotic acid. When H2SO4 is dissolved in water, the first proton
ionizes essentially 100%, but the second ionizes only partially.
The ionization of acids is more complex than the ionization of other ionic compounds in
part because the bond of the H in acids has a balance of ionic and covalent character.
Because of the mixed nature of bonds to hydrogen, to calculate ion concentrations in acidic
solutions, we need three sets of rules:
• one for strong acids (such as HCl and HNO3) that ionize completely,
• one for weak acids, in which ionization goes to equilibrium, and

• one for polyprotic acids (such as H2SO4) in which some H atoms ionize more easily
than others.
Our rules for bases will parallel these acid rules. Let us start with the rules for solutions of
the strong acids HCl and HNO3.
Ion Concentrations In Strong Acid Solutions

The concentration of an HCl or HNO3 solution is usually expressed in terms of an un-
ionized acid formula, such as [HCl] = 0.25 M. However, the un-ionized formula does not
represent the particles that are actually present in the solution.
For example:
The gas hydrogen chloride (HCl) readily dissolves in water to form a solution of
hydrochloric acid. If 0.20 moles of HCl is dissolved per one liter of solution, the solution
concentration is written as “[HCl] = 0.20 M” based on how much HCl is added when
mixing the solution.
However, there are no particles of HCl present in an “HCl solution.” Why? As HCl
dissolves in water, it immediately separates into ions:
1 HCl is used up Æ Æ 1 H+ is formed + 1 Cl─ is formed (goes ~ 100%)

This reaction is reversible, but the right side is so strongly favored at equilibrium that in
water, essentially all of the HCl is converted to ions.
In a solution labeled [HCl] = 0.20 M, the actual concentrations of the particles are
[HCl] = 0 M ; [H+] = 0.20 M ; [Cl─] = 0.20 M ; and [H2O] ≈ 55 M

In addition, there is a very small amount of OH─ ion in solution (more on that later).
Calculating Ion Concentrations In Strong Acid Solutions
The ionization of a strong acid parallels what happens to other ionic compounds that
separate into ions essentially 100% when dissolved in water (see Lesson 12B). The key rule
for calculations involving such compounds is:
For Substances Separating 100% Into Ions, Write the REC Steps
In calculations involving [ions], if a substance ionizes ~100%,
• R: Write the balanced ionization Reaction equation. After the equation, write
• E: The Extent of the reaction (“goes ~100%”). Below each particle, write
• C: The Concentration of the particle, based on the coefficient ratios.
If a reaction goes to completion, the coefficients supply the mole ratios of reactants used up
and products formed. For this ionization, since all of the particles are in the same constant
volume, the coefficients also supply the mole per liter ratios.

Example: In 0.15 M HNO3 , what are the [ions]? Write the REC steps.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 HNO3 Æ Æ 1 H+ + 1 NO3─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Concentrations: 0.15 M 0 M 0.15 M 0.15 M
Try the following problem, and then check your answer below.
Q. In a 0.45 M HCl solution, write the
a. [HCl]as mixed b. [H+]in soln. c. [Cl─]in soln.
* * * * *
Answer
Since HCl is a strong acid, in water it ionizes ~100%. To find ion concentrations for
substances that ionize ~100%, write the REC steps.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 HCl used up Æ Æ 1 H+ formed + 1 Cl─ formed (goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc.: 0.45 M 0 M 0.45 M 0.45 M
The bottom row shows the WANTED concentrations. The [HCl] as mixed was 0.45 M,
but in solution is 0 M.
In some problems, to find [ions], the [HCl] or [HNO3] will need to be solved first. Try
Q. If 0.030 moles of HNO3 is mixed with water to form 150 mL of solution, find
a. [HNO3]as mixed b. [H+]in soln. c. [NO3─]in soln.

* * * * *
Answer (In problems with parts, you may list either the WANTED or the DATA first.)
a. WANT: ? = mol HNO3

L soln
DATA: 0.030 mol HNO3 = 150 mL soln. (two measures; same soln.)
(When a ratio unit is WANTED, all DATA will be in equalities.)
SOLVE: (To review molarity calculations, see Lesson 11C.)
? = mol HNO3 = 0.030 mol HNO3 ● 1 mL = 0.20 M HNO3

L soln. 150 mL soln. 10─3 L
b,c. WANTED: [H+]in soln. and [NO3─]in soln.

(HNO3 is a strong acid: it ionizes ~100%. To find [ions], write the REC steps.)
^ ^ ^

Practice A
1. In a 0.50 M solution of nitric acid (HNO3), what will be the
a. [H+] ? b. [NO ─] ?
3 c. [H3O+] ?
2. 7.30 grams of HCl is dissolved in water to make 250 mL of solution. Find the
a. moles of HCl dissolved in the solution, per liter.
b. [H+] = c. [Cl─] = d. [H3O+] =
Why the Acid Determines the [H+]

A strong acid solution is a mixture of the acid and water. It will contain four particles.
• The strong acid is present as two ions: an H+ ion and the acid’s anion.
• Water is the largest component in aqueous solutions, present primarily as non-
ionized H2O. Water also contains the small amounts of H+ and OH─ that form
due to its ionization.
When a strong acid is dissolved in water, H+ is contributed by both the acid and the water.
However, if the strong acid is mixed in any significant concentration, the share of H+ ions
contributed by the water can be ignored.
Why? Consider a 0.20 M HCl solution. The strong acid contributes 0.20 moles of H+ ions
per liter to the water. Before the acid was added, the water contained only 10─7 moles of
H+ ions per liter. If we examine the uncertainty in these two amounts:
0.20 M H+ from the acid, with doubt in the hundredth’s place, compares to
0.0000001 M H+ initially in the water, with doubt in a much higher place.
This is one indication that any initial H+ contribution from the water’s ions is too small to
be significant. The acid ionization is the dominant reaction. For this reason, the rule is:
In an acid solution, use acid ionization rules to find [H+]
The HCl and HNO3 Quick Rule

REC steps show concentrations for all ions formed when substances ionize 100%.
However, in many strong acid calculations, only [H+] is wanted, and you can use this
Quick rule: [HCl]mixed or [HNO3]mixed = [H+]in solution
Example: In a solution labeled 0.35 M HCl , [H+]in soln. = 0.35 M

When strong monoprotic acids dissolve in water, the ratio of the [acid as mixed] and the
[H+] that forms in solution is always 1 to 1.

H+ and H3O+ Ions -- Equivalent

The proton released by an acid is often represented as H+, but in aqueous solutions the
proton nearly always is found attached to a water molecule, forming a hydronium ion
(H3O+). This reaction can be represented as
1 H+ + 1 H O Æ Æ 1 H O+
2 3(goes ~ 100%)
Textbooks often show acids in water forming H+ in some reactions and H3O+ in others. In
problems involving acids in aqueous solutions, the symbols H+ and H3O+ in most cases
are considered to be equivalent.
When H3O+ is encountered in calculations, use the
H3O+ Prompt. If you see H3O+, write: H3O+ = H+
Summary: Acid Rules

1. See [H+] and [OH─] ? Write: Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
2. Strong monoprotic acids ionize ~100% to form H+. For [ions], write the REC steps.
3. Quick rule: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln.
4. See H3O+ ? Write: H3O+ = H+
5. In an acid solution, use acid ionization rules to find [H+].
Practice B: Memorize the rules above, then do these problems.
1. In 0.25 M HNO3 a. [H+] = b. [H3O+] =
2. In 2.0 M HCl, a. [H3O+] = b. [H+] =
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a,b. For problems involving HCl or HNO3 and [ions], write the REC steps for 100% ionization.
^ ^ ^
Conc.: 0.50 M 0 M 0.50 M 0.50 M
1c. [H3O+] = [H+] = 0.50 M
2a. WANT: ? mol HCl = [HCl]as mixed (it helps to label units with the symbols
L soln used in rules and equations)

DATA: 7.30 g HCl = 250 mL soln (equivalent: two measures; same soln.)
36.5 g HCl = 1 mol HCl (grams prompt)
You want moles over liters. The data includes grams, moles and mL. Use conversions. WANT a
ratio? Start with a ratio.
SOLVE: ? mol HCl = 7.30 g HCl ● 1 mol HCl ● 1 mL = 0.80 M HCl = [HCl]mixed
L soln 250 mL soln 36.5 g HCl 10─3 L
When solving in parts, label answers with symbols from rules that may be needed in later parts.
2b,c. For problems involving HCl or HNO3 and [ions], solve by the REC steps.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 HCl Æ Æ 1 H+ + 1 Cl─ ( goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc.: 0.80 M 0 M 0.80 M 0.80 M
[HCl]mixed = 0.80 M from part a = [H+]in soln = [Cl─]in soln d. [H3O+] = [H+] = 0.80 M
Practice B
Quick rule: In HCl or HNO3 , for [H+], use [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln.
1. In 0.25 M HNO3 a. [H+] = 0. 25 M b. [H3O+] = [H+] = 0. 25 M
2. In 2.0 M HCl, a. [H3O+] = [H+] = 2.0 M b. [H+] = 2.0 M
* * * * *
Lesson 29D: The [OH─] in Strong Acid Solutions

The Impact of a Strong Acid on the [OH─ ] in Water
The ionization of an acid in water affects the other reaction occurring in an acid solution:
the reversible “auto-ionization” of water.
1 H2O(liquid) ÅÆÆ 1 H+(aq) + 1 OH─(aq) (goes slightly)
Adding acid to water shifts this equilibrium in accord with Le Chatelier’s Principle. The
acid increases the [H+]. The equilibrium shifts to the opposite side from the H+, decreasing
the [OH─] . The value of the [OH─] after the shift can be calculated by the equilibrium
constant for water’s ionization:
Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 at 25oC
When solving for [H+] and [OH─] in an acid solution, the rule is
In an acid solution, first use acid ionization rules to find [H+], then Kw to find [OH─].
Use the rule for this problem.
Q. In a 0.40 M HCl solution, find a. [H+] b. [Cl─] c. [OH─]

* * * * *

Answer
a,b. To find [ions] in a strong acid solution, write the REC steps.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 HCl Æ Æ 1 H+ + 1 Cl─ (goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc.: 0.40 M 0 M 0.40 M 0.40 M
c. WANT [OH─].
In an acid solution, first use acid rules to find [H+], then Kw to find [OH─].
Part a found [H+] = 0.40 M To find [OH─], use Kw .
Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ;
? = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 2.5 x 10─14 M

[H+] 0.40
Kw check: [H+] x [OH─] (circled above) must ≈ 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14. Check.
Summary: Acid-Base Rules

2. Strong monoprotic acids ionize ~100% to form H+. For [ions], write the REC steps.
3. Quick rule: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln.
4. See [H3O+] ? Write: [H3O+] = [H+]
5. In acid solutions, use acid ionization rules to find [H+], then Kw to find [OH─].
Practice
1. Write the acid-base rules from memory.
2. In a solution labeled 10─3 M HNO3, what will be the
a. [H+] ? b. [NO3─] ? c. [H3O+] ? d. [OH─] ?

3. In a solution labeled 0.020 M HCl,
a. Write the balanced equation for the ionization of this strong acid.
b. Which side will be favored in this ionization: products, or reactants?
c. What is the mole to mole ratio between HCl used up and H+ formed?
d. What is the mol/L ratio between HCl used up and H+ formed?
e. In the solution, what will be the
i. [H+] ? ii. [Cl─] ? iii. [OH─] ? iv. [H3O+] ?

ANSWERS
2 a,b. For problems involving HCl or HNO3 and [ions], solve by the REC steps.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 HNO3 Æ Æ 1 H+ + 1 NO3─ ( goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc.: 10─3 M 0 M 10─3 M 10─3 M
2c. 10─3 M = [H+] = [H3O+]
2d. To find [OH─ ] in an acid solution, use acid rules to find [H+], then Kw to find [OH─ ].
Since [H+] = 10─3 M , and [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ; [OH─] = 10─11 M.
3a,b. Equation: 1 HCl(g) Æ Æ 1 H+(aq) + 1 Cl─(aq) (goes 100%) Products favored
c. 1 mol HCl used up = 1 mole H+ formed.

d. Since all moles are found in the same liters of solution, the mole and mol/L ratios are the same: 1 to 1.
1 mol/L HCl used up = 1 mol/L H+ formed, which can be written: [HCl]used up = [H+]formed
e. [HCl]as mixed = 0.020 M = [H+]in soln. = [Cl─]in soln.
[OH─] ? In an acid solution, use acid rules to find [H+ ] (done above), then use Kw to find [OH─ ].
Since [H+] = 0.020 M = 2.0 x 10─2 M , and [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ;
[OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.50 x 10─12 = 5.0 x 10─13 M

[H+] 2.0 x 10─2
Kw check: [H+] x [OH─] (circled above) must estimate to 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14:
[H+] x [OH─] = 2 x 5 = 10; 10─2 x 10─13 = 10─15 , combined = 10 x 10─15. Check.
iv. [H3O+] = [H+] = 0.020 M = 2.0 x 10─2 M
* * * * *

Lesson 29E: Strong Base Solutions

Strong Hydroxide Bases
Strong bases, by the classical (Arrhenius) definitions, ionize essentially 100% in water to
form OH─ ions. The substances most frequently used to make strong base solutions are the
ionic solids sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH). In water,
1 NaOH(s) Æ Æ 1 Na+(aq) + 1 OH─(aq) (goes ~ 100%)
1 KOH(s) Æ Æ 1 K+(aq) + 1 OH─(aq) (goes ~ 100%)

There are other types of strong bases, but their reactions can be more complex. For now,
we will limit our attention to the strong bases that are alkali metal hydroxides.
[Ions] In Strong Base Solutions
As with strong acids, if a solution of a strong base is labeled [NaOH] = 0.15 M, this
represents how the solution is mixed, but not the particles present in the solution. Because
NaOH ionizes ~100% in water, what is actually present in “0.15 M NaOH” is
zero M NaOH, 0.15 M Na+, and 0.15 M OH─.
The rules for strong bases are similar to those for strong acids.
● NaOH and KOH ionize ~100% to form OH─. For [ions], write the REC steps.
● If only [OH─] is needed, use the quick rule: [NaOH or KOH]mxd = [OH─]in soln.
● In a base solution, use base rules to find [OH─], then Kw to find [H+].
We will add these to our rules that, when memorized, simplify solving problems.
Acid-Base Fundamentals
2. Strong monoprotic acids ionize ~100% to form H+. Alkali metal hydroxides
ionize 100% to form OH─. For [ions], write the REC steps.
3. Quick rules: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln.
[NaOH or KOH]mixed = [OH─]in soln.
4. See [H3O+] ? Write: [H3O+] = [H+]
6. In base solutions, use base rules to find [OH─], then Kw to find [H+].

Using the new rules above, try this problem.

Q. In a solution labeled 0.0030 M NaOH,
a. What three ions will be present in the solution?
b. What will be the concentration of each ion?
* * * * *
Answer
a. NaOH ionizes to form Na+ and OH─ ions. Water ionizes to form H+ and OH─ .
The three ions are Na+, OH─, and H+.
b. For NaOH or KOH and [ions], write the REC steps for ~100% ionization.
Rxn. and Extent: 1 NaOH(aq) ÆÆ 1 Na+(aq) + 1 OH─(aq) (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc.: 0.0030 M 0 M 0.0030 M 0.0030 M
which means [NaOH]mixed = 0.0030 M = [OH─]in soln. = [Na+]in soln.
To find the [H+] in a base solution, first use the base rules to find [OH─] (done),
then use Kw to find [H+].
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.33 x 10─ 11 = 3.3 x 10─12 M H+

[OH─] 3.0 x 10─3
(Kw check: [H+] x [OH─] = 3 x 3.3 ≈ 10; 10─3 x 10─12 = 10─15, combined ≈ 10 x 10─15)
Practice: Learn the Acid-Base Fundamental rules above, then try these.
1. In a solution labeled 10─1 M NaOH,

a. write the balanced equation for the ionization of this strong base.
b. Which side is favored in this ionization: products, or reactants?
c. Write the i. [OH─] ii. [Na+] iii. [H+] iv. [H3O+]
2. In a solution labeled 5.0 x 10─3 M KOH, find the
a. [OH─] b. [K+] c. [H+] d. [H3O+]
3. If 5.00 millimoles NaOH are dissolved in 0.250 L soln, find
a. [OH─] b. [H+] c. [H3O+]

ANSWERS
1a. 1 NaOH Æ 1 Na+ + 1 OH─
1b. Strong bases ionize 100%, this ionization favors the products.
1c. i, ii. 1 NaOH Æ 1 Na+ + 1 OH─ ( goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
10─1 0 M 10─1 M 10─1 M
[NaOH]as mixed = 10─1 M = [OH─]in soln. = [Na+] in soln.
iii,iv. [H+] ? To find [H+] in a base solution, first find [OH─] (above), then [H+] using
Kw. = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 10─13 M = [H+] = [H3O+]

[OH─] 10─1
2a,b. For NaOH or KOH, to find [ions], write the REC steps for ~100% ionization.
R and E: 1 KOH ÆÆ 1 K+ + 1 OH─ ( goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc.: 5.0 x 10─3 0 M 5.0 x 10─3 M 5.0 x 10─3 M
[KOH]mixed = 5.0 x 10─3 M = [OH─]in soln. = [K+] in soln.
c. [H+] = ? [OH─] is known. The relationship between those two is: [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.20 x 10─11 = 2.0 x 10─12 M H+

[OH─] 5.0 x 10─3
d. [H3O+] ? = [H+] = 2.0 x 10─12 M
Note that each of the basic solutions above contain both OH─ and H+, but in solutions of bases, [OH─] is
always higher than [H+].
3a. WANTED = ? = [OH─] = mol OH─ First find [NaOH], then use [NaOH] = [OH─]
L soln.
DATA: 5.00 mmol NaOH = 0.250 L soln. (two measures of same solution)
SOLVE: ? mol NaOH = 5.00 mmol NaOH · 10─3 mol = 2.00 x 10─2 mol = [NaOH] = [OH─]
L soln. 0.250 L soln. 1 mmol L
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.50 x 10─12 = 5.0 x 10─13 M H+ = [H+] = [H3O+]
[OH─] 2.00 x 10─2
* * * * *

Lesson 29F: The pH System

Prerequisites: If you cannot do all of these problems correctly, do Lesson 27D, Sections I
to V, before starting this lesson. Use a calculator. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. Log 10─4 = 2. log (2.0 x 10─12) =

Write the following answers in scientific notation.
3. If log x = ─ 9.2 , x = 4. 10─12.3 =

* * * * *
Fundamentals of pH
The pH system indicates the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution by a number that is
between ─2 and 16.
------|----------------------------|----------------------------|---------
0 7 14
Acidic Neutral Basic
The pH expresses the “power of H;” the number that is after the minus sign when [H+]
written as a negative power of 10.
pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration. To simplify pH problems,
use the
pH Prompt. If you see pH, write: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
The pH prompt must be memorized.

It is also important to know:
• Pure water has a pH of 7.0 at 25ºC.
• In a pH-neutral solution at 25ºC, [H+] = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─7 M; and pH = 7.
• In acidic solutions, the pH is less than 7. In basic solutions, the pH is greater than 7.
• Lower pH means a higher acidity. Higher pH means a higher basicity.
• The further from 7 is the pH, the stronger is the acidity or basicity of the solution.
• On a base 10 logarithmic scale, changing a number by a factor of 10 changes the log
by one.
• Since pH is a negative log, increasing [H+] by a factor of 10 lowers the pH by one.
Units in pH Calculations
By convention, pH values are not assigned units. However, when a concentration is
calculated from a pH, the unit mol/L (M) must be added to the answer.

Why Use the pH Scale?

The pH scale allows us to report the acidity or basicity of aqueous solutions without using
exponents. For non-chemists, “the pH in my aquarium is 7.5” is easier to handle than “the
[H+] in my aquarium is 3.2 x 10─8 mol/L,” though the statements have the same meaning.
For chemists, pH is a quick way to convey the acidity or basicity of a solution.
A. Whole Number pH
In aqueous solutions, if either the [H+] or the [OH─] or the pH is known, the other two
values can be calculated.
When pH values are whole numbers, this can be done by inspection. Try these examples:
Q1. In an aqueous solution, if [H+] = 10─1 M, what is the pH?
* * * * *
[H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─1 M, so pH = 1. The solution is acidic.
Q2. If [H+] = 0.001 M, what is the pH?

* * * * *
[H+] = 0.0001 M = 10─3 M = 10─pH, so pH = 3, and the solution is acidic.
Q3. If the pH = 9, what is the [H+]?

* * * * *
The [H+] = 10─9 M, and the solution is basic. Why basic? Since [H+] = 10─9
M, [OH─] must equal 10─5 M (based on Kw). The [OH─] is larger than the
[H+], and that is the definition of a basic solution. Any pH > 7 is basic.
Practice A: Whole Number pH

Do these calculations in your head. Do them all. Check answers at the end of the lesson.
1. Write the pH prompt from memory.
For aqueous solutions, if
2. [H+] = 10─4 M, a. [OH─] = b. pH = c. Is the solution acidic or basic?
3. pH = 8 , a. [H+] = b. [OH─] = c. Is the solution acidic or basic?
4. [OH─] = 10─3 M, a. [H+] = b. pH = c. Is the solution acidic or basic?
5. [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 M, a. [H+] = b. pH = c. Acidic or basic solution?
6. [H+] = 10 M, a. [OH─] = b. pH = c. Acidic or basic solution?

B. From [H+] to Decimal pH

If the pH or the exponent of the hydrogen ion concentration is not a whole number, you can
convert between [H+], [OH─], and pH using a calculator. Try this example.
Q. For an aqueous solution, if [H+] = 5.0 x 10─4 M, what is the pH?

* * * * *
WANT: pH, know [H+]. Write the equation that solves for pH from [H+]:
pH ≡ ─ log [H+] = ─ log (5.0 x 10─4) = ?
Solve using a calculator, round your answer to tenths, and then check it below.
* * * * *
This is a brief review of log calculations. For detail, see Lesson 27D, sections I to V.
• On a standard TI–type calculator, try: 5.0 EE 4 +/- log +/-
• An RPN calculator might use: 5.0 E +/- 4 enter log +/-
• On one type of graphing calculator: (-) log 5.0 EE (-) 4 ) enter
For your calculator, either read your calculator manual (the best approach) or experiment
until you get the following answer. Write down the key sequence that works.
pH = ─ log (5.0 x 10─4) = 3.30

To simplify calculator use to take the log without the minus sign in front, then change the
sign manually. For any solution with a [H+] less than 1.0 M, the pH will be positive. If the
[H+] is greater than 1.0 M, which can occur only in relatively concentrated strong acid
solutions, the pH will be a negative number.
Checking pH Calculations
Does the above answer make sense?
For [H+]: 1.0 x 10─4 < 5.0 x 10─4, < 10.0 x 10─4 ≡ 1.0 x 10─3,
pH = 4 pH = ? pH = 3
Based on the above, the pH should be between 4 and 3, which 3.30 is.
Here’s another way to estimate and check pH: Round the pH up to the next highest whole
number. That should be the number after the minus sign in the exponential term of the
[H+] when [H+] is written in scientific notation (as it should be).
For this problem, pH = 3.30 rounds up to 4. The [H+] exponential term in scientific
notation should therefore be 10─4, and it is: 5.0 x 10─4.
When complex operations are done on a calculator, estimate the answer – or do the
calculation two ways on the calculator – as a check on your calculator operation.

Rounding pH Calculations
Mathematically, the statistical basis for using significant figures convey uncertainty does
not directly apply to logarithmic functions. In these lessons, we will use these rules.
• When the [H+] is written as simply a power of 10 (with no significand in front), the
pH is written as a whole number;
Example: [H+] = 10─4 M, pH = 4 ;
• When [H+] is written as a significand times 10 to a power , round the pH so that the
number of digits in the significand equals the number of digits after the decimal in the
pH.
Examples: [H+] = 5 x 10─4 M, pH = 3.3 ; [H+] = 5.1 x 10─12 M, pH = 11.29
• Due to the inherent uncertainty of the Kw values on which pH is based, calculated pH
values will be rounded to have at most two digits past the decimal.
Practice B: From [H+] to Decimal pH

Do the odd problems. Save the evens for your next practice session. Check answers at the
end of the lesson as you go.
1. Using the quick-check method above, estimate the pH for these questions below:
a. Problem 2: pH ≈ b. Problem 3: pH ≈ c. Problem 5: pH ≈
Use your calculator on the following.
2. Find pH when [H+] = 2.1 x 10─3 M.
3. If [H+] = 8.2 x 10─11 M, what is the pH?
4. If [OH─] = 2.0 x 10─4 M, what is the pH?
5. In a 0.040 M HCl solution, solve for the pH.
6. In a 0.0030 M KOH solution, what is the pH?
C. From Decimal pH to [H+]

Let’s try a problem where a non-whole-number pH is known and the [H+] is WANTED.
Example: If the pH of a solution is 9.70, what is the [H+] ?
The equation that finds [H+] from pH is: [H+] = 10─pH
[H+] therefore equals 10─9.70 M. That’s mathematically correct, but in chemistry it is

preferred to express concentrations in scientific notation, so that the exponential term is
a whole number. Convert 10─9.70 to scientific notation using your calculator, and then
check your answer below.
* * * * *

• On a standard TI–type calculator, try: 9.70 +/- 10x

• A reverse Polish (RPN) calculator might use: 9.70 +/- 10x
• On a graphing calculator, try: 10x (-) 9.70 ) enter or 10 ^ (-) 9.70 enter
For additional help, see Lesson 27D, sections I to V. Whatever method is used, write
down the sequence that replicates this result:
[H+] = 10─9.70 M = 2.0 x 10─10 M
Does this answer make sense? [H+] = 10─9.70 M is close to [H+] = 10─10 M. Since pH =
9.70 is a bit more acidic than pH = 10, the [H+] should be a bit higher than 10─10 M, and it
is: 2.0 x 10─10 M.
To check your answer, use this estimate: Round the pH up to the next highest whole
number. This should match the number after the minus sign of the exponent for [H+] in
For this problem, pH = 9.70 rounds up to 10, so the [H+] exponent should be 10─10.
The answer is 2.0 x 10─10. Check!
Practice C: From Decimal pH to [H+]

Use a calculator. Save a few problems for your next practice session.
1. If pH = 5.5 a. Estimate the [H+] b. [H+] =
2. If pH = 8.20, a. Estimate the [H+]
b. [H+] =
c. [OH─] =
Work Problems 3-7 in your problem notebook.
3. In an HCl solution of pH = 3.60, find
a. [H+] b. [OH─] c. [Cl─] d. [HCl]
4. If pH = 1.7, [H+] = 5. If pH = 7.22, [H+] =
6. If pH = 12.5, [H+] = 7. If pH = ─0.50, [H+] =

8. Which solution in problems 3-7 is the most acidic?
D. Calculations With pOH

(If you are asked to solve problems that include pOH, do this section.)
The pOH is the negative log of the hydroxide ion concentration. The pOH can be solved
using the same math as pH.
In problems that include pOH, our rule will be the

pOH prompt: See pOH?
Write pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH and pH + pOH = 14.00
The pOH is often calculated by first finding the pH and then applying the pH + pOH
relationship.
The 14.00 represents the value of at Kw at 25ºC. At other temperatures, the relationship is
pH + pOH = pKw = ─log(Kw)
pH Summary: Add these to the rules for acid-base fundamentals.

7. See pH ? Write: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] = 10─pH
8. See pOH ? Write: pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] = 10─pOH
and pH + pOH = 14.00 (at 25ºC) .
Practice D: pOH Calculations

Memorize the three pOH rules above, and then solve problems 1-4 by inspection.
1. In an aqueous solution, if [OH─] = 10─5 M,
a. [H+] = b. pH = c. pOH = d. Is the solution acidic or basic?
2. In an aqueous solution, if [H+] = 10─4 M,
a. [OH─] = b. pH = c. pOH = d. Is the solution acidic or basic?
3. In an aqueous solution, if the pH = 12 ,
a. [H+] = b. [OH─] = c. pOH = d. Is the solution acidic or basic?
4. In an aqueous solution, if the pOH = 8
a. pH = b. [H+] = c. [OH─] = d. Is the solution acidic or basic?
Use a calculator for Problems 5-6. Work these in your notebook.
5. 2.00 grams of NaOH is dissolved in water to make 750. mL of solution.
a. [NaOH]as mixed = b. [OH─]in solution =
c. [Na+]in soln. = d. [H+] =
e. pOH = f. pH =
6. The pOH in a KOH solution is 1.5 . What is the [KOH]?

ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. ─ 4 2. ─ 11.7 3. 6.3 x 10─10 4. 5.0 x 10─13
Practice A: Whole Number pH
2. If [H+] = 10─4 M, a. [OH─] = 10─10 M b. pH = 4 c. Acidic
3. If pH = 8 , a. [H+] = 10─8 M b. [OH─] = 10─6 M c. Basic
4. If [OH─] = 10─3 M, a. [H+] = 10─11 M b. pH = 11 c. Basic
5. If [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 M,
a. [H+] = 1.0 M b. pH = ? [H+] = 1.0 = 10─pH = 100 = 10─0 ; pH = 0
c. Acidic. pH = 0 which is less than 7; [H+] is higher than [OH─].
6. If [H+] = 10 M, a. [OH─] = 10─15 M b. [H+] = 101 = 10─pH = 10─(─1) ; so pH = ─1
(pH will be lower than zero when [H+] > 1.0 M) c. Highly acidic
Practice B: From [H+] to Decimal pH

1. Using the quick-check method, a. Problem 2: pH = 2.? -- rounds up to 3
b. Prob. 3: pH = 10.? (rounds up to 11) c. Prob. 5: 0.040 M HCl = 4 x 10─2 M H+ ; so pH = 1.?
2. pH prompt: see pH, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
Since pH is WANTED, use ? = pH ≡ ─ log [H+]
pH = ─ log (2.1 x 10─3) = 2.68 (Estimate was 2.? in answer 1a. Check.)
3. If [H3O+] = 8.2 x 10─11, what is the pH? [H3O+] = [H+]
See pH, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
pH is WANTED, use ? = pH ≡ ─ log [H+] = ─ log (8.2 x 10─11) = 10.09 (checks above)
4. See pH, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
WANT pH, need [H+] to find pH, but are given [OH─].
See H+ and OH─ ? Write: Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 Use Kw to find [H+]:
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.50 x 10─10 = 5.0 x 10─11 M H+

[OH─] 2.0 x 10─4
(do the Kw check.)
Then ? = pH ≡ ─ log [H+] pH = ─ log (5.0 x 10─11) = 10.30 (pH rounds up to 11; check.)

5. See pH, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
WANT pH. Need [H+] first. For quick [H+]in soln.: [HCl]mixed = 0.040 M = [H+]in soln.
For pH: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] = ─ log (0.040) = ─ log (4.0 x 10─2) = 1.40 (rounded up = 2. check.)
6. pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
Need [H+] to find pH, but given is [KOH]. Quick: [KOH]mixed = 0.0030 M = [OH─] To find [H+],
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.33 x 10─11 = 3.3 x 10─12 M H+

[OH─] 3.0 x 10─3
pH = ─ log (3.3 x 10─12) = 11.48 (Base solution, basic pH; 11.48 rounded up = 12. Check.)
Practice C: From Decimal pH to [H+]

1. If pH = 5.5 See pH, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
a. Estimate [H+] pH = 5.5 rounded up is 6; [H+] should be ? x 10─6 M ←compare

↑
b. The equation that finds [H+] from pH is: [H+] = 10─pH ; [H+] = 10─5.5 = 3 x 10─6 M
2. See pH? Write: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
2a Estimate: pH = 8.20 rounds up to 9, [H+] should = ?.? x 10─9 M
WANT [H+] from pH, use [H+] = 10─pH ; [H+] = 10─8.20 = 6.3 x 10─9 M H+ Checks vs. pH .
WANT [OH─] . Know [H+] and pH. Kw relates [H+] and [OH─ ]: [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 ;
? = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.16 x 10─5 = 1.6 x 10─6 M OH─
[H+] 6.3 x 10─9
3. See pH? Write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
a. [H+] = ? [H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─3.60 = 2.5 x 10─4 M
b. [OH─] = ? Knowing [H+], to find [OH─ ], use Kw .
? = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.40 x 10─10 = 4.0 x 10─11 M OH─
[H+] 2.5 x 10─4
c, d. [HCl]mixed = [H+]soln = [Cl─]soln From Part a, [H+] = 2.5 x 10─4 M = [Cl─] = [HCl]
4. If pH = 1.7, [H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─1.7 = 2 x 10─2 M
5. If pH = 7.22, [H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─7.22 = 6.0 x 10─8 M

6. pH = 12.5, [H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─12.5 = 3 x 10─13 M
7. pH = ─0.50, [H+] ≡ 10─pH = 10─(─0.5) = 100.5 = 3.2 M
8. Problem 7 has the both the lowest pH and the highest [H+]. By either measure it is the most acidic.
Practice D: pOH Calculations
1. If [OH─] = 10─5, a. [H+] = 10─9 M b. pH = 9 c. pOH = 5 d. Basic
2. If [H+] = 10─4, a. [OH─] = 10─10 M b. pH = 4 c. pOH = 10 d. Acidic
3. If pH = 12 , a. [H+] = 10─12 M b. [OH─] = 10─2 M c. pOH = 2 d. Basic
4. If pOH = 8 a. pH = 6 b. [H+] = 10─6 M c. [OH─] = 10─8 M d. Acidic
5. a. WANT: ? mol NaOH = [NaOH]mixed
L soln
DATA: 2.00 grams NaOH = 750. mL soln (equivalent: two measures of same solution.)
40.0 grams NaOH = 1 mole NaOH (grams prompt)
SOLVE: ? moles NaOH = 2.00 g NaOH ● 1 mol NaOH ● 1 mL = 0.0667 M NaOH
liter of soln 750 mL soln 40.0 g NaOH 10─3 L
b. See NaOH and [ions]? Write the REC steps: Reaction, Extent, Concentrations.
R and E: 1 NaOH Æ 1 Na+ + 1 OH─ (~100%)

^ ^ ^
C: 0.0667 M 0 M 0.0667 M 0.0667 M
[NaOH]mixed = 0.0667 M = [OH─]in soln. = [Na+] in soln.
b. [OH─] = ? [NaOH] mxd. = 0.0667 M (part a) = [OH─]in soln = [Na+]in soln; = Part c answer
d. [H+] WANT [H+], know [OH─] .
[H+] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.15 x 10─12 = 1.5 x 10─13 M H+

[OH─] 6 .67 x 10─2
e. pOH = ?
See pOH? Write: pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH and pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] = ─ log(0.0667) = ─ log (6.67 x 10─2) = 1.18 = pOH
f. pH? Since pH + pOH = 14.00 ,
pH = 14.00 – pOH = 14.00 ─ 1.18 = 12.82 (compare pH to [H+] above.)

6. The pOH in a KOH solution is 1.5 . What is the [KOH]?

b. See KOH and [particles]? Write the REC steps. See pOH? Use the pOH prompt.
R and E: 1 KOH Æ 1 K+ + 1 OH─ (~100%)

^ ^ ^
C: XM 0M XM X M
[OH─] ≡ 10─pOH = 10─1.5 M = 3 x 10─2 M = [OH─] = X M = [KOH]mixed
* * * * *
Summary -- Acid-Base Fundamentals

If you have not already done so, you may want to add these rules to flashcards.
Acid-Base Fundamentals
2. Strong monoprotic acids ionize ~100% to form H+. Alkali metal hydroxides ionize
100% to form OH─. For [ions], write the REC steps.
3. Quick rules: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln.
[NaOH or KOH]mixed = [OH─]in soln.
4. See [H3O+] ? Write: [H3O+] = [H+]
6. In base solutions, use base rules to find [OH─], then Kw to find [H+].
7. See pH ? Write: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] = 10─pH
8. See pOH ? Write: pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] = 10─pOH
and pH + pOH = 14.00 (at 25ºC)
9. Using the pH scale, for aqueous solutions at 25ºC:

a. Pure water has a pH of 7.0
b. In a neutral solution, [H+] = [OH─] = 1.0 x 10─7 M; and pH = 7.

c. In acidic solutions, pH is less than 7. In basic solutions, pH is greater than 7.
d. A lower pH means a higher acidity. A higher pH means a higher basicity.
e. The further from 7 is pH, the stronger is the acidity or basicity of the solution.
# # # # #

Module 30 — Weak Acids and Bases
The former Module 30 on Salts is now Module 32
The former Module 31 on Buffers is now Module 33
If you are looking for those topics, check those modules
* * * * *
Module 30: Weak Acids and Bases
Module 31: Brønsted-Lowry Definitions
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 6w Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 6w Page ii


Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 6w Page iii


Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
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Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
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Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
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•••••
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 6w Page vii


Timing: Begin this module when you are assigned calculations involving Ka.
Prerequisites: Do Lessons 28C and 28D on Equilibrium and Module 29 on acid-base
fundamentals before starting this module.
Pretests: In this module, if you think you are familiar with a lesson topic, try the last
problems in each problem set of the lesson. If you get those right, move to the next lesson.
* * * * *
Lesson 30A: Ka Math and Approximation Equations

Pretest: This lesson has two parts. The first part is a quick review of the math of powers
and roots covered in Lesson 28B. The second part is new material. Even if you can do the
Practice A problems quickly, devote extra care to the section after Practice A.
* * * * *
Squares and Square Roots
The calculations in this module require solving the square and square root of numbers in
exponential notation. Rules for these calculations were covered in Lesson 19A. The
following is a brief reminder of those rules (which you need to be able to apply from
memory).
Estimating exponential calculations is one way to catch mistakes in calculator use. For this
reason, we will review squares and square roots both with and without the calculator.
Rules for Squares and Square Roots in Exponential Notation
1. To take an exponential term to a power, multiply the exponentials.
2. “Taking the square root” has the same meaning as taking a quantity to the 1/2 power.
3. When taking exponential notation to a power, handle numbers by number rules and
exponents by exponential rules.
4. A square root can be calculated without entering the exponent on the calculator by
• making the exponent even. If the exponent is odd, make the significand 10 times
larger, and the exponent ten times (one number) smaller. Then,
• take the square root of the significand either on the calculator or by estimation. To
take the square root of the exponential term, multiply the exponent by 1/2.
* * * * *
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7c Page 884

Practice A: Do the last part of each numbered problem, then more if you need more
practice. Convert final answers to scientific notation. Check answers at the end of this
lesson. If you cannot solve these problems easily, review Lesson 19A.
Complete these first three numbered problems without a calculator.
1. a. (103)2 = b. (10―4)2 = c. (10―4)1/2 = (Rule 1)
2. The square root of a. 1014 = b. 10―6 = c. 10―16 = (Rule 2)

3. Without a calculator:
a. (7.0 x 10―5)2 = b. (36 x 10―6)1/2 =
c. Square root of 25 x 10―12 = d. Square root of 0.0064 =
4. Do Problem 3 using the square and square root function on your calculator.
a. (7.0 x 10―5)2 = b. (36 x 10―6)1/2 =
c. Square root of 25 x 10―12 = d. Square root of 0.0064 =
Compare Problem 3 to 4. Which was easier: with or without the calculator?
5. Use a calculator for the number part, but do the exponential part by inspection.
a. (2.5 x 10―5)2 = b. (9.5 x 10―6)2 =
c. (2.56 x 10―4)1/2 = d. Square root of 1.44 x 10―6 =
6. Estimate the square root of a. 45 b. 18 c. 95 d. 7
7. Estimate the square root.
a. (4.2 x 10+5)1/2 = b. (3.0 x 10―11)1/2 =

8. Calculate the square root. Either adjust to make the exponent even, then take the
significand root on the calculator and the exponential root by inspection, or do the
entire calculation on the calculator. Compare answers to Problem 7.
a. (4.2 x 10+5)1/2 = b. (3.0 x 10―11)1/2 =
Bottom Line On Calculator Use

With practice, you can quickly do squares and square roots of exponential notation on the
calculator, but first write a quick estimate of the answer without the calculator. Check that
the estimate and the calculator answer are close.

Approximation Equations
If equations involve both large numbers and small numbers, they can often be simplified to
approximations that are easier to solve.
For K approximations, the rules are

• You cannot ignore small numbers that are by themselves as terms in equations, but
• You can ignore small numbers that are added or subtracted from much larger numbers.
In the following questions, ≈ means approximately equals, A is any large number, B is any
different large number, and x is any number much smaller than A and B. Write the
approximation equation by applying the rule above.
Q. ( A + x )( x ) ≈ ?
(B ─ x)
* * * * *
A. (A + x )( x ) ≈ (A)( x )
(B─ x) B
Let’s test this rule using numbers. For this term, calculate an exact numeric answer:
(18.0 + 0.10)(0.10) =
(9.0 ─ 0.10)
Now simplify that equation by applying the approximation rules. Cross out the small
terms added or subtracted from larger terms, calculate a numeric answer, then compare to
the answer above.
(18.0 + 0.10)(0.10) ≈
(9.0 ─ 0.10)
* * * * *
A. Exact: (18.1)(0.10) = 0.204
(8.9)
A. Approximation: (18.0 + 0.10)(0.10) ≈ (18.0)(0.10) = 0.200
(9.0 ─ 0.10) (9.0)
If the small numbers that are added or subtracted from the large numbers are removed, the
difference between the two answers is 2%. In some science experiments and procedures,
that would be more error than we would like to see. However, because K values often
involve significant inherent uncertainty, a change in an answer of up to 5% due to the use
of an approximation is considered acceptable.
In the acid and base equibrium calculations that we are about to encounter, approximation
equations will often be used to solve.

Practice B. Using the notation and rules above, simplify these equations using
approximations. Save a few for your next practice session.
1. (A + x )( x ) ≈ 2. (x)(x) ≈
(A ─ x ) (B ─ x )
3. (B + x )( x ) ≈ 4. (A + x ) ≈
(A ─ x ) (A ─ x )( x )
5. Assuming x is much smaller than the other numbers in these equations, apply the
approximation rules to simplify these terms.
a. (0.050 + x) (x) ≈ b. (2x) (x) ≈
0.020 ─ x 0.10 ─ x
c. (x) (x) ≈ d. (x + x) ≈
0.020 ─ x [WB] + x
6. Assuming x is very small compared to the other numbers, apply the approximation
rules to these equations, then solve for x. (Try these first without a calculator).
a. (x) (x) = 8.0 x 10―12 b. (2x + x) = 1.8 x 10―5
2.0 ─ x 0.50 + x
c. (0.60 + x) (x) = 3.6 x 10―9 d. (2x) (x) = 1.25 x 10―11
0.20 ─ x 4.0 ─ x
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. 106 b. 10―8 c. 10―2 2a. 107 b. 10―3 c. 10―8
3,4: a. 4.9 x 10―9 b. 6.0 x 10―3 c. 5.0 x 10―6 d. (64 x 10―4)1/2 = 8.0 x 10―2
5. a. 6.2 x 10―10 b. 9.0 x 10―11 c. 1.60 x 10―2 d. 1.20 x 10―3
6. a. 45 since 7 x 7 = 49, estimate ≈ 6.7 b. 18 4 x 4 = 16; est. ≈ 4.2
c. 95 9 x 9 = 81; est. ≈ 9.5 d. 7 3 x 3 = 9; est. ≈ 2.5
7. To estimate the square root, first convert so that the power is divisible by 2.
7,8. a. 6.5 x 102 b. 5.5 x 10―6 c. 9.0 x 10―4 d. 8.5 x 10―2
Practice B
1. (A + x )( x ) ≈ (A)( x ) ≈ x 2. (x )( x ) ≈ x2
(A ─ x) (A) (B─ x) B
3. (B + x )( x ) ≈ (B)( x ) 4. (A + x ) ≈ ( x )― 1
(A ─ x ) A (A ─ x )( x )

5. a. (0.050 + x) (x) ≈ (0.050)(x) = 2.5x 5b. (2x) (x) ≈ 2x2 = 20x2

0.020 ─ x 0.020 0.10 ─ x 0.10
c. (x) (x) ≈ x2 d. (x + x) ≈ 2x
0.020 ─ x 0.20 [WB] + x [WB]
6. a. (x) (x) = 8.0 x 10―12 b. (2x + x) = 1.8 x 10―5
2.0 ─ x 0.50 + x
x2 = 8.0 x 10―12 3x = 1.8 x 10―5
2.0 0.50
x2 = 16 x 10―12 3x = 9.0 x 10―6
x = 4.0 x 10―6 x = 3.0 x 10―6
c. (0.60 + x) (x) = 3.6 x 10―9 d. (2x) (x) = 1.25 x 10―11
0.20 ─ x 4.0 ─ x
(0.60) (x) = 3.6 x 10―9 2x2 = 1.25 x 10―11
0.20 4.0
3x = 3.6 x 10―9 x2 = 25.0 x 10―12
x = 1.2 x 10―9 x = 5.0 x 10―6
* * * * *
Lesson 30B: Weak Acids and Ka Expressions

So far, our acid-base calculations have all involved either strong monoprotic acids (HCl and
HNO3) or strong bases (NaOH and KOH). Those four compounds are widely used in
laboratories and industrial processes when strong acids and bases are needed.
However, far more compounds are weak acids and bases than strong. Understanding of
weak acids and bases is important in fields as interesting and diverse as the biological
sciences and the culinary arts.
Weak Acid Solutions
Weak acids can be defined as substances that ionize to form H+ ions when dissolved in
water, but do so only slightly.
The loss of a proton by an acid is reversible: the proton can return to the base conjugate to
re-form the acid. In a weak acid solution at equilibrium, the gain and loss of protons occurs
continuously, but because both reactions proceed at the same rate, no net change occurs.
A familiar weak acid solution is vinegar, which can be formed by the action of bacteria and
oxygen on fruit juice. The oxidation of the sugar in fruit juice produces a mixture that is
composed primarily the liquid weak acid acetic acid and water. Most vinegar solutions are
about one volume of acetic acid per 10 to 20 volumes of water.
A solution that approximates natural vinegar can be made by mixing a small amount of
pure liquid acetic acid and water. Acetic acid is a weak acid because in water, it ionizes
slightly to produce H+ ions. As the products form, the reverse reaction of the proton

returning to the acetate ion also occurs, and the solution will quickly reach an equilibrium
state where no further net change takes place.
The behavior of acetic acid in water can be represented either as ionization:
1 CH3COOH(aq) ÅÅÆ 1 H+(aq) + 1 CH3COO─ (aq)
In water: ~99% un-ionized ~ 1% ionized (~ means approximately)

or as hydrolysis (reaction with water):
1 CH3COOH(l) + 1 H2O(l) ÅÅÆ 1 H3O+(aq) + 1 CH3COO─(aq) (goes ~ 1%)
Compare the two equations. Both represent a weak acid dissolved in water and ionizing
slightly. Recall that H+ and H3O+ are equivalent ways of representing the proton released
by acids. These two equations are equivalent ways of representing the same reaction.
[H+] In Weak versus Strong Acids

When compounds separate into ions, the original particle is said to become dissociated. In
water, strong acids dissociate completely, but when weak acids dissolve in water,
equilibrium favors the un-dissociated (un-ionized) species. A weak acid solution therefore
has fewer H+ ions, and a higher pH (is less acidic), than a strong acid solution with the same
concentration.
For example:
In 0.10 M HCl, a strong acid solution, the concentrations and pH include
[HCl] = 0 M, [H+] = 0.10 M = 10─1 M; pH =1 .
In a 0.10 M acetic acid solution, roughly one acetic acid particles per 100 is ionized.
This means that in this solution,
[CH3COOH] ≈ 0.099 M ≈ 0.10 M, [H+] ≈ 0.001 M ≈ 10─3 M, pH ≈ 3.
Compare the [H+] and pH in the two solutions. At the same mixed concentrations
of the acids, the hydrochloric acid solution has about 100 times more protons than
the acetic acid.
Vinegar can be used in cooking because acetic acid solutions do not contain high
concentrations of the reactive, corrosive particles in acids: H+. However, even at low
concentrations, the [H+] in aqueous solutions can have a major impact on reactions in
chemistry and biology.
Base Conjugates
An acid can be defined as any particle that can lose a proton. Acids can be positive or
negative ions as well as electrically neutral particles.
Examples: HCl, NH4+, and HPO42─ are all particles that can act as an acid by losing
a proton.

The ionization of an acid produces a proton and a base conjugate. The chemical formula
for the base conjugate of an acid is simply the acid formula with one less H atom and one less
positive charge.
For the weak acid HF reacting with water:
The general equation is: 1 Weak acid ÅÅÆ 1 proton + 1 base conjugate
In the ionization format: HF(aq) ÅÅÆ H+(aq) + F─(aq)
In the hydrolysis format: HF(g) + H2O(l) ÅÅÆ H3O+(aq) + F─(aq)
Use the definition of a base conjugate to answer these two questions.

Q. Assume the first particle in each reaction is acting as an acid. Complete the reaction
by writing chemical formulas for the products. Circle the base conjugate of the acid.
1. HCN(aq) Æ
2. NH4+ + H2O(l) Æ
* * * * *
Answer
1. HCN(aq) Æ H+(aq) + CN─(aq)
An acid ionizes to produce a proton (H+). The other particle is the base conjugate:
the acid particle with one less H atom and one less positive charge.
2. NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) Æ H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
When a weak acid ionization is written in the hydrolysis format (losing a proton by
donating the proton to water), one of the product particles is the always the
hydronium ion (H3O+); the other is the base conjugate.
All reaction equations must balanced for atoms and charge. Check the answers
above.
Practice A: Assume the first particle is acting as an acid. Write formulas for the
products of the reaction. Circle the base conjugate. Answers are at the end of this lesson.
1. HI Æ
2. HCO3─ Æ
3. HS─ + H2O Æ
4. HPO42─ + H2O Æ

The Ka Expression
For the reaction of an acid losing one proton, the equilibrium constant K is given a special
name: the acid-dissociation constant, and a special symbol: Ka . For any reaction
equation in which one acid particle ionizes to form one H+ or reacts with water to form one
H3O+, the symbol for the equilibrium constant is Ka.
By convention, an acid ionization or hydrolysis reaction is always written with one un-
ionized acid particle on the left and one H+ (or H3O+) on the right.
Example: The loss of a proton by acetic acid can be represented by either:
CH3COOH(aq) ÅÅÆ H+(aq) + CH3COO─(aq)
or CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ÅÅÆ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO─(aq)
Write the K expression for these two reactions.

* * * * *
Because both reactions consist of a weak acid releasing one proton, the K is a Ka .
A Ka expression always has [H+]1 or [H3O+]1 on top, and [weak acid]1 on the bottom.
For the above two reactions,

+ ─ + ─
Ka = [H ]eq. [CH3COO ]eq. or Ka = [H3O ] [CH3COO ]
[CH3COOH]at eq. [CH3COOH]
For all Ka expressions,
• as in standard K expressions: product concentrations are on top and reactant
concentrations on the bottom.
• Since [H+] = [H3O+], the two reaction formats and the two Ka expressions are
equivalent. One format may be substituted for the other.
• [H2O] is not included in the Ka expression for the hydrolysis reaction.
• The powers of all of the concentrations are 1 and are omitted as understood.
[H2O] is left out of Ka hydrolysis expressions for the same reason that it is left out of the Kw
expression. During acid hydrolysis, the concentration of liquid water remains high and
close to constant, at about 55 M, except in highly concentrated solutions. By convention, if
a particle concentration in a reaction cannot be significantly changed by a reaction, its term
is represented by a 1 in the K expression for the reaction.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is also a liquid at room temperature. Because acetic acid is a polar
molecule, it soluble in water: these two liquids mix to form one layer, unlike the
immiscible “oil and water.” In the dilute acetic acid solutions used in most experiments, its
concentration is low compared to the [water], and the state of the acetic acid is better
described as aqueous (dissolved in a comparably large amount of water) rather than liquid.

Since, depending on how much acetic acid is mixed into the water, the [CH3COOH(aq)]
can vary substantially, the [CH3COOH] term is included in the K expression.
In general,
A [dissolved liquid] term is included in a K expression, but the [solvent] is not.
In Ka expressions, if the state of a particle is left out, it is assumed to be aqueous. Since a K
must be calculated based on concentrations at equilibrium, if a label after and below a
concentration term is omitted, the subscript [ ]at equilibrium is understood.
A polyprotic acid can ionize to lose more than one proton, but in all polyprotic acid
solutions, each successive proton ionizes less than the one before. These successive
ionizations are written separately, with the base conjugate of the first ionization becoming
the weak acid in the second, etc. A Ka value always refers to the ionization of a weak acid
to produce one H+ or one H3O+.
Practice B: In the reactions below, assume that the first particle is acting as a weak acid
in an aqueous solution. Complete the reaction by writing the formulas for the products.
Then write the Ka expression for each reaction.
1. H2CO3 ÅÆ
2. HCO3─ Å Æ
3. H2S + H2O(l) ÅÆ
4. NH4+ + H2O(l) Å Æ
Ka Values
Acids have characteristic Ka values at a given temperature.
Sample Ka Values at 25oC:
Hydrochloric acid (strong) HCl ÅÆ H+ + Cl─ Ka = very large
Hydrofluoric acid (weak) HF ÅÆ H+ + F─ Ka = 6.8 x 10―4
Acetic acid (weak) CH3COOH ÅÆ H+ + CH3COO─ Ka = 1.8 x 10―5
Hydrocyanic acid (weak) HCN ÅÆ H+ + CN─ Ka = 6.2 x 10―10
For strong acids, ionization strongly favors the products. The Ka values for strong acids will
be very large, a number much greater than one. Since strong acid ionization is considered
to go to completion rather than equilibrium, the K value is not needed for calculations.

Weak acids have Ka values between 1.0 and 10―16, usually written in scientific notation
with a negative power of 10. The weaker is the acid, the less it will ionize and the smaller
will be its Ka. In the table above, the weakest acid is ? ? ?
* * * * *
HCN.
As the temperature of a weak acid solution rises, more bonds to H break, more protons
form, and Ka values increase. However, unless otherwise noted, you should assume that
Ka calculations are based on reactions at 25oC (77oF).
For any H atom in a compound, a Ka value can be measured that represents the tendency of
the H to ionize. However, if a Ka value is smaller than 10―16, the H will not react as an
acid except with bases that are very strong: stronger than hydroxides. Under most
circumstances, an H with a Ka smaller than 10―16 is considered to be a non-reactive rather
than an acidic hydrogen (see Lesson 14A).
Because K values can be difficult to measure precisely, reported K values can vary slightly
among textbooks. When doing textbook calculations, use K values in that text.
Practice C:
1. For the weak acid NH4+, the Ka value is 5.6 x 10―10.
a. What reaction is this a K value for?
b. Write the Ka expression for this reaction.
c. What term do Ka expressions always have in their numerator?
2. The weak acid HSO3─ has a Ka value of 6.2 x 10―8.

a. What reaction is this a K value for?
b. Write the Ka expression for this reaction.
3. Which particle above is the weaker acid: NH4+ or HSO3─ ?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. HI ÅÆ H+ + I─ 2. HCO3─ ÅÆ H+ + CO32─
3. HS─ + H2O ÅÆ H3O+ + S2─ 4. HPO42─ + H2O ÅÆ H3O+ + PO43─
Practice B: In the K expressions below, all concentrations are measured at equilibrium.

1. H2CO3 Å Æ H+ + HCO3─ 2. HCO3─ ÅÆ H+ + CO32─
Ka = [ H+ ][ HCO3─ ] Ka = [ H+ ][ CO32─ ]
[ H2CO3 ] [ HCO ─ ]
3

3. H2S + H2O(l) ÅÆ H3O+ + HS─ 4. NH4+ + H2O (l) ÅÆ H3O+ + NH3

Ka = [ H3O+ ] [ HS─ ] Ka = [ H3O+ ][ NH3 ]
[ H2S ] [ NH + ]4
For 3 and 4, in aqueous solutions [H2O] is essentially constant and is given a value of 1 in K expressions.
Practice C: .
1a. NH4+ Æ H+ + NH3 A Ka is always a K for the reaction where the reactant loses an H+ ion. In
the equation for a Ka reaction, an H+ ion will always be on the right side.
1b. Ka = [ H+ ][ NH3 ] 1c. A Ka expression always has [H+] (or [H3O+] ) in the numerator.
[ NH4+ ]
2a. HSO3─ ÅÆ H+ + SO32─ 2b. Ka = [ H+ ][ SO32─ ]
[ HSO3─ ]
3. The weaker acid is the one with the lower Ka value: NH4+
* * * * *
Lesson 30C: Ka Calculations

Ka Equations
The Ka expression and the Ka value together form the Ka equation.
For the ionization of acetic acid: 1 CH3COOH ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 CH3COO─

+ ─
the Ka equation is: Ka = [H ][CH3COO ] = 1.8 x 10―5 at 25oC
[CH3COOH]
Calculations using Ka follow the same rules as other K calculations: units are not included,
and when concentrations are calculated, the unit moles/liter (M) must be added to the
answer.
When To Use Ka
In solutions of strong acids, a Ka value is not needed to calculate particle concentrations at

equilibrium. Since HCl and HNO3 ionize completely in a 1 to 1 to 1 ratio, the original
[HCl and HNO3]mixed equals the [H+] and [Cl─ or NO3─] that form in the solution.
Weak acids ionize to form one proton, but the reaction goes slightly: to equilibrium instead
of completion. The mixed original [weak acid] does not directly convey how much of the
weak acid ionizes, nor how much products forms. For reactions that go to equilibrium, a K
equation is needed to calculate the particle concentrations at equilibrium, when the change
due to the reaction stops.

This we will call weak acid-base rule
1. In calculations involving acids and [particles],

• For 100% ionization (as in HCl or HNO3 solutions), use the REC steps.
• For slight ionization (as in weak acid solutions), use WRECK steps.
The WRECK Steps For Weak Acid Ionization

The general R and E (Reaction and Extent) steps for all weak acid ionizations can be written
1 WA ÅÅÆ 1 H+ + 1 base conjugate (goes slightly)

Since the reaction does not go to completion, the WRECK steps are needed to solve
calculations. Write the K expression for this general reaction, then check your answer
below.
* * * * *
Ka ≡ [H+]at eq. • [base conjugate]at eq. (Definition)
[WA]at equilibrium
Because this ionization forms H+, the K is a Ka . The []at equilibrium subscript can be
omitted as understood in K expression terms, but in this case it will be helpful to emphasize
in the discussion that follows.
In Module 28, to solve K calculations, we used a rice table. Let’s apply the rice table method
to the general reaction above.
The Rice Table For Weak Acid Ionization.
There are several types of reactions in which a compound reacts slightly by separating into
ions. To solve calculations in these reactions, we will define the small moles per liter of the
original, mixed compound that does ionize as x.
For compounds that ionize slightly: mol/L that does ionize = small = x
By this definition, for reactions in which compounds ionize slightly ,

[compound]remaining at equilibrium = [compound]initially, as mixed ─ x
The ionization of a weak acid in water is one example of this type of reaction. In weak acid
ionization, the [ion] of most interest is usually the [H+] ion. In this reaction, for every one
weak acid particle that reacts (ionizes and is used up), one H+ particle forms. Since the
particles are all in the same volume, the one to one ratio applies to measurements in
particles, moles, and moles per liter of particles. We can therefore write this key
relationship:
Mol/L weak acid that ionizes = small = x = [H+]formed

The above relationships are the same for all weak acids that ionize. That similarity will
simplify our problem solving.
Based on the general weak acid reaction

and the definition that x is the small amount of initial weak acid that reacts, fill in the
blanks and empty boxes in the rice table below.
Reaction __ WA __ H+ __ base conjugate
Initial [WA]mixed 0 0
Change (+,―) ―x
At Equilibrium
* * * * *
Reaction 1 WA 1 H+ 1 base conjugate
Initial [WA]mixed 0 0
Change ―x +x +x
At Equilibrium [WA]mixed ― x +x +x
As in all rice tables (Lesson 28F), in the Change row, quantities used up must be negative
and formed positive. The coefficients in front of the x terms in rows 3 and 4 are determined
by (and must be the same as) the coefficients in the balanced equation.
To solve K calculations, we substitute the concentrations in the bottom row of the rice table
into the K definition equation. Do that step for the above reaction.
Ka ≡ [H+]at eq. • [base conjugate]at eq. ≡ _____________________

[WA]at equilibrium
* * * * *
Ka ≡ [H+]at eq. [BC]at eq. ≡ x2
[WA]at eq. [WA]mixed ─ x
^ Definition ^ Exact
The two terms on top both have a value of x; multiplied they are x2 .
Writing the Equilibrium Concentrations By Inspection
Compared to general K calculations, Ka calculations are simplified because
• there is only one reactant, and it is always a weak acid,
• one product is always [H+] or [H3O+] and the other is the base conjugate,
• the initial quantities of the products are zero,

• the coefficients are always 1 weak acid particle used up equals 1 H+ ion formed
and 1 base conjugate formed, and
• the powers of the [ ] terms in a Ka expression are always 1.
This means:
The general rice moles table is the same for all weak acid ionization or hydrolysis.
The purpose of the rice table was to determine the “Concentrations at equilibrium”: the
bottom row of the rice table. A rice table can be written with each Ka calculation. However,
because all weak acid ionization calculations are so similar, instead of writing a rice table
for each problem, we can write the key first and last rows by inspection, as part of the
WRECK steps.
Let’s walk through the logic of abbreviating the rice table with the WRECK steps.
1. Use x.
Since the coefficients in a weak acid ionization are all one,
the ratio of moles H+ formed to moles of base conjugate (BC) formed to moles of weak acid
used up are always 1 to 1 to 1.
Since all of the particles in an ionization reaction are dissolved in the same volume of
solution, the moles per liter are also in a 1 to 1 to 1 ratio. This means that all three of the
following concentrations are equal to small x.
x = small = [WA]that ionizes = [H+]formed = [BC]formed
2. The REC steps. In a solution, the [WA] at equilibrium, after ionization, is usually difficult
to measure directly. However, the mol/L of weak acid that we originally added to mix
the solution is usually a quantity that we know.
Substituting x from the equality above simplifies the math. By definition:
[WA]at eq. ≡ [WA]mixed ─ small [WA]that ionizes ≡ [WA]mixed ─ x
If we can solve for x, we solve for four quantities:
x = [H+]formed = [BC]formed = [WA]that ionizes plus [WA]at eq. ( ≡ [WA]mixed ─ x)
Substitute into the blanks in the C step below a symbol for each concentration. Write a
term that includes x and uses the symbols for measurable concentrations in the
equalities above.
Reaction and Extent: 1 WA ÅÅÆ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc. At Equilib.: _______________ ___ ___
* * * * *

Reaction and Extent: 1 WA ÅÅÆ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc. At Equilib.: [WA]mixed ─ x x x
The C row is the same as the bottom row of the rice table above, and it is the same for all
weak acid ionization reactions.
3. The K step. Substitute into the K definition, for each of the three concentration terms
below, the symbol for that term that includes x from the C row above.
Ka ≡ [H+]at eq. • [BC]at eq. ≡ _____________________

[WA]at eq.
* * * * *
Ka ≡ [H+]at eq. [BC]at eq. ≡ x2 ≡ Ka
^ Definition based on R row ^ Exact based on C row
These two equations are the same as those that were written based on the rice table.
Both of the Ka equations above are true at equilibrium, but the exact form of the
equation has an advantage. Our goal is usually to solve for x, and the exact equation
can be solved for x if the Ka value and the [WA as mixed] are known, as they usually are.
However, because the exact equation has both x2 and x terms, it is a quadratic equation.
To solve exactly, you can use the quadratic formula.
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 The arithmetic is not difficult

2a but is time-consuming.
For most weak acid calculations, the following approximation may be used which
solves for x more quickly.
4. The K approximation. In a weak acid solution, the value of x is small compared to the
value of the [WA] as mixed. Using the approximation rule from the previous lesson,
write the simplified, approximate term in the blank below.
[WA]at equilibrium ≡ [WA]mixed ─ x ≈ __________
* * * * *
[WA]at equilibrium ≡ [WA]mixed ─ x ≈ [WA]mixed
When a small quantity is added to or subtracted from a larger quantity, the larger
quantity remains approximately the same.
Now fill in the box below: write an approximation based on the exact equation.
Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x•x ≈

* * * * *

The Ka expression can be simplified to this approximation:
Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
[WA]at eq. [WA]mixed ─ x [WA]mixed
^ Definition Êxact ^ Approximation

The small difference between the exact and the approximation equation means that
solving the exact equation for x requires the quadratic formula, while solving the
approximation requires only a square root. The approximation can therefore be solved
more quickly. For most Ka calculations, we will solve the approximation equation.
Summary
For all weak acid ionization reactions, these are always the same:
• The general reaction: WA ÅÅÆ H+ + BC
• The rice table.
• The WRECK steps.
• The C step (which is the same as the bottom row of the rice table).
• The K step, the definition, exact, and approximate expressions.
In weak acid ionization (Ka) calculations, all that will vary are the specific formulas for WA
and BC, the values for [WA] and [BC], and the value of Ka . By representing weak acid
ionizations using the general equation, we will simplify problem-solving.
Practice A: Check your answers as you go.

1. For the ionization of the weak acid WA to form protons and BC,
a. Write the REC steps. In the C row, each term should include x.
b. Write the Ka definition.
c. Write the Ka exact equation using C row terms that include x.
d. Write the Ka approximation equation.
2. For the ionization of the weak acid NH4+ :
a. Write the Reaction and its Extent, using the particle formulas in the reaction.
c. Below the Reaction and Extent, write the Concentrations at equilibrium, defined so
that each term includes x .
b. Write the Ka definition equation, using the particle formulas.
d. Write the Ka exact equation based on the terms in the C step.
e. Write the Ka approximation equation, based on the answer in part d.

Ka Calculations
We will solve Ka calculations in the same way we solved K calculations: write the WRECK
steps. To simplify Ka calculations, we will add one step: we will write both the reaction
showing the particles for the specific weak acid and then the general reaction equation for
all weak acids. These two steps will define the terms in the problem.
We will then solve all weak acid calculations using the same general equations. Our rule
will be weak acid rule
2. The Ka Prompt: If a problem involves a weak acid or Ka and [ions], write the
WRRECK steps.
• WANTED: Write the general and specific symbol.
• Write the specific reaction using the symbol for the particles in the problem, then
write this general reaction and extent:
Rxn. and Extent: WA ÅÅ Æ H+ + base conjugate (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
• Conc. at Eq: [WA]mixed ─ x x x
• Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
^Definition ^ Exact Âpproximation

c. SOLVE the Ka approximation for the WANTED symbol.
In short: See weak acid or Ka and [ions]? Write WRRECK, solve the approximation.
Use the rules above on this example, and then check your answer below.
Q. In a 2.0 M acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution, calculate the [H+] (Ka = 1.8 x 10―5)
* * * * *
Answer
WANT: [H+] = x
Specific R: 1 CH3COOH ÅÆ 1 H+ + 1 CH3COO─

R & E: 1 WA ÅÆ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: [WA]mixed ─ x x x
Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
^Definition ^ Exact Âpproximation

Solve the boxed approximation. Start with a DATA TABLE using the equation symbols.
* * * * *

DATA: x = [H+] = ?
[WA]mixed = [CH3COOH]mixed = 2.0 M
Ka = 1.8 x 10―5
Use those values to solve the approximation for the WANTED symbol.
* * * * *
Since Ka ≈ x2 and ? = [H+] = x, solve for x2 then x .
[WA]mixed
* * * * *
x2 = (Ka ) x ( [WA]mixed ) = (1.8 x 10―5 ) x ( 2.0 ) = 3.6 x 10―5 = 36 x 10―6
x = 6.0 x 10―3 M = [H+] (When solving a K for [ ], add M as the unit.)
Practice B. Do both problems. If in doubt, check your answers after each part.
1. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is both a weak acid and a notorious poison.
a. Calculate the [H+] in a 0.50 M HCN solution. Use Ka = 6.2 x 10―10 for HCN .
b. Calculate the pH of the HCN solution.
2. The weak acid hydrogen fluoride (HF) is used to etch glass. The [F―] in a 0.25 Molar
HF solution is measured to be 0.012 Molar.
a. Find the Ka value for HF at the temperature of this experiment.
b. What is the pH of the solution?
c. What is the [OH─] in this HF solution?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. R&E: 1 WA ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Cat eq.: [WA]mixed ─ x x x
Ka ≡ [H+]eq [BC]eq ≡ x2 ≈ x2
[WA]eq. [WA]mixed ─ x [WA]mixed
1b,c,d. ^ Definition Êxact Âpproximation
2a. R&E: 1 NH4+ ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 NH3 (goes slightly) 1b. Ka ≡ [H+]eq [NH3]eq
^ ^ ^ [NH4+]at eq
2c. Cat eq.: +
[NH4 ]mixed ─ x x x

2d. Ka ≡ x•x 1e. Ka ≈ x2

[NH4+]mixed ─ x [NH4+]as mixed
Practice B
1a. If Ka and [ions] are mentioned, write the WRRECK’s, solve the approximation.
WANTED: [H+] = ?
Specific Reaction: 1 HCN ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 CN─ (goes slightly)
R&E: 1 WA ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ka ≡ [H+]eq [BC]eq ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
[WA]at eq. [WA]mxd ─ x [WA]mixed
^ Definition Êxact Âpproximation
Solve the Ka approximation for the WANTED symbol.
x2 ≈ (Ka ) ( [WA]mixed ) = (6.2 x 10―10 ) ( 0.50 ) = 3.1 x 10―10
x = [H+] = ? ≈ (estimate: 1-2 x 10―5) ≈ 1.8 x 10―5 M = [H+]
1b. See pH? Write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
WANT pH = ─ log (1.8 x 10─5) = estimate 4.? = 4.74 (4.74 rounded up = 5: Check.)
2a. If Ka and [ions] are mentioned, write the WRRECK’s, solve the approximation.
Specific Reaction: 1 HF ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 F─ (goes slightly)
WANTED: Ka = ?
R&E: 1 WA ÅÅ Æ 1 H+ + 1 BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ka ≡ [H+]eq [BC]eq ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
[WA]at eq. [WA]mxd ─ x [WA]mixed
^ Definition Êxact Âpproximation
Solve the Ka approximation for the WANTED symbol.
? = Ka ≈ x2 ≈ (1.2 x 10─2)2 ≈ 1.44 x 10

─4 = 5.7 x 10─4
[WA]mixed 0.25 0.25
A K value has units, but by convention units are not listed with a K value.
b. pH? pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
WANT: pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log (1.2 x 10─2) = 1.? = 1.92 (estimate, then calculate.)

c. In an acid solution, find [H+] using acid rules, then [OH─] using Kw.
DATA: [H+] = x = 0.012 M = 1.2 x 10─2 M (from Part a)
SOLVE: Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
[OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.83 x 10─12 = 8.3 x 10─13 M

[H+] 1.2 x 10─2
(Kw check: [H+] x [OH─] (circled) must estimate to 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14).
* * * * *
Lesson 30D: Percent Dissociation – and Shortcuts

Moving Numbers Instead of Symbols
For past calculations that use equations, we have solved in symbols before plugging in
numbers. We did so because when using algebra, symbols can be written more quickly
than numbers with their units. In K calculations, however, you may choose to plug
numbers into the K equation and then do the algebra. Why? Numbers without units often
move more quickly than symbols.
The downside is that in Ka as in other K calculations, you lose unit cancellation as a check
on your algebra. This means that in K calculations, you must double check your math.
Solving the Approximation Directly
It is important to be able to solve Ka calculations by writing out the methodical WRECK
steps. For upcoming problems that are more complex, we will need those methodical
steps. However, once you master the WRRECK steps, you may solve Ka calculations by
writing these WA quick steps (WASS): W, approximation, substitute, solve.
• Write the WANTED symbol.
• Write the Ka approximation equation: Ka ≈ x2

[WA]mixed
• Substitute the DATA and solve the approximation for the WANTED symbol.
Try those steps on this problem
Q. Hypochlorous acid ionizes by this reaction.
HOCl Æ H+ + OCl─ Ka = 3.5 x 10―8
Calculate the [H+] in a 0.40 M HOCl solution.
* * * * *

Answer
WANTED: [H+] = x
Since hypochlorous acid has a small Ka , it is a weak acid.
Using the WA quick steps (WASS), write the Ka approximation, substitute, solve.
Ka ≈ x2 Substituting: 3.5 x 10―8 = x2

[WA]mixed 0.40
SOLVE: To find x WANTED, first solve for x2.

x2 = ( 3.5 x 10―8 ) x ( 0.40 ) = 1.4 x 10―8
x = 1.2 x 10―4 M = [H+] (When solving a K for [ ], add M as the unit.)

* * * * *
Percent Dissociation
The percent dissociation is a measure of the strength of a weak acid solution. Percent
ionization, percent dissociation, and percent hydrolysis are all terms that have the same
meaning.
The percent dissociation is simply the percentage of the original weak acid concentration
that ionizes. Since [WA that ionizes] = x , for equation consistency we will write as weak
acid Rule
3. % Dissociation ≡ x ● 100% ≡ [WA]ionized ● 100%

[WA]mixed [WA]mixed
The terms and the definition equations must be memorized.

The equations for percent dissociation and the K approximation both have x terms in the
numerator and the same denominator. Note how they differ: The K approximation has x2
on top, while percent dissociation has x on top and multiplies by 100%.
Apply the definition above to the following problem, and then check your answer below.
Q. Benzoic acid ionizes to form the benzoate ion.
C6H5COOH Æ H+ + C6H5COO─ Ka = 6.3 x 10―5
a. Calculate the [H+] in a 0.040 M benzoic acid solution.
(Use the quick steps: solve the approximation equation directly.)
b. Calculate the percent dissociation in the solution.
* * * * *
Answer
a. WANTED: [H+] = x = ?

To solve using the WA quick steps (WASS),
Ka ≈ x2 Substituting: 6.3 x 10―5 ≈ x2

[WA]mixed 0.040 M
SOLVE: To find the x WANTED, first solve for x2.

x2 ≈ ( 6.3 x 10―5 ) ( 0.040 ) = 2.5 x 10―6
? = x ≈ (estimate 1-2 x 10―3) ≈ 1.6 x 10―3 M = [H+]
If needed, adjust your work and then try part b.
* * * * *
b. Watch for the answer from one part to be used as DATA for later parts.
Since the dissociation equation is simple, you may solve without listing the symbols
and values in a DATA table.
SOLVE: % Dissoc. = x ● 100% = 1.6 x 10―3 M ● 102 % = 4.0 %

[WA]mixed 4.0 x 10―2 M
In 0.040 M C6H5COOH at 25oC, 4.0% of the weak acid is ionized.
Practice
1. A 2.0 Molar solution of a monoprotic weak acid has a pH of 4.49 .
a. Calculate the [H+] in the solution.
b. Calculate the percentage of ionization in this solution.
2. If a weak acid in a 0.50 M solution is 2.0% dissociated, what is its Ka ?
ANSWERS
1a. pH Prompt: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
WANT: [H+] = ? = x
For Ka and [ions], write the WRRECK’s, but Ka is not mentioned in this problem.
Want [H+] and know pH. The relationship between the two that solves for [H+] is:
[H+] = 10─pH = 10─4.49 = 3.2 x 10─5 M = [H+] (check: 4.49 up = 5)
b. For weak acids, x = [H+] from part a.

% Ionization = % Dissoc. = x ● 100% = 3.2 x 10─5 M x 102 % = 1.6 x 10─3 % = 0.0016 %

[WA]mixed 2.0 M
2. WANT: Ka Write needed equations based on the terms used in the problem.
% Dissociation = x ● 100%
[WA]mixed
Ka ≈ x2 Approximation
[WA]mixed
In this problem, the % dissociation equation above has one unknown value, and the K approximation has
two. Begin by substituting into the top equation to find x.
* * * * *
2.0 % = x ● 100% ; x = (2.0%/100%) ● 0.50 M = 0.010 M = 1.0 x 10─2 M
0.50 M
Solve for the WANTED symbol: Ka ≈ x2 ≈ (1.0 x 10─2)2 ≈ 2.0 x 10─4

[WA]mixed 0.50
* * * * *
Lesson 30E: Solving Ka Using the Quadratic Formula

Timing: Do this lesson if you are asked to solve Ka calculations using the 5% test and/or
the quadratic formula.
* * * * *
The 5% Test
So far, we have solved Ka calculations using the Ka approximation. For weak acid ionization,
the only difference between the Ka exact equation and the Ka approximation equation is the
─ x term in the denominator.
Ka ≡ [H+][conjugate] ≈ x2
[WA]mixed ─ x [WA]mixed
Êxact Âpproximation
If x is small, the ─ x term does not substantially change the answer, and the above
approximation may be used. However, if a weak acid ionizes to a significant extent, x is
not small, and the approximation introduces significant error in Ka calculations.
When can you safely use the Ka approximation and solve using squares and square roots?
When must you use exact Equation 2 and solve the quadratic formula?
The generally accepted rule is that if the percent dissociation (ionization) is less than 5%,
using the approximation is permitted. In most experiments involving Ka, a 5% variation is
in the range of experimental error.

When solving a Ka equation, the approximation equation is solved first. The 5% test is then
applied to the answer by calculating the % dissociation. If the % dissociation is 5% or less,
the approximation result is accepted. If the percent dissociation is more than 5%, the
calculation is done again, with the original problem data substituted into the exact equation.
The exact equation is then converted to the general quadratic format. The quadratic formula
is then solved to find x.
We will add this rule to our steps for solving Ka calculations:
In Ka calculations,
• SOLVE first for the WANTED symbol using the approximation equation.
• Calculate % dissociation. IF greater than 5%, solve the exact Ka quadratic.
Solving Ka with the Quadratic Formula

Weak acid calculations in which the dissociation is more than 5% error generally involve
weak acids that either are not very weak (those with a Ka of 10―6 or larger) or are very
dilute solutions.
Try this example in your notebook, then check the answer below.
Q. In a 0.010 M HF solution at 25oC ( Ka HF = 6.8 x 10―4 ),
a. find [H+] using the approximation equation.

b. Does the HF in this solution ionize more than 5%?
* * * * *
Answer
Part a: WANT: [H+] = x
Ka ≈ x2
[WA]mixed
x2 ≈ (6.8 x 10―4 ) ( 0.010 ) = 6.8 x 10―6
x = ? ≈ (estimate 2-3 x 10―3) ≈ 2.6 x 10―3 M ≈ [H+] Now try Part b.
* * * * *
Part b:
WANT: % Dissociation = x ● 100% = 2.6 x 10―3 ● 102 % = 26 %

[WA]mixed 1.0 x 10―2
Applying the 5% test, because the % dissociation is 26%, the x value is too high to use the
approximation equation. In such cases, the exact Ka equation must be solved. Write the
exact form of the Ka equation, then substitute the values for Ka and [WA].
* * * * *

Ka ≡ x2 Substituting: 6.8 x 10―4 = x2

[WA]mixed ─ x 0.010 ─ x
The substituted equation is a quadratic because it has x2 and x terms. See if you can solve
the substituted equation above for x by applying the quadratic formula. Use an online or
handheld calculator if it is permitted for solving quadratics in your course. Refer to the
rules in Lesson 28J if needed.
* * * * *
Begin by converting the numeric equation into the quadratic format: ax2 + bx + c = 0,
6.8 x 10―4 = x2
0.010 ─ x
6.8 x 10―4 (0.010 ─ x) = x2
6.8 x 10―6 ─ (6.8 x 10―4) x = x2
x2 + (6.8 x 10―4)(x) ─ 6.8 x 10―6 = 0

To solve for x, substitute values for a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.
* * * * *
a = 1 , b = 6.8 x 10―4 , c = ─6.8 x 10―6 . For substituting into an online quadratic
calculator, you may need to convert to a = 1, b = 0.000 68, c = ─0.000 006 8 .
Solving without the online calculator by substituting into the quadratic formula:
x = ─b ± (b2 ─4ac)1/2 = ─( 6.8 x 10―4) ± {(―6.8 x 10―4)2 ─ 4(1)( ─6.8 x 10―6)}1/2 =

2a 2(1)
x= (─ 6.8 x 10―4) ± {(+ 46.2 x 10―8) + (27.2 x 10―6)}1/2 =

2
x= (─ 6.8 x 10―4) ± {(+ 0.462 x 10―6) + (27.2 x 10―6)}1/2 =

2
x= (─ 6.8 x 10―4) ± (+ 27.7 x 10―6)1/2 = (─ 6.8 x 10―4) ± (+ 5.26 x 10―3) =

2 2
x= (─ 0.68 x 10―3) + (5.26 x 10―3) OR x= (─ 0.68 x 10―3) ─ (+ 5.26 x 10―3))

2 2
x = (+ 4.58 x 10―3) OR x = ─ 5.94 x 10―3 ; x = + 2.29 x 10―3 OR x = ─ 2.97 x 10―3

2 2
Since x is a concentration, and concentrations cannot be negative, x = 2.3 x 10―3 M
Using the approximation equation in Part a, x was 0.0026 M. Using the exact equation, x =
0.0023 M. The difference between those answers is roughly 12%. For a weak acid that is
not very weak, the exact formula provides significantly more accurate answers.

