Bel Project & Training Report

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BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED
INTRODUCTION
India, as a country, has been very lucky with regard to the introduction of telecom
products. The first telegraph link was commissioned between Calcutta and Diamond Harbor
in the year 1852, which was invented in 1876. First wireless communication equipment were
introduced in Indian Army in the year 1909 with the discovery of Radio waves in 1887 by
Hertz and demonstration of first wireless link in the year 1905 by Marconi and Vacuum
Tube in 1906. Setting up of radio station for broadcast and other telecom facilities almost
immediately after their commercial introduction abroad followed this. After independence of
India in 1947 and adoption of its constitution in 1950, the government was seized with the
plans to lay the foundations of a strong, self-sufficient modern India. On the industrial front,
Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was announced in the year 1952. It was recognized that in
certain core sectors infrastructure facilities require huge investments, which cannot be met by
private sector and as such the idea of Public Sector Enterprises (PSE) was mooted. With
telecom and electronics recognized among the core sectors, Indian Telephone Industry, now
renamed as ITI Limited, was formed in 1953 to undertake local manufacture of telephone
equipment, which were of electro-mechanical nature at that stage. Hindustan Cable Limited
was also started to take care of telecom cables.
GTBKIET.Six Months Training 1

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Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public Sector

Enterprise under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountainhead to
manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy
history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional
electronic equipment for Defence, broadcasting, civil Defence and telecommunications as
well as the component requirement of entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the
years, BEL has grown to a multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with
track record of a profit earning PSU.
The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of
electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with
T-CSF of France, the company’s equipment designs have had a long voyage through the
hybrid, solid-state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the
component arena also, the company established its own electron value manufacturing facility.
It moved on to semiconductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and
then to the manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the component and
technology, its manufacturing and products assurance facilities have also undergone sea
change. The design groups have CADD facility; the manufacturing has CNC machines and a
Mass Manufacture Facility. QC checks are preformed with multi-dimensional profile
measurement machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme
weather and other operational conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet
the stringent requirements of MIL grade systems.
Today BEL’s infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions
having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company are spread over the entire
Electro-magnetic (EM) sp 3ectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge
radar systems and X-ray tubes on the upper edge of the spectrum. Its manufacturing units
have special focus towards the products ranges like Defence Communication, Rader’s,
Optical & Opto-electronics, Telecommunication, sound and Vision Broadcasting, Electronic
Components, etc.
Besides manufacturing and supply of a wide variety of products, BEL offers a variety
of services like Telecom and Rader Systems Consultancy, Contract Manufacturing,
Calibration of Test & Measuring Instruments, etc. At the moment, the company is installing
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MSSR radar at important airports under the modernization of airports plan of National
Airport Authority (NAA).
BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies
from more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of
products. A team of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its own R&D
Division to bring out new products to the production lines. Central Research Laboratory
(CRL) at Bangalore and Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake contemporary
design work on state-of-art and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BEL’s products are of
in-house design.
BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and
peripherals under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s.
BEL assembled a limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL.
However, following Government’s decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL,
BEL could not progress in its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were
microprocessor based, the company, Continued to develop computers based application, both
hardware and software. Most of its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA, software
intensive navel ships control and command system is probably one of the first projects of its
nature in India and Asia.
BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution,
Productivity, Quality, Safety, Standardization etc. BEL was ranked No. 1 in the field of
Electronics and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in
India by the Business Standard in its special supplement “The BS 1000 (1997-98)”. BEL was
listed 3rd among the Mini Rattan’s (Category II) by the Government of India, 49th among
Asia’s top 100 worldwide Defence Companies by the Defence News, USA.

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CORPORATE MOTTO , MISSION AND OBJECTIVES:

The passionate pursuit of excellence at BEL is reflected in a reputation with its
customers that can be described in its motto, mission and objectives:
CORPORATE MOTTO
“Quality, Technology and Innovation.”
CORPORATE MISSION
To be the market leader in Defence Electronics and in other chosen fields and products.
CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
 To become a customer-driven company supplying quality products at competitive prices
at the expected time and providing excellent customer support.
 To achieve growth in the operations commensurate with the growth of professional
electronic industry in the country.
 To generate internal resources for financing the investments required for modernization,
expansion and growth for ensuring a fair return to the investor.
 In order to meet the nations strategic needs, to strive for self-reliance by indigenization of
materials and components.
 To retain the technological leadership of the company in Defence and other chosen fields
of electronics through in-house research and development as well as through
Collaboration/Co-operation with Defence/National Research Laboratories, International
Companies, Universities and Academic Institutions.
 To progressively increase overseas sales of its products and services.
 To create an organizational culture which encourages members of the organization to real
and through continuous learning on the job

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MANUFACTURING UNITS
BANGALORE (KANARATAKA)
BEL started its production activities in Bangalore on 1954 with 400W high frequency
(HF) transmitter and communication receiver for the Army. Since then, the Bangalore
Complex has grown to specialize in communication and Radar/Sonar Systems for the Army,
Navy and Air-force.
BEL’s in-house R&D and successful tie-ups with foreign Defence companies and
Indian Defence Laboratories has seen the development and production of over 300 products
in Bangalore alone. The Unit has now diversified into manufacturing of electronic products
for the civilian customers such as DoT, VSNL, AIR and Doordarshan, Meteorological Dept.,
ISRO, Police, Civil Aviation and Railways. As an aid to Electorate, the unit has developed
Electronic Voting Machines that are produced at its Mass Manufacturing Facility (MMF).
GHAZIABAD (UTTER PRADESH)

The second largest Unit at Ghaziabad was set up in 1974 to manufacture special types
of radar for the Air Defence Ground Environment Systems (Plan ADGES). The Unit
provides Communication Systems to the Defence Forces and Microwave Communication
Links to the various departments of the State and Central Govt. and other users. The Unit’s
product range included Static and Mobile Radar, Tropo scatter equipment, professional grade
Antennae and Microwave components.
PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)
This Unit was started in 1979 to manufacture Image Converter Tubes. Subsequently,
Magnesium Manganese-dioxide Batteries, Lithium Sulphur Batteries and X-ray Tubes/Cables
were added to the product range. At the present the Laser Range Finders for the Defence
services.
MACHILIPATNAM (ANDHRA PRADESH)

The Andhra Scientific Co. at Machilipatnam, manufacturing Optics/Opto-electronic

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equipment was integrated with BEL in 1983. the product line includes passive Night Vision
Equipment, Binoculars and Goggles, Periscopes, Gun Sights, Surgical Microscope and
Optical Sights and Mussel Reference Systems for tank fire control systems. The Unit has
successfully diversified to making the Surgical Microscope with zoom facilities.
PANCHKULA (HARYANA)
To cater the growing needs of Defence Communications, this Unit was established in
1985. Professional grade Radio-communication Equipment in VHF and UHF ranges entirely
developed by BEL and required by the Defence services are being met from this Unit.
CHENNAI (TAMIL NADU)

In 1985, BEL established another Unit at Chennai to facilitate manufacture of Gun
Control Equipment required for the integration and installation and the Vijay anta tanks. The
Unit is now manufacturing Stabilizer Systems for T-72 tanks, Infantry Combat Vehicles
BMP-II; Commander’s Panoramic Sights & Tank Laser Sights are among others.
KOTDWARA (UTTER PRADESH)

In 1986, BEL STARTED A unit at Kotdwara to manufacture Telecommunication
Equipment for both Defence and civilian customers. Focus is being given on the
requirement of the Switching Equipment.
TALOJA (MAHARASHTRA)
For the manufacture of B/W TV Glass bulbs, this plant was established in
collaboration with coming, France in 1986. The Unit is now fully mobilized to manufacture
HYDERABAD (ANDHRA PRADESH)

To coordinate with the major Defence R&D Laboratories located in Hyderabad,
DLRL, DRDL and DMRL, BEL established a Unit at Hyderabad in 1986. Force Multiplier
Systems are manufactured here for the Defence services 20’’ glass bulbs indigenously.

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BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT
Formation
In the mid 60’s, while reviewing the Defence requirement of the country, the
government focused its attention to strengthen the Air Defence system, in particular the
ground electronics system support, for the air Defence network. This led to the formulation of
a very major plan for an integrated Air Defence Ground Environment System known as the
plan ADGES with Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex review committee .At
about the same time, Public attention was focused on the report of the Bhabha committee on
the development and production of electronic equipment. The ministry of Defence
immediately realized the need to establish production capacity for meeting the electronic
equipment requirements for its plan ADGES.
BEL was then inserted with the task of meeting the development and production
requirement for the plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was decided
to create additional capacity at a second unit of the company.
In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971, the
industrial license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained, 1972 saw
the commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974.
Over the years, the unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of equipment
needed for Defence and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of
systems on turnkey basis. The unit enjoys a unique status as manufacture of IFF systems
needed to match a variety of primary raiders. More than 30 versions of IFF’s have already
been supplied traveling the path from vacuum technology to solid-state to latest Microwave
Component based system.

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PRODUCT RANGES
The product ranges today of the company are:
RADAR SYSTEMS
 3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force.
 Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force.
 Tactical Control Radar System for the Army.
 Battlefield Surveillance Rader for the Army.
 IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defence and export.
 ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation.
 Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.
COMMUNICATIONS
 Digital Static Tropo scatters Communication Systems for the Air Force.
 Digital Mobile Tropo scatters communication System for the Air Force and Army.
 VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment.
 Bulk Encryption Equipment.
 Turnkey communication Systems Projects for Defence & civil users.
 Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defence.
 Telemetry /Tele-control Systems.
ANTENNA
 Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems.
 Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications.
 Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.
MICROWAVE COMPONENT
 Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, and Receivers etc.
 Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers, etc.

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SERVICES OF BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED (BEL):-
DEFENCE PRODUCTS:-
 Naval System
 Military Communication Equipment
 Radars
 Tele Communication & Broadcasting Services
 Opto Electronics
 Electronic Warfare
 Tank Electronics
NON-DEFENCE PRODUCTS:-
 Electronic Voting Machine

 Solar Products
 Simputer
 DTH

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ROTATION PROGRAM
Under this students are introduced to the company by putting them under a
rotation program to various departments. The several departments where I had gone
under my rotational program are:
1. Test Equipment and Automation

2. P.C.B. Fabrication
3. Quality Control Works-Radar
4. Work Assembly- Communication
5. Magnetics
6. Microwave lab
Rotation period was to give us a brief insight of the company’s functioning and
knowledge of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at the particular
departments was given. The cooperative staff at the various departments made the
learning process very interesting , which allowed me to know about the company in a
very short time.
TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION

This department deals with the various instruments used in BEL. There are 300
equipments and they are of 16 types.
Examples of some test equipments are:
 Oscilloscope(CRO)
 Multimeter
 Signal Analyzer
 Logical Pulsar
 Counter
 Function Generator etc.
Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are compared with the
standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to be one set down to NPL. As
every instrument has a calibration period after which the accuracy of the instrument falls
from the required standards. So if any of the instruments is not working properly, it is being
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sent here for its correct calibration. To calibrate instruments software techniques are used
which includes the program written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the
calibration but programming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated
by NPL is very costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own calibration
unit if it can afford it.
Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for
testing and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments
mainly used for Defence purpose.
A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done

with the help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type.
The national physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi provides the standard values
yearly. BEL follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments
are calibrated either half yearly or yearly.
After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations.
1. Green –O.K , Perfect
2. Yellow – Satisfactory but some trouble is present.
3. Red – Can’t be used, should be disposed off.
The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are:
1. WS 102
2. WS 104
3. PS 520
4. PS 809
5. PS 811
6. PS 369
Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard
After the inspection of cables, PCB’s and other things the defect found are given in following
codes.

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A --- Physical and Mechanical defects.

 B --- Wrong Writing
 C --- Wrong Component / Polarity
 D --- Wrong Component / Mounting
 E --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish
 F --- Bad Soldering
 G --- Alignment Problem
 H --- Stenciling
 I --- Others (Specify)
 J --- Design & Development
After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department
which is rectified there.
P.C.B. FABRICATION
P.C.B. stands for Printed Circuits Board. It’s an integral part of the Electronics
equipment as well as all the components are mounted on it. It consists of the fiberglass sheet
having a layer of copper on both sides.
TYPES OF PCBs
 Single Sided Board : Circuits on one side.

 Double Sided Board : Circuit on Both side.
 Muti-layer Board : Several layers are interconnected through hole metallization.
Raw material for PCB’s

Most common raw material used for manufacturing of PCBs is copper cladded glass
epoxy resin sheet. The thickness of the sheet may vary as 1.2, 2.4 and 3.2mm and the
standard size of the board is 610mm to 675mm.

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Operation in process
Following steps are there for PCB manufacturing:-
 CNC Drilling
 Drill Location
 Through Hole Plating
 Clean Scrub and Laminate
 Photo Print
 Develop
 Cu electroplate
 Tin electroplate
 Strip
 Etching and cleaning
 Tin Stripping
 Gold plating
 Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Masking (LPISM)
 Photo print
 Develop
 Thermal Baking
 Hot Air leaving
 Non Plated Hole Drilling
 Reverse Marking
 Sharing & Routing
 Debarring & Packing
P.C.B. is a non-conducting board on which a conductive board is made. The base
material, which is used for PCB plate are Glass Epoxy, Bakelite and Teflon etc.
Procedure for through hole metallization

Loading-Cleaner-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Mild Etch-Spray Water-Rinse-
Hydrochloric Acid-Actuator-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Accelerator Dip-Spray Water-

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Rinse- Electrolyses Copper-Plating-Plating- Spray water-Rinse-Anti Tarnish Dip-Hot Air

Drying- Unloading.
After through hole metallization, photo tool generation is done which is followed by
photo printing. In this the PCB is kept b/w two blue sheets and the ckt. is printed on it. A
negative and a positive of a ckt. are developed. To identify b/w the negative and positive,
following observation is done. If the ckt. is black and the rest of the sheet is white, it is
positive otherwise negative.
Next, pattern plating is done. The procedure for pattern plating follows:
Loading- Cleaner- Water rings- Mild etch- Spray- Water Rinse-Electrolytic- Copper
plating- Water rinse- Sulfuric acid-Tin plating- Water rinse- Antitarnic dip- Hot air dry-
Unloading. To give strength to the wires so that they can not break. This is done before
molding. Varnishing is done as anti fungus prevention for against environmental hazard.
After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed by

resist striping and copper etching. The unwanted copper i.e. off the tracks is etched by any of
the following chemicals. After this, tin is stripped out from the tracks.
After this solder marking is done. Solder marking is done to mark the tracks to get
oxidized & finally etch. To prevent the copper from getting etched & making the whole
circuit functionally done.
There are three types of solder marking done in BEL:
Wet solder mask: Due to some demerits this method is totally ruled out. The demerit was
non- alignment, which was due to wrong method applied or wrong machine.
Dry pin solder mask: Due to wastage of films about 30% this method is also not used now.
Liquid photo imaginable solder mask (LPISM): In this first presoaking is at 80 degree
Celsius for 10 to 20 minutes. Next, screen preparation is done. The board is covered by a silk
cloth whose mesh is T-48. The angle to tilt of the board is 15 degree to 22.5 degree.
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The next is ink preparation:
Ink + Hardener
71 %: 29 %
(150 gms.) : (300gms.)
Butyrate solo solve 50gms/kg.
Ink preparation-
It uses:-
Ink-----100gm
Catalyst----10% of total weight
Reducer-----10% of total weight
The catalyst is used as binder and prevents the following, while reducer is used as thinner.
The three things are then fully mixed.
For wash out, following procedure takes place.
Water-Lactic acid-Water-Bleaching power-Water-caustic Soda-Water-Air dry-TCE.
After wash out, final baking for one hour at the temp. Of 20degree C is done. After this
shearing or routing is done which is followed by debarring and packing.

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QUALITY CONTROL
According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the
quality of the product. The raw materials and components etc. purchased and inspected
according to the specifications by IG department. Similarly QC work department inspects all
the items manufactured in the factory. The fabrication department checks all the fabricated
parts and ensures that these are made according to the part drawing, painting , plating and
stenciling etc are done as per BEL standards.
The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB ,
cable assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL
standards .
The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as:
 D & E mistakes
 Shop mistakes
 Inspection mistakes
The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is
entered in the process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.
After a mistake is detected following actions are taken:
1. Observation is made.
2. Object code is given.
3. Division code is given.
4. Change code is prepared.
5. Recommendation action is taken

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WORK ASSEMBLY
This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to
assemble various components, equipments and instruments in a particular procedure.
It has been broadly classified as:
 WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA –II, REPORTER.

 WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g. EMCCA, MSSR, MFC.
 EMCCA: EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL APPLICATION.
 MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR.
 MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE.
The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is:
o Preparation of part list that is to be assembled.

o Preparation of general assembly.
o Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about all components.
o Writing lists of all components.
In work assembly following things are done :
Material Receive:
Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures.
Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of tinned
lead solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is tinned nicely
by applying flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes easy.
Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing and bringing
all the components before doing the work.

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Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of soldering
tools. The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable temperature, one of the
wires of the component is soldered so that they don’t move from their respective places on
the PCB plate. On the other hand of the component is also adjusted so that the PCB does not
burn.
Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path, which are
tinned.
Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done.
Cleaning:
Inspection- This comes under quality work.
Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for 4 hrs and
three cycles.
Testing:
Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable.
Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before Lacquering mounted
plate is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.

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MAGNETICS
In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured ,
which are used in the various Defence equipments i.e. radar , communication
equipments.
This department basically consists of three sections :
1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan the

production of transformer and coils as per the requirement of respective division
(Radar and Communication). This department divided into two groups :
(a) Planning and (b) Planning store .
2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being

carried out by the works departments.
3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is

offered to the inspection department to check the electrical parameters(DCR , No load
current , full load current , dielectric strength , inductance , insulation resistance and
mechanical dimension as mentioned in the GA drawing of the product.
The D&E department provides all the information about manufacturing a coil and the
transformer.
The various types of transformers are as follows :
1. Air cored transformers

2. Oil filled transformers
3. Moulding type transformers
4. P.C.B Mounting transformers :-

(a) Impedance matching transformers
(b) RF transformers
(c) IF transformers

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The various types of cores are as follows :
1. E type
2. C type
3. Lamination
4. Ferrite core
5. Toroidal core
Steps involved in the process of manufacturing of transformer/coils:
 Preparation of former : Former is made of plastic bakelite comprising a male

and female plates assembled and glued alternately to form a hollow rectangular
box on which winding is done.
 Winding : It is done with different material and thickness of wire. The

winding has specified number of layers with each layer’s having a specified
number of turns. The distance between the two turns should be maintained
constantly that is there should be no overlapping. The plasatic layer is inserted
between two consecutive layers.
The various types of windings are as follows :
 Layer Winding
 Wave Winding
 Bank Winding
 Insulation : For inter-winding and inter layer , various types of insulation sheets
viz. Craft paper , paper , leather , oil paper , polyester film are being used.
 Protection : To protect the transformer from the external hazards , moisture ,

dust and to provide high insulation resistance , they are impregnated.

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MICROWAVE LABORATORY
Microwave lab deals with very high frequency measurements or very short
wavelength measurements. The testing of microwave components is done with the help of
various radio and communication devices. Phase and magnitude measurements are done in
this section. Power measurements are done for microwave components because current and
voltage are very high at such frequencies.
Different type of waveguides is tested in this department like rectangular waveguides,

circular waveguides. These waveguides can be used to transmit TE mode or TM mode. This
depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and its walls
should be perfect conductors.
In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where
the antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms of
S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are tested
here.
There are two methods of testing:

a.) Acceptance Test Procedure(ATP)
b.) Production Test Procedure(PTP)
Drawing of various equipments that are to be tested is obtained and testing is

performed on manufactured part. In the antenna section as well as SOHNA site various
parameters such as gain ,bandwidth ,VSWR , phase ,return loss, reflection etc. are checked.
The instruments used for this purpose are as follow:
i) Filters
ii) Isolators
iii) Reflectors
iv) Network Analyzers
v) Spectrum Analyzers

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vi) Amplifiers and Accessories

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RADAR
History of RADAR
Nobody can be credited with "inventing" radar. The idea had been around for a long
time--a spotlight that could cut through fog. But the problem was that it was too advanced for
the technology of the time. It wasn't until the early 20th century that a radar system was first
built. One of the biggest advocators of radar technology was Robert Watson-Watt, a British
scientist.
Great Britain made a big effort to develop radar in the years leading up to World War
Two. Some people credit them with being pioneers in the field. As it was, the early warning
radar system (called "Chain Home") that they built around the British Isles warned them of
all aerial invasions. This gave the outnumbered Royal Air Force the edge they needed to
defeat the German Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain.
While radar development was pushed because of wartime concerns, the idea first
came about as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank in 1912,
people were interested in ways to make such happenings avoidable
Introduction
The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio Detection and
Ranging. This acronym of American origin replaced the previously used British abbreviation
RDF (Radio Direction Finding).
Radar is a system that uses radio waves to detect, determine the distance or speed,
objects such as aircraft, ships, rain and map them. Speed detection is measured by the amount
of Doppler Effect frequency shift of the reflected signal. A transmitter emits radio waves,
which are reflected by the target, and detected by a receiver, typically in the same location as
the transmitter. Although the radio signal returned is usually very small, radio signals can
easily be amplified, so radar can detect objects at ranges where other emission, such as sound
or visible light, would be too weak to detect. Radar is used in many contexts, including
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meteorological detection of precipitation, air traffic control, police detection of speeding

traffic, and by the military.
Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar.