Practice
Use the exact Ka equation to solve. Use an online quadratic formula calculator or handheld
calculator for assistance if it is allowed in your course.
1. In a 0.010 M CH3COOH solution, find the [H+]. (Ka = 1.8 x 10―5)
ANSWERS
1. WANTED = [H+] = x . The exact Ka equation based on the original [WA] as mixed, is
Ka ≡ x2 Substituting: 1.8 x 10―5 = x2
[WA]mixed ─ x 0.010 M ─ x
Since the equation includes x2 and x terms, it is a quadratic.
To solve, convert to the quadratic format, then solve the quadratic formula.
x2 = ( 1.8 x 10―5 ) ( 0.010 M ─ x)
x2 = ( 1.8 x 10―7 ) ─ ( 1.8 x 10―5 )x
x2 + ( 1.8 x 10―5 )x ─ ( 1.8 x 10―7 ) = 0
a = 1 , b = 1.8 x 10―5 , c = ─1.8 x 10―7 For a quadratic calculator, you may need to input
a = 1 , b = 0.000 018 , c = ─ 0.000 000 18
Substituting these values into a quadratic equation calculator to solve:
x = + 4.15 x 10―4 or x = ─ 4.33 x 10―4
Since x is a concentration and must be positive, x = 4.15 x 10―4 M = [H+]

* * * * *

Lesson 30F: Weak Bases and Kb Calculations

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned calculations involving Kb.
* * * * *
Weak Bases
A base reacts with water to produce OH─ ions and the acid conjugate of the base.
The strong bases NaOH and KOH will ionize ~100% when dissolved in water. For a weak
base (WB), only a small percentage of particles will react with water.
An example of the reaction of a weak base and water occurs in the mixture of ammonia
(NH3) and water, a solution used in many glass-cleaning products. When ammonia gas is
dissolved in water, a small percentage of the NH3 molecules react by removing a proton
from a water molecule. This hydrolysis (reaction with water) of a base can be represented
as
Specific: NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ÅÅ Æ OH─(aq) + NH4+(aq) (goes slightly)
General: WB + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate (goes slightly)
The formation of OH─ ions in the reaction with water makes ammonia a base. The small
percentage of ammonia molecules that react means that ammonia is a weak base.
The reaction of a weak base with water is reversible, and in the closed system of an
aqueous solution the reaction will go to equilibrium. The equilibrium constant expression
for the hydrolysis of the weak base is given the symbol Kb.
Write the K expressions for the general and specific reactions above.
* * * * *
General: Kb = [OH─] [acid conjugate] Specific: Kb = [OH─] [NH4+]
[WB] [NH3]
with all concentrations measured at equilibrium.
A Kb expression always has [OH─] on top and [WB] on the bottom.
As in the case of Ka and Kw expressions, the concentration of liquid water is not included in
the Kb expression. In most weak base solutions, the concentration of water remains very
high and essentially constant during hydrolysis reactions.
One difference between weak acids and weak bases is that a weak acid nearly always
contains an H atom and loses an H+ ion when it ionizes or hydrolyzes (“Lewis acids” are an
exception). In contrast, as in the case of NH3 above, most weak bases do not contain OH─
ions, so that they do not ionize to lose them. Instead, most weak bases create an OH─ by
hydrolysis: by reacting with water and removing an H+ from H─OH.

For example, the weak acid behavior of acetic acid can be represented as either
ionization: CH3COOH(aq) ÅÅ Æ H+(aq) + CH3COO─(aq)
or hydrolysis: CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) ÅÅ Æ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO─(aq)
but the weak base behavior of ammonia (NH3) can only be represented by hydrolysis:
NH3(aq) + H─OH(l) ÅÅ Æ NH4+(aq) + OH─(aq)

As with weak acids, the values of Kb for the ionization of weak bases will be between 1.0
and 10―16. The equilibrium constant equation for the hydrolysis of ammonia is
Kb = [NH4+][OH─] = 1.8 x 10―5 at 25oC.

[NH3]
Kb Calculation Rules
The rules for calculations involving weak bases and Kb are similar to those for weak acids
and Ka. Compare:
1. Acids hydrolyze (react with water) to form H3O+ ions.

Bases hydrolyze (react with water) to form OH─ ions.
2. Weak acids react with water (ionize slightly in water) to form H3O+ (or H+) ions.
Weak bases react with water slightly to form OH─ ions.
3. In acid-base reactions, acid particles lose an H+ to form the base conjugate particle.
In acid-base reactions, base particles gain an H+ to form the acid conjugate particle.
Using those definitions, cover the answer below and then try this problem.
Q. Fluoride ion (F─) is a weak base. When F─ is mixed with water, which particles
will form in the hydrolysis reaction?
F─ + H2O ÅÅ Æ
* * * * *
Answer
Weak base Acid Conjugate
F─ + H2O ÅÅ Æ HF + OH─
~99% un-reacted ~1% of the F─ reacts to form these at equilibrium
The base particle F─ gains an H+ when it reacts, and becomes the acid conjugate of the
HF. When a base reacts with water, one of the products is always OH─ ion.
Check that this equation is balanced for atoms and charge.
* * * * *

Practice A: Check your answers at the end of the lesson.

1. Assuming the first particle is acting as a base, complete the reaction.
a. HS─ + H O Æ 2
b. CH3COO─ + H2O Æ
c. H2PO4─ + H2O Æ
2. Write the expression for Kb for each reaction above.
3. If each particle below is acting as a base, write the formula for its acid conjugate.
a. CO32─ b. HSO4─ c. HPO42─
More Ka and Kb Comparisons

4. The general reaction for the hydrolysis of a weak acid is
WA + H O ÅÅ Æ H O+ + base conjugate
2 3 (goes slightly)
The general reaction for the hydrolysis of a weak base is
WB + H O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate
2 (goes slightly)
The acid conjugate will have one more H and one more + charge than the base.
5. When a weak acid is mixed with water,
[WA]that ionizes = x = [H3O+ or H+]formed = [base conjugate]formed
When a weak base is mixed with water, x is the small mol/L of weak base that reacts.
[WB]that hydrolyzes = x = [OH─]formed = [acid conjugate]formed
6. The K for the ionization of an acid is termed the acid-dissociation constant: Ka.
The K for the hydrolysis of a base is termed the base- hydrolysis constant: Kb .
Since most bases do not dissociate by losing an OH─ ion, base-hydrolysis is the
preferred term.
7. Ka is between 1 and 10─16 for a weak acid. Kb is between 1 and 10─16 for a weak base.
The higher the Ka, the stronger the acid. The higher the Kb, the stronger the base.
8. Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [base conjugate]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2

Kb ≡ [OH─]eq. [acid conjugate]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2

[WB]at eq. [WB]mixed ─ x [WB]mixed
^ Definition Êxact ^ Approximation
9. Ka expressions have [H+] or [H3O+] on top. Kb expressions have [OH─] on top.

* * * * *

Percent Hydrolysis for Bases

In Kb expressions, x measures the small [WB] used up in the hydrolysis reaction. The
percent hydrolysis is the percentage of the original base that reacts.
The percent hydrolysis of a weak base can be calculated in the same way as the percent
dissociation of a weak acid. We will modify Rule 3 to read
3: % Dissociation/Ionization/Hydrolysis/5% Test:
% Dissociation = x ● 100% = [ WA or WB ]hydrolyzed ● 100%

[ WA or WB ]mixed [ WA or WB ]mixed
The 5% Test For Weak Bases

If you are asked to use the 5% dissociation test for weak bases, use the same steps as for
weak acids. First solve with approximation equation. If the percent hydrolysis of the
weak base is greater than 5%, solve for x using exact equation (with the ─ x term) and the
quadratic formula.
Summary: Weak Base Calculations.

4. Kb Prompt. If a problem involves a weak base and/or Kb and its [ions], write the
WRRECK steps.
write this general reaction for weak base hydrolysis and its extent:
R & E: WB + H O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate
2 (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
• Conc. [WB]mixed ─ x x x
• Kb ≡ [OH─]eq.[conjugate]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2
where: x = [OH─] = [acid conjugate] = [WB]hydrolyzed
5. In Ka and Kb calculations, first solve the approximation for the WANTED unit or
symbol, then calculate the percent dissociation. IF >5%, solve the exact equation
using the quadratic formula.

Ka solves for x = [H+] , Kb solves for x = [OH―].
In short: For Ka and Kb calculations, write the WRRECK’s, solve the approximation, then
calculate % dissociation. If greater than 5%, solve the exact quadratic.

After mastering the WRRECK steps, you may solve Ka and Kb calculations using the WASS
quick steps: Write the WANTED symbol, the approximation equation, substitute, solve,
and then apply the 5% test.
Practice B: Try both.
1. Codeine (C18H21NO3) is a physically addictive opiate which is an ingredient in some

prescription cough suppressants. Codeine is a weak base with a Kb = 9.2 x 10―7. Use
the full WRRECK steps to calculate the [OH─] in a 0.010 M codeine solution.
2. [OH─] is 3.6 x 10―5 M in a 0.12 M solution of the weak base hydroxylamine (HONH2).
a. Using the WASS quick steps, calculate the Kb value for HONH2 .
b. Apply the 5% test to the Kb approximation calculation.
Calculating Kb from Ka
In general,
• The conjugate of a strong acid or base (K = very large) is pH neutral.
• The conjugate of a weak acid or base is a weak opposite.
• The conjugate of a very weak acid or base (K < 10―16) is a strong opposite.
The term weak acid or base generally refers to particles with a K between 1 and ~10―16.
For these particles, at a given temperature,
• A weak acid has a characteristic Ka, and its base conjugate has a characteristic Kb.
• A weak base has a characteristic Kb, and its acid conjugate has a characteristic Ka.
Because weak base solutions are systems at equilibrium, the weak base reacts slightly to
form an acid conjugate, and the acid conjugate can react in the reverse reaction to re-form
the weak base. K values take into account both the forward and reverse reactions.
Since reactions for weak acids and bases are reversible, they can be written backwards,
from the perspective of the conjugate. One consequence of this reversibility is that for a
weak acid or a weak base and its conjugate, the Kb and Ka of the particles in the conjugate
pair are related mathematically. Ka and Kb, when multiplied, must equal Kw.
For acid-base conjugate pairs: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 at 25ºC.
Note that for any conjugate pair, Kb and Ka are inversely proportional: the larger is one,
the smaller must be the other.

We will summarize these points as rules
7. An acid particle loses an H+ to become the base conjugate of the acid.

A base particle gains an H+ to become the acid conjugate of the base.
8. For acid-base conjugate pairs: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 at 25ºC.
Ka values are often listed in tables. Kb values are less often listed in tables. However, if
either a Ka or Kb value is known, the K value of the conjugate can be calculated by
• writing the chemical formula for the conjugate, and
• applying the relationship between the K values of acid-base conjugates:
Kw = Ka • Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 .
Using that rule, try this problem.
Q. The Ka for HF is 6.8 x 10―4.

a. What is the chemical formula for its base conjugate?
b. What is the Kb of its base conjugate?
* * * * *
Answer
a. The formula for the base conjugate of HF is F─. The base conjugate of an acid has
one fewer H atoms and one fewer positive charges.
b. WANT: Kb of F─
DATA: Ka for HF = 6.8 x 10―4 .
To find the Kb of F─, write the chemical formula for its acid conjugate: HF.
Then apply the Ka value of HF and the rule for acid-base conjugates:
Kw = Ka • Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
SOLVE: ? = Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.5 x 10─11 = Kb of F─

Ka 6.8 x 10―4
Check: just as [H+] ● [OH─] must estimate to = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14,
Kb ● Ka (circled) must estimate to = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14.

Practice C
Do the odd-numbered problems, and more if you need more practice.
1. Write Rules 1-8 for weak acids and bases until you can write them from memory.
2. If the Kb of the weak base methylamine (CH3NH2) is 4.4 x 10─5, what is the Ka value
for CH NH +?
3 3
3. Phosphoric acid is triprotic: it has three protons that can ionize. Each acid particle that
can lose a proton has a different Ka value, as shown in the following chart.
Acid Ka at 25˚C Based on this data, what would be the

Kb of HPO42─?
H3PO4 7.5 x 10─3
H2PO4─ 6.2 x 10─8
HPO42─ 4.2 x 10─13
4. In acetic acid, CH3COOH, the last H in the formula is weakly acidic. The Ka for acetic
acid is 1.8 x 10─5.
a. What is the chemical formula for the base conjugate of acetic acid?
b. What is the Kb value for the base conjugate?
c. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that this Kb is the equilibrium
constant for.
d. What is the Kb expression for the hydrolysis of the base conjugate of acetic acid?
5. Aniline (C6H5NH2) is a weak base used in synthesizing textile dyes (Kb = 3.8 x 10─10).
a. Find the Ka of C6H5NH3+.

b. Write a balanced equation for aniline reacting as a weak base with water.
c. Find the [OH─] in a 0.020 M aniline solution. Use the full WRRECK steps.
d. What will be the pH of the Part c solution?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. HS─ + H2O Æ H2S + OH─ b. CH3COO─ + H2O Æ CH3COOH + OH─
c. H2PO4─ + H2O Æ H3PO4 + OH─ Bases reacting with water form OH─.

2. a. Kb = [H2S][OH─] b. Kb = [CH3COOH][OH─] c. Kb = [H3PO4][OH─]

[HS─] [CH3COO─ ] [H2PO4─ ]
Kb expressions always have [OH─] on top.
3. Acid conjugates: a. CO32─ HCO3─ b. HSO4─ H2SO4 c. HPO42─ H2PO4─
Practice B
2a. If Kb and [ions] are mentioned, write the WRRECK’s, solve the approximation, do the 5% test.
WANT: [OH─] = x
Specific Reaction: 1 C18H21NO3 + H2O ÅÅ Æ 1 OH─ + 1 HC18H21NO3+ (goes slightly)
(In this problem, those specific formulas are not needed to solve.)
General R+E: WB + H O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate
2 (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: [WB]mixed─ x x x
Kb: Kb = [OH─][acid conjugate] ≈ x2 ≈ Kb

[WB]mixed ─ x [WB]mixed
Solve the Kb approximation for x:
x2 ≈ (9.2 x 10─7 ) ( 0.010 ) = 9.2 x 10―9 = 92 x 10―10
x ≈ (estimate 9-10 x 10―5) ≈ 9.6 x 10―5 M = [OH─]

Since the approximation was used, apply the 5% test:
% Hydrolysis = x ● 100% = 9.6 x 10―5 ● 102 %
[WA or WB]mixed 1.0 x 10―2
= 9.6 x 10─1 % = 0.96 %, which is less than 5%, so approximation is OK.

2a. WANT: Kb starting from the approximation equation.
Kb ≈ x2 Remember that in Kb, x solves for [OH―].
[WB]mixed
SOLVE: ? = Kb ≈ x2 = (3.6 x 10─5)2 = 13.0. x 10─10 = 1.1 x 10─8 = Kb

[WB]mixed 0.12 0.12
b. % Hydrolysis = x ● 100% = 3.6 x 10―5 ● 102 % = 3.0 x 10─2 %

[WA or WB]mixed 0.12 = 0.03% < 5%
Practice C
2. WANT: Ka of acid conjugate (the acid conjugate has one more H and one more + charge)
DATA: Kb of base = 4.4 x 10─5
For acid-base conjugates: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14

SOLVE: Ka = Kw = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.23 x 10─9 = 2.3 x 10─10 = Ka

Kb Kb 4.4 x 10―5
Quick check: Kb x Ka must estimate to Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14. Try it.
3. WANT: Kb of HPO42─
DATA: Kb can be found from the Ka values in the table using Kw, but which Ka is used?
That of the acid conjugate of HPO42─, which is H2PO4─; Ka = 6.2 x 10―8
Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
SOLVE: Kb = Kw = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.16 x 10─6 = 1.6 x 10─7 = Kb

Ka Ka 6.2 x 10―8
Quick check: Kb x Ka must estimate to = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14.
4. a. CH3COO─ . The base conjugate is the acid particle minus an H+.

b. WANT: Kb of base conjugate
DATA: Ka of acid = 1.8 x 10―5
SOLVE: Kb = Kw = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.56 x 10─9 = 5.6 x 10─10 = Kb

Ka Ka 1.8 x 10―5
Quick check: Kb x Ka must estimate to = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14
c. Kb is always the K for this reaction: base + H2O ÅÅÆ acid conjugate + OH─
Here the acid-base conjugate pair are CH COOH and CH COO─.
3 3
So the base is the acetate ion: CH3COO─ + H2O ÅÅ Æ CH3COOH + OH─
d. Kb is always the K expression for the reaction of a base with water: the reaction in Part c above:
Kb = [OH─] [CH3COOH] with all concentrations are measured at equilibrium.
[CH3COO─] A Kb expression always has [OH─] on top.
5. a. WANT: Ka of C6H5NH3+ (the acid conjugate of aniline - one more H and one more + charge)
DATA: Kb of base = 3.8 x 10─10
SOLVE: Ka = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.26 x 10─4 = 2.6 x 10─5 = Ka

Kb 3.8 x 10─10

b. Aniline is a weak base. Weak bases take a proton from water:
Specific Reaction: C6H5NH2 + H2O ÅÅÆ C6H5NH3+ + OH─ (goes slightly)

c. WANT: [OH─] = x = ? For Ka or Kb and [ions] calculations, write the WRRECK’s.
General R+E: WB + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Kb: Kb = [OH─][conjugate] ≈ x2 ≈ Kb
Since [OH─] = ? = x , solve the Kb approximation for x:
x2 ≈ (Kb ) ( [WB]mixed ) = (3.8 x 10─10 ) ( 0.020 ) = 7.6 x 10―12
x ≈ (estimate: 2-3 x 10―6) ≈ 2.8 x 10―6 M = [OH─]

Since the Kb approximation was used, ask: is the weak base more than 5% dissociated?
% Hydrolysis = x ● 100% = 2.8 x 10―6 ● 102 % =

[WA or WB]orig. 2.0 x 10―2
= 1.4 x 10─2 % = 0.014%, which is less than 5%, so the approximation is OK.
d. WANT: pH Write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
We don’t know [H+]. We know 2.8 x 10―6 M = [OH─] One way to solve is to find pOH, then pH:
pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─], [OH─] = 10─pOH and pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] = ─ log(2.8 x 10―6) = 5.? = 5.55 = pOH
then pH + pOH = 14.00 ; pH = 14.00 – pOH = 14.00 – 5.55 = 8.45 = pH

Note that this is a slightly basic pH as would be expected in a weak base solution.
* * * * *
Lesson 30G: Polyprotic Acids

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned problems that involve calculating the ion
concentrations or pH in polyprotic acid solutions.
* * * * *
Ka Values For Polyprotic Acids
Acids that have more than one acidic hydrogen are polyprotic acids. Examples of polyprotic
acids include H2SO4 (sulfuric acid), H2CO3 (carbonic acid), H3PO4 (phosphoric acid), and
H3C6H5O7 (citric acid).

Polyprotic acids, by definition, lose their first proton to form another acid.
For example, the weak polyprotic acid H2CO3 can lose one proton to form HCO3─.
The HCO3─ can also act as an acid, losing its proton to form CO3─2. These two
reactions can be written as
H2CO3 Æ H+ + HCO3― Ka = 4.3 x 10―7

HCO3― Æ H+ + CO32― Ka = 5.6 x 10―11
For all polyprotic acids,
• the base conjugate formed by the first acid dissociation is the acid in the second;
• the first hydrogen ionizes more readily than the second, and, if there are more acidic
protons, the each ionizes more readily than the next;
• Ka values become smaller for each successive ionization.
When the successive ionizations of a polyprotic acid are written in a series, all of the middle
particles in the series (between the first and last particles) will be amphoteric: they can
react as an acid when mixed with bases, and a base when mixed with acids.
The Ka values for the successive ionizations are often numbered.
For example, for H2CO3 above, Ka = 4.3 x 10―7 and Ka = 5.6 x 10―11.
1 2
Ka1 is the Ka value for the reaction where H2CO3 loses its first proton. Ka2 is the Ka
for the reaction in which the second proton of the original polyprotic acid is lost:
the proton is lost from HCO ―.3
Try this problem.
Q. For citric acid (H3C6H5O7),
Ka = 7.1 x 10―4 , Ka = 1.7 x 10―5, and Ka = 4.0 x 10―7.
1 2 3
a. Write the Ka value for HC6H5O7 Æ H + C6H5O73―
2― +
b. For Ka = 1.7 x 10―5, what reaction is this a Ka value for?

2
* * * * *
Answer
a. It helps to write the equations for the successive ionizations.
Ka is the K value for this reaction: H3C6H5O7 Æ H+ + H2C6H5O7―
1
Ka is the K value for: H2C6H5O7― Æ H+ + HC6H5O72―
2
Ka is the K value for: HC6H5O72― Æ H+ + C6H5O73―
3
For part a: HC6H5O72― Æ H+ + C6H5O73― Ka = Ka = 4.0 x 10―7.
3
b. ―
Ka2 is the K value for: H2C6H5O7 Æ H + HC6H5O72―, the reaction in
+
which H3C6H5O7, after losing one acidic hydrogen, loses a second.

Practice A
1. For phosphoric acid (H3PO4),
Ka = 7.5 x 10―3 , Ka = 6.7 x 10―8, and Ka = 4.2 x 10―13.
1 2 3
a. Write the Ka value for: H2PO4― Æ H+ + HPO42―
b. For Ka , write the reaction that is this a Ka value for.
3
The [H+] in Polyprotic Acid Solutions

To calculate the [H+] in polyprotic acid solutions, there are three cases to consider.
• Acids in which a numeric Ka is 100 or more times larger than Ka ;
1 2
• Acids in which Ka is not 100 or more times larger than Ka , and
1 2
• The special case of sulfuric acid, which is both a strong and a weak acid.
For the first case, in which the first two Ka values are widely separated, the [H+] and pH of a
weak polyprotic acid solution is calculated using only Ka1. The [H+] contributed by the
second ionization will be small: so small that it can be ignored when calculating the and
pH due to the larger first ionization. This will be the case for most polyprotic weak acids.
However, in citric acid, as shown in the example above, Ka1 and Ka2 are relatively close.
In the case of sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the first ionization is essentially 100%, and the
dissociation of the second proton is high (Ka2 = 1.0 x 10―2). In both of these cases, the [H+]
from both the first and second ionizations are calculated and added. There are no
polyprotic acids in which Ka3 has a substantial effect on the pH of the weak acid solution.
We will call this Rule
9. For solutions of polyprotic acids, to find [H+] and pH:

• If Ka1 is 100 or more times larger than Ka2, use Ka1 to find [H+] and ignore Ka2 ;
• If Ka1 is not 100 or more times larger than Ka2, add [H+] from Ka1 and Ka2 .
Practice B
1. For phosphoric acid (H3PO4), calculate the [H+] in a 3.5 M H3PO4 solution. Use the
approximation equation and the K values in Practice A above.
2. For sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Ka = very large, and Ka = 1.0 x 10―2. Calculate the [H+]
1 2
in a 0.50 M H2SO4 solution.

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. Phosphoric acid has 3 acidic hydrogens. For clarity, write the three ionization equations.
Ka is the K value for: H3PO4 Æ H+ + H2PO4―
1
Ka is the K value for: H2PO4― Æ H+ + HPO42―
2
Ka is the K value for: HPO42― Æ H+ + PO43―
3
For the part a reaction, the Ka is Ka = 6.7 x 10―8
2
1b. As shown above, Ka is the K value for HPO42― Æ H+ + PO43―, the reaction where the original
3
phosphoric acid, after losing two acidic hydrogens, loses its third.
Practice B
1. For phosphoric acid, Ka1 is > 100 (102) times larger than Ka2 ; so the second ionization is small compared
to the first and can be ignored. Calculate [H+] based only on the first ionization, using Ka1 .
Ka1 is the K value for: H3PO4 Æ H+ + H2PO4― Ka = 7.5 x 10―3
1
Solve the approximation equation, then apply the 5% test.
WANT: [H+] = x
Ka ≈ x2 Substituting: 7.5 x 10―3 = x2
[WA]mixed 3.5
x2 ≈ (7.5 x 10―3) ( 3.5 ) = 2.6 x 10―2
x = [H+] = ? ≈ (estimate: 1-2 x 10―1) ≈ 0.16 M = [H+]

Since the approximation was used, apply the 5% test:
5% test = % Hydrolysis = x ● 100% = 0.16 M ● 102 %
[WA or WB]mixed 3.5 M
= 4.6 %, which is close, but less than 5%, so the approximation may be used.
2. Because sulfuric acid is both a strong and a weak acid, the [H+] must be calculated in two parts.
Since the first Ka is very large, the first H+ from H2SO4 is formed essentially 100%, as in strong acids.
For strong acids losing one proton: H2SO4 Æ H+ + HSO4― (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
0.50 M used up 0.50 M formed of both
The HSO4― formed also ionizes substantially, since it has a relatively high Ka = 1.0 x 10―2
2
which is the Ka for this reaction: HSO4 ― +
Æ H + SO4 2― (goes slightly)
Calculate the [H+] in the solution due to the ionization of the moderately weak acid HSO ― .
4
* * * * *

If Ka and [ions] are mentioned, write the WRRECK’s, solve the approximation, apply the 5% test.
WANTED: [H+] = ? = x
R& E: HSO4― Æ H+ + SO42― (goes slightly, use K)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: [WA]mixed─ x 0.50 + x x (rice bottom row)
Note the [H+] in the C step above. The [H+] must include the H+ present from the first ionization.
Use the C step results to write the K expression.
K step: Ka ≡ [ H+ ][ SO42─ ] ≡ (0.50 + x) (x) ≈ (0.50) (x) = x ≈ Ka
[HSO4―]mixed ─ x 0.50 ─ x 0.50
^ Definition ^ Exact ^ Approximate
where x = [H+] = [SO42―] = [HSO4―]that ionized in the second ionization
Based on the approximation, the result is x ≈ Ka = 1.0 x 10―2 = 0.010 M
Since an approximation was used, apply the 5% test:
% Hydrolysis = x ● 100% = 0.010 M ● 100 %
[WA or WB]mixed 0.50 M
= 2.0 %, which is less than 5%, so using the approximation is OK.
The TOTAL [H+] = the sum from the two ionizations = 0.50 + 0.010 M = 0.51 M H+
When adding sf , round to the highest place with doubt. In this solution, the second ionization occurs,
but does not have a major impact on the [H+] due to the first ionization. In less concentrated sulfuric
acid solutions, the effect of the second ionization is larger.
* * * * *
SUMMARY -- Weak Acids and Bases

If you have not already done so, you may want to organize this summary into charts and
flashcards.
1. In acid and base solutions, to calculate [particles],
• in strong acids such as HCl or HNO3, or strong bases such as NaOH and KOH,
either write the REC steps for 100% ionization, or use the quick steps that find [ions]
in strong acids and bases.
• in weak acid and base solutions, write the WRECK steps. Use x to represent the
small mol/L of weak acid or base that reacts (ionizes or hydrolyzes).
2. Ka Prompt: If a problem has a Ka and [ions], write the WRRECK steps.

write this general reaction and extent:

• Rxn. and Extent: WA ÅÅ Æ H+ + base conjugate (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
• Conc. [WA]mixed ─ x ▐ x │ x
• Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
^Definition ^ Exact Âpproximate

3: % Dissociation/5% Test : % Dissociation = x ● 100%
[WA or WB]mixed
4: Kb Prompt. If a problem is about a Kb and its [ions], write the WRRECK’s:

write this general reaction for weak base hydrolysis and its extent:
R & E: WB + H O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate
2 (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
• Conc. [WB]mixed ─ x x x
• Kb ≡ [OH─]eq.[acid conjugate]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2
^Definition ^ Exact Âpproximate

where: x = [OH─] = [conjugate] = [WB]used up/reacting/hydrolyzing
5. In Ka and Kb calculations, first solve the approximation for the WANTED unit or
symbol, then calculate the percent dissociation. IF >5%, solve the exact equation
using the quadratic formula.

Ka solves for x = [H+] , Kb solves for x = [OH―].
7. An acid particle loses an H+ to become the base conjugate of the acid.

A base particle gains an H+ to become the acid conjugate of the base.
8. For acid-base conjugate pairs: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
9. For solutions of polyprotic acids, to find [H+] and pH:
• If Ka is 100 or more times larger than Ka , use Ka1 to find [H+] and ignore Ka2 ;
1 2
• If Ka is not 100 or more times larger than Ka , add [H+] from Ka1 and Ka2 .
1 2
# # # # #

Module 31 — Brønsted-Lowry Definitions

Timing: Do this module when you are assigned problems that involve the Brønsted-Lowry
definitions, or you are asked to predict if a combination of an acid and a base will react.
* * * * *
Lesson 31A: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

Proton-Transfer
So far, we have defined acids and bases in terms of their reaction with water. Those
definitions are useful in calculations involving particle concentrations.
An important qualitative question is: when acids and bases are combined, which
combinations react, and which do not? To answer these questions, it is helpful to use a
broader definition of acids and bases, termed the Brønsted-Lowry definitions. These
expanded definitions will help to predict and explain a wide variety of important acid-base
interactions in chemistry and biology.
By the Brønsted-Lowry definitions:
1. An acid-base reaction is a proton transfer: a proton moves from one particle to another.
2. An acid is a particle that can release an H+. A base is a particle that can accept an H+.
3. Proton-transfer reactions are reversible: in a closed system, reactions go to equilibrium.
4. Each side of an acid-base reaction equation has a one acid (the proton donor) and one base
(the proton acceptor). In an acid-base reaction equation, the difference between the
particle formulas on one side and the other is the particle to which the mobile proton is
attached.
5. A particle that is an acid on one side of a reaction loses its proton and becomes a base on
the other. A base particle on one side gains a proton to become the acid on the other.
6. Particles in acid-base reaction behave as two acid-base conjugate pairs. In a conjugate
pair, the particles are identical, except that the acid on one side has an H+ that its
conjugate base on the other does not.
It will help in learning the rules to do a few examples. Apply the rules above to the
questions below. If unsure about an answer, check it before doing the next question.
Q1. Circle the two acids in this reaction: HCO3― + F― Å Æ CO32― + HF
Q2. Is F― in the above reaction an acid or a base? Explain your answer.
Q3. Complete this reaction with the first reactant behaving as an acid.
H2PO4― + CO32― Å Æ
Q4. Complete this reaction with the first reactant acting as a base.
HCO3― + H2O ÅÆ
* * * * *

Answers
Q1. HCO3― + F― Å Æ CO32― + HF

Each side must have one acid. The HCO3― gives up a proton in going to the right: it
is therefore acting as the acid on the left side. The HF gives away its proton when the
reaction goes to the left, making HF the acid on the right side.
Q2. F― is a base because (a) the other particle on that side is an acid, and each side must
have an acid and a base, and/or (b) F― gains a proton in going to the right, and
gaining a proton is what a base does when it reacts.
Q3. H2PO4― + CO32― Å Æ HPO42― + HCO3― Acids donate an H+ in reactions.
Q4. HCO3― + H2O Å Æ H2CO3 + OH─ Base particles gain a proton in reactions.
Check: are each of the above reactions balanced for atoms and charge?
Practice A: Identifying Acids and Bases in Proton-Transfer Reactions

1. For these reactions, assume that the charges on the left side are correct. If no charge is
shown on the left, assume the particle is neutral. On the right side, add correct charges
to the particles. If the particle is neutral, leave the charge blank.
a. SO42― + HCl Å Æ HSO4 + Cl
b. HPO42― + HTe― Å Æ PO4 + H2Te
c. NH4+ + HS― Å Æ NH3 + H2S
2. In 1c above, which particle is in the acid-base conjugate pair with HS―?

3. Assuming that the first reactant below is acting as an acid, complete these reactions.
a. HNO3 + NH3 ÅÆ
b. HSe― + SO42― Å Æ
c. OH― + OH― Å Æ
4. Assuming that the first reactant below is acting as a base, complete these reactions.
a. HSO3― + OH― Å Æ
b. H2O + H2O Å Æ
c. PO43― + H2PO4― Å Æ

Stronger and Weaker Acids and Bases

7. A simple proton-transfer equilibrium consists of 4 particles: two pairs of acid-base
conjugates. Each of the four particles can be labeled as one of the following.
• Stronger acid (sA): the molecule or ion that releases a proton in the reaction. On
the stronger acid, the proton is more “loosely bound” than on the weaker acid.
• Weaker acid (wA): the particle in the equilibrium that has the stronger bond to its
acidic hydrogen.
• Stronger base (sB): the particle that more strongly attracts a proton. It will form
the stronger bond to the proton if it is acquired.
• Weaker base (wB): the particle that can accept a proton, but does not tend to do so.
If it does acquire a proton, it will bind it weakly.
In these lessons, we will use the upper case SA and SB when referring to strong acids
and bases in absolute terms (Ka or Kb = very large), and WA and WB when referring to
particles that are weak acids and bases (Ka or Kb < 1). When comparing two particles,
we will use the lower case s and w.
For example, as shown in the acid strength table, both HCN and HF are weak acids
(WA) based on their acid dissociation constants, but in comparing the two, HF is the
stronger acid (sA) and HCN is the weaker acid (wA).
8. In a reaction, the stronger acid, upon losing H+, becomes the weaker base. The stronger
base, upon gaining a proton, becomes the weaker acid.
9. The stronger base is always on the same side of the proton-transfer equation as the
stronger acid.
10. Equilibrium favors the side with the weaker acid (wA) and weaker base (wB).
An A and B react to form another A and B, which can then react to re-form the original
A and B. Which particles win the battle to react more often? The A and B that are
stronger. This means that the wA and wB are formed more often.
When more than one proton-transfer reaction is possible, the proton from the strongest
acid will migrate to the strongest base to form the weakest acid.
11. Acid-base behavior is explained by chemical structure.
a. A particle that bonds a proton strongly is a strong base without the proton and a
weak acid with it.
b. A particle that can accept a proton, but does not bond it tightly, is a strong acid
when it has the proton, and a weak base when it does not.
Practice B: Memorize the 11 rules above, then test your knowledge with these.
TRUE or FALSE. In proton-transfer equilibria,
_____ a. An acid and a base react to form another acid and another base.
_____ b. The stronger acid winds up at equilibrium with the proton.

_____ c. A strong base will bond weakly to the proton it acquires.

_____ d. The weaker acid has a stronger bond to H+ than the stronger acid.
_____ e. The stronger acid is on the same side of the equation as the weaker base.
_____ f. Equilibrium favors the weaker base.
_____ g. The weaker base attracts a proton more than the stronger base.
_____ h. The stronger acid reacts to become the weaker base.
_____ i. The weaker acid becomes the stronger base when it reacts.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. SO42― + HCl ÅÆ HSO4― + Cl―
b. HPO42― + HTe― Å Æ PO43― + H2Te
c. NH4+ + HS― Å Æ NH3 + H2S
The acid particle loses an H+ in the reaction. The base particle gains an H+. Reactions must be balanced
for atoms and charge.
2. H2S. The particles in an acid-base conjugate pair differ only by one H+.
3. a. HNO3 + NH3 Å Æ NO3― + NH4+
b. HSe― + SO42― Å Æ Se2― + HSO4―
c. OH― + OH― Å Æ O2― + H2O
4. a. HSO3― + OH― Å Æ H2SO3 + O2―
b. H2O + H2O Å Æ H3O+ + OH―
c. PO43― + H2PO4― Å Æ 2 HPO42―
Practice B
True a. An acid and a base react to form another acid and another base.
False b. The stronger acid winds up at equilibrium with the proton.
False c. A strong base will bond weakly to the proton it acquires.
True d. The weaker acid has a stronger bond to H+ than the stronger acid.
False e. The stronger acid is on the same side of the equation as the weaker base.
True f. Equilibrium favors the weaker base.
False g. The weaker base attracts a proton more than the stronger base.
True h. The stronger acid reacts to become the weaker base.
True i. The weaker acid becomes the stronger base when it reacts.
* * * * *

Lesson 31B: Which Acids and Bases Will React?

* * * * *
Most chemistry textbooks contain a table of acid strengths. An abbreviated version of such
a table is given below.
Table of Acid Strengths

Acid Base Ka Values at 25oC
HCl Æ H+ + Cl― Very Large
HNO3 Æ H+ + NO ― 3 Very Large
H2SO4 Æ H+ + HSO4― Very Large
H O+ 3 Æ H+ + H2O 1.0
HSO4― Æ H+ + SO 2― 4 1.0 x 10―2
H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4―
Æ 7.2 x 10―3
HF Æ H+ + F― 6.8 x 10―4*
C6H5COOH Æ H+ + C6H5COO― 6.3 x 10―5
CH COOH Æ H+ + CH COO―
3 3 1.8 x 10―5
H2CO3 Æ H+ + HCO3― 4.3 x 10―7
H PO ―
2 4 Æ H+ + HPO42― 6.3 x 10―8
HCN Æ H+ + CN― 6.2 x 10―10*
NH + 4 Æ H+ + NH3 5.6 x 10―10
HCO3― Æ H+ + CO32― 5.6 x 10―11
HPO 2― 4 Æ H+ + PO 3― 4 4.2 x 10―13
H2O Æ H+ + OH― 1.8 x 10―16**
* Ka values vary among textbooks. When doing textbook homework, use the textbook’s values for Ka.
** For consistency when comparing water’s Ka to other acids, Ka = Kw /55 M is used.
In acid-strength tables:
• The strongest acid has the largest Ka ; the weakest acid has the smallest Ka.
• The strongest acids are listed at the top left in the table. The acid strength and Ka
values for the acids go down as you go down the left (acid) column.
• If base conjugates are listed on the right, the strongest base is at the bottom right of the
table. Why? The weakest acid is at the bottom left. When it loses its proton, it
becomes the strongest base.

The arrangement of the table in most textbooks is
Strongest Acid Æ H+ + Weakest Base Ka = very large
Weakest Acid Æ H+ + Strongest Base Ka = very small
Cover the answer below and, using the above table, try this question.
Q1. Label below the particles in this proton-transfer reaction: the stronger acid (sA),
the stronger base (sB), the weaker acid (wA), or the weaker base (wB).
Cl― + CH3COOH Å Æ HCl + CH3COO―

* * * * *
Answer
First, label each particle as acting as an acid or a base (some particles can act as both).
Recall that acids release protons, each side will have one acid and one base, and if a
particle is acting on one side as an acid, on the other side is its conjugate base.
* * * * *
Cl― + CH3COOH ÅÆ HCl + CH3COO―
B A A B
Next, using the table, identify one particle as the stronger of the two acids.

B A sA B
If you do the first label correctly, labeling the rest is automatic: the stronger acid must
be on the same side as the stronger base, and the weaker acid and base must also be on
the same side.

wB wA sA sB
To check, find the two bases on the right of the arrows in the table. The stronger base
(sB) should be nearer the bottom of the table than the weaker base.
Answer these questions (all of which are variations on the same question).
Q2. Which side of a reversible acid-base reaction is favored at equilibrium?
Q3. When will an acid and a base react if they are combined?
Q4. When will an acid and base not react?
* * * * *
A2. The side with the weaker acid and base.
A3. When the reaction can form a weaker acid and base as products.
A4. They will not react if the only possible products are a stronger acid and base.

Based on your answers to Q1-Q4 above, for the reaction in Q1,

Q5. Which side of the reaction will be favored at equilibrium: left or right?
Q6. Will the acid and base on the left react when mixed? If so, what will they form?
Q7. Will the acid and base on the right react when mixed? If so, what will they form?
* * * * *
Answer
A5. The left side is favored. The favored side at equilibrium is the side with the weaker
acid and base.
A6. The acid and base on the left will tend not to react. At equilibrium, all reactants
and products must be present, so a very small amount of the stronger acid and
base in the products will exist, but since the proton is attached to the weaker acid
on the left, the favored side at equilibrium already exists, and very little reaction
going to the right will take place.
A7. The acid and base on the right are the stronger of the two possibilities, so they will
react. At equilibrium, nearly all of the limiting reactant in the stronger pair is
used up, an equal number of moles of the reactant on its side is also used up, and
both the weaker acid and base in their conjugate pairs on the opposite sides have
formed.
Practice A: Do each numbered problem. Do every other letter on the problems with
parts, and more if you need more practice. Check answers as you go.
1. Write a letter below each particle to label it as an acid (A) or base (B) in these reactions.
a. HCl + F― ÅÆ Cl― + HF
b. CH3COO― + HCN ÅÆ CH3COOH + CN―
c. SO42― + C6H5COOH ÅÆ HSO4― + C6H5COO―
2. In the above reactions, label each particle as the stronger acid (sA), the stronger base
(sB), the weaker acid (wA), or the weaker base (wB).
3. In the above reactions, circle the side of the reaction that is favored at equilibrium.
4. Label each of the above reactions as will go to make the products, or won’t go.
5. Complete these reactions, and then label the reaction as will go or won’t go.
a. HF + CN― ÅÆ
b. H2PO4― + SO42― ÅÆ

c. CN― + H2PO4― ÅÆ
d. F― + Cl― ÅÆ
e. HNO3 + HCl ÅÆ
Quick Predictions For Acid-Base Reactions

In the previous lesson, to predict whether an acid and base react, we used the
Labeling Rule: Using the acid-strength table, label each particle in the reactants and
products as stronger acid (sA), sB, wA, or wB. Equilibrium favors the side with the
wA and wB: sA and wB react, wA and wB form, and wA and wB will not react.
A quicker way to predict whether an acid and base mixed together will react can be added
to our Brønsted-Lowry rules as number
12. If the strongest acid or bases in an acid-strength table are listed at the top left and if
particle concentrations are similar, any particle on the left will tend to react with any
particle on the right BELOW it in the table. The products will be the conjugates of
each particle: the weaker acid and the weaker base.
Cover the answer below, then use Brønsted-Lowry Rule 12 on these examples.
Q. Assuming the particle concentrations are similar, use the acid-strength table to label
each combination as will react or won’t react as acids and bases when mixed.
a. CN― + HCl ÅÆ
b. CH3COOH + SO42― ÅÆ
c. PO43―+ NO3― ÅÆ
d. H2PO4― + PO43― ÅÆ
* * * * *
Answers
a. CN― + HCl ÅÆ Will react. The table lists the strongest acid at the top left.
HCl is an acid at the top left, and CN― is on the base side and below it.
b. CH3COOH + SO42― ÅÆ Won’t react. CH3COOH is an acid at the middle left
of the table; SO42― is on the base side but above the acid.
c. PO 3― + NO ― ÅÆ Won’t react. Both are in the table as bases. To have an
4 3
acid-base reaction, you need an acid and a base.
d. H2PO4― + PO43― ÅÆ Will react. The H2PO4― appears on both sides of the
table: it can be an acid or a base. But PO43―, since it does not have a proton, must
be the base, and on the acid (left) side H2PO4― appears above it. Particles on the
left react with particles on the right and lower.

Practice B: Use the acid-strength table to label these as will react or won’t react.
1. HSO4― + F― ÅÆ
2. HPO42― + HCN ÅÆ
3. C6H5COOH + CH3COOH ÅÆ
A short version of Rule 12 is the
Diagonal Rule: Particles \ diagonal react to form / diagonals; particles / do not react.
Use the diagonal rule and the acid-strength table to answer the following.
Q. Assuming the particle concentrations are similar, label these as will react or won’t react.
1. HNO3 + H2PO4― ÅÆ
2. H2PO4― + HF ÅÆ
* * * * *
Answers
A1. HNO3 + H2PO4― ÅÆ Will react. HNO3 is \ above H2PO4― on the right.
A2. H2PO4― + HF ÅÆ Won’t react. HF is / to the H PO ― on the base side.

2 4
Practice C: Use the acid-strength table and diagonal rule to label these as will react or
won’t react.
1. HCO3― + HCN ÅÆ
2. NH4+ + PO43― ÅÆ
3. HPO42― + HF ÅÆ
Constructing An Acid-Strengths Table

In some problems, a complete acid-base strengths table will not be supplied. Instead, you
will be given a list of acids only, with the strongest at the top. If this is the case, you can
make your own acid-base table by writing the base conjugates on the right. You can then
use your table to solve problems.
Cover the answer below and try the following example.

Q. The following is a list of acids, ordered with the strongest at the top.
HCl
CH3COOH
H2CO3
NH4+
HCO3―
H2O
a. Add the base conjugates in a column on the right. (Do this part, check your
answer, and then try the parts below.)
b. What is the formula for the strongest base in your completed table?
c. What is the formula for the weakest base in your table?
d. Will these react: CH3COOH + OH― Æ If so, what products will form?
* * * * *
Answer
a. See table at right. Acid Base
b. Strongest base? OH― The weakest acid is H2O. Its Conjugate
conjugate is the strongest base. HCl Cl―
c. Weakest base? Cl―. The weakest base is formed when a CH3COOH CH3COO―
proton leaves the strongest acid. H2CO3 HCO3―
d. They will react. This reaction will go. The acid NH4+ NH3
CH3COOH on the left will react with the base OH―
HCO3― CO 2―3
below it in the acid-strength table. The two reactants
form conjugates that are listed opposite them in the table. H2O OH―
Practice D
1. Use the acid-strength table that you constructed above to answer these questions.
a. Complete this reaction, and then label below each particle: sA, sB, wA, or wB.
NH4+ + OH― ÅÆ
b. Will the reactants in part 1a form the products? Will the acid-base reaction go?
c. In the part 1a reaction, NH4+ is part of an ionic compound. Ionic compounds do not
boil or evaporate to form gases except at very high temperatures. At room
temperature they have no odor because they do not form gas particles that can
travel through the air. Ammonia (NH3) is a covalent compound and a gas at room
temperature that dissolves readily but reversibly in water. A mixture of ammonia

and water is often used in commercial blue-dyed glass cleaning solutions that have
a characteristic, unpleasant “ammonia odor.”
In the 1a reaction above, NH4+ and OH―, before they are mixed, are ionic; they will
have no odor. After those two ions are mixed in the above reaction, will the mixture
have an odor? Why or why not?
2. You spill an aqueous 1.0 M solution of ammonia (NH3) on the floor. The odor is
unpleasant. Using the acid-strength table that you constructed above, state whether
1.0 M solutions of each of these will deodorize the ammonia by changing it to NH +. 4
a. H2O b. CH3COOH c. NaOH d. NaHCO3 e. HCl
3. To the right is a table of acids, ordered

with the strongest acid at the top. HCl
a. If bicarbonate ion (HCO3―) is added CH3COOH
to a mixture of CH3COOH, C2H5OH, and H2CO3
C6H5OH, which of those three will C6H5OH
react with the bicarbonate? C2H5OH
b. If the bicarbonate does react, what products will be formed?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1, 2, 3, 4. a. HCl + F― ÅÆ Cl― + HF
sA sB wB wA Will go - equilibrium favors weaker acid and base.
b. CH3COO― + HCN ÅÆ CH3COOH + CN―
wB wA sA sB Won’t go - favors wA and wB.
c. SO42― + C6H5COOH ÅÆ HSO4― + C6H5COO―
wB wA sA sB Won’t go to right.
5. a. HF + CN― ÅÆ F― + HCN
sA sB wB wA Will go. Equilibrium favors weaker A and B.
b. H2PO4― + SO42― ÅÆ HPO42― + HSO4―
wA wB sB sA Won’t go - favors wA and wB.
c. CN― + H2PO4― ÅÆ HCN + HPO42―
sB sA wA wB Will go. Equilibrium favors weaker A and B.
d. F― + Cl― ÅÆ
B B Can’t go. Need an acid and a base.

e. HNO3 + HCl ÅÆ
A A Can’t go. Need an acid and a base.
Practice B
1. HSO4― + F― ÅÆ Will react. HSO4―on acid side is above F― on base side.
2. HPO 2― + HCN ÅÆ Won’t react. HCN is acid, HPO 2― can be a base but is above HCN.
4 4
3. C6H5COOH + CH3COOH ÅÆ Won’t react. Both are in the table as acids.
Practice C
1. HCO3― + HCN ÅÆ Won’t react. HCN is an acid, HCO3― on the base side is / .
2. NH4+ + PO43― ÅÆ Will react. NH4+ is an acid, PO43― is a base and they are \
3. HPO42― + HF ÅÆ ÅÆ Will react. HF is acid, HPO42― can be a base and they are \
Practice D
1. a. NH4+ + OH― ÅÆ NH3 + H2O
sA sB wB wA
b. The reaction will go to form the products, because a) equilibrium favors the weaker acid and base;
and/or b) the acid is in the table above the base.
c. Yes. The mixture will smell like ammonia, because NH3 is a product of the reaction, and the reaction
goes to form ammonia.
2. a. H2O No. To change the NH3 to NH4+ ions, you need an acid, because the ammonia must act as
a base. H2O can act as an acid, but NH3 as a base is above water as an acid in the table, so the
acid-base reaction will not take place. The odor continues.
b. CH3COOH Yes. This is an acid above the base NH3 in the table, so the reaction will take place.
NH3 gas which can leave the water becomes NH4+ ions which cannot. The ammonia odor
dissipates.
c. NaOH No. Solid NaOH mixed in a water solution is soluble. It will dissolve and form OH― ions.
In the table, OH― ions are a base. NaOH is a strong base. We need an acid to change NH3 to
NH4+, so there will be no acid-base reaction. The odor continues. d. NaHCO3 No. When
Na, an alkali metal, is part of a compound, the compound will be soluble in water and separate into
ions 100%. The HCO3― (bicarbonate) ion that forms upon ionization is in the table twice, as both
an acid and a base. As a base, it can’t convert NH3 to NH4+. As an acid, bicarbonate is below the
base NH3. There will be no reaction. The odor continues.
e. HCl Yes. HCl is a very strong acid, and the NH3 is below it as a base. Reaction occurs when HCl
is added, and NH3 is converted to NH4+. The ammonia odor dissipates.

3. To the right is a table of acids Acid Base Conjugate

ordered with the strongest acid at the HCl
top. If bicarbonate ion (HCO ―) is added
3 CH3COOH
to a mixture of CH3COOH, C2H5OH, and H2CO3 HCO3―
C6H5OH, which of those three acids will C6H5OH
react with the bicarbonate? What will the C2H5OH
bicarbonate that does react form?
In that mixture, only the CH3COOH is an acid above the HCO3― base in the table. When CH3COOH
is added, the bicarbonate ion will change to H2CO3 (which will quickly decompose into H2O and
bubbles of CO2 – see Lesson 14E). Acetate ion also forms. The reaction is:
CH3COOH + HCO3― Æ [ H2CO3 ] + CH3COO― Æ H2O + CO2↑ + CH3COO―
* * * * *
SUMMARY -- Brønsted-Lowry Definitions

1. Using the Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases:
a. An acid-base reaction is a proton transfer: H+ moves from one particle to
another.
b. An acid and a base react to form another acid and another base.
c. The acid is the proton donor and the base is the proton acceptor.
d. The particles in the equilibrium are two acid-base conjugate pairs. A particle on
one side has its conjugate on the other side.
e. The stronger acid reacts to become the weaker base. The stronger base reacts to
become the weaker acid.
f. The stronger acid and base are on the same side of the equilibrium equation.
g. Equilibrium favors the weakest acid and the weakest base.
2. If the strongest acid or bases in an acid-strength table are listed at the top left, if
particle concentrations are similar, a particle on the left will tend to react with a
particle on the right BELOW it in the table. The products will be the conjugates of
each particle: the weaker acid and the weaker base.
This can be summarized as the
Diagonal Rule: Particles \ diagonal react to form / diagonals; particles / do not
react.
# # # # #

Module 32 — pH of Salts
The former Module 32 on Titration pH is now Module 34 in this packet
The former Module 33 on Ksp (solubility products) is now Module 35
The former Module 34 on Thermodynamics is now Module 36
If you are looking for Ksp or Therrmodynamics, check the modules
* * * * *
Module 32: pH of Salts
Module 33: Buffers
Module 34: pH During Titration

Module 33 – Buffers....................................................................................................... 960
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures................................................................................................... 991
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization ................................................................................... 995
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page ii


Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page iii


Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page iv


Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page v


Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page vi


•••••
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7h Page vii

Prerequisites: Complete Modules 30 and 31 before starting this module.
* * * * *
Lesson 32A: The Acid-Base Behavior of Salts
Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned problems that ask you to predict the acidity or
basicity of salt solutions.
* * * * *
Salts
Historically in chemistry, salt has been a term used to describe the ionic compounds that
are a product in acid-base neutralization. In current usage, “salt” can refer to any ionic
compound.
Salt = Ionic Compound
As with all ionic compounds, salts are solids at room temperature. All salts dissolve to
some extent in water. All particles that dissolve will be present as ions that can move about
freely in the solution. In water, some salts form pH neutral solutions, but others react with
water (hydrolyze) to form acidic or basic solutions.
Distinguishing the Types of “Neutral”
To describe acidic and basic ions, it is necessary to distinguish between the two uses in
chemistry for the word neutral.
• Particles that have a zero overall charge are termed electrically neutral. Positive or
negative ions are particles that are not electrically neutral.
• Whether a particle is electrically neutral or is an ion, in an aqueous solution the
particle can also be
o pH neutral, also termed acid-base neutral (such particles include H2O and Na+
and Cl─), or
o not pH neutral and can be acidic (such as HF or NH4+), basic (such as NH3
or F─), or amphoteric (can react as acids or bases, such as HCO3─).
To avoid confusion, the terms electrically neutral and pH neutral, rather than simply neutral,
are preferred in situations where the meaning may not be clear.
Soluble Salts
Some ionic compounds are soluble in water, but others are not. Recall from Lesson 13A
that if compounds contain these ions, they are nearly always soluble in water:
• NH4+ , the row 3-7 alkali metal ions (Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Fr+), NO3─, and
CH3COO─ except when combined with Ag+.
Other ion combinations are also soluble, but the ions above are the most frequently
encountered in problems.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v. 7t Page 938

To solve problems in this module, it is especially important to be able to recall from

memory the ion combinations that are soluble: those combinations that dissolve and separate
into ions essentially 100% at concentrations of 0.10 M or less.
When a soluble ionic compound dissolves, if the moles of solid dissolved per liter of
solution is known, the concentration of the ions in solution can be found by the REC steps
(Lessons 7C and 12B). To briefly review, try this problem.
Q. Write the chemical formula and concentration for each particle formed when
0.10 M Ca(NO3)2 dissolves in water.
* * * * *
Answer
Nitrates are ionic compounds that are soluble in water: in dilute solutions, they dissolve
and separate into ions essentially 100%. Write the REC steps (Lesson 12B) by inspection.
Reaction and Extent: 1 Ca(NO3)2(aq) Æ 1 Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3─(aq) (goes ~100%)

^ ^ ^
Concentrations: 0.10 M Æ 0 M 0.10 M and 0.20 M formed
In this solution are no Ca(NO3)2 particles, 0.10 M Ca2+ ions, and 0.20 M NO3─ ions.
Coefficients represent the mole ratios that react and form. However, if the reaction goes to
completion, and all of the particles in the same solution, the coefficients will also represent
the mole per liter (concentration) ratios of the particles used up and formed.
Practice A: (For additional review, see Module 7 and Lessons 12B and 13A.)
1. In dilute solutions, will these dissolve ~100% and dissociate ~100% into ions? State your
reasoning.
a. KCl b. CH4 c. Ra(NO3)2 d. Sodium acetate e. Cl2
f. Calcium phosphate g. Ammonium bromide h. HCl i. RbOH
j. Silver chloride k. PbCl2 l. Lead nitrate
2. Which compound above is

a. A strong base? b. An element? c. Radioactive?
3. Write symbols for the ions formed, then beside or below, write the concentration for
each ion formed in solution when these salts dissolve in water.
a. 0.20 M NH4Cl Æ
b. 0.50 M Ba(NO3)2 Æ
c. 0.25 M potassium cyanide Æ
d. 0.10 M sodium sulfate Æ

Ions in Aqueous Solution: Acidic, Basic, or Neutral?

When mixed with water, an ion has a characteristic acidic, basic, or neutral behavior. An
ion that is acidic, when combined in a salt with an ions that is pH-neutral, forms an acidic
aqueous solution. A basic ion, in combination with a pH-neutral ion, forms a basic solution
in water.
To predict whether a salt will form an acidic, basic, or pH-neutral solution, the first step is
to classify each of its ions as acidic, basic, or pH neutral. For many ions, whether they have
acidic, basic or pH-neutral behavior can be predicted with a table of acid strengths and the
following
Rules for Identifying Ions As pH-Neutral, Acidic, or Basic
The ions in bold below are those encountered most often in problems.
1. pH-neutral ions include
a. In rows 3-7 of the periodic table, the column 1 alkali metal ions (Na+, K+, Rb+,
Cs+, Fr+) plus the column 2 metal ions: Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+.
b. Conjugates of strong acids, such as Cl─ and NO3─.
HCl and HNO3 are strong acids. Conjugates of strong acids or bases are very weak.
Very weak acids and bases are considered to be essentially pH neutral in water.
2. If an ion formula is listed in an acid-strength table, its position in the table will identify
whether it has acidic, basic, or neutral behavior when dissolved in water.
For an acid-strength table (see Lesson 31B), the rules include:
• Each line in the table includes an acid-base conjugate pair.
• Acids are listed in the left column and bases after the H+ in the right column.
• The strongest acids are at the top left, and strongest bases at the bottom right.
• If one acid or base particle is strong (K>1), its conjugate is very weak (K<10―16).
• If one member of a conjugate pair is moderately weak (with its Ka or Kb between
1 and ~10―16), the other will also be moderately weak.
• The stronger is one, the weaker is its conjugate.
a. Acidic ions are those that are
• stronger acids than H2O in an acid-strength table Æ ≡ ≡ Ka = Large
• which are those with a Ka larger than ~10―16. ≡ ≡
The acidic ions encountered most frequently are H2O ≡ Ka = ~10―16

NH4+ and R-NHx+ ions, where R is a group
containing carbon and hydrogen.

b. Another type of acidic ion is the highly charged ion of small-radius metal atoms,
such as Fe3+, Al3+, and Sn4+. These ions, when dissolved in water, form hydrated
complexes that can bind to the hydroxide ions formed by the auto-ionization of
water. This results in a solution that is acidic because it has more free H+ ions than
OH─ ions.
c. Basic ions are listed in the right-side column.

Ions at the top right are conjugates of very strong acids, and those bases are so weak
that they are essentially pH neutral.
The strongest bases are at the bottom right: the conjugates of the weakest acids.
The ions that have basic behavior in water
are
• ions listed below H2O on the base side. ≡ ≡ Ka = Large
• which are also the base conjugates of acids H3O+ H2O Ka = 1.0
that have a Ka below 1.0. Æ ≡ ≡ Ka = # x10―x
• which are also bases with Kb larger than ≡ ≡
~10―16 .
Basic ions include F─, CN─, CH3COO─, and C6H5COO─.

Any ion which is the conjugate of a weak acid has basic behavior.
Practice B: First learn the rules, then do these problems.

1. Using the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B, but applying the rules in this lesson from
memory, label these ions as acidic (A), basic (B), or pH-neutral (N).
a. CH3COO─ b. K+ c. NH4+ d. Al3+ e. F─ f. Cl─ g. Ca2+
2. Which of the ions in Problem 1, if present in a compound, will always result in the
compound to be soluble?
3. In this problem, do not consult the
HCl Æ H+ + ________ ( )
acid-strength table.
In the partial acid-strength table at _________ ( ) Æ H+ + SO42―
the right.
________ ( ) Æ H+ + F―
a. Fill in the blanks with the
conjugate formulas. C6H5COOH Æ H+ + ________ ( )
b. After the conjugate formula, HCN Æ H+ + ________ ( )
label it as an acid (A) or base (B).
________ ( ) Æ H+ + NH3
c. What is the formula for the table
ion (other than H+) that is the
H2O Æ H+ + ________ ( )
strongest acid? NH3 Æ H+ + ________ ( )

d. Which ion in the table is the weakest acid?

e. Which ion in the table is the strongest base?
f. Which ion in the table is the weakest base?
4. These acids are listed strongest to weakest: HBr > HF > HCO3― > H2O > CH3CH2OH
Arrange these bases strongest to weakest: CO 2―, CH CH O―, F―, Br―, OH―
3 3 2
Salt Solutions: Acidic or Basic?

Salts must contain both positive and negative ions. In predicting the acidity or basicity of
salt solutions, both ions must be considered. This results in 4 possibilities, but the rules are
logical. IF in a salt solution
• Both ions are pH-neutral, the salt solution will be pH-neutral: close to a pH of 7.
• One ion is acidic, and the other is pH-neutral, the solution will be acidic (pH < 7).
• One is basic, and the other is neutral, the salt solution will be basic (pH > 7).
• One is acidic and one is basic: compare Ka for the acidic to the Kb for the basic ion.
If Ka is a larger number, the salt solution will be acidic. If Kb is larger, it will be basic.
The reaction with the higher K value is the dominant reaction: this K is used to
predict the ion concentrations in the solution.
Apply those rules to this problem, then check your answer below.
Q. Is a solution of ammonium chloride acidic, basic, or neutral?
* * * * *
Answer: Ammonium chloride contains NH4+ and Cl― ions. NH4+ is in the left column of
the acid-strength table; it is acidic. Cl― ion is at the top right, the conjugate of the strong
acid HCl: a very weak base that is essentially pH neutral.
An acidic ion combined with a neutral ion form a compound that dissolves in water to form
an acidic solution.
Practice C: Consult the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B as needed to answer these.
Check and do half now, and save the rest for your next practice session.
1. Predict whether aqueous solutions of these salts will be acidic (A), basic (B), or neutral
(N).
a. NaCl b. NH4NO3 c. KCN d. Sodium acetate
e. Barium Chloride f. Cesium fluoride g. Ferric Nitrate
h. Ammonium Fluoride i. Ammonium Cyanide

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. KCl YES. Compounds with alkali metals dissolve and ionize ~100% in dilute aqueous solutions.
b. CH4 NO. Two non-metals form a covalent, not ionic, compound.
c. Ra(NO3)2 YES. It is ionic (Ra is metal atom) and it is soluble (NO3─ compounds).
d. Sodium acetate YES. Is ionic (sodium is metal atom). Is soluble (Na+ = soluble).
e. Cl2 NO. May dissolve, but two non-metal atoms form a covalent, not ionic, compound.
f. Calcium phosphate NO. It is ionic, but by solubility rules for phosphate ions, it is insoluble. It will
dissolve only slightly in water.
g. Ammonium bromide YES. All ammonium (NH4+ ) compounds are soluble.
h. HCl YES. HCl is a strong acid. Strong acids dissolve and ionize ~100% in water.
i. RbOH YES. All compounds with alkali metal atoms dissolve and ionize ~100%.
j. Silver chloride NO. AgCl is a well-known precipitate: if it precipitates in water, it is insoluble.
k. PbCl2 NO. By solubility rules is insoluble. l. Lead nitrate YES. Nitrates are ionic and soluble.
2. a. A strong base? RbOH Alkali metal compounds ionize ~100%, hydroxide ion is formed.
b. An element? Cl2 Only one kind of atom.
c. Radioactive? Ra(NO3)2 Ra is radium; all atoms with more than 83 protons are radioactive.
3. a. 0.20 M NH4Cl 1 NH4Cl Æ 1 NH4+ + 1 Cl─ ; 0.20 M NH4+ and 0.20 M Cl─
b. 0.50 M Ba(NO3)2 1 Ba(NO3)3 Æ 1 Ba2+ + 2 NO3─ ; 0.50 M Ba2+ and 1.0 M NO3─
c. 0.25 M potassium cyanide 1 KCN Æ 1 K+ + 1 CN─ ; 0.25 M K+ and 0.25 M CN─
d. 0.10 M sodium sulfate 1 Na2SO4 Æ 2 Na+ + 1 SO42─ ; 0.20 M Na+ and 0.10 M SO42─
Practice B
1. a. CH3COO─ B Appears in table on right, in the base column. The conjugate of an acid is a base.
b. K+ N Ions of alkali metals in rows 3-7 are pH neutral.
c. NH4+ A Appears in the acid column as a weak acid.
d. Al3+ A Metals ions with a 3+ or 4+ charge form acidic solutions in water.
e. F─ B Appears in table on right side: the base column.
f. Cl─ N Appears in table on right side base column, but Cl─ is the conjugate of a strong acid, so
is very weak base – essentially pH neutral.
g. Ca2+ N Ions of column 2 metals in rows 3-7 are pH neutral.
2. Compounds containing row 3-7 alkali metals (including b. K+ ) and compounds containing ammonium ion
(c. NH4+ ) always dissolve more than 0.1 mol/L in water, which is the general definition for “soluble.”
Except for silver acetate, acetate compounds ( a. CH COO─ ) are also always soluble.
3

3. a, b.
HCl Æ H+ + Cl― (B)

HSO4― (A) Æ H+ + SO42―
HF (A) Æ H+ + F―
C6H5COOH Æ H+ + C6H5COO― (B)
HCN Æ H+ + CN― (B)
NH + (A)
4 Æ H+ + NH 3
H2O Æ H+ + OH― (B)
NH3 Æ H+ + NH2― (B)
c. Strongest acid ion? HSO4― is the ion closest to top left. Ions are charged particles.
d. Weakest acid ion? NH4+ Ion closest to the bottom left.
e. Strongest basic ion? NH2― Strongest bases are at bottom right.
f. Weakest base ion? Cl― Weakest bases are at top right. Cl― is so weak it is pH neutral.
4. The conjugate of the strongest acid is the weakest base, the conjugate of the weakest acid is the strongest
base. From strongest to weakest base: CH CH O― > OH― > CO 2― > F― > Br―
3 2 3
Practice C
1. a. NaCl Both are neutral ions = Neutral
b. NH4NO3 NH4+ is acidic in the acid-strength table, NO3─ is pH-neutral, combined: Acidic
c. KCN pH-neutral K+, basic CN─ in table = Basic
d. Sodium acetate Neutral Na+, basic CH3COO─ = Basic
e. Barium Chloride Both are neutral ions = Neutral
f. Cesium fluoride Neutral Cs+, basic F─ = Basic
g. Ferric Nitrate Acidic Fe3+ (highly charged metal ion), neutral NO3─ = Acidic
h. Ammonium Fluoride Acidic NH4+, basic F─ ; must compare Ka and Kb
NH4+ , from the acid-strength table, has Ka = 5.6 x 10―10
Don’t know Kb for F─ , but know Ka for its conjugate HF from acid-strength table. For conjugates,
Kw = Kb x Ka = 1.0 x 10―14 , Kb of F─ = Kw = 1.0 x 10―14 = 1.5 x 10―11

Ka of HF 6.8 x 10―4
Since the Ka of the acid is larger than the Kb of the base, the solution will be acidic.
i. Ammonium Cyanide NH4+ is acidic and CN─ is basic, so we must compare Ka and Kb
NH4+ , from the acid-strength table, has a Ka = 5.6 x 10―10 = 0.000 000 000 56 = Ka
To find Kb for CN─ , use Ka for its acid conjugate HCN. For conjugates,

Kw = Kb x Ka ; Kb for CN─ = Kw = 1.0 x 10―14 = 1.6 x 10―5 = 0.000 016 = Kb

Ka of HCN 6.2 x 10―10
Since Kb for CN─ is a larger number than Ka for NH4+, the solution is basic.
* * * * *
Lesson 32B: Will A Salt Acid-Base React?

Brønsted-Lowry With Spectators Present
In Lesson 31B, we learned two ways to predict whether an acid or a base, when mixed in
roughly equal proportions, will react.
1. Labeling: Using the acid-strength table, label each particle in the reactants and
products as stronger acid (sA), sB, wA, or wB. Equilibrium favors the side with the wA
and wB: sA and sB react, wA and wB form, and wA and wB will not react.
Recall that we use the sA to label the stronger acid when comparing two acids, and use
SA to label an acid that is strong in absolute terms (with Ka > 1, such as HCl.
2. The Diagonal Rule: In the acid-strength table, a particle in the left column (the acids)
will react with a particle in the right column (the bases) below it.
This means: Particles \ diagonal react to form / diagonals; particles / do not react.
These two rules are simply different ways to state that when an acid and base are
combined, equilibrium favors the side with the weaker acid and base.
So far, all of our acid-base prediction problems have involved particles found in the acid
strength table, where many of the particles are ions. We also need to be able to predict
whether acid-base reactions go when the equations include salts rather than the ions in the
table. To make these predictions, we will use what we will call Brønsted-Lowry Rule
13. If salt formulas are used in acid-base equations, to predict whether a reaction will go
and what the products will be,
• Re-write ionic solids (salts) as their separated ions;
• Label each particle as A, B, or N, using the acid-strength table and N rules.
• Apply the Brønsted-Lowry labeling or diagonal rule to A and B particles, ignoring
N’s, to decide whether the reaction will go, and if so, which products form.
• Rewrite the products as solid formulas, with the N spectators added back in.
A short way to state this rule:
13. When predicting whether acid-base reactions with salt formulas will go, take out the
pH-neutral spectators, apply the Brønsted-Lowry rules, put the spectators back in.
These rules are consistent with our general rule:
To predict the behavior of ionic solids, re-write the formulas as separated ions.

Try Rule 13 on this example.

Q. Will these reactions go? If so, write the products using molecular/ionic solid
formulas. Use the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B.
a. HCl + NaCN Æ
b. KNO3 + HCN Æ
* * * * *
Answers
a. HCl + NaCN Æ
HCl + Na+ + CN― Æ (re-write, separating the salt into its ions)
A N B (to label, use the table and rules for pH-neutrals)
Use the table to write the conjugates, then label sA, sB, wA, wB, and go or no.
HCl + Na+ + CN― Æ Cl― + HCN

sA N sB wB wA (will go to the right)
Add the products, including spectators, after the initial reactants, then balance.
HCl + NaCN Æ NaCl + HCN (Will Go)
b. KNO3 + HCN Æ
K+ + NO3― + HCN Æ (re-write, separating the salt into its ions)

N VwB/N A (use the table and rules for neutrals)
Nitrate ion is a very weak base (VwB): essentially pH neutral. Using the table:
K+ + NO3― + HCN Æ HNO3 + CN― (write conjugates; label sA, sB…)

N VwB wA sA sB (will not go to the right)
KNO3 + HCN Æ Will Not Acid-Base React
If NO3― is labeled as neutral, the combination of N, N, and A is also predicted to

not react.
Practice: Put a check by and do every other letter. Save the rest for your next practice
session. Use the table of acid strengths in Lesson 31B as needed. Check answers as you go.
1. Rewrite these reactions with the salts separated into ions, then write a letter below each
particle to label it as acidic (A), basic (B), or pH-neutral (N).
a. CH3COOH + NaCN Æ CH3COONa + HCN
b. HF + NaCl Æ NaF + HCl

c. NaHSO4 + C6H5COOH Æ H2SO4 + C6H5COONa
2. In the above reactions, label each A or B particle as the stronger acid (sA), the stronger
base (sB), the weaker acid (wA), or the weaker base (wB). Then label the reaction as
“will go to the right” or “won’t go.”
3. Complete these reactions, using molecular/ionic solid formulas, then label the reaction
as will go or won’t go.
a. HF + KCN Æ
b. KHSO4 + KF Æ
c. KCN + K2HPO4 Æ
d. NaF + NH4NO3 Æ
e. HNO3 + RbH2PO4 Æ
f. NaHCO3 + NaHSO4 Æ
g. NaOH + NH4NO3 Æ
* * * * *

ANSWERS
1,2 a. CH3COOH + Na+ + CN― Æ CH3COO― + Na+ + HCN
sA N sB wB N wA (Will go)
b. HF + Na+ + Cl― Æ Na+ + F― + HCl
wA N
wB N sB sA (Will NOT go)
c. Na+ + HSO4― + C6H5COOH Æ H2SO4 + C6H5COO― + Na+
N wB wA sA sB N (Will NOT go)
3. a. HF + KCN = HF + K+ + CN― Æ K+ + F― + HCN = KF + HCN
sA N sB N wB wA (Will go)
+ ― + ―
b. = K + HSO4 + K + F Æ SO4 2― +
+ 2 K + HF = K2SO4 + HF
N wA N wB sB N sA (Will NOT go)
― ―
(F must be a base, so HSO4 , which can be an acid or a base, must be acting as an acid)
c. = K+ + CN― + 2 K+ + HPO42― Æ PO43― + 3 K+ + HCN = K3PO4 + HCN

N wB N wA sB N sA (Will NOT go)
(CN― must be a base, so HPO 2― , which can be an acid or a base, must be acting as an acid)
4
d. = Na+ + F― + NH4+ + NO3― Æ HF + NH3 + Na+ + NO3― = HF + NH3 + NaNO3

N wB wA N sA sB N N (Will NOT go)
e. = HNO3 + Rb+ + H2PO4― Æ H3PO4 + Rb+ + NO3― = H3PO4 + RbNO3
sA N sB wA N wB (Will go)
(HNO3 is a strong acid. Its conjugate NO3― must be a very weak base.)
f. Hint: Try the diagonal rule, and look for both non-N reactants on both sides.
* * * * *
f. = Na+ + HCO3― + Na+ + HSO4― Æ [ H2CO3 ] + 2 Na+ + SO42― = H2O + CO2↑ + Na2SO4
N sB N sA wA N wB (Will go)
(HSO4―as A and HCO3― as B are \ . H2CO3 decomposes to H2O + CO2 (see Lesson 14E).)
g. = Na+ + OH― + NH4+ + NO3― Æ H2O + NH3 + Na+ + NO3― = H2O + NH3 + NaNO3
N sB sA N wA wB N N (Will go)
Note in the table the conjugate of NH4+.
* * * * *

Lesson 32C: Calculating the pH of a Salt Solution

Timing: Some courses ask you to predict whether a salt solution will be acidic or basic (as
in Lesson 32A), but do not assign calculations of the pH of salt solutions. Do this lesson if
you are asked to calculate the [H+] or pH of a salt solution.
* * * * *
In solutions of soluble ionic compounds (salts), there are four possible types of mixtures of
ions. We can easily calculate the [H+] or pH for three of them:
• If all ions in a salt are pH-neutral, assume the pH of the solution is 7.
• If a salt consists of a neutral ion plus an acidic ion, calculate [H+] or pH based on the
acidic ion data and its Ka.
• If a salt consists of a neutral ion plus a basic ion, calculate [H+] or pH using the
basic ion reaction with water and its Kb.
• If the salt consists of one acidic and one basic ion, the pH can be calculated, but
most first-year courses defer those calculations until a more advanced course in
chemistry.
For the first three types of salts above, when a soluble acidic or basic salt dissolves in water,
two reactions take place:
• First, the ionic solid separates into ions,
• then, one of the ions ionizes or hydrolyzes, behaving as a weak acid or base.
In an aqueous solution, to calculate [H+], [OH─], or pH of a soluble salt that includes one
acidic or basic ion, we solve in three logical steps.
• First determine the [salt ions]: apply the REC steps to the salt.
The REC steps calculate the salt ion concentrations after the ions separate, but
before they react as an acid or base with water.
• Identify and label each ion as acidic (A), basic (B) or pH neutral (N).
• Treat the acidic or basic ion as a weak acid or base that reacts with water. Solve by
using the WRRECK steps for ionization (Ka) or hydrolysis (Ka or Kb).
We will summarize these steps as the “REC, label, WRRECK” rule for salts:
For salt solutions, to calculate [H+] or pH,

• REC the salt to find the concentration of each ion.
• Label each ion as A, B, or N.
• To the A or B ion, apply its Ka or Kb WRRECK steps.
Using the above rule, try this calculation.

Q. What would be the pH of a 0.25 M solution of NH4Cl? (Ka NH4+ = 5.6 x 10―10)
* * * * *

Answer
WANT: pH . Find [H+] first.

DATA: [NH4Cl]as mixed = 0.25 M
pH prompt: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10―pH

Strategy: Ammonium compounds are salts that are soluble in water: they separate 100%
into ions.
To calculate [H+] or pH when a salt dissolves, analyze the two reactions that
take place: the salt separating into ions, then the non-pH-neutral ion ionizing as
an acid or hydrolyzing as a base.
For salt pH: REC the salt, label the ions A, B, or N, WRRECK the A or B ion.
REC steps: Acidic Neutral

^ ^
R&E: 1 NH4Cl Æ 1 NH4 + + 1 Cl─ (goes 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc: 0.25 M Æ 0 M 0.25 M 0.25 M
Label the ions as A, B, or N: According to the acid-strength table, the NH4+ ion
is acidic, and the Cl─ ion is so weakly basic that it is pH-neutral.
WRECK: To find [H+], apply the WRRECK steps to the non-pH-neutral ion.
WANT [H+] = x
Since the non-pH-neutral ion is acidic, write its Reaction as an acid and its K
as a Ka.
Specific R: NH4+ ÅÅ Æ H+ + NH3 (goes slightly)

General R & E: WA ÅÅ Æ H+ + BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: [WA]mixed─ x x x
Ka ≡ [H+] eq.[BC]eq. ≡ x2 ≈ x2

SOLVE the Ka approximation for the WANTED symbol.
x2 = (5.6 x 10―10 ) ( 0.25 ) = 1.4 x 10―10
x = estimate 1-2 x 10―5 = 1.2 x 10―5 M = [H+]

To see if the approximation is acceptable, apply the 5% test.
% Dissociation = x ● 100% = 1.2 x 10―5 ● 102 % =

[WA or WB]mixed 0.25
= 4.8 x 10─3 % = 0.0048% = less than 5%, so the approximation is OK.

Done? After long calculations, look back at the WANTED unit or symbol to make sure you
have completed the problem.
WANT: pH = ─ log [H+] = ─log(1.2 x 10─5) = 4.? = 4.92 (estimate, then calculate.)
Check: this mildly acidic pH is consistent with a salt composed of one acidic and one
neutral ion.
Quick 5% Test
Here’s a quick way to apply the 5% test to see if a Ka or Kb approximation may be used.
• Using scientific notation, compare [WA] to the calculated [H+] or [WB] to [OH─] .
• If the exponents differ by 3 or more, the ionization must be less than 5% and the
approximation is acceptable to use.
• If the exponents differ by 2 or less, solve the % dissociation equation for the 5% test.
Let’s test this rule.
Q. For a weak acid solution, [H+] is calculated using the Ka approximation to be
9.9 x 10─4 M at [WA] = 0.10 M. Does this calculation pass the 5% test?
* * * * *
[WA] = 0.10 M = 1.0 x 10─1 M , [H+] = x = 9.9 x 10─4 M.
Since the difference between ─1 and ─4 is 3 or greater, this ionization must be less
than 5%, so the approximation gives acceptable results, but let’s calculate to be sure.
% Dissoc. = x ● 100% = 9.9 x 10―4 M ● 102 % = 0.99 %

[WA or WB]mixed 1.0 x 10─1 M
This example is contrived to show the highest percent dissociation possible when
the exponents differ by 3 or more, and it passes the 5% test, so the quick rule works.
Practice: Problem 3 is more challenging.

1. Which of these solutions passes the 5% test by the quick rule?
a. For a weak base solution, [WB] = 0.020 M and [OH─] = 5.0 x 10─5 M
b. For a weak acid solution, [WA] = 0.0010 M and [H+] = 4.0 x 10─5 M
2. Calculate the pH in a 0.10 M C6H5COOK solution (Kb of C6H5COO─ = 1.6 x 10―10).
3. Calculate the [OH─] in a 0.20 M calcium acetate solution.