The use of radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects via radio waves"
was first implemented in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer, who demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting the presence of ships in dense fog and received a patent for radar as Reichspatent
Nr. 165546. Another of the first working models was produced by Hungarian Zoltán Bay in
1936 at the Tungsram laboratory
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Echo and Doppler Shift
Echo is something you experience all the time. If you shout into a well or a canyon,
the echo comes back a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in
your shout reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon
wall on the far side) and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moments
you shout and the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo determines the
moment that you hear the echo.
Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without
realizing it). Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving
object. Doppler shift in the extreme creates sonic booms (see below). Here's how to
understand Doppler shift (you may also want to try this experiment in an empty parking lot).
Let's say there is a car coming toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and its horn is blaring.
You will hear the horn playing one "note" as the car approaches, but when the car passes you
the sound of the horn will suddenly shift to a lower note. It's the same horn making the same
sound the whole time. The change you hear is caused by Doppler shift.

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HOW RADAR WORKS

A radar system, as found on many merchants’ ships, has three main parts:
1. The antenna unit or the scanner

2. The transmitter receiver or ‘transceiver’ and
3. the visual display unit
The antenna is two or three meter wide and focuses pulses off very high frequency
radio energy into a narrow vertical beam. The frequency of the radio waves is basically about
10,000 Mhz. The antenna is rotated at the rate of 10 to 25 rpm so that radar beam swaps
through 300degree Celsius all around the shiout to a range of about 90 kms.
In all radar it is vital that the transmitting and the receiving in a transceiver are in
close harmony. Every thing depends on accurate measurement of the time that passes
between the transmission of pulse and the return of the echo. About 1000, pulses per second
are transmitted. Though it is varied to suit the requirements. Short pulses are best for short-
range work, longer pulses are best for longer-range work.
An important part of transceiver circuit is ‘modular circuit’. This ‘keys’ the

transmitter so that it oscillates, or pulses for the right length of time. The pulses so designed
are ‘video pulses. These pulses are short range pulses hence can’t serve out the purpose of
long range work .In order to modify these pulses to long range pulses or the RF pulses, we
need to generate the power. The transmitted power is generated in a device called the
“magnetron” which can handle all these short pulses and very high oscillations.
The display system usually carried out the control necessary for the operation of
whole radar .It has a cathode ray gun, which consists of a electron gun in its neck. The gun
shouts electron to the phosphorescent screen at the far end. Phosphorescent screen glows
when hit by an electron and the resulting spot can be seen through the glass face.
The basic idea behind radar is very simple: a signal is transmitted, it bounces off an
object and some type of receiver later receives it. They use certain kinds of electromagnetic
waves called radio waves and microwaves. This is where the name RADAR comes from
(Radio Detection And Ranging). Sound is used as a signal to detect objects in devices called

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SONAR (Sound Navigation Ranging). Another type of signal used that is relatively new is
laser light that is used in devices called LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging).
Once the radar receives the returned signal, it calculates useful information from it
such as the time taken for it to be received, the strength of the returned signal, or the change
in frequency of the signal.
Basic Radar System:
A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data
recorder, processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter as
it transmits a high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted out
an antenna. Once the signals are received the switch then transfers control back to the
transmitter to transmit another signal. The switch may toggle control between the transmitter
and the receiver as much as 1000 times per second.
Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for
storage on a disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into
something useful, which would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth:
Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic

waves. Instead, they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in
between each pulse. The pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths
with some dead time after it in which there are no transmissions. The time between each
pulse is called the pulse repetition time (PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one
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second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The time taken for each pulse to be
transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse duration. Typically they can be around
0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50 microseconds long for imaging radars
(a display. microsecond is a millionth of a second).
In math language, the above can be said...
PRT = 1 / PRF
or
PRF = 1 / PRT
And for all you visual learners out there, this is what it looks like...
RT means repetition time.
However, the above diagram is not quite realistic for several reasons. One reason
why it is not realistic is that the frequency in waves of the pulses is the same. In real life the
frequency of the waves are not the same and they change as time goes on. This is called
frequency modulation, which means the frequency changes or modulates.
It looks something like this...

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Think of this as one pulse. All the pulses will look something like this.
On the above diagram, the frequency of the wave is low on the left and it slowly
increases, as you look right. The different frequencies of the wave will lie in a range called
bandwidth. Radars use bandwidth for several reasons regarding the resolution of a data
image, memory of the radar and overuse of the transmitter. For instance, a high bandwidth
can yield a finer resolution but take up more memory. When an EM wave hits a surface, it
gets partly reflected away from the surface and refracted into the surface. The amount of
reflection and refraction depends on the properties of the surface and the properties of the
matter, which the wave was originally traveling through. This is what happens to radar
signals when they hit objects. If a radar signal hits a surface that is perfectly flat then the
signal gets reflected in a single direction (the same is true for refraction). If the signal hits a
surface that is not perfectly flat (like all surfaces on Earth) then it gets reflected in all
directions. Only a very small fraction of the original signal is transmitted back in the
direction of the receiver. This small fraction is what is known as backscatter. The typical
power of a transmitted signal is around 1 kilowatt and the typical power of the backscatter
can be around 10 watts.
TYPES OF RADAR
Based on function radar can be divided into two types:

1. PRIMARY RADAR
2. SECONDRY RADAR
Primary radar or the simple radar locates a target by procedure described in section.
But in cases as controlling of air traffic, the controller must be able to identify the aircraft and
find whether it is a friend or foe. It is also desired to know the height of aircraft.
To give controller this information second radar called the secondary surveillance
radar (SSR) is used. This works differently and need the help of the target aircraft it séance
out a sequence of pulses to an electronic BLACK BOX called the TRANSPONDER, fitted
on the aircraft. The transponder is connected to the aircrafts altimeter (the device which
measures the planes altitude) to transmit back the coded message to the radar about its status
and altitude. Military aircrafts uses a similar kind of radar system with secrete code to make

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sure that it is friend or foe, a hostile aircraft does not know what code to transmit back to the
ground station for the corresponding receiver code.
IFF UNIT
IFF is basically a radar bacon system employed for the purpose of general
identification of military targets .The bacon system when used for the control of civil air
traffic is called as SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR).
Primary radar locates an object by transmitting signal and detecting the

reflected echo. A secondary radar system is basically very similar to primary radar
system except that the returned signal is radiated from the transmitter on board the
target rather then by reflection, i.e. it operates with a cooperative ‘active’ target while
the primary radar operates with “passive target’.
Secondary radar system consists of an interrogative and a transponder. The

interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft,
providing two way data communication on different transmitter and receiver frequency .The
transponder on board the aircraft on receipt of a chain of pulses from ground interrogator,
automatically transmit the reply, coded for the purpose of identification, is received back to
the ground interrogator where it is decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation.
RADAR EQUATION
The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:
where
• Pt = transmitter power
• Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
• Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna
• σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
• F = pattern propagation factor
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• Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target

• Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt
= Rr and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:
This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which
means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small.
The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference.

The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on
the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be
considered.
RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING
Distance measurement
Transit time
Principle of radar distance measurement using pulse round trip time.
One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio
signal, and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is one-half the
product of round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the

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cτ
receiver) and the speed of the signal. Range = where c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
2
and τ is the round trip time. For radar, the speed of signal is the speed of light, making the
round trip times very short for terrestrial ranging. Accurate distance measurement requires
high-performance electronics.
The receiver cannot detect the return while the signal is being sent out – there is no
way to tell if the signal it hears is the original or the return. This means that a radar has a
distinct minimum range, which is the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light,
divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse length.
A similar effect imposes a specific maximum range as well. If the return from the
target comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot tell the
difference. In order to maximize range, one wants to use longer times between pulses, the
inter-pulse time.
These two effects tend to be at odds with each other, and it is not easy to combine
both good short range and good long range in a single radar. This is because the short pulses
needed for a good minimum range broadcast have less total energy, making the returns much
smaller and the target harder to detect. This could be offset by using more pulses, but this
would shorten the maximum range again. So each radar uses a particular type of signal. Long
range radars tend to use long pulses with long delays between them, and short range radars
use smaller pulses with less time between them. This pattern of pulses and pauses is known
as the Pulse Repetition Frequency (or PRF), and is one of the main ways to characterize a
radar. As electronics have improved many radars now can change their PRF.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF RADARS

1. 3D Mobile Radar (PSM 33 Mk II)
3-D mobile radar employs monopulse technique for height estimation and using
electronic scanning for getting the desired radar coverage by managing the RF transmission
energy in elevation plane as per the operational requirements. It can be connected in air
defence radar network. The Radar is configured in three transport vehicles, viz., Antenna,
Transmitter cabin, Receiver and Processor Cabin. The radar has an autonomous display for
stand-alone operation.
FEATURES
 Frequency agility
 Monopulse processing for height estimation
 Adaptive sensitivity time control
 Jamming analysis indication, pulse compression, plot filtering / tracking data
remoting
 Comprehensive BITE facility
2. Low Flying Detection Radar (INDRA II)
The low-level radar caters to the vital gap filling role in an air defence environment. It is a
transportable and self-contained system with easy mobility and deployment features. The
system consists mainly of an Antenna, Transmitter cabin and Display cabin mounted on three
separate vehicles.
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SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
 Range up to 90 km (for fighter aircraft)

 Height coverage 35m to 3000m subject to Radar horizon
 Probability of detection: 90% (Single scan)
 Probability of false alarm: 10E-6
 Track While Scan (TWS) for 2D tracking
 Capability to handle 200 tracks
 Association of primary and secondary targets
 Automatic target data transmission to a digital modem/networking of radars
 Deployment time of about 60 minutes
FEATURES
 Fully coherent system
 Frequency agility
 Pulse compression
 Advanced signal processing using MTD and CFAR Techniques
 Track while scan for 2-D tracking
 Full tracking capabilities for maneuverings targets
 Multicolor PPI Raster Scan Display, presenting both MTI and Synthetic Video
 Integral IFF
3. Tactical Control Radar
This is an early warning, alerting and cueing system, including weapon control
functions. It is specially designed to be highly mobile and easily transportable, by air as well

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as on the ground. This radar minimizes mutual interference of tasks of both air defenders and
friendly air space users. This will result in an increased effectiveness of the combined combat
operations. The command and control capabilities of the RADAR in combination with an
effective ground based air Defence provide maximum operational effectiveness with a safe,
efficient and flexible use of the airspace.
FEATURES
 All weather day and night capability
 40 km ranges, giving a large coverage
 Multiple target handling and engagement capability
 Local threat evaluation and engagement calculations assist the commander's
decision making process, and give effective local fire distribution
 Highly mobile system, to be used in all kinds of terrain, with short into and out of action
times (deployment/redeployment)
 Clutter suppression

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RADAR APPLICATION
 Air traffic control uses radar to track planes both on the ground and in the air, and
also to guide planes in for smooth landings.
 Police use radar to detect the speed of passing motorists.
 NASA uses radar to map the Earth and other planets, to track satellites and space
debris and to help with things like docking and maneuvering.
 The military uses it to detect the enemy and to guide weapons.

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RADAR TRANSMITTER
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power of pulses of energy that
are radiated into space by the antenna. The radar transmitter is required to have the following
technical and operating characteristics:
• The transmitter must have the ability to generate the required mean RF power and the
required peak power
• The transmitter must have a suitable RF bandwidth.
• The transmitter must have a high RF stability to meet signal processing requirements
• The transmitter must be easily modulated to meet waveform design requirements.
• The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life expectancy
and cost of the output device must be acceptable.
The radar transmitter is designed around the selected output device and most of the
transmitter chapter is devoted to describing output devices therefore:
Picture: transmitter of P-37

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• One main type of transmitters is the keyed-oscillator type. In this transmitter one
stage or tube, usually a magnetron, produces the rf pulse. The oscillator tube is keyed
by a high-power dc pulse of energy generated by a separate unit called the modulator.
This transmitting system is called POT (Power Oscillator Transmitter). Radar units
fitted with an POT are either non-coherent or pseudo-coherent.
• Power-Amplifier-Transmitters (PAT) are used in many recently developed radar sets.
In this system the transmitting pulse is caused with a small performance in a
waveform generator. It is taken to the necessary power with an amplifier flowingly
(Amplitron, klystron or Solid-State-Amplifier). Radar units fitted with an PAT are
fully coherent in the majority of cases.
o A special case of the PAT is the active antenna.
 Even every antenna element
 or every antenna-group is equipped with an own amplifier here.
Pictured is a keyed oscillator transmitter of the historically russian radar set P-37
(NATO-Designator: „Bar Lock”). The picture shows the typical transmitter system that uses
a magnetron oscillator and a waveguide transmission line. The magnetron at the middle of the
figure is connected to the waveguide by a coaxial connector. High-power magnetrons,
however, are usually coupled directly to the waveguide. Beside the magnetron with its
magnetes you can see the modulator with its thyratron. The impulse-transformer and the
pulse-forming network with the charging diode and the high-voltage transformer are in the
lower bay of this rack.

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BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE RADAR SUBSYSTEM

Main Circuit of Radar Subsystem
 High Tension Unit
 Transmitter Unit
 Lo+Afc Unit
 Receiver Unit
 Antenna
 Video Processor
High Tension Unit-

The high tension unit converts the 115v 400Hz 3 Phase mains voltage into a d.c
supply voltage of about 4.2kv for the transmitter unit.
The exact value of the high voltage depends on the selected PRF(low,high or extra)to
Prevent the dissipation of the magnetron from becoming too high PRF the lower the supplied
high voltage
Transmitter Unit –
The transmitter unit Comprises
• Submodulator
• Modulator
• Magnetron
• Afc control Unit
The magnetron is a self – oscillating RF Power generator. It supplied by the

modulator with high voltage Pulses of about 20kvdc, whereupon it Produces X-band Pulses
with a duration of about 0.35us. The generated RF Pulses are applied to the receiver unit.
The Pulse repetition frequency of the magnetron pulses is determined by the

synchronizations circuit in the video Processor, Which applies start pulses to the sub
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modulator of the transmitter unit. This sub modulator issues start Pulses of suitable amplitude
to trigger the thyraton in the modulator. Which is supplied by the high tension unit, Produces
high voltage Pulses of about 20kvDC.As a magnetron is self- oscillating some kind of
frequency control is required. The magnetron is provided with a tunning mechanism to adjust
the oscillating frequency b/w certain limits. This tunning mechanism is operated by an
electric motor being part of the Afc control circuit. Together with circuits in the Lo+Afc
units, a frequency control loop is created thus maintaining a frequency of the SSLO and the
magnetron output frequency.
LO+AFC Unit
The Lo+Afc unit determines the frequency of the transmitted radar pulses. It comprises-
• Lock Pulses mixer
• Afc discriminator
• Solid state local oscillator(SSLO)
• Coherent oscillator(COHO)
The Afc lock Pulses are Pulses are also applied to the COHO. The COHO outputs
signals with a freq. of 30Hz, and it is synchronized with the pulse of each transmitter Pulse.
In this way a phase reference signal is obtained, required by the Phase sensitive detector in
the receiver unit.
Receiver unit
The Rx unit converts the received RF echo signal to IF level and detects the IF signals
in two different ways, two receiver channel are obtained, called MTI channel and linear
channel.
The RF signal received by the radar antenna pass the circulator and are applied to a low
noise amplifier. The image rejection mixer mixes the amplified signals with the SSLO
signals, to obtain a 30MHz IF signal is split into two branches.viz, an MTI channel and a
linear channel.via directional coupler, a fraction of the low noise amplifier output is branch
offer and applied to the broadband jamming detector. The BJD is a wideband device, which
amplifies and detects the signal applied. The resulting signal is passed on the SJI-STC circuit
(Search jamming indication sensitivity time control) in the video Processor , if jamming

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occurs, it is used to prevent a polar diagram of a jamming on the PPI Screen, Which shows
the direction of the jamming source.
In the MTI channel, the IP signal is amplified again by the MTI main amplifier and
applied to the phase sensitive detector. The second signal applied to the phase sensitive
detector PSD is the phase reference signal from the COHO. The output signal of the PSD
consists of video pulse, the amplitudes of which are a function of the phase difference
between the two input signal of the PSD. The polarity of the video pulse indicate whether the
phase difference is positive or negative.
The phase differences between the corlo signal and if echo signals from a fixed target
are constant whereas those between the COHO signal and if echo signals from a moving
target are subject to change.
The PSD output signal is applied to the canceller in the video processor.
The linear detector outputs positive video signals which are passed on to the colour
PPI drive unit.
Antenna
The antenna is a cosecant square parabolic reflector, rotating with a speed of about 48
r.p.m. in the focus of the reflector is a radiator, which emits the RF pulses from the circulartor
and which receives RF echo Pulses.
In the waveguide is Polarisation shifter, which causes the polarization of the RF
energy to the either horizontally or circularly. The polarization shifter is controlled by the
system operator.
Video Processor
The video processor processes the MTI receiver channel, to make the video suitable
for presentation on the colour PPI screen and for use by the video extractor.
The main circuit comprised by the video processor are :
 Synchronization circuit.
 Canceller
 Floating level circuit
 Correlator
Synchronization circuit
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The synchronization circuit develops the start pulse for the sub modulator in the
transmitter unit, and accordingly it generates the timing pulses required by the canceller.
The repetition time of the start pulses depends on the PRF is staggered Pseudo-
randomly : 32 point stagger is used for low and high PRF and 64 point stagger is used for
extra PRF. The 64 point stagger for extra PRF is actually is compound of a 32 point staggered
short PRT and 32 point staggered long PRT and a 32 point staggered long PRT.
Canceller
The canceller is a circuit used to suppress the echo’s of fixed targets or very slow
moving targets. The canceller makes use of the difference in phase behavior moving and
fixed targets with moving target and phase differs from pulse to pulse, but with fixed targets
the phase is constant (i.e. the PSD output is constant). The suppression by the canceller is
limited. The higher the PRF of the radar pulses, the better the suppression factor; a further
cancellation improvement can be obtained by using a triple canceller instead of a double
canceller; here a compromise is to found.
The operation of the canceller depends on the selected PRF :

Low and high PRF ;
The canceller is swithched as double canceller.
Extra PRF :
The PRF jumps from pulse to pulse between low PRF and high PRF.
The canceller switched to double is a digital three pulse comparison canceller.
Video’s are :
 Undelayed video (V0)
 Video delayed by one PRT (V1)
 Video delayed by two PRT’s (V2)
By addition, multiplication and subtraction these video are combined to obtained a
canceller output according to the following formula.
V out (double) = 2 V1 – (V 0 + V 2)
The canceller switched to triple is digital four pulse comparison canceller.
This circuit the following video’s are obtained :
 Undelayed Video (V0)

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 Video delayed by one PRT (V1)

 Video delayed by two PRT (V2)
 Video delayed by three PRT’s (V3)
Canceller output according to the following formula :
V out (triple) = V0 – 3 V1 + 3 V2 – V3
SIGNAL PROCESSING UNIT

INTRODUCTION
The signal processing unit constitutes a very important functional block with vital
roles to perform in overall system configuration of receiver radar returns under normal
operating conditions are initially processed by the analogue processing stages (such as LNA,
IF, VIDEO DETECTOR etc.) and then processed by signal processor.
This type of signal processor is known as MOVING TARGET DETECTOR.
To improve the radar resolution in range, without the need for transmitting narrow
pulse, a technique called PULSE COMPRESSION is employed. This will avoid the need
for the transmission of a narrow pulse with high peak power, thus simplifying the transmitter
chain.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The signal processor consists of Digital Pulse Compression system followed by the
prewhitening clutter cancellation filter in the form of three pulses in MTI. The MTI output is
then processed by a sixteen point FFT processor with frequency domain windowing feature.
Final stage of data processing is detection. In detection block Cell Averaging (CACFAR)
with programmable threshold setting features in range/Doppler domain is used.
The MTI, FFT and CFAR are collectively known as MTD.
Similarly, in order to enable detection of tangentially moving (or low Doppler )

targets under noise limited, and weak to moderate ground clutter conditions, the Zero