ANSWERS
1a. In scientific notation, [WB] = 0.020 M = 2.0 x 10―2 M and [OH─] = x = 5.0 x 10─5 M . The difference in
the exponents is 3 or greater. The ionization is less than 5% and passes the 5% test.
1a. In scientific notation, [WA] = 0.0010 M = 1.0 x 10―3 M and [OH─] = x = 4.0 x 10─5 M . The difference
in the exponents is 2 or less. Use the dissociation equation for the 5% test. (4% -- barely passes)
2. WANT: pH
DATA: 0.10 M C6H5COOK
Kb of C6H5COO─ = 1.6 x 10―10
pH prompt: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] = 10―pH
Analysis: C6H5COOK (potassium benzoate) is an ionic compound (a salt). In all compounds that
contain column one metals, the metal atoms are +1 ions. Compounds with column one metal
atoms are soluble in water and separate ~100% into ions. In any [ion] calculation where a
compound separates ~100% into ions, begin by writing the REC steps.
To find pH in salt solutions, REC the salt, label ions A, B, or N, WRRECK the A or B ion.
REC: Neutral Basic

R&E: 1 C6H5COOK Æ 1 K+ + 1 C6H5COO─ (goes 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc: 0.10 M Æ 0 M 0.10 M (N) 0.10 M (B)
Label ions. K+ is neutral and in the acid-strength table, C6H5COO─ is basic.

Because C6H5COO─ is basic, the dominant pH-related reaction is C6H5COO─ base
hydrolysis governed by Kb . Apply the Kb prompt: write the WRRECK steps.
* * * * *
WRRECK:
WANT: pH For a basic ion, use Kb steps to find [OH─] first.
R and E: specific: C6H5COO─ + H2O ÅÅÆ OH─ + C6H5COOH (goes slightly)

(Kb reactions always have base and water on left and OH─ + acid conjugate on right.)
R and E general: weak base + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: [WB]mixed.─ x x x (rice bottom row)
Remember that Ka solves for x = [H+] and Kb solves for x = [OH―].

Make a DATA TABLE to match the symbols in the approximation; solve the approximation for x.

DATA: x = [OH─] = ?
Kb of C6H5COO─ = 1.6 x 10―10
[WB]mixed = [C6H5COO ─] = 0.10 M based on the REC steps above,
SOLVE: WANT: [OH─] = x = ? Solving the Kb approximation:
x2 = Kb • [WB] = Kb • [C6H5COO ─] = (1.6 x 10―10 ) ( 0.10 ) = 16 x 10―12
x = 4.0 x 10―6 M = [OH─] But after solving with the approximation, do the
Quick 5% test : x = 4.0 x 10―6 M, [WB] = 0.10 M = 1.0 x 10―1 M

Since the difference in the exponents is 3 or more, the ionization passes the 5% test, and the
approximation may be used.
WANT: pH. Since we just found [OH─], one option is to find pOH then use pH + pOH = 14.00 at 25ºC
pOH = ─ log [OH─]) = ─log(4.0 x 10―6)) = 5.? = 5.40 (estimate, then calculate.)
pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 14.00 ─ 5.40 = 8.60 , which is a mildly basic pH, as expected.
3. WANT: [OH─]
DATA: 0.20 M calcium acetate = 0.20 M Ca(CH3COO)2
Analysis: Ca(CH3COO)2 is a salt. Acetates (except silver acetate) are soluble in water.
To find pH (or [H+] or [OH─]) in salt solutions, REC salt, label ions, WRRECK A or B ion.
In calculations where a compound separates 100% into ions, begin by writing the REC steps.
Neutral Basic
R&E: 1 Ca(CH3COO)2 Æ 1 Ca 2+ + 2 CH3COO─ (goes 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc: 0.20 M Æ 0 M 0.20 M (N) 0.40 M (B)
Label: Ca2+ is neutral, CH3COO─ is mildly basic in the acid-strength table.

WRRECK: Because CH3COO─ is basic, use Kb and the CH3COO─ base hydrolysis
reaction when you write the WRRECK steps.
WANT: [OH─]
R and E specific: CH3COO─ + H2O ÅÅ Æ CH3COOH + OH─ (goes slightly)
(Kb reactions have base on left and OH─ + acid conjugate on right.)
R and E general: weak base + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^

K: Kb = [OH─][conjugate] ≈ x2 ≈ Kb
To solve, make a DATA TABLE to match the symbols in the approximation:
DATA: x = [OH─] = ? = [CH3COOH]
Kb = ? We don’t have a K of CH COO─, but can solve from table K of its conjugate.
b 3 a
Kw = Kb x Ka , Kb = Kw = 1.0 x 10―14 = 5.6 x 10―10
Ka of CH3COOH 1.8 x 10―5
Kb for CH COO ─ = 5.6 x 10―10
3
[WB]mixed = from the REC steps: [CH3COO─] = 0.40 M
SOLVE: WANT: [OH─] = x = ?
Solving the Kb approximation for the WANTED symbol:
x2 = Kb • [WB]mixed = (5.6 x 10―10 ) ( 0.40 ) = 2.24 x 10―10
x = 1.5 x 10―5 M = [OH─] Since we used the approximation, do the

Since the difference in the exponents is 4 = 3 or more, the ionization passes the 5% test, and
the approximation may be used.
* * * * *
Lesson 32D: Salts That Contain Amphoteric Ions

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned problems that ask you to predict whether an
amphoteric salt will be acidic or basic.
Pre-requisite: Complete Lesson 30G on polyprotic acids.
* * * * *
Recognizing Amphoteric Ions
Particles that are amphoteric can react as acids when mixed with bases, and bases when
mixed with acids. Compounds that are amphoteric include water, amino acids, and many
metal oxides.
Ions, as well as compounds, can be amphoteric. An ion that is amphoteric will be listed in
an acid-strength table twice. The ion will be listed in the right column as a base, and then on
a lower line in the table on the left side as an acid.
For example: find these amphoteric ions in two places in the acid-strength table in
Lesson 31B: HPO42― HSO4― H2PO4―

Polyprotic acids, when they ionize, always form one or more amphoteric ions.
• Diprotic acids (with two acidic hydrogens) form one amphoteric ion when they lose
their first proton.
Examples: Sulfuric acid forms one amphoteric ion: the hydrogen sulfate ion.
H2SO4 Æ H+ + HSO4―
The HSO4― ion can react as an acid with a base, or as a base with an acid:
H+ from acid + HSO4― Æ H2SO4
OH― from base + HSO4― Æ SO42― + H2O
• Triprotic acids such as H3PO4 can successively ionize to form two amphoteric ions.
H3PO4 Æ H2PO4― Æ HPO42― Æ PO43―

The two middle ions in the series above can react as an acid or a base.
When the successive ionizations of a polyprotic acid are written in a series, all of the middle
particles in the series (between the first and last particles) will be amphoteric.
Amphoteric Salt Solutions
Whether an amphoteric substance will react as an acid or a base will depend on what it is
mixed with.
A frequent question is: If a salt that includes a neutral ion and an amphoteric ion is dissolved
in water, will it form a solution that is acidic or basic? The rule is
An Amphoteric Salt: Acidic or Basic?

To determine whether a salt composed of an amphoteric and a neutral ion will form an
acidic or basic solution, compare the Ka of the amphoteric ion acting as an acid to its
Kb acting as a base.
If Ka is a larger number, the solution will be acidic, if Kb is larger, it will be basic.
The Kb of an amphoteric ion will often need to be calculated from the Ka of its acid
conjugate using Kw = Ka x Kb
Use those rules and the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B on the following problem.
Q. For a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3),
a. What is the Ka value for HCO3―?
b. What is the Kb value for HCO3―?
c. Will the solution be acidic or basic?
* * * * *

Answer
a. The table lists Ka values for acids in the left column. Find HCO3― in the left
column. Ka = 5.6 x 10―11
b. Kb may be found from the Ka of its acid conjugate. The acid conjugate of
HCO3― is H2CO3 , with Ka = 4.3 x 10―7.
Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.23 x 10─7 = 2.3 x 10─8 = Kb

Ka 4.3 x 10─7
c. NaHCO3 ionizes to form Na+ and HCO3― . Na+ is an alkali metal ion in rows
3 -7; those ions are pH neutral. Because HCO3― is amphoteric, to determine if
HCO3― is acidic or basic in water, its Ka is compared to its Kb. Since its Kb is
higher (above), HCO3― is basic, and the NaHCO3 solution has a basic pH.
* * * * *
Practice: Learn the rules for amphoteric salts above, then use the acid-strength table in
Lesson 31B or a textbook to answer these.
1. Which of these are amphoteric particles?
a. HSO3― b. NH4+ c. H2PO4― e. PO43―

d. H2SO4 f. H2O
2. The Ka value of H2SO3 is 1.2 x 10―2 . The Kb value of SO32― is 6.0 x 10―8 . What is
the Ka value for HSO3― ?
3. Predict whether a solution of a salt composed of H2PO4― and a pH neutral atom will
be acidic (A), basic (B), or neutral (N).
4. Will a solution of K2HPO4 be acidic (A), basic (B), or neutral (N)?
5. For citric acid, H3C6H5O7, Ka = 7.1 x 10―4 , Ka = 1.7 x 10―5, and

1 2
Ka = 4.0 x 10―7. Will a solution of NaH2C6H5O7 be acidic or basic?
3
ANSWERS
1. An amphoteric particle can act as both an acid and a base. If a particle is listed in both columns of the
acid-strength table, it is amphoteric. The particle will be listed higher in the base column than in the acid
column. Particles in this problem that meet those conditions are a. HSO3―, c. H2PO4― and f. H2O .
H2SO4 and PO43― can participate in reactions that form amphoteric ions, but they are not amphoteric,
since H SO cannot react as a base, and PO 3― cannot react as an acid.
2 4 4

2. The Ka for HSO3― can be calculated if you know the Kb of its base conjugate. Its base conjugate is
SO32―, with Kb = 6.0 x 10―8 .
Ka = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.17 x 10─6 = 1.7 x 10─7 = K

a
Kb 6.0 x 10─ 8
3. Since H2PO4― is amphoteric, its Ka as an acid and Kb as a base must be compared.

The acid-strength table lists the Ka for H2PO4― as 6.3 x 10―8
To find the Kb of H2PO4―, write its acid conjugate formula: H3PO4
Find the Ka of that acid conjugate in the acid-strength table: 7.2 x 10―3
And apply the rule for conjugate pairs: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
SOLVE: Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.4 x 10─12 = Kb for H2PO4―

Ka 7.2 x 10―3
Since the Ka of 6.3 x 10―8 is larger than the Kb of 1.4 x 10─12, H2PO4― is acidic.
4. For ionic compounds dissolving in water, write the reaction for ions separating.
K2HPO4 ÆÆ 2 K+ + HPO42─ That’s two pH-neutral K+ ions and one amphoteric ion.
Since HPO42― is amphoteric, compare its Ka as an acid and Kb as a base.
The acid-strength table lists the Ka for HPO42― as 4.2 x 10─13
To find the Kb of HPO42―, write its acid conjugate formula: H2PO4― ,
find the Ka of that acid conjugate in the acid-strength table: 6.3 x 10―8
And apply the rule for conjugates: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
SOLVE: Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.6 x 10─7 = Kb for HPO42―

Ka 6.3 x 10―8
Since the Ka of 4.2 x 10─13 is smaller than the Kb of 1.6 x 10─7, the solution is basic.
5. For ionic compounds dissolving in water, write the reaction for the ions separating.
NaH2C6H5O7 Æ Na+ + H2C6H5O7―
Since there are three K values for citric acid, there are 3 H’s that can be lost. This reaction therefore
produces one pH-neutral Na+ ion and one amphoteric ion.
Because H2C6H5O7― is amphoteric, to determine if the salt solution will be acidic or basic, compare its
Ka as an acid and Kb as a base.

When successive numeric Ka values are given, it helps to write out the ionization equations.
For: H3C6H5O7 Æ H+ + H2C6H5O7― Ka = 7.1 x 10―4
1
For: H2C6H5O7― Æ H+ + HC6H5O72― Ka = 1.7 x 10―5
2
For: HC6H5O72― Æ H+ + C6H5O73― Ka = 4.0 x 10―7
3
For H2C6H5O7― acting as an acid, Ka = 1.7 x 10―5
We need to compare that value to its Kb when acting as a base.
To find that value, we need to use the Ka of its acid conjugate and Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
The acid conjugate of H2C6H5O7― is H3C6H5O7 with a Ka = 7.1 x 10―4

1
SOLVE: Kb = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.3 x 10─11 = Kb for H C H O ― 2 6 5 7
Ka 7.1 x 10―4
Since the Ka is larger than the Kb for this amphoteric ion, the solution is acidic.
* * * * *
SUMMARY – pH of Salts
1. In salt solutions, for ions that are not amphoteric:
Neutral ions include
• In Rows 3-7, column 1 and 2 ions: Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+; Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+.
• Plus conjugates of strong acids and bases, including Cl─, NO3─.
Acidic ions are

• Stronger acids than H2O in an acid-strength tableÆ ≡ ≡
• OR have a Ka larger than 1.0 x 10―14. ≡ ≡
• Include NH4+, other R-NHx+, Fe3+, Al3+, and Sn4+. H2O ≡
Basic ions are

• Base conjugates of acids below Ka= 1.0; bases below ≡ ≡ Ka=Very Large
H2O as base OR with a Kb larger than 1.0 x 10―14 . H2O Ka = 1.0
• include F─, CN─, CH3COO─, C6H5COO─. ≡ ≡
2. When predicting whether acid-base reactions with salt formulas will go to the right,
take out the pH-neutral spectators, apply the Brønsted-Lowry labeling or diagonal
rules, then put the spectators back in.

3. For the pH of salt solutions, if

• Both ions are neutral ions, pH ≈ 7.
• One ion is acidic, and the other is neutral, solution will be acidic (pH <7).
• One is basic, and the other is neutral, solution will be basic (pH>7).
• One is acidic and one is basic: Compare the Ka and Kb for the two ions. If Ka is
larger, solution will be acidic. If Kb is larger, it will be basic.
4. An amphoteric compound reacts as an acid when mixed with a base, and as a base
when mixed with an acid.
5. To determine whether a salt with both amphoteric and neutral ions will form an acidic
or basic solution, compare the numeric value of the Ka of the amphoteric ion as an acid
to its Kb as a base. If Ka is larger, the solution is acidic, if Kb is larger, it is basic.
6. To calculate the pH of salt solutions, if the salt contains:
• One neutral ion plus one acidic ion, apply Ka rules to the acidic-ion hydrolysis.
• One neutral ion plus one basic ion, apply Kb rules to the basic-ion hydrolysis.
7. The Quick 5% Test to see if an approximation equation provides acceptable results.

• Using scientific notation, compare [WA] to [H+] = x or [WB] to [OH─] = x .
• If the exponents differ by 3 or more, the ionization is less than 5%.
• If the exponents differ by 2 or less, use the % dissociation equation for the 5% test.
# # #

Module 33 — Buffers
Prerequisites: Complete Modules 29, 30, and 32 before starting this module.
Lesson 33A: Acid-Base Common-Ions; Buffers

Buffer Solutions
In chemical and biological systems, it is often important to buffer solutions to resist a
change in pH when acids or bases are added. A buffer contains both an acid to react with
bases and a base to react with acids.
Blood is one example of a buffered solution. As chemicals are added and removed during
digestion and metabolism, the buffers in blood assure that its pH stays relatively constant,
and the important pH-sensitive reactions that occur in blood can continue to take place.
Common-Ion Buffers
A common-ion buffer solution is a mixture of two components: a weak acid or base and
its conjugate. One component may be ionic and one covalent, or both may be ionic. Both
components must be substantially soluble in water.
One way to prepare a common-ion buffer is to mix
• a weak acid (Ka between 1 and 10―16) or a weak base (Kb between 1 and 10―16) with
• a soluble salt composed of a pH-neutral ion and the conjugate ion of the acid or base.
Each of the two components of the buffer reacts with water: the weak acid or base
hydrolyzes slightly, while the soluble salt separates ~100% into ions. The reactions are:
(Weak acid or base) + H2O Å Å Æ (H3O+ or OH―) + conjugate ion (goes slightly)
Conjugate salt in water Æ Æ Æ neutral ion + same conjugate ion (goes ~ 100%)
This mixture is called a common-ion buffer because the two reactions have one product in
common: the same conjugate ion is formed in both the reaction of the weak acid or base
with water, and the dissolving of the salt in water.
In a common-ion buffer, the common ion = the conjugate ion
How Buffers Differ From Weak Acid or Weak Base Solutions

Weak acid or base solutions contain both the weak acid or base and its conjugate. Buffer
solutions also contain both a weak acid or base and its conjugate, but the two types of
solutions are different.
• In a weak acid or weak base solution, the [weak acid or base] is much higher than
the [conjugate], because a weak acid or base reacts only slightly with water to form
its conjugate.
• In a buffer solution, the [weak acid or base] and [conjugate] are relatively close,
because to create the buffer, substantial amounts of the conjugate particles are added
to the solution of the weak acid or base.

For example,
Acetic acid is a weak acid: it ionizes only slightly and forms only a small
concentration of hydrogen and acetate ions.
1 CH3COOH(l) Å Å Æ 1 H+(aq) + 1 CH3COO─(aq) (goes slightly)
In 0.10 M acetic acid, [CH3COOH] ≈ 0.10 M and [CH3COO―] = 0.0013 M

In a buffer solution that contains 0.10 M acetic acid and 0.10 M acetate ions,
[CH COOH] ≈ 0.10 M and [CH COO―] ≈ 0.10 M
3 3
The acetic acid concentration is approximately the same in both solutions, but in the
buffer, the concentration of the conjugate ion is much higher.
In a buffer, the moles and concentrations of the weak acid and the conjugate do not need to
be the same, but they need to be relatively high and close, preferably differing by a ratio of
less than 3 to 1. Why? For a buffer to be effective at limiting pH changes, it needs a
relatively high number of moles of acid to neutralize base added, and a relatively high
number moles of base to neutralize acid added.
Selecting Buffer Components
A buffer is a mixture of the acid and base of a conjugate pair. Since the acid in the
conjugate pair must have one more positive charge than the base, if one particle in the pair
is electrically neutral, the other must have a charge. Both particles in the conjugate pair can
also be charged, so long as their charges differ by the +1 charge on a proton.
For example, in the conjugate pair HSO4─ and SO42─, both particles are ions.
In short, one or both of the particles in a conjugate pair must be an ion.
A buffer may be described as either
• the two particles in the conjugate pair, in which at least one is an ion, or
• as two electrically neutral compounds that contain the particles in the conjugate pair,
in which one or both of the compounds is a soluble salt.
For example:
The acetic acid/acetate buffer can be represented as
CH3COOH and CH3COO─ or as CH3COOH and CH3COONa
The first is the weak acid and its conjugate ion, the second is the weak acid and a salt that
contains the conjugate ion.
To select a conjugate particle that will buffer a weak acid or weak base solution,
• find the weak acid or base in a table of acid strength (see Lesson 31B).
• The conjugate particle in the opposite column will buffer the solution.
• If one of the buffer components is amphoteric, two substances can buffer the
solution: the conjugate acid will buffer to a lower (more acidic) pH, and the
conjugate base will buffer to a higher pH.
If a problem asks for the formula for a neutral substance that will buffer an acid or base,
first write the formulas for the conjugate pair. Then, for each particle that is an ion, pair the

ion with a pH-neutral ion that will form a soluble combination, then write formula for that
combination in a molecular formula (ionic solid) format. An ionic solid (salt) that will
buffer a solution may contain either the acid or the base component of the acid-base
conjugate pair.
Using the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B if needed, apply those rules to this problem.
Q. Write formulas for two ionic solids that would buffer the weak acid HF.
* * * * *
Answer: The base conjugate is F─. Soluble salts that include F─ include NaF, KF, and
RbF. The ion that you pair with F─ must be both pH-neutral and result in a
soluble compound. All row 3-7 alkali metal ions are pH neutral, and all
compounds that include those ions are water soluble.
To determine whether an ionic compound will buffer a weak acid or base solution,
• Write the reaction for the ionic solid separating into its ions.
• If one ion is pH neutral, the other ion is a conjugate of the weak acid or base, and
the combination is water soluble, then the salt will buffer the solution.
Practice. Use the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B as needed.

1. Write the formula for the conjugates of
a. NH4+ b. HNO3 c. F─
d. HCO3─ acting as a base e. HCO3─ acting as an acid

2. Write the formula for an ion that would buffer solutions of these particles.
a. C6H5COOH b. HCN
3. Write the formula for a compound that would buffer solutions of these particles.
a. C H COO─
6 5 b. CH COOH 3
4. Answer the following questions using these letters. Each question may have multiple
letters for its answer.
a. KF b. NH4NO3 c. NH3 d. NaCN e. NH4Cl
i. Which compound(s) above will serve as a common-ion buffer for an HF solution?
ii. Which compound(s) above will serve as a common-ion buffer for NH3 solution?
iii. Which compound(s) will form a buffer if mixed into an NH4Cl solution?

ANSWERS
1. In the acid-strength table, the conjugate of a. NH4+ is NH3 b. HNO3 is NO3─ c. F─ is HF
d. HCO ─ if acting as a base, is the acid H CO
3 2 3 e. HCO ─ as an acid is the base CO 2─.
3 3
2. a. C6H5COO─ is an ion. Since it is also the base conjugate of the acid, it will buffer the solution.
b. CN─ is the base conjugate of the acid HCN; it buffers an HCN solution.
3. a. The acid-strength table shows that C6H5COO─ is the base conjugate of C6H5COOH. A buffer is a
mixture of an acid-base conjugate pair, so C6H5COOH buffers C6H5COO─.
b. The acid-strength table shows that for CH3COOH, CH3COO─ is the base conjugate ion that would
buffer the solution. A compound must have a neutral overall charge. Compounds that would buffer
the solution include any pH–neutral ion that combines with the acetate ion to form a soluble
combination, such as Na+ to form CH3COONa, or Mg2+ to form (CH3COO)2Mg . (Except for silver
acetate, metal-acetate combinations are soluble).
4. i. (a). KF is a soluble salt with pH-neutral ion K+ and basic F─. F─ is the base conjugate of HF.
ii. (b) and (e). Both are soluble salts that contain the acid-conjugate NH + of the base NH .
4 3
iii. (c). NH4Cl contains the acidic NH4+ ion and the pH-neutral Cl─ ion. The particle needed as a
buffer is the base-conjugate of the acid, which is NH3 .
* * * * *
Lesson 33B: Buffer Example

Simplifying Buffer Calculations
Buffers are a mixture of an acid and a base. Buffer calculations can be solved based on
either the Ka of the acid or the Kb of the base.
One way to simplify buffer calculations is to choose to solve based on Ka of the acid or the
Kb and to use this approach consistently. We will use that method in these lessons. Our
fundamental rule will be
Treat buffer solutions as a weak acid ionization equilibrium to which base conjugate has
been added and solve buffer calculations using Ka equations.
Reactions in a Buffer
An example of a common-ion buffer solution is the combination of aqueous acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and the salt sodium acetate. Let’s describe the mixing of an
acetic acid/acetate buffer, developing the equations for buffer calculations as we go.
1. First, mix 0.10 moles of the weak acid CH3COOH and about 950 mL of water. Acetic
acid is highly soluble and ionizes slightly (Ka = 1.8 x 10―5).

2. Next, add 0.20 moles of the solid but soluble salt sodium acetate (CH3COONa) to the
acetic acid solution. Dissolve the salt, then add a bit more water, with mixing, until the
total volume is 1.0 L.
Write the concentrations of the two substances, as mixed into this solution, but before
any reactions take place.
* * * * *
Since the moles of both compounds are dissolved in 1.0 liters of solution,
[CH3COOH]as mixed = 0.10 M and [CH3COONa]as mixed = 0.20 mol/L
Those are concentrations “as mixed.” However, those values do not represent the
actual concentrations in the solution, because both substances react with water.
Write the REC steps for the reaction of CH3COOH in water, then CH3COONa in water,
and then check your answers below.
* * * * *
For the weak acid:
Rxn. & Extent: 1 CH3COOH Å Å Æ 1 H+ + 1 CH3COO─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. symbols = [WA]mixed ─ x ▐ x │ x
Conc@Eq. 0.10 M ─ x ▐ x │ x
Because the weak acid ionizes slightly, its concentration is written as 0.10 M ─ x.
For the salt:
Rxn. & Extent: 1 CH3COONa Æ Æ 1 Na+ + 1 CH3COO─ (goes ~ 100%).
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. values: 0 M 0.20 M ▐ 0.20 M 0.20 M
The actual [CH3COONa] = 0 M, because in dilute aqueous solutions, all Na compounds

dissolve and separate into ions essentially 100%.
Na+ is a pH-neutral ion. CH COO─ is the base conjugate of the weak acid CH COOH.
3 3
This solution is a buffer because it combines substantial amounts of both a weak acid
and its base conjugate. CH3COO─ is a common ion because it is formed in both
reactions above that occur in the solution.
Ion Concentrations In Buffers
Adding the numbers and x’s underlined in the two “concentration at equilibrium” rows
above, fill in the chart below with the total values for the concentrations at equilibrium.
Totals: Exact Approximate
[CH3COOH]at eq. = [WA]eq. = _____________________ ≈ ______________

[H+]at equilibrium = _____________________ ≈ ______________
[CH3COO─]at eq. = [BC]eq. = _____________________ ≈ ______________
* * * * *

Totals in the buffer solution are Exact Approx. Approx. Symbol
[CH3COOH]at eq. = [WA]eq. = 0.10 M ─ x ≈ 0.10 M = ______________

[H+]at equilibrium = x ≈ x
[CH3COO─]at eq. = [BC]eq. = x + 0.20 M ≈ 0.20 M = ______________
The [BC] at equilibrium includes the concentration formed when the weak acid
ionizes (x), plus the concentration added by the salt used to form the buffer.
However, in the approximate concentrations, the small x values that are added or
subtracted from larger numbers are ignored.
Based on the symbols for WA and BC concentrations used in point 2 above, in the two
blanks above, write what you think is an appropriate symbol for each approximate
concentration.
* * * * *
[CH3COOH]at eq. = [WA]eq. = 0.10 M ─ x ≈ 0.10 M = [WA]as mixed
[CH3COO─]at eq. = [BC]eq. = 0.20 M + x ≈ 0.20 M = [BC]as mixed
To summarize:
In buffer calculations: [WA]eq. ≈ [WA]as mixed and [BC]eq. ≈ [BC]as mixed

and both are large compared to [H+] = x .
The Buffer Equations

In buffer solutions, we are most often interested in the [H+].
For a weak acid alone, the reaction that occurs is
1 WA(aq) ÅÅ Æ 1 H+(aq) + 1 BC(aq) (goes slightly)
and the K equation that governs the reaction is:
Ka ≡ [H+] eq.[BC]eq. ≡ x • x ≈ x2 ≈ Ka
^ Definition ^ Exact ^ Approximation

After base conjugate is added to a weak acid solution to create a buffer, the weak-acid-
ionization reaction continues to govern the formation of H+. The Ka equation that allows
us to calculate the [H+] has the same definition.
However, once additional conjugate is added, the two top terms in the three ratios are no
longer equal. In a buffer, the Ka equations become
Ka ≡ [H+]eq.[BC]eq. ≡ x • ( x + [BC]mixed ) ≈ x • [BC]mixed ≈ Ka


Calculations for both a weak acid ionization and a buffer solution are based on the same
definition, but the exact and approximate equations are different. Note how they are
different.
Now calculate the [H+] in this 0.10 M acetic acid/0.20 M acetate buffer solution. To do so,
solve the boxed buffer approximation equation above. Use the Conc@Eq. approximate data
in the totals table above, plus the Ka for CH3COOH = 1.8 x 10―5.
* * * * *
Ka ≈ x • [BC]mixed
[WA]mixed
DATA: Ka = 1.8 x 10―5

x = [H+] = ?
[BC]mixed = 0.20 M
[WA]mixed = 0.10 M
SOLVE:
* * * * *
? = x = [H+] ≈ Ka ● [WA]mixed ≈ 1.8 x 10―5 ( 0.10 ) ≈ 9.0 x 10―6 M H+
[BC]mixed 0.20
As always, units are omitted during K calculations, but concentrations that are calculated
are labeled mol/L (or M).
Finally, apply the 5% test to see if the exact buffer equation needs to be solved.
* * * * *
Quick 5% test : x = [H+] = 9.0 x 10―6 M, [WA] = 0.10 M = 1.0 x 10―1 M
Since the difference in the exponents is 3 or more, the approximation may be used.
Done! We won’t need to do all those steps for future buffer calculations. However,
exploring in detail the impact of common ions on solution concentrations will be useful in
several types of reactions where common ions are added to solutions.
Summary
1. A common-ion buffer solution is composed of an acid-base conjugate pair in which
• each particle is a weak acid or base;
• both particles in the pair have relatively high, but often different, concentrations;
• one or both of the particles is an ion.
2. A buffer solution can be viewed as
• A weak acid with base conjugate added, with reactions governed by Ka , or
• A weak base with acid conjugate added, with reactions governed by Kb .
To simplify calculations, these lessons will treat buffers as a weak acid ionization
equilibrium to which base conjugate has been added, and solve using Ka equations.

3. For a buffer, the Ka ratios are

In the buffer equations, x = [H+] = small, but [WA] and [BC] are large and often differ.
4. In a buffer solution,
[WA]at eq. ≈ [WA]as originally mixed and
[BC]at eq. ≈ [BC]as originally mixed into the buffer solution.
These “concentration as originally mixed” are easily measured and are usually the data
supplied in problems.
5. In buffer equations, the [base conjugate] may be abbreviated as
[BC]at eq. ≈ [BC]mixed or [BC]added or [BC] or [base]
and the [weak acid] may be abbreviated in equations as

[WA]at eq. ≈ [WA]mixed or [WA] or [acid]
Practice
1. The general reaction for the ionization of a weak acid is
1 weak acid(aq) ÅÅ Æ 1 H+(aq) + 1 base conjugate(aq) (goes slightly)

The K definition and exact equations for that reaction are
Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x● x ≈
[WA]at eq. [WA]mixed ― x
^Definition ^ Exact ^ Approximation

a. Modify the exact equation above to reflect the changes when base conjugate particles
are added to make a buffer solution.
b. Based on the buffer exact equation, write the approximate buffer equation.
2. Which concentrations are small
a. In a weak acid approximation equation?
b. In a buffer approximation equation?
3. Which concentrations are equal
a. In a weak acid approximation equation?
b. In a buffer approximation equation?

4. For this reaction, write the K definition and exact equations.
Rxn. & Extent: 1 A2B (aq) ÅÅ Æ 2 A+(aq) + 1 B2─(aq) (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. = [A2B]mixed ─ x ▐ 2x │ x
5. Write the K definition, exact, and approximation equations for the Problem 2 reaction,
modified by adding a substantial amount of B2─ to the solution.
ANSWERS
1. Ka ≡ [H+]eq. [BC]eq. ≡ x ● ( x + [ BC mixed ] ) ≈ x ● [BC]mixed
[WA]at eq. [WA]mixed ― x [WA]mixed
^Definition ^ Exact ^ Approximation
2. In the weak acid approximation equation, x = [H+] = [BC] = small,
In the buffer approximation equation, [H+] is the only concentration that is small,
3 In the weak acid approximation equation, [H+] = [BC]
In the buffer approximation equation, [H+] is small, and [WA] and [BC] are large and may be equal, but
none of the concentrations are required to be equal.
4. K ≡ [A+]2eq. [B2─]eq. ≡ (2x)2 ● x or 4x2 ● x

[A2B]eq. [A2B]mixed ― x [A2B]mixed ― x
^Definition ^ Exact
5. K ≡ [A+]2eq. [B2─]eq. ≡ 2─
(2x)2 ● ( x + [ B ] as mixed) ≈
2─
4x2 ● [B mixed]
[A2B]eq. [A2B]mixed ― x [A2B]mixed
^Definition ^ Exact ^ Approximate
* * * * *

Lesson 33C: Buffer Components

Identifying Buffer Components
A key step that we will use to simplify buffer calculations is to fill in the following
Buffer Chart: WA formula = _________ BC formula = ___________

mol or [WA]mixed = _______ mol or [BC]mixed = _________
You need to be able to write the four labels for the blanks in the chart from memory.
The two formulas, WA and BC, must be a conjugate pair: the acid particle formula must
have one more H and one more + charge than the base formula.
For some problems, you can fill in the buffer chart by inspection. Let’s try an example.
Q. For a buffer that consists of 0.10 M HF and 0.20 M F─, fill in the
Buffer Chart: WA formula = ______________ BC formula = ________________
mol or [WA]mixed = _________ mol or [BC]mixed = ___________

* * * * *
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HF BC formula = F─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.10 M HF mol or [BC]mixed = 0.20 M F─
The buffer is a mixture of the weak acid HF and its base conjugate F─ ions.
Salts In Buffers
In buffer problems, the ion or the two ions in the conjugate pair may be written as a part of
a soluble ionic solid (salt). In problems that supply the concentration of the salt, you will
need to write in the buffer chart the concentrations of the ions that form when the salt
dissolves.
To do so, you must be able to recall from memory the formulas for ions that tend to form.
It helps that most salts will include familiar ions that are always soluble. Recall that if a
substance formula includes one or more of these groups:
• Na K NO3 NH4
then the compound is both soluble and will separate ~100% into ions in dilute aqueous
solutions. Other combinations of ions are soluble as well (see solubility rules, Lesson 13A),
but the four atoms/groups above are those encountered most frequently.
For some calculations in which salt formulas are supplied, you will be able to identify the
ions and fill in the buffer chart by inspection. However, if the salts in a buffer solution are
complex, it helps to write out the REC steps to list the ions and ion concentrations that form
when ionic solids separate, and then fill in the buffer chart.
The rule is: If you cannot fill in a buffer chart by inspection, REC the salt(s).
Try this problem.

Q. For a buffer consisting of 0.20 M Na2HPO4 and 0.10 M NaH2PO4 , write and fill in
the buffer chart.
* * * * *
Since both buffer components contain Na, both are ionic compounds (salts) that separate in
water ~ 100% into ions. The REC steps for those two reactions are
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Na2HPO4 ÆÆ 2 Na+ + 1 HPO42─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0 M 0.20 M ▐ 0.40 M 0.20 M
Rxn. & Extent: 1 NaH2PO4 ÆÆ 1 Na+ + 1 H2PO4─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0 M 0.10 M ▐ 0.10 M 0.10 M
Identify the conjugate pair in the two dissolved salts, then complete the buffer chart.
* * * * *
In a buffer chart, the two formulas must be a conjugate pair. One or both formulas may be
an ion. In this problem, based on the REC steps above,
Buffer Chart: WA formula = H2PO4─ BC formula = HPO42─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.10 M H2PO4─ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.20 M HPO42─
Practice: Try to solve these by inspection first, but if you are not certain of your answer,
REC the salt(s) and/or consult the acid-strength table in Lesson 31B.
1. From the list of ions below, write the formula(s) for the ions that are
a. pH-neutral b. Acidic
c. Always result in a compound containing the ion to be soluble.

(1) Na+ (2) NO3― (3) NH4+ (4) Cl─ (5) K+
2. The following pairs of compounds can be mixed to make aqueous buffer solutions.
Circle the compounds that are soluble salts.
a. NaF and HF b. HCN and KCN c. NH3 and NH4Br
d. C6H5COOH and C6H5COOK e. NaHCO3 and Na2CO3
3. For each of the following buffer solutions, write and fill in this first line of the buffer
chart.
Weak acid (WA) formula = _________ Base conjugate (BC) formula = ________
a. 0.20 M CN─ and 0.40 M HCN b. 0.10 M NaHCO3 and 0.20 M Na2CO3
4. For each of the following buffer solutions, write and fill in a complete buffer chart.
a. 0.25 M NH3 and 0.30 M NH4Cl

b. 0.10 M CH3COOH and 0.15 M (CH3COO)2Ca
c. 0.40 mol Na3PO4 and 0.20 mol Na2HPO4
d. 0.15 M C6H5NH2 and 0.25 M C6H5NH3Cl
ANSWERS
1a. pH-neutral: (1) Na+ (2) NO3― (4) Cl─ (5) K+ (For review, see Lesson 31A)
1b. Acidic: (3) NH + 1c. Always soluble: (1) Na+ (2) NO ― (3) NH + (5) K+ (see Lesson 13A)
4 3 4
2. Salts are compounds composed of ions. In buffers, one or both components will be salts that are soluble in
water, and one ion in the salt will be acidic or basic.
a. NaF -- is a soluble salt. The two ions are Na+ and F─. HF is composed of two non-metal atoms
and will have less ionic character. According to the acid-strength table, HF behaves as a weak
acid, which means that it ionizes only slightly.
b. KCN -- is a salt. Potassium atoms in compounds are always ions, and all potassium compounds
are soluble and ionize 100% in dilute aqueous solutions. The two ions are K+ and CN─.
c. NH4Br -- is ammonium bromide, a compound composed of ions, which makes it a salt. One ion
formed is the ammonium ion NH4+. Ammonium compounds are soluble in water and ionize ~ 100%.
NH3 is weak base composed of two non-metals and has primarily covalent character.
d. C6H5COOK –- All potassium compounds are ionic, and ionic compounds are salts. K compounds
are soluble in water and ionize ~100%. The ions formed are K+ and CH3COO─.
e. NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 –- Both contain Na. Both are therefore soluble salts.
3a. Weak acid (WA) formula = HCN Base conjugate (BC) formula = CN─
3b. Weak acid (WA) formula = HCO3― Base conjugate (BC) formula = CO32―
4a. Buffer Chart: WA formula = NH4+ BC formula = NH3
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.30 M NH4+ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.25 M NH3
If needed, REC the salt(s): R&E: NH4Cl ÆÆ NH4+ + Cl─ (goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc.@Eq. 0.30 M Æ 0 0.30 M 0.30 M
NH3 is a covalent compound and a base, but not a salt. Treat the buffer as WA ionization of NH4+ with
base conjugate NH3 added.

4b. Buffer Chart: WA formula = CH3COOH BC formula = CH3COO─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.10 M CH3COOH mol or [BC]mixed = 0.30 M CH3COO─
If needed, REC salt(s): R&E: 1 (CH3COO)2Ca ÆÆ 1 Ca2+ + 2 CH3COO─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc.@Eq. 0.15 M Æ 0 0.15 M 0.30 M
(CH3COO)2Ca separates into calcium ion and acetate ions: it is a salt. Acetates (except silver acetate)
are soluble in water. CH3COOH is a weak acid and not a salt.
4c. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HPO42─ BC formula = PO43─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.20 mol HPO42─ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.40 mol PO43─
If needed, REC salt(s): R&E: 1 Na2HPO4 Æ Æ 2 Na+ + 1 HPO42─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0 M 0.20 M ▐ 0.40 M 0.20 M
R&E: 1 Na3PO4 ÆÆ 3 Na+ + 1 PO43─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0.40 M 0 M ▐ 1.20 M 0.40 M
4d. Buffer Chart: WA formula = C6H5NH3+ BC formula = C6H5NH2
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.25 M C6H5NH3+ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.15 M C6H5NH2
If needed, REC salt(s): R&E: C6H5NH3Cl Æ Æ C6H5NH3+ + Cl─ (goes ~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc.@Eq. 0.25 M Æ 0 0.25 M 0.25 M
* * * * *

Lesson 33D: Methodical Buffer Calculations

Buffer Steps
To solve buffer calculations methodically, we use the following steps.
1. Fill in the buffer chart using conjugate-pair formulas. If needed, REC the salt(s).
Buffer Chart: WA formula = _____________ BC formula = ________________
mol or [WA]mixed = _______ mol or [BC]mixed = __________
2. WRECK the WA, adding base conjugate at step C. Treat buffers as a weak acid
ionizing, with BC mixed in.
For all buffers, the REC steps will be
R and E: WA Å Å Æ H+ + BC (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. [WA]mixed ─ x ▐ x │ x + [BC]mixed
3. At the K step, write the three buffer Ka equations.
Ka ≡ [H+]eq.[BC]eq. ≡ x • ( x +[BC]mixed ) ≈ x • [BC]mixed ≈ Ka


In a buffer, the two concentrations in the Ka numerators are not equal.
4. Solve the Ka approximation for the WANTED symbol.
To solve the approximation, use the concentrations in the buffer chart.
5. Calculate % dissociation. If >5%, solve the exact Ka buffer equation as a quadratic.
In short: To solve buffer calculations,

• fill-in the buffer chart, WRECK the WA, solve the buffer approximation.
Let’s practice on this example.

Q. Find the [H+] in a buffer solution composed of 0.10 M HF and 0.20 M NaF.
(Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4)
Apply the steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Answer
1. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HF BC formula = F─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.10 M HF mol or [BC]mixed = 0.20 M F─
If needed, REC salt(s): R&E: NaF ÆÆ Na+ + F─ (~ 100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc.@Eq. 0.20 M Æ 0 0.20 M 0.20 M

3. WRECK the WA, then add base conjugate.

WANTED = [H+] = x
R and E: WA Å Å Æ H+ + BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. [WA]mixed ─ x ▐ x │ x + [BC added]
4. SOLVE the buffer approximation.

^ Definition In Buffer: ^ Exact ^ Approximate

Substitute Ka from the problem and the other values from the buffer chart, then
solve for the WANTED symbol.
Ka = 6.8 x 10―4 ≈ x • ( 0.20 M) ; x = 3.4 x 10―4 M = [H+]

0.10 M
5. 5% test quick : x = [H+] = 3.4 x 10―4 M, [WA] = 0.10 M = 1.0 x 10―1 M

The exponent difference is 3 or greater. The % dissociation is < 5%. The
approximation may be used.
Practice A: For these rules, you may consult the 6 steps above. Do one now and the
other in your next practice session.
1. Calculate the [H+] in a solution containing 0.30 M HCN and 0.45 M KCN.
(Ka of HCN = 6.2 x 10―10).
2. In a solution containing 0.10 M NaH2PO4 and 0.20 M Na2HPO4, calculate the [H+].
(Ka of H2PO4─ = 6.7 x 10―8)
How the Conjugate Shifts the Equilibrium

In solution, a weak acid ionizes slightly, and the [H+] formed = [base conjugate] formed.
1 weak acid(aq) ÅÅ Æ 1 H+(aq) + 1 base conjugate(aq) (goes slightly)

When base conjugate is added to a weak acid solution, the [conjugate] becomes relatively
large compared to that due to the weak acid ionization alone. The weak-acid-ionization
reaction written above continues in both directions, but the concentrations of the reactants
and products shift to new values at a new equilibrium. Try these questions.
Q1. According to Le Châtelier’s Principle (Lesson 28A), how does increasing the
[conjugate] change the [H+] in the reaction above?
* * * * *

Answer
Increasing the [conjugate], a particle on the right side of the equation, shifts the
equilibrium to the left. This reduces the concentration of the other particle on the
right, which is H+. As [conjugate] goes up, [H+] goes down.
Q2. According to Le Châtelier’s Principle, how does adding conjugate change the
percent dissociation of the weak acid in the solution?
* * * * *
Answer
As the equilibrium shifts to the left, the [weak acid] goes up. That means less of the
weak acid is ionizing (dissociating). The % dissociation becomes lower.
This smaller dissociation has an impact on buffer calculations. For dilute solutions of
relatively strong weak acids (Ka > 10―6), % dissociation is often >5%, and the exact K
quadratic needs to be solved. However, if the same weak acid solution is buffered, the
% dissociation is lower. The result is that buffer solutions are less likely to be
dissociated > 5%, and you are less likely to need to solve a quadratic to solve a buffer
calculation.
For buffers, the approximation equation nearly always gives an answer that is within the
5% uncertainty allowed in K calculations.
Practice B
1. In a weak acid solution, which will be higher: [H+] or [conjugate]?
2. In a weak acid solution, which will be highest: [weak acid], [H+], or [conjugate]?
3. In a weak acid solution to which a buffer salt has been added, which will be higher:
[H+] or [conjugate]?
4. In a weak acid solution, as a salt that buffers the solution is first added, what happens
to the solution pH?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Strategy: A weak acid (HCN) and a salt with its conjugate = buffer solution. Use the 5 buffer steps.
1. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCN BC formula = CN─

mol or [WA]mixed = 0.30 M HCN mol or [BC]mixed = 0.45 M CN ─
If needed, REC the salt: 1 KCN ÆÆ 1 K+ + 1 CN─ (separates 100%).

^ ^ ^
0 M 0.45 M Æ Æ 0.45 M 0.45 M

2. WRECK the WA, then add additional base conjugate at step C.

WANTED = [H+] = x
R and E: WA ÅÅÆ H+ + BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. [WA]mixed ─ x ▐ x │ x + [BC mixed in]
3. At the WA K step, write the three buffer Ka equations.

[WA]eq. [WA]mixed ─ x [WA]mixed
4. Solve the buffer approximation. Use values in the buffer chart.
WANT: [H+] = x
SOLVE: 6.2 x 10―10 ≈ x • 0.45 M ; x ≈ 6.2 x 10―10 • 0.30 ≈ 4.2 x 10―10 M = [H+]
0.30 M 0.45
Check: the exponent of the Ka and the [H+] are within + 1 .

In buffers, you mix similar moles of acid and a base. Because the Ka of HCN is smaller than the Kb of
its base conjugate (CN―), the solution should be basic, and, since [H+] < 10―7 , it is.
5. % Dissociation quick check: x = [H+] = 4.2 x 10―10 M, [WA] = 0.30 M = 3.0 x 10―1 M
= the dissociation is much less than 5%, so the approximation may be used.
2. Strategy: If the two substances include a conjugate pair, the solution is a buffer
1. Buffer Chart: WA formula = H2PO4─ BC formula = HPO42─

mol or [WA]mixed = 0.10 M H2PO4─ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.20 M HPO42─
If needed, REC the salt(s):
Rxn. & Extent: 1 NaH2PO4 ÆÆ 1 Na+ + 1 H2PO4─ (goes ~ 100%).
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0 M 0.10 M ▐ 0.10 M 0.10 M
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Na2HPO4 Æ Æ 2 Na+ + 1 HPO42─ (goes ~ 100%).

^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0 M 0.20 M ▐ 0.40 M 0.20 M
2. WRECK the weak acid ionization, then add additional base conjugate.
WANTED = [H+] = x
H2PO4─ is amphoteric, listed in the acid-strength table twice: on the right as a base, and on the left
below as an acid. In this buffer, it is the weak acid in the conjugate pair. In water it will ionize slightly.
R& E WA ÅÅÆ H+ + BC (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@Eq. 0.10 M ─ x ▐ x │ x + [0.20 M BC]


4. Solve the buffer approximation. Use values in the buffer chart.
WANT: [H+] = x
SOLVE: 6.7 x 10―8 ≈ x • 0.20 M ; x ≈ 6.7 x 10―8 • 0.10 ≈ 3.4 x 10―8 M = [H+]
0.10 M 0.20
5. % Dissociation quick check: x = [H+] = 3.4 x 10―8 M M, [WA] = 0.10 M = 1.0 x 10―1 M
The exponent difference is 3 or greater; so dissociation is < 5% and the approximation may be used.
Practice B
1. In a weak acid solution, H+ and conjugate are formed in a 1 to 1 ratio, so [H+] = [conjugate].
2. In a weak acid solution, the weak acid has a substantially higher concentration than H+ or conjugate.
3. A buffer adds conjugate to the weak acid solution. [Conjugate] becomes higher than [H+] .
4. Adding conjugate ion shifts the weak acid ionization reaction to the left, using up H+. As [H+] goes down,
pH goes UP.
* * * * *

Lesson 33E: Quick Buffer Calculations

Buffer Calculations – the Quick Steps
In most cases, two factors allow us to solve buffer calculations in fewer steps than required
in the methodical method above.
1. In weak acid solutions, except for a few moderately strong weak acids, ionization is
usually less than 5%, and the approximation equation can be used in calculations.
In buffers, as noted in the prior lesson, the weak acid ionization is even lower than for
the weak acid alone. For this reason, calculations based on the buffer approximation
equation pass the 5% test even more often than for weak acid solutions.
2. In most courses, instructors will require that you write out the methodical buffer steps
at least once during an assignment to demonstrate that you understand how the buffer
approximation is derived. However, for buffer calculations, the generic reaction and Ka
equations are the same or very similar, and after those steps are written once, in the
calculations that follow you are often permitted to omit those steps.
For these reasons, for most buffer calculations it is acceptable to solve by the following
Buffer Quick Steps

1. Write “WANTED = “ and the symbol wanted.
2. As DATA, fill in the buffer chart. If needed, REC the salts.
3. SOLVE the buffer approximation Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed using the chart data.
[WA]mixed
Try the quick steps on the following problem, then check your answer below.
Q. In a buffer solution that contains 0.25 M CN― and 0.50 M HCN, find [H+].
(Ka of HCN = 6.2 x 10―10).
* * * * *
Answer
1. WANT: [H+]
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCN BC formula = CN―
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.50 M HCN mol or [BC]mixed = 0.25 M CN―
3. SOLVE: Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed ≈ 6.2 x 10―10 ≈ [H+] ( 0.25 M) ;

[WA]mixed 0.50 M
[H+] = 6.2 x 10―10 ( 0.50) = 1.2 x 10―9 M = [H+]

0.25

Practice A. Use the buffer quick steps.

1. Calculate the [H+] in a solution of 0.60 M C6H5COOH and 0.40 M C6H5COO―.
(Ka of C6H5COOH = 6.3 x 10―5).
2. Find [H+] in a mixture of 0.10 M NaOCN and 0.20 M HOCN (Ka HOCN = 3.5 x 10―4)
Buffer Calculations Based On Moles

The buffer approximation equation can be written as
Ka ≈ [H+] • [BC]as mixed

[WA]mixed
In a buffer, because the acid and base are both in the same liters of solution, liters can be
cancelled in the fraction of the equation above.
[BC] = mol BC/L of soln. = mol BC
[WA] mol WA/L of soln. mol WA
This converts the buffer approximation to the form
Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed OR Ka ≈ [H+] (base moles as mixed)
[WA]mixed (acid moles as mixed)
For most buffer calculations, the data for WA and BC is supplied in moles/liter, but the
buffer approximation can be solved if the WA and BC as mixed are measured in mol/L or
moles, as long as both terms have the same unit.
A Check On Buffer Calculations
In most buffer solutions, comparing [WA mixed] and [BC mixed]: one is no more than 10
times the other. In the buffer approximation equation, this means that the fraction
[BC ]/[WA] has a value of between 1/10 and 10.
Ka ≈ [H+] • [BC]mixed ≈ [H+] • (10―1 to 10 )
[WA]mixed
This result means that
Using in scientific notation, for solutions mixed to be buffers, the exponent of the [H+] is
nearly always within + 1 of the exponent of the Ka .
For example, in the previous calculation, Ka = 6.2 x 10―10 ; [H+] = 1.2 x 10―9 M
Use this rule as a quick check on your [H+] calculations in buffers.

This rule also means that in buffer solutions, the [H+] will be close in value to the Ka of
weak acid component of the common-ion buffer.

A Special Case: Equal Moles or Equal Concentrations

For the special case of a buffer in which [WA as mixed] is the same as [BC as mixed], in the
buffer approximation equation, those two terms cancel. This means that if [WA] = [BC],
then [H+] can be written by inspection: it is the same as the Ka .
Ka ≈ [H+] • [BC]mixed so Ka ≈ x = [H+] if [WA] = [BC]
[WA]mixed
Similarly, if the moles of WA and BC are in the same, then [H+] ≈ Ka .
In buffer solutions, if either [WA] = [BC] or moles WA = moles BC, then [H+] ≈ Ka .
Limitations
The buffer approximation equations are reliable within 5% as long as the mol/L WA that
ionizes = x = [H+] is small compared to [WA] and [BC]. In most buffers, this will be the
case, but if the WA ionization is high, or the solution is very dilute, you may need to solve
the buffer quadratic to obtain more accurate results.
* * * * *
Summary: Buffer Quick Steps

1. Write “WANTED = “ and the symbol wanted
2. As DATA, fill in the buffer chart. If needed, REC the salts.
3. SOLVE the buffer approximation: using the chart data.
Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed OR Ka ≈ [H+] moles BC mixed

[WA]mixed moles WA mixed
4. Check: If [WA] and [BC] differ by <10x, [H+] and Ka exponents are within + 1.
5. If [WA] = [BC] or moles WA = moles BC, [H+] ≈ Ka .
Practice B. Do the odd numbers first, and the evens if you need more practice.
Problem 6 is more challenging.
1. Estimate the [H+] for a. Problem 2 b. Problem 3
Use the Quick Steps for Problems 2-5.
2. Find [H+] for a buffer solution in which KF= 0.20 mol and HF = 0.20 mol.
Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4
3. Calculate [H+] in a mixture of 0.25 M NaOBr and 0.50 M HOBr (Ka HOBr =2.3 x 10―9)
4. In a solution of 0.25 M NH3 and 0.75 M NH4Cl, find the [OH─]. (Kb NH3 = 1.8 x 10―5).

5. 8.10 g of HCN and 4.90 g of NaCN are mixed into about half a liter of water. What is
the pH in this solution? (Ka of HCN = 6.2 x 10―10).
6. To have a pH of 5.00 in a buffer solution of 0.10 M CH3COOH and ? M CH3COONa,
what must be the [CH3COONa]? (Ka for CH3COOH = 1.8 x 10―5)
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. 1. WANT: [H+]
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = C6H5COOH BC formula = C6H5COO―
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.60 M C6H5COOH mol or [BC]mixed = 0.40 M C6H5COO―
3. Solve the buffer approximation: Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed

[WA]mixed
6.3 x 10―5 ≈ [H+] 0.40 M ; [H+] = 6.3 x 10―5 • 0.60 = 9.4 x 10―5 M = [H+]
0.60 M 0.40
4. Check: the exponent of the Ka and the [H+] are within + 1 .
2. 1. WANT: [H+]
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HOCN BC formula = OCN―
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.20 M HOCN mol or [BC]mixed = 0.10 M OCN―

[WA]mixed
3.5 x 10―4 ≈ [H+] 0.10 M ; [H+] = 3.5 x 10―4 • 0.20 = 7.0 x 10―4 M = [H+]
0.20 M 0.10
Practice B
1a. In problem 2, Ka = 6.8 x 10―4 , so [H+] in scientific notation must end in ” x 10―3,4,or 5 ” by the check
rule. The [H+] must be close to the Ka .
1b. In problem 3, Ka = 2.3 x 10―9 , so [H+] in scientific notation must end in ” x 10―8,9,or 10 ”..
2. WANT: [H+]
Quick method: since 0.20 mol HF = 0.20 mol F―, mol WA mixed cancels mol BC mixed in the
approximation,
and Ka ≈ [H+] ≈ 6.8 x 10―4 M

3. 1. WANT: [H+]
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HOBr BC formula = OBr―
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.50 M HOBr mol or [BC]mixed = 0.25 M OBr―

[WA]mixed
2.3 x 10―9 ≈ [H+] 0.25 M ; [H+] = 2.3 x 10―9 • 0.50 = 4.6 x 10―9 M = [H+]
0.50 M 0.25
4. A weak acid (NH4+) and its conjugate (NH3) = a buffer solution.
1. WANT: [OH─] In buffer calculations, find [H+] first.

2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = NH4+ BC formula = NH3
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.75 M NH4+ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.25 M NH3
If needed, REC the salt: 1 NH4Cl ÆÆ 1 NH4+ + 1 Cl─ (separates ~100%).

^ ^ ^
0 M 0.75 M Æ Æ 0.75 M 0.75 M

[WA]mixed
Since you are given Kb and need Ka , first use Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
? = Ka NH4+ = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 5.6 x 10─10 = Ka of NH4+

Kb 1.8 x 10―5
Ka = 5.6 x 10─10 ≈ x • 0.25 M ; x ≈ 5.6 x 10─10 • 0.75 ≈ 1.7 x 10―9 M = [H+]
0.75 M 0.25
But WANTED = [OH─] . Use Kw = [H+][OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14
[OH─] = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.59 x 10─5 = 5.9 x 10─6 M OH─
[H+] 1.7 x 10─9
(Kw check: [H+] x [OH─] (circled) must estimate to 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14).
5. In chemistry, given grams, we convert to moles. Once we know moles, we can fill in the buffer chart.
For grams and moles, need molar masses: HCN = 27.0 g/mol ; NaCN = 49.0 g/mol
? mol HCN = 8.10 g HCN ● 1 mol HCN = 0.300 mol HCN
27.0 g HCN
? mol NaCN = 4.90 g NaCN ● 1 mol NaCN = 0.100 mol NaCN
49.0 g NaCN

1. WANT: [H+]
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCN BC formula = CN―
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.300 mol HCN mol or [BC]mixed = 0.100 mol CN―
3. Solve the buffer approximation that uses moles: Ka ≈ [H+] (moles of base)
moles of acid
6.2 x 10―10 ≈ [H+] 0.100 mol ; [H+] = 6.2 x 10―10 • 0.300 = 1.9 x 10―9 M = [H+]
0.300 mol 0.100
Note that if the buffer approximation fraction has moles as units, we do not need to know the solution
volume (unless the solution becomes very diluted, in which case the approximation assumption that x is
much smaller than [WA] and [BC] may no longer be true.
6. 1. WANTED: [CH3COONa] = [BC]mixed (write specific and general symbols WANTED)
DATA: pH = 5.00
pH prompt: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] = 10―pH
So [H+] = 1.0 x 10─5
[CH3COOH]mixed = 0.10 M = [WA mixed]
Strategy: A weak acid (CH3COOH) and a salt with its conjugate ion = buffer solution.
To find the original salt concentration, find the [BC] as mixed into the solution.
To find [BC mixed], use the buffer steps .
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = CH3COOH BC formula = CH3COO―
[WA]mixed = 0.10 M CH3COOH [BC]mixed = ?? M C6H5COO―
REC the salt: 1 CH3COONa ÆÆ 1 Na+ + 1 CH3COO─ (separates ~100%).

^ ^ ^
0 M ? ? ? [BC]mixed ÆÆ ???M ? ? ? [BC]mixed
* * * * *
3. Solve the buffer approximation: Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed for the WANTED symbol.
[WA]mixed
? = [ BC mixed ] = Ka ● [WA]mixed = 1.8 x 10―5 (0.10) = 0.18 M [CH3COO─]

[H+] 1.0 x 10―5
To find the WANTED symbol, substitute back into the salt REC equation.
REC the salt: 1 CH COONa Æ Æ 1 Na+ + 1 CH COO─
3 3 (separates ~100%).
^ ^ ^
0 M 0.18 M ÆÆ 0.18 M 0.18 M
[CH3COONa]as mixed = 0.18 M

Lesson 33F: The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

Solving For pH in Buffers
In buffer solutions, you are often asked to find the pH rather than [H+].
The pH can be calculated after an [H+] is solved by the buffer approximation, but it is
convenient to have a formula that calculates pH directly. We can derive such a formula by
the following steps. The buffer approximation equation can be written as
Ka ≈ [H+] • [BC]as mixed

[WA]mixed
Taking the log of both sides, applying the rule that “the log of a product is the sum of the
logs,” then multiplying both sides by ─1 results in
─ log [H+] ─ log [BC]mixed

─log ( Ka ) ≈
( [WA]mixed )
In science, the symbol for ─log is a lower case p , as in ─log [H+] = pH. The above
equation can therefore be written as
pKa ≈ pH ─ log [BC]mixed

( [WA]mixed )
[BC]mixed
Solving for pH, the equation becomes pH ≈ pKa + log
( [WA]mixed )
This form of the equation that solves for pH is known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch
equation. It is usually written as
[base]
pH ≈ pKa + log
( )
[acid]
since [BC] = [base]
and [WA] = [acid] in a buffer.
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is simply the buffer approximation equation

modified mathematically to solve for pH.
If 1. WANTED = buffer pH
2. Fill in the buffer chart.
3. Write and solve the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation using buffer chart values.
Try this example.

Q. In a buffer that contains 0.30 M acetic acid and 0.20 M acetate ion, find the pH.
(Ka CH3COOH = 1.8 x 10―5)
* * * * *

Answer
1. WANTED = pH of a buffer.
2. Buffer Chart: WA formula = CH3COOH BC formula = CH3COO ─
[WA]mixed = 0.30 M CH3COOH [BC]mixed = 0.20 M CH3COO ─
[base] ─log (1.8 x 10―5) + log (0.20/0.30)

3. pH ≈ pKa + log
( )
[acid]
=
= ─ ( ─ 4.74 ) + log (0.67) = 4.74 ─ 0.18 = 4.56 = pH
(To review taking logs with a calculator, see Lesson 27D).
Practice A:
Commit the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation and rule above to memory, then do these.
1. If X = 2.0 x 10―12 , pX = ?
2. If Ka = 4.5 x 10―7 , pKa = ?
3. If pKa = 5.50 , Ka = ?
4. Find the pH in a solution that contains 0.15 M HCN and 0.25 M NaCN.
(Ka of HCN = 6.2 x 10―10).
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Fraction: Moles Or Mol/L

The acid and base in a buffer solution are usually measured in terms of their concentrations,
and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is solved using the form
pH ≈ pKa + log ( [base] /[acid] )
However, as with the buffer approximation, since the acid and base are dissolved in the
same solution, the liters in which both components are dissolved is the same, and liters can
be cancelled in the fraction of the equation.
[base] = mol base/L of soln. = mol base
[acid] mol acid/L of soln. mol acid
This converts the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to the form
pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base / mol acid)
In upcoming problems when we solve for pH during titration, measuring the acid and base
in moles will speed our calculations.
To reflect this option, let us modify our buffer pH rule as follows.

If 1. WANTED = buffer pH,

2. Fill in the buffer chart for moles or mol/L .
3. Solve the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation using the buffer chart values and either
pH ≈ pKa + log ([base] /[acid])
or pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base /mol acid)
Pick the form of the equation that best matches the data supplied in the problem.
Henderson-Hasselbalch Relationships
From the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, we can derive additional relationships that
simplify buffer calculations. In a buffer solution,
1. If [acid] = [base], or moles acid = moles base, then pH ≈ pKa .
Why? If base/acid in moles or mol/L = 1 , then log(1) = log (100) = 0 , and the
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation becomes pH ≈ pKa + 0 ≈ pKa
2. For different solutions of the same conjugate pair, if the mole or mol/L ratio base/acid is
the same, the pH is the same.
For example, in a buffer that contains 0.10 M NaF and 0.20 M HF, the pH will be
the same as in a buffer containing 0.30 mol NaF and 0.60 mol HF.
Buffer pH is based on the particle ratio base/acid , and in both of these solutions, that
ratio is the same.
3. In buffer solutions, the pH will be close to the pKa .
Why? Most buffers are mixed so that the moles of the acid and base are close, in order
for the buffer to be able to neutralize substantial amounts of both acids and bases that
may be added to the buffer. For the base and acid in most buffers, the mol/L of the one
will not be more than 10 times the other.
• If a base/acid ratio is between 1/10 and 10, the log of those numbers is small:
Log 1/10 = ─ 1 , log 10 = + 1 .
• When one component is double the other, Log 2 = 0.3 , log 0.5 = ─ 0.3 , and the
difference between pKa and pH is smaller: + 0.3 .
Adding those numbers to the pKa in the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation results in a
small change in pH.
The math above gives us the
Buffer pH check rule: when the acid and base are mixed in close to equal moles or
concentrations (as in most buffers), check that the pH is within + 2 of the number
after the negative sign of the Ka .
For example, in the problem above Practice A, Ka = 1.8 x 10―5 ; pH = 4.56

The check rule also leads to a

Summary of fundamentals for buffers.
• A buffer contains a weak acid and its base conjugate, both in substantial
concentrations. A buffer resists a change in pH if acid or base is added.
• In a buffer, the [H+] is close to the Ka of the weak acid component, and the pH is
close to the weak acid pKa .
Summary: To Calculate pH In A Buffer

1. Write WANTED = symbol wanted.
2. Fill in the buffer chart using either moles or mol/L.
3. Substitute into the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation in the form
pH ≈ pKa + log ([base] /[acid])
or pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base /mol acid)
4. In a buffer, if either [WA] = [BC] or moles WA = moles BC, then

[H+] ≈ Ka and pH ≈ pKa.
5. For a given conjugate pair in different buffer solutions, if the ratio
[base]/[acid] or mol base/mol acid is the same, the pH is the same, and [H+] is
the same, in the two solutions.
6. Buffer pH check rule: when the moles or concentrations of acid and base close to
equal (as in most buffers), check that the pH is within + 2 of the number after the
negative sign of the Ka .
Practice B. Put a check by problem numbers as you do them. Save one or two for your
next practice session.
1. In which solution in Questions 2-5 below will pH = pKa ?
2. Using the Check Rule, do a quick whole number estimate of the top and bottom of the
range of possible pH values in these solutions.
a. 0.45 M HF and 0.15 M NaF (Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4)
b. 0.15 mol HOCl and 0.30 mol KOCl (Ka of HOCl = 3.5 x 10―8)
3. Find the pH in the buffer solutions in Problem 2.
4. In a buffer consisting of 0.20 mol NH3 and 0.20 mol NH4Cl, what is the pH?
(Kb of NH3 = 1.8 x 10―5)
5. A solution consists of 0.30 M K2CO3 and 0.40 M KHCO3. Calculate the pH.
For H2CO3 , Ka1 = 4.3 x 10―7 and Ka2 = 5.6 x 10―11 .

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. If X = 2.0 x 10―12 , pX = ? = ─log (2.0 x 10―12) = ─ ( ─ 11.70 ) = 11.70
The prefix p is an abbreviation for the function ─log .
2. If Ka = 4.5 x 10―7 , pKa = ? = ─log (4.5 x 10―7) = ─ ( ─ 6.35 ) = 6.35
3. If pKa = 5.50 , Ka = ? Since pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
then pKa ≡ ─ log Ka and Ka ≡ 10─pKa = ? = 10―5.50 = 3.2 x 10―6 = Ka
4. WANT: pH of a buffer.
To find buffer pH directly, fill in the buffer chart, then solve the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCN BC formula = CN─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.15 M HCN mol or [BC]mixed = 0.25 M CN ─
pH ≈ pKa + log
( ) [base]
[acid]
= ─log (6.2 x 10―10) + log (0.25 / 0.15)
= 9.21 + log (1.67) = 9.21 + 0.22 = 9.43 = pH

Practice B
1. Question 4. If [WA] = [BC] , then pH = pKa .
2. The check rule: the calculated pH and the number after the minus sign in the Ka should be within + 2 .
a. Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4 , pH should be 4 + 2: between 2 and 6.
b. Ka of HOCl = 3.5 x 10―8 , pH should be 8 + 2: between 6 and 10.
3a. WANT: pH of a buffer. Fill in the buffer chart, then solve the H-H equation.
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HF BC formula = F─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.45 M HF mol or [BC]mixed = 0.15 M F ─
pH ≈ pKa + log
( )[base]
[acid]
= ─log (6.8 x 10―4) + log ( 0.15 / 0.45 )
= 3.17 + log (0.33) = 3.17 ─ 0.48 = 2.69 = pH Between 2-6? Check.
3b. WANT: pH of a buffer. Fill in the buffer chart, then solve the H-H equation.
Since the buffer data is in moles, complete the buffer chart second line based on moles instead of mol/L.
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HOCl BC formula = ClO─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.15 mol HOCl mol or [BC]mixed = 0.30 mol ClO─
pH ≈ pKa + log ( mol base / mol acid ) = ─ log (3.5 x 10―8) + log ( 0.30 / 0.15 )

= 7.46 + log (2.00) = 7.46 + 0.30 = 7.76 = pH Between 6-10? Check.
4 WANT: pH of a buffer. Solve using the shortcut: Since [WA] = [BC] , pH ≈ pKa . But in this problem,
we are given the Kb of the base.
To find Ka of the acid, use the rule for conjugate pairs: Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
? = Ka NH4+ = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 5.6 x 10─10 = Ka NH4+

Kb 1.8 x 10―5
pH ≈ pKa = ─ log (5.6 x 10─10 ) = ─ ( ─ 9.25 ) = 9.25 = pH
Check: Ka of NH4+ = 5.6 x 10─10 , pH estimate is 8 -12. Check.

5. Two mixed substances with similar formulas often indicate a buffer. Try to complete the buffer chart by
inspection. If needed, REC the salt(s).
1. Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCO3─ BC formula = CO32─
mol or [WA]mixed = 0.40 M HCO3─ mol or [BC]mixed = 0.30 M CO32─
2. In the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, Ka is needed.
In this problem, the two conjugate ions are formed by the successive ionization of the polyprotic acid
H2CO3. The Ka value for the acid in this buffer, HCO3─ , is the K of the second H2CO3 ionization:
Ka2 = 5.6 x 10―11 (see Lesson 28G on polyprotic acids).
pH ≈ pKa + log ( [base]/[acid] ) = ─ log (5.6 x 10─11 ) + log (0.30 / 0.40)
= ─ ( ─ 10.25 ) + log (0.75) = 10.25 + ( ─ 0.12 ) = 10.13 = pH
Check: Ka of HCO3─ = 5.6 x 10─11 , pH should be between 9 and 13.

* * * * *
SUMMARY – Buffers
1. A buffer solution resists a change in pH when an acid or base is added. A buffer can be
made from a weak acid or base and the conjugate of the acid or base.
2. To solve buffer calculations for [H+], the methodical steps are:

1. Fill in the buffer chart. If needed, REC the salt(s).
2. WRECK the WA ionization, then add [BC added].
4. Solve the buffer approximation.
5. Calculate the % dissociation. If >5%, solve the exact buffer quadratic.

3. To solve buffer calculations for [H+], the quick steps are

1. Write the symbol WANTED.
2. Fill in the buffer chart. If needed, REC the salt(s).
Buffer Chart: WA formula = _____________ BC formula = ________________
mol or [WA]mixed = _______ mol or [BC]mixed = __________
3. Write and solve the buffer approximation:
Ka ≈ [H+] [BC]mixed OR Ka ≈ [H+] (base moles as mixed)

[WA]mixed (acid moles as mixed)
4. To solve buffer calculations directly for pH,

• Complete the buffer chart in moles or mol/L, then
• Substitute the buffer chart values into the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
pH ≈ pKa + log [base]

( )[acid]
or pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base / mol acid)
5. In a buffer, if either [WA] = [BC] or moles WA = moles BC, then

6. In general in buffers, the [H+] is close to the Ka of the weak acid component, and the
pH is close to the weak acid pKa .
7. Summary of acid-base check rules
a. In aqueous solutions, [H+] x [OH─] must = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14.
b. In conjugate pairs, Kb x Ka must estimate to = Kw = 10.0 x 10─15 or 1.0 x 10─14.

c. If the [H+] is written in scientific notation, the number after the negative sign in the
exponent of the [H+] must be within + 1 of the pH.
d. The Quick 5% Test to see if an approximation equation can be used
• Using scientific notation, compare [WA] to [H+] = x or [WB] to [OH─] = x .
• If the exponents differ by 3 or more, the ionization is less than 5%.
• If the exponents differ by 2 or less, use the % dissociation equation for the 5% test.
e. Buffer pH check rule: when the acid and base are in close to equal moles or
concentrations (as in most buffers), check that
• the exponent of the Ka and the [H+] are within + 1 .
• the pH is within + 2 of the number after the negative sign of the Ka .
# # # # #

Module 34 — pH During Titration

Prerequisites: Complete Module 33 before starting this module.
* * * * *
Lesson 34A: pH In Mixtures

Solving for pH in Acids and Bases, Salts, and Buffers
So far, our study of acids and bases has included finding [H+] and pH for solutions of
• Strong acids and bases and weak acids and bases;
• Polyprotic acids;
• Salts with ions that are acidic, basic, or amphoteric; and
• A mixture of acid-base conjugates (a buffer).
These types of calculations have components in common, but their steps are not the same.
During tests on acids and bases, it will be necessary to identify what type a problem is, then
to apply the steps needed to solve that type of problem. A summary can helping in
learning the similarities, and distinctions in the problem types. Your list might include the
following.
Summary: In aqueous solutions, to calculate [H+], [OH─], or pH, for

1. Strong acids or hydroxide bases, use the REC steps based on ~100% ionization.
or quick steps: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+] and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]
2. Weak acids, use the WRRECK steps and and/or Ka approximation.
3. Weak bases, use the WRRECK steps and solve Kb approximation.
4. Conjugate pairs, use Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
5. Polyprotic acids, use Ka1 and the WRRECK steps if Ka1 is >100 times Ka2. If not, add
the contributions of the first two ionizations.
6. Salts with one ion that is a weak acid or base:
• REC the salt, write and label the ions A, B, or N, WRRECK the A or B ion.
7. Buffer solutions:
• Treat as a weak acid with base conjugate added.
• Complete the buffer chart.
• Solve the buffer approximation or the H-H equation using mol or mol/L WA
and BC as mixed.

Practice A
For aqueous solutions of the following,
1. NaF and HF 2. NaCN 3. NH3 4. CH3COOH 5. NaHCO3
6. KCl 7. H2CO3 8. KOH 9. NH4Cl 10. HNO3
Pick one term from the following list that best characterizes the solution.
a. Strong acid b. Strong base c. Weak acid d. Weak base
e. Acidic salt f. pH neutral salt g. Basic salt h. Amphoteric salt
i. Polyprotic acid j. Buffer
Types of Acid-Base Solutions

So far, all of our [H+], [OH─], and pH calculations have been for solutions at equilibrium:
if an acid-base reaction did occur, it is now over, and no further changes in the solution are
taking place.
In addition, all of the systems we have studied have had either
• one pH-dominant component (one strong or weak acid or base), or
• have been a buffer: a mixture of one weak acid or base and its conjugate.
For several other types of mixtures at equilibrium, the [H+], [OH─], and pH are relatively
easy to determine. For the purpose of discussing calculations for mixtures of acids and
bases, we will adopt the following vocabulary:
• The opposite of an acid will mean a base, and the opposite of a base will mean an acid.
• Strong acids and bases are those that ionize ~100% to form H+ or OH─ ions.
• Weak acids and bases will be those with Ka or Kb values between one and 10―16
according to acid-strength tables (see Lesson 31B).
The rules for finding pH for mixtures of one or two acids or bases include the following.
1. Any strong acid or base will react with its opposite if opposite is present.
If a mixture contains a strong acid and any base, or a strong base and any acid, a
reaction must take place, and the mixture cannot be at equilibrium. We will discuss these
reaction cases in a later lesson.
However, a strong acid can be at equilibrium in a mixture with other acids or pH-neutral
particles. A strong base can be at equilibrium in a mixture with other bases or pH-
neutral particles.
2. In a mixture at equilibrium, the pH is largely determined by the types of particles
present in significant concentrations (greater than ~0.001 M). To calculate the pH in a
mixture of acidic, basic, and neutral particles, use these general steps.
• First label each particle in the mixture as acid or base, strong or weak, or neutral.
• Then solve for the pH as determined by the pH-dominant particle.

3. Specifically, apply these steps in order to determine the pH in a solution with one or two
acidic or basic particles.
a. Re-write formulas for soluble ionic solids (salts) in their separated-ions format.
b. Label each particle in the mixture as a strong acid (SA), strong base (SB), weak acid
(WA), weak base (WB), or pH neutral (N), based on the defined vocabulary above.
These definitions and labels are based on absolute rather than comparative strength:
a solution may have more than one SA, SB, WA, WB, or N particle.
c. If all particles in a mixture are pH neutral, solution pH = 7 .
d. Ignore pH-neutral (N) particles if mixed with acidic or basic particles.
Particles that are pH-neutral, including Na+, K+, Cl─, and NO ─, do not change the
3
solution pH.
e. If the mixture contains a strong acid or base, its concentration determines the pH.
If a strong acid or base is present, it is the dominant factor in deciding pH.
Contributions by any weak components in the mixture are relatively small and with
rare exception can be ignored.
To find [H+] in solutions containing strong acids or bases, either write the REC steps
for 100% ionization or use the quick steps:
[HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in soln. and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]in soln.
f. If a weak acid or base and its conjugate are present in substantial amounts, the
solution is a buffer. Use the buffer chart and Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to
find the pH.
g. If the only non-pH-neutral particle present is a weak acid or base, its Ka or Kb
determines the pH. Use the Ka or Kb approximation and 5% test to determine pH.
Summary: Steps For Calculating pH in a Mixture

Apply in this order.
a. Re-write soluble salts as separated ions.
b. Label each particle in the mixture as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
c. Ignore pH-neutral (N) particles if mixed with acidic or basic particles.
d. If all particles are N, pH = pH of water = 7.
e. If SA or SB is present, ignore other particles. Find pH based on quick steps:
[HCl or HNO ] = [H+] and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]
3
f. If a WA or WB and its conjugate is present, solve a buffer chart and the
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation in moles or mol/L.
g. If only one WA or WB is present, use Ka or Kb approximation, then the 5% test.
The logic of the rules is:

• pH-neutral particles do not change the [H+] and pH.
• If a strong acid or base is present, it determines the [H+] and pH.

Practice B: Commit the steps in the summary above firmly to memory. Write the steps,
then apply the steps to these problems. Save a few for your next practice session.
1. For each mixture a-d below,
• List the particles present in the solution in significant concentration.
• Label each particle as acid (A), basic (B), or pH-neutral (N).
• Write which step (c, d, e, or f) in the summary for pH in mixtures above should
be used to solve for the pH of the solution.
a. A mixture of 0.40 M NH4Cl, 0.10 M NaCl, and 0.20 M HCl.
b. 0.50 L of solution containing 0.20 mol KCN, 0.20 mol HCN, and 0.10 mol KCl.
c. A solution containing 0.45 M HF and 0.50 M KCl.
d. 0.20 mol KCl and 0.35 mol KNO3 dissolved in 75 mL of solution.
Solve these.
2. A solution contains 0.350 mol KCl in 120.0 mL of solution. Calculate the solution pH.
3. A solution contains 0.010 M KOH, 0.20 M KF , and 0.10 M KCl. Find the pH.
4. A solution contains 0.0050 moles of KCN and 0.010 mol KCl in 25.0 mL of solution.
Calculate the pH. (Kb CN─ = 1.6 x 10―5).
5. After a reaction, at equilibrium, a solution contains 0.020 mol CH3COO and
0.020 M CH3COO─. Find the pH. (Ka CH3COOH = 1.8 x 10―5)
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. NaF and HF (j) buffer: a weak acid and its conjugate.
2.. NaCN (g) basic salt: Na+ is pH neutral, CN─ is the BC of the weak acid HCN.
3. NH3 (d) weak base: see the acid strength table.
4. CH3COOH (c) weak acid
5. NaHCO (h) amphoteric salt: HCO ─ is an amphoteric ion.
3 3
6. KCl (f) pH neutral salt: K+ is pH neutral, Cl─ is the pH-neutral base conjugate of strong acid HCl.
7. H2CO3 (i) polyprotic acid: Forms HCO3─ at 1st ionization and CO32─ 2nd. See strength table.
8. KOH (b) strong base
9. NH4Cl (e) acidic salt: NH4+ is a weak acid (see table); Cl─ is pH neutral.
10. HNO3 (a) strong acid
Practice B
1a. The particles present are Na+ NH4+ HCl Cl─ If an SA or SB is present, it decides
N WA SA N the pH. Use step e .