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Velocity Filter (ZVF) and its associated clutter map are used. PRF staggering scheme on
scan-to-scan and CPI-to-CPI basis is employed to ensure better performance against blind
speed conditions.
Signal Processor receives digital data from if processor. The data is received and
offset corrected (if AUTO OFFSET is ON SP control panel) and passed on to Digital Pulse
Compression (DPC) block.
The Digital Pulse Compression block carries out the matched filtering and correlation
of the returns with the transmitted phase codes. However, to enable the detection of weak
signals under noise and clutter backgrounds, and extraction of signal parameters such as
Doppler content, strength, range and azimuthal positions etc. further processing needs to be
carried out using clutter cancellation, filtering and integrations, and detection techniques.
Moving Target Detector (MTD) technique, facilitate optimal detection under

conditions of heavy clutter especially in Radars used for low looking surveillance role.
Keeping in view, the environment under which the INDRA-II is expected to perform its role
for the given specifications, the MTD technique naturally turns out to be the ideal choice of
its implementation.
Timing and control signals required by various functional blocks of the Signal
Processor and also the transmitter system are catered for as part of the Signal Processor
design feature. To facilitate the validation and testing of the signal processor, a swept
Doppler BITE is also provided. Similarly, to monitor on Oscilloscope outputs of MTI, FFT
and ZVF blocks, the necessary circuits in the form of D/A converters are also provided.
Interface circuits for MTD processed video on PPI as well for MTD data transfer to
centroid/RDP processor also form part of the design features.
HARDWARE ORGANISATION
The Signal Processor is realized on multiple, multilayer PCBs. The PCBs are grouped
into functions are packed into a single card cage. Each card cage is capable of housing up to
15 PCBs, along with a power supply module. The power supply takes ac input and caters for
the +5V, +15V and -15V supply needs of that card cage.

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Two such card cages are put together in a card enclosure called Card Panel. Two
such card panels are being used to realize total signal processing hardware.
Each of the card panel is mounted on rails, to be able to pull out for maintenance
purpose.
FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION
All the functions performed by Signal Processor can be organized under following
groups:
SIGNAL PROCESSING FUNCTIONS:
These are the main functions that process the radar echo, and hence form the main
functional chain.
• DIGITAL PULSE COMPRESSION
• AUTO OFFSET CORRECTION
• MATCHED FILTER
• MOVING TARGET INDICATOR
• FFT PROCESSING
• ZERO VELCITY FILTER (ZVF)
• ADAPTIVE THRESHOLDING (CFAR)
INTERFACE FUNCTIONS:
These are the functions enabling the signal processor to communicate with other
units in the radar. Following are realized as dedicated interface on separate PCBs. Other
interfaces are part of their respective hardware.
• DISPLAY INTERFACE
• CENTROIDER INTERFACE
SYSTEM FUNCTIONS:

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These functions receive controls (if any), and generate control for some functions
performed by other units of radar.
• SYSTEM TIMING (also contain circuits for internal timing requirements of SP).
• SYSTEM BITE – Generates control for simulated target generation by Receiver.
• ADAPTIVE MSC (AMSC) – Adaptive map generation and transfer to receiver for
Adaptive Microwave Sensitive Control.
• ECCM – Analyze and generate control for optimum frequency selection and jammer
indication on PPI.
MONITORING FUNCTIONS:
For parameter control and quick check on health of Signal Processor following
functions are performed:
 RPM monitoring.
 SP output monitoring.
 Control Panel Function.
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
The following are detailed description of each functional block.
DIGITAL PULSE COMPRESSION (DPC) BLOCK
DPC card module performs the following functions:
 I/Q channel Digital Matched Filtering.

 Automatic DC offset correction for I/Q ADC data.
 Adaptive Microwave Sensitivity Control.
 Online JAM sensing with real – time ECCM controls.
 Systems BITE control for generation of simulated targets for on-line injection at RF & IF
levels.
 PD /Pfa / Antenna RPM monitoring & Indication.
The Digital Card Module houses 13 nos. of extended double Euro Multi-layer PCBs
as part of the Signal Processing Rack of INDRA-PC RADAR.

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This card module receives the INPHASE and QUADRATURE channel ADC data
(12+12 bits) from the 30 MHz IF processor. Automatic DC offset correction is applied to this
data and inputted to the digital matched filter. The I & Q channel pulse compressed signal is
then fed to the corner turning memory of the MTD processor in the next card module. The
received ADC data also goes after buffering to the Adaptive Microwave Sensitivity Control
(AMSC) card and ECCM control card.

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MATCHED FILTER FUNCTION BLOCK
DPC CONTROL CARD # 1, DPC CONTROL CARD # 2, I-CH matched filter and
Q-CH matched filter together constitutes the matched filter block.
I/Q ADC data from IF unit, offset corrected in Auto Offset Correction Card enters
DPC CNTL CARD # 1.Here I/Q ADC data is added to I/Q clutter BITE (CLUT). The clutter
BITE is initiated with the help of CLUT PULSE trigger when needed only.
I/Q ADC + CLUT data is multiplexed with I/Q SIM data and the selected data goes to
I/Q matched filters. SIM data is used for on-line diagnostics and fault indication.
Under normal operating conditions, ADC data is present during radar operational
range and DPC SIM data is injected during the dead range of the radar. There is an over-
riding switch control DPC BITE ON/OFF by which only DPC SIM data can be selected as
input to I/Q matched filters for diagnostics purposes.
I and Q matched filters look for the correlation in the code between the transmitted
pulse and that of received echo pulse. The peaking of the signal occurs whenever the
correlation exists. There are two banks in the matched filter performing the similar filtering
operation and the selection of a particular bank for operation is decided by the signature
analysis circuit in DPC CNTL CARD # 2.
Signature analysis is carried out on-line during the dead range. The matched filter
output patterns for I & Q DPC SIM data are stored in EPROMs. A signature analysis gate is
opened during which the on-line matched filter outputs are compared with the signatures
stored and the error condition if any is detected
With BANK # 1 selected, I-DPC data is selected for signature analysis for 8 sweeps
and then Q-DPC data for the next 8 sweeps. The same sequence is followed when BANK # 2
is selected. If there is any error in BANK # 1 or BANK # 2 of I-MF or BANK # 1 or BANK
# 2 of Q-MF, an appropriate LED is switched on. The signature analysis logic automatically
switches to alternate bank when one bank is found faulty.

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The codes used in operation are stored in a PROM band can be selected manually
using DIP-switch on the card or automatically when code agility mode is selected.
DPC CONTROL CARD # 1 generates the various control signals for signature
analysis.
Code generation and distribution to the other subunits/subsystems, is done, in DPC

CONTROL CARD # 2. This card also receives various signals and distributes them.
DPC output analog video is generated for monitoring purposes in DPC CONTROL
CARD # 1 & # 2.
AUTO OFFSET CORRECTION FUNCTION
Auto offset correction block comprises –

• Auto offset correction hardware card, and
• AMSC- Master Card.
The estimation of offset value in I/Q ADC data is done on-line every scan using
ADSP processor in AMSC-Master Card. This offset data is subtracted (with proper sign)
from the real time I/Q data for every range cell in following scan.
During the dead CPI period, when there is no transmission, I/Q samples are taken at
3microsec. interval over several range cells. This way samples are collected over several dead
CPIs in a scan. The mean of these samples is computed to get the offset value in each of the
channels. These I/Q offset values are passed on to the Auto Offset Correction Card, where the
hardware corrects the offset in the two channels on-line in the following scan.
Auto Offset Correction Card receives I-ADC and Q-ADC data from IF processor unit
corrects the offset in the two channels and passes on to DPC CONTROL CARD # 1. It also
buffers and distributes the I-ADC and Q-ADC data to AMSC and ECCM CARD #1.
BULK MEMORY FUNCTION BLOCK
As the processing requirement is in the batch mode for MTD, the radar real time data
has to be reordered and to processing block. This reordering is done in the bulk memory. This

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circuit consists of two PCBs. The first PCB is the Bulk Memory Control Card. In this PCB,
the address generations for both read and write operations; control generation and BITE
generation are implemented. In the second card mainly the memory and the corresponding
switching buffer is available. The memory in the second board is organized in such a way
that while DPC output data is written in one of the memories called bank ‘A’, the other
memory called bank ‘B’, outputs the previous CPI data for processing block. The clock used
for the read operation is gated Rck, generated in system timing card. The bank switching is
done after every CPI.
MOVING TARGET DETECTOR PROCESSOR BLOCK

MTD is an example of an MTI processing system that takes the advantage of the
various capabilities offered by digital techniques to produce improved detection of moving
targets.
Infact,
The MTI, FFT and CFAR are collectively known as MTD.
MOVING TARGET INDICATOR FUNCTION BLOCK
It is possible to remove from the radar display the majority of clutter, that is, echoes
corresponding to stationary targets, showing only the moving targets. This is often required,
although of course not in such applications as radar used in mapping or navigational
applications. One of the methods of eliminating clutter is the use of MTI, which employs the
DOPPLER EFFECT in its operation.
DOPPLER EFFECT
The apparent frequency of electromagnetic sound waves depends on the relative

radial motion of the source and the observer. “If source and observer are moving away from
each other, the apparent frequency will decrease, while if they are moving towards each
other, the apparent frequency will increase.
The Doppler effect is observed only for radial motion, not for tangential motion. Thus
no Doppler effect will be noticed if a target moves across the field of view of radar.

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A Doppler shift will be apparent if the target is rotating, and the resolution of the
radar is sufficient to distinguish leading edge from its trailing edge.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MTI
Basically, the moving-target indicator system compares a set of received echoes with
those received during the previous sweep. Those echoes whose phase has remained constant
are then cancelled out. This applies to echoes due to stationary objects, but those due to
moving targets do show a phase change; they are thus not cancelled-nor is noise, for obvious
reasons.
The fact that the clutter due to stationary targets is removed makes it easier to
determine which targets are moving and reduces the time taken by an operator to ‘take in’ the
display.
It also allows the detection of moving targets whose echoes are hundreds of times
smaller than those of nearby stationary targets and which would otherwise have been
completely masked.
The phase difference between the transmitted and received signals will be constant for
fixed targets, whereas it will vary for moving target.
The advantage offered by digital MTI processing:
 Compensation for “blind phases”, which cause a loss due to the difference in phase
between the echo signal and the MTI reference signal. This is achieved by use of I & Q
processing, something that was always known to be of value for MTI processing, but
which was not convenient to implement with analog methods.
 Greater dynamic range can be obtained than was possible with acoustic delay lines.
 Digital processor can be made reprogrammable.
 Digital MTI is more stable and reliable than analog MTI, and requires less adjustments
during operation in the field.