1b. The particles present are K+ CN─ HCN Cl─ Contains a weak acid and its base
N WB WA N conjugate. Use step f .
1c. The particles present are K+ HF Cl─ Ignore pH-neutrals. Weak acid determines
N WA N the pH. Use step g .
1d. The particles present are K+ Cl─ NO3─ All are pH-neutral. Use step d .
N N N
2. WANTED = pH. This solution contains only KCl, a pH-neutral salt. The pH = 7 .
3. WANTED = pH The particles present are K+ OH─ F─ and Cl─ .
N SB WB N
If one strong particle is present, it determines the pH. Use the quick steps for strong bases.
For this solution: [SB] = [OH─ ] = 0.010 M = 1.0 x 10―2 M , [H+] = 1.0 x 10―12 M , pH = 12.00
4. WANTED = pH
KCN is composed of K+ and CN─. The Kb reflects that CN─ is a weak base.
KCl consists of K+ and Cl─. Both are neutral ions. The only ion that determines pH is CN─. Use Kb .
See pH? Write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH at least once in each problem set or quiz.
If a final mixture is a buffer, you may also use the Henderson-Hasselbalch pH approximation.
In Kb calculations, begin by solving the Kb approximation.
Kb ≈ x2 where x = [OH─]
[WB]mixed
To solve the approximation for [OH─], you need [WB]mixed = [KCN] or [CN─]mixed in this problem.
? = [WB]mixed = mol CN― = 0.0050 mol CN― • 1 mL = 0.200 M CN─
L soln. 25.0 total mL soln. 10―3 L
Kb ≈ x2 Substituting: 1.6 x 10─5 ≈ x2

[WB]mixed 0.200 M CN─
x2 = ( 1.6 x 10─5 ) ( 0.200 ) = 0.32 x 10―5 = 3.2 x 10―6
x ≈ (estimate 1-2 x 10―3) ≈ 1.8 x 10―3 M = [OH─] ( In Kb, x = [OH―] )

Since the difference in the exponents is 2 or less, do the 5% test:
5% test = x ● 100% = 1.8 x 10―3 ● 102 %
[WA or WB]mixed 2.0 x x 10―1
= 0.90 %, which is less than 5%, so approximation is OK -- but pH was wanted.
* * * * *
pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log(1.8 x 10─3) = 2.74 = pOH pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 11.26 = pH

The solution of an ion that is a weak base should have a basic pH, and this solution does.
5. WANTED = pH. This solution contains a weak acid and its conjugate: it is a buffer. Buffer pH problems
can be solved using the buffer chart and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Since the acid and base
data is in moles, solve the buffer chart and H-H fraction in moles (see Lesson 32H).
Buffer Chart: WA formula = CH3COOH BC formula = CH3COO ─
mol WA = 0.020 mol mol BC = 0.020 mol
Since mol WA = mol BC , the H-H equation: pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base/mol acid) simplifies to
pH ≈ pKa + log (1) ≈ pKa + 0 ≈ pKa ≈ ─log (1.8 x 10―5) ≈ ─ (─ 4.74) = 4.74 = pH
* * * * *
Lesson 34B: pH After Neutralization
Finding pH After A Reaction From Amounts Before the Reaction
Calculations to find pH can be divided into two types:
• Those in which the moles or mol/L of acidic or basic particles are known for a
stable solution: one that is at equilibrium and not changing (our pH calculations so
far have been this type), and
• Those in which you are given amounts of acid and base in the initial reactants, and
you must find the pH of the mixture after the acid-base reaction stops.
Let’s turn our attention to the second type: Calculating the pH of a solution after a reaction
from known amounts of acid and base before the reaction.
In neutralization reactions, acid and base reactants are used up (react) if the reactants are a
stronger acid and base than the products.
To find the pH after the reaction, we need to know the amounts of all of the particles
present in the mixture after the reaction: when the reaction stops, which is when the
reaction reaches equilibrium. The simplest way to calculate all of the amounts present after
a reaction is to use our “chemistry accounting system:” a rice moles table.
Once we know the composition of a mixture after neutralization, we can solve using the
rules for mixture pH.
In first-year chemistry courses, our interest is limited to finding the pH of a mixture after
neutralization when at least one of the components, either the acid or base, is strong. This
allows us to use a key rule that simplifies neutralization reactions and rice tables:
When an acid and base are reacted, IF one of the components is strong, the reaction will
go until the limiting component, either the acid or the base, is 100% used up.
Another way to state this rule is
At the end of a neutralization reaction, if one of the reactants is strong, the moles of one
of the reactants must be zero.

Using this rule, we complete a rice moles table for neutralization, using the same steps that
were used in Lessons 10F and 10G to find the mixture present at the end of a reaction that
goes to completion.
Then, by applying the rules for mixtures to the particles in the End/Equilibrium row, pH
can be calculated.
Steps For Calculating pH After Reaction From Amounts Before Reaction

1. Convert the initial amounts of acid and base to moles (or prefix-moles).
2. Enter those moles in the Initial row of a rice moles table.
3. In the Change row, use the rule: when acid and base are mixed, if one or both are
strong, one reactant is 100% used up.
4. Calculate the pH of the mixture at the End of the reaction (in the bottom rice row).
The steps can be summarized as
To find pH after reaction from acid and base amounts before reaction:
Reactants > reactant moles > rice moles > equilibrium mixture pH .
Lets apply these steps to an example.

Q. A solution containing 0.100 moles of HCl is combined 0.080 moles of NaOH. After
mixing, the total volume is 120. mL. What is the pH of the solution after mixing?
Solve using the steps above and table below.
Reaction
Initial
Change (use + , ―)
End/Equilibrium
* * * * *
a. The initial moles of acid and base are known.
b. The balanced reaction equation is: 1 HCl + 1 NaOH Æ 1 H2O + 1 NaCl (goes ~100%)
To balance, use the rules in Lesson 14A: acids reacted with hydroxide bases always
form water as one product.
* * * * *
Among the rules that apply to rice tables in general:
• If a reaction starts with all reactants, the sign in the Change row for the reactants
must be negative, since reactant must be used up if there is a reaction.
• In the Change row, the sign of the reactants and products must be opposites: if one
is negative, the other must be positive.

• The ratios in the Change row and the coefficients must be the same.
(For a rice review, see Lesson 10F.)
* * * * *
Reaction 1 HCl 1 NaOH 1 H2O 1 NaCl

At End/Equilibrium + 0.020 mol 0 mol + 0.080 mol + 0.080 mol
In this mixture, NaOH moles are limiting: when the NaOH is used up, the reaction stops.
The limiting reactant determines how much of the products form.
Calculate the pH of the solution mixture above present at the End of the reaction.
* * * * *
To begin, label the particles present in the bottom row as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
* * * * *
Water and table salt ions are pH neutral (N). HCl is a strong acid (SA). If a strong acid or
base is in a mixture, it determines the pH. Use the quick SA rule to find [H+], then pH.
* * * * *
[H+] in solution = [HCl or HNO3]mixed
Calculate the [HCl] in the solution at the end of the reaction, then check your answer
below.
* * * * *
? = [HCl] = mol H+ = 0.020 mol HCl • 1 mL = 0.17 M HCl
L soln 120. mL soln. 10―3 L
To finish, find the pH.
* * * * *
[H+]in solution = [HCl or HNO3]as mixed = 0.17 M
? = pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log(0.17) = ─ (─ 0.77) = 0.77 = pH
Practice A: Learn the rules and steps above, then try these problems.
1. To 0.0250 mol HCl is added 0.0300 mol NaOH. The final volume of the mixture after
the reaction is 40.0 mL. What is the pH in the solution after the reaction?

Strong-Weak Neutralization
Let’s try a second calculation of pH after the reaction, starting from amounts measured
before the reaction. This time we will react a strong and a weak component. For any acid-
base reaction, we use the same steps as above.
When dealing with moles/liter and milliliters, it is often convenient (but not required) to
solve the rice moles table in millimoles. As long as all of the units in the table are the same,
our rice moles “accounting system” works in
• Moles or prefix-moles, or
• Mol/L (M) if all of the particles are contained in the same volume.
Let’s add that step to this problem.
Q. A solution of 50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is mixed with 20.0 mL of 0.150 M KF.
a. Calculate the millimoles of each reactant.
b. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
c. Complete the rice moles table in millimoles.
d. Find the pH in the mixture after the reaction.
* * * * *
a. For the HCl calculation, use HCl data.
? mmol HCl = 50.0 mL HCl • 10─3 L • 0.100 mol HCl • 1 mmol = 5.00 mmol HCl
1 mL 1 L HCl 10─3 mol
A way to calculate millimoles more quickly is to use the rule
If you WANT a prefix-unit, and are given the same-prefix unit, cancel the given unit, but
don’t cancel the given prefix.
For example, in the mmol KF calculation in this problem.

? mmol KF = 20.0 mL KF • 0.150 mol = 3.00 mmol KF
↑ ↑ L ↑
This form of unit cancellation works because milli- is simply an abbreviation for
“ times 10─3 .” When doing the math, an exponential term is separated from the unit after it,
so a prefix may also be treated as separate from the unit after it.
An alternative rule for solution millimoles is to memorize mmol = mL x (mol/L) .
The logic is the same: a prefix can be separated from its unit: mL • mol = mmol
L
b. The reactants are HCl + KF Æ
Write the products using molecular formulas, then balance the equation.
* * * * *

You may be able to solve by inspection. If not, to determine the products, first separate
the reactant salt into ions: HCl + KF = HCl + K+ + F─ Æ
The products of the reaction are the conjugates of the acid and base.
HCl + KF = HCl + K+ + F─ Æ Cl─ + K+ + HF
A N B B N A
The acid-strength table supplies the formulas for the conjugates if needed.
Will this reaction go to the right? Why or why not?
* * * * *
The reaction will go to the right. One reason is
• Any time a strong acid (HCl) is mixed with a base of any kind (F─), the reaction will
go until one of the reactants is completely used up.
Using molecular formulas, the balanced Reaction equation is:
1 HCl + 1 KF Æ 1 HF + 1 KCl
c. If you have not already done so, complete the rice moles table using millimoles as units.
* * * * *
Reaction 1 HCl 1 KF 1 HF 1 KCl

Initial 5.00 mmol 3.00 mmol 0 mol formed 0 mol
Change (use + , ―) ― 3.00 mmol ― 3.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol +3.00 mmol
At End/Equilibrium + 2.00 mmol 0 mmol + 3.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol
d. At the end of the reaction, the bottom row indicates the mixture present. Analyze the
mixture and find the pH.
* * * * *
The mixture contains the strong acid HCl, the weak acid HF, and the salt KCl that
contains two pH-neutral ions. What determines the pH?
* * * * *
The [HCl] determines the pH. If a strong component is present, it’s contribution to the
[H+] overwhelms any others. Find pH based on [HCl].
* * * * *
First find the [HCl]. How many moles of HCl are in the solution?
* * * * *
? mol HCl = 2.00 mmol HCl = 2.00 x 10─3 mol HCl ( milli- means “ x 10─3 “)
Those moles of HCl are in how many liters of solution?
* * * * *
Hint: How much is the total volume of solution at this point?
* * * * *

Though the KF has been entirely used up, and part of the HCl was used up, the water in
which the KF and HCl particles were originally dissolved has not been used up.
For reactions that take place in a solution, the number of reacting particles is always very
small compared to the number of solvent particles. A relatively large amount of solvent is
used so that the reacting particles can dissolve completely, move about, collide, and react.
The large amount of solvent present determines almost entirely the volume of a solution.
When solutions are combined, reacting substances are used up or formed, but volumes of the
combined solutions is determined by the volumes of solvent combined, and those simply
add.
Even for reactions run in aqueous solutions in which water is a reactant or product, the
amount of water used up or formed is nearly always small compared to the volume of the
water present as a solvent, and any change in the amount of water present due to the
reaction can nearly always be ignored in calculations.
The rule is: When solutions are combined, their volumes add.
If needed, complete the calculation of [HCl].

* * * * *
We combined the original 50.0 mL of HCl solution with 20.0 mL of KCl solution. All
reactants and products present after the reaction are therefore dissolved in a total solution
volume of 70.0 mL. [HCl] = ?
* * * * *
Moles HCl were found above.
? = [HCl] = mol H+ = 2.00 x 10─3 mol HCl = 2.00 x 10─3 mol HCl = 0.0286 M HCl
L soln 70.0 mL soln. 70.0 x 10─3 L soln.
For part d, find the WANTED pH.
* * * * *
Using the quick rule: [H+]in solution = [HCl or HNO3]mixed = 0.0286 M
? = pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log(0.0286) = ─ (─ l.54) = 1.54 = pH
* * * * *
Let’s summarize.
Rules in this lesson include
1. In a reaction between an acid and a base, IF one of the components is strong, the reaction
will go until one component, either the acid or the base, is 100% used up.
2. When solutions are combined, their volumes add.
3. The millimoles shortcut for rice moles tables: millimoles = mmol = mL x (mol/L) .

4. To find the [H+] or pH in a solution,

a. Ask: Is the problem about a stable solution at equilibrium, or reactants before
reaction and pH after reaction?
b. If about a stable solution, apply the steps for finding mixture pH.
c. IF about reactants before and pH after reaction, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol > rice moles > then pH of mixture at equilibrium.
5. Once the amounts in a mixture at equilibrium is solved or known, use the
Steps For Finding Mixture pH

b. Label the particles in the mixture as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
c. In pH calculations, ignore pH-neutral (N) particles.
d. If all particles are N, pH = 7.
e. If SA or SB is present, ignore other particles. Find pH with
the quick steps: [HCl or HNO3] = [H+] and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]
f. If a WA or WB and its conjugate is present, solve a buffer chart and
Practice B: Commit the rules summary above to memory, then try these problems.
1. Complete the following rice moles table.
Reaction 1 HCl 1 NaCN 1 HCN 1 NaCl

Initial 4.50 mmol 3.00 mmol 0 mol 0 mol
Change
At End/Equilibrium
2. Find the pH for the reaction in Problem 1 if the mixture at equilibrium is in 200. mL of
solution.
3. If 50.0 mL of 0.100 M KF is combined with 20.0 mL of 0.150 M HCl, find the pH after the
reaction. Solve in millimoles. (Ka HF = 6.8 x 10―4)
4. To a solution containing 150. mmol NaOH is added 200. mmol HOBr (hypobromous
acid). What is the pH of the solution after the reaction? ( Ka of HOBr = 2.8 x 10─9 ).

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED: pH
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: a stable solution or reactants before and pH after?
This is about reactants before and pH after. For pH after reaction from amounts before, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol > rice moles > mixture pH

Change (use + , ―) ― 0.0250 mol ― 0.0250 mol + 0.0250 mol + 0.0250 mol
At End/Equilibrium 0 mol 0.0050 mol 0.0250 mol 0.0250 mol
In acid-base reactions, if one component is strong, one reactant must be totally used up.
At equilibrium, the mixture contains the strong base NaOH and a pH-neutral salt. Find pH.
* * * * *
For strong bases, the quick rule is: [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─] . Find [NaOH] first.
* * * * *
DATA: 0.0050 mol NaOH in 40.0 mL total volume
? = [NaOH] = mol NaOH = 0.0050 mol HCl · 1 mL = 0.125 M NaOH = [OH─]
L soln 40.0 mL soln. 10―3 L
pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH and pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log (0.125) = 0.90 ; pH = 14.00 ─ 0.90 = 13.10 = pH
Practice B
1. Reaction 1 HCl 1 NaCN 1 HCN 1 NaCl
Change (use + , ―) ― 3.00 mmol ― 3.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol
At End/Equilibrium 1.50 mmol 0 mmol 3.00 mmol 3.00 mmol
2. WANTED = pH
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: a stable solution or a reaction?
In this part, the mixture is at equilibrium. No net change is occurring. Any reaction is over.
Apply the rules for acid-base mixture pH. What type of solution is this?
* * * * *

At equilibrium, the mixture contains a strong acid, a weak acid, and a salt. What determines the pH?
* * * * *
The ionization of the strong acid is the largest contributor to the [H+], so [SA] determines pH. Find pH.
* * * * *
For strong acids, the quick rule is: [HCl or HNO3] = [H+] . Find [HCl] first.
* * * * *
DATA: 1.50 mmol HCl in 200. mL soln.
? = [HCl] = mol HCl = 1.50 mmol HCl = 0.00750 M HCl
L soln 200. m L soln.
A prefix can be treated as independent of the number before and unit after it. Like-prefixes cancel.
pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log (0.00750) = 2.12 = pH
3. WANTED: pH after reaction

Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: solution or reactants reacting? This is about a reaction.
For pH after reaction from amounts before, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol or prefix-moles > rice moles > mixture pH
? mmol KF = 50.0 mL KF x 0.100 mol/L KF = 5.00 mmol KF
? mmol HCl = 20.0 mL HCl x 0.150 mol/L HCl = 3.00 mmol HCl
Reaction 1 HCl 1 KF 1 HF 1 KCl

At End/Equilibrium +0 mmol 2.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol + 3.00 mmol
At equilibrium, what type of solution is this? What steps do you follow to find the pH?
* * * * *
This mixture contains substantial amounts of both the weak acid HF and its base conjugate F─, which
makes the solution a buffer. The solution also contains the pH-neutral ions K+ and Cl─, but pH-neutral
ions do not affect pH. Solve for pH using the buffer steps.
* * * * *
To find buffer pH,
• for the two “at end” substances that are not pH-neutral, fill in a buffer chart, and
• find the pH using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HF BC formula = F ─
moles WA = 3.00 millimol HF moles BC = 2.00 millimol F ─
Henderson-Hasselbalch: pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base/mol acid)
≈ ─log (6.8 x 10―4) + log (2.00 millimol /3.00 millimol)

≈ ─(─3.17) + log (0.67) ≈ 3.17 ─ 0.18 = 2.99 = pH

The units in the base/acid ratio of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be M, mol, or mmol, as long as
the top and bottom units are consistent.
4 WANTED: pH
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: a stable solution or reactants before and pH after?
This is about reactants before and pH after. For pH after reaction from amounts before, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol > rice moles > mixture pH
When an acid reacts with a hydroxide base, one product is always water.
Reaction 1 HOBr 1 NaOH 1 H2O 1 NaOBr

Initial 200. mmol 150. mmol 0 0
Change (use + , ―) ― 150. mmol ― 150. mmol +150. mmol + 150. mmol
At End/Equilibrium 50. mmol 0 mmol 150. mmol 150. mmol
Apply the rules for acid-base mixture pH. What type of solution is this?
* * * * *
This mixture contains substantial amounts of the weak acid HOBr (weak based on its Ka value) and its
base conjugate OBr─ , which makes the solution a buffer. The solution also contains the pH-neutral ions
Na+ and Cl─ ions that do not affect pH. Solve for pH using the buffer steps.
* * * * *
To find buffer pH,
• for the two “at end” substances that are not pH-neutral, fill in a buffer chart, and
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HOBr BC formula = OBr─
moles WA = 50. mmol HOBr moles BC = 150. mmol OBr─
≈ ─log (2.8 x 10─9) + log (150. mmol / 50. mmol )
≈ ─ ( ─ 3.17) + log (3.0) ≈ 3.17 + 0.48 ≈ 3.65 = pH
* * * * *

Lesson 34C: Distinguishing Types of Acid-Base Calculations

Summary of Acid-Base Problems and Calculations
We have done a wide variety of acid-base calculations. Sometimes it can be difficult to
decide which steps to apply to a problem. Let’s see if we can both summarize the rules for
acid-base calculations, and note ways to distinguish the different types of acid-base
calculations.
1. The Ka and Kb relationships.
a. For acid-base conjugates: Kw = Ka x Kb = 1.0 x 10─14
b. In water, amphoteric ions will form acidic solutions if their Ka >Kb, and basic
solutions if Kb > Ka.
2. If an acid is mixed with a base, will the reaction go? Use either one of two rules.
a. If either the acid or base is strong, the reaction goes to completion (the limiting
reactant is ~100% used up).
b. Use the acid-strength table. Equilibrium favors the side with the weaker A and B.
pH-neutral particles do not affect the pH of a solution nor whether an acid-base reaction
will go.
3. Calculations of [H+] and/or pH can be divided into two types: those for
• a stable solution: one that is at equilibrium (not changing), and
• acid and base amounts before reaction that WANT pH after the reaction.
To find [H+] or pH, ask: is this DATA for a stable solution or a “before and after”
reaction calculation?
a. For a stable solution, apply the rules for acid-base mixtures in step 4 below.
b. For reaction calculations, use a rice moles table to find what is in the stable solution at
the end of the reaction, then apply the mixture rules.
4. In stable mixtures, to find [H+] or pH, apply these rules in this order.
b. Label each particle in the mixture as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
c. Ignore pH-neutral (N) particles if they are mixed with other particles.
e. If SA or SB is present, ignore other particles. Find pH based on REC steps for 100%
ionization or the quick steps:
[HCl or HNO ] = [H+] and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]
3
f. If a WA or WB and its conjugate is present, solve a buffer chart and the buffer
approximation or Henderson-Hasselbalch equation (in moles or mol/L).

5. We have done two types of reaction calculations.

a. If given is an amount of one reactant that is 100% used up (the limiting reactant), and
WANTED is how much of one other reactant will react or one other product will
form, we solve using the stoichiometry steps:
WDBB, units Æ moles Æ moles Æ units
IF one or both of the acid-base reactants is strong, acid-base reaction calculations to
find an equivalence point can be solved by stoichiometry. This type of neutralization
stoichiometry was done in Module 14.
b. For all other types of reaction calculations, a rice moles table is needed to determine
amounts used up, formed, and present in the final mixture at equilibrium. These
cases include:
• IF you know the amounts for two reactants present before the reaction, but you
do not know which is limiting, or
• the reaction goes to equilibrium instead of to completion, or
• you need the amounts of all of the particles in the mixture after the reaction
stops.
• IF a reaction is simple, the concentrations at equilibrium (the C rice step) can be
solved by inspection when writing the WRECK steps.
• Once the composition of a reaction mixture at equilibrium is known, the rules to
solve most calculations can be applied.
Practice
1. For each number and letter below, pick the number and letter from the summary above,
from 1 to 5a, that best describes the steps needed to solve.
2. Solve Problem 5d below.
(Then, if you need more practice, solve the remaining problems. Answers are below).
3. 0.050 mol HF is reacted with 0.035 mol KOH. What is the pH in the resulting solution?
(Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4)
4. Before the endpoint in a titration, a solution contains 0.0060 mol NaOH, no HCl, and
0.0200 mole NaCl in 80.0 mL of total solution volume. What is the pH?
5. To 50.0 mL of 0.0500 M KOH is added 0.100 M HNO3.
a. Will this reaction go to completion?
b. What is the pH before any acid is added?
c. What is the pH after 20.0 mL of HNO3 has been added?
d. How many mL of acid must be added to neutralize all of the KOH?
e. Calculate the pH at the equivalence point of the reaction.

ANSWERS
1. To solve Problem 3: This is a “DATA before and pH after” reaction problem. Use Step 3b.
Problem 4: This is a stable mixture. Use Step 3a.
Problem 5a: Both are strong, so the reaction goes until the limiting reagent is used up. Use Step 2a.
Problem 5b: Before any acid is added, the solution is a stable mixture of the strong base KOH and water.
For strong base solution pH, use Step 4e.
Problem 5c: This is a “reactants before and mixture after” reaction problem. Use Step 3b.
Problem 5d: Calculations to find the equivalence point are stoichiometry. Use Step 5a.
Problem 5e: This is a “reactants before and mixture after” problem. Use Step 3b. If you note that a strong
acid and strong base, when neutralized exactly, form a pH-neutral salt and water, you can solve by
inspection using Step 4d.
2. See 5d below.
3. WANTED: pH See pH? At least once per problem set, write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
If the final mixture turns out to be a buffer, you may instead need the Henderson-Hasselbalch
approximations to find pH.
For a “DATA before and pH after” reaction problem, steps are
Reactants > reactant mol > rice moles > then mixture pH steps.
To balance: when a hydroxide is reacted with an acid, one of the products is always H2O (Lesson 14B).
In this problem, the “convert to moles” step is done already.
Reaction 1 HF 1 KOH 1 H2O 1 KF

Initial 0.050 mol 0.035 mol 0 mol formed 0 mol
Change ―0.035 mol ― 0.035 mol + 0.035 mol + 0.035 mol
At End/Equilibrium 0.015 mol + 0 mol + 0.035 mol + 0.035 mol
Label the particles present at equilibrium SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.

* * * * *
The pH-not-neutrals are HF (WA) and its conjugate F─ (WB): a buffer. To find buffer pH,
• using the “at end” conjugates, fill in a buffer chart, then
* * * * *
moles or [WA] = 0.015 mol HF moles or [BC] = 0.035 mol F ─
H-H: pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base/mol acid)
≈ ─ log (6.8 x 10―4) + log (0.035 mol /0.015 mol)
≈ ─ ( ─ 3.17) + log (2.33) ≈ 3.17 + 0.37 = 3.54 = pH

4. WANTED = pH. The table salt NaCl contains two pH neutral ions, so NaCl has no impact on the pH.
The only particle that impacts the pH is NaOH (SB). For strong bases, the quick rule is:
[NaOH or KOH]mixed = [OH─]in solution
? [NaOH] = mol NaOH = 0.0060 mol NaOH • 1 mL = 0.075 M NaOH = [OH─]in solution
L soln 80.0 total mL soln. 10―3 L
A solution dominated by a strong base should have a high pH, and it does.
5a. If an acid and base are mixed, and one or both components is strong, the reaction will go to completion.
5b. WANTED: pH of a KOH solution
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: solution or reaction? This is a stable solution.
The initial solution is a strong base solution at equilibrium. Use the rules for strong base pH.
DATA: pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH and pH + pOH = 14.00
Quick rule: [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]

[NaOH] = 0.0500 M = [OH─] ; pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log (0.0500) = 1.30 = pOH
pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 14.00 ─ 1.30 = 12.70
5c. WANTED: pH after reaction
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: solution or “before and after” reaction? This is a reaction.
For pH after reaction from amounts before, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol or mmol > rice moles > mixture pH rules
? mmol KOH = 50.0 mL KOH x 0.0500 mol/L KOH = 2.50 mmol KOH
? mmol HCl = 20.0 mL HNO3 x 0.100 mol/L HNO3 = 2.00 mmol HNO3
Reaction 1 HNO3 1 KOH 1 H2O 1 KNO3

Initial 2.00 mmol 2.50 mmol 0 mmol formed 0 mmol
Change (use + , ―) ― 2.00 mmol ―2.00 mmol + 2.00 mmol + 2.00 mmol
At End/Equilibrium +0 mmol + 0.50 mmol + 2.00 mmol + 2.00 mmol
At equilibrium, what kind of solution is this?

* * * * *
A mixture with a strong base KOH, water, and the pH-neutral ions K+ and NO3─ . If a strong base is
present, it’s 100% ionization determines the pH. [SB] = [OH─]
WANTED = pH Find [OH─] = [SB] = [KOH]
DATA: 0.50 mmol KOH is dissolved in 50.0 mL + 20.0 mL = 70.0 mL of total solution volume.

? [KOH] = mol KOH = 0.50 mmol NaOH = 0.0071 M NaOH = [NaOH] = [OH─]in solution
L soln 70.0 total mL soln.
Milli- is an abbreviation for “ x 10─3 ”, and “ x 10─3 ” on the top and bottom can cancel.
5d. WANTED: ? mL HNO3 solution
DATA: 50.0 mL KOH
0.0500 mol KOH = 1 L KOH soln.
0.100 mol HNO3 = 1 L HNO3 soln.
Strategy: This is stoichiometry: how much of one substance is needed to exactly use up another.
If you need a review of solution stoichiometry, see Lessons 12C and 12D.
When solving for a single unit, he stoichiometry steps are
Balance: 1 HNO3 + 1 KOH Æ 1 H2O + 1 KNO3
Bridge: 1 mol HNO3 = 1 mol KOH
SOLVE: ? mL HNO3 = 50.0 mL KOH • 0.0500 mol KOH • 1 mol HNO3 • 1 L HNO3 =
↑ ↑ 1 L KOH 1 mol KOH 0.100 mol HNO3
= 25.0 mL HNO3 The conversions above use the optional rule:
If you WANT a prefix-unit and are given the same-prefix unit, cancel the given unit, but don’t cancel the
given prefix.
5e. You could do a rice table for the reaction, or, since this is at the equivalence point, recall that the reactants
have been exactly used up and only products are present. The products are an aqueous solution of the
soluble salt KNO3 . What’s the pH?
* * * * *
KNO3 contains two ions that are pH-neutral: K+ and NO3─ . They won’t change the pH of the water in
which they are dissolved. The pH at the equivalence point is 7 .
* * * * *

Lesson 34D: pH During Titration of an SA and SB

Timing: Calculations of how much acid and base are required to reach the endpoint of a
titration are neutralization stoichiometry, and they were covered in Module 14. Begin this
lesson when you are asked to calculate the pH at points during an acid-base titration.
* * * * *
Terminology of Acid-Base Titration
Redox, precipitation, and other types of reactions can be studied by titration, but in this
module the term titration will refer to acid-base neutralization titration. For purposes of
discussing acid-base titration,
• The opposite of an acid will mean a base, and the opposite of a base will mean an acid.
• Strong acids and bases will be defined as those that ionize ~100% to form H+ or
OH─ ions. Weak acids and bases will be those with Ka or Kb values between one
and 10―16 according to acid-strength tables (see Lesson 31B).
The substance gradually added to a sample during a titration is the titrant.

Indicating the Endpoint
An acid-base titration is a gradual neutralization with an indicator present. An indicator is
a small amount of pH-sensitive dye that is added to the reaction mixture.
Using burets, volumes of acid and base that have been combined in a reaction vessel are
carefully measured when the endpoint of the titration is reached. The endpoint is detected
by a change in the color of the indicator:
The endpoint signaled by an indicator is ideally a sharp color change at the precise
equivalence point at which the moles of acid and base that have been combined are equal
(or, for compounds with more than one acidic or basic group, the moles are in a simple
whole-number ratio). If a sharp change in the pH of the reaction mixture occurs at the
equivalence point, and if the indicator is chosen carefully, allowing for small experimental
error, the endpoint and the equivalence point for the titration will be the same.
A number of different substances can be used as acid-base indicators. These indicators
change color in different pH ranges. In order to choose an indicator that accurately signals
an equivalence point, the pH of the acid-base mixture at points during a titration must be
determined.
Principles of Acid-Base Titration
The following fundamentals apply when calculating pH during titration.
1. The indicator in a titration will accurately identify an equivalence point only if there is a
sharp pH change (large and occurring with just a drop or two of titrant) at the
equivalence point.
2. For a sharp pH change to occur, at least one reactant must be strong. In most titrations,
one reactant is usually an aqueous solution of HCl, HNO3, NaOH, or KOH.

3. Acid-base titration is simply carefully measured neutralization. The key rule in

neutralization is
When an acid and a base are combined, if either component is strong, the
neutralization goes to completion: the limiting reactant is ~100% used up.
An acid or base that is strong is highly reactive: if opposite is present, it will react with its
opposite until the limiting reactant is ~100% used up.
4. Acid-base indicators work best when strong or moderately weak acids and bases
(Ka or Kb > 10─7) are combined with strong opposites. The weaker the acid or base being
neutralized, the less sharp the pH change at the endpoint will be. As K goes below
10─7, the pH change may not sharp enough for an indicator to accurately signal an
equivalence point (though an unwieldy pH meter may do so).
Similarly, if a weak acid and a weak base are combined by titration, the pH change at the
endpoint is often too small for an indicator dye to accurately detect.
5. Substances with two or more acidic or basic groups will titrate to an equivalence point
for each group. The calculation of pH is treated as successive titrations: the conjugate
product at the first endpoint is the starting acid or base for the titration to the second
endpoint, etc. Some of the endpoints may be sharp while others are not.
6. A titration of a substance with a single acidic or basic group can be separated into four
stages.
a. Before the titration begins, the sample to be titrated is a solution of a strong or
moderately weak acid or base.
b. When the first drop of strong opposite is added, it reacts with the original acid or
base. Since one of the particles is strong, the reaction will go until the reactant with
the lowest moles (the titrant being added) is completely used up, and products,
including conjugates of the acid and base, form.
Between the beginning and endpoint, as opposite continues to be added, all of the
titrant is used up, the number of particles of the original acid or base goes down, and
the particles of products go up. The reaction continues as long as particles of the
original acid or base remain to react with the titrant.
But between the beginning of the titration and the equivalence point, in the reaction
flask is a mixture of the original acid or base, products that include both conjugates,
and no titrant.
c. At the equivalence point,
• there is no original acid or base and no titrant.
• The last added titrant has reacted with the last particles of original acid or base,
and both reactants have been exactly and completely used up.
• In the solution are only the products of the reaction.

d. If titrant continues to be added after the endpoint, there is no reaction. There is no

opposite left for the titrant to react with. Titrant added after the endpoint simply
mixes with the particles of products that were present at the endpoint.
Summary: The four stages of an acid-base titration are
Stage The solution contains
Before titrant is added original acid or base
Between the beginning and endpoint original acid or base plus products
At the endpoint Products only
After the endpoint products plus titrant added after endpoint
Practice A. Check your answers after each part.

1. Write the products using molecular (solid) formulas, then balance these equations for
reactions in aqueous solution.
a. KOH + HNO3 Æ
b. HCN + RbOH Æ
c. NH3 + HCl Æ
d. NaHCO3 + NaOH
2. Which compounds among the 7 products above are not pH-neutral?
3. Assuming for the reactions in problem 1 that the 2nd reactant listed is gradually titrated
into the first, what substances will be present in the reaction mixture
a. In problem 1a before the titration begins.
b. In problem 1b just before the endpoint of a titration.
c. In problem 1c at the endpoint.
d. In problem 1d three drops after the endpoint.
4. In which answer to question 3 is the solution a buffer?
5. Label each substance formula in the answers to question 3 as a strong acid (SA), strong
base (SB), weak acid (WA), weak base (WB), or pH-neutral (N).
Calculating pH During a Titration

7. At all points during a titration, in the reaction flask is a mixture of substances. The pH is
determined by the types of particles in the mixture. To calculate the solution pH, apply
the rules that solve for the pH of a mixture.
8. Since most titrations measure volumes in mL, you can calculate in moles, but it is
usually easier to solve in millimoles.

Acid-base titration calculations are the same as neutralization calculations. We have done
each type of neutralization calculation in previous lessons. However, in the case of
titration, we have a special interest in
• Tracking what happens to the pH during the four stages of a titration; and
• Developing rules that will simplify calculations, and even let us solve by inspection,
during the stages of titration.
We will develop these rules as we solve examples. Let’s begin with
Finding pH During A Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration
Q1. A solution of 50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated by 0.250 M NaOH.
a. What is the pH of the solution before any base is added?
b. Write the balanced reaction equation.
c. What is the pH at the equivalence point of the titration?
d. How many mL NaOH must be added to reach the equivalence point?
e. What is the pH after 10.0 mL of base has been added? (Solve in mmol.)
Try part a, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
a. See pH? Write pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
The initial solution is a strong acid. Use the strong acid rules to find pH.
* * * * *
For any ~100% ionization, REC: HCl Æ H+ + Cl─ (goes 100%)
0.100 M 0 M 0.100 M 0.100 M
or by the quick rule: [H+]in solution = [HCl or HNO3]mixed = 0.100 M = [H+] ;
pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log (0.100) = ─ log (1.00 x 10─1) = ─ log (10─1) = ─ (─ l) = 1.00
Try part b, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
b. When acid reacts with a hydroxide base, one of the products is always….?
* * * * *
Water. This reaction is: 1 HCl + 1 NaOH ÆÆ 1 H2O + 1 NaCl (goes ~100%)
* * * * *
c. The rules are
At the equivalence point in any neutralization,

• the moles acid reacted are equivalent to (the same as) the moles base reacted.
• The acid and base reactants are exactly neutralized: both are 100% used up.
• Since no reactants remain, only products are present.

In this reaction flask is salt water: dissolved NaCl. NaCl is a combination of two pH-
neutral ions; the solution has a neutral pH of 7 .
In a titration combining a strong acid and strong base, at the equivalence point: pH = 7
d. Part d is what kind of problem?

* * * * *
At the endpoint, all of the acid or base in the original sample is used up, so Part d asks what
amount of one reactant is needed to use up all of another reactant. What kind of problem is
that?
* * * * *
Stoichiometry. List the WANTED and given.
* * * * *
? mL NaOH = 50.0 mL HCl
When WANTED formula ≠ given formula, that’s the stoichiometry prompt.
We apply stoichiometry steps to reactions which
• go essentially to completion (rather than to equilibrium), and
• ask how much of one substance is needed or formed when one other substance is
completely used up (and is therefore a limiting reactant).
In acid-base reactions, if one or both reactants is strong, the reaction goes to completion.
Apply the stoichiometry steps, then check below.
* * * * *
In stoichiometry, the first four steps are WDBB. Then, if a single unit is WANTED,
chain conversions to solve. If a ratio unit is WANTED, solve for the top and bottom
units separately, then divide.
* * * * *
1. WANTED: ? mL NaOH (a single unit)
2. DATA: 50.0 mL HCl (the single-unit given)
0.100 mol HCl = 1 L HCl (M prompt)
0.250 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH (M prompt)
(If two substances are involved, each unit must include its substance formula.)
3. Balance. 1 NaOH + 1 HCl Æ 1 HOH + 1 NaCl
4. Bridge. 1 mol NaOH = 1 mol HCl
5. SOLVE.
? mL NaOH = 50.0 mL HCl • 0.100 mol HCl • 1 mol NaOH • 1 L NaOH =
↑ ↑ 1 L HCl 1 mol HCl 0.250 mol NaOH
= 20.0 mL NaOH

(It is optional but saves steps to use the rule: if you WANT a prefix-unit, and are given
the same prefix-unit, cancel the given unit, but don’t cancel its prefix.)
This titration will reach its endpoint when 20.0 mL of the NaOH solution is added to
the original acid solution.
e. What kind of problem is part e? What steps will you use to solve?
* * * * *
Amounts of acid and base before the reaction are supplied, and pH after the reaction, at a
point in the titration that is not necessarily the endpoint, is WANTED. The result of the
reaction will be a mixture.
To find pH after a reaction, given reactant amounts before the reaction, use
Reactants > reactant mol or prefix-mol > rice moles > pH of mixture at equilibrium.
In most titration calculations, it is somewhat easier to solve rice tables in millimoles.

* * * * *
Find mmol HCl using HCl DATA: Want a single unit? Start with a single unit.
WANTED = ? mmol HCl = 50.0 mL HCl • 0.100 mol HCl = 5.00 mmol HCl
1 L HCl soln.
* * * * *
For NaOH calculations, use NaOH DATA:
? mmol NaOH = 10.0 mL NaOH • 0.250 mol NaOH = 2.50 mmol NaOH
1 L NaOH soln.
Now complete the rice table below for the reaction.
* * * * *
Initial 5.00 mmol 2.50 mmol 0 mol formed 0 mol

At this point in the reaction, the reaction must stop when the NaOH is used up. The
limiting NaOH also determines how much of the products form.
Calculate the pH of the solution present for the mixture in the End row above.
* * * * *

The HCl at the end determines the pH. Use the quick SA rule to find [H+], then pH.
* * * * *
[H+]in solution = [HCl or HNO3]mixed
Calculate the [HCl] mixed into the solution, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Hint: How much is the total volume of solution at this point?
* * * * *
In part e, we mix the original 50.0 mL of acid solution with 10.0 mL of added base
solution. All reactants and products present are therefore dissolved in a total solution
volume of 60.0 mL. [HCl] = ?
* * * * *
? = [HCl] = mol H+ = 2.50 mmol HCl = 0.0417 M HCl
L soln 60.0 mL soln.
Since milli is simply an abbreviation for “ x 10─3 “ it can cancel. If needed, finish part e.
* * * * *
Using the quick rule: [HCl or HNO3]mixed = [H+]in solution = 0.0417 M
? = pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log(0.0417) = ─ (─ l.38) = 1.38 = pH
* * * * *
One of our goals in these calculations is to track what happens to pH during a titration.
Let’s summarize what we have calculated so far. For this strong acid-strong base titration,
• in the initial acid solution, the pH was 1.00
• After adding 10.0 mL of this particular base solution, pH = 1.38
• After adding 20.0 mL of this particular base solution, we reached the
endpoint/equivalence point, where pH = 7.0
Somewhere during the titration, the pH drops substantially, but these numbers indicate
that it hasn’t dropped much by half-way to the endpoint.
For this same titration, let’s try a pH calculation much closer to the endpoint. Since the
endpoint is at 20.0 mL, let’s try
Q2. For the same solutions (50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl is titrated by 0.250 M NaOH),
what is the pH after 19.8 mL of base has been added?
Solve the rice table in the same units used for Q1.
* * * * *

The steps can be summarized as
To find pH after reaction, given amounts of reactants before the reaction:

Reactants > reactant mol or prefix-mol > rice moles > mixture pH steps.
Complete the table using the increased millimoles of NaOH.
* * * * *
The mmol HCl being titrated is the same, but the mmol NaOH added have increased.
1 L NaOH soln.
* * * * *
Initial 5.00 mmol 4.95 mmol 0 mmol 0 mmol

Change ― 4.95 mmol ― 4.95 mmol + 4.95 mmol + 4.95 mmol
Calculate the pH in the mixture after the reaction, at equilibrium.

* * * * *
The only substance present that is not pH neutral is HCl. It will determine the pH. HCl is
a strong acid. Find [HCl], then [H+] , then pH.
* * * * *
To 50.0 mL original acid solution has been added 19.8 mL base = 69.8 mL total volume.
* * * * *
? [HCl] = mol HCl = 0.05 mmol HCl = 0.0007 mol/L HCl pH = ?
* * * * *
? = pH = ─ log [H+] Since HCl is a strong acid, [H+] = [HCl] = 0.0007 M
? = pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log 0.0007 = ─ (─ 3.1) = 3.1 = pH
Between 0 mL and 19.8 mL base added, the pH has fallen from 1.00 to 3.1 . By 20.0 mL base
added at the endpoint, the pH must be 7 – a comparatively large change for the small
amount of additional added titrant.

Titration Past the Equivalence Point

In the titration above, the equivalence point is at 20.0 mL NaOH added. What happens to
the pH if we go just two drops past the equivalence point?
Each drop contains about 0.05 mL, so two drops would take us to 20.1 mL NaOH added, so
the question is
Q3. For the same solutions (50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl titrated by 0.250 M NaOH), what
is the pH after 20.1 mL of base has been added?
* * * * *
The mmol HCl being titrated is the same, but the mmol NaOH added has increased.
1 L NaOH soln.
Complete the rice table using the increased initial millimoles of NaOH.
* * * * *

At End/Equilibrium + 0 mmol + 0.02 mmol + 5.00 mmol + 5.00 mmol
Calculate the pH at equilibrium in this mixture.

* * * * *
The only substance present that is not pH neutral is NaOH. It will determine the pH. Find
[NaOH], then [OH─] , then pH.
* * * * *
* * * * *
? [NaOH] = mol NaOH = 0.02 mmol NaOH = 0.0003 mol/L NaOH pH = ?
* * * * *
Since NaOH is a strong base, [NaOH] = [OH─] = 0.0003 M
pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log(3 x 10─4) = 3.5 pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 10.5 = pH

Graphing pH During Titration

SA Titrated by SB
Q4. In pencil, on the grid at the
0
right, plot the data calculated
for the titration above at 0, 2
10.0, 19.8, 20.0, and 20.1 mL 4
NaOH added.
6
Check your answer at the end
pH 8
of the ANSWER section below.
10
* * * * *
12
14
16
0 5 10 15 20 25
mL NaOH added
The graph reflects an important fact of acid-base neutralization:
If a strong or moderately weak acid or base is titrated by a strong opposite, the pH

changes sharply during the titration, but not until very close to the endpoint.
Practice B:
1. For the titration in the lesson above, calculate the pH after 25.0 mL NaOH has been
added. Add this value to the graph above.
2. 50.0 mL of 0.0500 M KOH is titrated by 0.150 M HNO3.
a. What is the pH before any acid is added?
b. What is the pH at the endpoint?
c. Calculate the pH after 20.0 mL of HNO3 has been added.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. All coefficients are one.
a. KOH + HNO3 Æ H-OH + KNO3 b. HCN + RbOH Æ H-OH + RbCN
c. NH3 + HCl Æ NH4Cl d. NaHCO3 + NaOH Æ H-OH + Na2CO3
2. RbCN is a salt that is a weak base: it contains the weak base conjugate CN─ and pH-neutral Rb+.
NH Cl is a weakly acidic salt containing the weak acid ion NH + and pH-neutral Cl─.
4 4
Na2CO3 is a basic salt containing the moderately weak base CO32─ and pH-neutral Na+.
All of the other products are pH neutral.

3. a. In 1a, before the reaction begins, is KOH. Neutral water is also present in aqueous solutions.
b. In 1b, just before the endpoint of a titration is HCN, H-OH, and RbCN. Before the endpoint,
as the strong base RbOH is added, it is 100% used up.
c. In 1c, at the endpoint are only products: NH4Cl dissolved in water.
d. In 1d, three drops after the endpoint are the products H-OH and Na2CO3 , plus the NaOH
added after the endpoint. After the endpoint, the original acid is all used up, and the added base has
nothing to react with.
4. In which answer to question 3 is the solution a buffer? 3b is the only part in which a weak acid
(HF) or base is mixed with its conjugate.
5. a. KOH (SB)
b. HCN (WA), H-OH (N) , and RbCN (WB). RbCN is a salt composed of the alkali metal ion Rb+ that is
pH neutral and CN─ which is the conjugate of the weak acid HCN. Conjugates of mildly weak acids
are mildly weak bases. Salts that combine neutral ions and weak basic ions are weak bases.
c. NH4Cl (WA) is a salt composed of NH4+ that is a weak acid and Cl─ which is pH neutral. Salts
composed of pH neutral ions and ions that are weak acids behave as weak acids.
d. H-OH (N) Na2CO3 (WB) is a salt containing the moderately weak carbonate ion (Kb = 1.9 x 10―4).
NaOH (SB)
Practice B
1. The mmol HCl being titrated is the same, but the mmol NaOH added have increased.
1 L NaOH soln.

At End/Equilibrium + 0 mmol + 1.25 mmol + 5.00 mmol + 5.00 mmol
The NaOH determines the pH. Find [NaOH], then [OH─] , then pH.
* * * * *
* * * * *
? [NaOH] = mol NaOH = 1.25 mmol NaOH = 0.0167 mol/L NaOH pH = ?
* * * * *
Since NaOH is a strong base, [NaOH] = [OH─] = 0.0167 M
pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log(1.67 x 10─2) = 1.78 pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 12.22 = pH
Once you are a few drops past the end point, the pH graph again plateaus: the pH again changes slowly.

2a. WANTED: pH
The initial solution is a strong base. Strong bases ionize 100% in water.
To find the ion concentrations in strong acid or base, either use the REC steps,
Rxn. & Extent: 1 KOH used up ÆÆ 1 K+ formed + 1 OH─ formed (goes ~ 100%)
^ ^ ^
Or recall the quick rule: [NaOH or KOH]mixed = [OH─]in solution (see Lesson 27E)
Since [OH─] = 0.0500 M; pOH = ─ log [OH─] = ─ log(0.0500) = 1.30 = pOH
pH = 14.00 ─ pOH = 12.70 = pH
2b. In this reaction: KOH + HNO3 ÆÆ H2O + KNO3 (goes ~100%)
At the equivalence point of any neutralization titration, only products are in the mixture. In the reaction flask
is KNO3, composed of two pH-neutral ions, so the solution has a neutral pH of 7.
2c. WANTED: pH after reaction
Begin by asking: what type of problem is this: a stable solution or “before and after” reaction?
This is a reaction. For pH after reaction from amounts before, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol or mmol > rice moles > mixture pH
1) Convert all amounts of reactants to moles, (or, in titration, millimoles).
2) Enter the initial millimoles in a rice initial row.
3) Complete the rice moles table with one reactant used up.
4) Solve for pH based on the substances present after the reaction (in the bottom rice row).
The millimoles of base being titrated in the sample are
? mmol KOH = 50.0 mL KOH • 0.0500 mol KOH = 2.50 mmol KOH
1 L KOH
The millimoles of acid added so far are
? mmol HNO3 = 20.0 mL HNO3 • 0.150 mol HNO3 = 3.00 mmol HNO3
1 L HCl soln.
Reaction 1 HNO3 1 KOH 1 H2O 1 KNO3

At End/Equilibrium 0.50 mmol 0 mmol 2.50 mmol 2.50 mmol
Label the particles present at the end as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
* * * * *
In the mixture at this point, we have “overshot the endpoint” by adding more moles of titrant acid than base.
Only the HNO3 (SA) titrant is not pH neutral. It will therefore determine the pH.
To find the pH, [H+] is needed. To find [H+], [SA] is needed: its moles and its liters.

The total volume in the flask is 50.0 mL original base + 15.0 mL acid solution added = 65.0 mL total.
? = [HNO3] = mol HNO3 = 0.50 mmol HNO3 = 0.0077 M HNO3
Since HNO3 is a strong acid,
[H+] = [HNO3] = 0.0077 M H+ SA Titrated by SB
0
pH = ─ log [H+] = ─ log(0.0077)
2
= 2.11 = pH 4
6
The graph at the right is the answer
pH 8
to Q4 in the lesson.
10
* * * * * 12
14
16
0 5 10 15 20 25
mL NaOH added
Lesson 34E: Titration pH: Weak by Strong

Using Mol/L After Reaction As the Rice Unit
Our rice table “accounting system” for reactions can be solved in units of
• Moles or prefix-moles, or
• Mol/L (M) if all of the particles are dissolved in the same volume;
as long as all of the units in the rice table are the same.
So far, we have solved all of our rice tables for acid-base reactions in moles or millimoles,
and not mol/L. Combining solutions of two substances does not change the moles of each
in the new solution before they react, but it does decrease their concentrations because the
volume in which they are dissolved increases.
When solutions of two different substances are combined, but before they react, the
moles of each substance does not change, but the mol/L of both are diluted.
Rice moles tables can be solved in moles/liter IF you know the concentrations of the acid
and base reactants after they are combined, but before they react. Why?
After two solutions of reactants are mixed together, all of the moles present, whether before,
during, or after the reaction, are in same volume of solution. The volume in dilute aqueous
solutions is determined ~100% by how much of the solvent (water) is present. Once the
solutions are combined, the volume of water does not substantially change if an acid-base
reaction takes place, even if water is a reactant or product.

Rice tables are based on mole ratios: the coefficients of the balanced equation. If all of the
moles are divided by the same constant liters, the mole ratios of the rice table remain the
same, so that “mol/L after combining” may be used as a consistent unit in a rice table.
For solution reactions, IF you enter into a rice table the initial [reactants] after they are
combined, but before they react, you can find all mol/L after the reaction.
For acid-base reactions, if we know the concentrations of all of the substances after the
reaction, we can find the [H+] and the pH.
Let’s apply that rule on this example.
Q. Complete the following table, then find the pH after the reaction.
Reaction 1 HCl 1 KOH

Initial (after combining,
0.025 M 0.035 M 0 mol 0 mol
but before reacting)
Change
At End/Equilibrium
* * * * *
Since the table shows the initial concentrations after the reactants have been combined, the
solution volume is the same at all points during the reaction, and the rice moles table can be
solved in moles/liter (M).
Reaction 1 HCl 1 KOH 1 H2O 1 KCl
Initial (after combining,

0.025 M 0.035 M 0 mol 0 mol
but before reacting)
Change ―0.025 M ―0.025 M + 0.025 M + 0.025 M
At End/Equilibrium 0M + 0.010 M + 0.025 M + 0.025 M
After the reaction, the [KOH] at equilibrium determines the pH.
[KOH] = [OH─] = 0.010 M = 1.0 x 10─2 M ; pOH = 2.00 ; pH = 12.00
Using Mol/L Before Reaction With A Rice Table

The question above was solved relatively quickly. Why haven’t we solved all
neutralization calculations that way?
The reason is that in most problems, we are not given the acid and base concentrations after
they are combined. What we usually given the acid and base concentrations before they are
combined. Those concentrations before combining cannot be put directly into a rice table.
The acid and base are diluted as they are mixed together. How much they are diluted varies
with how much of each solution is mixed together.

We can solve rice tables in mol/L if we use this rule:
For solution reactions, rice, K, and Q calculations can be solved in mol/L IF all mol/L
before combining are converted to mol/L after combining, but before reacting, using
dilution rules.
This gives us two ways to find pH after reaction from amounts before reaction.
To find pH after reaction, given amounts of reactants before the reaction, the steps are
Reactants > reactant mol or prefix-mol > rice moles > mixture pH steps, OR
Reactant M before > reactant M combined > rice M > mixture pH steps.
In general, for rice tables, use this rule.
The values that go into the initial row of a rice table can be moles, or prefix-moles, or
mol/L after combining but before reacting (as long as all units are consistent).
Before we use mol/L to solve a rice table, let’s refresh our memory on dilution
calculations (from Lesson 12A).
Dilution Review
The dilution equation is written in symbols as
VC x MC = VD x MD in which C means concentrated and D diluted.
The dilution equation is memorized by recitation:
To find concentrations after two solutions are combined, you are always solving for the
diluted molarity. That equation is always
MDiluted – after combining = VConc – before combining x MConc – before combining
VDiluted-Total after combining
In some problems, [reactant after combining] can be solved by inspection using the rule:
In dilution, if V or M changes by an easy multiple , multiply the other by 1/multiple.
For example, if equal volumes of solutions of two different substances are combined,
the volume for the particles of each substance is doubled, and the concentration of
both substances is cut in half.
Practice A: For additional review, see Lesson 12A.

1. If 20.0 mL of 0.100 M NaOH is combined with 20.0 mL of 0.200 M HCl, after mixing,
[HCl] = [NaOH] = ?

2. If 10.0 mL of 0.45 KOH is combined with 20.0 mL of 0.300 M HCN, after combining,
but before reacting,
[HCN] = [KOH] = ?
3. If 25.0 mL of 0.250 M HF is combined with 21.5 mL of 0.120 M KOH,
a. [HF] after combining, before reacting = ?
b. [KOH] after combining, before reacting = ?
As the practice above shows, finding mol/L after dilution is relatively easy when dilution
can be done by inspection, but it takes time when the numbers are complex.
In acid-base rice tables, which units should be used: moles, millimoles, or mol/L? All
three methods work, but a rule that may save time is
• If [acid] and [base] after combining but before reacting can be solved by
inspection, solve in mol/L;
• If the dilutions are time-consuming, or if calculations must be done at several
points of the same titration, solve in moles or millimoles.
If it’s a tossup, solve in moles or millimoles. The unit that best makes sense of most
chemical processes is the unit that counts the particles: moles or prefix-moles.
pH During Weak-Strong Titration
During the titration of a moderately weak acid or base by a strong opposite, most rules are
the same as for strong-strong titration.
• The moles or mol/L present at any point can be tracked by a rice table.
• At the equivalence point, the solution contains only products.
The differences include
1. Before the titration begins, the solution contains a weak acid or base. The solution pH is
calculated using Ka or Kb .
2. Between the beginning and equivalence point of a weak-strong titration, both the
original weak acid and base and its conjugate are present, so the reaction mixture is a
buffer. The pH is determined using buffer methods: the buffer chart and then the
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
3. At the equivalence point, only one non-pH-neutral product is present: the conjugate of
the original weak acid or base. That conjugate is also a weak acid or base, and the pH is
calculated based on its Ka or Kb.
4. Past the endpoint, the solution contains strong titrant and the weak conjugate. The
[strong titrant] added after the endpoint will nearly always determine the pH.
You should be aware of the points above, but you should not need to memorize them. The
bottom row of the rice table identifies the mixture present at each step of a titration. To find
pH, simply apply the rules for mixture pH to the end row of the rice table.

Reactant M before > reactant M after combining > rice M at end > mixture pH.
Let’s apply those steps to a weak-strong example.

Q. A 20.0 mL sample of a 0.200 M HF is titrated with 0.120 M KOH. Calculate the pH
after 20.0 mL of KOH solution has been added (Ka of HF = 6.8 x 10―4). Solve the rice
table in mol/L.
* * * * *
When any acid (H+) is reacted with any hydroxide (OH─) base, one product is H-OH.
* * * * *
In the rice table, [initial] must be after mixing, but before reacting. When equal volumes of
solutions of two different substances are combined, the concentration of both substances is
cut in half. After mixing, by inspection, [HF] = 0.100 M and [KOH] = 0.0600 M .
* * * * *
Reaction 1 HF 1 KOH 1 H2O 1 KF
Initial 0.100 M 0.0600 M 0M 0M

Change ― 0.0600 M ― 0.0600 M + 0.0600 M + 0.0600 M
At End/Equilibrium + 0.040 M 0M + 0.0600 M + 0.0600 M
What type solution is this?

* * * * *
A buffer. Solve for buffer pH.
* * * * *
moles or [WA] = 0.040 M HF moles or [BC] = 0.0600 M F ─
* * * * *
H-H equation: pH ≈ pKa + log ([base] / [acid])
≈ ─log (6.8 x 10―4) + log (0.0600 M /0.040 M)
≈ ─ ( ─ 3.17) + log (1.5) ≈ 3.17 + 0.18 = 3.35 = pH

Buffer check: Ka = 6.8 x 10―4 , buffer pH estimate 4+2 = 2 to 6. Check.

A Special Case: The Half-Way Point

When a weak acid or base is titrated by a strong opposite, between the initial solution and
the endpoint, the solution is a buffer.
By definition, when the titration is half-way to the endpoint, half of the moles of the initial
weak acid or base have been neutralized and converted to its conjugate, and half of the
moles of the original substance remain. If the moles of the original weak acid or base and
its conjugate are both half the original concentration, the moles of both are equal.
We know
In buffer solutions, if either [WA] = [BC] or moles WA = moles BC, then

At the half-way point, this rule can solve some weak acid or base titration calculations by
inspection:
Half-way to the endpoint in the neutralization of a weak acid or base, a buffer exists in
which moles WA = moles BC, and [H+] ≈ Ka and pH ≈ pKa.
Limitations
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is an approximation because it is derived from the
buffer approximation. Buffer approximations generally supply answers within the range of
experimental error for K and pH except
• for relatively strong weak acids and bases, and
• very close to the beginning of the titration, and very close to the endpoint, when
[WA or WB] is not large compared to ionization (x).
In those cases, to provide more accurate results, use the exact buffer quadratic to find [H+],
then pH definitions to find pH.
Summary: Strong-Strong vs. Weak Strong Titration
[H+] and pH Determined By

Stage
If Strong-Strong If Weak-Strong
Before start [Initial SA or SB] [Weak Acid or Base] & K
Between start & endpoint [SA or SB remaining] Buffer
Halfway to endpoint 1/2 [Initial SA or SB] [H+] ≈ Ka and pH ≈ pKa
At endpoint pH = 7 [Conjugate] and its K
After endpoint [strong titrant] [strong titrant]
Strong-strong and weak-strong titration calculations differ due to the differences between
the substances being titrated. Strong acids and bases hydrolyze 100% and form pH-neutral
conjugates. Weak acids and bases hydrolyze slightly and form non-pH-neutral conjugates.

In some titration calculations, the summary chart above may allow solving by inspection. In
all cases, a rice table and mixture rules will solve for pH.
Practice B: Apply the rules above from memory. Solve problems 1 and 2, and save
Problem 3 for your next practice session. The final problem is more challenging.
1. 25.0 mL of 0.0700 M HCl is combined with 25.0 mL of 0.100 M NaCN. Find the pH after
the reaction. Solve in millimoles (Ka of HCN = 6.2 x 10―10).
2. What is the [H+] half-way to the equivalence point

a. When a strong acid is titrated by a strong base?
b. When a weak acid is titrated by a strong base?
c. When a weak base is titrated by a strong acid?
3. 20.0 mL of 0.200 M CH3COOH (Ka = 1.8 x 10―5) is titrated by 0.200 M NaOH.

a. How many mL of NaOH is required to reach the endpoint?
b. When pH = pKa , how many mL of NaOH have been added?
c. Calculate the pH in the solution after 19.0 mL NaOH is added.
d. Calculate the pH at the endpoint of the titration.
4. New synthesized organic acids (those that include carbon and hydrogen) are frequently
tested for their effects on biological systems. To determine the Ka of a new weak acid
(call it HBc), 20.0 mL of a 0.150 M solution is combined with 10.0 mL of 0.200 M KOH.
The solution pH of this “before the endpoint” mixture is found to be 5.25. What is the
new acid’s Ka value?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. When equal volumes are combined, the concentrations of both substances are cut in half.
[HCl] = 0.100 M ; [NaOH] = 0.0500 M
2. The total volume after mixing is 30.0 mL. The volume of the KOH is tripled, so its concentration is 1/3 the
original. [KOH] = 0.45 M x 1/3 = 0.15 M after mixing.
If needed, for [HCN], you can use VC x MC = VD x MD
? MD HCN = VC x MC = 20.0 mL x 0.300 M HCN = 0.200 M HCN diluted = [HCN] after mixing.
VD 30. mL total
Using the dilution equation with M, the units will cancel properly, but the labels often will not.

3a. To use the dilution equation, VC x MC = VD x MD , set up a data table with
DATA: VC = 25.0 mL HF (C before mixing)

MC = 0.150 M (in wording, goes with 25.0 mL)
VD = 25.0 + 21.5 = 46.5 mL soln. = Total, diluted volume
MD = ? = WANTED
SOLVE: ? MD = VC x MC = 25.0 mL x 0.150 M HF = 0.806 M HF diluted

VD 46.5. mL total
Using the dilution equation with M, the units will cancel properly, but the labels often will not.
Check: from 25 mL to 46.5 mL nearly doubles the volume; [HF] should be about cut in half, and is.
3b. To use the dilution equation, VC x MC = VD x MD , set up a data table with
DATA: VC = 21.5 mL KOH (C before mixing)

MC = 0.120 M KOH
VD = 25.0 + 21.5 = 46.5 mL soln. = Total, diluted volume
MD = ? = WANTED
SOLVE: ? MD = VC x MC = 21.5 mL x 0.120 M KOH = 0.00558 M KOH diluted

VD 46.5. mL
Check: 21.5 mL to 46.5 mL about doubles the volume; [KOH] should be about cut in half and is.
Practice B
1. The rice table needs initial concentrations after mixing, but before reacting. Since equal volumes of the
acid and base are combined, the initial mol/L of each is cut in half as they are mixed together.
Reaction 1 HCl 1 NaCN 1 HCN 1 NaCl

Initial 0.0350 M 0.0500 M 0 mol 0 mol
Change ― 0.0350 M ―0.0350 M + 0.0350 M + 0.0350 M
At End/Equilibrium 0M + 0.0150 M + 0.0350 M + 0.0350 M
The solution mixes CN─ and HCN. It is a buffer.

Buffer Chart: WA formula = HCN BC formula = CN─
moles or [WA] = 0.0350 M HCN moles or [BC] = 0.0150 M CN ─
* * * * *
H-H equation: pH ≈ pKa + log ([base] / [acid])
≈ ─log (6.2 x 10―10) + log (0.0150 M /0.0350 M)

≈─ ( ─ 9.20) + log (0.429) ≈ 9.20 ─ 0.37 = 8.83 = pH
Check: Ka = 5.6 x 10─10 , buffer pH estimate 10+2 = 8 -12. Check.

2a. Half way, half of the acid is neutralized, and all products of an SA+SB titration are pH neutral.
[H+] = 1/2 [SA initial]
2b. Between the beginning and end of WA or WB titration by strong opposite, the solution is a buffer.
Half way to the equivalence point, [H+] ≈ Ka
2c. Between the beginning and end of WA or WB titration by strong opposite, the solution is a buffer.
Half way to the equivalence point, you have the same mixture as in the titration of a weak acid by a strong
base: What exists is half weak acid and half its base conjugate. As in part 2c, [H+] ≈ Ka All buffers can
be treated as a weak acid mixed with its base conjugate.
3. WANTED: mL NaOH to neutralize the acetic acid.
In this reaction, one mole of base neutralizes one mole of acid:
1 CH3COOH + 1 NaOH ÆÆ 1 H2O + 1 CH3COONa
Since both acid and base have the same concentration, the moles of acid and base particles will be the
same when their volumes are the same.
mL of 0.200 M NaOH to neutralize this 20.0 mL of 0.200 M acid = 20.0 mL NaOH
3b. pH = pKa half-way to the end point. so pH = pKa at 10.0 mL NaOH added, based on part a.
3c. The Ka conveys that acetic acid is a weak acid.
Reactant M before > reactant M after mixing > rice M > mixture pH steps.
If we solve in mmol (one option), the moles of acid and base before reacting are
? mmol CH3COOH = 20.0 mL CH3COOH • 0.200 mol CH3COOH = 4.00 mmol CH3COOH
1 L CH3COOH soln.
1 L NaOH soln.
Reaction 1 CH3COOH 1 NaOH 1 H2O 1 CH3COONa

Initial 4.00 mmol 3.80 mmol - -
Change ―3.80 mmol ―3.80 mmol + 3.80 mmol + 3.80 mmol
Label the particles at the end as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.

* * * * *
This is a buffer. The pH-not-neutrals are CH3COOH and its conjugate CH3COO─. To find buffer pH,
• for the two “at end” conjugates, fill in a buffer chart, and
* * * * *

Buffer Chart: WA formula = CH3COOH BC formula = CH3COO ─

moles WA = 0.20 mmol CH3COOH moles BC = 3.80 mmol CH3COO ─
≈ ─log (1.8 x 10―5) + log (3.80 mmol /0.20 mmol)
≈ ─(─4.74) + log (19) ≈ 4.74 + 1.28 = 6.02 = pH
Buffer check: Ka = 1.8 x 10―5 , buffer pH estimate 5+2 = 3 -7. Check.
3d. At the endpoint, the acid and base have neutralized each other: their moles are zero. The mixture
contains water and a dissolved salt (CH3COONa ). Recall the rules for pH of salt solutions?
* * * * *
The salt is composed of two ions. If one ion is not pH neutral, find pH based on its reaction as a weak acid
or weak base. CH3COO ─ is the conjugate of the weak acetic acid, and is therefore a weak base.
WRRECK it, and\or solve the Kb approximation.
* * * * *
WANT: pH of CH3COO ─ solution
R+E: specific CH3COO─ + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + CH3COOH (goes slightly)
R+E: general WB + H2O ÅÅ Æ OH─ + acid conjugate (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc. at Eq: │ [WB]mixed─ x ▐ x │ x (rice bottom row)
Solve the Kb approximation for x.
* * * * *
To solve the approximation, you need Kb and [WB]mixed. Find Kb first.
* * * * *
You don’t know Kb, but you know that Ka of acid conjugate = 1.8 x 10―5
Kb = Kw = 1.0 x 10─14 = 1.0 x 10─14 = 0.56 x 10─9 = 5.6 x 10─10 = Kb

Ka Ka 1.8 x 10―5
Now find [WB]mixed .
* * * * *
[WB]mixed = [CH3COO─]at the endpoint . At and after the endpoint,
? = mol salt ion formed = mol of initial weak acid used up = 0.00400 mol CH3COO─
In how much aqueous solution is the salt ion dissolved at the endpoint?
* * * * *

20.0 mL initial acid + 20.0 added of base (see part a) = 40.0 mL total soln.
─ ─
? [CH3COO─] = mol CH3COO = 0.00400 mol CH3COO • 1 mL = 0.100 M CH3COO─
L soln 40.0 total mL soln. 10―3 L
Solve the approximation.
* * * * *
Kb ≈ x2 Substituting: 5.6 x 10─10 ≈ x2
[WB]mixed 0.100 M
x2 = ( 5.6 x 10─10 ) ( 0.100 ) = 5.6 x 10―11 = 56 x 10―12
x ≈ (estimate 7-8 x 10―6) ≈ 7.5 x 10―6 M = [OH─]

Since the approximation was used, do the:
Since the exponent difference is 3 or more, the ionization passes the 5% test, and the approximation
may be used.
But pH was WANTED.
* * * * *
4. WANTED = Ka of HBc
You know the pH. You want Ka . You are titrating a weak acid with a strong base, before the endpoint.
What equation involves these variables and conditions?
* * * * *
Before the endpoint, a titrated weak acid or base produces a buffer solution.
The buffer equation that includes pH and Ka is the Henderson-Hasselbalch, which can be solved in
moles or mol/L. If you choose moles, pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base/mol acid)
To solve for pKa then Ka , you need to find the moles of acid and base at the point where the pH = 5.25
You can solve in moles, but if volumes are given in milliliters, you may want to solve in millimoles.
To find moles of acid and base in the solution at a stated point in a titration, use a rice moles table.
* * * * *
For the balanced equation, you can write either
HBc + KOH Æ H2O + KBc or HBc + OH─ Æ H2O + Bc─
Both give the same results. Find the initial mmol, before the reactants react.
* * * * *
? mmol KOH = 10.0 mL KOH • 0.200 mol KOH = 2.00 mmol KOH = 2.00 mmol OH─
1 L KOH soln.
The millimoles of acid mixed is
? mmol HBc = 20.0 mL HBc • 0.150 mol HBc = 3.00 mmol HBc
1 L HCl soln.

Reaction 1 HBc 1 OH─ 1 H2O 1 Bc─

Change ― 2.00 mmol ―2.00 mmol + 2.00 mmol + 2.00 mmol
Label the end particles at this point as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N.
* * * * *
This is a buffer. The pH-not-neutral components are HBc (WA) and its conjugate Bc─. Solve H-H.
Buffer Chart: WA formula = HBc BC formula = Bc─
moles or [WA] = 1.00 mmol HBc moles or [BC] = 2.00 mmol Bc─
H-H: pH ≈ pKa + log (mol base/mol acid)
You want Ka. Solve for pKa first. From the above equation,
pKa ≈ pH ─ log (mol base/mol acid)
≈ 5.25 ─ log (2.00 mmol /1.00 mmol) ≈ 5.25 ─ log (2.00) ≈
≈ 5.25 ─ 0.30 ≈ 4.95 = pKa
But we WANT Ka . Since pH ≡ ─ log [H+] and [H+] ≡ 10─pH
pKa ≡ ─ log Ka and Ka ≡ 10─pKa Finish from here.
* * * * *
? = Ka ≡ 10─pKa = 10─4.95 = ?? x 10─5 = 1.1 x 10─5 = Ka of HBc
Check: Buffer pH and ─Ka exponent should be + 2. pH is 5.25. Ka estimate = ? x 10―3 to 7 .
Check.
* * * * *
SUMMARY – pH During Neutralization and Titration

1. When an acid and base are reacted, IF one of the components is strong, the reaction
will go until one component, either the acid or the base, is 100% used up.
Another way to express this rule:
At the end of a neutralization reaction, if one of the reactants is strong, the moles of
one of the reactants must be zero.

2. Steps For Finding Mixture pH

b. Label the particles in the mixture as SA, SB, WA, WB, or N, based on Ka or Kb.
c. In pH calculations, ignore pH-neutral (N) particles.
e. If SA or SB is present, ignore other particles. Find pH based on 100% ionization:
[HCl or HNO3] = [H+] and [NaOH or KOH] = [OH─]
f. If a WA or WB and its conjugate is present, solve a buffer chart and the

3. Rice tables must have consistent units. The values that go into the initial row of a rice
table can be moles, or prefix-moles, or mol/L after combining but before reacting.
4. To Calculate pH After Reaction From Amounts Before Reaction
1. Convert the initial amounts of acid and base to moles, or prefix-moles, or mol/L
after combining, but before reacting.
2. Enter those values in the initial row of a rice moles table.
3. In the change row, use the rule: when acid and base are combined, if one or both
are strong, the one reactant is 100% used up.
4. Calculate pH based on the mixture at the end of the reaction (in bottom rice row).
Those four steps can be summarized as:
To find pH after reaction, given amounts of reactants before the reaction,

Reactant M before > reactant M after mixing > rice M > mixture pH steps.
5. To solve calculations for [H+] or pH,

1. Ask: Is the problem about a stable solution at equilibrium, or reactants reacting
that then become a stable solution?
2. If about a stable solution, apply the steps for finding mixture pH.
3. IF about a reaction use the steps for pH after from amounts before combining.
6. The millimoles shortcut for rice moles tables: millimoles = mmol = mL x (mol/L) .
7. When solutions are combined, their volumes add.

8. For reactions, to choose between using stoichiometry steps or the rice moles table:
a. For any calculation involving amounts involved in chemical reactions, if you know
the amount of one reactant that is 100% used up (the limiting reactant), and you
want to know how much of one other reactant will react or one other product will
form, use the stoichiometry steps:
Amounts needed for exact neutralization at the equivalence point can be solved by
stoichiometry IF one or both of the acid-base reactants is strong.
b. For all other types of reaction calculations, a rice moles table (or, for simple reactions,
the abbreviated version of the rice table used in the WRECK steps) is needed to
determine amounts used up, formed, and present in the final mixture at
equilibrium. These cases include:
• IF you know the amounts for two reactants present before the reaction, but you
do not know which is limiting, or
• the reaction does not go essentially to completion, or
• you need the amounts of all of the particles in the mixture after the reaction
stops.
9. Special rules for titration calculations
a. At the equivalence point in any titration,
• the moles of acid added to the reaction mixture are equivalent to (the same
as) the moles base added.
• The acid and base reactants are exactly neutralized: both are 100% used up.
• Since there are no reactants left, there are only products present.
b. If a strong or moderately weak acid or base is titrated by a strong opposite, the
pH changes sharply during the titration, but not until very close to the endpoint.
c. For the titration of any strong acid and strong base, at the endpoint: pH = 7 .
d. Half-way to the endpoint in the titration of a weak acid or base, a buffer solution
exists in which moles WA = moles BC, and [H+] ≈ Ka and pH ≈ pKa.
10. Summary: Strong-Strong vs. Weak Strong Titration
[H+] and pH Determined By

Stage
If Strong By Strong If Weak By Strong
Before start [Strong Acid or Base] [Weak Acid or Base] & K
Between start & endpoint [Strong Acid or Base] Buffer
Half-way to endpoint 1/2 [Initial SA or SB] [H+] ≈ Ka and pH ≈ pKa
At endpoint pH = 7 [Conjugate] and its K
After endpoint [strong titrant] [strong titrant]
# # # # #

Module 35 — Solubility Equilibrium
The former Module 35 on Electrochemistry is now Module 37
The former Module 36 on Batteries is now Module 38
If you are looking for those topics, check those modules
* * * * *
Module 35: Solubility Equilibrium
And
Module 36: Thermodynamics

© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page ii


Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page iii


Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page iv


Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page v


Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page vi


•••••
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page vii


Prerequisites: Before this module, complete Lessons 7B and 7C on ionic compounds,
Lesson 12B on the REC steps, and Lessons 28C, D, and F on equilibrium calculations.
* * * * *
Lesson 35A: Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds

Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last two problems on both problem sets.
If you can do those problems, skip the lesson.
* * * *
Slightly Soluble Salts
When any ionic compound (salt) is mixed with water, it dissolves to at least a slight extent.
In Module 13, our solubility scheme divided ionic compounds into soluble and insoluble,
based on whether 0.10 moles of a compound dissolved per liter of aqueous solution at 25ºC.
For many problems, this general division is all we need to make useful predictions about
chemical behavior.
However, the ionic compounds labeled insoluble in solubility schemes are more accurately
described as slightly soluble. The extent of their solubility, even if it is quite small, can be
important in many chemical processes.
When a salt with low solubility is mixed with water, some formula units leave the surface
and form separated ions that move about freely in the solution. As these ions accumulate,
the reverse reaction occurs as well: dissolved ions return to the solid, combining to form
neutral formula units on the surface of the ionic crystal.
Over time, the rate at which the ions return to the solid becomes equal to the rate at which
they dissolve. Though both reactions continue, there is no net change. As long as some
solid is present and the temperature remains constant, the mixture will remain in this
equilibrium condition.
At equilibrium, the solution above the solid is said to be saturated: the dissolved ion
concentrations are theoretically as high as they can be in an aqueous solution at that
temperature (exceptions occur that we will discuss later).
An example of this equilibrium is the slight solubility of lead chloride. In solubility
schemes, the combination of Pb2+ and Cl─ ions is predicted to be insoluble, but the solid
lead chloride does dissolve slightly in water. This reaction can be represented as
PbCl2(solid) Å Å Æ Pb2+(aqueous) + 2 Cl─(aq) (goes slightly)
With mixing, the reaction reaches equilibrium. Thereafter, as long as the temperature
remains constant, no further net change in the solid-solution mixture takes place.
For reactions that go to equilibrium, an equilibrium constant expression can be written.
Write the K expression for the reaction above, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1m Page 1037

K = [Pb2+] [Cl─]2 = [Pb2+] [Cl─]2 = Ksp

1
As with all equilibrium constants,
• the general form is “product of the concentrations of the products over product of
the concentrations of the reactants.”
• The lowest-whole-number coefficients of the balanced equation become exponents in
the K expression.
• The concentration of a solid is assigned a value of 1 in K expressions because solids
have a constant concentration. The concentrations of the ions are included in the K
expression because ion concentrations in a solution can vary. Terms with values
that can vary are included in K expressions, but terms that are constant are omitted.
• All Ksp expressions have a 1 in the denominator. The 1 is omitted as understood
when writing the Ksp expression.
For the special case of a slightly soluble ionic solid dissolving in water, the following
rules are used.
Ksp Rules
If a problem lists a Ksp, or if the reaction is a salt dissolving slightly in water,

1. The balanced equation is always written with one particle of the ionic solid on the
left and its ions on the right.
2. The K expression for the reaction is termed the solubility product, symbol Ksp.
3. A Ksp expression has ion concentrations to powers multiplied in the numerator, but
no term (a 1) in the denominator.
Applying those rules, solve this problem.

Q. The Ksp value for Co(OH)2 is 2.5 x 10─16. Write the balanced equation for the
reaction that this is a K value for, and then the Ksp expression.
* * * * *
Answer
This reaction is 1 Co(OH)2(s) ÅÅÆ 1 Co2+ + 2 OH─ (goes slightly)

• In Ksp problems, for the separated ions in both the reaction equation and the Ksp
expression, the aqueous (aq) state of the ions can be omitted as understood.
• The low K value means that the reaction goes only slightly: equilibrium
strongly favors the reactants.
• The Ksp expression is: Ksp = [Co2+][OH─]2

Practice A: Do every other problem now and the rest during your next study session.
Check answers at the end of the lesson.
1. Write the Ksp expression for these reactions.
a. HgS(s) ÅÅ Æ Hg2+ + S2─ b. Al2(CO3)3(s) ÅÅ Æ 2 Al3+ + 3 CO32─
2. Write the reaction and Ksp expression for these salts dissolving slightly in water.
a. AgI b. Sr(OH)2 c. Calcium phosphate d. Copper (II) sulfide
3. Label these compounds as soluble or slightly soluble.

a. AgNO3 b. Fe(OH)3 c. Potassium phosphate d. Silver chloride
Ksp Math
Solving calculations that include Ksp values will require taking powers and roots of
exponential notation. This math was covered in Lesson 28B. The following problems
apply those rules to Ksp -type calculations. If you need a rule review, see Lesson 28B.
Practice B: Solve in your problem notebook. Convert final answers to scientific

notation. Try every other problem, and more if you need more practice.
Do not use a calculator on these first four.
1. (104)─3 = 2. (2.0 x 10─5)3 =
3. (27 x 10─6)1/3 = 4. (16 x 10─12)1/4 =

On 5-8,
• first write an estimated answer and convert the estimate to scientific notation;
• then use a calculator as needed get a final answer in scientific notation.
5. The square root of 2.25 x 10―10 = 6. The cube root of 6.4 x 10―8 =
7. (5.1 x 103)2 = 8. (1.6 x 10─15)1/4 =

Solve the following using a calculator as needed.
9. (exact 3)(9.6 x 10―11)1/2 = 10. (exact 9)(8.1 x 10―11)1/4 =
11. (exact 4 )(7.5 x 10―4)3 =

Solve problems 12-16 for x .
12. 4x3 = 5.0 x 10―16 13. (108)x5 = 3.46 x 10―17
14. (2x)2 (0.025) = 4.9 x 10―14 15. (x) (0.20)2 = 4.8 x 10―19
16. (3x)3(2x)2 = 2.62 x 10―36

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. Ksp = [Hg2+][S2─] 1b. Ksp = [Al3+]2 [CO32─]3
2a. AgI(s) ÅÅÆ Ag+(aq) + I─(aq) Ksp = [Ag+] [I─]
b. Sr(OH)2(s) ÅÅÆ Sr2+(aq) + 2 OH─(aq) Ksp = [Sr2+] [OH─]2
c. Ca3(PO4)2(s) ÅÅÆ 3 Ca2+(aq) + 2 PO43─(aq) Ksp = [Ca2+]3[PO43─]2
d. CuS(s) ÅÅÆ Cu2+(aq) + S2─(aq) Ksp = [Cu2+][S2─]

3. Soluble are a. AgNO3 and c. Potassium phosphate; Slightly soluble are b. Fe(OH)3 and d. Silver
chloride. See the solubility scheme in Lesson 13A.
Practice B
1. 10―12 2. 8.0 x 10―15 3. 3.0 x 10―2 4. 2.0 x 10―3 5. 1.50 x 10―5

6. = (16 x 10―16)1/4 = 4.0 x 10―3 7. 2.6 x 107 8. 2.0 x 10―4 9. 2.9 x 10―5
10. 2.7 x 10―2 11. 4 (7.5 x 10―4)3 = 4 (422 x 10―12) = 1690 x 10―12 = 1.7 x 10―9
12. 4x3 = 5.0 x 10―16 ; x3 = 1.25 x 10―16 = 125 x 10―18 ; x = 5.0 x 10―6
13. (108)x5 = 3.46 x 10―17 ; x5 = 3.46/108 x 10―17 = 32.2 x 10―20 ; x = 2.00 x 10―4
14. (2x)2 (0.025) = 4.9 x 10―14 ; 4x2 = 198 x 10―14 ; x2 = 49 x 10―14 ; x = 7.0 x 10―7
15. (x) (0.20)2 = 4.8 x 10―19 ; x(0.040) = 4.8 x 10―19 ; x = 120 x 10―19 = 1.2 x 10―17
16. (27x3)(4x2) = (108)x5 = 2.62 x 10―36; x5 = 0.0243 x 10―36 = 243 x 10―40 ; x = 3.0 x 10―8
* * * * *
Lesson 35B: Ksp Calculations

Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try the last two problems at the end of the
lesson. If you can do those problems, skip the lesson.
* * * *
Ksp Values
For ionic solids that dissolve only slightly in water, the concentration of the ions in the
solution is low at equilibrium. Ksp values will therefore be less than one: positive
numbers with negative exponents when written in scientific notation.
For example, in the reaction of slightly soluble silver chloride dissolving in water,
AgCl(s) Å Å Æ Ag+(aq) + Cl─(aq) (goes slightly)
Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl─] = 1.6 x 10―10 at 25ºC

Ksp values for a sample of slightly soluble ionic compounds are listed in the table below.
As with all equilibrium constants,
• Ksp values have units, but the units are not included Solid Ksp at 25ºC
with Ksp values or used in Ksp calculations.
AgBr 5.0 x 10―13
• If a concentration is calculated based on a Ksp, the
unit mol/L must be added to the concentration. AgI 1.5 x 10―16
• K values are difficult to measure precisely, and Fe(OH)2 1.8 x 10―15
values may vary among textbooks. To match Ba3(PO4)2 5.0 x 10―23
textbook answers, use the Ksp values in that text.
Because a Ksp value varies with temperature, it must have a temperature attached, but by
convention in Ksp problems, temperature is assumed to be 25ºC unless otherwise noted.
Ksp WRECK Steps
To solve Ksp calculations, use the fundamental rule for reactions that go to equilibrium
rather than completion: Write the WRECK steps.
For the following example, write the WRE part of the WRECK steps, and then check your
answer below.
Q. When solid silver sulfate is mixed with water, what is the [Ag+] in the solution at
equilibrium? (Ksp Ag SO = 1.2 x 10―5)
2 4
* * * * *
WANTED: [Ag+]
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2 SO4(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 SO42─ (goes slightly)
Next, to find the Concentrations@equilibrium, we can either use a rice table or write the
bottom row of the rice table by inspection. Let’s try the rice table first.
In Ka calculations, for a weak acid ionizing slightly in water, x was defined as the small
amount of reactant that reacts. For an ionic solid ionizing slightly in water, we define x in
the same way. Since x is reactant used up, the reactant’s x has a negative sign in the
Change row. We also assume that initially the reaction has not started, so there are no
products.
Based on the reaction and rules above, fill in the empty boxes of the following table, then
check your answer below.
Reaction
Initial mol/L solid 0M
Change (+,―) ─xM
At Equilibrium
* * * * *

Reaction 1 Ag2SO4 (s) 2 Ag+ 1 SO42─
Initial mol/L solid 0M 0M

Change (+,―) ─xM + 2x M +xM
At Equilibrium mol/L solid ─ x + 2x M +xM
This table follows the standard rice rules from Lesson 28F for reactions that go to
equilibrium.
• Because coefficients show the ratios in which reactants are used up and products
form, the coefficients in Reaction row 1 must match the numbers in front of the x
terms in rows 3 and 4.
• In the Change row, each reactant term must have the same sign, and each product
term must have the opposite sign.
• The units in the table must be consistent: moles or mol/L. Mol/L can be used as a
unit if all particles are in the same solution, as they are when an ionic solid dissolves
slightly to form an aqueous solution.
Once the bottom row of the rice table is written in terms of x, complete the K step of the
WRECK steps:
• Write the K equation: the expression (with [ ] symbols) and K value (if known).
• Write the exact K equation: substitute the x terms from the bottom rice row into the
K expression.
• Solve the exact K equation to find the unknown value: K or x .
• If needed, use x to solve for the WANTED symbol.
Try those steps based on the rice table above, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
The K expression and value: Ksp = [Ag+]2 [SO 2─] = 1.2 x 10―5
4
The exact K equation: Ksp = ( 2x )2 ( x ) = 1.2 x 10―5
Solve for x: ( 4x2 ) ( x ) = 1.2 x 10―5
4x3 = 1.2 x 10―5
x3 = 0.30 x 10―5 = 3.0 x 10―6
x = 1.44 x 10―2
Solve for the WANTED symbol: [Ag+] = 2x = 2.9 x 10―2 M

Significant figures: Since coefficients are exact, for terms such as ( 2x )2 above in which the
numbers are based on coefficients, those numbers are exact. Numbers based on coefficients
do not limit the significant figures in an answer.
* * * * *

The Solubility: Small x

For the reaction of a slightly soluble ionic solid dissolving in water, x is defined as the
solubility: the small number of moles per liter that leave the solid.
For a slightly soluble ionic solid dissolving in water: the solid’s solubility = small x
Since solubility is the moles of solid that dissolve per liter, the unit of solubility is mol/L,
and the unit mol/L (or its abbreviation M) must be added when solubilities are calculated
using K equations.
In rice tables, the key definition is x. The rule is
In Ksp calculations, when writing rice tables or WRECK steps,

• Let ─ x represent the small mol/L of the reactant used up in the reaction.
• At equilibrium, let [solid]eq. = mol/L solid ─ x
• Define the product concentrations using positive x terms.
The term mol/L solid can mean either the moles of solid added per liter of solution, or it can
mean the density of the solid, measured in mol/L. The values will differ, and which value
applies depends on the question being asked. However, in Ksp calculations, the value does
not matter, because the value for mol/L solid is not included in Ksp equations.
Note that the solubility is not the same as the solubility product.
Solubility of an ionic solid = small x in mol/L units.

Solubility product = Ksp = [ions] multiplied, with no denominator and no units.
Writing [Ions]eq. By Inspection
Compared to general K calculations, Ksp calculations are simplified because an ionic solid
formula is always on the reactant side of the balanced equation, and its coefficient is always
one. On the right side are always its separated ions.
Because reactions with a Ksp have this simple and consistent form, at the C step of the
WRECK steps, we can write the bottom rice row by inspection, rather than by writing a
complete rice table. This is the same method that we used in Ka and Kb problems.
To simplify Ksp calculations: write the first term in the C row of the WRECK steps, which is
the same as the first term in the bottom row of the rice table, as mol/L solid ─ x (see the
rice table above).
Using that rule, complete the REC steps for this ionic solid dissolving slightly in water.
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Fe(OH)3(s) ÅÅÆ
^
Conc@eq.: ▐
* * * * *

Rxn. & Extent: 1 Fe(OH)3(s) Å Å Æ 1 Fe3+ + 3 OH─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ +x │ + 3x
Try one more.
Q. Write the REC steps for the slight ionization of silver phosphate.
* * * * *
Tip: To determine the solid formula when given a name, it helps to write and balance the
separated ions on the products side first.
* * * * *
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Å Å Æ 3 Ag+ + 1 PO43─ (goes slightly)
Complete the REC steps by inspection.

* * * * *
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag3PO4(s) Å Å Æ 3 Ag+ + 1 PO43─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x 3x x
As was done above based on the rice table, a value of x can be solved by substituting the x
terms into the Ksp equation.
Try this example. Write the complete WRECK steps. Write the C-step terms by inspection
as done in the two REC step problems above. Find the value for x .
Q. What is the solubility of strontium chromate (Ksp = 3.6 x 10―5).

* * * * *
WANTED: ? = Solubility = small x in mol/L
* * * * *
Rxn. & Extent: _________________ Å Å Æ Sr2+ + CrO42─ (goes slightly)
* * * * *
Rxn. & Extent: 1 SrCrO4(s) Å Å Æ 1 Sr2+ + 1 CrO42─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ x │ x
If needed, finish the calculation.
* * * * *
At the K step:
• Write the K equation: the K expression and K value.
• Write the exact K equation, substituting the x terms above into the K expression.
• Solve the exact K equation to find the unknown value.
• Solve for the symbol WANTED.
* * * * *

Ksp = [Sr2+] [CrO 2─] = (x)(x) = x2 = 3.6 x 10―5 = 36 x 10―6

4
WANTED = x = 6.0 x 10―3 M = solubility = mol/L of SrCrO4 that dissolves
Summary
Nearly all K calculations are solved the same way.
1. Write the WRECK steps.
2. Find the Concentrations at equilibrium, usually in terms of x, either using a rice table
or by inspection.
3. Solve the K equation, then solve for the WANTED symbol.
Ksp is the special K for a slightly soluble salt dissolving in water.
1. In Ksp WRECK steps, write a balanced equation with one particle of the ionic solid
on the left, its aqueous separated ions on the right, and (goes slightly).
2. Ksp = solubility product. A Ksp expression is written with [ions] multiplied in the
numerator, but no term in the denominator.
3. For slightly soluble salts, x is the solubility: the small moles per liter that dissolve
from the solid. At equilibrium, [solid]eq. = mol/L solid ─ x
4. Solubility of an ionic solid = small x . Add units of moles/liter.

Solubility product = Ksp = [ions] multiplied, with no denominator and no units.
Practice: Do every other problem today, then the rest over the next few days.
1. For each of these slightly soluble salts dissolving in water, write the Reaction, its Extent,
the Concentrations at equilibrium in terms of x, the Ksp expression in symbols, and the
exact Ksp equation in terms including x . Then combine and simplify the x terms in the
exact equation.
a. CaF2 b. BaSO4 c. Pb3(PO4)2
2. If the solubility of PbI2 is 1.5 x 10―3 at 25ºC, what is its Ksp?
3. Find [Ca2+] in a mixture of water and Ca3(PO4)2 (Ksp = 1.3 x 10―32) at equilibrium.
4. The Ksp of MgCO3 is 6.8 x 10―6.

a. Find the solubility of MgCO3 . b. Convert the solubility to nanomoles/mL .
5. Which has higher solubility: AgCl (Ksp = 1.6 x 10―10) or Ag2CO3 (Ksp = 8.1 x 10―12)?

ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. Rxn. & Extent: 1 CaF2(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ca2+ + 2 F─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ x │ 2x
Ksp = [Ca2+] [F─]2 = (x)(2x)2 = 4x3
1b. Rxn. & Extent: 1 BaSO4(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ba2+ + 1 SO42─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ba2+] [SO 2─] = x2
4
1c. Rxn. & Extent: 1 Pb3(PO4)2(s) Å Å Æ 3 Pb2+ + 2 PO43─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ 3x │ 2x
Ksp = [Pb2+]3[PO 3─]2 = (3x)3(2x)2 = (27x3)(4x2) = (108)x5
4
2. In calculations for reactions that go to equilibrium, write the WRECK steps.
WANTED: Ksp
Rxn. & Extent: 1 PbI2(s) Å Å Æ 1 Pb2+ + 2 I─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x x 2x
Ksp = [Pb2+] [I─]2 = (x)(2x)2 = 4x3
DATA: 1.5 x 10―3 M = solubility = x

Ksp = 4x3 = 4 (1.5 x 10―3)3 = 4 (3.38 x 10―9) = 14 x 10―9 = 1.4 x 10―8 = Ksp

WANTED: [Ca2+]
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s) Å Å Æ 3 Ca2+ + 2 PO43─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x 3x 2x
Ksp = [Ca2+]3[PO 3─]2 = (3x)3(2x)2 = (27x3)(4x2) = (108)x5
4
(108)x5 = 1.3 x 10―32 ; x5 = 0.0120 x 10―32 ; x5 = 12 x 10―35
x = 1.64 x 10―7 ; [Ca2+] = 3x = 4.9 x 10―7 M = [Ca2+]

4a. In calculations for reactions that go to equilibrium, write the WRECK steps.
WANTED: solubility = x in mol/L
Rxn. & Extent: 1 MgCO3(s) Å Å Æ 1 Mg2+ + 1 CO32─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Mg2+] [CO 2─] = (x)(x) = x2 = 6.8 x 10―6
3
x = 2.6 x 10―3 M = solubility

The units of solubility, moles that dissolve per liter, must be added to the answer.
4b. ? nanomoles = 2.6 x 10―3 mol • 10―3 L • 1 nanomole = 2.6 x 103 nmol
mL L 1 mL 10―9 mol mL
5. AgCl has the higher solubility product ( Ksp ), but that may not mean it has the higher solubility (x).
Solve for the solubility of each compound.
a. WANTED: solubility AgCl = x
Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgCl (s) Å Å Æ 1 Ag+ + 1 Cl─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl─] = (x)(x) = x2 = 1.6 x 10―10
x = 1.3 x 10―5 M = solubility AgCl

b. WANTED: solubility Ag2CO3 = x
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2CO3(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 CO32─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ 2x │ x
K equation: Ksp = [Ag+]2 [CO 2─] = 8.1 x 10―12
3
Exact K in terms of x : Ksp = ( 2x )2 ( x ) = 8.1 x 10―12
Solving for x: ( 4x2 ) ( x ) = 8.1 x 10―12

4x3 = 8.1 x 10―12
x3 = 2.02 x 10―12
x = 1.3 x 10―4 M = solubility Ag2CO3

The Ag2CO3, though it has a lower solubility product than AgCl, has the higher solubility.
* * * * *

Lesson 35C: Common Ions and Solubility

Prerequisites: If needed, review Lesson 28A on Le Châtelier’s Principle.
* * * * *
Adding Solid
When a mixture of a solid salt and its dissolved ions is at equilibrium, the solution is
saturated: the ion concentration is as high as theoretically possible. What happens to the
[ions] in the solution if more of the same ionic solid is added to this solution?
The amount of the solid on the bottom of the solution increases, but the [ions] in the
solution is already at its maximum when the solution is at equilibrium, so the [ions] does
not shift. Changing the amount of the solid does not change the concentration of the solid
(determined by its density), and does not shift the equilibrium.
Adding A Common Ion
In the laboratory, for mixtures of water and slightly soluble solids, we often want to cause
ions that are dissolved in the solution to return to the solid. One way to cause a dissolved
ion of interest to return to its solid is to add a soluble salt that contains the other ion in the
ionic compound. Since that other ion that is the same in both the slightly soluble and the
added soluble salt, it is a common ion.
For example, in a mixture of solid silver bromide (AgBr) and water at equilibrium,
some silver ion is dissolved in the solution above the solid. The equation for the
solubility equilibrium is
1 AgBr(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ag+ + 1 Br─ (goes slightly: Ksp = 5.0 x 10―13)

If solid sodium bromide (NaBr) is added to the mixture of AgBr and water, it will
dissolve ~100% and separate ~100% into Na+ and Br─ ions.
1 NaBr(s) ÆÆ 1 Na+ + 1 Br─ (goes ~100%)

For AgBr and NaBr, Br─ is a common ion. Adding a substantial amount of NaBr
substantially increases the [Br─] in the solution. Using Le Châtelier’s Principle
(Lesson 28A), write answers to the following questions.
1. As Br─ ions from NaBr are added to the solution, in which direction will the
AgBr solubility equilibrium shift: left or right?
2. Will the [Ag+] ions dissolved in the solution increase or decrease?
3. How will this shift change the amount of AgBr solid in the bottom of the
beaker?
4. How will this shift change the concentration of AgBr solid?
* * * * *

Answers
According to Le Châtelier’s Principle, if the concentration of a component that appears on
one side of an equilibrium equation is increased, the equilibrium shifts toward the opposite
side of the equation.
In this case, adding Br─ ions shifts the AgBr equilibrium to the left, decreasing the [Ag+] in
solution. For the [Ag+] to go down, silver ions must combine with Br─ ions and return to
the surface of the solid, so the amount of solid AgBr goes up. However, the concentration of
a solid is constant and is not changed by shifts in equilibrium.
In a solubility equilibrium, if a common ion is added:

the common ion shifts the non-common ion of the slightly soluble salt out of the solution
and into the solid.
Practice A
1. Which of these compounds would you add to a mixture of solid AgI and water at
equilibrium to reduce the [Ag+] in the solution?
a. AgBr b. KI c. AgI d. AgNO3 e. NaI
2. Which of these compounds, when added to a solution of solid AgI at equilibrium with
its dissolved ions, will reduce the [I─] in the solution?
a. AgBr b. KI c. AgI d. AgNO3 e. NaI
Common Ion Ksp Calculations

To take advantage of the common ion effect to shift a solubility equilibrium, the [common
ion] must be relatively high. A soluble salt that contains the common ion is required to
create this high [common ion].
When a common ion is added to an equilibrium solution of a slightly soluble solid and its
ions,
• Le Châtelier’s Principle predicts the direction that the equilibrium will shift.
• Ksp values can calculate how much the equilibrium will shift.
To solve Ksp calculations with common ion added, apply these rules:
• If you see a Ksp value for a substance, write the WRECK steps for its slight
ionization.
• If a problem involves [ions] of two compounds, write the REC steps for both.
Common ion Ksp problems have two compounds, one with a K that calls for WRECK
steps, the other a soluble ionic compound that calls for REC steps. Begin by writing the
WANTED unit, and then the REC steps for each compound.

Fill in the blanks in the following table of the reactions that occur in this mixture with a
common ion, then check your answers below.
Q. To a mixture of Ba3(PO4)2 (Ksp = 5.0 x 10―23) and water at equilibrium, 0.25 mol
per liter of solid K3PO4 is added. Once the new equilibrium is established, what
will be the solubility of the Ba3(PO4)2?
WANTED: _____________
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ba3(PO4)2(s) Å Å Æ 3 Ba2+ + 2 PO43─ (goes ____________)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ ____ │ _____
Rxn. & Extent: 1 K3PO4(s) ÆÆ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─ (goes _________)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.25 M 0M ▐ ______ │ ______
__ __
Ksp = [ ______ ] [ ______ ] = 5.0 x 10―23
[Ba2+] = ______ M
[PO43─] = ____________________ M (exact) ≈ ___________ M (approximate)
* * * * *
Answer
Since barium phosphate has a small Ksp value, it is slightly soluble. From our solubility
scheme (Lesson 13A), we know that potassium compounds are water soluble. We also
know that compounds with metal atoms, including potassium, in an aqueous solution
will separate ~100% into ions. If needed, adjust your work and complete the table.
* * * * *
WANTED: solubility Ba3(PO4)2 = x in mol/L
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ba3(PO4)2(s) Å Å Æ 3 Ba2+ + 2 PO43─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: mol/L solid ─ x ▐ 3x │ 2x
Rxn. & Extent: 1 K3PO4(s) ÆÆ 3 K+ + 1 PO43─ (goes ~100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.25 M 0 M ▐ 0.75 M │ 0.25 M
Ksp = [Ba2+]3[PO43─]2 = 5.0 x 10―23
[Ba2+] = 3x
[PO43─] = 0.25 M + 2x (exact) ≈ 0.25 M (approximate)
For problems with two or more reactions and/or lots of numbers, writing a DATA table
below the equation, with each equation symbol and its DATA, is a good idea.

The common ion is supplied to the solution by both ionic compounds, but the largest
contribution is due to the soluble salt.
For the [common ion], use the approximation rule: a small number added or subtracted
from a large number does not substantially change the large number (see Lesson 30B).
This rule applies to a small x and 2x and 3x.
The steps for solving K equations are

• Solve the K equation using the approximation.
• Apply the 5% test to see if the approximation can be used.
• Then solve for the WANTED symbol.
Find the Ba3(PO4)2 solubility in this solution that has common ion added.
* * * * *
Ksp = [Ba2+]3 [PO43─]2 = 5.0 x 10―23
Ksp = (3x)3 (0.25 M + 2x) ≈ (3x)3 (0.25) = 5.0 x 10―23

^ Exact Âpproximate
We could solve the exact equation for x using the quadratic formula, but the approximation
solves more quickly. Solve for x using the approximation first.
* * * * *
(3x)3 (0.25) = 5.0 x 10―23
27x3 = 20. x 10―23
x3 = 0.741 x 10―23 = 7.41 x 10―24
x= 1.9 x 10―8 M = solubility Ba3(PO4)2
When solving Kc, Ka, Kb, or Ksp calculations for concentration or solubility, always add
mol/L (M) as the unit of the answer.
The value for solubility above is based on an approximation. K values have relatively high
uncertainty, and as with Ka calculations, a 5% error in calculations is usually within the
range of experimental error.
In a common ion calculation, error is introduced by ignoring the x term in the exact
[common ion] at equilibrium, and this error can be measured by
% Ksp Common Ion Error = 5% test ≈ x or 2x or 3x ● 100%

[common ion]mixed
By using this equation, we can also use a quick test as the 5% test.
If the difference between the exponents of the [common ion] and the x term in the exact
[common ion], with both written in scientific notation, is 3 or greater, the 5% test is
passed, and the approximation may be used.

In this problem,
• [common ion]exact = 0.25 + 2x
• [common ion] = 0.25 M = 2.5 x 10―1 M and 2x = 3.8 x 10―9 M

so the exponent difference is 8, the ionization is much smaller than 5%, and the
approximation is acceptable.
Summary: Adding a Common Ion to A Solubility Equilibrium

Rule: In a mixture of a slightly soluble ionic solid and its dissolved ions, to reduce the
solution concentration of one ion, add a soluble salt that contains the other ion in
the solid.
To solve a Ksp calculation with common-ion added,
• As in all K calculations, write the WRECK steps.
• Write REC steps for the ionization of both the slightly soluble and highly soluble
salt.
• Write a DATA TABLE under the Ksp equation. Include the exact and approximate
[common ion].
• Solve the Ksp equation first using the approximate [common ion] first, then do the
5% test.
Practice B: Do half now. Save a few for your next two study sessions.
1. Change the equation to an approximation, then solve for x .
a. (x) (0.50 + 2x) = 2.0 x 10―12
b. (2x)2 (0.25 + 3x) = 6.4 x 10―7

2. Into a 0.025 M Na2CrO4 solution, solid Ag2CrO4 (Ksp = 9.0 x 10―12) is added. At
equilibrium after mixing, some solid remains. Find the [Ag+] in the solution.
3. Solid AgBr (Ksp = 5.0 x 10―13) is added to a 0.30 M AgNO3 solution. After equilibrium
is reached between the solid and its ions, what is the [Br─] in the solution?
4. What is the solubility of PbI2 (Ksp = 1.4 x 10―8) in a 0.20 M KI solution?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. In the solution above a slightly soluble ionic solid, to reduce the equilibrium concentration of one ion, add a
soluble salt that contains the other ion. Above solid AgI, to reduce [Ag+], increase the [I─] substantially.
The two compounds that ionize ~100% to form I─ are (b) KI and (e) NaI .

2. Above solid AgI, to reduce [I─], increase the [Ag+] substantially. The one compound that ionizes ~100%
to form Ag+ is (d) AgNO3 .
Practice B
1a. (x) (0.50 + 2x) = 2.0 x 10―12 To approximate, x or 2x or 3x can be dropped if x is added or
subtracted from a much larger number.
(x) (0.50) = 2.0 x 10―12 ; x = 2.0/0.50 x 10―12 = 4.0 x 10―12 = x
1b. (2x)2 (0.25 + 3x) = 6.4 x 10―7
( 4x2 )( 0.25 ) = 6.4 x 10―7 ; (x2 )( 4 x 0.25 ) = 6.4 x 10―7
x2 = 6.4 x 10―7 = 64 x 10―8 ; x = 8.0 x 10―4
2. All Na compounds ionize ~100% in water. The small Ksp means that Ag2CrO4 is only slightly soluble.
Solve K calculations using the WRECK steps. If two compounds are involved, write REC steps for both.
Wanted: [Ag+]
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2CrO4(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 CrO42─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Na2CrO4(s) ÆÆ 2 Na+ + 1 CrO42─ (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.025 M 0 M ▐ 0.050 M │ 0.025 M
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [CrO42─] = 9.0 x 10―12 Make a DATA TABLE with the equation symbols.
[Ag+] = 2x
[CrO42─] = 0.025 M + x (exact) ≈ 0.025 M (approximate)
Solve the K equation using the approximation first.
Ksp = (2x)2 (0.025 M) = 9.0 x 10―12
4x2 = 360 x 10―12

x2 = 90 x 10―12
x = 9.5 x 10―6
? = [Ag+] = 2x = 1.9 x 10―5 M
Since (x/0.25)(100%) = (9.5/0.25) x 10―6 x 102% = 3.8 x 10―3% is <5% , the approximation is acceptable.
3. All nitrate compounds ionize ~100% in water. The small Ksp means that AgBr is only slightly soluble.
Wanted: [Br─]

Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgBr(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ag+ + 1 Br─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgNO3 (s) ÆÆ 1 Ag+ + 1 NO3─ (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.30 M 0 M ▐ 0.30 M │ 0.30 M
Ksp = [ Ag+ ][ Br ─ ] = 5.0 x 10―13
[Ag+] = 0.30 M + x ≈ 0.30 M
[Br─] = x
Solve the K equation using the approximate value first.
Ksp = 5.0 x 10―13 ≈ (x)(0.30)
x = 16.7 x 10―13 = 1.7 x 10―12 M = [Br ─]
The difference between [common ion] = 3.0 x 10―1 and x = ~10―12 is 11 which is greater than 3, so
the approximation is acceptable.
4. All potassium compounds ionize ~100% in water. The small Ksp means that PbI2 is only slightly soluble.
Wanted: solubility of PbI2 = small = x
^ ^ ^
Rxn. & Extent: 1 KI(s) ÆÆ 1 K+ + 1 I─ (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.20 M 0 M ▐ 0.20 M │ 0.20 M
Ksp = [Pb2+] [I─]2 = 1.4 x 10―8 Make a DATA TABLE with the equation symbols.
[Pb2+] = x
[I─] = 0.20 M + 2x (exact) ≈ 0.20 M (approximate)
When x is small compared to the larger number, x or 2x or 3x added or subtracted may be omitted to
obtain the approximation that simplifies calculations.
Solve the K equation using the approximation first.
Ksp = (x) (0.20)2 = 1.4 x 10―8
x(0.040) = 1.4 x 10―8
x = 35 x 10―8
? = x = solubility = 3.5 x 10―7 M
The difference between [common ion] = 2.0 x 10―1 and x = ~10―7 is 6 which is greater than 3, so the
approximation passes the 5% test.
* * * * *

Lesson 35D: pH and Solubility

Adding Acid to Solutions of Slightly Soluble Salts
Some ions found in slightly soluble salts do not react as acids and bases. These ions include
• Cl─, Br─, and I─.
Those three ions are conjugates of the strong acids HCl, HBr, and HI. Conjugates of strong
acids are such weak bases that they are essentially pH neutral.
Other ions found in slightly soluble salts can act as acids and bases. Most of these ions are
basic. The basic ions include
• OH─, F─, S2─, CO 2─, and PO 3─.
3 4
Adding acid to an equilibrium that includes a base will shift the equilibrium. The acid
will use up basic particles and reduce the [base]. This reduction in the [base] will shift
the equilibrium as predicted by Le Châtelier’s Principle.
Based on the above, write answers to this problem, then check your answers below.
Q. Solid CaCO3 is slightly soluble in water.
1 CaCO3 (s) Å Å Æ 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32─ (goes slightly)
If a strong acid is added to the above system at equilibrium, what will happen to the
a. [CO32─] in the solution?
b. [Ca2+] in the solution?

c. The amount of solid CaCO3 in the mixture?
* * * * *
Answer
a. Carbonate ions are bases (see Lesson 14E), and bases react with strong acids.
Adding acid will therefore use up CO32─ in the solution and cause the [CO32─] to
decrease.
b. If the concentration of a component that appears on one side of an equilibrium

equation is decreased, the equilibrium shifts toward that side of the equation. Since
adding acid decreases the [CO32─], the equilibrium above shifts to the right,
causing the [Ca2+] to increase.
c. Shifting the equilibrium to the right, the only way that the [Ca2+] can increase is for
more solid CaCO3 to dissolve.

Practice A
1. For mixtures of water and these slightly soluble salts, which will have its solubility
equilibrium shifted by the addition of a strong acid to the solution?
a. CaCl2 b. CaF2 c. AgI d. Ag2CO3 e. Ba3(PO4)2
2. To a mixture of water and solid Sr3(PO4)2 at equilibrium, strong acid is added. What
will be the change in the
a. [PO43─] in the solution? b. [Sr2+] in the solution?
pH and Slightly Soluble Hydroxides

For slightly soluble salts that contain hydroxide ions, calculations can solve for unknown
quantities including salt solubility, cation concentrations, solution pH, and the Ksp of the
salt.
Using the rules for pH and Ksp, try this calculation. If you get stuck, read the answer until
unstuck, then complete the problem.
Q. In a mixture of solid Mg(OH)2 (Ksp = 1.5 x 10―11) and water at equilibrium,
a. [OH―] = ? b. pH = ?
c. Will adding strong acid increase or decrease the [Mg2+] in the solution?
d. What will be the [Mg2+] if acid is added to adjust the pH to 10.0?

(Try this step without a calculator.)
* * * * *
Answer
a. In calculations for reactions that go to equilibrium, write the WRECK steps.
WANTED: [OH―]
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Mg(OH)2(s) ÅÅÆ 1 Mg2+ + 2 OH─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Mg2+] [OH─]2 = 1.5 x 10―11
[Mg2+] = x [OH─] = 2x
Ksp = (x) (2x)2 = 4x3 = 1.5 x 10―11
x3 = 0.375 x 10―11 = 3.75 x 10―12
x = 1.55 x 10―4
? = [OH─] = 2x = 3.1 x 10―4 M = [OH―]

b. WANTED = pH Know [OH─] from part a.
Write: pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH and pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] = ─ log (3.1 x 10―4) = 3.51; pH = 14.00 ─ 3.51 = 10.49 = pH
c. For the reaction: 1 Mg(OH)2(s) ÅÅÆ 1 Mg2+ + 2 OH─ (goes slightly)

adding acid uses up OH─, shifting the equilibrium to the right, increasing the [Mg2+].
d. WANTED: [Mg2+]
WRECK steps – see above.
DATA: pH = 10.0, so pOH = 4.0 and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH = 10―4.0 = 1.0 x 10―4 M
Ksp = [Mg2+] [OH─]2 = 1.5 x 10―11
[Mg2+] = ? [OH─] = 1.0 x 10―4 M
Ksp = [Mg2+] (1.0 x 10―4)2 = 1.5 x 10―11
[Mg2+] (1.0 x 10―8) = 1.5 x 10―11
[Mg2+] = 1.5 x 10―11 = 1.5 x 10―3 M

1.0 x 10―8
Practice B
1. In a mixture of solid AgOH (Ksp = 2.0 x 10―8) and water,
a. [Ag+] = ? b. [OH―] = ? c. pH = ?
d. If a strong acid is added to the solution, will the [Ag+] increase or decrease?
e. What will be the [Ag+] if acid is added to adjust the pH to 9.5?
f. Compare answers to parts a and e. Was your prediction in answer d correct?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. CaCl2 contains Cl─ ion which is not basic, so acid will not shift the solubility equilibrium.
1b. CaF2 forms F─ ion which is basic and will react with acids, so acid will shift the equilibrium.
1c. AgI in solution forms I─ ion which is not basic, so acid will not shift the solubility equilibrium.
1d. Ag CO contains CO 2─, and 1e. Ba (PO ) contains PO 3─. Both of those ions are basic and will
2 3 3 3 42 4
react with acids, so acid will shift their solubility equilibrium.

2. In water, the initial solubility reaction is

1 Sr3(PO4)2(s) Å Å Æ 3 Sr 2+ + 2 PO43─ (goes slightly)
PO43─ is a basic ion and will be used up when combined with acids, so the [PO43─] will decrease.
The decrease of [PO43─] on the right side shifts the equilibrium to the right, increasing the [Sr 2+]
dissolved in the solution.
Practice B
1a,b. In calculations for reactions that go to equilibrium, write the WRECK steps.
WANTED: [Ag+]
Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgOH(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ag+ + 1 OH─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+] [OH─] = 2.0 x 10―8
Equation DATA table: [Ag+] = x = [OH─]
Ksp = (x) (x) = x2 = 2.0 x 10―8
x = 1.4 x 10―4 M = [Ag+] = [OH─] = part b answer
1c. WANTED = pH Know [OH─]
Write: pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH and pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH ≡ ─ log[OH─] = ─ log (1.4 x 10―4) = 3.85 ; pH = 14.00 ─ 3.85 = 10.15 = pH

1d. Since AgOH has a very small Ksp, it is slightly soluble in water. The solubility reaction is:
AgOH(s) Å Å Æ 1 Ag+ + 1 OH─ (goes slightly)
Adding acid causes [OH─] to decrease. According to Le Châtelier’s Principle, if the concentration of a
component that appears on one side of an equilibrium equation is decreased, the equilibrium shifts
toward that side of the equation.
Adding acid therefore shifts the equilibrium above to the right and causes the [Ag+] to increase.
1e. WANTED: [Ag+]
WRECK steps – see above.
DATA: pH = 9.5, so pOH = 4.5 and [OH─] ≡ 10─pOH = 10―4.5 = 3.16 x 10―5 M = [OH─]
Ksp = [Ag+] [OH─] = 2.0 x 10―8
[Ag+] = ? [OH─] = 3.16 x 10―5 M
Ksp = [Ag+] (3.16 x 10―5) = 2.0 x 10―8
[Ag+] = 2.0 x 10―8 = 0.633 x 10―3 = 6.3 x 10─4 M = [Ag+]
3.16 x 10―5

1f. Without added acid, [Ag+] = 1.4 x 10―4 M . After adding acid to lower the pH from 10.15 to 9.5,
[Ag+] = 6.3 x 10―4 M . The [Ag+] increased with added acid, as predicted.
* * * * *
Lesson 35E: Quantitative Precipitation Prediction

In Module 13, we learned a simplified scheme to predict whether precipitation will take
place when two solutions are combined. Our predictions were based on an arbitrary but
convenient division: if a possible product has a solubility of less than 0.1 mol/L in water, it
is termed insoluble and will precipitate. These general rules allowed us to make accurate
precipitation predictions in cases when solutions with concentrations at or near 0.2 M are
combined.
In this lesson, our goal is to predict whether precipitation will occur when solutions that
have a wide range of concentrations are combined.
Precipitation Prediction
By definition, when solutions of dissolved ions are combined, precipitation occurs if a
precipitate both forms and persists after stirring.
When two solutions of ions are combined, to determine whether a precipitation occurs, use
these steps.
1. Since solubility predictions involve a K (the Ksp), write the WRECK steps. Include the
Ksp equations for precipitate(s) that are predicted based on solubility schemes (see
Lesson 13C).
2. Find Q: substitute into the Ksp expression the ion concentrations in solution after the
solutions are combined, but before the ions react, then calculate a value for Q.
3. If Q > Ksp, the precipitate forms and persists after stirring.
If Q < Ksp, persistent precipitate will not form.
When Q = Ksp, the precipitate begins to persist after stirring.
These rules rely on the reaction quotient (Q) defined in Lesson 28H : Q is the number
obtained by substituting into the K expression the concentrations in a mixture that may not
be at equilibrium.
Apply those three steps to the following problem, then check your answer below.
Q. If 1.0 x 10―3 moles of Ag+ ions are combined with 1.0 x 10―5 moles of Cl― ions in 1.0
liters of solution, will AgCl (Ksp = 1.6 x 10―10) precipitate?
* * * * *

Answer
For K calculations, write the WRECK steps. If the reaction has a Ksp, that reaction is always
one formula unit of an ionic solid dissolving slightly in water to form separated ions.
To predict precipitation, compare Q for the mixture to Ksp for the precipitate.
WANTED: Q
Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgCl (s) ÅÅÆ 1 Ag+ + 1 Cl─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl─] = 1.6 x 10―10
Q = ( [Ag+]after combining, before reacting )( [Cl─]after combining, before reacting )
[Ag+] = 1.0 x 10―3 moles/liter

[Cl─] = 1.0 x 10―5 moles/liter
Q = (1.0 x 10―3) (1.0 x 10―5) = 1.0 x 10―8
In calculations involving Q, as with K, the numbers have units but by convention the units
are omitted from Q values and during Q calculations.
Since Q = 1.0 x 10―8 is greater than Ksp = 1.6 x 10―10, AgCl precipitate persists.
* * * * *
Predicting the Point When Precipitation Begins
Comparing Q to Ksp can predict both weather a precipitate will form and the point at which
precipitate will form, when solutions is combined.
Apply the 3 steps for precipitation prediction to the following problem. If you get stuck,
read a little of the answer, adjust your work, and then complete the problem.
Q. Solid sodium sulfate is slowly stirred into a solution of 0.020 moles of Ag+ dissolved
in 1.0 liters of solution. At what [SO42─] will Ag2SO4 precipitate form?
(Ksp Ag2SO4 = 1.2 x 10―5)
* * * * *
Answer
In this problem, it is helpful to write the sodium sulfate reaction. Sodium compounds
dissolve and ionize ~100% in water. Given a name rather than a formula for a salt, write
first the separated ions, then the solid formula (for review, see Lesson 7C).
1 Na2SO4(s) ÆÆ 2 Na+ + 1 SO42─ (goes ~100%)

By adding solid sodium sulfate that then dissolves, we do not cause a substantial change in
the volume of the solution.

For K calculations, begin by writing the WRECK steps. Then, to find the point at which
precipitation persists after stirring, apply the
Rule: Precipitate forms and persists when the substance being added reaches the
concentration at which Q = Ksp .
WANTED: [SO42─] when Q = Ksp
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2SO4(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 SO42─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [SO 2─] = 1.2 x 10―5 = Q at start of precipitation
4
[Ag ] = 0.020 mol/L = 2.0 x 10―2 M ;
+
[SO42─] = ? = 1.2 x 10―5 = 1.2 x 10―5 = 1.2 x 10―5 = 3.0 x 10―2 M

[Ag+]2 (2.0 x 10―2)2 4.0 x 10―4
Summary: To predict whether combining ions will produce a precipitate,

1. Since Ksp is involved, write the WRECK steps for the possible precipitate.
2. Calculate Q, using [ions] after combining, but before reacting.
3. Compare Q to Ksp. If Q is equal or larger, precipitation is predicted.
Practice A: Problem 2 is more challenging.

1. How many moles of solid AgNO3 must be mixed into a 1.0 liter solution containing
0.200 moles of Na2CrO4 before precipitate forms? (Ksp Ag2CrO4 = 9.0 x 10―12)
2. How many grams of solid NaI must be mixed into a 1.0 liter solution containing 0.040
moles of Pb(NO3)2 before persistent solid forms? (Ksp PbI2 = 1.4 x 10―8)
Solution Concentrations After Combining

In the problems above, the data lists moles of substances, plus the volume of the final
solution after the substances are combined but before they react. Given such data, the
concentrations needed to find Q values are easily calculated.
However, in predicting precipitation, most problems supply the concentrations and
volumes of the two solutions before they are combined. Combining solutions changes the
ion concentrations. To solve such calculations, the rules are:
1. For solution reactions, in Q and K and rice calculations, mol/L must be

concentrations after solutions are combined, but before they react.

To find concentrations after combining, we will need rule
2. When solutions of different dissolved substances are combined, each substance is

diluted.
To find those diluted concentrations, the rule is:
3. When solutions are combined, volumes add.
For all but highly concentrated solutions, we can safely assume that 30.0 mL of one aqueous
solution added to 20.0 mL of another will result in a volume of 50.0 mL, even if water is a
product or reactant of a reaction that occurs when the solutions are combined.
Calculating the diluted concentrations can be done in several ways (see Lesson 12B). Two
methods are 1) solve by inspection and 2) use the dilution equation.
1. If the solutions that are combined have simple volume ratios, the molarity of the
substances or ions after combining can often be written by inspection.
The easiest case: for two solutions that contain different substances and ions, if equal
volumes of the two solutions are combined, the concentration of each substance or ion
in the combined solution is one-half its concentration before they were combined.
Try this example: If 50.0 mL of 0.60 M Ag+ is mixed with 50 mL of 0.20 M Cl―,
[Ag+]after combining, before reacting = _________________
[Cl─]after combining, before reacting = _________________

* * * * *
If the volumes combined are equal, the concentrations are cut in half.
[Ag+]after combining, before reacting = 1/2 x 0.60 M Ag+ = 0.30 M Ag+
[Cl─]after combining, before reacting = 1/2 x 0.20 M Cl― = 0.10 M Cl―
2. If the dilution does not involve easy volume multiples, the quickest way to find the
diluted concentrations is to use the dilution equation:
(Volume concentrated)(Molarity concentrated) = (Volume diluted)(Molarity diluted)
written in symbols as VC x MC = VD x MD and memorized by recitation:

For precipitation predictions in which solutions of two substances are combined, we are
usually given the volume and molarity of each solution before they are combined, when
both solutions are more concentrated.
To find the ion concentrations after combining (MD) that are needed to calculate Q, first
calculate the volume of the one solution that exists after the solutions are combined.
That diluted volume (VD) is the volume in which all of the ions are dissolved after the

solutions are combined. To find VD, simply add the volumes of the solutions that are
mixed together.
Then, to find the concentration of any particle after combining (MD), use the dilution
equation solved for MD:
? MD = VC x MC Try those steps on this sample calculation:

VD
Q. If 150.0 mL of 0.0400 M Pb(NO3)2 is combined with 50.0 mL of 0.0500 M CaCl2
solution, in the solution after combining but before any reaction takes place,
a. [Pb(NO3)2] = ? b. [CaCl2] = ? c. [Cl─] = ?

d. After the reaction takes place, will there be a precipitate of PbCl2 ?
(Ksp PbCl2 = 1.5 x 10―5)
* * * * *
Answer
a. First calculate the volume of the single solution that exists after combining.
150.0 mL + 50.0 mL = 200.0 mL = VD for all particles – after combining. Then,
WANTED: ? = [Pb(NO3)2]diluted = MD
The dilution equation is VC x MC = VD x MD
? MD = VC x MC = 150.0 mL x 0.0400 M = 0.0300 M = [Pb(NO3)2]diluted

VD 200.0 mL
* * * * *
b. WANTED: ? = [CaCl2]diluted = MD
? MD = VC x MC = 50.0 mL x 0.0500 M = 0.0125 M = [CaCl2]diluted

VD 200.0 mL
* * * * *
c. WANTED: ? = [Cl─]diluted
The chloride ion is created by the separation of soluble, diluted CaCl2 into its ions.
Either solve by inspection or use the REC steps below.
Rxn. & Extent: 1 CaCl2 (s) ÆÆ 1 Ca2+ + 2 Cl─ (goes ~100%)

^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.0125 M 0 M ▐ 0.0125 M │ 0.0250 M
? = [Cl─]diluted = 0.0250 M
* * * * *
d. WANTED: Q compared to Ksp. If Q > Ksp, a precipitate will form.
In calculations that involve a K, write the WRECK steps.

Rxn. & Extent: 1 PbCl2(s) Å Å Æ 1 Pb2+ + 2 Cl─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Pb2+] [Cl─]2 = Q expression
To calculate Q, use the concentrations in the reaction mixture after combining and
diluting, but before reacting.
[Pb2+] = 0.0300 M by inspection from [Pb(NO3)2] in answer a.
[Cl─] = 0.0250 M from part c.
Q = (0.0300)(0.0250)2 = (3.00 x 10―2)(2.50 x 10―2)2 = (3.00 x 10―2)( 6.25 x 10―4) =
= 18.8 x 10―6 = 1.9 x 10―5 which is > Ksp = 1.6 x 10―5

The mixture will form persistent precipitate.
* * * * *
In the problem above, we calculated the diluted concentrations, then wrote the WRECK
steps. In most problems, the steps will not be in a requested order, and it will be easier to
write the WRECK steps first. The Ksp expression will then identify the specific
concentrations after dilution that must be calculated to find the value for Q.
Summary: To predict whether combining ion solutions will produce a precipitate:

1. Since a K (Ksp) is involved, write the WRECK steps for the possible precipitation(s).
2. Calculate Q using the [diluted ions] after combining, but before reacting.
3. Compare Q to Ksp. If Q is larger, the precipitate is predicted to form.
Practice B
1. If 100.0 mL of 0.010 M Ag+ is combined with 100.0 mL of 0.40 M SO42─, will a
precipitate form? (Ksp Ag2SO4 = 1.2 x 10―5)
2. If 150.0 mL of 0.10 M Pb2+ is combined with 100.0 mL of 0.0200 M Cl─, will there be a
precipitate of PbCl (Ksp = 1.5 x 10―5)?
2
Saturated Solutions Not At Equilibrium

If a solid is at equilibrium with its ions in an aqueous solution, the saturated solution can be
decanted (carefully poured off, leaving the solid behind) into a separate container. The
decanted solution is still saturated with its ions, but if there is no solid in the container, the
solution in the new container is not at solubility equilibrium. For equilibrium to exist, all
of the products and reactants must be present.

Similarly, if an ionic solid is mixed with water and all of the solid dissolves, the system
cannot be at solubility equilibrium. A solubility equilibrium must have some solid present.
Theoretical Versus Actual Results
In Ksp calculations, as with most calculations in general chemistry, our goal is to get close to
an accurate prediction of what experimental results will be. Error can be introduced from
many sources, including:
• The equations we use are often based on models that assume ideal behavior, when
actual behavior is not ideal.
• Calculations may not take into account all of the factors that may have impact on
results.
For example,
• We assume that salts predicted to be soluble by our solubility rules ionize ~100% in
solution, but some in some solutions the salt may effectively ionize less than 100%.
• In common-ion calculations, if an added soluble salt is not pH neutral, the
equilibrium shifts will be affected by pH changes as well as [common-ion].
• Some solutions can become supersaturated. In those cases, the dissolved particle
concentrations are higher than they would be theoretically, based the predictions of
when precipitation should occur based on Ksp values or solidification should occur
based on melting points. In solutions with liquid components, nearly always, no
solid is present, so the solution is not at solubility equilibrium. Supersaturated
solutions will generally go to the conditions predicted at equilibrium if a “seed
crystal” of the solid can be added. The crystal serves as a template on which
particles in the solution can fit into geometry needed to form the solid. Without a
seed crystal, persuading a solution to crystallize when it should can be one of the
interesting challenges of laboratory chemistry.
In upper-level chemistry courses, we consider these factors in more detail. In the
meantime, our general chemistry rules will result in generally accurate predictions of what
truth (experimental results) will be.
Practice C
1. When 25.0 mL of 2.0 x 10―4 M K2SO4 is combined with 75.0 mL of 1.0 x 10―4 M BaCl2,
if BaSO4 (Ksp = 1.1 x 10―10) does not precipitate, is the solution supersaturated? As
always, show your work and explain your reasoning.

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. WANTED: mol AgNO3
Strategies: There are three reactions to consider. First, the two soluble compounds dissolve and
separate into ions ~100%. Then, as one substance is added, persistent precipitate forms when Q =
Ksp .
Since a K is involved, write the WRECK steps for the formation of the precipitate.
Since the problem supplies solid formulas, and ion formulas are needed for K and Q, write the REC
steps for the formation of the ions.
If needed, use those steps to complete the problem, then check below.
* * * * *
First, the two soluble solids ionize.
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Na2CrO4(s) ÆÆ 2 Na+ + 1 CrO42─ (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: 0.0200 M 0 M ▐ 0.0400 M │ 0.0200 M
Rxn. & Extent: 1 AgNO3(s) ÆÆ 1 Ag+ + 1 NO3─ (goes ~100%)
^ ^ ^
Conc@eq.: ?? M 0M ▐ ? M (Wanted) │ ?? M
Then precipitate forms and ionizes slightly. For slight reactions, complete the WRECK steps.
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2CrO4(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 CrO42─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [CrO42─] = 9.0 x 10―12
The goal is moles of AgNO3 added when Q = Ksp .
Solving Q = Ksp for [Ag+] will get us close to moles AgNO3.
Make a DATA TABLE with the equation symbols.
[Ag+]as combined, before reacting = 2x
[CrO42─]formed in solution = 0.200 mol/L from the first reaction above.
Q = Ksp = (2x)2 (0.0200 M) = 9.0 x 10―12

4x2 = 450 x 10―12
x2 = 112 x 10―12
x = 10.6 x 10―6
? = [Ag+] = 2x = 21.2 x 10―6 M = 2.1 x 10―5 M when persistent precipitation starts.
From the ionization equation for AgNO3 above:
[Ag+]as mixed = 2.1 x 10―5 M = [AgNO3]mixed = mol AgNO3 added per 1.0 L soln. = WANTED


WANTED: g NaI
DATA: 149.9 g NaI = 1 mol NaI (grams prompt)
Strategies: To find grams, find moles first.
Precipitation begins when Q = Ksp .
Since the moles of NaI will be in a 1.0 L solution, the moles NaI will equal the [NaI]. Since
Na compounds ionize ~100% in water, [NaI]mixed = [I─]formed in solution.
If you know some of the steps, but maybe not all at the beginning of a problem, do some
steps that get you closer to the answer unit or symbol, then look for ways to finish, working
forward from what is known and backward from what is WANTED.
* * * * *
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Pb2+] [I─]2 = 1.4 x 10―8 = Q at start of persistent precipitation
[Pb2+] = 0.040 M To find [I─] , find [I─]2 in equation above first

[I─]2 = 1.4 x 10―8 = 1.4 x 10―8 = 0.350 x 10―6 = 35.0 x 10―8
[Pb2+] 4.0 x 10―2
[I─] = (35.0 x 10―8)1/2 = 5.92 x 10―4 M = [I─]
But what was wanted was grams NaI added. Find moles NaI added first.
* * * * *
Moles of soluble NaI added per 1.0 L = [NaI]mixed = [I─]in solution = 5.92 x 10―4
From the moles NaI that need to be added, find grams.
* * * * *
? g NaI = 5.92 x 10―4 mol NaI • 149.9 g NaI = 8.9 x 10―2 g NaI = 0.089 g NaI
1 mol NaI
Since the supplied Ksp had 2 sf, round the final answer to 2 sf.
Practice B
1. Steps: To predict precipitation after combining, write the WRECK steps for the possible pcpt.; find Q using
diluted concentrations, compare Q to Ksp .
WANTED: Q
Rxn. & Extent: 1 Ag2SO4(s) Å Å Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 SO42─ (goes slightly)
^ ^ ^
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [SO 2─] = 1.2 x 10―5 = Q
4
When solutions are combined, the dissolved substances are diluted.

To calculate Q, we need the [ions] after combining, but before reacting.

Since the two solutions have equal volumes, combining them cut their [ions] in half.
[Ag+]after combining, before reacting = 1/2 x 0.010 M Ag+ = 0.0050 M Ag+
[SO42─]after combining, before reacting = 1/2 x 0.40 M SO42─ = 0.20 M SO42─
Q = [Ag+]2 [SO42─] = ( 5.0 x 10―3 )2 ( 2.0 x 10―1 ) = 50. x 10―7
= 5.0. x 10―6 which is less than Ksp = 1.2 x 10―5 , so pcpt. should not form.
2. WANTED: Precipitation prediction: compare Q to Ksp .
Rxn. & Extent: 1 PbCl2(s) Å Å Æ 1 Pb2+ + 2 Cl─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = 1.5 x 10―5 = [Pb2+] [Cl─]2 = Q to calculate using [diluted ions]
The dilution equation: VC x MC = VD x MD
[Pb2+]diluted = ? MD = VC x MC = 150.0 mL x 0.10 M = 0.060 M Pb2+

VD 250.0 mL total
[Cl─]diluted = ? MD = VC x MC = 100.0 mL x 0.020 M = 0.0080 M Cl─
VD 250.0 mL total
Q = [Pb2+] [Cl─]2 = (0.060)(0.0080)2 = (6.0 x 10―2)(8.0 x 10―3)2
= (6.0 x 10―2)(64 x 10―6) = 384 x 10―8 = 3.8 x 10―6 = Q
which is less than Ksp = 1.6 x 10―5 so the mixture will not form a precipitate.
Practice C
1. To be supersaturated means that the solution should precipitate, but it does not. If this solution does not
precipitate, the question is whether it should. Begin by calculating whether the solutions should precipitate
when combined.
Steps: To predict precipitation after combining, write the WRECK steps for the possible pcpt.; find Q using
diluted concentrations, compare Q to Ksp .
WANTED: Precipitation prediction: compare diluted Q to Ksp
Rxn. & Extent: 1 BaSO4 (s) Å Å Æ 1 Ba2+ + 1 SO42─ (goes slightly)

^ ^ ^
Ksp = 1.1 x 10―10 = [Ba2+] [SO 2─] = Q to calculate using [diluted ions]
4
The dilution equation is VC x MC = VD x MD
BaCl2 is in solution (soluble) and ionizes ~100%, so: 1 BaCl2 ÆÆ 1 Ba2+ + 2 Cl─
1 [Ba2+]diluted therefore equals 1 [BaCl2]diluted

[Ba2+]dil. = [BaCl2]dil. = ? MD = VC x MC = 75.0 mL x 1.0 x 10―4 M = 7.5 x 10―5 M Ba2+

VD 100.0 mL total
Since all potassium compounds are water soluble & ionize ~100%: 1 K SO ÆÆ 2 K+ + 1 SO 2─
2 4 4
[SO42─]diluted therefore equals [K2SO4]diluted
[SO42─]dil.= [K2SO4]dil. = ? MD = VC x MC = 25.0 mL x 2.0 x 10―4 M = 5.0 x 10―5 M SO42─

VD 100.0 mL total
Q = [Ba2+] [SO42─] = (7.50 x 10―5)(5.00 x 10―5) = 37.5 x 10―10 = 3.75 x 10―9 = Q
which is greater than Ksp = 1.1 x 10―10 . This means that the mixture should precipitate. If it does
not, the solution would be supersaturated.
* * * * *
Summary: Solubility Equilibrium

1. Nearly all K calculations are solved in the same way.
a. Write the WRECK steps.
b. Find the Concentrations at equilibrium for the terms in the K expression, usually
in terms of x, either using a rice table or by inspection.
c. Solve the K equation, then solve for the WANTED symbol.
2. Ksp is the special K for a slightly soluble salt dissolving in water.

a. In the Ksp WRECK steps, write a balanced equation with one particle of the ionic
solid on the left, its aqueous separated ions on the right, and (goes slightly).
b. Ksp = solubility product. A Ksp expression is written with [ions] multiplied in
the numerator, but no term in the denominator.
3. For a slightly soluble ionic solid dissolving in water: the solid’s solubility = small x
Solubility is the moles of solid that dissolve per liter. The unit mol/L (or M) must be
added to calculated solubilities.
4. Solubility of an ionic solid = small x . Add units of moles/liter.
Solubility product = Ksp without units. In Ksp calculations, units are omitted.
5. When writing the rice table or the WRECK steps in Ksp calculations,
a. Let ─ x represent the small mol/L of the reactant that is used up in the ionization
reaction.
b. At Equilibrium, [solid]eq. = mol/L solid ─ x
c. Define the product concentrations using positive x terms.

6. When a common ion is added to a solubility equilibrium:

a. Rule: In a mixture of a slightly soluble ionic solid and its dissolved ions, to reduce
the solution concentration of one ion, add a soluble salt that contains the other ion
in the solid.
b. To solve a Ksp calculation with common-ion added,
• As in all K calculations, write the WRECK steps.
• Write REC steps for the ionization of both the slightly soluble and soluble salt.
• Write a DATA TABLE under the Ksp equation. Include the exact and
approximate [common ion].
• Solve the Ksp equation first using the approximate [common ion].
• If the difference between the exact and approximate [common ion] is greater
than 5%, solve the exact quadratic.
7. Adding acid to a solution at equilibrium that includes basic particles will reduce the
[base] and shift the equilibrium in accord with Le Châtelier’s Principle.
Basic ions include OH─, F─, S2─, CO32─, and PO43─.
8. To predict whether combining solutions will produce a precipitate:
a. Since Ksp is involved, write the WRECK steps for the possible precipitate.
b. Calculate Q using the [diluted ions] after combining, but before reacting.
c. Compare Q to Ksp. If Q is equal or larger, precipitate is predicted to form and
persist.
# # # # #

Module 36 — Thermodynamics
Prerequisites: If needed, review Lessons 21A and 22A on phases, energy, and ΔH.
Pretest: If you think you know a lesson topic in this module, try the last two problems in
each problem set in the lesson. If you can do those problems, skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Lesson 36A: Review: Energy and Heats of Reaction
Timing: Calorimetry, heat and heat of reaction (∆H) calculations were covered in Modules
21 and 22. Begin this Module when you are assigned problems that involve entropy (S) or
free energy (G).
* * * * *
Thermodynamics, Energy, and Enthalpy
Thermodynamics includes the study of energy (E), enthalpy (H), entropy (S) and free
energy (G). Let us briefly review the rules for energy and enthalpy changes (from Modules
21 and 22).
1. To study thermodynamics, we divide the universe into two parts:
• The system is the particles of interest, which may be molecules or ions.
• The surroundings is the environment outside of the system.
Universe = system + surroundings
In chemical changes, the impact on the system and its surroundings is often
accounted for separately.
2. Energy is the capacity to do work. The Law of Conservation of Energy is: Energy
can neither be created nor destroyed (except in nuclear reactions). This means that in
any physical or chemical process,
ΔEuniverse = Efinal ─ Einitial = 0
However, energy can be transferred between substances and to and from the
surroundings. Energy can also change its form during chemical or physical processes.
3. Forms of energy include potential energy, defined as stored energy, and kinetic energy,
defined as energy of motion. Kinetic energy (KE) = ½ (mass) (velocity)2
4. Chemical substances can store energy in the attractions (bonds) between atoms,
molecules, and ions. During chemical reactions and phase changes, when bonds
break and form, energy can be stored or released.
5. One way to store energy in a substance is to change its phase. The solid phase of a
substance always has less stored (potential) energy than its liquid phase, which
always has less potential energy than its gas phase.
Potential energy of a substance: solid < liquid < gas

6. When a substance is in one phase (all solid, liquid, or gas), adding or removing energy
will change the average kinetic energy of its particles (its temperature), but not its
potential energy.
7. During a phase change, when two phases are present, adding or removing energy
changes the potential energy, but not average kinetic energy (temperature), of the
particles.
9. In any physical or chemical change: ∆Esystem = q + w
10. In chemistry, measurements of heat, work, and changes in energy and enthalpy are
assigned signs from the perspective of the system.
• If heat is added to the system, q is given a positive sign. If a reaction or process
• If work is done on the system, such as in compressing a gas, w is positive. If a
system does work, such as an expanding gas moving a piston that is under
pressure, the system loses energy and w is negative.
In converting from PV-work units to energy units: 1 liter • atm = 101 joules
12. If a thermodynamic symbol has no subscript, assume the subscript is system.
13. Enthalpy (H) is defined as H = E + PV

and the change in enthalpy in a process = Hfinal ─ Hinitial = ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)
if work is limited to PV work.
14. For reactions in which the external pressure on a system is held constant and work is
limited to PV work, ∆H will measure the heat flow into or out of the system.
ΔH = q .
15. In a reaction, if pressure and temperature are held constant and the change in volume
is small, and/or if the work term is much smaller than q (true for most reactions), then
∆H will approximate the change in the potential energy of the system, which will
approximate the heat flow into or out of the system. ΔH ≈ ΔEpotential ≈ q
Practice A: Refresh your memory on the rules and sign conventions above, then answer
these questions from memory.
1. From the perspective of the particles in a system,
a. if heat is removed from the particles, is the sign of q positive or negative ?
b. If gas particles are compressed by a piston that is under external pressure, is the
sign of w positive or negative ?

2. If a substance is melted, but no work is done,

a. is the sign of q positive or negative ?
b. Is the sign of ∆E positive or negative ?
c. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
16. In equations that include energy terms, the coefficients are in moles.
17. In energy equations, the phase of each particle must be shown: (s), (1), (g), or (aq). The
energy content of a substance varies with its phase.
18. In exothermic reactions, energy is released into the environment, and the energy term
• EITHER is shown with a positive sign on the products side;
• OR (preferred) with a negative ΔH value written after the equation.
19. In endothermic reactions, energy must be added, and the energy term
• EITHER is shown with a positive sign on the reactants side of the equation,
• OR with a positive ∆H written after the reaction.
20. Reactions involving energy or heat can be reversed ( = the equation is written
backwards). If a ∆H is included, change the sign of ∆H.
21. All reaction coefficients and energy terms can be multiplied or divided by a number.
If ∆H notation is used, do the same to the value of ∆H.
22. Hess’s law: Equations with energy terms can be added to produce a new equation.
• Like particles on the same side in different equations can add, and on opposite
sides can cancel.
• ∆H values add or subtract according to their signs.
23. When ∆H for an equation is not known, it can be found by adding together equations
for which ∆H is known.
• Write the reaction equation WANTED, then a dotted line below it.
• Write the first coefficient and substance formula below the dotted line.
• Find an equation with a known ∆H that includes that first formula. Adjust its
direction and coefficients to put the dropped particle and its coefficient on the side
where it is WANTED. Modify and include ∆H.
• Add other equations and their known ∆H values arranged to cancel particles not
wanted, and add to result in the equation WANTED.
24 In a formation equation, the reactants are all elements in their standard state at 25°C and
1 atm pressure, and the product is one mole of a compound.
25. The heat of formation (ΔH°f) of a compound is the heat required or released when one
mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their standard state.
26. All elements in their standard state are assigned a heat of formation of zero kJ/mole.
27. The standard enthalpy value for a compound (ΔH°) is its ΔH°f.

Practice B: If you need help on these, review Module 23.

1 Use these “known” reactions to fill in the blanks below.
H2 (g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(l) ΔH = ― 285.8 kJ (1)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ H2O(g) ΔH = ― 241.8 kJ (2)
1/2 N2 (g) + O2 (g) Æ NO2 (g) ΔH = + 33.8 kJ (3)
a. 2 N2(g) + 4 O2 (g) Æ 4 NO2(g) ΔH = _______
b. 3 H2O(g) Æ 3 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) ΔH = _______
2. Which of the three known reactions above are endothermic?

3. For n-octane, the heat of combustion is
C8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g) Æ 8 CO2(g) + 9 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 5450. kJ
Use the above equation plus the table values Formula ΔH°f in kJ/mole
below to find the heat of formation for n-octane.
H2O(g) ─ 241.8
CO2(g) ─ 393.5
28. ΔH Summation Equation

By definition: ΔH reaction = ΔHproducts ─ ΔHreactants
If heats of formation are known for all of the substances in a reaction, the ΔH of the
reaction can be found by substituting ΔH°f values into:
ΔH = [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°) of products] ─ [sum of (coefficient x ΔH°) of reactants]
which can also be written as
ΔHreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔHproduct ─ ∑ creactant ΔHreactant
Practice C: If you need additional review, see Lesson 23D.
1. The equation for the burning of n-butane is: Formula ΔH˚f in

C4H10(g) + 13/2 O2(g) Æ 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g) kJ/mole
C4H10(g) ─ 30.0
Use the summation equation and the values at the
right to calculate ∆H. CO2(g) ─ 393.5
H2O(g) ─ 241.8

ANSWERS
Practice A
1 a. If heat is removed from the particles, the sign of q is negative. The particles lose energy.
b. If a gas is compressed by a piston that is under pressure, the sign of w is positive . The environment
has done work on the system, and in the process the system gains internal energy. In the equation
w = ─ Pexternal ∆Vsystem , ∆V is negative, and P must be positive, so w is positive.
2. a. q is positive . In melting, the system gains heat.
b. ∆E = q + w . If q is positive and w is 0, ∆E must be positive. If the system gains heat with no work
involved, the system gains energy, and ∆E for the system must be positive.
c. If the system gains heat, the reaction is endothermic.
Practice B
1a. 2 N2 (g) + 4 O2 (g) Æ 4 NO2 (g) ΔH = + 135.2 kJ
Table reaction # 3 is quadrupled.
1b. 3 H2O(g) Æ 3 H2 (g) + 3/2 O2(g) ΔH = + 725.4 kJ
Table reaction #2 is tripled and written backwards, so the sign is reversed. Be careful to distinguish the
gas/liquid/solid states.
2. Only (3)
3. The heat of formation of n-octane is WANTED:
8 C(s) + 9 H2(g) Æ C8H18(l) ∆H = ?
* * * * *
In burning (combustion) reactions, the O2 coefficients should work as a check if the other added
equations are correct. Here, the 25/2 O2 total on both sides will cancel.
8 C(s) + 9 H2(g) Æ C8H18(l) ∆H = ? (wanted equation)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
8 C(s) + 8 O2(g) Æ 8 CO2(g) ∆H = ─ 3,148.0 kJ (table rxn. x8 )
8 CO2(g) + 9 H2O(g) Æ C8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g) ∆H = + 5450. kJ (supplied rxn reversed)
9 H2(g) + 9/2 O2(g) Æ 9 H2O(g) ∆H = ─ 2,176.2 kJ (table reaction x9)
______________________________________________________
8 C(s) + 9 H2(g) Æ C8H18(l) ∆H = + 126 kJ (wanted equation)
Practice C
1. C4H10(g) + 13/2 O2(g) Æ 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
= [ 4(─ 393.5 kJ) + 5(─ 241.8) ] ─ [ (─ 30.0 + 13/2(0) ] = ─ 1574.0 ─ 1209.0 + 30.0 = ─ 2,753.0 kJ
* * * * *

Lesson 36B: Entropy and Spontaneity

Introduction To Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of why things in the physical universe happen as they do:
why some processes go to completion, some go partially, and others do not go at all.
Thermodynamics suggests ways to adjust conditions so that chemical reactions go in a
direction that adds value to materials.
Theoretical Versus Empirical Relationships
Some of the laws of thermodynamics can be derived from kinetic-molecular theory:
Newton’s laws applied to molecules as they move and collide. Other thermodynamic
equations remain in essence empirical: found by trial and error to predict the behavior of
objects around us.
Though the why of thermodynamics may not be clear in all cases, many of the relationships
in thermodynamics can be expressed by relatively simple equations. If you commit these
fundamentals to memory, you will be able to solve problems. At this point, that’s the goal.
Additional courses in science and math will increase your understanding.
Entropy
All chemical reactions are, in theory, reversible: In a closed system, they all proceed to
equilibrium, though the equilibrium mixture can strongly favor the reactants or the
products.
In determining whether or not a reaction will go, or the direction in which a reaction
mixture will shift, we must consider three factors in the reaction: its change in enthalpy
(ΔH), its temperature (T), and its change in entropy (ΔS).
To understand entropy (symbol S), it helps to have experience with the mathematics of
probability and statistics. Let us begin with words and analogies that may be more
familiar.
Comparing two systems, the system with higher entropy is the one in which the particles
• are in arrangements that are more probable in terms of statistics;
• are more mixed, random, or chaotic;
• are less well-ordered;
• have more freedom of motion;
• have more options in terms of positions for the particles to occupy.
For example: For a given amount of a substance, with other variables being equal,
• the gas phase has higher entropy than the solid. Why? In the solid, the particles are
locked in place in a highly ordered crystal. In the gas, the particles have more
freedom to move about and mix.
• Particles of a gas have a higher entropy in a larger container than a smaller one. In
the larger, they have more freedom to move about and more positions to occupy.

• Gas particles have more entropy at lower pressure than at higher pressure. At lower
pressure there is more empty space between the particles, so the particles have more
available space to occupy.
• In a chemical reaction, the side of the balanced equation that has more gas molecules
(as determined by adding the gas particle coefficients) generally has higher entropy.
More particles offer more options for mixing, and the arrangements of the particles
can be more random.
Practice A: Learn the rules above, then try these problems.

1. Circle the system in each pair below that has lower enthalpy during the change
between the two phases.
a. Steam or liquid water b. CO2 gas or solid CO2
2. Circle the system or side in each pair below that is predicted to have higher entropy.
a. Ice or liquid water b. CO2 gas or solid CO2
c. At the same temperature: 1 mole of gas at 1 atm or 1 mole of gas at 2 atm
d. At the same temperature: 1 mole of gas in 1.0 liters or 1 mole of gas in 2.0 L
e. A deck of cards in order or a deck of cards shuffled
f. 4 heads in a row or 2 heads and 2 tails in any order
g. N2O4(g) ÅÆ 2 NO2(g) h. CaO(s) + CO2(g) ÅÆ CaCO3(s)
Spontaneity
If a chemical process occurs without intervention from its surroundings, the process is said
to be spontaneous. The direction that is spontaneous is the direction that the reaction will
go. In many reactions, the direction that is spontaneous will depend on the temperature
and pressure conditions under which the reaction is run.
In other usages, spontaneous may connote something that happens fast. In chemistry, a
spontaneous process will go, but it may go quickly or slowly. The laws of thermodynamics
determine the direction of a reaction; the rules of kinetics determine its speed.
Spontaneous Direction: The Second Law
All systems tend to go to minimum potential energy. For example, in a vacuum, without
opposing forces, all objects fall toward the center of the earth. As an object falls, it loses
gravitational potential energy.
However, this tendency does not mean that systems will always go to lower potential
energy.
For example, the gas phase of a substance has higher potential energy than its liquid
phase (Lesson 22A), yet a drop of a liquid left in the open evaporates, going from the
lower potential energy liquid phase to the higher potential energy gas phase.

Why would a system go to higher potential energy? The potential energy change of the
system is a factor, but in many cases it is not the controlling factor deciding whether a
process occurs.
The rule which predicts the direction in which all changes occur is termed
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

A process will be spontaneous if it increases the entropy of the universe.
Other ways to state the second law may help with understanding:
• During change, the universe always goes toward the more probable condition.
• Every change increases the entropy of the universe.
• Processes that do not increase the entropy of the universe don’t happen.
In equation form, the second law can be represented as
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings = Positive for spontaneous change (Eq. 1)
One implication of this equation is that during a spontaneous change, a system may or may
not go to higher entropy. If the change takes the system to lower entropy, the change may
be spontaneous if the change takes the surroundings to higher entropy.
Each physical and chemical change can be assigned a positive or negative value for the
resulting change in entropy (ΔS) of the system, its surroundings, and the universe.
• If ΔSuniverse is positive, the change, process, or reaction is spontaneous.
• If ΔSuniverse is negative, the change, process, or reaction is spontaneous in the
opposite direction.
• If ΔSuniverse is zero, net change does not occur, and the system is at equilibrium.
In thermodynamics, we must be attentive to changes in both a system and its surroundings.
However, by convention in chemistry, if a subscript is not attached to an H, S, ΔH, or ΔS
symbol, it is understood that the subscript is system.
ΔSsurroundings
If a process or reaction is carried out with no net change in temperature and pressure, the
change in the entropy of the surroundings is determined by the change in enthalpy of the
system and the temperature during the change. This relationship is:
ΔSsurroundings = ─ ΔH when P and T are constant, (Eq. 2)

T and T is absolute temperature.
Let’s consider some implications of this equation.

• If a reaction or process is exothermic, the sign of its ΔH is negative. Since absolute
temperature (T) is always positive, for any exothermic reaction the overall sign on
the right side of the equation must be positive, and the change in the entropy of the
surroundings on the left must be positive.

This can be thought of as, if a system loses energy, it makes its surroundings more
mixed up and random.
• The larger is the positive or negative change in enthalpy (ΔH) of a system during a
process, the larger is the positive or negative change in entropy of its surroundings.
However, because the T term is in the denominator, as the temperature at which a
process occurs is increased, the effect of ΔH on ΔSsurroundings decreases.
To summarize:
Exothermic processes increase the entropy of the surroundings. Endothermic process

decrease the entropy of the surroundings.
Increasing temperature decreases the impact of ΔH on ΔSsurroundings.
Equation 2 also supplies units that measure a change in entropy. Try this example.
Q. When referring to one substance, the SI units of ΔH are joules per mole. For a process
involving one substance, in equation 2, what must be the units of ΔS?
* * * * *
Since T is measured in kelvins, and the units on both sides of an equation must be the
same:
ΔSsurr. = ─ ΔH = ─ ΔH • 1 = joules • 1 = J/mol·K or J·mol─1·K─1
T T mole kelvins
In general:
The SI units of ΔS when referring to one substance are joules per (mol · K) ,
written as J/mol·K or J·mol─1·K─1.
In the case of a chemical reaction involving more than one substance, the SI unit of ΔS
is written as J/K or J·K─1, with reaction coefficients understood to be in moles.
Use equation 2 for the following calculation.

Q. For the melting of one mole of ice: H2O(s) Æ H2O(l) ΔH = + 6.03 kJ/mol
Find ΔSsurroundings for melting carried out at 0ºC and standard pressure.
* * * * *
Answer
WANTED: ΔSsurr.
DATA: ΔH = + 6.03 kJ/mol

0ºC = 273 K T
The equation that relates these symbols, when P and T are constant, is

ΔSsurr. = ─ ΔH = ─ 6.03 kJ • 1 = ─ 0.0221 kJ/mol·K = ─ 22.1 J/mol·K

T mol 273 K
Practice B: Learn the rules and equations above, then try these problems.
1. To change 22.0 grams of dry ice (solid CO2) to its gas phase at ─78ºC and 1 atm
pressure, 7.65 kJ of heat is added.
a. Is the ΔH for this reaction positive or negative?
b. What is the ΔH value for this sublimation of dry ice, in kJ/mol?
c. What is the ΔSsurr. for this process?
2. For an endothermic process,

a. Will the sign of ΔSsurr. be positive or negative? Explain your reasoning.
b. How will ΔSsurr. change at higher temperature?
3. If x = ─ energy/time, what are the SI units of x ?
Predicting Spontaneity From the Change to the System

In equation form, the second law of thermodynamics is stated as
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings = Positive for spontaneous change (Eq. 1)
If we substitute equation 2 into equation 1, we can write
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem ─ ΔHsystem = Positive for spontaneous change (Eq. 3)

T
In this form, all of the changes needed to predict spontaneity are measured from the
perspective of the system: the particles involved in the process.
Note from Equation 3 that as T increases, the value of ΔH/T decreases. This means that
As temperature increases, ΔH becomes relatively less important, and ΔS becomes

relatively more important, in determining whether a process will be spontaneous.
Using equation 3, write answers to the following question.

Q1. If a reaction is exothermic, and the products are more random,
a. Will ΔH/T be positive or negative?
b. Will the reaction be spontaneous?
* * * * *

Part a. If the reaction is exothermic, ΔH must be a negative number.

T is absolute temperature which is always a positive number.
A negative ΔH over a positive T must equal a negative number.
Adjust your work and complete part b if needed.
* * * * *
Part b. Since ΔH/T in part a is a negative number, ─ ΔH/T must be a positive number.
If the products of a reaction are more random, the system has gained entropy,
and the change in the system’s entropy (ΔS) is a positive number.
Since ΔS is positive and ─ ΔH/T is positive, their sum must be positive,
which means that ΔSuniverse is positive and the process is spontaneous.
Apply the logic of equation 3 to answer this question. Write your reasoning.
Q2. If a reaction is endothermic, and the products are more random, will the reaction be
spontaneous?
* * * * *
If the reaction is endothermic, ΔH must be positive. T is always positive.
A positive ΔH over a positive T must be positive, so ─ ΔH/T must be negative.
If the system becomes more random, it gains entropy, so the change in the system’s
entropy (ΔS) is positive.
If ΔS is positive and ─ ΔH / T is negative, whether the sum is positive or negative will
depend on which is the larger number: the positive entropy change or the number after
the minus sign in ─ ΔH / T. The answer is: whether the reaction is spontaneous will
depend on the values of ΔS, ΔH, and T.
By applying this “logic of signs” to the other two possibilities of signs for ΔH and ΔS, we
can summarize with these general rules:
Systems tend to go to lower enthalpy and higher entropy.

• If a process takes a system to both lower enthalpy (is exothermic) and higher
entropy, the process is always spontaneous (always goes toward the products).
• If a process takes a system to higher enthalpy (is endothermic) and lower entropy,
the reactants are favored, and the process will not go.
• If there is a conflict between the tendencies to lower enthalpy and higher entropy,
the magnitude of ΔH, ΔS, and T will determine whether the reaction goes.

Summary: Rules Involving Entropy

From the following, be able to apply the rules and write of the equations from memory.
Rules
1. Entropy (S): Comparing two systems, in the system with higher entropy, the particles
• are in arrangements that are more probable; mixed, random, or chaotic;
• are less well-ordered;
• have more freedom of motion;
• have more options in terms of positions for the particles to occupy.
• Gas particles of a substance have higher entropy than solid particles.
• Other variables being equal, a gas has more entropy at lower pressure and higher
volume.
2. The second law of thermodynamics: A process will be spontaneous if it increases the
entropy of the universe.
3. The units of ΔS, per mole, are joules per (mol·K), written as J/mol·K or J·mol─1·K─1.
4. Systems tend to go to lower enthalpy and higher entropy.
• If a process takes a system to both lower enthalpy (is exothermic) and higher
entropy, the process is spontaneous (goes toward the products).
• If a process takes a system to higher enthalpy and lower entropy, the process will
not go forward, but instead goes backwards.
• If there is a conflict between the tendencies to lower enthalpy and higher entropy,
the magnitude of ΔH, ΔS, and T will determine whether the process goes.
Equations
Eq. 1. ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings = Positive for spontaneous change
Eq. 2. ΔSsurroundings = ─ ΔHsys. when P and T are constant, and T is absolute.

T
Eq.3. ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem ─ ΔHsys. = Positive for spontaneous change

T (applies only if P and T are held constant)
Practice C: Write your answer and reasoning.

1. As you play solitaire with a deck of shuffled cards, what is the sign of ΔS for the cards?
What is the sign of ΔH for your body?
2. If a reaction at constant temperature and pressure is endothermic, and the products are
less random,
a. will the reaction be spontaneous?
b. Will the reverse reaction be spontaneous?

3. If a reaction at constant temperature and pressure is endothermic and the products have
higher entropy, will the reaction go?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. liquid water: the gas phase of a substance has the highest PE. During a phase change, temperature is
constant, and ΔH is approximately equal to the change in potential energy.
1b. Solid. Potential energy must be added to change a solid to a gas.
2a. liquid water: the liquid phase has less structure than the solid.
2b. gas: The molecules in the gas phase have more freedom of motion.
2c. 1 atm. 2d. 2 liters 2e. The shuffled deck has less order. 2f. 2 heads and 2 tails is more probable.
2g. The right side, with twice as many particles, has more possible arrangements.
2h. The left side. Entropy is higher on the side with more gas molecules.
Practice B
1a. If energy is added to the system, as is always true to change a solid substance to its gas phase, ΔH must
be positive.
1b. WANTED: ΔH in kJ/mol (use kJ to be consistent with the unit in the DATA)
DATA: 7.65 kJ added = 22.0 g CO2 sublimated (2 measures of same process)
44.0 g CO2 = 1 mol CO2 (g CO2 in data = grams prompt)
SOLVE: kJ = 7.65 kJ • 44.0 g CO2 = + 15.3 kJ = ΔH
mol 22.0 g CO2 1 mol CO2 mol CO2
1c. WANTED: ΔSsurr.
DATA: ΔH = + 15.3 kJ/mol
─78ºC = 195 K T
The equation that relates these symbols, when P and T are constant, is
ΔSsurr. = ─ ΔH = ─ 15.3 kJ • 1 = ─ 0.0785 kJ/mol·K = ─ 78.5 J/mol·K

T mol 195 K
2a. For an endothermic process, ΔH is positive, and T can only be positive, so ─ ΔH/T must be negative, and
that equals ΔSsurr. .
2b. As T increases, the magnitude of ΔSsurr. (the value of the number after its sign, whether positive or
negative) decreases. For an endothermic process, ΔSsurr. is negative, but as temperature increases it will
be less negative.
3. The units must be the same on both sides of an equation. Since the SI unit for energy is joules and time is
seconds, the units of x must be joules/second.