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FFT PROCESSOR FUNCTION BLOCK
FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT)
Digital filtering involves the use of Fourier transform. The FFT requires less
computational effort, and it has been popular for many applications. It has some limitations,
however compared to. The number of samples has to be expressed as 2 n if a filter bank is
being generated, all filters have identical responses, they will be uniformly spaced
frequencies, and the weighting coefficients are not optimum since they cannot be chosen
independently for each filter. The filters possible with a non-FFT filter bank also can achieve
greater attenuation of moving clutter (such as rain or chaff) because of the greater flexibility
available in their design. There are times, therefore, when the classical Fourier transform may
be more advantageous than the FFT even though the FFT might be quicker and require less
complexity.
HARDWARE
FFT processor has been realized on 12 multilayer PCBs. The PCBs are as follows:
 FFT Timing and Control
 Cascade Buffer for FFT
 Processor 1 ALE
 Processor 1 Feedback
 Processor 1 Feed forward
 Complex multiplier
 Processor 2 ALE (Architecture same as Processor 1 ALE)
 Processor 2 Feedback (Architecture same as Processor 1 Feedback)
 Processor 2 Feed forward (Architecture same as Processor 1 Feed forward)
 Frequency Domain Window (Real)
 Frequency Domain Window (Imag.)
 Magnituder

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ZERO VELOCITY FILTER FUNCTION
The MTD also uses a new concept of Zero Velocity filter (ZVF) to overcome the
probability of missing the targets which have a velocity falling in the zero Doppler zone. This
will be the case of targets which are flying tangential radar and low velocity radial targets,
who’s Doppler is such hat they fall in zeroeth filter. Also since the response of the DMTI is
rather poor for low Doppler targets, there is every chance that these targets may go under.
ZVF performs its function by forming a clutter map.
Clutter map: A conventional MTI processor eliminates stationary clutter, but it also
eliminates aircraft moving on a crossing trajectory (one perpendicular to the radar line of
sight) which causes the aircraft’s radial velocity to be zero. This is unfortunate since the radar
cross-section of an aircraft is relatively large when viewed at the broadside aspect presented
by a crossing trajectory. The MTD took advantage of this large cross-section to detect the
targets that normally would be lost to a simple MTI radar. It did this with the aid of a clutter
map that stored the magnitude of the clutter echoes in a digital memory. The clutter map
established the thresholds used for detecting those aircraft targets which produce zero radial
velocity.
There may be many range cells which may not contain clutter, or contain low clutter,
but due to the poor response of MTI. These may be the implementation of the ZVF will allow
the detection of targets whose return exceeds that of the clutter in that particular range –
azimuth cell. The ZVF is implemented by integrating all the 18 returns of a CPI, and whose
response extends to the frequency band covered by the zeroeth filter.
In the zeroeth Doppler cell, the clutter is generally due to the ground echoes. To
estimate the average backscatter signal level, the entire range – azimuth space is divided into
fine grain resolution cells and the returns are stored in the form of a map. To build up the map
accurately, each antenna resolution is broken into 256 CPIs and there are 2560 range cells.
The ZVF is made up of magnitude of 18 samples, which are formed by first adding 9 samples
and then adding the next 9 samples coherently and non-coherently adding up the sums.

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CFAR PROCESSOR BLOCK
CFAR is used in radars to maintain effectiveness when there are too many extraneous
crossings of a fixed threshold caused by clutter or noise. Automatic tracking of targets can be
seriously degraded if excessive false alarms occur.
CONSTANT FALSE ALARM RATE (CFAR) processor block is one of the major
functional blocks of digital signal processor. The output of the FFT filtering block is further
processed to facilitate the following
 Generation of adaptive threshold levels using Moving Window concept.
 Detection of signals and extraction of primitive (primary) data information pertaining to
the detected signals.
The output of the FFT magnituder forms the main data input to the CFAR Processor
block. Functional sub-blocks such as the running sum computation, Pipeline memory storage,
Mode Selection Multiplier and threshold detection constitute the hardware blocks of the
CFAR processor. In the CFAR processor block, the threshold levels are so found, so as to
enable the detection of the signals with the constant false alarm rate under conditions of
mainly thermal noise and also under jamming and interference backgrounds. In order to
achieve this Newman Person detection criterion, with adaptive thresholding in all the Doppler
channels using moving window concepts is implemented.
In case of Non-Gaussian clutter dominated Doppler channels designed features have

been provided to selectively apply higher threshold levels, so as to restrict the false alarm to
the acceptable level.
The CFAR Processor block functions with its own timing and control signals. The
master source for these timings however is from the system timing circuit. CFAR BITE
facility has also been provided to test and validate the CFAR processor block in stand-alone
mode.

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DISPLAY VIDEO INTERFACE FUNCTION
This function is to generate trigger and videos for two Display consoles.
The raw video from IF processor is mixed with Jammer video and is then buffered to
generate RAW video for Display Consoles.
Mixing CFAR output with Jammer video and AMSC video generates the MTD video
for Display Consoles.
The triggers are suitably delayed Radar Trigger (RT), they are also buffered before
sending to Display Consoles.
CENTROID INTERFACE FUNCTION

The data packet to be sent to the centroider from CFAR Processor, basically, contains
the information such as signal strength, Doppler bin number (velocity bin), Range cell
number, CPI number, PRF code and data pertaining Jam to strobe, Tx blanking flag, carrier
frequency code, etc.
This data packet needs to be tagged to the threshold crossing pulse to facilitate
centroiding and subsequent data processing. The Threshold Crossing decision on sample-to-
sample basis is carried out at real time processing rate of 250ns per report. However the
centroider accepts the information asynchronously. This necessitates the use of hardware
buffering devices such as FIFOs. The information needs to be passed to a 16-bit data bus.
Hence various sets of information indicated above need to be generated, edited, formatted
and sequenced before data-transfer.
The required hardware design was carried out in two PCBs. The first PCB consists of
timing and control circuits and a part of data editing. The next PCB consists of sequencing,
FIFO store and data interface.
SYSTEM TIMING FUNCTION

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This is the function that generates all the basic timing signals required for use within the
Signal Processor as well as other units of the radar. It generates necessary synchronization
signals for Transmitter and Sampling clock for IF Processor. The signals thus generated are
described below.
• 20 MHz GENERATOR
• 20 KHz GENERATOR
• PRF GENERATOR
• CPI PAIR GATE
• NM AND ACP GENERATION
BITE FUNCTION BLOCK

The interactive BITE sub-system provides comprehensive test facilities. Two target
pulses can be generated using commands from a keyboard. The commands have been chosen
in a way that it is easy to remember and consists of two alphabets followed by suitable
functional parameters.
The following are the BITE controls that can be used for signal processing and RDP
checks.
 BITE pulses can be positioned in any range (distance – wise or range cell – wise) and in
any azimuth.
 BITE pulses can be moved along range and / or along azimuth at any speed (0 to 9999
Kms per Hr).
 Any Doppler shift (0 to 100 %) in terms of percentage of PRF can be given.
 Target straddling can be introduced.
 Asynchronous interference can be introduced along with BITE pulse.
 BITE pulse can be fed at RF of IF stages.
 Primary and secondary BITE pulses can be switched on/off individually.

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 BITE pulses can be introduced continuously (in a ring mode) or once a scan.
 Multiple BITE pulses can be generated for each of the primary target pulses along range
as well as along azimuth. A maximum of 16 pulses can be generated along range and 32
along azimuth. Also, the separation between these multiple pulses can be varied in
multiples of 1.8 Km along range and in multiples of 7.5 degree along azimuth.
Apart from these, BITE subsystems can be used to generate programmable ECCM sector
controls. They are
• To selectively blank radar transmission in a sector (up to 8 such sectors).
• To selectively effect data blanking for centroids in any sector (up to 8 such sectors).
• To selectively choose random frequency or Least Jammed Frequency operating in

any sector (up to 8 such sectors).
The BITE subsystem is distributed in three PCBs. BITE control card #1 contains
 BITE Processor.
 Keyboard interface.
 Boot memory and data memory PROMs.
 Clock generation circuitry.
 Decoders for various registers.
 Sector control registers.
 Circuit for generating scan interrupts.
Apart from these serial interface circuits and spare input registers and output registers
have been provided.
BITE Control Card # 2 is identical for target _ 1 and target – 2. This card consists of:
• Range registers.
• Azimuth registers.

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• Circuit for Doppler control.

• Circuit for antenna modulation.
• Circuit for multiple target pulse generation along range and azimuth.
• Circuit for pulse width control along range and azimuth.
• Decoders for various registers.
AMSC FUNCTION BLOCK
Transportable and mobile tactical radar systems which need to operate with coverage
extending over hilly and mountainous terrain have to cope with heavy volumetric clutter even
at distant ranges. Under such conditions STC circuit which is widely used to reduce large
echoes from close-in clutter will not be effective.
**Hence an adaptive microwave sensitivity control is employed which has the

capability to intelligently self-program the receiver sensitivity in each range–azimuth cell in
an accurately and optimum fashion.
This is done by deriving a coarse clutter map from a zero-velocity (low-pass) filter,
built up over a few scans for each range-azimuth cell, operating on the I & Q channel ADC
data. The clutter map is built after applying a constant attenuation of 30dB uniformly in the
total range-azimuth plane. Then the relative clutter level w.r.t. the saturation point is
computed for each range-azimuth bin and the corresponding attenuation accurately worked
out to bring the clutter everywhere into the linear dynamic range. The adaptive attenuation
programming is a one time operation initiated under full power transmission by the radar
operator with the push of a button. This may be done whenever the radar site is changed or
whenever required.
AMSC block is configured as AMSC-MASTER & AMSC-SLAVE. AMSC-

MASTER is housed in SPU-Rack & AMSC-SLAVE housed in Receiver-Rack. The two are
connected through the serial line.
The function of AMSC-MASTER is to derive the clutter map built up over 8 scans
from I & Q ADC data and to transfer this map data to AMSC-SLAVE processor through a