Practice C
1. In solitaire, you take a random deck and put it into order. The entropy of the cards decreases, so ΔS is
negative. As you order the cards, your body must burn energy. Burning is an exothermic reaction with a
negative ΔH.
2a. If the products are less random, ΔSsystem is a negative number. If the reaction is endothermic, ΔHsystem
is positive, (ΔHsystem/T) must be positive, and ΔSsystem ─ (ΔHsystem/T) is negative minus a positive,
which must be more negative. Since the right side is negative, ΔSuniverse is negative, and the process is
not spontaneous.
2b. When the process goes backwards, all of the Δsystem signs reverse. For reverse process, ΔSuniverse is
positive and the process is spontaneous.
3. If the reaction is endothermic, ΔHsystem is positive, and (ΔHsystem/T) must be positive If the products are
more random they have higher entropy, and ΔSsystem is a positive number. ΔSsystem ─ (ΔHsystem/T)
is then a positive minus a positive. Whether the result is positive or negative depends on which of the two
positive terms is larger. Without more information, you can’t say whether the reaction will go.
* * * * *
Lesson 36C: Free Energy

Defining Free Energy
Our second law equation:
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings = Positive for spontaneous change
is true for all changes. When measuring chemical reactions and processes, we generally try
to hold temperature and pressure constant. If we do, the equation
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem ─ ΔHsystem = Positive for spontaneous change (Eq. 3)

T
allows us to predict which processes will be spontaneous based on measurements of the
system alone.
A third way to predict spontaneity is to define a function termed free energy (symbol G)
that combines enthalpy, entropy, and temperature:
G = H ─ TS (Equation 4)
Free energy is also called Gibbs free energy, after the 19th century Yale physicist J. Willard
Gibbs whose work laid the foundation for much of modern thermodynamics.
In chemical processes, the quantity of interest is the change in the free energy of a system,
defined as
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS at constant temperature. (Equation 5)
ΔG is the energy of the system that is free (available) to do work. Each Δ symbol is
measured from the perspective of the particles (the system), so by convention the subscripts
are omitted.

To find the SI units of ΔG, apply the law of dimensional homogeneity:

• Terms to be added or subtracted must have the same dimensions (units); and
• On both sides of an equation, the units must be the same.
Based on the equation above, the units of the ΔH, ΔG, and ─ TΔS terms must be the same.
In energy relationships, coefficients and amounts are understood to be moles.
These rules mean
The SI units attached to ΔH and ΔG may always be joules, with “per moles shown”
understood.
When referring to one mole of one substance, the units of ΔH and ΔG may be stated as
either joules or joules/mol .
Using ΔG To Predict Direction

ΔG values quickly indicate whether a chemical process is spontaneous. To explore why,
begin by solving ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS for ΔS, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
There are several ways to do the algebra. One is
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS
ΔG ─ ΔH = ─ TΔS
ΔS sys. = ΔG ─ ΔH = ─ (ΔG ─ ΔH) = ΔH ─ ΔG = ΔH ─ ΔG
─T ─(─T) T T T
Now substitute the final terms on the right above in place of ΔSsys. in Eq. 3, then simplify.
* * * * *
Eq. 3: ΔSuniverse = ΔSsys. ─ ΔHsys. = Positive for spontaneous change
T when P and T are constant
ΔSuniverse = ΔH ─ ΔG ─ ΔHsys. = ─ ΔG = Positive for spontaneous change
T T T T when P and T are constant
Or ΔSuniverse = ─ ΔG = Positive for spontaneous change (Eq. 6)

T when P and T are constant
For a process at constant T and P to be spontaneous, what must be the sign of ΔG ?

* * * * *
T is always positive. ─ ΔG / T must be positive for spontaneous change, and that will
happen only if ΔG is negative.

Based on this “logic of signs,” we can write three general rules:
Using ΔG to Predict Direction: For a process at constant temperature and pressure,

if ΔG is negative, the process will be spontaneous (go toward the products).
• if ΔG is positive, the process will not go or go backward (favors the reactants).
if ΔG is zero, no net change will occur (the process is at equilibrium).
Using ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS , the temperature at which a process will be at equilibrium can be

calculated if ΔH and ΔS are known. Try the following example.
Q. For the melting of ice at 1 atm pressure, ΔH = +6.03 kJ/mol and ΔS = + 22.1 J/mol·K .
Calculate the temperature at which this phase change will be at equilibrium.
* * * * *
Answer: To solve with equations:
1. List the WANTED unit and its symbol, list the DATA, label each item of DATA with
symbols based on its units, then solve using an equation that includes both the
WANTED and DATA symbols.
2. In the DATA table, convert to consistent units.
In thermodynamics problems, the supplied DATA units are often not consistent. If you
write a DATA table and convert to consistent units in the table before you start to solve, it
will simplify your work.
* * * * *
WANTED: temperature at equilibrium T
DATA: ΔH = +6.03 kJ/mol
ΔS = + 22.1 J/mol·K = + 0.0221 kJ/mol·K
As the consistent energy unit, you may convert to either J or kJ. Converting to the
larger unit (kJ in this case) will simplify significant figures.
RULE: The system is at equilibrium when ΔG = 0
The equation that uses those four symbols is ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS
When the value of a variable is zero, a quick way to solve is to substitute the zero
into the fundamental equation, solve for the WANTED symbol in symbols, then
substitute the data.
0 = ΔH ─ TΔS
ΔH = TΔS
? = T = ΔH = 6.03 kJ • mol·K = 273 K
ΔS mol 0.0221 kJ
This answer means that if you have ice and water at 273 K and 1 atm pressure, the
molecules will neither freeze nor melt.

Within the data uncertainty, this answer is consistent with what we know about
phase changes. Since 273.15 K (0ºC) is the temperature at 1 atm pressure where
solid and liquid water coexist, if the surrounding temperature is also kept at 273.15
K, heat will neither enter nor leave the water molecules, and a mixture of ice and
liquid water will remain at equilibrium.
In general,
For a substance in a closed system, at the T and P of a phase change, equilibrium exists
between the phases, and ΔG = 0 .
Practice A: Learn the rules above, then apply the rules to these problems from memory.
1. For the boiling of water at 1 atm pressure and a temperature of 100ºC,
a. If the heat of vaporization is 2260 J/g, what is ΔH for the reaction, in kJ/mol ?
b. If ΔS for the vaporization is 109 J·mol─1·K─1, find ΔG for the reaction.

2. Complete the following table. At constant P and T:
then ΔG is And process goes

If ΔH is and ΔS is
(+ or ─ or ? ) fwd, backward, or ?
Positive (+) Negative (─)
(+) (+)
(─) (─)
(─) (+)
Shifting the Direction of a Reaction

In chemistry, one of our goals is to be able to cause a reversible reaction to go in the
direction we would like. The form of the equation ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS helps us to adjust
conditions to favor one side of a reaction equation or another.
According to ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS , as we lower the temperature of a reaction toward

absolute zero, the term TΔS becomes smaller. If we increase the temperature at which a
reaction is run, the term TΔS becomes larger. Let’s summarize as:
When trying to shift a reaction direction, to make the entropy change more important,
raise the temperature.
This rule is most important in a reaction where the tendencies of enthalpy and entropy
oppose each other.
For example, for the reaction of melting ice: H2O(s) Æ H2O(l)
ΔH = +6.03 kJ/mol and ΔS = + 0.0221 kJ/mol·K

Enthalpy, being positive, opposes the reaction. Entropy, being positive, favors the
reaction. To get the reaction to go, should temperature be increased or decreased?
* * * * *
Since entropy favors what we want, to make entropy more important, raise the
temperature. This matches our experience with this reaction, that to get ice to melt,
we raise its temperature.
To measure how temperature makes a difference, try this calculation.
Q. Use the data above to calculate ΔG for the melting of ice, first at ─10ºC, then at +10ºC.
* * * * *
Answer
at ─10ºC, ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS = + 6.03 kJ/mol ─ (263 K)(+ 0.0221 kJ·mol─1·K─1)
= + 6.03 kJ/mol ─ 5.81 kJ·mol─1 = + 0.22 kJ/mol (positive ΔG = no go)
at +10ºC, ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS = + 6.03 kJ/mol ─ (283 K)(+ 0.0221 kJ·mol─1·K─1)
= + 6.03 kJ/mol ─ 6.25 kJ·mol─1 = ─ 0.22 kJ/mol (negative ΔG = reaction goes)

This, too, matches our experience: ice does not melt at ─10ºC, but does melt at +10ºC.
Summary: Rules Involving Free Energy
1. G is free energy. ΔG is the energy of the system that is available to do work.
2. G = H ─ TS and ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS at constant temperature.
3. When referencing a single substance, the unit of ΔG may be joules or joules/mole.

When referencing more than one substance, the unit of ΔG is joules .
4. For a process at constant temperature and pressure:
• if ΔG is positive, the process will go backward or not go (favors the reactants).
if ΔG is zero, no net change occurs (the process is at equilibrium).
5. For a substance in a closed system, at the T and P of a phase change, equilibrium exists
between the phases, and ΔG = 0 .
6. To shift a reaction direction by making the entropy change more important, increase the
temperature.
Practice B
1. To favor the products of a reaction, would you raise or lower the temperature if
a. ΔH is negative and ΔS is negative?
b. ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative?

2. To boil water: H2O(l) Æ H2O(g)

a. What must be the sign of ΔH? b. What must be the sign of ΔS?
c. Will increasing temperature make ΔG more positive or more negative?
3. To boil water at 1.0 atm pressure, at what temperature does ΔG change from positive to
negative?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. WANTED: ΔH in kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization is a ΔH, but this ΔH is in J/g. Convert to the WANTED unit.
DATA: 2,260 J = 1 g H2O sublimated (2 measures of same process)
18.0 g H2O = 1 mol H2O (g H2O in data = grams prompt)
SOLVE: kJ = 2,260 J • 18.0 g H2O • 1 kJ = + 40.7 kJ
mol 1 g H2O 1 mol H2O 103 J mol H2O
If energy from the surroundings must be added, as is always true to change a liquid to its gas phase, ΔH
must be given a positive sign.
1b. WANTED: ΔG in kJ/mol (the units of ΔG and ΔH are the same)
DATA: + 40.7 kJ/mol = ΔH
100ºC = 373 K = T
109 J·mol─1·K─1 = ΔS = 0.109 kJ·mol─1·K─1 (make units consistent in DATA table)
SOLVE: The equation that uses all four of those symbols is
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS
ΔG = + 40.7 kJ/mol ─ (373 K)(+ 0.109 kJ·mol─1·K─1)

= + 40.7 kJ/mol ─ (40.7 kJ·mol─1)
= 0 kJ/mol = ΔG
Is the answer reasonable? At the boiling point of a liquid, in a closed system, equilibrium exists between
the liquid and gas phases. At equilibrium, ΔG = 0 .
2. The equation that relates these variable is ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS , and T must be positive.
then ΔG is And process goes

If ΔH is and ΔS is
(+ or ─ or ? ) fwd, backward, or ?
Positive (+) Negative (─) + backward
(+) (+) ? ?
(─) (─) ? ?
(─) (+) ─ forward

Practice B
1. To encourage a reaction to go, you want ΔG to be negative. ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS
a. When ΔH helps and ΔS hurts, decrease the importance of ΔS by lowering T.
b. If ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative, the (─ TΔS) term must be positive. Since both terms are
positive, and you need the result to be negative, the reaction does not go. Lowering the temperature
will make ΔG a smaller positive number, and may shift a mixture toward the products a bit, but the
mixture will favor the reactants.
2a. To boil water, heat must be added. The reaction is therefore endothermic, and ΔH must be positive.
2b. When a substance goes from a liquid to a gas, entropy increases. ΔS must be positive.
2c. From experience, we know that adding heat tends to make boiling go. Increasing temperature therefore
tends to make the ΔG of boiling negative.
From the equation ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS , since ΔH and ΔS are both positive, the way to make the ΔG more
likely to be negative is to increase T.
3. At 1.0 atm, water starts to boil at 100ºC. As temperature changes, for a chemical equation that is a phase
change, ΔG will switch between negative and positive (have a value of zero) at the temperature of the
phase change (such as the melting point or boiling point). At that temperature, if the system is closed (no
heat enters or leaves), the two phases are at equilibrium.
* * * * *
Lesson 36D: Standard State Values

The rules for standard states were covered in Lesson 22D. Let us briefly review.
Standard States
For thermodynamic measurements, for substances to be in their standard state,
• elements must be at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure and (in most cases) in the phase and/or
solid structure that is most stable.
• Compounds that are gases must be at one atmosphere pressure.
• Substances in solutions must have a concentration of one mol/L.
• Solid and liquid compounds are in their standard state under nearly all conditions if
they are in the form that is most stable at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure.
Standard conditions in thermodynamic calculations should assume a temperature of 25ºC
unless otherwise noted.
Standard State Enthalpy Values
Each substance has a characteristic value for its enthalpy of formation, symbolized as ΔHºf .
The º symbol means that the values apply to a substance in its standard state.
Absolute enthalpy cannot be measured, but we can measure changes in enthalpy (∆H). To
design a scale to calculate ∆H, each element in its standard state is arbitrarily assigned a
ΔHºf value of zero kJ/mol. This choice for zero is arbitrary but convenient: in calculations,
we can assign a ∆Hºf value of zero to every element by inspection.

The standard state enthalpy (∆Hºf) of each compound is then defined as the ∆H of its
formation reaction: the reaction in which one mole of the compound is formed from its
elements, with all substances in their standard states.
Example: The formation equation for carbon dioxide gas is
C(s) + O2(g) Æ CO2(g) ∆H = ΔHºf = ― 393.5 kJ/mol
The standard state enthalpy (∆Hºf) of a compound is the difference between its enthalpy and
the ∆Hºf = zero of its elements. A ∆Hºf value does not change with changes in temperature
and pressure as long as the substance remains in the same phase.
∆Hºf has a different value if the substance is in a different phase: its gas phase has a higher
enthalpy than its liquid phase, which has a higher enthalpy than its solid phase.
The symbol ΔH may be attached to any reaction. An enthalpy change may be given the
symbol ΔHº if all substances involved are in their standard states. The symbol ΔHºf
applies only to the heat of formation of a substance: the enthalpy change of its formation
reaction.
Standard State Entropy Values
Substances can also be assigned standard entropy (Sº) values. To do so, we start from the
Third Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy (S) of a perfect crystal of a substance is zero at absolute zero (0 K).
This definition of a zero point for entropy is logical. In a crystal with no deformities, the
particles of a substance are in their most ordered state possible.
In addition, at absolute zero, the motion of particles (their translation, vibration, and
rotation) is zero.
Unlike ∆H values, entropy values change with temperature. Compared to its perfect
crystal at absolute zero, the disorder of a substance increases as its temperature increases
because the motion of its particles increases. Motion makes it possible for the particles to
move to more positions, which increases their entropy.
Since any substance in a real situation will be warmer than absolute zero (which cannot be
reached), it will always have more motion than at absolute zero. Entropy values for a
substance in a real situation must therefore be higher than zero: positive numbers.
Every substance can be assigned a standard entropy value Sº that represents the entropy of
the substance at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure. Though Sº values will always be positive, the
change in S (ΔS) during a reaction or process may be positive or negative.
Tables of the thermodynamic characteristics of substances list ∆Hºf and Sº values for
compounds. The use of the Δ in front of the Hº but not the Sº is an indication that the
enthalpy values are relative to an arbitrary zero, while entropy values are relative to a
logical zero.

Since entropy varies with temperature, it is important to distinguish between generic

entropy S and standard state entropy Sº. However, ∆H and a ∆Hº values for a process will
usually be the same, since ∆H values are not temperature dependent.
Calculating Thermodynamic Changes During Reactions
If table values for ΔHºf and Sº for substances are known, the ΔH and ΔSº for chemical
reactions can be calculated. Two fundamental equations are the state functions:
ΔH = ΔHfinal ─ ΔHinitial and (Equation 7)
ΔSº = Sºfinal ─ Sºinitial (Equation 8)
In state functions, only the initial and final values matter.

When applying the equations above to chemical reactions,
• ΔHfinal = sum of (coefficient times ΔHºf product) terms = ∑cproducts ΔHºf products
• Sºinitial = the sum of the (coefficient times Sºreactant) terms = ∑creactants Sºreactants
To find the overall ΔH and ΔSº changes in a reaction, we can use

ΔHreaction = ∑cproducts ΔHºf products ─ ∑creactants ΔHºf reactants (Equation 9)
ΔSºreaction = ∑cproducts Sºproducts ─ ∑creactants Sºreactants (Equation 10)
The meaning of these equations will be more clear when applied to an example.
Q. For the reaction Substance ΔHºf Sº
2 CO(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) (kJ/mol) (J/mol·K)
carried out at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure, CO(g) ─ 110.5 198

based on the table at the right, calculate
a. ΔHreaction O2(g) 0 205
b. ΔSºreaction CO2(g) ─ 393.5 214

c. ΔGºreaction
Use equations 9 and 10 above. If you need a hint, read a part of the answer below, then
complete the problem.
* * * * *
a. WANTED: ΔHreaction
ΔHreaction = ∑ cproducts ΔHºf products ─ ∑ creactants ΔHºf reactants
= (2)( ΔHºf of CO2(g) ) ─ [ (2)(ΔHºf of CO(g)) + (1)(ΔHºf of O2(g)) ]
= (2 mol)( ─ 393.5 kJ/mol) ─ [ (2)( ─ 110.5) + (1)(0) ]

= ( ─ 787.0 kJ) ─ [( ─ 221.0) ] = ─ 566.0 kJ
For reactions, coefficients are in moles and ΔH values are in J or kJ .

b. WANTED: ΔSºreaction
ΔSºreaction = ∑cproducts Sºproducts ─ ∑creactants Sºreactants
= (2 mol )( 214 J/mol·K) ─ [ (2)(198) + (1)(205) ]

= ( 428 ) ─ [ 601 ] = ─ 173 J/K
For reactions, ΔS values are in J/K (or kJ/K) , with per moles shown understood.
Does the negative value for the entropy change makes sense? The rule is that the side with
more gas molecules has more entropy. In this reaction, we go from three gas molecules to
two. Going to fewer gas molecules, entropy should decrease, and it does.
c. WANTED: ΔGºreaction
Strategy: We know ΔH and ΔS for the reaction from parts a and b. What
known equation relates ΔG, ΔH, and ΔS?
* * * * *
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS is true for all values, whether in standard states or not.
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS = ─ 566.0 kJ ─ (298 K)( ─ 173 J/K)
= ─ 566.0 kJ ─ (─ 51,600 J)
= ─ 566.0 kJ + 51,600 J
These last two numbers cannot be added directly. If you leave out the units, you may miss
that the units are not consistent, and you may add them by mistake.
To add or subtract two values, they must have the same units (see Lesson 2D). In most
thermodynamic calculations, the arithmetic and significant figures will be easier if you
• include the units, watch the units, and
• early in each calculation, convert all J to kJ (by moving the decimal 3 places left).
For relatively simple equations, you do not need to write a DATA table with every
equation, but if you do not, you should convert to consistent units by inspection as early as
possible in the calculation. Whenever unit manipulations become complex, it is best to
write out a DATA table under each equation, then convert to consistent units in the table
before attempting to solve.
In the last addition line above, converting J to kJ by inspection, then finish.
* * * * *
ΔG = ─ 566.0 kJ + 51,600 J
= ─ 566.0 kJ + 51.6 kJ = ─ 514.4 kJ = ΔGº
Since all of the calculations in parts a, b, and c above are based on ΔHº and Sº values, the
calculated values of ΔG ΔH, ΔS are also ΔHº, ΔSº and ΔGº values, the values for these
variables at 1 atm pressure and 25ºC.

Summary: Rules For Standard State ΔH and ΔS Calculations

1. The entropy (S) of a perfect crystal of a substance is zero at absolute zero (0 K).
2. ΔHreaction = ∑ cproducts ΔHºf products ─ ∑ creactants ΔHºf reactants
3. ΔSºreaction = ∑ cproducts Sºproducts ─ ∑ creactants Sºreactants
Practice: Learn the rules above, then try the problem.

1. ─ 26.0 kJ + 29.0 J =
2. For the Haber Process reaction
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) Æ 2 NH3(g) ΔHºf Sº
Substance
carried out at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure, (kJ/mol) (J/mol·K)
a. Based on the equation above, predict N2(g) 0 192

whether the change in entropy will
be positive or negative. Explain H2(g) 0 131
your reasoning.
b. Use the table values at the right to NH3(g) ─ 46 193
calculate
i. ΔHreaction ii. ΔSºreaction iii. ΔGºreaction
c. Was your prediction for the sign of the change in entropy correct?
ANSWERS
1. ─ 26.3 kJ + 29.0 J = ─ 26.3 kJ + 0.0290 kJ = ─ 26.271 kJ = ─ 26.3 kJ
(When adding, round to the highest place with doubt.)
2. a. The reaction goes from 4 moles of gas to 2 moles. Entropy should decrease; the change in
entropy (ΔS) should be a negative number.
bi. WANTED: ΔHreaction
ΔHreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔHºf product ─ ∑ creactant ΔHºf reactant
= (2 mol)( ─ 46 kJ/mol) ─ [ (1)(0) + (3)( 0) ]
= ( ─ 92 kJ) ─ [ 0 ] = ─ 92 kJ
For reactions that make more than one mole of one product, coefficients are in moles and ΔH
values are in J or kJ .
bii. WANTED: ΔSºreaction
S values are temperature dependent, but since this reaction is run at standard thermodynamic
conditions, and the values in the table are Sº values, the table values may be used to solve.

ΔSºreaction = ∑ cproduct Sºproduct ─ ∑ creactans Sºreactant

= (2 mol)( 193 J/mol·K) ─ [ (1)(192) + (3)( 131) ]
= ( 386 J/K ) ─ [ 192 + 393 ] = 386 ─ 585 = ─ 199 J/K
For reactions that make more than one mole of one product, coefficients are in moles and ΔS
values are in J/K , per moles shown.
biii. WANTED: ΔGºreaction
Strategy: We know ΔH and ΔS for the reaction from parts a and b. What known equation
relates ΔG, ΔH, and ΔS?
ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS = ─ 92 kJ ─ (298 K)( ─ 199 J/K)
= ─ 92 kJ ─ (─ 59,300 J)
= ─ 92 kJ + 59.3 kJ
ΔG = ─ 33 kJ = ΔGº
The reaction made 2 moles of ammonia. Per mole, this ΔG would be ─16 kJ/mol .
Since all values were for substances in their standard states, this ΔG is also a ΔGº.
c. ΔSreaction was predicted to be negative, and it is.
* * * * *
Lesson 36E: Adding ∆G° Equations

Prerequisites: If you have any difficulties with this lesson, review Lesson 22C on Hess’s
Law and 22D on formation reactions.
* * * * *
ΔGº Versus ΔH
ΔGº values for chemical reactions were calculated in the previous lesson using table values
for ΔHº and Sº. A second way to calculate ΔGº values for reactions is to add the ΔGºf
values for substances.
Both ΔH and ΔG are state functions: dependent on only the characteristic values of the
initial state (reactants) and final state (products). This means that many of the rules that
apply to ΔH calculations can be applied to ΔG calculations.
If the ΔGº of a reaction is known, ΔGºreaction values
• have the same units as ΔH;
• are written after the reaction with a positive or negative sign;
• change sign when the reaction is written backwards;
• multiply when coefficients are multiplied;
• can be added in the same way that ΔH values were added using Hess’s law, and

• can be calculated by the summation method using

ΔGºreaction = ∑cproduct ΔGºf product ─ ∑creactant ΔGºf reactant (Eq. 11)
Also similar to ΔH,
• the ΔGºf for elements in their standard state (at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure) is defined
as zero kJ/mol , and
• the ΔGºf for compounds, which can be found in tables, is equal to the change in
free energy that occurs in the formation reaction: in which one mole of the
compound is formed at 25ºC and 1 atm from elements in their standard state.
As in ΔH calculations, the SI units of ΔG that are attached to chemical reactions:
• Assume that coefficients are in moles;
• Are written as J or kJ , with “per moles shown” understood; and
• May also be written as J/mol or as kJ/mol if referencing one mole of one substance.
Unlike ΔH values, ΔG values change with temperature. However, since ΔGº values must
be measured at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure, temperature is a factor in ΔG calculations, but is
not a factor in ΔGº calculations.
The above rules can be summarized by this general rule:
For calculations reversing, multiplying, or adding reaction equations with ΔGº

values attached, follow the rules for ΔH.
Try this problem. If you need a hint, read a part of the answer below, then finish.
Q. If 2 SO2 (g) + O2(g) Æ 2 SO3(g) ΔGº = ─ 142 kJ
and ΔGºf for SO2(g) = ─ 300. kJ , calculate ΔGºf for SO3(g) .
* * * * *
Hint 1: When given a mixture of ΔGº equations and ΔGºf values, use the Hess’s law
method to solve.
* * * * *
Hint 2: Write out the formation equations and attach their ΔGºf values.
* * * * *
Hint 3: WANT: 1/8 S8(s) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ 1 SO3(g) ΔGº = ? (formation rxn.)
* * * * *
Hint 4: WANT: 1/8 S8(s) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ SO3(g) ΔGº = ?
--------------------------
1/8 S8(s) + 1 O2(g) Æ 1 SO2(g) ΔGº = ─ 300. kJ
* * * * *

WANT: 1/8 S8(s) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ 1 SO3(g) ΔGº = ? (formation rxn.)

--------------------------
1/8 S8(s) + 1 O2(g) Æ 1 SO2(g) ΔGº = ─ 300. kJ (formation rxn.)
1 SO2 (s) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ 1 SO3(g) ΔGº = ─ 71 kJ (1/2 of given rxn.)

_________________________________________________
1/8 S8(s) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ 1 SO3(g) ΔGº = ─ 371 kJ/mol = ΔGºf
Since the WANTED reaction makes a single mole of product, the unit may be kJ or kJ/mol.
Note that in combustion reactions, if we do not worry about the O2 until the final adding of
the reactions, the final O2 coefficient serves as a check that the added equations are correct.
Practice: Learn the rules above, then try these problems.

1. If N2(g) + 4 H2(g) + Cl2(g) Æ 2 NH4Cl(s) ΔGº = ─ 406 kJ ,
find ΔGºf for NH4Cl(s) .
2. Use the values in the table to find ΔGº for Substance ΔGºf (kJ/mol)
2 NO(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 NO2(g)
NO(g) + 87
NO2(g) + 52
3. Given this ΔGº for the burning of methyl alcohol,

CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g) Æ 1 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ΔGº = ─ 686 kJ
plus the free energies of formation for the Substance ΔGºf (kJ/mol)
compounds on the right, find the free energy of
formation of the methyl alcohol. H2O(g) ─ 229
CO2(g) ─ 394
ANSWERS
1. The given reaction makes 2 moles of NH4Cl(s). A ΔGºf will be for the formation reaction of NH4Cl(s),
which is the given reaction multiplied by 1/2. ΔGºf = 1/2 x ─ 406 kJ = ─ 203 kJ/mol
2. As with ΔH , there are two ways to find ΔGº : adding the equations by the Hess’s law method, or using the
summation equation. If you know the ΔGºf values (here you do), summation is generally faster.
A key is: elements in their standard state, such as O2(g), have ΔGºf = 0 .
ΔGºreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔGºf product ─ ∑ creactant ΔGºf reactant
= (2 mol)( + 52 kJ/mol ) ─ [ (2)( + 87 ) + (1)( 0) ]

= ( +104 kJ ) ─ [ + 174 ] = ─ 70. kJ

3. The substance being burned (reacted with O2) is CH3OH .

When given a mixture of ΔGº equations and ΔGºf values, use the Hess’s law method to solve.
WANT: 1 C(s) + 2 H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ 1 CH3OH(l) ΔGº = ? (formation rxn.)
--------------------------
1 C(s) + 1 O2(g) Æ 1 CO2(g) ΔGº = ─ 394 kJ (formation rxn.)
1 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) Æ CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g) ΔGº = + 686 kJ (given reversed)
2 H2 (g) + 1 O2(g) Æ 2 H2O(g) ΔGº = ─ 458 kJ (formation x 2)
_____________________________________________________________
1 C(s) + 2 H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) Æ 1 CH3OH(l) ΔGº = ─ 166 kJ/mol = ΔGºf
* * * * *
Lesson 36F: Free Energy at Non-Standard Conditions

Prerequisites: You may want to review Lesson 27D on natural logs (ln) to complete the
calculations in this lesson.
* * * * *
The Non-Standard Free Energy of Reactions
For a reaction involving either gases that are not at standard (1 atm) pressure or solutions
that are not at 1 mol/L concentration, the free energy change can be calculated using
ΔGreaction = ΔGºreaction + RT ln(Q) (Equation 12)
In this equation, Q is the reaction quotient: the value obtained when concentrations or partial
pressures are substituted into the K expression for the reaction (see Lesson 28H).
Let’s learn how to use this equation by example.
Q. Using Equation 12 and the table values at the right, Substance ΔGºf (kJ/mol)
find the ΔGrxn. at 25ºC for
2 CO(g) + O2(g) Æ 2 CO2(g) CO2(g) ─ 394
with gas partial pressures = 2.0 atm for each CO(g) ─ 137
reactant and 10.0 atm for CO2.
Solving with equation 12, especially the first time, let us use our methodical steps.
1. Write the WANTED symbol and unit.
2. Write the equation that uses the WANTED and DATA symbols. Below the equation,
list in a data table each symbol in the equation.
3. Fill in the data table. If needed, either in the data table if it fits, or below the table, solve
to find the value of each symbol in the table. Put a ? after the WANTED symbol.
Do those steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *

WANT: ΔGrxn. in kJ (Since the table data is in kJ, pick a consistent WANTED unit)
DATA: ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q) is the one equation we know using ΔGrxn.
A condition for the use of this equation: it solves based the coefficients of the balanced
equation in moles. Though the units used during the calculation may be per mole, for a
reaction, the final units will be J or kJ, with per moles shown by the coefficients as understood.
ΔGrxn. in kJ = ? = WANTED
ΔGºrxn. =
R =
T =
ln(Q) =
Below the DATA table, do any long calculations needed to fill in the DATA.
a. to find ΔG°rxn., use the summation equation. Do that step, then check below.
* * * * *
ΔGºreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔGºf product ─ ∑ creactants Gºf reactant
= (2 mol )( ─ 394 kJ/mol) ─ [ (1)(0) + (2)( ─ 137) ]
= (─ 788 kJ ) ─ [─ 274 ] = ─ 514 kJ
The unit for ΔGº for a reaction can be J or kJ , with per moles shown as understood.
b. R = ?
We need a value for R. We have used several in the past, including
R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K = 8.31 kPa·L/mol·K = 62.4 L·torr/mol·K
Which is the best R term to start from in this problem so that units are consistent?
* * * * *
Since the problem has pressure units in atm, start from the R that uses atm.
R = 0.08206 L·atm/mol·K
(To help with rounding, we will use a more precise R here)
However, by the end of a ΔGrxn. problem, to have consistent units, we will need to
convert the unit liter·atm in R to joules. To do so, use the PV-work conversion
1 liter • atmosphere = 101.3 joules
We will need this new R value in every ΔGrxn. problem. Try the conversion now.
Q. Convert 0.08206 L·atm/mol·K to J/mol·K .

* * * * *

WANTED = ? J = 0.08206 L·atm • 101.3 J = 8.314 J/mol·K

mol·K mol·K 1 L·atm
The rule will be: in ΔGrxn. or other problems that mix joules and R, use
R = 8.31 J/mol·K or 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (Equation 13)

In each problem, choose the R value that has units consistent with other DATA.
Which value should be entered in the DATA table for this problem?
* * * * *
R = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K is consistent with the unit supplied.
Continuing to fill in the DATA table for the equation,
c. T in K = ?
* * * * *
T in K = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
d. ln(Q) = ? An important rule is:
When K or Q are calculated:

• Gas pressures must be measured in atmospheres.
• Concentrations must be measured in moles/liter.
• Concentrations and pressures for solids, solvents, and pure liquids are given
values of 1.
• Values are substituted into K and Q expressions without units.
This rule assures that Q calculations are based on units that are consistent with the
defined standard conditions of one atmosphere pressure and one mole/liter concentration.
Calculate a value for Q in this problem, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
To find Q, substitute the gas partial pressures into the K expression for the reaction.
* * * * *
2
Q = ( P CO2 ) =
(P CO)2 • (P O2)
* * * * *
2 2
Q = ( P CO2 ) = (10.0) = 100. = 12.5
(P CO)2 • (P O2) (2.0)2 (2.0) 8
Now solve ln(Q) .

* * * * *
ln(Q) = ln(12.5) = + 2.526
Especially in logarithmic calculations, it is a good idea to carry an extra significant
figure until the final step of a sequential calculation.

With the DATA table now complete, solve for the WANTED symbol.
* * * * *
ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q)
= ─ 514 kJ/mol + (0.00831 kJ/mol·K)(298 K)( + 2.526 )

= ─ 514 kJ/mol + 6.26 kJ/mol
= ─ 508 kJ (for reactions, units include per moles shown as understood)
Done!
Let’s summarize.
If ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q) is the equation, use this DATA table:
ΔGrxn. in kJ (per moles shown) =
ΔGºrxn. in kJ = (find using ∑ with table values or ΔGº = ΔHº ─ TΔSº )
R = 8.31 J/mol·K or 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (choose the one with consistent units)
T in K = ºC + 273 =
ln(Q) = (use gas P converted to atm, [ ] to M, solid = liquid = 1 , and no units)
Practice:Learn the rules in the summary above, then apply the rules to these problems
from memory.
1. Using the table values at the right, Substance ΔGºf (kJ/mol)
a. find ΔGºrxn. for N2O4(g) Æ 2 NO2(g)
N2O4(g) + 98
b. find the ΔGrxn. at 25ºC, with partial pressures of
101 kPa for N2O4 and 505 kPa for NO2 . NO2(g) + 51
2. Under standard-state conditions,

a. all terms substituted into a K expression to calculate Q have what value and units?
b. Under those standard-state conditions, what is the calculated value for Q ?
c. Using the Q value in part b, simplify ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q) .
ANSWERS
1a. To find ΔGº rxn. from table values, use the summation equation.
ΔGºrxn. = ∑ cproducts ΔGºf products ─ ∑ creactants ΔGºf reactants
= (2 mol )( + 51 kJ/mol) ─ [ (1)( + 98)) ]
= (+ 102) ─ [ 98 ] = + 4 kJ

1b. If ΔG rxn. and ΔGº rxn. are in the data, the equation is likely to be
ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q) If that is the equation, use this data table:
ΔGrxn. in kJ/mol = ?
ΔGºrxn. in kJ/mol = + 4 kJ from part a
R = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (Choose the R with consistent units)
T in K = 298 K
ln(Q) =
Q = ? = ( PNO2 )2
( PN2O4 )
(substitute gas pressures converted to atm, concentrations to M, solid = liquid = 1 )
? P N O in atm = 101 kPa = 1.00 atm by definition
2 4
? P NO2 in atm = 505 kPa • 1 atm = 5.00 atm

101 kPa
K = ( PNO2 )2 = Q = (5.00)2 = 25.0

( PN2O4) (1.0)
ln(Q) = ln(25) = + 3.22

ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q)
= + 4 kJ/mol + 0.00831 kJ/mol·K(298 K)( + 3.22)

= + 4 kJ/mol + 7.97 kJ/mol
= + 12 kJ/moles shown (adding; doubt in ones place)
2a. Under standard-state conditions, solution concentrations = 1 M and gas pressures = 1 atm . All solid and
liquid concentrations and pressures are assigned a value of 1 in the Q equation. Since units are omitted
when calculating K and Q , the value for all terms under standard conditions = 1 without units.
2b. Under standard-state conditions, Q is a ratio in which all of the values are 1, so Q = 1 .
2c. ln(Q) = ln(1) = ln(e0) = 0 , so ΔGrxn.= ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q) = ΔGrxn.= ΔGºrxn.+ RT(0) = ΔGºrxn.
Under standard-state conditions, ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn.

* * * * *

Lesson 36G: Free Energy and K

Prerequisites: You may want to review Lesson 27D on natural logs (both e and ln
functions) for the calculations in this lesson.
* * * * *
ΔG and Equilibrium
For reactions with a very large K, equilibrium so strongly favors the products that a
limiting reactant is close to 100% used up. Reaction calculations can then be handled by the
relatively simple steps of stoichiometry. Stoichiometry solves reaction calculations quickly
when compared to the WRECK steps and/or rice tables needed in K calculations.
However, even for reactions that strongly favor the reactants or products, a very large or
very small K value can be written.
In a closed system,
• all reaction mixtures go to equilibrium,
• at equilibrium, ΔG = 0 , and
• in a reaction mixture that is at equilibrium, Q = K.
Therefore, since ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q)
at equilibrium, this equation becomes ΔGrxn. = 0 = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(K)
Or, to simplify: ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K) (Equation 14)
In calculations using gas partial pressures, the K is a Kp. For calculations based on
concentrations, , the K is a Kc. If the K type is unspecified, Kc is understood.
Equation 14 means that knowing values for any two of the three variables in the equation:
ΔGºrxn., T, or K, we can calculate the third.
Try this example.

Q. For a reaction at 25ºC and standard pressure, ΔGºrxn. = ─20.0 kJ. What is the K
value for the reaction?
* * * * *
WANT: K
The equation that links ΔGºrxn. and K is ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
DATA: ΔGºrxn. = ─20.0 kJ
R = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K
T in K = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
ln(K) = ?
SOLVE:

ln(K) = ΔGºrxn. = ΔGºrxn. • 1 • 1 = ─20.0 kJ • mol·K • 1 = + 8.076

─ RT ─R T mol ─ 0.00831 kJ 298 K
Separating the terms in the formula helps with unit cancellation (see Lesson 17C).
Since x = eln(x) , K = eln(K) = e(8.076) = 3,220 = 3.22 x 103 = K
Finding K from ΔGºf Table Values
Small values for concentrations and pressures can be difficult to determine experimentally.
As a result, values for equilibrium constants can be difficult to determine directly.
Equation 14 is especially important because it allows us to calculate equilibrium constants
from values that can be calculated by other means. If ΔGºf values are known (and many
can be looked up in tables), a ΔGºreaction value can be found using the summation
equation. From ΔGºreaction, a K value can be calculated.
Try this example.
Q. For the Haber Process reaction, Substance ΔGºf (kJ/mol)
a. find ΔGºrxn. for
NH3(g) ─ 16.7
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) Æ 2 NH3(g)
b. find the value K value for the reaction at standard temperature.

* * * * *
a. Given free energies of formation, either use the summation reaction.
ΔGºrxn. = ∑cproducs ΔGºf product ─ ∑creactant ΔGºf reactant
= (2 mol )( ─ 16.7 kJ/mol) ─ [ (1)(0) + (3)( 0) ]

= (─ 33.4 kJ) ─ [0] = ─ 33.4 kJ per stated moles
or, since this reaction is double the formation equation, double ΔGºf .
b. The equation that links ΔGºrxn. and K is ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
DATA: ΔGºrxn. = ─ 33.4 kJ from part a

R = 8.31 J/mol·K = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K
T in K = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
ln(K) = ?
* * * * *
SOLVE:
ln(K) = ΔGºrxn. = ─33.4 kJ • mol·K • 1 = + 13.49 = ln(K)

─ RT mol ─ 0.00831 kJ 298 K
WANTED = K = eln(K) = e(13.49) = 7.22 x 106 = K

To summarize:
If ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K) is the equation, use this data table:
ΔGºrxn. in kJ = (find using ∑ with table values or ΔGº = ΔHº ─ TΔSº )
R = 8.31 J/mol·K or 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (use the one with consistent units)
T in K = ºC + 273 =
ln(K) = To find K, first find ln(K), then use K = eln(K)
Practice: Commit to memory equation 14, then try these problems.

1. If K = 1 for a reaction, calculate ΔGºrxn.. (You should not need a calculator).
2. In mammals, internal temperature is generally 38ºC. At this temperature, ΔGºrxn. for

H2O(l) ÅÅ Æ H+(aq) + OH─(aq) is 80.5 kJ . Find the value of K for this reaction at
mammalian normal temperature.
3. For Fe(s) + 3/2 O2(g) ÅÆ Fe2O3(s) , at 25ºC, ΔHºrxn. = ─ 826 kJ and K = 2.6 x 10130 .
Find the value of Sºrxn.
4. Complete this problem if you are majoring in the physical sciences or engineering.
If 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 newton/meter2, 1 newton = 1 kg · m · s─2, 1 joule = 1 kg · m2 · s─2,
and one atm = 101 kPa, use those equalities to calculate the number of joules in
one liter · atm.
ANSWERS
1. WANT: ΔGºrxn.
Know: T, K
The equation that relates those variables is ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
DATA:
ΔGºrxn. in kJ = ?
R = 8.31 J/mol·K = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (pick consistent units)
T in K = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
ln(K) = ln(1) = ln(e0) = 0 ,
This simplifies ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K) to ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT (0) = 0 = ΔGºrxn.
At standard conditions, all terms in a Q equation have a value of 1, so Q = 1. If the value of K is also one,
then when conditions are standard, the system is at equilibrium, and ΔG = ΔGº. = 0 .

2. WANT: K
Know: T, ΔGºrxn.
The equation that relates those variables is ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
DATA:
ΔGºrxn. in kJ = + 80.5 kJ
R = 8.31 J/mol·K = 0.00831 kJ/mol·K (pick consistent units)
T in K = 38ºC + 273 = 311 K
ln(K) = ΔGºrxn. = + 80.5 kJ • mol·K • 1 = ─ 31.14
─ RT mol ─ 0.00831 kJ 311 K
SOLVE: WANTED = K = eln(K) = e(─31.14) = 2.97 x 10─14 = K = Kw
At 25ºC, Kw = 1.0 x 10─14 . At higher temperatures, more HOH bonds break, [ions] are higher, and Kw
is higher.
3. WANT: Sºrxn. Know: T, K, ΔHº
The equations that relates those variables are ΔGº = ΔHº ─ TΔSº and ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
You can combine the equations, but if you choose to solve them separately, the math will be more familiar.
First solve the equation that has one unknown value. Which equation is that?
* * * * *
Since you know R, T, and K, use them find ΔGºrxn.
DATA: ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
ΔGºrxn. in kJ = ?
R = 8.31 J/mol·K or 0.00831 kJ/mol·K
T in K = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
ln(K) = ln( 2.6 x 10130 ) = 300.
ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
= ─ 0.00831 kJ/mol·K(298 K)( + 300.)

= ─ 0.00831 kJ/mol·K(298 K)( + 300.)
= ─ 743 kJ/mol = ΔGºrxn.
Now solve ΔGº = ΔHº ─ TΔSº for ΔSº .
ΔSº = ΔGº ─ ΔHº = ─ 743 kJ ─ (─826 kJ) = ─ 0.279 kJ/K

─T ─298 K
ΔSº = ─ 279 joules/K , or since one mole of product is formed, ─ 279 joules/mol·K
Either J or kJ can be used in the answer unit.

4. Suggested strategy: Convert all units to SI base units: kg, m, s; cancel units that are not those units.
* * * * *
Hint: 1 liter = 1 dm3
* * * * *
? joule = ? kg · m2 · s─2 = 1 liter · atm
* * * * *
? joules = ? kg · m2 · s─2 = 1 liter · atm ·· 1 dm3 · 1m 3 ·
1L (
10 dm )
* * * * *
? kg · m2 · s─2 = 1 L· atm · 1 dm3 · 1 m3 · 101 x 103 Pa · 1 N · m─2 · 1 kg · m · s─2 =
1L 103 dm3 1 atm 1 Pa 1N
= 101 kg · m2 · s─2 = 101 joules
This calculation verifies that 1 L· atm = 101 joules .
* * * * *
Summary: Thermodynamics
Energy and Enthalpy
1. Energy is the capacity to do work.
2. The first law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
In any physical or chemical process, ΔEuniverse = Efinal ─ Einitial = 0
3. Energy (E), heat (q), and work (w) in the SI system are measured in joules and (in
chemistry) from the perspective of the system.
4. In any physical or chemical change: ∆Esystem = q + w
6. In converting from PV work units to energy units: 1 liter • atm = 101 joules
7. If no subscript is given after a thermodynamic symbol, assume the subscript is system.
8. The definition of enthalpy (H): H = E + PV
9. Hfinal ─ Hinitial = ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV) if work is limited to PV work.
10. If external P is held constant and work is limited to PV work, ∆H measures heat flow
into or out of the system. ΔH = q .

Entropy
1. Entropy (S): Comparing two systems, in the system with higher entropy, the particles
• are in arrangements that are more probable; mixed, random, or chaotic;
• are less well ordered;
• have more freedom of motion or positions for the particles to occupy.
• Gas particles of a substance have higher entropy than solid particles.
• Other variables being equal, a gas has more entropy at lower pressure and higher
volume.
• In a chemical reaction, the side of the balanced equation that has more gas molecules
(determined by adding the gas particle coefficients) generally has higher entropy.
2. The second law of thermodynamics: A process will be spontaneous if it increases the
entropy of the universe.
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings = Positive for spontaneous change
3. The units of ΔS, per mole, are joules per (mol·K), written as J/mol·K or J·mol─1·K─1.
4. Systems tend to go to lower enthalpy and higher entropy.
5. ΔSsurroundings = ─ ΔHsys. when P and T are constant, and T is absolute.

T
6. ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem ─ ΔHsys. = Positive for spontaneous change

T (applies if P and T are held constant)
Standard State ΔH and ΔS Calculations
1. The third law of thermodynamics: Entropy (S) of a perfect crystal of a substance at
absolute zero is zero.
2. ΔHreaction = ∑ cproduct ΔHºf product ─ ∑ creactant ΔHºf reactant
3. ΔSºreaction = ∑ cproduct Sºproduct ─ ∑ creactant Sºreactant
Free Energy
1. G is the symbol for free energy. ΔG is the energy of the system that is available to do
work.
2. G = H ─ TS and at constant temperature, ΔG = ΔH ─ TΔS .
3. When referencing a single substance, the unit of ΔG may be joules or joules/mole.

When referencing more than one substance, the unit of ΔG is joules .
4. For a process at constant temperature and pressure:
• if ΔG is positive, the process will go backward or not go (favors the reactants).

if ΔG is zero, no net change occurs (the process is at equilibrium).

6. At the T and P of a phase change in a closed system, equilibrium exists between the
phases, and ΔG = 0 .
7. When trying to shift a reaction direction, to make the entropy change more important,
raise the temperature.
8. For calculations reversing, multiplying, or adding reaction equations with ΔGº values
attached, follow the rules for ΔH.
9. ΔGºrxn can be calculated by the summation method using
ΔGºrxn = ∑ cproduct ΔGºf product ─ ∑ creactant ΔGºf reactant
Free Energy, Q, and K

1. ΔGrxn. = ΔGºrxn. + RT ln(Q)
2. In problems that mix joules and R, use R = 8.31 J/mol·K or 0.00831 kJ/mol·K
3. When K or Q are calculated, gas pressures must be converted to atmospheres,
concentrations must be in moles/liter, and units are omitted. For solids, solvents, and
pure liquids, pressures and concentrations = 1
4. ΔGºrxn. = ─ RT ln(K)
# # # # #

Module 37 — Electrochemistry
* * * * *
Module 37: Electrochemistry
Module 38: Electrochemical Cells

© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page i

Table of Contents
Lesson 6A: Atoms.....................................................................................................................99
Lesson 8A: The Mole..............................................................................................................154
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page ii


Module 11 – Molarity .................................................................................................... 224
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page iii


Module 20 – Graphing...................................................................................................477
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Lesson 23A: Waves ................................................................................................................. 600
Module 25 – Bonding ................................................................................................... 648
Module 27 – Kinetics ..................................................................................................... 715
Lesson 28D: K Values ............................................................................................................. 813
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Module 33 – Buffers .......................................................................................................960
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page vi


•••••
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page vii

Prerequisites: If you have not already done so, complete Modules 15 and 16 before starting
Module 37.
Timing: Some textbooks begin their electrochemical unit with cells and batteries. These
lessons cover cells and batteries in the next module. However, if you finish Module 37
before Module 38, battery calculations should be easier to understand.
* * * * *
Lesson 37A: Redox Fundamentals

Pretest: This lesson will refresh your memory on the fundamentals of redox reactions from
Modules 15 and 16. Even if you recall those topics well, do at least the last problem on all
four problem sets in this lesson. Certain topics are emphasized here that will be especially
important in Modules 37 and 38. If you have any difficulty with the problems in this
lesson, review Modules 15 and 16.
* * * *
Introduction
Redox reactions are of particular interest in chemistry because they can both store and
release electrical energy. Batteries based on redox reactions have long been used for a range
of purposes from flashlights to starting cars. More recently, thanks to chemical research,
new types of batteries have been developed with improved safety and re-chargeability.
These electrochemical cells power the hybrid vehicles, laptops, cell phones, and personal
music systems that define our modern age.
Redox Review
As a part of this review, you may want to re-run your flashcards from Modules 15 and 16.
1. Oxidation numbers. Oxidation numbers answer the question: If each atom in a
particle were an ion, what would be its charge? Most atoms are not ions, but assigning
oxidation numbers can help in tracking the movement of electrons that is the key to
understanding redox reactions.
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers (Ox#) to individual atoms are as follows.
a. In an element, each atom has an Ox# of zero.
b. In a monatomic ion, the Ox# of the atom is its charge.
c. In other types of particles:
i. Each O atom is assigned ─2 (except in peroxides, where O = ─1).
ii. Each H is +1, except in metallic hydrides, where H is ─1.
iii. Each alkali metal atom is +1. Each column 2 atom is +2.
iv. Other Ox# are assigned so that the ∑ Ox# = the overall charge on the particle.
d. The Ox# of an individual atom in a particle is the total of the Ox# for the atoms of
that kind, divided by the number of atoms of that kind.
© 2009 ChemReview.Net v1n Page 1110

Practice A: Do and check 1a. Then do every other letter, and more if you need more
practice. For a more detailed rule review, see Lesson 15A.
1. Fill in the oxidation number of the atom shown.
a. BrO3─ Br = ________ b. Co2+ Co = _______
c. KMnO4 Mn = _______ d. ZnBr2 Zn = ________
e. I2 I = _______ f. NO3─ N = ________
g. S2O82─ S = _______ h. IO─ I = ________
i. LiH H = _______ j. NH3 N = ________
2. Redox terminology.
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
• Reduction is the gain of electrons.
• A redox reaction is an electron transfer: one or more electrons move from one
particle to another. In redox reactions,
o reducing agents are particles that lose their electrons (and are oxidized) by giving
electrons to other particles;
o oxidizing agents are particles that gain electrons (and are reduced) by removing
electrons from other particles.
3. Labeling redox components.
a. Redox reactions are reversible: in a closed system, reactions go to equilibrium.
b. Each side of a redox reaction equation has a one reducing agent (RA) and one oxidizing
agent (OA).
c. If an atom that is changing oxidation number is part of particle that is a reducing
agent on one side of a redox reaction equation, that atom is part of the oxidizing
agent on the other.
d. The RA and OA on each side of a redox equation can be labeled by
• assigning oxidation numbers to atoms,
• identifying the two atoms that change oxidation number, and
• labeling the particles that contain those atoms: particles with atoms that lose
electrons as they react are RA, those that gain are OA.
d. In redox reactions, assume metals are solid (s) and ions are in aqueous solution (aq)
unless otherwise noted.
Commit to memory the definitions and behaviors of oxidizing agents and reducing agents
in points 2 and 3 above.

Then, below each of the following reactions, label two particles as oxidizing agents (OA)
and two particles as reducing agents (RA). If you are unsure about your answer to
Question 1, check it before completing Question 2.
Q1. Cu2+ + Pb Å Æ Cu + Pb+2
Q2. H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ MnO2 + H2O + Cl2
* * * * *
A1. Assign oxidation numbers, then label the particles.
+2 0 (Cu gains 2 electrons)
0 +2 (Pb loses two electrons)
Cu2+ + Pb Å Æ Cu + Pb+2
OA RA RA OA
Each side must have one reducing agent and one oxidizing agent. The Pb metal
atom gives up two electrons in going to the right: Pb is therefore acting as the
reducing agent on the left side, and the Pb atom must be part of the oxidizing agent
on the other. The Cu metal gives away two electrons when the reaction goes to
the left, making Cu the reducing agent on the right side.
A2. Identify the atoms that change oxidation number.
+7 +4 (Mn gains 3 electrons)
─1 0 (each Cl loses one electron)
H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ MnO2 + H2O + Cl2
OA RA RA OA
Since Mn gains electrons, it is being reduced in going to the right and is an
oxidizing agent. Each chloride ion loses an electron in going to the right, so it is
being oxidized and is a reducing agent.
Going backward, the Mn atom on the right must lose 3 electrons to go left, so it is
acting as an RA. Each neutral chlorine atom on the right gains an electron going
to the left, so it is acting as an OA. If the atom that is changing its oxidation
number is in a reducing agent on one side, it must be in the oxidizing agent on the
other.
Practice B
1. Define oxidation. 2. Define an oxidizing agent.
3. For each of the following reactions, label two particles as oxidizing agents (OA) and
two particles as reducing agents (RA), then circle the reactant particle being oxidized.
a. Sn4+ + Cu Æ Cu2+ + Sn2+
b. Ba + 2 H+ Æ H2 + Ba2+

c. 2 Al + 3 ZnCl2 Æ 2 AlCl3 + 3 Zn
d. 4 As + 3 HBrO3 + 6 H2O Æ 4 H3AsO3 + 3 HBrO
4. Half-reactions. A redox reaction can be separated into two half-reactions. One half-
reaction shows the gain of electrons for the reactant that is an oxidizing agent, the other
shows the loss of electrons for the reactant that is a reducing agent.
Half-reactions include the symbol e─ showing the number of electrons gained or lost.
Half-reactions must be balanced for atoms and charge. Electrons count when balancing
charge, but they do not affect the balancing of atoms.
5. Balancing Half-reactions. Half-reactions can be balanced by trial and error. If H
and O atoms must be added to balance half-reactions that are carried out in aqueous
solutions, use the CA-WHe! method:
a. First balance the central atom (CA), usually one not O or H. Then,
b. Add Water to balance oxygen, H+ to balance the hydrogen, and electrons to
balance charge.
6. To balance half-reactions using OH─ instead H+ ions, first balance by CA-WHe, then
neutralize H+ by adding OH─ equally to both sides, then adjust H O on both sides.
2
7 Half-reactions can be used to label the oxidizing and reducing agent in a redox
reaction. If a half-reaction has
• electrons on the right, one of the particles on the left is an RA that contains an atom
releasing electrons, and the particle on the right that contains that atom is an OA;
• electrons on the left, one of the particles on the left is an OA that contains an atom
gaining electrons, and the particle on the right that contains that atom is an RA.
Practice C: Do every other letter, and more if you need more practice. For a detailed
review of redox balancing using half-reactions, see Lessons 16A and 16B.
1. Balance these half-reactions for atoms and charge.
a. H2 Æ H+ b. S2O32─ Æ S4O62─
c. Hg22+ Æ Hg2+ d. Pb4+ Æ Pb2+
2. Balance these half-reactions by the CA-WHe! method.
a. Cr3+ Æ CrO42─
b. IO3─ Æ I2

c. Ag Æ Ag+
d. SO2 Æ SO42─
3. Balance these half-reactions by adding OH─, H2O , and electrons as needed.
a. Cr3+ Æ Cr2O72─
b. MnO4─ Æ Mn2+
4. Which reactant is the reducing agent in a. Problem 1d.

b. Problem 2b. c. Problem 2d. d. Problem 3b.
8. All reactions may be balanced by trial and error. Only one set of ratios will balance an
equation. Redox reaction equations may be balanced by two additional methods: by
balancing oxidation numbers and by adding balanced half-reactions. Half-reaction
addition is the technique used most often in electrochemical calculations.
9. To balance redox reactions by adding half-reactions, the steps are
a. Balance each half-reaction.
b. Multiply each half-reaction by an LCD to get the same number of electrons in both.
The number of electrons lost in one half-reaction must equal the number gained by
the other.
c. Add the two half-reactions. Cancel like terms on both sides. Like numbers of
electrons on each side must cancel.
10. Redox reactions can be divided into half-reactions to assist in balancing.
a. Find the two atoms that change their Ox# in the reaction.
b. Write two separate half-reactions, one for each atom changing Ox#.
c. Balance then add the half-reactions.
d. Add spectator ions if needed, then adjust the trial coefficients to balance atoms
and charge with the spectators included.
Practice D: For a more detailed review of half-reactions, see Module 16.

1. Balance each half-reaction, then add to get a balanced redox reaction.
a. Zn Æ Zn2+ b. MnO4─ Æ MnO2
Br2 Æ Br─ I─ Æ I2
2. Which reactant is the reducing agent: a. In 1a. b. In 1b.

3. Separate these redox reactions into two half-reactions, balance and add the half-
reactions, then balance the final equation.
a. Co + NO3─ Æ Co2+ + NH4+
b. HCl + H2SO4 Æ SO2 + Cl2 + H2O
c. Cd + HNO3 Æ Cd(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
4. Which reactant is being reduced

a. In problem 3a. b. In 3b. c. In 3c.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Br = +5 Do O first. Each O is ─ 2. 3 x ─ 2 = ─ 6 . Br must be +5 to equal the ─ 1 total charge.
Each atom: +5 ─2
Formula for the particle: BrO ― 3
Total for those atoms: +5 ─ 6 Å must total ─ 1.
b. Co = +2 c. Mn = +7 d. Zn = +2 e. I = 0 f. N = +5 g. S = +7
h. I = +1 i. H = ─ 1 (hydride) j. N = ─ 3
Practice B
1. Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
2. An oxidizing agent removes electrons from another particle, and in the process the OA is reduced.
+4 0 +2 +2 0 +1 0 +2
3. a. Sn4+ + Cu Æ Cu2+ + Sn2+ b. Ba + 2 H Æ H2 + Ba2+
+
OA RA OA RA RA OA RA OA
c. 2 Al + 3 ZnCl2 Æ 2 AlCl3 + 3 Zn d. 4 As + 3 HBrO3 + 6 H2O Æ 4 H3AsO3 + 3 HBrO
RA OA OA RA RA OA OA RA
Practice C
1. a. H2 Æ 2 H+ + 2 e─ b. 2 S2O32─ Æ S4O62─ + 2 e─
c. Hg22+ Æ 2 Hg2+ + 2 e─ d. 2 e─ + Pb4+ Æ Pb2+
2. a. 4 H2O + Cr3+ Æ CrO42─ + 8 H+ + 3 e─

b. 10 e─ + 12 H+ + 2 IO3─ Æ I2 + 6 H2O
c. Ag Æ Ag+ + e─ d. 2 H2O + SO2 Æ SO42─ + 4 H+ + 2 e─
3. a. 14 OH─ + 2 Cr3+ Æ Cr2O72─ + 7 H2O + 6 e─
b. 5 e─ + 4 H O + MnO ─ Æ Mn2+ + 8 OH─
2 4

4. a. 1d: Pb2+ is releasing 2 e─ b. 2b: I2 is releasing 10 e─ c: 2d: SO2 d: 3b: Mn2+

Practice D
1a. Zn Æ Zn2+ + 2 e─
2 e─ + Br2 Æ 2 Br─ (Balance central atom, then add e─ to balance charge)
Zn + Br2 Æ Zn2+ + 2 Br─ (Since 2 e─ on both sides, half-reactions can be added)
Check balance of atoms and charge: 1 Zn, 2 Br atoms on both sides, overall neutral on both sides.
1b. 6 3 e─ + 8 4 H+ + 2 MnO4─ Æ 2 MnO2 + 4 2 H2O (Use CA-WHe to balance, then 2x)

6 2 I─ Æ 3 I2 + 6 2 e─ (For e─ to balance, multiply by 3)
8 H+ + 2 MnO4─ + 6 I─ Æ 2 MnO2 + 4 H2O + 3 I2
Check: 8 H, 2 Mn, 8 O, 6 I atoms on both sides. Overall zero charge on both sides. Balanced.
2a. Zn is the left side RA because in its half-reaction, Zn donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
2b. I─ is the left side RA because in its half-reaction, I─ donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
3a. 4CoÆ 4 Co2+ + 8 2 e (4x)
8 e─ + 10H+ + NO3─ Æ NH4++ 3 H2O (1x)
4 Co + 10 H+ + NO3─ Æ 4 Co2+ + NH4+ + 3 H2O
Check: 4 Co, 10 H, 1 N, 3 O atoms on both sides; +9 charge on both sides.
3b. 2 Cl─ Æ Cl2 + 2 e─
2 e─ + 2 H+ + H2SO4 Æ SO2 + 2 H2O
2 Cl─ + 2 H+ + H2SO4 Æ SO2 + Cl2 + 2 H2O
Substituting the trial coefficients: 2 HCl + H2SO4 Æ SO2 + Cl2 + 2 H2O
Check: 4 H, 2 Cl, 1 S, 4 O and zero net charge on each side.
3c. 3 Cd Æ 3 Cd2+ + 6 e─ (3x)

6 e─ + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 2 NO + 4 H2O (2x)
3 Cd + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ Æ 3 Cd2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Check: 3 Cd, 8 H, 2 N, 6 O, +6 on both sides. Now add the spectators and finish by trial and error.
* * * * *
3 Cd + 8 HNO3 Æ 3 Cd(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Check: 3 Cd, 8 H, 8 N, 24 O, zero net charge on both sides. Balanced.
4a. NO3─ is the OA on the left because in its half-reaction, its N acquires electrons and becomes reduced.
4b. H SO
2 4 4c. NO ─ 3
* * * * *

Lesson 37B: Charges and Electrical Work

Measuring Amounts of Charge
Electrical charge is a fundamental quantity, like distance, mass, or time. The smallest
charge possible is the charge on one electron. That charge is equal to, but opposite, the
positive charge on a proton.
Charge on one electron (e─) = 1 fundamental or elemental charge (Equation 1)
Both electricity and redox reactions involve the movement of charges. The number of
electrons that move equals the number of negative charges that move.
In the SI system, the unit used to measure charge is the coulomb (symbol C). The
following definition of the coulomb must be memorized.
96,500 coulombs = Charge on 1 mole of electrons (Equation 2)
A more precise relationship is “one mole of fundamental charges = 96,485.3415 coulombs,”

but the value to three significant figures will suffice for most calculations. This somewhat
awkward definition for a coulomb allows for a simple relationship between the SI units
joules and volts. A useful rule is
When you see coulombs and electrons in a problem, write in your DATA table
96,500 coulombs = 1 mole of electrons
The amount of charge that moves can be measured by either counting the number of
electrons that move or the charge in coulombs that moves. Using equation 2, it is easy to
convert between these two measures.
Try this calculation: Q. 2500 electrons would have how many coulombs of charge?
* * * * *
Answer
WANT: ? coulombs (C) (a single unit)
DATA: 2500 electrons (a single-unit given)
96,500 coulombs = 1 mole of electrons (When you see coulombs and e─)
A calculation that includes small particles (such as e─) and moles of those particles will
likely need:
6.02 x 1023 e─ = 1 mol e─ (Avogadro’s conversion)
* * * * *
SOLVE: (If you want a single unit….)
? C = 2500 e─ • 1 mol e─ • 96,500 C = 4.0 x 10─16 coulombs

6.02 x 1023 e─ 1 mol e─
* * * * *

Measuring the Force of Moving Charges

Compare a garden hose, a pressure washer, and a fire hose. List the factors that determine
how much work each stream of water can do to move an object.
* * * * *
The work which the streams of water can do in is determined by both the amount of water
and the water pressure. In measuring the work done by moving charges, two similar factors
are important: the number of moving charges and the “force” behind them.
Electromotive force (emf, symbol ) is defined as the work that moving charges can do per
unit of charge. The SI unit that measures emf is the volt.
EMF in volts (V) ≡ Work in joules (J) (Equation 3)

Charge in coulombs (C)
By this definition, one volt is defined as one joule per coulomb.
1 volt ≡ 1 joule/coulomb (Equation 4)
Problems that include volts and joules or coulombs can be solved using our usual
conversion-factor methods – IF volts are treated as an abbreviation for joules per coulomb, a
ratio unit.
Just as molarity (M) must be written as moles/liter to solve conversions, the rule is
In problems with V and J or C, convert V to J/C to solve using conversions.
• If ? V is WANTED, write WANTED = ? Volts = ? joules =

coulomb
• If X Volts is DATA, write in the data as an equality: X joules = 1 coulomb
Using those rules, try this example.

Q. If a current in a wire of 25 volts produces 3.0 joules of electrical work, how many
electrons are flowing in the wire?
* * * * *
WANTED: Number of electron charges flowing = ? e─
DATA: 3.0 joules
(When volts and joules or coulombs are in a problem, treat V as J/C)
25 V 25 joules = 1 coulomb (V = J/C)
(When a problem includes coulombs and a number of electrons, write)
96,500 coulombs = 1 mole of electrons
Solve using conversions.
* * * * *

SOLVE: ? e─ = 3.0 J • 1 C • 1 mol e─ • 6.02 x 1023 e─ = 7.5 x 1017 e─

25 J 96,500 C ` 1 mol e─
Practice: Write and/or flashcard the numbered equations above until you can write
these fundamental relationships from memory, then use those relationships from memory
to solve these problems.
If you need a review of conversion calculations, see Lessons 4D, 5D, and 11B.
1. Calculate the charge on one electron.
2. One coulomb is the charge on how many electrons?
3. What is the formula for calculating the work that flowing charge can do?
4. If the work that can be done by a current remains constant, but the number of electrons
flowing is doubled, what must be true of the voltage in the circuit?
5. 0.35 coulombs of charge at 24 volts can do how much work?
6. If 12.0 joules of work is done at 400. volts, how much charge is flowing?
7. If 1.20 x 1024 electrons can perform 4.0 joules of work, what is the emf of the electrons?
ANSWERS
1. WANTED: ? coulombs (The unit of charge is coulombs. When you want
electron something per one something, you want a ratio unit.)
DATA: See coulombs and e─? Write 96,500 coulombs = 1 mol e─
SOLVE: ? C = 96,500 C • 1 mol e─ = 1.60 x 10─19 C

e─ 1 mol e─ 6.02 x 1023 e─ e─
(When solving for a ratio, your conversions can be in any order, but they must be “right-side up” compared
to these. Pick as your given a ratio that has one unit where you want it in the answer.)
(You can also solve for the single unit by starting with ? C = 1 e─ , but when you are asked for a unit per
one other unit, solving for the ratio is preferred.)
2. WANT: ? e─ (When you want something per one something,, you want a ratio unit)
C
DATA: When you see C and e─, write: 96,500 C = 1 mol e─
SOLVE: ? e─ = 1 mol e─ • 6.02 x 1023 e─ = 6.24 x 1018 e─

C 96,500 C 1 mol e─ C

3. Since the fundamental that involves work and charge is
EMF in volts = Work in joules

Charge in coulombs
Work in joules = (Charge in coulombs) times (EMF in volts)

4. EMF in volts = Work in joules
Charge in coulombs
In this equation, if work is constant but charge is doubled, the voltage must be cut in half.
5. WANTED: ?J (the unit of work is joules)
DATA: 0.35 C
24 V 24 J = 1 C (When V and J or C are in a problem, treat V as J/C)
SOLVE: ? J = 0.35 C • 24 J • = = 8.4 J
1C
6. WANTED: ? coulombs (C) (If you want charge, the unit you want is coulombs)
DATA: 400 V 400. J = 1 C (When V and J or C are in a problem, treat V as J/C)
12.0 J
SOLVE: ? C = 12.0 J • 1 C = 0.030 C
400 J
7. WANTED: EMF in V = ? J (When volts (emf) and J or C are in a problem, treat V as J/C)
C
DATA: 1.20 x 1024 e─ = 4.0 J (equivalent: two measures of the same process)
(In conversion calculations, when a ratio is WANTED, all of the data will be in equalities)
96,500 C = 1 mol e─ ( Å When you see C and e─ … )

SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio – one that has one unit where you WANT it.)
?V = ?J = 4.0 J • 6.02 x 1023 e─ • 1 mole of e─ = 2.1 x 10─5 J/C or volts
C 1.20 x 1024 e─ 1 mol e─ 96,500 C
* * * * *

Lesson 37C: Standard Reduction Potentials

Ranking Reducing Agents
Every redox half-reaction has a characteristic tendency to occur.
For example,
• The element fluorine is a strong electron attractor.
Molecules of fluorine are strong oxidizing agents: they strongly tend to take
electrons away from other substances. Elemental fluorine is difficult to work with
in part because it is difficult to find a container that it does not react with.
The half-reaction for the reaction of fluorine molecules can be written as
F + 2 e─ Æ 2 F─ (strong tendency to go forward)
2
• Neutral alkali metals, such as sodium metal, are strong reducing agents.
Water is a relatively stable (non-reactive) compound when mixed with most
substances. However, neutral sodium metal has such a strong tendency to give
away one electron that it will donate an electron to water, creating hydrogen gas,
heat, and flames that can cause the hydrogen produced to burn explosively in air.
This sodium half-reaction can be represented as
Na Æ Na+ + e─ (strong tendency to go forward)
Redox reactions are reversible, and the above reaction can be written in reverse,
with the electrons on the left, just as for the F2 reaction above. However, since the
formation of Na+ is favored, this half-reaction strongly tends to go backwards.
Na+ + e─ Æ Na (strongly tends to go in reverse)

This logic holds for any reversible reaction or half-reaction:
If a reversible reaction strongly tends to go forward, when written backwards it

has a very weak tendency to go forward, and a strong tendency to go backwards.
• A third type of redox half-reaction is one without a strong tendency to go in one

direction over the other. An example is the hydrogen electrode half-reaction.
Adding relatively strong reducing agents to acidic solutions (with H+ ions) tends to
cause bubbles of H2 to form. However, H2 gas reacts with many oxidizing agents to
form H+ ions. This half-reaction is written with electrons on the left as
2 H+ + 2 e─ Æ H2 (tends to go either way)
Every redox half-reaction can be written as particle being reduced (with the particle plus
electrons on the left) or as a particle being oxidized (with electrons on the right). By
convention, a listing that compares the tendency of half-reactions to go is usually written
with the oxidizing agent (OA) being reduced (and the electrons reducing it) on the left.

Let’s rank the three half-reactions above in that manner, with the reaction that most tends
to go forward at the top.
Tendency To Be Reduced
F + 2 e─
2 Æ 2 F─ (strong tendency to go forward)
2 H+ + 2 e─ Æ H2 (tends to go in either direction)
Na+ + e─ Æ Na (strong tendency to go backwards)
We will use these three half-reactions to anchor our understanding of redox reactions.
Standard Reduction Potentials
In a half-reaction, the tendency of an oxidizing agent to attract electrons (and become
reduced) creates an electromotive force (emf, symbol ).
Every half-reaction written as a reduction can be assigned a reduction potential, an emf in
volts which measures the characteristic tendency of the reduction to go to the right.
There is no logical zero (lowest possible value) for the scale for reduction potentials.
Instead, we define the reduction potential for the hydrogen electrode reaction as zero volts, and
measure all reduction potentials in volts relative to that zero value.
At standard thermodynamic conditions (1 atm H2 pressure and 1 M H+ ions), for the

reaction
H2 Æ 2 H+ + 2 e─ EMF ≡ ≡ 0 volts (exact)
At the right is a table of selected half-reactions. Standard o

in volts
Note the position of our three anchor reactions. Reduction Potentials at 25ºC
In standard reduction potential (SRP) tables: F2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 F─ + 2.87
• Standard means that all solution
Au3+ + 3e─ Æ Au 1.50
concentrations are 1 M and all gas
pressures are 1 atm. Cl2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Cl─ 1.36
• When the half-reaction components are at Br2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Br─ 1.09
o
standard conditions, the is an . Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag 0.80
• The highest emf values are at the top. I + 2 e─
2 Æ 2 I─ 0.54
• The half-reactions have electrons on the Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
left side of the arrow, reducing the left-side
particle. The form is: 2 H+ + 2 e─ Æ H2 0.0
OA + electrons Æ RA Pb+2 + 2e─ Æ Pb ─ 0.13

• The strongest oxidizing agent (the particle Zn+2 + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
most likely to be reduced) is at the top left, Na+ + e─ Æ Na ─ 2.71
with the highest reduction potential.

• The strongest reducing agents (sRA) are at the bottom right of the table. Why? The
weakest oxidizing agent is at the bottom left. When it loses its electrons, it becomes
the strongest reducing agent.
When the highest reduction potential values are listed at the top, the arrangement of a
reduction potential table is
o
Strongest OA + electron(s) Æ Weakest RA = most positive
o
Weakest OA + electron(s) Æ Strongest RA = most negative
Learn the rules above (but assume you can view a table), then try these problems.
Practice
1. In a table of reduction potentials, in which corner are the strongest reducing agents?
2. Based on your experience with metals in coins and jewelry, rank these metals with the
most likely to be oxidized (tarnished) first: Au, Ag, Cu.
3. Using the reduction potential table, rank these reducing agents from strongest to
weakest: Au, Ag, Cu.
4. According to the table of standard reduction potentials, which particle that contains a
halogen atom is
a. The strongest oxidizing agent? b. The weakest oxidizing agent?
c. The strongest reducing agent? d. The weakest reducing agent?
e. Is the most easily reduced? f. Is the most easily oxidized?
ANSWERS
1. Bottom right. In the same row as the weakest oxidizing agent.
2. Copper pennies turn dull (tarnish) relatively quickly. Silver needs to be polished, but not often. Gold never
needs to be polished. Cu > Ag > Au
3. In the table, the reducing agents are on the right, with the stronger toward the bottom: Cu > Ag > Au
4. a. F 2 4b. I2 4c. I─ 4d. F─ 4e. F has the highest reduction potential (tendency to reduce).
2
4f. I─ is the strongest reducing agent of the particles in the table containing a halogen atom. The strongest
reducing agent by definition is the particle that is most easily oxidized.

Lesson 37D: Non-Standard Potentials: The Nernst Equation

The table of standard reduction potentials lists emf in volts under standard–state conditions,
where gas pressures are 1 atm, solution concentrations are 1 M, and the temperature is
25 ºC. To use these emf values to solve problems, it is also helpful to know,
• how the voltage will change if we multiply the half-reactions; and
• how the values will change if conditions are not standard.
Let’s address these issues one at a time.
EMF: An Intensive Property
Extensive properties vary according to the size or amount of matter in an object or system.
Mass and energy are extensive properties. Intensive properties are those where the
amount does not matter. Measurements of temperature or gas pressure do not depend on
the number of particles in a sample.
It may help in remember these terms and their meaning by using the chocolate rule.
• The calories per gram of chocolate is an intensive property: the same in each piece.
• The calories (energy) that you gain from eating chocolate are extensive: the amount
that you consume matters.
Generally, an intensive property will be a ratio of two extensive properties.
In chemical reactions, emf is an intensive property: it has the same value in volts no matter
how many particles create the emf .
One of the implications of intensive emf that we will need in calculations is
volts/mole e─ = volts (Equation 1)
For calculations of emf in balanced chemical reactions, where charge must be balanced, the
moles of electrons producing the emf do not change the voltage.
In some cases, such as adding half-reactions in which electrons do not cancel on both sides,
emf is extensive, but our focus for emf will be in reactions, where it is intensive. In unit
cancellation for reaction calculations, volts and volts/mole are equivalent.
Practice A:
1. For these three quantities: charge, emf, and work,
a. What is the relationship between the quantities?
b. Speculate on whether each property is extensive or intensive. Explain your
reasoning.
2. Write the answer to this calculation with its units in three different but equivalent
formats.
? = 0.40 volts ─ 0.084 J =
C·mol

The Nernst Equation

An equation that calculates emf values at non-standard conditions can be derived based on
thermodynamics and our definition of electrical work.
In thermodynamics, the maximum work that a system can do is measured by ΔG.
ΔG = maximum work possible from a process = wmaximum possible
Our definition involving electrical work is:
Emf ( ) = work (w)/charge
Emf measures the maximum work that can be done per unit of moving charge. Solving for
work:
work (w) = charge times emf ( )
Equations in electrochemistry often use the symbol F, termed Faraday’s constant, to
represent the charge (number of coulombs) per mole of electrons.
F = Faraday’s Constant = 96,500 coulombs/mole of electrons (Equation 2)
The symbol and value for Faraday’s Constant (F) must be memorized.
In redox reactions, the number of charges involved in a reaction can be calculated as the
number of moles of electrons moving (n) times the constant charge per mole of electrons
(F). In symbols:
Charge = nF so in the work equation above: work (w) = charge times emf ( ) = nF
For sign conventions in chemistry, if emf (voltage) does electrical work, the system that
includes the moving electrons must lose energy, and the work term is assigned a negative
sign. The value for n is positive: the count of moles of electrons without regard to their
negative charge. By these rules, the electrical work equations above can be written as
─ w = nF = ─ ΔG or wmaximum possible = ΔG = ─ nF (Equation 3)
Under standard state conditions: ΔGo = ─ nF o (Equation 4)

Into the thermodynamic equation that calculates non-standard free energy,
ΔG = ΔGº + RT ln(Q) (Equation 5)
substituting our relationship between free energy and emf above, this equation becomes
ΔG = ─ nF = ─ nF º + RT ln(Q) (Equation 6)
In calculations using equation 5, we can solve using J or kJ as units for ΔG and in R, as long
as the units are consistent. However, in Equation 6, where is a variable, we must solve in
joules (J) and not in kJ, because the units of are volts, which are joules/coulomb.
Equation 6 can be simplified into the form known as the
o
Nernst equation: = ─ RT ln( Q ) (Equation 7)
nF

Recall that Q is the reaction quotient: the value calculated by substituting concentrations or
pressures into a K expression.
For a half-reaction in a SRP table that is in the form: OA + electron(s) Æ RA
Q = [RA]/[OA] The charges represented by e─ are not included in a K expression.
When conditions are not standard, the emf of an SRP half-reaction in can be calculated by
o o
reduction = reduction ─ RT ln(Q) = reduction ─ RT ln([RA]/[OA])
nF nF
where
o
reduction = the voltage for the half reaction in the SRP table
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (since V = J/C, use this R in calculations with J or V)
T = temperature in kelvins = ºC + 273 =
n = the moles of electrons in the half-reaction
F = 96,500 coulomb/mol e─ = Faraday’s Constant
Q = the reaction quotient [RA]/[OA], without units, with solution concentrations
in mol/L and [solids, solvents, and pure liquids] = 1 .
Let’s apply this equation to two examples.
o
Q1. For the half-reaction Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag = + 0.80 volts
at 25 ºC, if the [Ag+] = 1.0 M,
a. What is value of Q ?
b. What is the value of ln( Q ) ?
c. What is the value of reduction ?
* * * * *
a. Qexp. ≡ Kexp. = (product of [products])/(product of [reactants]) = 1/[ Ag+]
In K expressions, the charges represented by e─ are omitted, and the [solids], including
metals, and [pure liquids and solvents] are assigned a value of 1. Since [Ag+] =1.0 M ,
Q = 1/[ Ag+] = 1/1.0 = 1.0 (recall that units are omitted from K and Q values).
b. ln( Q ) = ln(1.0) = ln(e0) = 0

o o
c. reduction = reduction ─ RT ( 0 ) = reduction
nF
In Q1, all components are at standard conditions, so the emf is the standard emf.
Let’s calculate a voltage for the same half-reaction at non-standard conditions.
o
Q2. For the half-reaction Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag = 0.80 volts
If [Ag+] = 0.10 M, at 50. ºC,
a. Find Q . b. Calculate ln( Q ) . c. What is the value of reduction ?
* * * * *

a. Q = 1/[ Ag+] = 1/0.10 = 10.

b. ln( Q ) = ln(10.) = 2.30
c. The equation needed is
o
reduction = reduction ─ RT ln( Q )
nF
DATA:
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (must use this R in a calculation with joules or volts)
T = temperature in kelvins = ºC + 273 = 50.ºC + 273 = 323 K
n = the moles of electrons in the half-reaction = 1 mol e─
ln( Q ) = ln(10.) = 2.30
o
SOLVE: reduction = reduction ─ RT • 1 ( 2.30 ) =
nF
reduction = + 0.80 volts ─ [ 8.31 J • (323 K) • 1 • mol e─ • ( 2.30 ) ] =

mol·K 1 mol e─ 96,500 C
= 0.80 volts ─ 0.064 J = 0.80 V ─ 0.064 volts = 0.74 V

C·mol mol
SF: The doubt in the hundredth’s place in 0.80 is the place with doubt in the answer.
Note that for unit cancellation to work, we must use the rule that since volts are intensive,
J/C and V/mol and J/C·mol are the same as volts.