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serial channel.
AMSC-SLAVE receives the map data, stores in its memory as a replica of map
memory of MASTER, transfers the map data from RAM to the EEPROM and starts
outputting map values every PRT to RF CONTROL card for generating attenuation values.
The derivation of coarse clutter map from zero-velocity filter is done as follows. In
every CPI 210 range samples of I & Q data are taken starting with every PRT.
The range samples are taken at 3 µ sec interval. The I & Q samples for each range
cell are integrated over 16 PRTs in a CPI. The magnitude of I & Q data is computed for each
range cell using 7/8 L + 1/2 S algorithm and stored in external memory. This way magnitude
for all the range azimuth cells in a scan is computed and stored in a memory. The
computation and accumulation of magnitude is done for over 8 scans and the action is
stopped. Since we have256 CPIs in a scan and 200 range cells per CPI, the number of range
azimuth cells per scan will be 256 * 200 =51,200 i.e., 51K of external memory is required
for storing the map information.
External RAM used in the circuit is of 128K words capacity and 8 pages are used to
store the map information. The processor selects the memory page using the MSB 3 bits of
CPI number. The locations in each page are addressed by the processor using LSB 5 bits of
CPI number and 8 bits of range cell address.
The data is send to AMSC-SLAVE on a serial port of the processor. The MASTER-
to-SLAVE communication is synchronous (same serial clock is used for both the processors).
Mode of communication is duplex mode, where in the word sent by MASTER is echoed back
by SLAVE. The MASTER processor checks for the correctness of the received word before
sending the next word. If there is any error, the word is repeated. The AMSC block operates
in three modes.
 MODE # 1: No clutter map generation and no transfer of data in this mode the slave
has to only output the map values stored in RAM every PRT. This is normal mode of

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operation.
 MODE # 2: No clutter map generation, only data stored in AMSC-MASTER
EEPROM is transferred to AMSC-SLAVE.
 MODE # 3: Clutter map generation and transfer of data to SLAVE by MASTER.
Slave processor has to receive the data and store in its external memory. Once the data
transfer is completed, the data is outputted with every PRT.
For each word of data to be transferred, three 16-bit words are sent to slave. First
word gives the page number of the memory, second word gives the address of the memory
where data has to be stored and the third word is the data which has to be stored in the
address location given by the second word. The MSB three bits of each word are used to code
the word as page number, address and data. The slave has to decode the three bits and take
appropriate action like selecting memory page number or forming address pointer to load the
data or load the data into specific location of the memory.
The process of derivation of clutter map has to be done with full transmitter power
ON and a 30dB uniform attenuation applied to the front end, which is done by the slave
processor.
AMSC action is initiated by AMSC-INIT switch on the display front panel. AMSC-
INIT switch resets both MASTER and SLAVE processors. If AMSC-INIT switch is held
pressed for one scan, MASTER processor should go in for derivation of clutter map.
If this facility is not given, any accidental pressing of the switch during Radar
operation causes 30dB front end attenuation being applied by the SLAVE processor and the
detection will suffer for 8 scans.
The hardware in AMSC card senses whether the AMSC-INIT switch is pressed for
one scan and set a flag.
After initialization with reset, the MASTER processor waits for one scan time and
polls the flag. If the flag is active, it starts with MODE # 3. If not it will go to MODE # 2.

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Sampling of data for map generation starts with the first CPI encountered after
initialization with reset. This first CPI number read from counter is stored. The functions of
processor in each CPI are:
 Read the CPI number.
 Read current I/Q values of each range cells ; accumulate will previous I/Q values
stored in internal memory.
 Compute the magnitude of accumulated I and Q values of previous CPI.
ECCM CONTROL FUNCTION BLOCK
In every pulse repetition time [PRT] interval during the dead range (beyond 94 Kms),
the receiver is switched through all the 11 frequencies, in two batches and A/D, I-Q samples
corresponding to these frequencies is collected. This is repeated for a total of 15 PRTs in
every coherent pulse interval (CPI). Hence in all 660 samples of ADC data (or 330 complex
I/Q samples) are colleted and stored in the internal data memory of the processor. An MTI
operation is done on this data and then magnituding and hence the magnitude for each
frequency is found out. The MTI operation is done to cancel noise due to clutter if any,
occurring in the dead range corresponding to the Transmitted frequency thus avoiding
erroneous estimation of least jam frequency. The Σ magnitudes obtained for each of the
frequencies in a CPI is obtained as well as sum of all the Σ magnitudes. The magnituded
data is used for analyzing and to compute the different functions to be performed by this
processor and outputted. These different functions are described below:
LEAST JAMMED FREQUENCY

The Σ magnitudes obtained for each frequency are compared and the frequency
corresponding to minimum Σ magnitude gives the LJF. This is done in every CPI. Also the
Σ magnitude corresponding to the present CPI-LJF, is compared with that of the previous
CPI-LJF and if it is less than 5 times that of previous one, only then the current LJF is put-
out, else the previous LJF itself is output as the LJF for the next CPI.
AUTO THRESHOLD BITS

3 Bits are generated by comparing the Σ magnitude for the LJF in a CPI with some
constant value of expected jamming noise and after weighting, are sent out to the CFAR

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processor. This is done in every CPI. 2 bits of data are generated to indicate the jam level
corresponding to the LJF and sent to frequency indication panel unit on display console.
AUTO ATTENUATION CONTROL

Once again depending upon the value of the sum of Σ magnitudes, like auto LJF,
auto STC off and also 24 dB dead range RF attenuation ON are generated and sent to
appropriate units.
JAM STROBE PRESENTATION

Using the sum of all the Σ magnitudes of all frequencies as a basis and an algorithm,
the digital logarithm and hence what is called a LOAD NUMBER is arrived at each CPI. The
load numbers in two adjacent CPIs are interpolated and a load pulse is generated every PRT
to load a 3-stage counter, the terminal count of the third stage after strobing is used as the
video pulses for jam strobe. This is sent to PPI for presentation. The interpolation gives the
presentation of a smooth strobe. A fixed IF attenuation of 30dB is introduced during the dead
range, in order to obtain distinct main lobe and side lobes for the jammer strobe indication.
JAMMER CLASSIFICATION
Jammer duty ratio count and jammer bandwidth count are generated using certain
algorithms comparing the Σ magnitude (after MTI operation) over a 8 CPI bracket.
Depending on the values of these counts the jammer is classified as Low, Medium or High
duty as well as Narrow bandwidth, Medium bandwidth or Wide bandwidth. In each case 2
bits of data are generated and the classification is indicated on the frequency indication panel
(in system control unit), using LEDs.
RPM MONITORING CIRCUITS

This circuit can monitor in either test mode (local diagnostics) or in operate (i.e.
system) mode, the following parameters being indicated for two sets of numeric displays. Set
1 indicates while the values for a single scan while Set 2 dispays the values averaged over the
past 8 scans.
The parameters monitored are:
 Probability of detection, percentage-indicated as a number in the form-(ZZZ)-with
BITE (targets) only.
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 Probability of false alarms, a No. (x 106)-indicated as a number-for all 16 filters in the

form-(XX.YY).
 Probability of false alarms, a No. (x 106)-indicated as a number 4 single filter in the
form-(XXX.Y).
With the help of DIP switches the above operation is selected.

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OUTPUT MONITORING FUNCTIONS

This card is mainly to see the D/A converted output of 3 types of the signal channels
of the signal processor on an oscilloscope. The card is designed to take 16 bits of data of any
3 channels, as the signal processor (MTD) hardware has got 3 main channels namely MTI,
FFT, ZVF.
CONTROL PANEL FUNCTIONS

Each of the cards has its card panel mounted on the front side. The control panel.

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Fully Coherent Radar
Figure 1: an easy block diagram of a fully coherent radar
The block diagram on the figure illustrates the principle of a fully coherent radar. The
fundamental feature is that all signals are derived at low level and the output device serves
only as an amplifier. All the signals are generated by one master timing source, usually a
synthesizer, which provides the optimum phase coherence for the whole system. The output
device would typically be a klystron, TWT or solid state. Fully coherent radars exhibit none
of the drawbacks of the pseudo-coherent radars, which we studied in the previous section.
Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so
that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power
pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the
receiver.

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Mixer Stage
The function of the mixer stage is to convert the received rf energy to a lower,
intermediate frequency (IF) that is easier to amplify and manipulate electronically. The
intermediate frequency is usually 30 or 60 megahertz. It is obtained by heterodyning the
received signal with a local-oscillator signal in the mixer stage. The mixer stage converts the
received signal to the lower IF signal without distorting the data on the received signal.
IF-Amplifier
After conversion to the intermediate frequency, the signal is amplified in several IF-
amplifier stages. Most of the gain of the receiver is developed in the IF-amplifier stages. The
overall bandwidth of the receiver is often determined by the bandwidth of the IF-stages.
Power Amplifier
In this system the transmitting pulse is caused with a small performance in a

waveform generator. It is taken to the necessary power with a Power Amplifier flowingly.
The Power Amplifier would typically be a klystron, Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) or solid
state.
Stable Local Oscillator (StaLO)
The StaLO is also very stable CW RF oscillator, which generates the local RF
frequency simultaneously for up-conversion in the transmitter and down-conversion in the
receiver. Minimum FM noise (or phase noise) of the StaLO is an important characteristic.
This is because such noise would limit the overall MTI improvement factor, as fixed clutter
would inherit a Doppler component from the transmission. Similar arguments apply to FM
noise added by the output device.
Coherent Oscillator
The COHO is a very stable CW (Continuous Wave) oscillator locked to the IF

frequency (The COHO frequency is generally derived from a master crystal oscillator) and
constitutes the internal phase reference. The COHO provides the coherent reference signal to
the Phase Sensitive Detector and also through a frequency divider generates the system PRF
in the Synchronizer.