The big picture? Cutting the concentration of the silver ion, from 1.0 M at standard
conditions to 0.10 M , reduced the half-reaction potential from 0.80 V to 0.74 V: a change of
only 0.06 volts. When Q values are between 0.1 and 10, standard and non-standard
voltages will be close.
But not all Q values are between 0.1 and 10. Let’s try one more half-reaction at non-
standard conditions.
Q3. For the half-reaction
o
5 e─ + 8 H+ + MnO4─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O = 1.51 volts
If [ MnO4─ ] = [ Mn2+ ] = 0.10 M and the pH = 6.0 at 25 ºC, find reduction .
* * * * *
The equation needed is
o
nF
DATA:
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (since V = J/C, must use this R in calculations with J or V)
T = temperature in kelvins = ºC + 273 = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K

n = 5 mol e─ = the moles of electrons in the half-reaction (an exact coefficient)

Q = [ Mn2+ ] = 0.10 = 1.0 x 10+48
─
[ MnO4 ][ H ]+ 8 (0.10)(1.0 x 10─6)8
If needed, adjust your work then finish.

* * * * *
ln( Q ) = ln( 1.0 x 1048 ) = 110.5
o
SOLVE: reduction = reduction ─ RT • 1 ( 110.5 ) =
nF
red. = + 1.51 volts ─ [ 8.31 J • (298 K) • 1 • mol e─ • (110.5 ) ] =

mol·K 5 mol e─ 96,500 C
= 1.51 volts ─ 0.567 J = 1.51 V ─ 0.567 volts = 0.94 V

C·mol mol
For this half-reaction, the change in emf is substantial: from 1.51 V at standard conditions to
0.94 V at these non-standard conditions.
If we test a variety of half-reactions, our general findings will be the following.
In half-reactions, if the ion concentrations and/or partial pressures have values close
to 1 , reduction potentials will be close to the standard reduction potentials.
In a half-reaction with one ion that has a coefficient of one, if a concentration of the ion
drops from 1 M to 0.10 M, its half-reaction potential will drop by 0.06 volts or less.
If the coefficients of a half-reaction are more than one, and/or the concentrations or
partial pressures have values far from 1, the standard and non-standard reduction
potentials can vary substantially.
These findings will help us to make some general redox predictions in the next lesson.
Alternate Forms of the Nernst Equation
This general form of the Nernst equation works for all temperatures and conditions:
o
nF
In the equation, R and F are constants. For reactions at 25ºC, T is also constant (298 K).
Substituting values for those constants simplifies the Nernst equation to
o
reduction = reduction ─ 0.0257 V ln( Q )
n

If base 10 logs rather than natural logs are used with Q, using the rule ln x = 2.303 log x ,
the Nernst equation at 25ºC becomes
o
reduction = reduction ─ 0.0591 V log( Q )
n
Textbooks may use the Nernst equation in any one of those forms. All forms result in the
same answer, but learning the top form is recommended because it can be used at all
temperature conditions.
Practice B: Try Problems 1 and 3, and Problem 2 if you need more practice.
1. Calculate the constant value for the term RT/F at 25 ºC, in millivolts.
2. Write the Q expression for
a. Cl2(g) + 2e─ Æ 2 Cl─ b. NO3─ + 2 H+ + e─ Æ NO2(g) + H2O(l)
o
3. For the half-reaction Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn = ─ 0.76 volts
If [Zn2+] = 0.050 M at 10.ºC, find the value of reduction .
o
4. For the hydrogen electrode half-reaction: 2 H+ + 2e─ Æ H2(g) = 0.00 volts
If the pH = 6.8 and PH2 = 1.0 atm at 37.ºC, find the value of reduction .
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a. EMF in volts = Work in joules
Charge in coulombs
1b. Your thoughts might include
• Work and charge are quantities which depend on the size or amount of an object (extensive).
• A ratio of two extensive properties generally results in an intensive property, and emf as defined in
answer 1a is a ratio of two extensive properties.
• Voltage is analogous to pressure, and pressure is an intensive property.
2. ? = 0.40 volts ─ 0.084 J = 0.32 V or volts or J
C·mol mol C·mol
Practice B
1. R•T • 1 = 8.31 J • (298 K) • mol = 0.0257 J/C = 0.0257 V • 1 mV = 25.7 mV
F mol·K 96,500 C 10─3 V
2a. Qexpression = Kexpression = [Cl─]2 2b. Qexp. = PNO2

PCl [NO ─ ][ H+ ]2
2 3
In 2b, the lack of subscripts after the ions means they are in an aqueous solution, so liquid water is the solvent,
and solvent concentrations, being essentially constant during reactions, are omitted from K expressions.

o
3. To find a non-standard , use the Nernst equation: reduction = reduction ─ RT • ln( Q )
nF
DATA:
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (must use this R in a calculation with joules or volts (= J/C))
T = kelvins = ºC + 273 = 10.ºC + 273 = 283 K
n = the moles of electrons in the half-reaction = 2 mol e─
Q = Kexpression = 1/ [Zn2+] = 1/0.050 = 20. ln( Q ) = ln(20.) = 3.00
reduction = ─ 0.76 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (283 K) • 1 • mol • (3.00 ) ] =

mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 C
= ─ 0.76 V ─ 0.0122 J • (3.00) = ─ 0.76 V ─ 0.037 V/mol = ─ 0.80 volts
C·mol
o
4. To find at non-standard conditions, use reduction = reduction ─ RT • ln( Q )
nF
DATA: R = 8.31 J/mol·K (use with J or V calcs) T = kelvins = ºC + 273 = 37ºC + 273 = 310. K
n = the moles e─ in the half-reaction = 2 mol e─ F = 96,500 C/mol e─
Q = Kexpression = PH2/ [H+]2 [H+] = 10─pH = 10─6.8 = 1.6 x 10─7 M
Q = 1/(1.6 x 10─7)2 = 1/(2.56 x 10─14) = 3.91 x 10+13
ln( Q ) = ln(3.91 x 10+13) = 31.30
red. = 0.000 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (310. K) • 1 • mol • (31.30 )] = ─ 0.418 V/mol = ─ 0.418 V
mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 C
* * * * *
Lesson 37E: Predicting Which Redox Reactions Go

At Standard Conditions, Which Redox Reactions Go?
When oxidizing agents and reducing agents are mixed, some combinations react but some
do not. If all particles are at standard conditions, the table of standard reduction potentials
will quickly identify which redox reactions go and which do not.
Steps to predict which redox side is favored at standard conditions:
1. On each side of a redox reaction, label one particle as the RA and another as the OA. If
needed, use an SRP table to identify half-reactions and label the particles.
2. Using the table of standard reduction potentials (SRP), label the stronger oxidizing agent
as sOA. Label the other particles that contain atoms that change oxidation number as
the stronger reducing agent (sRA), the weaker oxidizing agent (wOA), or the weaker
reducing agent (wRA) under standard conditions.
We will use the lower case s and w to convey that we are comparing two different
particles. For example, in a reaction, two different particles in the reactants and

products may both be relatively strong or weak oxidizing agents, but one will be
stronger (sOA) than the other.
3. Equilibrium favors the side with the wOA and wRA.
• If the wOA and wRA in a redox equilibrium are mixed, since they are favored at
equilibrium, no substantial change will occur.
• If the sOA and sRA are mixed, they will react substantially to form the wRA and
wOA.
An RA and OA react to form another RA and OA, which can then react to re-form the
original RA and OA. Which reaction will win the battle to react more often? The one with
the RA and OA that are stronger. That means the wRA and wOA are formed more often.
Cover the answer below and, using the steps and table, try this question.
Q1. Assuming all particles are under standard-state conditions, label each of the
particles in this redox reaction as the sOA, sRA, wOA, and wRA. Then predict
which side is favored at equilibrium, and whether the reaction will go to the right.
Cu2+ + Pb ÅÆ Cu + Pb2+
* * * * *
Answer
First label the OA and RA on each side: Cu2+ + Pb ÅÆ Cu + Pb2+
OA RA RA OA
• Pb metal on the left going to the right loses electrons, so Pb is an RA.
• Cu metal on the right going to the left loses electrons, so Cu is an RA.
In a redox reaction, each side must have one OA and one RA.
Now find each particle in the reduction potential table. The particle that is on the left
side closest to the top is the stronger oxidizing agent. Label it as the sOA. Using the
same logic, label the remaining particles.
* * * * *
Cu2+ + Pb ÅÆ Cu + Pb2+
sOA sRA wRA wOA
Which side is favored at equilibrium? Will the reaction go to the right?
* * * * *
The side with the wRA and wOA is favored. The reaction goes to the right.
Add these to the list of rules above.
4. If a particle that contains an atom changing oxidation number is an oxidizing agent on
one side, that atom is in the particle that is a reducing agent on the other side. The
particle with that atom that is the stronger on one side is the weaker on the other. If an
atom is in an sOA particle on one side, that atom is in a wRA on the other.
5. The sOA and sRA are on the same side of the reaction equation. The wOA and wRA
are on the same side.

The SRP table can be used to label each redox component as sOA, wRA, etc., and it is a
good idea to label at least two components using the table for safety’s sake. However,
rules 4 and 5 mean that once you have labeled one particle correctly, all of the other
labels can be done by inspection.
Practice A
1. Using the table, below each reaction, label the Std. Reduction Potentials o
in V
particle that is the sOA, sRA, wOA, and wRA
under standard conditions. After the reaction, Cl2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Cl─ 1.36
write the side favored at equilibrium, left or
right. Br2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Br─ 1.09
a. Ag + Zn2+ Å Æ Ag+ + Zn Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag 0.80
I2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 I─ 0.54
b. Cl2 + I─ ÅÆ I2 + Cl─
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
c. Ag+ + Pb Å Æ Ag + Pb2+ Pb+2 + 2e─ Æ Pb ─ 0.13

Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
2. If the reactants are mixed, will they react:
a. In Problem 1a: b. In Problem 1b: c. In Problem 1c:
The Diagonal Rule For Redox Reactions

A second way to predict whether two particles will redox react, if all particles are under
standard conditions, is the
Diagonal \ Rule:
If a table orders the oxidizing or reducing agents with the strongest at the top left (as in the
SRP table), and if all particles are under standard-state conditions,
• any particle on the left will react with any particle on the right below it in the table. In
the table, diagonals that are \ will redox react.
• The products of a reaction will be the particles on the opposite sides of the half-
reaction arrows: the weaker agents and the / particles.
• Diagonals in the opposite direction / will not redox react.
Apply the diagonal rule to the following examples.
Q1. Assuming standard conditions, use the reduction potential table in Practice Set A to
label each combination as will redox react or won’t redox react when mixed. If the
reaction goes, write the products. Check your answers after each part.
a. Br2 + I─ ÅÆ b. Br2 + Cl─ ÅÆ
c. Ag+ + Zn Å Æ d. Zn2+ + Pb Å Æ
* * * * *

Answers
a. Br2 + I─ Å Æ Will redox react. Diagonal \ cases react. The products are
I2 + Br─, the particles on the opposite sides of the half-reaction arrows.
b. Br2 + Cl─ ÅÆ Won’t redox react. Diagonal / cases do not react.
c. Ag+ + Zn Å Æ Will redox react. Ag and Zn2+ will form.
d. Zn2+ + Pb Å Æ Will not react. Zn2+ is on the left but below Pb on the right.
The Diagonal Rule At Non-Standard Conditions
Practice with the diagonal rule helps in developing your intuition about the patterns of
redox behavior for particles. However, when used with a table of standard reduction
potentials, the diagonal \ rule only works at standard conditions. The order of the half-
reactions in the table is determined by the values of the reduction potentials. If conditions
are not standard, those values change and the order of the half reactions changes.
As we saw in the Nernst equation calculations above, if values for Q are between 0.1 and
10, reduction potentials change by only small amounts, and most predictions about which
reactions go that are based on the quick diagonal rule will be accurate.
In the next lesson, we will learn how to predict the direction of redox reactions that is not as
quick, but is accurate under all conditions.
Redox Reactions and Structure
Our prediction rules for redox reactions are logical based on the definitions of strong and
weak.
The weaker is the particle as an OA or RA, the less likely it is to react.
In a reversible redox reaction, the electrons move from side to side, but the particle that is
the weaker reducing agent is less likely to give them up, so the electrons tend to be found
on the weaker reducing agent at equilibrium.
Redox behavior is explained by chemical structure.
• A particle that attracts electrons strongly is a strong oxidizing agent without the
electrons and a weak reducing agent with the electrons.
• A particle that can accept electrons, but does not attract them strongly, is an sRA
when it has the electrons and a wOA when it does not.
Let’s summarize the new vocabulary and qualitative redox rules learned so far in this
module.
1. Each side of a redox reaction equation has a one reducing agent (the electron donor) and one
oxidizing agent (the electron acceptor).
2. For a pair of particles, one on each side, that contain the same atom changing oxidation
number,
• the particle that is an reducing agent on one side of a reaction loses electrons and
becomes an oxidizing agent on the other.

• The particle that is an oxidizing agent on one side gains electrons to become the
reducing agent on the other.
• The particle that is the stronger on one side becomes the weaker on the other.
3. The sOA and sRA are on the same side of the redox reaction equation. The wOA and
wRA are together on the opposite side.
4. Equilibrium favors the side with the wOA and wRA.
When an sOA and sRA are mixed, they react. The sRA is oxidized, and the sOA is
reduced. The wRA and wOA are formed.
When a wOA and wRA are mixed, no substantial change occurs: the side favored at
equilibrium already exists.
5. Under standard conditions, the role of particles in a redox reaction can be identified
using a table of reduction potentials. In the table,
• The format is OA + electrons Æ RA
o
• The strongest oxidizing agent is at the top left. Its half-reaction has the highest
value.
• The strongest reducing agent is at the bottom right.
6. The diagonal \ rule: Under standard conditions, a particle in the table on the left of the
arrow will redox react with a particle to the right of the arrow that is below it in the table.
The opposite diagonals / form. The opposite diagonals / do not redox react.
Practice B: Learn the rules in the summary above, then do these problems without
looking back at the rules.
1. Use the table at the right to label each combination as will redox react or won’t redox react
when mixed under standard conditions. If the reaction goes, write the products.
a. Pb + Cu2+ Å Æ Std. Reduction Potentials o

in V
b. F2 + Cl─ + Na+ Å Æ F2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 F─ + 2.87
Au3+ + 3e─ Æ Au 1.50
c.. Ag + Pb2+ + Cl─ Å Æ
Cl2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Cl─ 1.36
d. I2 + Na+ + F─ ÅÆ
Br2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Br─ 1.09
e. Cl2 + Na+ + Br─ Å Æ
Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag 0.80
2. If copper metal is mixed with a mixture of
I2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 I─ 0.54
1.0 M Ag+ and 1.0 M Zn2+ ions, which ions
will react with the copper? Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
Pb2+ + 2e─ Æ Pb ─ 0.13
Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
Na+ + e─ Æ Na ─ 2.71

3. TRUE or FALSE. In redox equilibria,

_____ a. An OA and an RA react to form another OA and RA.
_____ b. The stronger reducing agent winds up at equilibrium with the electrons.
_____ c. The weaker oxidizing agent winds up at equilibrium with the electrons.
_____ d. A strong oxidizing agent will bond strongly to the electrons it acquires.
_____ e. The stronger reducing agent has a stronger bond to its electrons than the weaker
reducing agent.
_____ f. The stronger oxidizing agent is on the same side of the reaction equation as the
weaker reducing agent.
_____ g. Equilibrium favors the weaker reducing agent.
_____ h. The wOA attracts electrons more than the sOA.
_____ i. The stronger oxidizing agent reacts to become the weaker reducing agent.
4. For these, you may consult the standard reduction potential table as needed.
TRUE or FALSE. In redox equilibria,
_____ a. Halogens tend to be strong oxidizing agents.
_____ b. Halide ions tend to be strong reducing agents.
_____ c. Halide ions can serve as oxidizing agents.
_____ d. Alkali metal ions tend to be weak reducing agents.
_____ e. Metallic gold is a weak oxidizing agent.
_____ f. Metallic gold is a weak reducing agent.
_____ g. Alkali metals tend to be strong reducing agents.
5. Use the reduction potential table in Problem 1 for these. If [ions] = Pgases = 1.0
a. Write the formula for a metal ion that will redox react with metallic silver.
b. Which particles in the table will redox react with fluoride ion?
c. Which particles in the table will redox react with sodium metal?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. Ag + Zn2+ Å Æ Ag+ + Zn b. Cl2 + I─ ÅÆ I2 + Cl─
wRA wOA sOA sRA sOA sRA wOA wRA
c. Ag+ + Zn Å Æ Ag + Zn2+
sOA sRA wRA wOA
2. a. In 1a: No, the reactants are favored. b. In 1b: Yes, the products are favored. c. In 1c: Yes

Practice B
1. a. Pb + Cu2+ Å Æ Will Redox React forming Pb2+ + Cu
(The \ react, the / are the products, the / don’t react.)
b. F2 + Cl─ + Na+ Å Æ Will Redox React and form Cl2 + F─ (Na+ will not react)
c. Ag + Pb2+ + Cl─ Å Æ Will Not Redox React

d. I2 + Na+ + F─ Å Æ Will Not Redox React
e. Cl2 + Na+ + Br─ Å Æ Will Redox React and form Br2 + Cl─ (Na+ will not react)
2. Copper metal on the right is below Ag+ ions on the left. Those two will react.
Copper on the right is above Zn2+ on the left. Those two will not react.
T 3a. An oxidizing and a reducing agent react to form another oxidizing and reducing agent.
F b. The stronger reducing agent winds up at equilibrium with the electrons.
F c. The weaker oxidizing agent winds up at equilibrium with the electrons.
T d. A strong oxidizing agent will bond strongly to the electrons it acquires.
F e. The stronger reducing agent has a stronger bond to its electrons than the weaker reducing agent.
F f. The stronger oxidizing agent is on the same side of the equation as the weaker reducing agent.
T g. Equilibrium favors the weaker reducing agent.
F h. The wOA attracts electrons more than the sOA.
T i. The stronger oxidizing agent reacts to become the weaker reducing agent.
T 4a. Halogens tend to be strong oxidizing agents.

F b. Halide ions tend to be strong reducing agents.
F c. Halide ions can serve as oxidizing agents.
F d. Alkali metal ions tend to be weak reducing agents.
F e. Metallic gold is a weak oxidizing agent.
T f. Metallic gold is a weak reducing agent.
T g. Alkali metals tend to be strong reducing agents.
5. a. Write the formula for a metal ion that will redox react with metallic silver. Au3+
b. Which particles in the table will redox react with fluoride ion? None
c. Which particles in the table will redox react with sodium metal? All left column particles above Na+
* * * * *

Lesson 37F: Calculating Cell Potential

Using a table of reduction potentials, we have learned two ways to predict the side favored
in redox equilibria: the weak-side-favored rule, and the diagonal \ rule. Both are accurate
at standard conditions, but may not be accurate at non-standard conditions. At non-
standard conditions, reduction potentials change.
A third and more systematic method, and one that predict the direction of redox reactions
at both standard and non-standard conditions, is to calculate the cell potential.
Cell potential measures the potential (emf) difference, in volts, between the two half-
reactions that make up a redox reaction. If the cell potential is positive, the products of the
redox reaction are favored. Why?
We derived in an earlier lesson the relationship between work, free energy, and emf.
─ w = nF = ─ ΔG or wmaximum possible = ΔG = ─ nF
These relationships are true under both standard and non-standard conditions.
One implication of this equation is: If the emf (voltage) is positive, ΔG is negative. We
know from thermodynamics that if ΔG is negative, the reaction is spontaneous: the
reaction mixture will shift toward the products. A mixture of the reactants will form
products, but a mixture of the products, being the favored side of the equilibrium, will not
substantially react.
We can summarize this as:
If the emf of a redox reaction is positive, ΔG is negative, and the reaction is spontaneous.
If a reaction mixture shifts toward the products, it must have a positive emf ( , in volts).
To calculate a non-standard cell potential requires finding the standard potential first, so
let’s start with calculating standard cell potentials.
Cell Potentials At Standard Conditions

To find cell potential, we balance and add half-reactions as we have done previously. We
also attach the standard cell potentials and add as we did with Hess’s law calculations,
with one significant exception.
To find the standard cell potential for a redox reaction, use these steps.
1. Write the redox reaction, balanced or unbalanced. Under the reaction, write a dashed
line - - - - - - - - - .
2. In the SRP table, find the two half-reactions that contain the particles in the redox
reaction.
One of the half-reactions in the table will need to be reversed to match the position of the
particles in the redox reaction above the - - - - - , and one will not.
Write both half-reactions under the - - - - -, one above the other, with one reversed.

o
3. Using the table, list values after each equation. For the half-reaction reversed,
o
change the sign of its value.
4. As with previous balancing using half-reactions, multiply each equation by an LCD so
that the number of electrons gained in one half-reaction equals the number lost in the
o
other -- but do not change the value. Why?
• When balancing ΔH and ΔG equations to add using Hess’s law, we multiplied the
equation coefficients and ΔH or ΔG values by the same factor. However, ΔH and
ΔG are extensive properties: the amounts determine their value.
• EMF is an intensive property: it has the same value no matter how many particles
create the EMF.
5. Add the reactions, canceling like terms on opposite sides of the arrows. Tweak the
coefficients if needed to balance spectators, but the final balanced redox reaction should
have lowest whole number coefficients If it does not, check the LCD used to balance
the electrons in the half-reactions.
o o
6. Add the values. The result is the standard cell potential: cell .
7. If the sum is positive, the products side is favored, and the reaction will go (form the
products) when the reactants are mixed.
To learn these steps, let’s try a problem.
Q1. Using the table values at the right, o
Std. Reduction Potentials in volts
a. calculate the standard cell potential
for at 25ºC
Ag+ + Zn Æ Ag + Zn2+ Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag 0.80

b. Under standard conditions, will this Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
reaction go?
* * * * *
Steps 1, 2, and 3:
o
Ag+ + Zn Æ Ag + Zn2+ cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag = + 0.80 V
o
Zn Æ Zn+2 + 2e─ = + 0.76 V (reverse reaction, reverse sign)
Steps 4, 5, and 6:
o
Ag+ + Zn Æ Ag + Zn2+ cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o o
2 Ag+ + 2 e─ Æ 2 Ag = + 0.80 V (double coefficients, but not )
o
Zn Æ Zn+2 + 2e─ = + 0.76 V
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
2 Ag+ + Zn Æ 2 Ag + Zn2+ cell = + 1.56 volts

To find standard cell potentials, we do not need to balance the final equation, or even the
half-reactions, but to find non-standard potentials balancing will be necessary, and
balanced equations are always preferred in chemistry.
Part B: Since the cell potential is positive, equilibrium favors the products, and the
reaction will go to the right.
If redox reactions include spectator ions, the steps to find the standard cell potential are the
same, but the half-reactions may be more difficult to identify. Try this example that
includes spectator ions.
Q2. Using the table values at the o

right, Std. Reduction Potentials in V
a. calculate the standard cell (25ºC)
potential for NO3─ + 4 H+ + 3 e─ Æ NO + 2 H2O 0.96
Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O Æ Cu
NO3─ + 2 H+ + e─ Æ NO2(g) + H2O 0.78
+ HNO3
b. Under std. conditions, will Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
this reaction go? Cu2+ + e─ Æ Cu+ 0.16
* * * * *
Steps 1, 2, and 3:
o
Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O Æ Cu + HNO3 cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu = + 0.34 V
o
NO + 2 H2O Æ NO3─ + 4 H+ + 3 e─ = ─ 0.96 V (write backwards, reverse sign)
The nitrate ion is a spectator on the left, but is both a spectator and an oxidizing agent on
the right. In writing half-reactions, the spectators are omitted, so omit nitrate on the left but
not the right.
Many particles are listed in more than one half-reaction in tables. Be sure to choose the half-
reaction that matches the particles on both sides of the redox equation.
Steps 4, 5, and 6:
o
Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O Æ Cu + HNO3 =?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
3 Cu2+ + 6 2e─ Æ 3 Cu o = + 0.34 V (triple coefficients, not o)
2 NO + 4 2 H O Æ 2 NO ─ + 8 4 H+ + 6 3 e─ o = ─ 0.96 V (reverse and 2x)
2 3
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O Æ 3 Cu + 8 H+ + 2 NO3─ o
cell = ─ 0.62 V
Be sure that the electron balancing between the two equations is done with lowest common
denominators. Check that the bottom reaction is balanced for atoms and charge. Then, to
complete the balancing, add in the spectators. The above supplies trial coefficients.
* * * * *

o
3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O Æ 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 cell = ─ 0.62 V
Check one more time for balanced atoms and charge.
Part B: Since the cell potential is negative, equilibrium favors the reactants, and the
reaction will not go as written. However, if a redox reaction has a cell potential
that is negative, it can be written in reverse. The cell potential is then has the same
magnitude, but is positive. The following reaction will go forward.
o
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 Æ 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O cell = + 0.62 V
Practice A: Do not consult tables on other pages to do these.

1. Using the table values at o
the right, Std. Reduction Potentials in volts
at 25ºC
a. calculate the standard
cell potential for MnO4─ + 4 H+ + 3 e─ Æ MnO2(s) + 2 H2O 1.68
H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ Cl2(g) + 2e─ Æ 2 Cl─ 1.36

MnO2(s) + H2O + Cl2
MnO4─ + 8 H+ + 5 e─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O 1.51
2. Without consulting a table on other pages, given this reaction,

o
Br2(l) + 2I─ Æ I2(s) + 2 Br─ cell = + 0.55 V
o
and this half-reaction, I2(s) + 2e─ Æ 2 I─ cell = + 0.54 V
o
find the for this half-reaction: Br2(l) + 2e─ Æ 2 Br─
Non-Standard Cell Potential

If the temperature in a cell is not 25 ºC, or the solution concentrations are not all 1 M, or all
gases are not at a partial pressure of 1 atm, conditions are not standard. In such cases, the
redox cell potential can be calculated using the Nernst equation. The difference between
the use of the Nernst equation with half-reactions and full redox reactions is:
• A half-reaction Nernst equation uses the moles of electrons (n) in the one balanced
half-reaction of interest;
• A full-reaction Nernst equation must use for moles of electrons (n) the lowest whole
number coefficient that equalizes the electrons in both of the two half-reactions that
make up the redox reaction.

Steps To Calculate Non-Standard Cell Potential

1. Calculate the standard cell potential using the method above.
2. Adjust the cell potential for non-standard conditions using the Nernst Equation:
o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q )
nF
where
cell = the non-standard cell potential

o
cell = the standard cell potential
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (use this R in a calculation with joules or volts)
n = the LCD coefficient moles of the electrons that is the same in the two balanced and
added half-reactions and results in a balanced equation with lowest whole
number coefficients.
F = 96,500 C/mol e─ = Faraday’s Constant

Q = the reaction quotient, with the terms for solids and pure liquids = 1
Apply those steps to the following example.
Q3. For the reaction solved previously for standard potential in Q1,
o
2 Ag + Zn2+ Å Æ 2 Ag+ + Zn cell = 1.56 V
what will be the cell potential if [Ag+] = 0.10 M, [Zn2+] = 0.50 M, and the reaction is
run at 10. ºC?
* * * * *
When data is complex, list a careful DATA table and solve one step at a time. To solve for a
non-standard cell potential, the equation is
o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = ?
nF
DATA:
o
cell = + 1.56 V
R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 10ºC + 273 = 283 K
n = the LCD moles of electrons that is the same in the two balanced and added half-
reactions.
When we solved to find the standard potential for this reaction in Q1, the
electron transfer that was the same in the two added half-reactions was 2
moles of electrons.

o
2 Ag Æ 2 Ag+ + 2 e─ = +0.80 V
o
Zn+2 + 2e─ Æ Zn = + 0.76 V
This means that in the Nernst equation, n = 2 mol e─
F = 96,500 C/mol = Faraday’s Constant
Q = ? For this reaction, the equilibrium constant expression is
Kexp = Q = [Ag+ ]2/[ Zn+2 ] = ( 0.10 )2/( 0.50 ) = 0.020 = Q
ln(Q) = ln( 0.020 ) = ─ 3.91
o o
SOLVE: cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = cell ─ [ RT • 1 • ln( Q ) ] = ?
nF nF
cell = + 1.56 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (283 K) • 1 • mol e─ • (─ 3.91 ) ] =

mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 C
= + 1.56 V + 0.048 J = + 1.56 V + 0.048 volts = + 1.61 V

C·mol mol
The non-standard conditions change the standard emf for the cell slightly, but measurably.
Summary: Rules for calculating cell potential

1. First find the standard cell potential,
• Balance and add two table half-reactions to balance the redox reaction.
o
• Add values to the half-reactions. Reverse the sign of the one reversed half-
o
reaction, but do not change any values.
o o
• Add the values to find cell.
2. For non-standard conditions, adjust cell with the Nernst equation.
3. A redox reaction will be spontaneous if its cell potential is positive. If cell is
negative, the reverse reaction will be spontaneous.
Practice B
1. For the reaction
o
H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g) cell = + 0.32 V
with the standard cell potential solved in Practice set A above,
a. what will be the cell potential if [Cl─] = 0.10 M, [H+] = 0.10 M, [MnO4─] = 0.20 M,
PCl = 1.0 atm, and the reaction is run at 50.ºC?
2
b. Is this reaction spontaneous under the non-standard conditions in part a?
c. Find ΔG for the reaction under the part a conditions, in kJ.

ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Add two half-reactions to find the standard cell potential.
Steps 1, 2, and 3:
o
H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ MnO2(s) + H2O + Cl2 cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
4 H+ + MnO4─ + 3 e─ Æ MnO2(s) + 2 H2O = + 1.68 V
o o
2 Cl─ Æ Cl2(g) + 2e─ = ─ 1.36 V (reverse reaction, reverse sign)
One half-reaction in the table will always be reversed.
Steps 4, 5, and 6:
o
H+ + MnO4─ + Cl─ Æ MnO2(s) + H2O + Cl2 cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
8 4 H+ + 2 MnO ─ + 6 3 e─ Æ 2 MnO 4 o
4 2(s) + 2 H2O = + 1.68 V
6 2 Cl─ Æ 3 Cl 6 2e─ o
2(g) + = ─ 1.36 V
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
8 H+ + 2 MnO4─ + 6 Cl─ Æ 2 MnO2(s) + 4 H2O + 3 Cl2 cell = + 0.32 V
Check: 8 H, 2 Mn, 8 O, 6 Cl, and zero total charges on both sides.
o
2. Br2(l) + 2e─ Æ 2 Br─ cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
Br2(l) + 2 I─ Æ I2(s) + 2 Br─ cell = + 0.55 V
o
I2(s) + 2e─ Æ 2 I─ cell = + 0.54 V
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o o
Br2(l) + 2e─ Æ 2 Br─ cell = + 1.09 V (add reactions and add values)
Practice B
1a. To solve for a non-standard cell potential, use the Nernst equation.
o
nF
DATA:
o
cell = + 0.32 V R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 50ºC + 273 = 323 K
n = the LCD coefficient moles of the electrons in the two added half-reactions that produce lowest-
whole-number coefficients in the final balanced equation.
n = 6 mol e─ in the half-reaction balancing in Practice A1 above. F = 96,500 C/mol
Q = the reaction quotient, with [solids, solvents, and pure liquids] = 1
In this K and Q expression, MnO2(s) and the solvent H2O are assigned values of 1.
* * * * *

Kexp = Qexp = (PCl2)3 = ( 1.0 )3 = 1.0 = 2.5 x 1015 = Q

[H+ ]8 [MnO4─ ]2 [Cl─]6 (0.10)8 (0.20)2 (0.10)6 4.0 x 10─16
ln(Q) = ln(2.5 x 1015) = + 35.4

o o
SOLVE: cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = cell ─ [ RT • 1 • ln( Q ) ] = ?
nF nF
cell = + 0.32 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (323 K) • 1 • mol • (+ 35.4 ) ] =
mol·K 6 mol e─ 96,500 C
= + 0.34 V ─ 0.164 J = + 0.34 V ─ 0.164 V = + 0.18 V (V = J/C = V/mol = J/C·mol)
C·mol mol
1b. Since the cell potential is positive, the reaction is spontaneous: The equilibrium will shift toward the
products, and the reaction as written will go.
1c. ΔG = ─ nF = ─ (6 mol e─) · 96,500 C · 0.18 J · 1 kJ = ─ 104 kJ
mol e─ C 103 J
* * * * *

Summary: Electrochemistry
1. Definitions
a. Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons.
b. Reducing agents are particles that lose their electrons and are oxidized.
c. Oxidizing agents are particles that gain electrons and are reduced.
d. A redox reaction is an electron transfer: one or more electrons move from one
particle to another.
2. Redox Reactions and Their Components
a. Redox reactions are reversible: in a closed system, reactions go to equilibrium
(though the side with the reactants or the products can be strongly favored).
b. Each side of a redox reaction equation has a one reducing agent (the electron donor) and
one oxidizing agent (the electron acceptor).
c. For a pair of particles, one on each side of the reaction equation, that contain the
same atom changing oxidation number,
• a particle that is a reducing agent on one side of a reaction loses electrons and
becomes an oxidizing agent on the other.
• A particle that is an oxidizing agent on one side gains electrons to become the
reducing agent on the other.
• A particle that is the stronger on one side is the weaker on the other.
d. In redox reaction equations, the sOA and sRA are on the same side of the arrow. The
wOA and wRA are on the other side.
e. Under standard conditions, the role of particles in a redox reaction can be identified
using a table of Standard Reduction Potentials (SRP). In the SRP table,
• The format is OA + electrons Æ RA .
• The strongest oxidizing agent is at the top left in the half-reaction with the
highest o value.
• The strongest reducing agent is at the bottom right.
3. The Direction of Redox Reactions
a. Equilibrium favors the side with the wOA and wRA.
• When a sOA and sRA are mixed, they react to form wOA and sRA.
• When a wOA and wRA are mixed, the favored particles exist, and no substantial
change occurs.
b. The diagonal \ rule: Under standard conditions, a particle in the table on the left of
the arrow will redox react with a particle to the right of the arrow that is below it in
the table. Diagonals in the opposite direction / will not redox react.
c. If a redox reaction is spontaneous (goes toward the products), it must have a
positive emf (voltage).

4. Conversions, Equations, Units, and Constants

a. Charge on one electron (e─) = 1 fundamental charge
b. Charge on 1 mole e─ = 96,500 coulombs
c. Faraday’s Constant = F = 96,500 C/mol e─
d. EMF in volts = Work in joules
Charge in coulombs
e. One volt ≡ 1 joule/coulomb
f. Since emf is an intensive property, in terms of unit cancellation,
J/C and V/mol and J/C·mol are the same as volts.

g. ΔG = ─ nF = maximum work that can be extracted from moving electrons
h. When ΔG is negative, cell potential is positive, and equilibrium favors the right side
of the reaction equation.
i. The non-standard emf for a reaction, half-reaction, or cell is calculated by the
o
Nernst Equation: = ─ RT ln( Q )
nF
where
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (use this R in a calculation with joules or volts)
n = the LCD moles of electrons that balance the two half-reactions
F = 96,500 C/mol e─ = Faraday’s Constant
Q = the reaction coefficient, using solution concentration in M, partial
pressures of gases in atm, and [solids, solvents, and pure liquids] = 1
5. Calculating cell potential
a. First find the standard cell potential of a redox reaction or electrochemical cell,
• Balance and add two table half-reactions to balance the redox reaction.
• Add o values to the half-reactions. Reverse the sign of the one reversed
half-reaction, but do not change o values.
• Add the o values to find o cell.
b. For non-standard conditions, adjust cell with the Nernst equation.
c. A redox reaction will be spontaneous if its cell potential is positive. If cell is
negative, the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
# # #

Module 38 — Electrochemical Cells

Prerequisites: Complete Module 37 before beginning Module 38.
* * * * *
Lesson 38A: Cells and Batteries

Cell Terminology
An electrochemical cell (also known as a galvanic cell or voltaic cell) creates electrical
current: the flow of electrons through a conductor.
A cell has two sections, called half-cells. In each half-cell, one redox half-reaction takes
place. Oxidation occurs in one half-cell and reduction in the other.
A cell physically separates the two redox half-reactions so that for the electron transfer in
the redox reaction to occur, the electrons must travel in a conductor (usually a wire)
between the two half-cells. As the electrons move through the wire, their energy can be
employed to do electrical work, such as causing an electric motor to turn. The cell converts
chemical to electrical energy. The motor converts electrical energy to mechanical work.
Battery is a term applied to either a single cell or a series of connected cells. Connected
cells can produce a voltage that is higher than is possible from a single cell.
A Cell Example
A common type of cell is based on metals and aqueous metal ions. Such a cell consists of
• two half-cells containing dissolved metal ions. The two solutions may contain
either different metal ions or the same ions with different concentrations.
• Into each solution is partially submerged an electrode: a piece of metal that is the
same element as the metal ions in the solution.
To build one example of such a cell, a strip of silver metal is partially submerged in a
solution of silver nitrate, containing silver ions. In a separate container, copper metal is
placed into a solution of cupric nitrate, containing copper(II) ions.
In each solution, a half-reaction can occur:
o
Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag red. = + 0.80 V Ag Cu
o
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu red. = + 0.34 V ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
However without extra electrons being
added to or removed from a half-cell, the
metals and ions in each half-cell are at Ag+ Cu2+
equilibrium, and no net reaction occurs. soln. soln.
A redox reaction does occur, and current

will flow, when the two halves of an
electrochemical cell are connected in two ways.

• One connection must be a conductive solid between the two metals through which
electrons can move with minimal resistance. This is usually a metal wire.
• The other connection must have a way for ions to flow. Examples include a salt
bridge (a tube containing a solution of ions) or a porous disk through which ions
can move slowly.
In a cell, electrons travel through the wire from one half-cell to the other. To maintain
balanced charges, ions must also travel between the two half-cells. A salt bridge or porous
disk allows the slow movement of positive ions in the same direction as the electrons in the
wire and negative ions in the direction opposite the flow of electrons.
If a low-voltage incandescent bulb is attached at both of its connectors to the wire, the bulb
will glow as the flow of electrons does work: heating the resistant wire in the bulb. If a
digital voltmeter (symbol V in the diagram) is placed in the circuit, it will measure the emf
difference (also called the potential difference or cell potential) between the two cells.
The Direction of the Current at Standard Conditions
How can we predict the direction of the electron flow in the wire between the cells?
The rules differ for standard and non-standard conditions. Let’s take the standard
conditions case first.
• The table of reduction potentials lists its half-reactions in order, with the strongest
oxidizing agents at the top left corner.
• The stronger oxidizing and reducing agents are always on the same side of the
redox reaction equation, but they are always in different half-cells.
In a cell, the flow of electrons is logical.
As the stronger reducing agent (sRA) reacts, it loses electrons and is oxidized.
The electrons leave the half-cell with the stronger reducing agent (sRA) and travel
through the wire toward the other half-cell.
The above rule, focused on the sRA, is all that you need to predict the direction of the
electron flow and the chemical changes in the cell. However, we can also view the changes
from the opposite perspective.
• The electrons flow through the wire toward the half-cell that has the particle that
more strongly attracts the electrons: the stronger oxidizing agent (sOA).
• As the stronger oxidizing
wire agent (sOA) reacts, it
Ag
V Cu gains electrons and is
Salt Bridge reduced.
Both sets of rules work. These
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lessons will usually refer to the
first set, based on the sRA.
Ag+ Cu2+

In general, if you are given two half-cells at standard conditions and are asked to predict the
direction of electron flow:
• Find the particle of the 4 that is on the right and lower in the SRP table. That’s the
stronger reducing agent.
• The electrons will travel through the wire in the direction away from the half-cell
with the sRA.
Apply the rules to this problem.
Q. In the Ag/Cu cell in the diagram above,
Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag o
red. = + 0.80 V
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu o
red. = + 0.34 V
In which direction will the electrons flow: to the left or right?
* * * * *
The stronger reducing agent in this system is Cu. The electrons travel away from
the Cu and through the wire. In this cell as written, the electrons travel to the left.
How the Charges Move and Particles Change
In a cell, the electrons are a focus, because the electrons can be harnessed to power our MP3
players, etc. Let’s track how and why the electrons travel between the half-cells.
Charges travel throughout the cell, so we can begin anywhere. Let’s start with the stronger
reducing agent.
• The sRA has electrons it has a tendency to give away. If the electrons can travel
toward another particle that tends to accept electrons, and if charges can remain
balanced, the sRA can give electrons away. A cell fulfills these conditions.
• In the Ag/Cu cell above, the sRA is Cu. At the surface of the copper electrode, a
neutral Cu metal atom can give away two electrons to the conductive metal around
it, becoming a Cu2+ ion. This ion is more stable when dissolved in water, and it
moves from the metal surface into the surrounding solution. In this process, the
copper metal loses mass, and the solution gains Cu2+ ion, which is blue when
dissolved in water. As more Cu oxidizes, the [Cu2+] in the solution increases and
blue color of the solution intensifies.
• The addition of the two electrons to the surrounding copper metal creates an
unbalanced negative charge, and those like charges repel. This repulsion pushes
electrons in the metal into the wire. In the wire, electrons can flow away from the
copper electrode toward the silver electrode. The silver electrode is in contact with
the particle that most attract electrons in the cell: Ag+ ion, the stronger oxidizing
agent.
• When the copper metal first loses its two electrons, the two extra electrons in the
metal create a kind of “pressure” of unbalanced charge throughout the connected
metals. The charge can be rebalanced if electrons either return to the Cu2+ ion, or,

at the opposite end of the connected metals, attach to Ag+ ions. The Ag+ ion is a
stronger electron attractor than Cu2+ ion, so electrons flow toward the Ag+. The
difference between the values in the two half cells is the measure of the
“pressure” (the voltage) of the flow.
• To maintain a balanced charge in the metals, two electrons on the surface of the silver
metal electrode react with two Ag+ ions. This creates two atoms of neutral Ag
metal. In the Ag/Ag+ half-cell, as electrons flow in from the wire and react, the
concentration of the Ag+ ion decreases, and the mass of Ag metal increases.
• In metals, electrons move easily, but ions do not. In solutions, ions move easily. As
the negative electrons flow in one direction through the wire, charges on ions must
flow slowly through the salt bridge to keep charges balanced in both cells. .
• In a cell or redox reaction, the sRA is successful at giving away its electrons, and the
sOA is successful at attracting them.
As the cell runs, the reactants are gradually used up, the products gradually form, and the
voltage gradually drops. When the value for Q (the reaction quotient) reaches K for the
redox reaction, the reaction is at equilibrium: ion concentrations no longer change and
electrons no longer flow. Unless the ions are replenished in some way, the voltage remains
at zero and the cell (a battery) is dead.
For electrochemical cells, let’s summarize.
A redox reaction is a combination of two balanced half-reactions.

An electrochemical cell is a combination of two half-cells.
In an electrochemical cell, a redox reaction takes place in which the two half-reactions
are carried out in the two separate half-cells.
• One half-cell has the particles in one half-reaction. The other half-cell has the
particles in the other half-reaction.
• One half-cell has the sRA and wOA. The other has the sOA and wRA.
In a redox reaction equation, the sRA and sOA are on the same side. In a cell, the sRA
and wOA are in the same half-cell.
As current flows through the wire connecting the cell electrodes,
• the two half-reactions proceed that added together produce the redox reaction.
• Reactants and products shift toward the side favored at equilibrium.
• sRA is oxidized to become wOA, and sOA is reduced to become wRA.
• Electrons flow in the wire from the sRA side toward the side with the sOA.
• Ions move through the salt bridge to balance charge.
As the sRA and sOA are used up and wRA and wOA build up, the voltage drops
gradually. When Q = K for the redox reaction, the voltage is zero.

Practice A: Learn the rules above, then try these problems.

1. Using the table, for these unbalanced redox o
equilibria under standard conditions, circle Std. Reduction Potentials in volts
the particle that is the stronger reducing at 25ºC
agent. Cl2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Cl─ 1.36
a. Ag + Zn2+ Å Æ Ag+ + Zn
Br2 + 2 e─ Æ 2 Br─ 1.09
b. Cl2 + Br─ Å Æ Br2 + Cl─
Ag+ + e─ Æ Ag 0.80
2. Under standard conditions, using the table
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
above and the following representations for
two half-cells connected by a porous Pb2+ + 2e─ Æ Pb ─ 0.13
membrane, state whether electrons would
Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
flow through a wire connecting the
electrodes to the left or right.
2+ 2+
a. ⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and Zn ⎭
2+ 2+
b. ⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭and ⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭
3. As the electrons flow in the cells in Problem 2 , which particle is oxidized?

a. In 2a: b. In 2b:
4. As the electrons flow in Problem 2 above, which metal increases in mass?
a. In 2a: b. In 2b:
5. As the electrons flow in Problem 2 above, which particle increases in concentration in
its solution?
a. In 2a: b. In 2b:
Calculating Cell Voltage at Standard Conditions

The emf difference between two half-cells (also known as the potential difference or cell
potential or cell voltage) is an important property of cells and batteries made from cells.
A standard cell voltage is easy to calculate: it’s the cell potential that you calculated in a
previous lesson. The cell potential can also be adjusted for non-standard conditions by
using the Nernst equation, as you did in Lesson 37F.
Our prior calculations of cell potential were based on knowing the redox reaction. Let’s
tweak our steps to find cell potential knowing the two half-cells as we solve the following
problem.

+ 2+
Q. A cell consists of ⎩ Ag and Ag ⎭ and ⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭ . The two half-cells are
connected by a wire between the electrodes and a salt bridge between the solutions.
a. Under standard conditions, what is the predicted cell voltage?
b. In which direction do electrons in the wire flow?
c. Which particle is oxidized as the current flows?
d. Which particle concentration will increase as the electrons flow?
Part a.
To find the standard cell potential, add the half-reactions.
1. Using the SRP table, find the two half-reactions that contain the particles in each of
the two half-cells.
o
Then copy the higher in the table of the two half-reactions. Attach its value.
o
2. Under the first half-reaction, write the second table half-reaction reversed. Attach
with its sign reversed.
o
3. Balance the electrons, add the two half-reactions, and add to find cell.
Writing the higher half-reaction in the direction shown in the table guarantees that the
standard cell potential is always positive.
For the problem above, do those steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
2 Ag+ + 2 e─ Æ 2 Ag o = + 0.80 V (write higher first, as in table)
Pb Æ Pb2+ + 2e─ o = + 0.13 V (write lower reversed, reversing o)
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
2 Ag+ + Pb Æ 2 Ag + Pb2+ o
cell = + 0.93 V = the WANTED voltage.
For problems in which all you are asked is the cell potential (or emf or voltage) under
standard conditions, you can simply subtract the two table values, the higher in the table
minus the lower. Using the table, try that rule to find the emf difference for the two half-
reactions in this problem, then compare to the answer above.
* * * * *
o o
higher ─ lower = 0.80 V ─ (─ 0.13 v) = + 0.93 V = the same answer as above.
However, in most problems you will be asked other questions about the reaction and/or
cell. To answer those questions, you will need to write and balance the two half-reactions.
Let’s remember the higher minus lower rule this way:
To check a standard cell emf, use o o o

cell = higher ─ lower = a positive voltage
Part b: In which direction will the electrons flow?

* * * * *

The positive voltage means the reaction equation goes to the right.
This means the sRA is on the left side of the reaction equation, since the right side
favored must have the wRA and wOA. On each side of the balanced equation is
only one RA. The RA on the left side is Pb, so it must be the sRA. The electrons
flow from the sRA (Pb) into the wire, traveling to the left in the cell graphic in the
problem, in order to react with the Ag+ in the other cell, which is the sOA.
Part c. Which particle is oxidized as the current flows?
* * * * *
In redox reactions, the stronger reducing agent is oxidized. Here, that’s Pb.
Part d: The concentration of a solid metal is constant, so only the ions in solution can
change concentration. In this cell, one metal ion concentration increases because
as one metal reacts (is used up), and its metal ion forms. The metal that reacts is
the sRA: Pb. The ion that increases concentration is therefore Pb2+.
* * * * *
Calculating Cell Voltage at Non-Standard Conditions
The voltage for a cell is different at non-standard conditions than at standard conditions.
At non-standard conditions, the direction of the electron flow may be the same as at
standard conditions, or it may be reversed.
o
To find a non-standard cell voltage, the steps are: find the standard cell, then apply the
Nernst equation. Apply those steps to this problem.
+ 2+
Q. Using the answers found above for the cell ⎩ Ag and Ag ⎭ and ⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭ ,
if the [Pb2+] = 1.0 M and the [Ag+] = 1.0 x 10─4 M at 25ºC,
a. Which components are at lower than standard concentrations: sRA, sOA, wOA,
or wRA?
b. Will the lower concentration for that component tend to increase or decrease the
voltage (pressure) in the cell?
c. Calculate the voltage of the cell at these non-standard conditions?
d. Was the change in voltage between standard and these non-standard conditions
as you predicted in part b?
e. In which direction will the electrons flow?
* * * * *
Answers
a. The Ag+ is at lower than standard (1 M) concentration, and it is the sOA.

b. The role of the sOA is to pull electrons toward it. If the sOA has lower
concentration, there will be fewer particles pulling the electrons. You might
predict that this would lower the pressure of the flowing electrons: their voltage.
c. To find the cell potential at non-standard conditions,

o
• First find the balanced equation and standard value by adding the half-
reactions (done above),
o
• then apply the Nernst equation: cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = ?
c nF
DATA:
o
cell = the standard cell potential = + 0.93 V (solved above)
R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K F = 96,500 C/mol e─

n = 2 mol e─ in the half-reactions that balanced the equation above.
Q = ? The balanced equation (solved above) is: 2 Ag+ + Pb Æ 2 Ag + Pb2+
To find the Q value:
Kexp = Qexp = [ Pb+2 ] / [Ag+ ]2 = ( 1.0 )/( 1.0 x 10─4 )2 = 1.0 x 10+8 = Q
ln(Q) = ln(1.0 x 10+8) = + 18.42
SOLVE:
o o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = cell ─ RT • 1 • ln( Q ) = ?
nF nF
cell = + 0.93 V ─ 8.31 J • (298 K) • 1 • mol e─ • (+ 18.42 ) =

mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 C
= + 0.93 V ─ 0.236 J = + 0.93 V ─ 0.236 V = + 0.69 V

C·mol mol
These non-standard conditions lower the standard emf for the cell by 0.24 V.
d. This lower voltage is as predicted qualitatively in part b.
e. In which direction will the electrons flow?
* * * * *
The cell voltage, though lower, is still positive. This means the reaction equation
as written will still go to the right. The electrons flow through the wire from the
sRA Pb on the left side of the balanced equation. The electrons will flow from the
Pb in the right half-cell to the left half-cell as drawn in the problem.

Practice B
1. In the cell represented by Standard o
in volts
2+ 2+ Reduction Potentials
⎩ Zn and Zn ⎭ and ⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭, at 25ºC
if the [Pb2+] = 0.10 M and the F2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 F─ + 2.87

[Zn2+] = 4.0 x 10─3 M at 25ºC, 2 H+ + 2 e─ Æ H2 0.0
a. What is the voltage of the cell? Pb2+ + 2e─ Æ Pb ─ 0.13
b. In which direction will the electrons flow
Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
through the wire: To the left or right?
Li+ + e─ Æ Li ─ 3.05
c. Find the free energy change of the
reaction, in kJ.
2. Based on the table above, what is the highest voltage possible from a single
electrochemical cell under standard conditions?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. Ag + Zn2+ Å Æ Ag+ + Zn b. Cl2 + Br─ Å Æ Br2 + Cl─
2+ 2+
2. a. ⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and Zn ⎭ Zn is the sRA. The flow is from the Zn electrode: to the left.
2+ 2+
b. ⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭and ⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ The flow is from the Pb electrode: to the right.
3. The reaction in a cell is a redox reaction. The particle that is oxidized in a redox reaction is the stronger
reducing agent (sRA).
a. In 2a: Zn b. In 2b: Pb
4. In these cells, the ion that reacts to form metal is the sOA in each cell. The sOA is the particle in the left
column and more toward the top, which in both cells is Cu2+ which reacts to form Cu. In 2a and in 2b: Cu
5. In these cells, ions form as a metal reacts. The metal that is a reactant is the sRA in these cells. The ions
that form are a. In 2a: Zn2+ b. In 2b: Pb2+
Practice B
1. The steps to find the non-standard potential based on two half-cells are
•
Write the half-reaction higher in the table. Under it, write the other half-reaction, reversed.
o
• Balance and add the two half-reactions, find cell, then apply the Nernst equation.
* * * * *

o
Pb2+ + 2 e─ Æ Pb = ─ 0.13 V (write higher first, as in table)
o o
Zn Æ Zn+2 + 2e─ = + 0.76 V (write lower reversed, reversing )
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
Pb2+ + Zn Æ Pb + Zn+2 cell = + 0.63 V
Then apply the Nernst equation.
o
nF
DATA:
o
cell = + 0.63 V R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K
n = 2 mol e─ in the balanced half-reactions F = 96,500 C/mol e─
Q = ? For the balanced equation above,
Kexp = Qexp = [ Zn+2 ] / [Pb2+ ] = (4.0 x 10─3 )/( 1.0 x 10─1 ) = 4.0 x 10─2 = Q
ln(Q) = ln( 4.0 x 10─2 ) = ─ 3.22

SOLVE:
o o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q ) = cell ─ [ RT • 1 • ln( Q ) ] = ?
nF nF
cell = + 0.63 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (298 K) • 1 • mol • (─ 3.22 ) ] =
mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 coulomb
= + 0.63 V + 0.041 J = + 0.63 V + 0.041 V = + 0.67 V
C·mol mol
In unit cancellation, J/C and V/mol and J/C· mol are the same as volts.
1b. Since the voltage is positive for the balanced equation, the reaction favors the right side products.
The electrons will flow from the sRA on the left side of the balanced equation: Zn.
In the cell as shown in the problem, the electrons will flow from the Zn electrode on the left to the right.
1c. ΔG = ─ nF = ─ (2 mol e─) · 96,500 C · 0.67 J · 1 kJ = ─ 129 kJ
mol e─ C 103 J
2. Based on our check rule,
To check a standard cell emf, use o o o

cell = higher ─ lower = a positive voltage
the largest difference will be for the top and bottom table reactions.
o o o
cell = highest ─ lowest = 2.87 V ─ (─ 3.05 v) = + 5.92 V
* * * * *

Lesson 38B: Anodes and Cathodes

Electrodes
Each half-cell has one electrode: a conductive solid component of the half-cell (usually a
metal) to which wires can be attached. When two half-cells are connected, one electrode is
termed the anode and the other the cathode. The rules to remember are:
Labeling Electrodes
· Oxidation occurs at the anode (─). Reduction occurs at the cathode (+).
· Electrons always move from the anode thru the wire toward the cathode.
· In a cell, the sRA is being oxidized, so the anode is in the half-cell with the sRA.
The two electrodes on a cell (or a battery containing one or more cells) where wires are
attached are termed the two poles. On a battery, the pole labeled (─) is an anode because
the anode is the source of the excess electrons that are attracted to a cathode (+).
The emf of the half-cell with the sRA and anode has a lower value than the emf of the half-
cell with the sOA and the cathode (+).
Lower = half reaction and half cell with SRA and anode (─).
The emf (or voltage) of a cell that creates a current must be positive, and the emf of a cell is
the difference between the emf of its two half-reactions. For a difference to result in a
positive number, an equation must have higher minus a lower number. The equation that
will give a positive emf is
cell = higher ─ lower
= half with cathode (+) and SOA ─ half with anode (─) and SRA
= + voltage
o
In the above rules, the values may be either reduction values in an SRP table for
reactions at standard conditions or reduction values at non-standard conditions adjusted
with the Nernst equation.
The terms anode and cathode come from the fact that historically, in the two-metal cells
that have long been used as batteries, cations are attracted to the cathode, where they are
reduced. However, the “cations are attracted to the cathode” rule does not always predict
the labels for the electrodes because, though all cells must contain cathodes, not all cells
contain cations that react in the redox reaction.
Rules that work in all cases are:
• the cathode is the electrode in the half-cell that the electrons the wire flow toward and
where reduction occurs.

• The anode is the electrode in the half-cell that the electrons the wire flow from and
where oxidation occurs.
Memorize one rule of the two and the other can be applied by logic when needed.
Platinum Electrodes
Not all half-reactions include metals that can serve as electrodes. If a half-reaction does not
include a metal or other solid conductor, a non-reactive solid conductor must added to the
half-cell solution to serve as an electrode to which a wire can be attached.
The metal platinum (Pt) is a very weak reducing agent that will not redox react with most
substances. Though platinum is expensive, it is often the electrode of choice in a half-cell
that does not include a metal. The transfer of electrons that occurs in the half-reaction takes
place at the surface of the platinum. A conductive non-reactant such as Pt can be an
anode (─) or a cathode (+).
Some solids that are not metals can conduct electricity, but most do not. In problems,
unless it is otherwise noted, it should be assumed that if none of the half-cell components
are metals, a conductive electrode such as Pt(s) must be added.
Labeling the Electrodes

In a redox reaction, the sRA gives up its electrons and is oxidized. When a redox reaction
occurs in a cell, the sRA gives up its electrons at the anode (─).
A cell can be represented either by a redox reaction or by a drawing of the two half-cells.
The drawing shows the platinum electrodes that the reaction equation does not.
An example of a cell drawing is
e─
↑ anode cathode ↓
2+ Ag+⎭
⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭ and ⎩ Ag and
sRA wOA wRA sOA

In labeling the cell components, key rules are:
• Each half-cell must include the particles in one half-reaction: two particles in which
the same central atom has different oxidation numbers.
• The anode (─) is the electrode in the half-cell that the electrons flow from.
• In a cell, the electrons flow from the sRA.
In drawing a cell, the method we will use is to
• identify the sRA.
• Label as the anode the electrode in the half-cell with the sRA.
• Label the other electrode as the cathode.
• Show the flow of electrons from the anode through the wire toward the cathode.
Let’s try an example.

Q1. For the reaction Cu + H+ + MnO4─ Æ Cu2+ + Mn2+ carried out at standard-
state conditions,
a. draw the two half-cells. o
Standard Reduction Potentials in V
b. Label the anode and
cathode. MnO4─ + 8 H+ + 5e─ Æ Mn2+ + 4 H2O 1.51
c. Label the direction of
Cu2+ + 2e─ Æ Cu 0.34
electron flow.
Zn2+ + 2e─ Æ Zn ─ 0.76
Apply the following steps.
Steps in Labeling the Electrodes
1. If the redox reaction is given, under the reaction, skip a line, then draw the two half-
cells:
⎩ ⎭ and ⎩ ⎭.
In each half-cell, with the two cells in any order.
• Write the particles in one half reaction.
• Include two particles that have the same central atom.
• Leave out H2O and e─.
• If a half-cell does not include a solid metal, add Pt(s) .
2. Under the particle formulas in the reaction (if supplied) and the half-cells, label the
sRA, sOA, wOA, and wRA. Assign the labels using any one of the following methods.
a. In an SRP table, the sOA is higher on the left, and the sRA is lower on the right.
o
b. If is positive or the K is > 1, the wRA and wOA are on the right in the reaction;
c. The favored side of the reaction contains the wRA and wOA.
3. Find the metal in the half-cell with the sRA. Above the metal, draw a ↑ to show
electrons leaving that half-cell.
Try those steps, then check below.
* * * * *
↑
2+ + 2+ and MnO ─ and Pt
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ H and Mn 4 ⎭
sRA wOA wRA sOA (labels based on table)
(The half-cells can be drawn in the reverse order.)

4. Draw a ↓ above the metal in the half-cell with the sOA.
5. Between the arrows, draw a ← or → arrow showing the direction of electron flow
between the half-cells.

6. Next to ↑ write anode. Next to ↓ write cathode.

Finish those steps, then check below.
* * * * *
e─
anode ↑ ↓ cathode
2+ + 2+ and MnO ─ and Pt
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ H and Mn 4 ⎭
sRA wOA wRA sOA
Done. If the half-cells can be drawn in the reverse order, each particle must have
the same label, and electrons must flow toward the cathode.
The anode is the electrode in the half-cell that contains the sRA. In this problem, the
sRA is Cu, and Cu is the metal in the half-cell with the sRA, so Cu is the anode (─).
In the other half-cell must be the cathode (+). The electrode normally must be a
solid metal, and the only metal in that half-cell is Pt.
Apply the six steps above to one more example.
Q2. Using the SRP table above, identify the anode and cathode, and show the direction
of electron flow, in a cell containing these half-cells at standard-state conditions.
2+ 2+
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and Zn ⎭
* * * * *
e─
cathode ↓ ↑ anode
2+ Zn2+⎭
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and
wRA sOA sRA wOA
At standard conditions, the stronger reducing agent (sRA) is the particle in the right
SRP column closer to the bottom: Zn. Since Zn must be in the half-cell with the
anode (─), and Zn is the metal in that half-cell, it is the anode.
In the other half-cell must be a cathode (+). The cathode must be a metal, so it must
be Cu.
Note that in Q1, Cu is the anode (─), and in Q2, Cu is the cathode (+). Any metal can be an
anode or cathode, depending on the direction of the flow of current in the cell.
Summary Steps: Labeling the Electrodes
1. Draw the two half-cells. Each half-cell has the particles in half-reaction, leaving out
H2O and e─. Add Pt to any half-cell without a solid metal.
2. Below the symbols, label the sRA, sOA, wRA, and wOA.
3. Draw a ↑ above the metal in the half-cell with the sRA.
4. Draw a ↓ above the one metal in the half-cell with the sOA.

5. Between the arrows, draw a ← or → arrow showing the direction of electron flow.
6. Next to ↑ write anode. Next to ↓ write cathode (+).
Practice A: Do not use an SRP table for these problems.

1. Will this half-cell require an added non-reactive electrode?
+ 2+
⎩ H and Mn and MnO2(s) ⎭
o
2. Based on this cell reaction: Pb2+ + Fe2+ Å Æ Pb + Fe3+ cell = ─ 0.90 V
label the anode, cathode, and electron flow in a cell connecting these half-cells under
standard conditions.
2+ 2+ and Fe3+
⎩ Pb and Pb ⎭ and ⎩ Pt and Fe ⎭
3. Assuming standard conditions, draw the half-cells showing the anode, cathode (+), and
electron flow in a cell based on this reaction.
o
Cu2+ + Ni Å Æ Cu + Ni2+ cell = + 0.59 V
4. In a cell based on this reaction under standard conditions, draw the half-cells showing
the anode, cathode (+), and electron flow.
Ag+ + Fe2+ Æ Ag + Fe3+ that favors the right.
5. In a cell based on the redox equilibrium: Ni2+ + Sn Å Æ Ni + Sn2+
if Ni is the anode under the reaction conditions, which side is favored at equilibrium?
Cell Diagrams
A cell diagram is another method that is frequently used to represent an electrochemical
cell. An example of a cell diagram is
Zn(s) ⏐ Zn2+ (1 M) ⏐⏐ Pb2+ (1 M) ⏐ Pb(s)
In a cell diagram,
1. A vertical double line ⏐⏐ represents a salt bridge or porous disk between two half-cells.
2. The components of the half-cell that includes the sRA are written on the left side of the
⏐⏐ . The metal anode is written first, at the far left.
3. On each side, a single vertical line ⏐ is written between the symbols of particles reacting
in the half-cell that are in different phases (solid, liquid, gas, or aqueous). Values that can
vary, such as concentration in mol/L for ions and pressure in atm for gases, are written
in parentheses after each symbol.
4. If there is no metal in the left half-cell, Pt(s)⏐ representing a platinum anode (─) is
written at the far left. If there is no conductor in the half-cell with the sOA, ⏐Pt(s) is
written at the far right.

5. Except for the anode (─) at the far left and cathode (+) at the far right, the phases on
each side of the ⏐⏐ may be listed in any order.
The general order of the components in a cell diagram is always
Æ direction of electron flow in wire Æ
anode(s) ⏐ phase ⏐ phase ⏐⏐ phase ⏐ phase ⏐ cathode(s)
sRA and wOA ⏐⏐ sOA and wRA

Let’s apply those rules to an example.
o
Q. For a cell based on this reaction: 2 H+ + Zn Æ Zn2+ + H2(g) cell = + 0.76 V
At standard-state conditions, represent the cell with a cell diagram.
* * * * *
1. First identify the anode and write its symbol on the far left.
* * * * *
The anode (─) is in the half-reaction that includes the sRA.
The Zn on the left is acting as an RA. Since the cell potential is positive, the Zn on the
left side must be the sRA. Since Zn is the solid metal in the half-reaction with the sRA,
Zn is the anode. Write Zn(s) ⏐ first.
2. Next write the formulas for remaining particles in the half-reaction that includes the
sRA. Separate particles in different phases by a⏐ line. The phases may be listed in any
order. After ions, write (concentrations in M) and after gases write (partial pressures in
atm). At standard-state conditions, [ions] are (1 M) and gas pressures are (1 atm).
3. Write the double line representing the salt bridge or porous cell separating the half-cells
and half-reactions.
* * * * *
So far: Zn(s) ⏐ Zn2+(1 M) ⏐⏐
4. Write the components in the other half-reaction and half-cell the same way. List the
cathode after a single vertical line at the far right. If no component in this half-cell and
half-reaction is a metal, write ⏐ Pt(s) to the far right as the cathode.
* * * * *
In this example: Zn(s) ⏐ Zn2+ (1 M) ⏐⏐ H+ (1 M) ⏐ H2(g) ⏐ Pt(s)
The H+ and H2(g) may be written in reverse order.

Practice B: Do not use an SRP table for these problems.

1. Write the cell diagram for cells based on these reactions under standard conditions.
o
a. Pb2+ + Zn Æ Pb + Zn2+ cell = + 0.63 V
o
b. Pb + 2 H+ Æ Pb2+ + H2(g) cell = + 0.13 V
2. For this cell at standard conditions,
Ni(s) ⏐ Ni2+ (1 M) ⏐⏐ H2(g) (1 atm) ⏐ H+ (1 M) ⏐ Pt(s)
a. Write the formula for the cathode (+).

b. What is the sign of the cell potential for the cell as written?
c. Which particle is the sOA?
d. Which particle is the wOA?
o o 2+ + 2e─ Æ Ni
e. If cell = + 0.25 V, what is reduction for Ni
3. Write the cell diagram for a cell based on this reaction at standard conditions.
o
Br2(l) + 2 I─ Å Æ I2(s) + 2 Br─ cell = + 0.55 V
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. Though the half-cell includes a solid, it is not a metal. Metals are electrically conductive, but most other
solids are not. Assume this half-cell needs a non-reactive electrode.
o
2. Since is negative, the left side has the wRA and wOA.
o
Pb2+ + Fe2+ Å Æ Pb + Fe3+ cell = ─ 0.90 V
wOA wRA sRA sOA
e─
Based on those labels: anode ↑ ↓ cathode
Pb and Pb 2+ Fe 2+ and Fe3+ and Pt
⎩ ⎭ and ⎩ ⎭
sRA wOA wRA sOA
The half-cells may be reversed, so long as the component labels remain the same and electrons leave the
anode.
In the half-cell that includes Fe2+ and Fe3+, ions dissolved in water cannot be connected to a wire to serve
as an electrode. Pt is therefore added. Since it is on the side the electrons flow toward, Pt is the cathode.
Once one electrode is labeled, the metal in the other half-cell must be the opposite electrode.

o
3. Cu2+ + Ni Å Æ Cu + Ni2+ cell = + 0.59 V (positive V = right side favored)
sOA sRA wRA wOA
e─
Based on those labels: anode ↑ ↓ cathode
2+ 2+
⎩ Ni and Ni ⎭ and ⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭
sRA wOA wRA sOA
The half-cells may be reversed as long as the component labels remain the same and e─ leave the anode.
Since the voltage is positive, the RA on the left side of the reaction (Ni) must be the sRA. The half-cell with
the sRA contains the anode, and the metal is Ni. The metal in the other half-cell must be the cathode (+).
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.
4. Ag+ + Fe2+ Æ Ag + Fe3+ that favors the right.
sOA sRA wRA wOA
e─
Based on those labels: cathode ↓ ↑ anode
+ 2+ 3+
⎩ Ag and Ag ⎭ and ⎩ Fe and Fe and Pt ⎭
wRA sOA sRA wOA
The half-cells may be reversed as long as the component labels remain the same and e─ leave the anode.
5. Ni is the anode. The anode is the metal in the same half-cell as the sRA. Since Ni must be the sRA, and
the sRA and sOA are on the same side of the reaction, and the wOA and wRA are on the favored side of
the reaction, the left side of this reaction is favored at equilibrium.
Practice B
1. a. The anode must be the Zn metal on the left side of the reaction.
If the cell voltage is positive, the RA on the left side of the reaction must be the sRA.
Once the anode is identified, the position of the other particles can be determined by inspection.
Zn(s) ⏐ Zn2+ (1 M) ⏐⏐ Pb2+ (1 M) ⏐ Pb(s)
b. The anode must be the Pb metal on the left side of the reaction, since it is the sRA.
Once the anode is identified, the position of the other particles is set.
Since the other half-reaction does not include a metal, a platinum cathode is added.
The order of the H and H+ in the cell diagram below can be switched, but Pt must be at the right.
2
At standard conditions, all [ions] are labeled (1 M) and all gas pressures are labeled (1 atm).
Pb(s) ⏐ Pb2+ (1 M) ⏐⏐ H2(g) (1 atm) ⏐ H+ (1 M) ⏐ Pt(s)
2. a. Pt(s) . The cathode (+) is written at the right.
b. A cell diagram represents a working cell, and cells run in a direction that produces a positive voltage.
c. The sOA? Ni is the anode and RA in its half-cell. It must be the sRA because it is in the half-cell
with the anode, and the other particle in its half-cell must be the wOA. The sOA must be in the other
half-cell, where H+ is the OA. H+ is the sOA.

d. The wOA? The wOA is the particle formed when the sRA (Ni) gives up its electrons in the same
half-cell as the sRA, which is Ni2+.
o
e. The cell reaction is: Ni + 2 H+ Æ Ni2+ + H2(g) cell = + 0.25 V
sRA sOA wOA wRA
Once the sRA is identified, the labels are automatic. When the cell potential is positive, the sRA must
be on the left side of the redox equation.
One half-reaction is the hydrogen electrode reaction under standard conditions
o
2 H+ + 2e─ Æ H2(g) red. = + 0.0 V (Write the OA on the left)
o
Use a process that adds reactions and half-reactions to find the unknown .
* * * * *
o
WANTED: Ni2+ + 2e─ Æ Ni cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o o
Ni2+ + H2(g) Æ Ni + 2 H+ = ─ 0.25 V (write backwards, reversing )
o
2 H+ + 2e─ Æ H2(g) = + 0.0 V
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o o
Ni2+ + 2e─ Æ Ni cell = ─ 0.25 V (add reactions and values)
3. First label the reaction components.
o
Br2(l) + I ─ Å Æ I2(s) + Br─ cell = + 0.55 V
sOA sRA wOA wRA
Once one component is labeled, the other labels are automatic. The anode must be in the same half-cell
and half-reaction as the sRA. That half-cell must include I ─ and I2(s)
I2(s) is a solid, but it is not in the metal section of the periodic table, so assume it will not be a good
conductor and a non-reactive electrode must be added. The half-cell with the sRA is always on the left.
So far, this gives us Pt(s) ⏐ I2 (s) ⏐ I ─ (1 M) ⏐⏐
For the same reasons, the other half-cell will need a non-reactive metal electrode. The cell diagram is
Pt(s) ⏐ I2 (s) ⏐ I ─ (1 M) ⏐⏐ Br2 (s) ⏐ Br─ (1 M) ⏐ Pt(s)
The order of the solid and aqueous components may be reversed in either or both half-cells
* * * * *.

Lesson 38C: Depleted Batteries and Concentration Cells

Dead Batteries and K
Once the half-cells are connected in an electrochemical cell, the redox reaction will proceed
spontaneously and the cell will transfer electrons in the direction that produces a positive
voltage. However, as the cell runs, the amount of reactants decrease and products increase,
the value for Q in the Nernst equation for the reaction increases. This makes the negative
term in the Nernst equation more negative,
o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( [increasing products]/[decreasing reactants] )
nF
and the emf of the cell gradually decreases.
The redox reaction continues with declining voltage until the cell emf drops to zero.
When the emf of the cell is zero, since ΔG = ─ nF , ΔG for the redox reaction is zero.
Recall that by the laws of thermodynamics, when ΔG is zero, the reaction is at equilibrium,
and the value of Q = K at the reaction temperature.
When cell = 0 , ΔG = 0, the cell redox reaction is at equilibrium, and Q = K .
At equilibrium, when the cell voltage is zero, the Nernst equation becomes
o
cell = 0 = cell ─ RT ln( K ) which simplifies to
nF
o o
cell = RT ln( K ) At 25ºC: cell = 0.0257 V ln(K) = 0.0591 V log(K)
nF n n
These equations mean that for the redox reaction in the cell, if we know either one of the
values for the standard cell potential ( ocell) or the equilibrium constant ( K ), we can solve
for the other. A key step in the calculation is writing the volts of the standard cell potential
as joules per coulomb.
Use the rules above on this problem.
o
Q. For the reaction in this cell: 2 Ag+ + Pb Æ 2 Ag + Pb2+ cell = + 0.93 volts
under standard conditions, find the equilibrium constant for the reaction.
* * * * *
Answer
o
When cell = 0 , Q = K and the Nernst equation becomes: cell = RT ln( K )
nF
Solve that equation in symbols for ln(K).
* * * * *

o
ln( K ) = ( cell )(nF) Solve for K.
RT
* * * * *
o
DATA: cell = the standard cell potential = + 0.93 volts or V/mol or J/C·mol
R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = std. 25ºC + 273 = 298 K F = 96,500 C/mol e─
n = 2 mol e─ in the half-reactions that previously balanced the equation.

* * * * *
o
ln( K ) = ( cell )(nF) • 1 • 1 = + 0.93 J • 2 mol e─ • 96,500 C • mol·K • 1 =
R T C·mol mol e─ 8.31 J 298 K
= 72.48
R units must include J (not kJ) if volts (=J/C) is in the data. Often in calculations, volts
must be written as volts/mole or J/C·mol for units to cancel properly.
Find K.
* * * * *
K = e(ln K) = e(72.48) = 3.0 x 1031
o
The positive cell value means that the reaction as written favors the right-side products.
The large K also indicates a reaction that strongly favors the products.
Practice A: First learn the rules above, then do the problems.

1. For the reaction Cl2(g) + I─ Æ
using the SRP table, assuming standard-state conditions,
a. Write the products and balance the equation by adding half-reactions.
b. Calculate the cell potential. c. Calculate K for the reaction.
2. For the reaction in this cell: 2 Ag+ + Cu Å Æ 2 Ag + Cu2+
a. Find the cell potential under standard conditions.
b. If the value of K is found to be 5.5 x 1013 when the solution is at a different
temperature, what is that temperature in ºC?
Concentration Cells
A concentration cell is a special type of cell composed of two half-cells that contain the
same components, but different concentrations for the ions in the solutions in the two half-
cells.
In a concentration cell, current flows between the half-cells until the Q value in both half-
cells is the same. For two half-cells that contain only one ion formula that redox reacts, the
current flows

• in a direction that leads toward the ion concentrations being equal, and
• until the concentration of
the ion is equal in both
cells. wire
Cu Cu
As the concentration cell transfers
electrons, the ion concentrations Salt Bridge
gradually equalize, and the voltage
gradually drops, until the
concentrations are equal and the
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
voltage is zero.
Consider the two half-cells shown 0.10 M 1M
at the right. Cu2+ Cu2+
Q1. Is this a concentration cell?
* * * * *
The left cell has a lower ion concentration. Since that is the only difference between the
cells, this is a concentration cell.
Q2. In this cell, in which direction will the electrons flow?
* * * * *
The electrons will flow in the direction that leads to equalized ion concentrations.
If electrons leave the left electrode and flow to the right, Cu metal atoms at the electrode
surface are converted to Cu2+ ions, increasing the [Cu2+] and becoming closer to the higher
ion concentration in the right cell.
Q3. As electrons flow to the right, what changes will take place in the right side half-
cell?
* * * * *
As electrons flow into the right side electrode, they react with the Cu2+ ion to form
Cu metal at the surface of the electrode. This reaction lowers the [Cu2+] in the right-
side half-cell, taking it closer to the lower ion concentration in the left half-cell.
The reactions in both half-cells tend to equalize the ion concentrations in the two
solutions. As the electrons flow, the ion concentrations move toward being equal,
and the voltage drops, until the concentrations are equal and the voltage is zero.
Labeling Concentration-Cell Electrodes
An anode is defined as the electrode that electrons are leaving to enter the wire between the
electrodes. To label the electrodes in a concentration cell, find the direction in which the
electrons travel in the wire. That will be the direction of electron flow that will equalize
the [ions] in the two solutions.
• In a concentration cell composed of a metal and its metal ion, the electrons leave the
cell that has the lower [reacting metal ion]. The electrode that electrons are leaving is
the anode (─).

Concentration-Cell Voltage
The emf of a concentration cell at any point in its reaction can be calculated using the Nernst
equation. For a concentration cell,
o o o
• concentration cell = cathode ─ anode ≡ 0
Since both half-cells have the same half-reaction particles, they have the same
standard reduction potential.
• The Nernst equation must result in a positive voltage, since reactions are
spontaneous in the direction that results in a positive voltage.
• In the Nernst equation, concentration cell = positive when the value of ln(Q) is
negative.
concentration cell = ─ RT ln( Q ) = ?

0
nF
• Ln(Q) is negative when the Q ratio has a value less than one.
• In a cell that involves just one kind of redox-reactive ion, Q is < 1 when the two ion
concentrations are written as
Q = [lower]/[higher] , which is the same as Q = [diluted]/[concentrated]
• n = the moles of electrons that balance the half-reaction.

Using those rules, try this problem.
Q. In the Cu/ Cu2+ concentration cell above, [Cu2+] = 1.0 M and 0.10 M .
a. Which half-cell contains the cathode (+)?
b. Solve for the initial cell voltage at 20.ºC.
* * * * *
Part a. The electrons leave the half-cell with the lower [reacting metal ion], so that half-cell
contains the anode (─). The cathode (+) must be in the half-cell with the higher
ion concentration. In the diagram above, that is the half-cell on the right.
Part b. To find concentration-cell voltage, use the Nernst equation.
o
nF
o
with cell = 0 and the Q ratio arranged to have a value <1.
DATA:
o
cell = 0 (exact) R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 20.ºC + 273 = 293 K
F = 96,500 C/mol e─ n = 2 mol e─ in the Cu/ Cu2+ half-reaction

Q = [lower]/[higher] = 0.10/1.0 = 0.10 ln(Q) = ln(0.10) = ─ 2.303
SOLVE:

cell = + 0.0000 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (293 K) • 1 • mol e─ • (─ 2.303 ) ] =

mol·K 2 mol e─ 96,500 C
= + 0.0000 V ─ ─ 0.0291 J = + 0.0291 V = + 0.0291 V

C·mol mol
All concentration cells have relatively low voltage.
Summary for Concentration Cells

1. Concentration cells have the same half-cell components but differing [ions].
2. In a concentration cell, current flows, with steadily dropping voltage, until Q = 1.
3. Electrons leave the half-cell with the lower [redoxing ions] (or lower product of
[redoxing ions].
4. The half-cell which electrons are leaving contains the anode (─).
o
5. To solve for cell at any point, use the Nernst equation, with cell = 0 (exact)
and the Q ratio arranged to have a value < 1 : Q = [lower]/[higher] .
Fundamentals for Electrochemical Calculations

1. The fundamental relationship between work, free energy, and emf is
wmaximum possible = ΔG = ΔGº + RT ln(Q) = ─ nF
2. Under standard state conditions, Q = 1 , and
ΔG = ΔGo = ─ nF o
3. Combining equations 1 and 2 leads to the Nernst equation:

o
nF
3. In depleted cells (dead batteries) , cell = 0 (and ΔG = 0 ) and Q = K.
o
4. In concentration cells, cell = 0 and Q = [lower]/[higher] ,

Practice B: Learn the two summaries above, then do the problems by writing the needed
relationships from memory.
1. Two half-cells contain silver electrodes. In the two solutions, [Ag+] = 1.0 M in one and
0.050 M in the other.
a. What will be the initial cell potential at 15ºC?
b. Which half-cell contains the anode (─)?
2. Two half-cells contain lead electrodes. In one, [Pb2+] = 1.0 M. If the cell voltage is
0.040 V at 25ºC,
a. find [Pb2+] in the second half-cell.
b. Which half-cell contains the cathode (+)?
3. A cell is composed of two half cells: one composed of Ag and Ag+ and the other an
unknown metal M and its ions M2+. For the reaction that occurs in the cell,
ΔGº = ─ 301 kJ.
o
a. Find K at 25ºC. b. Find cell
o
c. If Ag is the cathode in the cell, using the values in the tables in Modules 37 and
38, identify the unknown metal.
ANSWERS
Practice A
1a,b. The reactants are diagonal \, so the reaction will go. The products are the particles in the SRP table
that are opposite each reactant. (The \ react, the / are the products, the / don’t react.)
Cl2(g) + I─ Æ I2(s) + Cl─
To balance:
o
Cl2(g) + I─ Æ I2(s) + Cl─ =?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __cell__ __ __
o
Cl2(g) + 2e─ Æ 2 Cl─ red. = + 1.36 V
o
2 I─ Æ I (s) + 2e─ = ─ 0.53 V
__ __ __ __ __ __2__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __red.__ __ __ __
o o
Cl2(l) + I─ Æ I2(s) + Cl─ cell = + 0.83 V (add reactions and add values)
o
1c. The equation that relates and K is
o
cell = RT ln( K ) Solve this equation in symbols for ln(K), then find K.
nF
* * * * *
o
ln( K ) = ( cell )(nF)
RT

o
DATA: cell = the standard cell potential = + 0.83 V or V/mol or J/C·mol
R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = std. 25ºC + 273 = 298 K F = 96,500 C/mol e─
n = 2 mol e─ in the two half-reactions that balanced the equation.
* * * * *
o
ln( K ) = ( cell )(nF) • 1 • 1 = + 0.83 J • 2 mol e─ • 96,500 C • mol·K • 1 = 64.69
R T C·mol mol e─ 8.31 J 298 K
Often, volts must be written as volts/mole or J/C·mol for units to cancel properly. Solve for K.
* * * * *
ln( K ) = 64.69 ; K = e(ln K) = e(64.69) = 1.2 x 1028 = K
o
2a. To find the standard cell potential, balance then add the half-reactions with their values attached.
o
2 Ag+ + 2 e─ Æ 2 Ag = 0.80 V (write higher first, as in table)
2+ + 2e─ o o
__ __ __Cu Æ __ Cu
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __=__─__ 0.34
__ V__ (write lower backwards, reversing )
o
2 Ag+ + Cu Æ 2 Ag + Cu2+ cell = + 0.46 V
o
2b. K is in the Nernst equation only when = 0 and K = Q. The equation that relates and K is
o
cell = RT ln( K ) Solve this equation in symbols for T
nF
* * * * *
o
( cell )(nF) = T
R ln( K )
DATA:
o
cell = + 0.46 V R = 8.31 J/mol·K T =? F = 96,500 C/mol
n = 2 mol e─ , in the two LCD half-reactions above that balanced the equation.
ln( K ) = ln( 5.5 x 1013 ) = 31.64
* * * * *
o
T =( cell )(nF) • 1 • 1 = + 0.46 J • 2 mol e─ • 96,500 C • mol· K • 1 =
R ln( K ) C·mol mol e─ 8.31 J 31.64
= 338 K ─ 273 = 65 ºC
Practice B
o
1a. To find concentration-cell voltage, use the Nernst equation with cell = 0 and the Q ratio arranged to
have a value < 1.
o
nF
o
DATA: cell = 0 V (exact) R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 15ºC + 273 = 288 K
F = 96,500 C/mol e─ n = 1 mol e─ in the Ag/Ag+ half-reaction
Q = [lower]/[higher] = 0.050/1.0 = 0.050 ln(Q) = ln(0.050) = ─ 3.00

o
SOLVE: cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q )
nF
cell = + 0.0000 V ─ [ 8.31 J • (288 K) • 1 • mol e─ • (─ 3.00 ) ] =
mol·K 1 mol e─ 96,500 C
= + 0.0 V ─ ─ 0.0744 J = + 0.074 V = + 0.074 V
C·• mol mol
1b. The electrons leave the half-cell with the lower ion concentrations, and that half-cell contains the anode.
o
2a. For concentration-cell voltage, use the Nernst equation with cell = 0 and Q arranged [lower]/[higher] so
that Q <1.
o
nF
DATA: cell = 0.040 V
o
cell = 0 (exact) R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 15ºC + 273 = 288 K
F = 96,500 C/mol e─ n = 1 mol e─ in the Ag/Ag+ half-reaction
Q = [lower]/[higher] = ?/1.0 = ?
SOLVE for the wanted variable in symbols first. First find ln(Q), then Q.
─ ( cell )(nF) = ln( Q )
RT
ln( Q ) = ─ ( cell )(nF) • 1 • 1 = ─ 0.040 J • 1 mol e─ • 96,500 C • mol· K • 1 = ─ 1.61
R T C·mol mol e ─ 8.31 J 288 K
Q = eln(Q) = e(─ 1.61) = 0.200 = [lower]/[higher] = 0.200 / 1.0 ; 0.20 M = lower [Ag+]
2b. The electrons leave the half-cell with the lower ion concentrations, and that half-cell contains the anode.
The cathode (+) is the electrode in the other half-cell, where [Ag+] = 1.0 M .
3a. There are several ways to solve. You may use any that result in the correct answer. One is:
ΔG = ΔGº + RT ln(Q) = ─ nF and K = Q when =0.
When = 0 , ΔG must = 0 and ΔGo = ─ RT(ln K)

ΔGº = ─ 301,000 J ; convert to J if you use R = 8.31 J/mol·K T = 273 +25 = 298 K,
ln(K) = ─ΔGº = ─ΔGº ·· 1 = + 301,000 J · mol·K · 1 = 121.5
RT RT 8.31 J 298 K
K = e(ln K) = e(121.5) = 5.8 x 1052 = ? x 1052
At these high powers of e , a small change in ln(K) will make a large change in K. For that reason, any
? x 1052 would be within the range of experimental uncertainty.
o
3b. The equation that relates ΔGº and cell is ΔGo = ─ nF o . The reaction must be

o o
2 Ag+ + 2 e─ Æ 2 Ag = 0.80 V (half cell with cathode has higher )
2+ ─ o o
__ __ __ __ M __ __ M
__ Æ = __
__ __+__2e__ __ __ __ __ ? __ __ (write lower backwards, reversing )
o
2 Ag+ + M Æ 2 Ag + M2+ cell = ?
o
= ─ ΔGº = ─ (─ 301 kJ) = 301,000 J = + 1.56 Volts
nF (2 mol e─)(96,500 C/mol) 193,000 C
For this simple equation, we omitted the data table. But note that to find the unit volts, kJ must be
converted to joules, since V = J/C . If you do not include the units, you may not get the right answer.
When in doubt, do a DATA table for each equation, and make the units in the table consistent.
3c. We know
o o
2 Ag+ + 2 e─ Æ 2 Ag = 0.80 V (half cell with cathode has higher )
2+ ─ o o
__ __ __ __ M __ __ M
__ Æ = __
__ __+__2e__ __ __ __ __ ? __ __ (write lower backwards, reversing )
2 Ag+ + M Æ 2 Ag + M2+ o = + 1.56 V from part b

cell
The second reaction must therefore have a table o of ─ 0.76 V. That half reaction is Zn2+ + 2e─Æ Zn
* * * * *
Lesson 38D: Electrolysis

Reversing the Flow of Electrons
In a cell, electrons travel from the sRA through the wire toward the sOA. However, by
inserting a battery or other device that produces a voltage higher than the cell voltage into
the circuit between the electrodes, the flow of electrons in the cell can be reversed, and the
redox reaction in the cell can be reversed.
This process is called electrolysis. Electrolysis can either add electrons to or remove
electrons from a half-cell.
In a standard electrochemical cell, electrons leave the sRA. In electrolysis, electrons leave
the wRA.
In a standard cell, the sRA and sOA used up and the wRA and wOA formed. In
electrolysis, the wRA and wOA are used up and the sRA and sOA are formed.
Some applications of electrolysis are:
• In a rechargeable battery, a voltage supplied from outside the cell reverses the
redox reaction in the battery, regenerating the reactants. This allows a depleted
battery to be restored to its original concentrations and voltage.
In theory, any battery can be recharged. In practice, the physical changes that take
place during redox reactions can make recharging, and especially repeated
recharging, difficult. Battery designs that can store and release energy repeatedly
are valuable to society and are a major topic of current scientific research.

• Strong oxidizing and reducing agents can be produced by electrolysis.

Examples
Fluorine gas (F2) is the strongest chemical oxidizing agent. In the SRP table, no
table reaction is above
o
F2 + 2 e ─ Æ 2 F ─ reduction = + 2.87 V
Because of the high reduction potential of F2, there is no redox reaction or cell in
which substantial amounts of F─ react and produce F2 as its product. In a cell,
this half-reaction can only go to the right.
Electrolysis, however, can remove electrons from F─ and drive the half-reaction
to the left.
Alkali metals are strong reducing agents at the bottom right of the SRP table, so
they tend to be reactants (used up) in redox reactions. Electrolysis can reverse
that tendency, driving half-reactions such as
o
Na+ + e─ Æ Na reduction = ─ 2.71 V
which strongly favors the left, to the right. The metal Na is then a product.
Water can react with many strong oxidizing and reducing agents. For this reason,
the electrochemical cells that are used to produce SRA and SOA species by
electrolysis usually employ melted (molten) ionic compounds, instead of in aqueous
solutions, in their half-cells. When an ionic compound is either dissolved or melted,
its ions can flow and react in the cell.
• In electroplating, driving a cell backward can be used to convert metal ions in a
half-cell solution to solid metal on the surface of a metal electrode.
In electrolysis,
• the spontaneous flow of electrons in a cell is reversed.
• The wRA and wOA react, and the sRA and sOA are formed.
• The electrons move from the half-cell with the wRA toward the wOA.
Labeling Electrodes in Electrolysis

In electrolysis, anode remains the term for the electrode where oxidation occurs and
electrons flow from. However, in electrolysis, the electron flow is opposite that of a cell
with the same components. This reverses the electrode labels when compared to the cell.
To name the electrodes in electrolysis, use one of these rules.
• As in cells, oxidation occurs at the anode, and electrons flow toward the cathode.
• Unlike cells, in electrolysis the anode is the half-cell with the wRA, not the sRA.
• In electrolysis the sRA, sOA, wRA, and wOA labels are attached to the same
particles, but compared to the cell labels, the labels for the anode, cathode and
electron flow direction are reversed.

Try the following problem.

o
Q. For the cell reaction: Zn + Cu2+ Æ Cu + Zn2+ cell = + 1.10 V
the cell drawing is
e─
cathode ↓ ↑ anode
2+ Zn2+⎭
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and
wRA sOA sRA wOA
o
Write the reaction, , and cell drawing for electrolysis using these two cells.
* * * * *
Answer: When the reaction is written backwards, the sign on the cell potential is reversed.
o
In electrolysis: Cu + Zn2+ Æ Zn + Cu2+ cell = ─ 1.10 V
In electrolysis, the current flow is reversed. The electrode where oxidation occurs remains
termed the anode (─), but the wRA is oxidized. The cell drawing becomes
e─
anode ↑ ↓ cathode
2+ 2+
⎩ Cu and Cu ⎭ and ⎩ Zn and Zn ⎭
wRA sOA sRA wOA
Practice: Check answers as you go.

o
1. In the reaction: 2 Ag+ + Cu ÅÆ 2 Ag + Cu2+ cell = + 0.46 V
a. Which side is favored in the redox reaction?
b. Which metal would increase in mass during a redox reaction?
c. Which metal would be the anode (─) in a cell based on the above reaction?
d. Which metal would increase in mass during electrolysis?
e. Which metal would be the anode (─) during electrolysis?
2. A single cell of molten NaCl has two electrodes inserted and a current introduced that
causes electrolysis.
a. Write the balanced equation for the electrolysis reaction.
o
b. Using an SRP table earlier in this module, calculate for this electrolysis reaction.
c. What is the minimum voltage that will need to be supplied in reverse for
electrolysis to take place?
d. Which half-reaction will occur at the anode, and what product is produced?
e. Which half-reaction will occur at the cathode, and what product is produced?

ANSWERS
1. a. The right side. b. Silver. Ag is a product.
c. The anode is in the half-cell with the sRA. The sRA is Cu.
d. Cu. In electrolysis, the reaction runs backwards. The reactants of the redox reaction are formed.
e. Oxidation occurs at the anode. Going backward, Ag is being oxidized. Ag is the anode.
2. a. Na+ + Cl─ Æ ? Find SRP table half-reactions that include these two particles.
* * * * *
a. 2 Na+ + 2 Cl─ Æ 2 Na + Cl2
o
WANTED: 2 Na+ + 2 Cl─ Æ 2 Na + Cl2 cell = ?
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o
2 Na+ + 2e─ Æ 2 Na = ─ 2.71 V
o o
2 Cl─ Æ Cl2 + 2e─ = ─ 1.36 V (write backwards, reversing )
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
o o
2 Na+ + 2 Cl─ Æ 2 Na + Cl2 cell = ─ 4.07 V (add reactions and values)
c. + 4.07 V d. Oxidation occurs at the anode. The particle being oxidized is Cl─ . The half-reaction
that is oxidiation is Cl─ losing its electrons: 2 Cl─ Æ Cl + 2e─ . The product is Cl .
2 2
e. The other half-reaction must take place at the cathode. That half-reaction is 2 Na+ + 2e─ Æ 2 Na .
The particle reduced at the cathode (+) is Na+. The product is Na metal.
* * * * *
Lesson 38E: Amperes and Electrochemical Calculations

Amperes
The ampere (amp) is an SI unit that measures the rate of flow of charge past a point. All
rates are quantities per unit of time. An ampere is defined as a flow of one coulomb of
charge per second.
Ampere = coulomb/second
As a unit, ampere is similar to molar: ampere is an abbreviation for a ratio unit. Just as the key
to solving concentration problems is to treat molarity as moles/liter, the key to solving
problems that include amperes is:
In calculations, treat amperes as coulombs/second: a ratio unit.
• If amperes is wanted, write WANTED: ? amps = ? C/s a ratio unit.

• If 5 amperes is data, write DATA: 5 amps 5C=1s as ratio data.

Using this strategy, calculations involving amperes can be solved by conversion factor
methods, without having to recall memorized equations.
Use the rules above for this problem.
Q1. If a 5.00 amp current flows past a cross-sectional point in a circuit for 6.50 minutes,
a. How much charge flows past the point?
b. How many electrons pass the point?
* * * * *
A1a. WANTED: ? coulombs (write the unit wanted)
DATA: 5.00 amps 5.00 C = 1 s (in conversions, translate amps to C/s)
6.5 minutes
SOLVE: (Want a single unit? Start with a single unit. See Lessons 5B & 5C.)
? C = 6.50 min ● 60 s ● 5.00 C = 1,950 C
1 min 1s
* * * * *
A1b. WANT: ? e─
DATA: see above.
96,500 C = 1 mol e─ (Add to DATA when mixing charge and e─ )

SOLVE: (answers from earlier steps may shorten solving later steps.)
? e─ = 1,950 C ● 1 mol e─ ● 6.02 x 1023 e─ = 1.22 x 1022 e─

96,500 C 1 mol e─
Practice A: If your conversion recall is rusty, try all three.

1. How many minutes are required for an electrolysis cell to gain 4.50 x 104 coulombs of
charge from a 12.0 amp current?
2. If a 15.0 amp current enters an electrolysis cell for 2.00 hours, how many electrons have
entered the cell?
3. If 6.02 x 1021 electrons enter a cell in 2.00 minutes, what is the current in amperes?
Electrolysis and Stoichiometry

In electrolytic processes, we often needed to calculate how much charge is required to
produce a given amount of reaction product. A calculation involving chemical reaction
and two different particles is stoichiometry. Electrolytic calculations can be solve by
combining the ampere conversions above with the
Seven steps to solve stoichiometry (from Lesson 12C)
• WDBB: Write the Wanted, Data, Balance, Bridge steps, then
• Convert units given to moles given to moles WANTED to units WANTED.

The differences between electrolytic stoichiometry and other types are

• Conversions must be done between time, amperage, and electrons (as done above).
• The Balanced equation is a half-reaction (a reaction with an e─ term).
• The Bridge conversion includes moles of electrons in one term and moles of
WANTED or given particles in the other.
With those rules in mind, try the following problem.
Q. To convert Cu2+ ions in a half-cell solution to copper metal on an electrode surface, a
3.50 amp current is supplied for 5.00 minutes.
a. How many grams of copper will be deposited on the electrode?
b. Is the electrode being plated an anode or a cathode?
* * * * *
A1a:
WANTED: ? g Cu
DATA: 3.50 amp 3.50 C = 1 s (in conversions, treat amps as C/s)
5.00 min. (the single-unit given)
63.5 g Cu = 1 mol Cu (grams prompt)
96,500 C = 1 mol e─ (Add to DATA when mixing C and e─)
Balance: Cu2+ + 2 e─ Æ Cu (electrolysis balancing uses a half-reaction)
Bridge: 1 mol Cu = 2 mol e─ (moles of WANTED or given = moles e─)
* * * * *
SOLVE: (In stoichiometry, head for the bridge: convert to the given to the unit in the
bridge (mol e─) that is not part of the answer unit.
* * * * *
↓ Goal 1 ↓ Bridge ↓ Final goal
? g Cu = 5.00 min. ● 60 s ● 3.50 C ● 1 mol e─ ● 1 mol Cu ● 63.5 g Cu = 0.345 g Cu
1 min 1s 96,500 C 2 mol e─ 1 mol Cu
A1b:
Electrons are going toward the electrode where they are donated to Cu2+ to form Cu.
Where reduction occurs, the electrode is a cathode (+).
Practice B: Commit to memory the electrolysis stoichiometry rules above, then try these.
1. How many coulombs would be needed to deposit 32.4 mg Ag at an electrode in an Ag+
ion solution?
2. How many minutes are needed for an electrolysis apparatus with a 500. amp current to
convert molten Al3+ ions into 0.540 kg of aluminum metal?
3. In an electrolysis apparatus, to convert molten KF to 4.48 L F2 gas at STP in 4.00
minutes, what amperage is needed?

4. In 16.0 minutes, a 4.00 amp current forms 4.12 grams of metal M from an M2+ solution.
a. What is the molar mass of the metal?
b. What is the metal?
5. Is the half-cell producing the stated product at the anode (─) or cathode (+)
a. in Problem 1?
b. In Problem 2?
c. In Problem 3?
ANSWERS
Practice A
1 WANTED: ? minutes (wanted single unit)
DATA: 4.50 x 104 C (start with a single unit)
12.0 C = 1 s (in conversions, treat amps as C/s)
SOLVE: ? minutes = 4.50 x 104 C ● 1 s ● 1 min = 62.5 min
12.0 C 60 s
2. WANTED: ? e─
DATA: 15.0 C = 1 s (in conversions, translate amps to C/s)
2.00 hours
96,500 C = 1 mol e─ (Add to DATA when mixing coulombs and electrons)
SOLVE:
? e─ = 2.00 hrs ● 60 min ● 60 s ● 15.0 C ● 1 mol e─ ● 6.02 x 1023 e─ = 6.74 x 1023 e─
1 hr 1 min 1s 96,500 C 1 mol e─
3. WANT: ? amperes = ? C (Write wanted ratio units as ratios)
s
DATA: 6.02 x 1021 e─ = 2.00 min (2 measures of same process. When a ratio
unit is WANTED, all of the data is in ratios)
96,500 C = 1 mol e─ (Add to DATA when mixing charge and electrons)
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Start with a ratio. Time on the bottom is one option to arrange your given
right-side up. See Lesson 11B.)
? C = 6.02 x 1021 e─ ● 1 min ● 1 mol e─ ● 96,500 C = 8.04 C = 8.04 amp
s 2.00 min 60 s 6.02 x 1023 e─ 1 mol e─ s

Practice B
1. WANTED: ? coulombs (C)
DATA: 32.4 mg Ag (the single unit given)
107.9 g Ag = 1 mol Ag (grams prompt)
Balance: Ag+ + 1 e─ Æ Ag (electrolysis balancing includes electrons)
Bridge: 1 mol Ag = 1 mol e─ (equate moles of WANTED or given with e─ moles)
* * * * *
SOLVE: (In stoichiometry, head for the bridge: convert to the given unit in the bridge conversion)
↓ Bridge
? C = 32.4 mg Ag ● 10 g ● 1 mol Ag ● 1 mol e─ ● 96,500 C = 29.0 C
─ 3
1 mg 107.9 g Ag 1 mol Ag 1 mol e─
2. WANTED: ? min.
DATA: 500. amp 500. C = 1 s (in conversions, translate amps to C/s)
0.540 kg Al (the single unit given)
27.0 g Al = I mol Al (grams prompt)
Balance: Al3+ + 3 e─ Æ Al (electrolysis balancing includes electrons)
Bridge: 1 mol Al = 3 mol e─ (equate moles of WANTED and give; with e─ term)
* * * * *
SOLVE: (In stoichiometry, head for the bridge: convert to the moles of given in the bridge conversion)
↓ Bridge
? min = 0.540 kg Al ● 103 g ● 1 mol Al ● 3 mol e─ ● 96,500 C ● 1 s ● 1 min = 193 min
1 kg 27.0 g Al 1 mol Al 1 mol e─ 500. C 60 s
3. WANT: ? amperes = ? C (Write wanted ratio units as ratios)
s
DATA: 4.48 L F2 at STP = 4.00 min (2 measures of same process, all data in ratios)
22.4 L any gas at STP = 1 mol F2 (STP prompt, Lesson 17B)
Balance: 2 F─ Æ F + 2 e─
2 (electrolysis balancing includes electrons)
(electrolysis can either add or remove half-cell electrons.)
Bridge: 1 mol F2 = 2 mol e─ (equate moles of WANTED or given with moles e─ )
* * * * *
SOLVE: (Want a ratio? Either solve in parts, or start with a ratio. Time on the bottom is one option as
a way to arrange your given right-side up. Head for the bridge conversion in the middle.)
* * * * *

↓ Bridge
? C = 4.48 L F2 STP ● 1 min ● 1 mol F2 ● 2 mol e─ ● 96,500 C = 161 C = 161 amps
s 4.00 min 60 s 22.4 L F2 STP 1 mol F2 1 mol e─ s
4a. WANT: ? g of M (write the unit wanted)
mol M
DATA: 4.12 g M = 16.00 min (equivalency: 2 measures of same process)
4.00 amp 4.00 C = 1 s (treat amperage as C/s)
Balance: M2+ + 2 e─ Æ M (electrolysis balancing includes electrons)
Bridge: 1 mol M = 2 mol e─ (an electrolysis bridge conversion will usually have an e─ term.)
* * * * *
SOLVE: You can start with a ratio and solve, but since this is stoichiometry in which a ratio unit is
wanted, an easier strategy is to solve for the WANTED unit in two parts, then divide. Solve
first for the unit that is not moles, using as your single-unit given the side of the equivalency
that includes the WANTED unit. Then solve for moles using the other side of the equivalency
as a given (see Lesson 12C).
* * * * *
WANTED unit not moles = ? g of M = 4.12 g M
↓ Bridge
─
WANTED = ? mol M = 16.0 min. ● 60 s ● 4.00 C ● 1 mol e ● 1 mol M = 0.01990 mol M
1 min 1s 96,500 C 2 mol e─
WANT: ? g of M = 4.12 g M = 207 g/mol
mol M 0.01990 mol M
4a. Which metal has a molar mass close to 207 g/mol and an M2+ ion? The most likely metal is lead: Pb.
5. a. At the electrode, electrons are being donated to Ag+ to make Ag. Electrons are flowing toward this
electrode. The 1/2 cell with the Ag+ and Ag is therefore a cathode (+).
b. By the same logic as part a, the electrode in the half-cell with the Al components is a cathode.
c. At this electrode, electrons are being taken away from F─ to form F2. Oxidation is occurring, and
electrons are therefore flowing away from this electrode. Where the F─ forms F is therefore an
2
anode.
* * * * *

Summary: Electrochemical Cells

1. Cells and Batteries
a. A redox reaction is a combination of two balanced half-reactions.
An electrochemical cell is a combination of two half-cells.
Battery is a term for a single cell or for multiple cells that are connected to produce
higher voltage than a single cell can provide.
b. In an electrochemical cell, a redox reaction takes place. The each half-cell, one of the
half-reactions takes place.
• One half-cell contains the particles in one half-reaction. The other half-cell
contains the particles in the other half-reaction.
• One half-cell has the sRA and wOA. The other has the sOA and wRA.
c. As electrons flows through the wire connecting the cell electrodes,
• the two half-reactions proceed that added together produce the net redox
reaction.
• The reaction mixture shifts toward the side favored at equilibrium.
• sRA is oxidized to become wOA, and sOA is reduced to become wRA.
• Electrons flow in the wire from the sRA side toward the side with the sOA.
• Ions move through the salt bridge to balance charge.
d. As the wRA and wOA products build up, the voltage drops gradually. When
Q = K for the redox reaction, the voltage is zero.
2. Cell Components
a. Each half-cell must have a conductive electrode.
b. To label the electrodes, the rules are:
• Oxidation occurs at the anode (─). Reduction occurs at the cathode (+).
• Electrons move from the anode thru the wire toward the cathode (+).
• In a cell, the anode (─) is in the half-cell with the sRA.
c. For electrons to flow, the electrodes are connected by a conductor (usually a metal
wire) and the half-cell solutions are connected by a salt bridge or porous disk.
d. As the stronger reducing agent (sRA) reacts, it loses electrons and is oxidized.
e. In a redox reaction equation, the sRA and sOA are on the same side. In a cell, the
sRA and wOA are in the same half-cell.
3. Conversions, Equations, Units, and Constants
a. The fundamental relationship between work, free energy, and emf is
wmaximum possible = ΔG = ΔGº + RT ln(Q) = ─ nF
b. Under standard state conditions, Q = 1 , and ΔG = ΔGo = ─ nF o

c. Combining equations 1 and 2 leads to the Nernst equation:

o
cell = cell ─ RT ln( Q )
nF
o o o
d. To check a standard cell emf, use cell = higher ─ lower = a positive V
e. cell = half rxn. with cathode ─ half rxn. with anode = a positive V
o
f. concentration cell = 0 and Q = [lower]/[higher]
g. In dead batteries, cell = 0 and Q = K.
4. Depleted Batteries
When a cell is run until it is dead (no more voltage flows),
cell = 0 = ΔG , the cell redox reaction is at equilibrium, Q = K ,

and the Nernst equation simplifies to
o
cell = RT ln( K )
nF
5. Concentration Cells
a. Concentration cells have the same half-cell components but differing [ions].
b. In a concentration cell, current flows, with gradually dropping voltage, until Q = 1.
c. Electrons leave the half-cell with the lower [redoxing ions] (or lower product of the
redoxing and variable concentrations and gas pressures).
d. The half-cell which electrons are leaving contains the anode (─).
e. To solve for concentration cell at any point, use the Nernst equation, with
o
concentration cell = 0 (exact) and the Q ratio arranged to have a value < 1 :
Q = [lower]/[higher]
6. Volts and Amps
a. Volts ≡ joules/coulomb
b. In conversions, treat volts as joules/coulomb: a ratio unit.
c. Ampere ≡ coulomb/second
d. In conversions, treat amperes as coulombs/second: a ratio unit.
7. Electrolysis
a. In electrolysis, voltage supplied in the circuit makes the electrons flow in reverse.
The redox reaction goes in the direction that is not spontaneous.
b. In electrolysis, the wRA and wOA react, and the sRA and sOA are formed.
Electrolysis can be used to form strong oxidizing and reduction agents.
c. In a standard electrochemical cell, electrons leave the sRA. In electrolysis, electrons
are taken away from the wRA.

d. To label the electrodes in electrolysis,

• As in cells, oxidation occurs at the anode; electrons flow toward the cathode.
• Unlike cells, in electrolysis electrons leave the cell with the wRA, not the sRA.
• Compared to the cell, in electrolysis the sRA, sOA, wRA, and wOA are the
same, but the labels for the electrodes and electron flow direction are reversed.
8. Electrochemical Stoichiometry
For reaction calculations (stoichiometry) involving electrolysis, use the
Seven steps to solve stoichiometry:
• WDBB: Wanted, Data, Balance, Bridge, then
• Convert units given to moles given to moles WANTED to units WANTED
Solving a reaction calculation for a ratio unit, solve for the WANTED unit in two
parts, then divide.
• Solve for the unit that is not moles first, using as your single-unit given the
side of the equivalency that includes the WANTED unit.
• Then solve for moles using the other side of the equivalency as a given.
The differences between electrolytic stoichiometry and other types are
• Conversions must be done between time, amperage, and electrons.
• The reaction is a half-reaction (one with a term for e─).
• The bridge conversion will include moles of electrons and moles of
WANTED or given particles.
# # # # #

Errata/Corrections
Corrections are listed below.
The author appreciates the reporting of errors via email to

feedback@ChemReview.Net .
Every 2 weeks, the student who emails the highest number of errors (or the
most significant error) will be offered a free copy of his/her choice of a printed
copy of Volumes 1, 2, or 3.
Corrections are made as soon as possible, and corrected versions are posted.
Users are encouraged to access modules from the website home and download
page, and not from direct links to the PDF files. Direct links often go to older
versions; the links on the website list the most recent version.
Corrections below are listed in the chronological order in which they were
made.
In versions prior to May 16, 2008
1. In Lesson 11E, in the chart of derived quantities, the definition of energy
should be mass times acceleration times distance. The units shown are
correct.
In versions prior to May 28, 2008
2. In Lesson 8C, Practice B, Problem 2a, 0.200 moles should be 200. moles.
3. In Graphing Lesson 19F, in the last practice problem, 0.0120 M should be 0.120
M. The slope calculation is correct.
In versions prior to July 23, 2008
4. In Lesson 26E, Practice A, Problem 2, 55 should be 50.5 kPa. The answer is
correct for that pressure.
5. In Lesson 2B, page 26, the mm3 in the question at the top of the page should
be mm4 , as in the answer.
6. In Lesson 22A, Problem A1, the answer should be 5.1 x 1014 sec-1
In versions prior to February 1, 2009:
7. In the Module 3 pretest, page 35, question 5, the answer should have 2 sf: 2.9 x
108
8. In Module 4, on the last page (p. 61), the last flashcard should be 355 mL.
9. In Module 3, Question 6 on page 42, the 0.040 should be 0.090 to match the
answer.
10. In Lesson 10A, Question 3, the question should refer to problems 2A and 2d.
11. In Lesson 11D, Question 5, the mass should be 6.6 x 10-24 g/atom in the
question and answer.
12. In Lesson 11D, Question 3, the question should be "per cubic inch."
In versions prior to March 16, 2009:
13. In Lesson 17B, Practice Question 5, the answer unit should be molecules, not
molecules/L.
14. In Lesson 20C, Practice Q3, the temperature of the water should be 49.6
degrees C, matching the answer.
In versions prior to July 1, 2009:
In Lesson 22A, in the Q on Engineering Notation, the A should be 52.7 pm, not
527 pm.
In versions between August 1 2009 and September 8, 2009:
15. In Lesson 1A, negative values were added to the examples, but the rules
were not changed to accomodate this.. For the rules of moving the sign to
work for negative values, the rule "the sign is independent of the significand
and exponential term, and the sign never changes" must be added for values
that are negative.
Between Nov 13 and Nov 18, 2009,
16. In Lesson 10F on limiting reactants, the sample calculation was
wrong. Check the newer version.
Between September 9 and Dec 5, 2009,
17. In Lesson 4A, the given amount of the first example was garbled in the
explanation. Check the newer version.
Calculator for Chemistry
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ogata@hawaii.edu
Eileen Nakano
etnakano@hawaii.edu
Basic Operations on the Calculator
Perform the following calculations on your calculator.

Give the answers with the correct number of significant
figures:
a.) 56.8 ! 0.37
71.4
b.)
11
(2.075)(0.585)
c.)
(8.42)(0.0045)
The denominator must be in parentheses.
25.0
d.)
5.00
2
Scientific Notation
Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
a.) 5 000 000 000 grains

b.) 0.000 008 m
As you go through the following exercises, you may find it

helpful to write the keys you press so you remember.
To enter a number in scientific notation, you need to use

the EE key or the EXP key, depending on your calculator.
To enter 5 x 109 on your calculator, press:
5 EE 9. Then press the = key or the enter key.
Practice
For each of the following, write the number in scientific

notation, and then enter this on your calculator.
a.) 740
b.) 0.000 000 045
c.) 89 400 000 000
d.) 0.000 035 8
3
Calculating with Numbers Written in Scientific Notation
Two laws of exponents are useful when performing the

operations of multiplication and division using numbers
written in scientific notation:
Product Rule: a m ! a n = a m+n
a m m!n
Quotient Rule: n = a
a
Examples:
105 !108 =105+8 =1013
10 !14
!5
=10!14!(!5) =10!9
10
Calculate, using your calculator as needed:

(Note: You do not need to enter factors of 1.0)
1.0 ! 10 "14
a.)
1.0 ! 10" 4
1.0 ! 10 "14
b.)
1.0 ! 10" 6
1.0 ! 10 "14
c.)
2.0 ! 10" 3
d.) (1.0 ! 10 " 7 )( 1.0 ! 10 " 7 )
4
What is meant by “log?”
6
1 000 000 = 10 , so the logarithm (or simply “log”)
of 1 000 000 is 6.
We write, log (1 000 000) = 6.
The log of a number is the exponent on 10 that will

produce that number.
Examples:
3
log (1 000) = 3 because 1 000 = 10
!7
log (0.000 000 1) = -7 because 0.000 000 1 = 10
Notice that logs of numbers larger than 1 are positive and

logs of numbers less than 1 are negative.
Compute these using your calculator or otherwise:
a.) log (100)
b.) log (1 000)
c.) log (0.000 000 1)
d.) log (734)
e.) log (0.005 62)
5
Compute:
3
a.) log (10 )
!7
b.) log (10 )
c.) log (1.0 ! 105 )
d.) log (1.0 ! 10! 4 )
What do you notice?
6
pH
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(
pH (abbr. power of hydrogen) is a measure of the activity of hydrogen ions H 3O + in a )
solution and, therefore, its acidity or alkalinity. In aqueous systems, the hydrogen ion
activity is dictated by the dissociation constant of water
(Kw = 1.011 10 !14 at 25 °C) and interactions with other ions in solution. Due to this
dissociation constant a neutral solution (hydrogen ion activity equals hydroxide ion
activity) has a pH of approximately 7. Aqueous solutions with pH values lower than 7
are considered acidic, while pH values higher than 7 are considered alkaline.
The concept was introduced by S.P.L. Sorensen in 1909.
Definition
Though a pH value has no unit, it is not an arbitrary scale; the number arises from a
definition based on the activity of hydrogen ions in the solution.
The formula for calculating pH is:
pH = - ! log10 "# H 3O + $%
!" H 3O + #$ denotes the activity of !" H 3O + #$ ions, the hydronium ions, measured in moles per
litre (also known as molarity). In dilute solutions (like river or tap water) the activity is
approximately equal to the concentration of the !" H 3O + #$ ion.
Log10 denotes the base 10 logarithm, and pH therefore defines a logarithmic scale of
acidity. For example, a solution with pH=8.2 will have an !" H 3O + #$ activity (concentration)
of 10 !8.2 mol/L, or about 6.31 10 !9 mol/L; a solution with an !" H 3O + #$ activity of 4.5
( )
10 ! 4 mol/L will have a pH value of ! log10 4.5 " 10 ! 4 , or about 3.35.
In aqueous solution at standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP), a pH of 7

indicates neutrality (i.e. pure water) because water naturally dissociates into !" H 3O + #$ and
OH- ions with equal concentrations of 1.0 ! 10 "7 mol/L. A lower pH value (for example
pH 3) indicates increasing strength of acidity, and a higher pH value (for example pH
11) indicates increasing strength of alkalinity.
Neutral pH is not exactly 7; this would imply that the !" H 3O + #$ ion concentration is
exactly 1.0 ! 10 "7 mol/L, which is not the case. The value is close enough, however, for
neutral pH to be 7.00 to three significant figures, which is near enough for most people
to assume it is exactly 7. In nonaqueous solutions or non-SATP conditions, the pH of
7
neutrality may not even be close to 7. Instead it is related to the dissociation constant for
the specific solvent used. (Note also that pure water, when exposed to the atmosphere,
will take in carbon dioxide, some of which reacts with water to form carbonic acid
and !" H 3O + #$ , thereby lowering the pH to about 5.7.)
Most substances have a pH in the range 0 to 14, although extremely acidic or basic
substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.
Some common pH values
Substance pH
Acid mine runoff -3.6 – 1.0
Battery acid < 1.0
Gastric acid 2.0
Lemon juice 2.4
Cola 2.5
Vinegar 2.9
Orange or apple juice 3.5
Beer 4.5
Coffee 5.0
Tea 5.5
Acid rain < 5.6
Milk 6.5
Pure water 7.0
Healthy human saliva 6.5 – 7.4
Blood 7.34 – 7.45
Sea water 8.0
Hand soap 9.0 – 10.0
Household ammonia 11.5
Bleach 12.5
Household lye 13.5
8
Calculating the pH of Solutions
Information: An aqueous solution has hydronium ions,

symbolized by !" H 3 O + #$ and hydroxyl ions, symbolized
by "#OH ! $% .
Definition: pH = -log !"H 3O+ #$
A. Given the !" H 3 O + #$ concentration, calculate the pH of a

solution.
If we are given !" H 3 O + #$ , then we can compute the pH

directly, using the definition.
Example:
Given !" H 3 O + #$ = 1.0 ! 10" 6 M, find the pH.
pH = -log !" H 3 O + #$
pH = -log(1.0 ! 10" 6 )
pH = -(-6) =6
Determine the pH for the following solutions:
a.) !" H 3 O + #$ = 1.0 ! 10 " 5 M
b.) !" H 3 O + #$ = 1.0 ! 10 " 8 M
c.) !" H 3 O + #$ = 5.0 ! 10 " 3 M
9
B. Given the pH of a solution, calculate the
!" H 3 O + #$ concentration.
Information: x = log b means b = 10 x
Example:
Given pH = 4, find !" H 3 O + #$ .
pH = -log !" H 3 O + #$
4 = -log !" H 3 O + #$
-4 = log !" H 3 O + #$
Thus, using the information from above,
!" H 3 O + #$ = 10! 4 M or 1.0 ! 10" 4 M.
You can get the result on your calculator by pressing the

10x key. This is especially important when x is not an
integer, that is when the pH is not an integer. Pressing the
10x key will produce the result in scientific notation. For
example, if !" H 3 O + #$ = 10! 3.8 M, then pressing the 10x key
will produce 1.6 ! 10" 4 , so !" H 3 O + #$ = 1.6 ! 10" 4 M.
Given the pH, find the !" H 3 O + #$ concentration.

a.) pH = 3
b.) pH = 12
c.) pH = 6.4
10
C. Given the !"OH - #$ concentration, find the pH of the
solution.
If we are not given !" H 3 O + #$ , but instead are given "#OH ! $% ,
then we must determine !" H 3 O + #$ first, then we can
compute the pH.
Information: The Relationship Between !"H 3O+ #$ and

!"OH - #$ :
In pure water,
!" H 3 O + #$ = 1.0 ! 10 " 7 M and
"#OH ! $% =1.0 ! 10 " 7 M
From this we can determine the ion-product constant:

!" H 3 O + #$ ! "#OH ! $% = (1.0 ! 10 " 7 M)( 1.0 ! 10 " 7 M)
!" H 3 O + #$ ! "#OH ! $% = 1.0 ! 10 " 14

The ion-product constant is 1.0 ! 10 " 14 .
Thus,
!" H 3 O + #$ ! "#OH ! $% = 1.0 ! 10 " 14 , so
+ 1.0 ! 10 "14 ! 1.0 ! 10 "14

!" H 3 O #$ = "
and also "#OH $% = .
#$ OH %& #$ H 3 O + %&
11
Example:
Given "#OH ! $% = 1.0 ! 10 " 3 M, find the pH.
+ 1.0 ! 10 "14
!" H 3 O #$ =
#$ OH " %&
+ 1.0 ! 10"14
!" H 3 O #$ =
1.0 ! 10"3
!" H 3 O + #$ = 1.0 ! 10" 11 M
pH = -log !" H 3 O + #$
pH = -log (1.0 ! 10-11 )
pH = -(-11) = 11
Determine the pH for the following solutions:
a.) "#OH ! $% = 1.0 ! 10" 9 M
b.) "#OH ! $% = 1.0 ! 10" 6 M
c.) "#OH ! $% = 2.0 ! 10" 12 M
Compare your answers with those from part A on page 9.

What do you notice?
12
D. Given the pH of the solution, find the
!"OH - #$ concentration.
Example:
Given that the pH is 9.5, find "#OH ! $% .
pH = -log !" H 3 O + #$
9.5 = -log !" H 3 O + #$
-9.5 = log !" H 3 O + #$
!" H 3 O + #$ = 10! 9.5 M
Now press the 10x key, so the result will be expressed in
!" H 3 O + #$ = 3.2 !10"10 M
! 1.0 ! 10 "14
"#OH $% =
#$ H 3 O + %&
! 1.0 ! 10"14
"#OH $% =
3.2 ! 10"10
"#OH ! $% = 3.1 ! 10"5 M
Given the pH, find the "#OH ! $% concentration.

a.) pH = 3
b.) pH = 12
c.) pH = 6.4
13
Complete the following table:
!" H 3 O + #$ "#OH ! $% pH
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.5 ! 10 " 5 M
1.0 ! 10 " 12 M
1.0 ! 10 " 4 M
3.0
4.5
8.2
14
T1 83 Help Web Sites
1.) ti83 help

http://www.howardcc.edu/math/calculator/ti83frame.htm
2.) TI 83/84 Calculator Tutorial for Macon State College. ... A TI-83/TI-
84 Calculator Tutorial Created by:. Steve Davis, M.Ed. Barry Monk, Ph.D. ...
http://calculator.maconstate.edu/
3.) Using the TI-83 Calculator

This tutorial is designed with the student in mind. The topics selected are
those that students will use in college algebra, college trigonometry, ...
http://www.prenhall.com/divisions/esm/app/graphing/ti83/
15
Naming Ionic Compounds: Self-Study Assignment
You will have a QUIZ on the attached pages on _____________________ .

Your assignment is: READ the pages attached. WORK the examples in the lesson.
Complete the pages as homework.
To work the examples,
• use a sheet of paper to cover below the * * * * * line,
• try the problem on your paper,
• then check your answer below the * * * * * line.
Start early. This assignment will require 2-4 hours of work outside of class.
Lesson 7B: Naming Ions

Prerequisites: Complete Module 6 and Lesson 7A before starting this lesson.
Pretest: If you think you know this topic, try several problems at the end of this lesson. If
you complete them all correctly, you may skip the lesson.
* * * * *
Ions
In ionic compounds, the constituent particles are ions, particles with an electrical charge.
In most first-year chemistry courses you will be asked to memorize the names and symbols
for more than 50 frequently encountered ions. This task is simplified by the patterns for
ion charges that are found in the periodic table. Learning these rules and patterns will help
you to speak the language of chemistry.
© 2009 www.ChemReview.Net v.m8 Page 128

Categories of Ions
1. All ions are either positive or negative.
• Positive ions are termed cations (pronounced KAT-eye-ons). The charges on
positive ions can be 1+, 2+, 3+, or 4+.
• Negative ions are termed anions (pronounced ANN-eye-ons). The charges on
negative ions can be 1─, 2─, or 3─.
2. All ions are either monatomic or polyatomic.
• A monatomic ion is composed of a single atom.
Examples of monatomic ions are Na+, Al3+, Cl─, and S2─.
• A polyatomic ion is a particle that has two or more covalently bonded atoms and an
overall electric charge.
Examples of polyatomic ions are OH─, Hg22+, NH4+, and SO42─.
Ions of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has unique characteristics. It is classified as a nonmetal, and in most of its
compounds hydrogen bonds covalently. In compounds classified as acids, hydrogen can
form H+ ions (protons). When bonded to metal atoms, hydrogen behaves as a hydride ion
(H─).
The Structure and Charge of Metal Ions
More than 70% of the elements in the periodic table are metal atoms.
• Geologically, in the earth’s crust, most metals are found as metal ions. When metal
ions are found in rocks from which the ions can be extracted and converted to
metals, the rocks have economic value and are termed ores.
Famous exceptions to the “metals are found as ions” rule include the coinage
metals: copper and silver, which may be found geologically both as ions or in their
metallic, elemental form, and gold, which is always found in nature as a metal.
• In reactions, neutral metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form positive ions.
• In compounds that contain both metal and nonmetal atoms, the metal atoms nearly
always behave as ions with a positive charge. The charge can be 1+, 2+, 3+, or 4+.
• With the exception of mercurous (Hg22+) ion, all frequently encountered metal ions
are monatomic: the ions are single metal atoms that have lost one or more electrons.
Examples of metal ions are Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, and Sn4+.
All metals form at least one positive ion. Some frequently encountered metals form two
stable ions. In many cases, the charge (or possible charges) on a metal ion can be predicted
from the position of the metal in the periodic table.
In first-year chemistry, when you are asked to predict the charge on a metal atom, you will
nearly always be allowed to consult a periodic table. Use a periodic table when learning
the following rules for the charges on metal ions.

Metal Ions With One Charge

Metals in the first two columns of the periodic table form only one ion. The charge on that
ion is easy to predict.
• All metals in column one (the alkali metals) form ions that are single atoms with a
1+ charge: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and Fr+.
• All metals in column two form ions that are single atoms with a 2+ charge: Be2+,
Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and Ra2+.
The charges on metal ions in the remainder of the periodic table are more difficult to
predict. Additional rules for predicting ion charge will be learned when electron
configuration is studied in later parts of your course.
In order to solve problems initially, most courses require that the possible charges on
certain metals to the right of column 2 in the periodic table be memorized. The rules below
will help with that process.
Most metals to the right of the first two columns form two or more stable ions, but some
form only one. The following rule should be memorized.
• Metals to the right of the first two columns that form only one stable ion include
For help in remembering this group, note the position of these metals in the periodic table.
Naming Metal Ions
How a metal ion is named depends on whether the metal forms only one ion, or forms two
or more ions.
1. If a metal forms only one stable ion, the ion name is the element name.
Examples: Na+ is a sodium ion. Al3+ is an aluminum ion.
This rule applies to
• metal ions in columns one and two, plus
• the additional five metal ions listed above, plus
• additional ions that may be studied in later parts of first-year chemistry.
2. For metals that form two different positive ions, the systematic name (or modern name)
of the ion is the element name followed by a roman numeral in parentheses that states
the ion’s positive charge.
Examples: Fe2+ is named iron(II) and Fe3+ is named iron(III)
3. For metals that form two different positive ions and were “known to the ancients” also
have common names for their ions.
In common names, the lower charged ion uses the Latin root of the element name plus
the suffix –ous. The higher-charged ion uses the Latin root plus the suffix –ic.

For metal ions, the systematic (roman numeral) names are preferred, but the common
names are often encountered.
Most courses require that the names and symbols for the following ions, and perhaps
others, be memorized.

Sn2+ tin(II) stannous
Hg22+ mercury(I) mercurous
Hg2+ mercury(II) mercuric
Lead also forms two ions. Pb2+ is named lead(II), and Pb4+ is named lead(IV). The
common names plumbous and plumbic are rarely used.
Note the exceptional name and structure of the mercury (I) ion. Mercury (I) is the only
frequently encountered metal ion that is polyatomic: It has the structure of a diatomic ion
with a 2+ charge. It is given the name mercury (I) matching the format of other metal ions,
in part because it behaves in many respects as two loosely bonded +1 ions.
When to Include Roman Numerals In Systematic Names
When naming metal ions, the rule is: Do not use roman numerals in systematic names for
metal ions that can form only one stable ion: ions for atoms in the first two columns, plus
However, for ions of the transition metals, adding the roman numeral, such as using
nickel(II) for Ni2+, may be acceptable in your course.
Summary: Metal Ion Rules
• All metal ions are positive. Except for Hg22+, all metal atoms are monatomic.
• In column one, all elements tend to form 1+ ions.
• In column two, all elements tend to form 2+ ions.
• For the metals to the right of column 2, five metals form only one ion: Ni2+, Ag+,
Zn2+, Cd2+, and Al3+. Assume that the others form more than one ion.
• If a metal forms only one ion, the ion name is the element name.
• If a metal forms more than one ion, the systematic ion name is the element name
followed by a roman numeral in parentheses showing the positive charge of the ion.

Flashcards: Using the flashcard steps in Lesson 2C, make cards for any of these that you
cannot answer from memory.
cation positive ion
anion negative ion
Monatomic ion one atom with a charge
2 or more bonded atoms
Polyatomic ion
with an overall charge
All metal ions (except mercurous) are Monatomic – contain only one atom
The charge on a metal ion is always positive
Column one ions have what charge? +1
Column two ions have what charge? +2
When is () in ion name needed? In systematic names, if the metal forms

more than one kind of positive ion
In systematic names for metal ions, which do Columns 1 and 2, plus
not need (roman numerals) to show their
charge? Ni2+, Ag+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Al3+
Practice A: Use a periodic table. Memorize the rules, ion symbols, and names in the
section above before doing the problems. On multi-part questions, save a few parts for your
next study session.
1. Add a charge to show the symbol for the stable ion that these elements form.
a. Ba b. Al c. Rb d. Na e. Zn f. Ag
2. Write the symbols for these ions.
a. Cadmium ion b. Lithium ion c. Hydride ion d. Calcium ion
3. Which ions in Problems 1 and 2 are anions?
4. Write the name and symbol for a polyatomic metal ion often encountered.

Stannic
Cupric
Iron(III)
Copper(I)
Fe2+

Monatomic Anions
Nine monatomic anions are often encountered in first-year chemistry. Their names and
symbols should be memorized.
• One is H─ (hydride).
• Four are halides (the ─1 ions of halogens): fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide
(F─, Cl─, Br─, and I─).
• Two are in tall column 6A: oxide (O2─) and sulfide (S2─).
• Two are in tall column 5A: nitride (N3─), and phosphide (P3─).
For monatomic anions, the name is the root of the element name followed by -ide.
For monatomic ions, the position of the element in the periodic table predicts the charge.
Family Alkali Transition N O Noble
Halogens
Name Metals Metals Family Family Gases
Charge on 3+
Monatomic 1+ 2+ 3─ 2─ 1─ None
ion (or 1+)
Polyatomic Ions
A polyatomic ion is a particle that both has two or more atoms held together by covalent
bonds and has an overall electrical charge. In polyatomic ions, the total number of protons
and electrons in the particle is not equal.
An example of a polyatomic ion is the hydroxide ion, OH─. One way to form this ion is to
start with a neutral water molecule H—O—H, which has 1+8+1 = 10 protons and 10
balancing electrons, and take away an H+ ion (which has one proton and no electrons).
The result is a particle composed of two atoms with a total of 9 protons and 10 electrons.
Overall, the particle has a negative charge. The negative charge behaves as if it is attached
to the oxygen. A structural formula for the hydroxide ion is
H—O─
Polyatomic ions will be considered in more detail when studying the three-dimensional
structure of particles. At this point, our interest is the ratios in which ions combine. For
that purpose, it may help to think of a monatomic ion as a charge that has one atom
attached, and a polyatomic ion as a charge with several atoms attached.
Polyatomic Cations
Three polyatomic cations with names and symbols that should be memorized are the
NH + (ammonium), H O+ (hydronium), and Hg 2+ (mercury(I) or mercurous) ions.
4 3 2

Oxyanions
Polyatomic ions with negative charges that contain non-metals and oxygen are termed
oxyanions.
Oxyanions are often part of a series of ions that has one common atom and the same charge,
but different numbers of oxygen atoms.
Example: Nitrate ion = NO ─ , nitrite ion = NO ─
3 2
The names and symbols for most oxyanions can be determined from the following rules.
Oxyanion Naming System
1. When an atom has two oxyanions that have the same charge, the ion with more
oxygens is named root-ate , and the ion with one fewer oxygen atoms is root-ite.
Example: Sulfate is SO42─ . Sulfite is SO32─
2. If an atom has more than two oxyanions with the same charge, the
• per–root–ate ion has X oxygen atoms:
• root-ate ion has one fewer oxygens;
• root-ite ion has 2 fewer oxygens;
• hypo-root-ite ion has 3 fewer oxygens.
Example: Memorize that the ClO4─ ion is named perchlorate. Then,

• ClO3─ is chlorate;
• ClO2─ is chlorite;
• ClO─ is hypochlorite.
To simplify naming these ions, memorize the formula for one ion in a series, then write out
the rest by logic as needed. With practice, this naming process will become automatic.
* * * * *
Memorizing the Ion Names and Formulas
In most courses, you will be asked to memorize the names and formulas for a list of
frequently encountered ions. Even if it is not required, doing so will speed your work and
improve your understanding of chemistry.
The following set of flashcards is information that you will rely on heavily for the
remainder of the year. You may want to use a unique card color to identify these as the ion
cards, or add the word ion for clarity after each ion name.
Your course may not require that you know the “latin” names for the metal ions that have
more than one possible charge, but learning those names and charges will help you to
recall what charges are likely to be found on those metal ions.

Make and learn these flashcards on 3” by 5” index cards
CH3COO─ acetate Cu+ cuprous

CN─ cyanide Cu2+ cupric
OH─ hydroxide Fe2+ ferrous
NO3─ nitrate Fe3+ ferric
MnO4─ permanganate Sn2+ stannous
CO32─ carbonate Sn4+ stannic
hydrogen mercurous or
HCO3─ Hg22+
carbonate mercury (I)
CrO42─ chromate Hg2+ mercuric
Cr2O72─ dichromate O2 ─ oxide
PO43─ phosphate S2 ─ sulfide
SO42─ sulfate N3─ nitride
SO32─ sulfite P3─ phosphide
Na+ sodium ion ClO4─ perchlorate
K+ potassium ion ClO3─ chlorate
Al3+ aluminum ion ClO2─ chlorite

F─ fluoride ClO─ hypochlorite
Cl─ chloride H+ hydrogen ion
Br─ bromide H─ hydride
I─ iodide Mg2+ magnesium ion
Ca2+ calcium ion NH4+ ammonium
Ba2+ barium ion H3O+ hydronium
* * * * *

Practice B: Learn the rules and run the flashcards for the ion names and symbols in the
section above, then try these problems. Work in your notebook. Repeat these again after a
few days of flashcard practice.
1. In this chart of ions, from memory, add charges, names, and ion formulas.
Symbol Ion name CO3

acetate radium
CN MnO4
silver CrO4
hydroxide K
Al dichromate
ClO4 PO4
nitrate sulfate
sodium sulfide
F Ba
2. Circle the polyatomic ion symbols in the left column of Problem 1 above.
3. If NO3─ is a nitrate ion, what is the symbol for a nitrite ion?
4. Complete this table for the series of oxyanions containing bromine.
Ion name Ion Symbol
Per_______________ ______________
_________________________ BrO3─
Bromite _________________
Hypo________________ __________________
ANSWERS
Practice A
1. a. Ba2+ b. Al3+ c. Rb+ d. Na+ e. Zn2+ f. Ag+
2. a. Cd2+ b. Li+ c. H─ d. Ca2+ 3. Only the hydride ion (H─). 4. Hg22+

5.
Ion Symbol Systematic Ion Name Common Name
Practice B
1,2.
Symbol Ion name CO32─ carbonate
CH3COO─ acetate Ra2+ radium
CN─ cyanide MnO4─ permanganate
Ag+ silver CrO42─ chromate
OH─ hydroxide K+ potassium
Al3+ aluminum Cr2O72─ dichromate
ClO4─ perchlorate PO43─ phosphate
NO3─ nitrate SO42─ sulfate
Na+ sodium S2─ sulfide

F─ fluorine Ba2+ barium
3. NO2─
4.
Ion name Ion Symbol
Perbromate BrO4─
Bromate BrO3─
Bromite BrO2─
Hypobromite BrO─

Lesson 7C: Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds

Pretest: Using a periodic table, if you get these right 100%, you may skip the lesson.
1. Name Pb3(PO4)2 2. Write formulas for a. tin(IV) chlorate b. radium nitrate.
* * * * *
Ionic Compounds: Fundamentals
Positive and negative ions combine to form ionic compounds. Ionic compounds must have
both positive and negative ions.
There is only one ratio possible for the ions in a compound. The ions must combine in a
ratio that results in electrical neutrality. This means that the charges in any ionic substance
must balance. The overall charge of any stable combination of ions must be zero.
Names and Formulas
The composition of an ionic compound can be expressed in three ways.
• In a name; Example: ammonium phosphate
• As a solid formula; Example: (NH4)3PO4
• As balanced, separated ions. Example: 3 NH4+ + 1 PO43─
As a part of solving many upcoming chemistry problems, given one of these expressions,
you will need to be able to write the other two.
Ionic compounds can initially be confusing because their names and solid formulas do not
clearly identify the charges on the ions. The key to writing a correct name and solid
formula is to first write the separated-ions formula that shows the number and the formulas
of the ions in the combination, including their charges.
For ionic compounds, the fundamental rules for writing names and formulas are:
• Always write the separated-ions formula first, and

• Add coefficients that balance the charges.
Balancing Separated Ions

In all combinations of ions, whether in solids, melted, or dissolved in water, the total
charges on the ions must balance: the total number of positive charges must equal the total
number of negative charges, so that the overall charge is zero.
In problems, you will often be asked to determine the ratios that balance the charges. The
way to find those ratios is to write a balanced separated-ions formula for the compound.
Q. Find the ratio that balances the charges when S2─ and Na+ combine.
Try this problem using these steps, then check your answer below.

Step 1: Write the symbols for the two ions in the compound, with their charges,
separated by a + sign. It is preferred to put the positive ion first.
Step 2: Coefficients are numbers written in front of ion or particle symbols. In all ion
combinations,
(Coefficient times charge of cation) must equal (coefficient times charge of anion).
Write the whole-number coefficients in front of the ion formulas that make the
positive and negative charges balance.
In balancing, you cannot change the symbol or the stated charge of an ion. The
only change allowed is to add coefficients in front of the particle symbols.
Step 3: Reduce the coefficients to the lowest whole-number ratios.
* * * * *
Answer Step 1: Na+ + S2─
Step 2: 2 Na+ + 1 S2─ This is the separated-ions formula.
The coefficients that balance the charges show the ratios in which the ions
must exist in the compound.
Step 3: 2 and 1 are the lowest whole-number ratios.
There must be two sodium ions for every one sulfide ion. Why? For the charges,
(2 times 1+ = 2+) balances (1 times 2─ = 2─). In ion combinations, the ions are always
present in ratios so that the total positive and negative charges balance.
Only one set of coefficient ratios will balance the charges. The coefficients identify the
ratios in which the ions are found in the compound.
Try another. Cover the answer below, then try this question using the steps above.
Q. Add coefficients so that the charges balance: ___ Al3+ + ___ SO42─
* * * * *
Answer: An easy way to find the coefficients is to make the coefficient of each ion equal to
the number of charges of the other ion.
2 Al3+ + 3 SO42─
For these ions, (2 times +3 = +6) balances (3 times ─2 = ─6). In an ionic compound, the
total positives and total negatives must balance.
However, when balancing charge when using this method, you must often adjust the
coefficients so that the final coefficients are the lowest whole-number ratios.
Try this problem.
Q. Add proper coefficients: ____ Ba2+ + ____ SO42─
* * * * *

Answer
If balancing produces a ratio of
2 Ba2+ + 2 SO42─ , write the final coefficients as 1 Ba2+ + 1 SO42─ .
When balancing ions, make the coefficients the lowest whole-number ratios.
Practice A: Add lowest-whole-number coefficients to make these separated ions

balanced for charge. After every two, check your answers at the end of the lesson.
1. ____ Na+ + ____ Cl─ 5. NH4+ + CH3COO─
2. ____ Ca2+ + ____ Br─ 6. In3+ + CO32─
3. Mg2+ + SO42─ 7. Al3+ + PO43─
4. Cl─ + Al3+ 8. HPO42─ + In3+
Writing the Separated Ions from Names

To write the separated ions from the name of an ionic compound, use these steps.
Step 1: Write the symbols for the two named ions, with their charges, separated by a +
sign. The first word in the name is always the positive ion.
Step 2: Add lowest-whole-number coefficients to balance the charges.
Try those the steps on this problem:
Q. Write a balanced separated-ions formula for aluminum carbonate.
* * * * *
Answer: Step 1: Aluminum carbonate Æ Al3+ + CO32─
Step 2: Aluminum carbonate Æ 2 Al3+ + 3 CO32─
The separated-ions formula shows clearly what the name does not. In aluminum
carbonate, there must be 2 aluminum ions for every 3 carbonate ions.
When writing separated ions, write the charge high, the subscript low, and the coefficient at
the same level as the symbol.
Practice B
If you have not done so today, run your ion flashcards one more time. Then write
balanced separated-ions formula for the ionic compounds below. You may use a periodic
table, but otherwise write the ion formulas from memory. Check answers as you go.
1. Sodium hydroxide Æ
2. Aluminum chloride Æ

3. Rubidium sulfite Æ
4. Ferric nitrate Æ
5. Lead(II) phosphate Æ
6. Calcium chlorate Æ
Writing Solid Formulas From Names

In ionic solid formulas, charges are hidden, but charges must balance. The key to writing a
correct solid formula is to write the balanced separated-ions first, so that you can see and
balance the charges.
To write a solid formula from the name of an ionic compound, use these steps.
1. Based on the name, write the separated ions. Add lowest whole number coefficients to
balance charge. Then, to the right, draw an arrow Æ .
2. After the Æ, write the two ion symbols, positive ion first, with a small space between
them. Include any subscripts that are part of the ion symbol, but no charges or
coefficients.
3. For the ion symbols written after the arrow, put parentheses () around a polyatomic ion
if its coefficient in the separated-ions formula is more than 1.
4. Add subscripts after each symbol on the right. The subscript will be the same as the
coefficient in front of that ion in the separated-ions formula.
Omit subscripts of 1. For polyatomic ions, write the coefficients as subscripts outside
and after the parentheses.
Apply those four steps to this example.

Q. Write the solid formula for potassium sulfide.
* * * * *
Answer
1: Write the separated-ions formula first. For potassium sulfide: 2 K+ + 1 S2─
2: Re-write the symbols without coefficients or charges. 2 K+ + 1 S2─ Æ K S
3: Since both K and S ions are monatomic, add no parentheses.
4: The K coefficient becomes a solid formula subscript: 2 K+ + 1 S2─ Æ K2S
The sulfide subscript of one is omitted as understood.
The solid formula for potassium sulfide is K2S.

* * * * *

Try another using the same steps.

Q. Write the solid formula for magnesium phosphate.
* * * * *
Answer
1: Write the balanced separated ions. Magnesium phosphate Æ 3 Mg2+ + 2 PO43─
2: Write symbols without coefficients or charges. 3 Mg2+ + 2 PO43─ Æ Mg PO4
3: Since Mg2+ is monatomic (just one atom), it is not placed in parentheses.

Phosphate is both polyatomic and we need >1, so add ( ) . Mg (PO4)
4: The separated coefficient of the Mg ion becomes its solid subscript. Mg3(PO4)
The phosphate ion’s separated coefficient becomes its solid subscript. Mg3(PO4)2
Mg3(PO4)2 is the solid formula for magnesium phosphate.
Recite the 3-P’s rule for ionic-solid formulas until it is memorized.
¾ Put parentheses around polyatomic ions -- if you need more than one.
Practice C: As you go, check the answers at the end of the lesson. You may want to do
half of the lettered parts today, and the rest during your next study session.
1. Circle the polyatomic ions.
a. Na+ b. NH4+ c. CH3COO─ d. Ca2+ e. OH─
2. When do you need parentheses? Write the rule from memory.

3. Write solid formulas for these ion combinations.
a. 2 K+ + 1 CrO42─ Æ
b. 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─ Æ
c. 1 SO32─ + 1 Sr2+ Æ
4. Balance these separated ions for charge, then write solid formulas.
a. Cs+ + N3─ Æ
b. Cr2O72─ + Ca2+ Æ
c. Sn4+ + SO42─ Æ

5. From these names, write the separated-ions formula, then the solid formula.
a. Ammonium sulfite Æ
b. Potassium permanganate Æ
c. Calcium hypochlorite Æ
d. Sodium hydrogen carbonate Æ
6. Write the solid formula.
a. Stannous fluoride Æ
b. Calcium hydroxide Æ
c. Radium acetate Æ
Writing Separated Ions From Solid Formulas

When placed in water, all ionic solids dissolve to some extent. The dissolved ions separate
and move about in the solution.
This dissolving process can be represented by a chemical equation that has a solid on the
left and the separated ions on the right. For example, when solid sodium phosphate
dissolves in water, the equation is
Na3PO4 (s) H2O 3 Na+(aq) + 1 PO43─(aq)

Æ
The (s) is an abbreviation for solid, and (aq) is an abbreviation for aqueous, which means
“dissolved in water.”
An equation for ion separation must balance atoms, balance charge, and result in the
correct formulas for the ions that are actually found in the solution.
In equations for an ionic solid separating into its ions, some subscripts in the solid formula
become coefficients in the separated ions, but others do not. In the equation above, the
subscript 3 became a coefficient, but the subscripts 1 and 4 did not. To correctly separate
solid formulas into ions, you must be able to recognize the ions inside the solid formula.
Cover the answer below, try this example, then check the answer for tips that will make
this process easier. When needed, read a part of the answer for a hint, then try again.
Q. Write the equation for the ionic solid Cu2CO3 separating into its ions.
* * * * *

Answer: Follow these steps in going from a solid formula to separated ions.
Step 1: Decide the negative ion’s charge and coefficient first.
The first ion in a solid formula is always the positive ion, but many metal ions can
have two possible positive charges. Most negative ions only have one likely
charge, and that charge will identify the positive ion’s charge, so do the negative
ion first.
In Cu2CO3, the negative ion is CO3, which always has a 2─ charge.
This step temporarily splits the solid formula into Cu2 and 1 CO32─ .
Step 2: Decide the positive ion’s charge and coefficients.
Given Cu2 and CO32─ , the positive ion or ions must include 2 copper atoms and
must have a total 2+ charge to balance the charge of CO 2─. 3
So Cu2 , in the separated-ions formula, must be either 1 Cu22+ or 2 Cu+ .
Both possibilities balance atoms and charge. Which is correct? Recall that
All metal ions are monatomic (except Hg22+ (mercury(I) ion)).
This means that Cu+ must be the ion that forms, since Cu22+ is polyatomic.
Because most metal ions are monatomic, a solid formula with a metal ion will
separate
MXAnion Æ X M+? + Anion (unless the metal ion is Hg22+).
You also know that Cu+ is the copper(I) ion that was previously memorized
because it is frequently encountered. Both rules lead us to predict that the
equation for ion separation is
Cu2CO3 Æ 2 Cu+ + 1 CO32─
Copper can also be a Cu2+ ion, but in the formula above, there is only one
carbonate, and carbonate always has a 2─ charge. Two Cu2+ ions cannot balance
the single carbonate.
Step 3: Check. Make sure that the charges balance. Make sure that the number of atoms
of each kind is the same on both sides. The equation must also make sense going
backwards, from the separated to the solid formula.
Try another.
Q2. Write the equation for the ionic solid (NH4)2S dissolving to form ions.
* * * * *

Answer
• In a solid formula, parentheses are placed around polyatomic ions. When you
write the separated ions, a subscript after parentheses always becomes the
polyatomic ion’s coefficient.
You would therefore split the formula (NH4)2S Æ 2 NH4 + 1 S
• Assign the charges that these ions prefer. (NH4)2S Æ 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─
• Check. In the separated formula, do the charges balance?
Going backwards, do the separated ions combine to give the solid formula?
Keep up your practice, for 15-20 minutes a day, with your ion name and formula flashcards
(Lesson 7B). Identifying ions without consulting a table will be essential in the complex
problems ahead.
Practice D
If you have not done so today, run your ion flashcards in both directions, then try these.
To take advantage of the “spacing effect”(Lesson 2C), do half of the lettered parts below
today, and the rest during you next study session.
1. Finish balancing by adding ions, coefficients, and charges.
a. PbCO3 Æ Pb + 1 CO32─
b. Hg2SO4 Æ Hg2 +
2. Write equations for these ionic solids separating into ions.
a. KOH Æ
b. CuCH3COO Æ
c. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ
d. Ag2CO3 Æ
e. NH4OBr Æ
f. Mn(OH)2 Æ

Naming Ionic Compounds

From a solid or a separated-ions formula, writing the name is easy.
Step 1: Write the separated-ions formula.
Step 2: Write the name of the positive ion in the formula.
Step 3. Write the name of the negative ion.
That’s it! In ionic compounds, the name ignores the number of ions inside. Simply name
the ions in the compound, with the positive ion named first. Try this problem.
Q. What is the name of K2CO3?
* * * * *
Answer
K2CO3 Æ 2 K+ + 1 CO32─ ; the name is potassium carbonate.
With time, you will be able to convert solid formulas to compound names without writing
the separated ions, but the only way to develop this accurate intuition is by practice.
Practice E: If you are unsure of an answer, check it before continuing.

1. Return to Practice D and name each compound.
2. In Practice C, Problems 3 and 4, name each compound.
3. Would CBr4 be named carbon bromide or carbon tetrabromide? Why?
4. Name these ionic and covalent compounds. Try half today and half during your next
study session.
a. CaBr2 b. NCl3 c. NaH d. CuCl2
e. RbClO4 f. KOI g. Li3P h. PbO
i. NH4BrO2 j. SO2 k. CaSO3 l. P4S3

Total + charges = total ─ charges
What must be true in all ionic substances?
Must be electrically neutral
Numbers you add to balance separated ions coefficients
To understand ionic compounds: Write the separated-ion formulas
In solid formulas, put parentheses around
When are parentheses needed in formulas?
polyatomic ions -- if you need >1
In separated-ion formulas, what do the The ratio in which the ions must be present
coefficients tell you? to balance atoms and charge
* * * * *

Practice F: Combining Ions Worksheet

Fill in the blanks. Do half today and the rest during your next study session. Check
answers at the end of the lesson.

• Name by ion names • Charges must show • Positive ion first
• Must be two or more words • Charges must balance • Charges balance,
• Put name of + ion first • Charges may flow but don’t show
• Coefficients tell ratio of • Put () around
ions polyatomic ions IF
you need >1
2 A13+ + 3 SO32─ A12(SO3)3
Lithium carbonate
Potassium hydroxide
___ Ag+ + ___ NO3─
___ NH4+ + ___ SO42─
FeBr2
Fe2(SO4)3
Cuprous chloride
Tin(II) fluoride
__ A13+ + __ Cr2O72─
K2CrO4
CaCO3
Aluminum phosphate

ANSWERS
Pretest: 1. Lead(II) phosphate 2a. Sn(ClO3)4 2b. Ra(NO3)2
Practice A
1. 1 Na+ + 1 Cl─ 4. 3 Cl─ + 1 Al3+ 7. 1 Al3+ + 1 PO43─
2. 1 Ca2+ + 2 Br─ 5. 1 NH4+ + 1 CH3COO─ 8. 3 HPO42─ + 2 In3+
3. 1 Mg2+ + 1 SO42─ 6. 2 In3+ + 3 CO 2─ 3
Practice B
1. Sodium hydroxide Æ 1 Na+ + 1 OH─ 4. Ferric nitrate Æ 1 Fe3+ + 3 NO3─
2. Aluminum chloride Æ 1 Al3+ + 3 Cl─ 5. Lead(II) phosphate Æ 3 Pb2+ + 2 PO 3─ 4
3. Rubidium sulfite Æ 2 Rb+ + 1 SO32─ 6. Calcium Chlorate Æ 1 Ca2+ + 2 ClO3─
Practice C
1. The polyatomic ions: b. NH4+ c. CH3COO─ e. OH─
2. For ionic solid formulas, put parentheses around polyatomic ions IF you need more than one.
3a. 2 K+ + 1 CrO 2─ Æ K CrO
4 2 4 4a. 3 Cs+ + 1 N3─ Æ Cs N 3
3b. 2 NH4+ + 1 S2─ Æ (NH4)2S 4b. 1 Cr2O72─ + 1 Ca2+ Æ CaCr2O7
3c. 1 SO32─ + 1 Sr2+ Æ SrSO3 4c. 1 Sn4+ + 2 SO42─ Æ Sn(SO4)2
5a. 2 NH4+ + 1 SO32─ Æ (NH4)2SO3 5c. 1 Ca2+ + 2 OCl─ Æ Ca(ClO)2
5b. 1 K+ + 1 MnO ─ Æ KMnO
4 4 5d. 1 Na+ + 1 HCO ─ Æ NaHCO
3 3
6. Write balanced, separated ions first to help with the solid formula.
a. Stannous fluoride Æ 1 Sn2+ + 2 F─ Æ SnF2
b. Calcium hydroxide Æ 1 Ca2+ + 2 OH─ Æ Ca(OH)
2
2 + ─
c. Radium acetate Æ 1 Ra + 2 CH3COO Æ Ra(CH3COO)2
Practice D and E
1. a. PbCO3 Æ 1 Pb2+ + 1 CO32─ (Lead(II) carbonate)
b. Hg2SO4 Æ 1 Hg22+ + 1 SO42─ (Mercurous sulfate or Mercury(I) sulfate)

2. a. KOH Æ 1 K+ + 1 OH─ (Potassium hydroxide)
b. CuCH COO Æ 1 Cu+ + 1 CH COO─ (Copper(I) acetate or cuprous acetate)
3 3
c. Fe3(PO4)2 Æ 3 Fe2+ + 2 PO43─ (Iron(II) phosphate or ferrous phosphate)
d. Ag2CO3 Æ 2 Ag+ + 1 CO32─ (Silver carbonate)
e. NH4OBr Æ 1 NH4+ + 1 BrO─ (Ammonium hypobromite)
f. Mn(OH)2 Æ 1 Mn2+ + 2 OH─ (Manganese hydroxide)

E2. C3a. Potassium chromate C3b. Ammonium sulfide C3c. Strontium sulfite
C4a. Cesium nitride C4b. Calcium dichromate C4c. Tin(IV) sulfate or stannic sulfate
E3: Carbon tetrabromide. Carbon is a nonmetal, so the compound is covalent (see Lesson 7A). Use di-, tri-
prefixes in the names of covalent compounds. Practice recognizing the symbols of the nonmetals.
E4. a. Calcium bromide b. Nitrogen trichloride c. Sodium hydride
c. Copper(II) chloride or cupric chloride e. Rubidium perchlorate f. Potassium hypoiodite
g. Lithium phosphide h. Lead(II) oxide i. Ammonium bromite j. Sulfur dioxide
k. Calcium sulfite l. Tetraphosphorous trisulfide
Practice F
Aluminum sulfite 2 A13+ + 3 SO32─ A12(SO3)3
Lithium carbonate 2 Li+ + CO32─ Li2CO3
Potassium hydroxide 1 K+ + 1 OH─ KOH
Silver nitrate 1 Ag+ + 1 NO3─ AgNO3
Ammonium sulfate 2 NH4+ + 1 SO42─ (NH4)2SO4
Iron(II) bromide/Ferrous bromide 1 Fe2+ + 2 Br─ FeBr2
Iron(III) sulfate/Ferric sulfate 2 Fe3+ + 3 SO42─ Fe2(SO4)3
Cuprous chloride 1 Cu+ + 1 Cl─ CuCl

Tin(II) fluoride 1 Sn2+ + 2 F─ SnF2
Aluminum dichromate 2 A13+ + 3 Cr2O72─ Al2(Cr2O7)3
Potassium chromate 2 K+ + CrO42─ K2CrO4
Calcium carbonate 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32─ CaCO3
Aluminum phosphate 1 Al3+ + 1 PO43─ AlPO4

Calculations in Chemistry

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Calculations In Chemistry

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How to Use These Lessons

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Module 1 – Scientific Notation

Calculators and Exponential Notation

Lesson 1A: Moving the Decimal

2. ─ 0.0067 x 10―2 = _________________ 4. ─ 77 = _________________

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a. 104 = _______________ b. 10―4 = ______________

c. 107 = _______________ d. 10―5 = ______________ e. 100 = ________

Multiplying and Dividing By 10, 100, 1000

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Numbers in Exponential Notation

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Converting Exponential Notation to Numbers

─ 7,653 x 10―3 = ─ 7,653 x 0.001 = ─ 7.653

Practice C: Write these as regular numbers without an exponential term.

3. 0.77 x 106 = __________________ 4. ─ 95 x 10―4 = ______________________

Changing Exponential to Scientific Notation

To convert from exponential to scientific notation,

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When moving a decimal point, use these rules.

Remember, 10─4 is 1,000 times larger than 10─7.

1. 5,420 x 103 = 2. 0.0067 x 10―4 = ___________________

3. 0.020 x 103 = 4. 870 x 10―4 = _____________________

5. 0.00492 x 10―12 = 6. 602 x 1021 = _____________________

Converting Numbers to Scientific Notation

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To convert regular numbers to scientific notation, the steps are

a. 6,280 = b. ─ 0.0093 = ______________________

c. 0.741 = _____________________ d. 1,280,000 = _____________________

3. Complete the problems in the pretest at the beginning of this lesson.

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3. Write these numbers in scientific notation.

Pretest: 1. 9.4 x 106 2. ─ 6.7 x 10―5 3. 4.2 x 104 4. ─ 7.7 x 101

Lesson 1B: Calculations Using Exponential Notation

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Adding and Subtracting Exponential Notation

The steps are

To add or subtract exponential notation without a calculator,

Follow how the steps are applied in this

Example: ( 40.71 x 108 ) + ( 222 x 106 ) = ( 40.71 x 108 ) + ( 2.22 x 108 ) =

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A. ( 32.464 x 101 ) ─ (16.2 x 10―1 ) = ( 32.464 x 101 ) ─ (0.162 x 10+1 ) =

The Role of Practice

2. (2.25 x 10―5) + (61 x 10―7) + (212.0 x 10―6) =

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3. ( ― 2.18 x 10―18 ) + ( ― 54 x 10―20 ) =

4. ( ― 21.46 x 10―17 ) ― ( ― 3,250 x 10―19 ) =

Multiplying and Dividing Powers of 10

1. When you multiply exponentials, you add the exponents.

2. When you divide exponentials, you subtract the exponents.

When subtracting, remember: “Minus a minus is a plus.” 106―(―3) = 106+3 = 109

3. When you take the reciprocal of an exponential, change the sign.

Answer: 10―3 x 10―4 = 10―7 = 10―7―(―3) = 10―7+3 = 10―4

Practice B: Write answers as 10 to a power. Do not use a calculator. Check your

2. ─ 0.0067 x 10―2 = _ 4. ─ 77 = _

a. 104 = _ b. 10―4 =

c. 107 = _____ d. 10―5 = e. 100 =

3. 0.77 x 106 = 4. ─ 95 x 10―4 = ____

c. 0.741 = _ d. 1,280,000 = _

b. 1000 cm3 = _____ mL f. _ centigrams = 1 gram

c. 1 millimole = __moles g. 100 cc H2O (l) = _ grams H2O (l)

d. 1 dm3 = ___ L h. 1 deciliter = _ liter

1. 1 centijoule = _ joules 4. 1,000 grams = 1 _

2. 1 gigawatt = watts 5. 2 x 102 meters = meters

3. 6 x 106 volts = _____volts 6. 9 nm = _ meters

c 10─12 g = 1 _g d. 1 g = __________ Gg

e. 1 fL = _ L f. 1 MPa = __ Pa