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Mixer / Exciter
The function of this mixer stage is to convert the StaLO- Frequency and the COHO-
Frequency upwards into the phase-stabile continuous wave transmitter-frequency.
Waveform-Generator
The Waveform-Generator generates the transmitting pulse in low- power. It generates

the transmitting signal on an IF- frequency. It permits generating predefined waveforms by
driving the amplitudes and phase shifts of carried microwave signals. These signals may have
a complex structure for a pulse compression.
Phase Sensitive Detector
The IF-signal is passed to a phase sensitive detector which converts the signal to base
band, while faithfully retaining the full phase and quadrature information (I & Q- processing)
of the Doppler signal.
Signal Processor
The signal processor is that part of the system which separates targets from clutter on the
basis of Doppler content and amplitude characteristics.
Radarscope / Monitor
The indicator presents to the observer a continuous, easily understandable, graphic

picture of the position of radar targets. In recently radars the indicator would be a computer
display.

cathode
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filament pickup loop

leads
MAGNETRON
Figure 1: Magnetron МИ 29Г of the Radar „Bar Lock”
In 1921 Albert Wallace Hull invented the magnetron as a powerful microwawe tube.
Magnetrons function as self-excited microwave oscillators. Crossed electron and magnetic fields are
used in the magnetron to produce the high-power output required in radar equipment. These
multicavity devices may be used in radar transmitters as either pulsed or cw oscillators at frequencies
ranging from approximately 600 to 30,000 megahertz. The relatively simple construction has the
disadvantage, that the Magnetron usually can work only on a constructively fixed frequency.
Physical construction of a magnetron

The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. The anode of a magnetron is
fabricated into a cylindrical solid copper block. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube
and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the
cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of
a high-emission material. The 8 up to 20 cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant
cavities. The cavities control the output frequency. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the
central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities.
Figure 2: Cutaway view of a magnetron
The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the interaction space. In
this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons. The

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magnetic field is usually provided by a strong, permanent magnet mounted around the
magnetron so that the magnetic field is parallel with the axis of the cathode.
Figure 3: forms of the plate of magnetrons
The form of the cavities varies, shown in the Figure 3. The output lead is usually a
probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or
coaxial line.
a) slot- type
b) vane- type
c) rising sun- type
d) hole-and-slot- type
Basic Magnetron Operation
As when all velocity-modulated tubes the electronic events at the production

microwave frequencies at a Magnetron can be subdivided into four phases too:
1. phase: Production and acceleration of an electron beam

2. phase: Velocity-modulation of the electron beam
3. phase: Forming of a „Space-Charge Wheel”
4. phase: Dispense energy to the ac field

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Figure 4: the electron path under the influence of the varying magnetic field.
1. Phase Production and acceleration of an electron beam
When no magnetic field exists, heating the cathode results in a uniform and direct
movement of the field from the cathode to the plate (the blue path in figure 4). The permanent
magnetic field bends the electron path. If the electron flow reaches the plate, so a large
amount of plate current is flowing. If the strength of the magnetic field is increased, the path
of the electron will have a sharper bend. Likewise, if the velocity of the electron increases,
the field around it increases and the path will bend more sharply. However, when the critical
field value is reached, as shown in the figure as a red path, the electrons are deflected away
from the plate and the plate current then drops quickly to a very small value. When the field
strength is made still greater, the plate current drops to zero.
When the magnetron is adjusted to the cutoff, or critical value of the plate current, and
the electrons just fail to reach the plate in their circular motion, it can produce oscillations at
microwave frequencies.
2. Phase: Velocity-modulation of the electron beam
The electric field in the magnetron oscillator is a product of ac and dc fields. The dc
field extends radially from adjacent anode segments to the cathode. The ac fields, extending
between adjacent segments, are shown at an instant of maximum magnitude of one
alternation of the rf oscillations occurring in the cavities.

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Figure 5: The high-frequency electrical field
Well, the electrons which fly toward the anode segments loaded at the moment more
In the figure 5 is shown only the assumed high-frequency electrical ac field. This ac field
work in addition to the to the permanently available dc field.
The ac field of each individual cavity increases or decreases the dc field like shown in
the figurepositively are accelerated in addition. These get a higher tangential speed. On the
other hand the electrons which fly toward the segments loaded at the moment more
negatively are slow down. These get consequently a smaller tangential speed.
3. Phase: Forming of a „Space-Charge Wheel”
On reason the different speeds of the electron groups a velocity modulation appears therefore.
Figure 6: Rotating space-charge wheel in an eight-cavity magnetron
The cumulative action of many electrons returning to the cathode while others are
moving toward the anode forms a pattern resembling the moving spokes of a wheel known as
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a „Space-Charge Wheel”, as indicated in figure 6. The space-charge wheel rotates about the
cathode at an angular velocity of 2 poles (anode segments) per cycle of the ac field. This
phase relationship enables the concentration of electrons to continuously deliver energy to
sustain the rf oscillations.
One of the spokes just is near an anode segment which is loaded a little more
negatively. The electrons are slowed down and pass her energy on to the ac field. This state
isn't static, because both the ac- field and the wire wheel permanently circulate. The
tangential speed of the electron spokes and the cycle speed of the wave must be brought in
agreement so.
4. Phase: Dispense energy to the ac field
Figure 7: Path of an electron
Recall that an electron moving against an E field is accelerated by the field and takes energy
from the field. Also, an electron dispense energy to a field and slows down if it is moving in
the same direction as the field (positive to negative). The electron spends energy to each
cavity as it passes and eventually reaches the anode when its energy is expended. Thus, the
electron has helped sustain oscillations because it has taken energy from the dc field and
given it to the ac field. This electron describes the path shown in figure 7 over a longer time
period looked. By the multiple breaking of the electron the energy of the electron is used
optimally. The effectiveness reaches values up to 80%.

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Modes of Oscillation
The operation frequency depends on the sizes of the cavities and the interaction space
between anode and cathode. But the single cavities are coupled over the interaction space
with each other. Therefore several resonant frequencies exist for the complete system. Two of
the four possible waveforms of a magnetron with 8 cavities are in the figure 8 represented.
Several other modes of oscillation are possible (3/4π, 1/2π, 1/4π), but a magnetron operating
in the π mode has greater power and output and is the most commonly used.
Strapping
Figure 8: Waveforms of the magnetron Figure 9: cutaway view of a

(Anode segments are represented „unwound”) magnetron, showing the strapping
rings and the slots.
So that a stable operational condition adapts in the optimal pi mode, two constructive
measures are possible:
• Strapping rings:
The frequency of the π mode is separated from the frequency of the other modes by
strapping to ensure that the alternate segments have identical polarities. For the
pi mode, all parts of each strapping ring are at the same potential; but the two rings
have alternately opposing potentials. For other modes, however, a phase difference
exists between the successive segments connected to a given strapping ring which
causes current to flow in the straps.
• Use of cavities of different resonance frequency

E.g. such a variant is the anode form „Rising Sun”.
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Magnetron coupling methods
Energy (rf) can be removed from a magnetron by means of a coupling loop. At

frequencies lower than 10,000 megahertz, the coupling loop is made by bending the inner
conductor of a coaxial line into a loop. The loop is then soldered to the end of the outer
conductor so that it projects into the cavity, as shown in figure 10, view (A). Locating the
loop at the end of the cavity, as shown in view (B), causes the magnetron to obtain sufficient
pickup at higher frequencies.
Figure 10: Magnetron coupling, view (A) and (B)
The segment-fed loop method is shown in view (C) of figure 11. The loop intercepts
the magnetic lines passing between cavities. The strap-fed loop method (view (D), intercepts
the energy between the strap and the segment. On the output side, the coaxial line feeds
another coaxial line directly or feeds a waveguide through a choke joint. The vacuum seal at
the inner conductor helps to support the line. Aperture, or slot, coupling is illustrated in view
(E). Energy is coupled directly to a waveguide through an iris.
Figure 11: Magnetron coupling, view (C), (D) and (E)

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Magnetron tuning
A tunable magnetron permits the system to be operated at a precise frequency

anywhere within a band of frequencies, as determined by magnetron characteristics. The
resonant frequency of a magnetron may be changed by varying the inductance or capacitance
of the resonant cavities.
Tuner addition
frame al
inductiv
anode e
block tuning
element
s
Figure 12: Inductive magnetron tuning
An example of a tunable magnetron is the M5114B used by the ATC- Radar ASR-
910. To reduce mutual interferences, the ASR-910 can work on different assigned
frequencies. The frequency of the transmitter must be tunable therefore. This magnetron is
provided with a mechanism to adjust the Tx- frequency of the ASR-910 exactly.
Figure 13: Magnetron M5114B of the ATC-radar ASR-910

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Figure 13: Magnetron VMX1090 of the ATC-radar PAR-80 This magnetron is even equipped
with the permanent magnets necessary for the work.

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Pulse Compression
This is a method which combines the high energy of a long pulse width
with the high resolution of a short pulse width. The pulse is frequency
modulated, which provides a method to further resolve targets which may have
overlapping returns. The pulse structure is shown in the figure 1.
Figure 1: separation of frequency modulated pulses
Since each part of the pulse has unique frequency, the returns can be completely separated.
This modulation or coding can be either
• FM (frequency modulation)
o linear (chirp radar) or
o non-linear or
• PM (phase modulation).
Now the receiver is able to separate targets with overlapping of noise. The received
echo is processed in the receiver by the compression filter. The compression filter readjusts the
relative phases of the frequency components so that a narrow or compressed pulse is again
produced. The radar therefore obtains a better maximum range than it is expected because of the
conventional radar equation.

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Figure 2: short pulse (blue) and a long pulse with intrapulsemodulation (green)
The ability of the receiver to improve the range resolution over that of the
conventional system is called.0
the pulse compression ratio (PCR). For example a pulse compression ratio of 50:1
means that the system range resolution is reduced by 1/50 of the conventional system.
Alternatively, the factor of improvement is given the symbol PCR, which can be used
as a number in the range resolution formula, which now becomes:
Rres = c0 · Pw · ( 2 · PCR)
The compression ratio is equal to the number of sub pulses in the waveform, i.e., the
number of elements in the code. The range resolution is therefore proportional to the time
duration of one element of the code. The maximum range is increased by the PCR.
The minimum range is not improved by the process. The full pulse width still applies
to the transmission, which requires the duplexer to remained aligned to the transmitter
throughout the pulse. Therefore Rmin is unaffected.

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Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the pulse compression
Disadvantages
Advantages
lower pulse-power
high wiring effort
therefore suitable for Solid-State-amplifier
higher maximum range bad minimum range
good range resolution time-sidelobes
better jamming immunity
difficulter reconnaissance
Pulse compression with linear FM waveform
At this pulse compression method the transmitting pulse has a linear FM waveform.
This has the advantage that the wiring still can relatively be kept simple. However, the linear
frequency modulation has the disadvantage that jamming signals can be produced relatively
easily by so-called „Sweeper”.
The block diagram on the picture illustrates, in more detail, the principles of a pulse
compression filter.

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Figure 3: Block diagram (an animation as explanation of the mode of operation
The compression filter are simply dispersive delay lines with a delay, which is a linear
function of the frequency. The compression filter allows the end of the pulse to „catch up” to
the beginning, and produces a narrower output pulse with a higher amplitude.
As an example of an application of the pulse compression with linear FM waveform

the RRP-117 can be mentioned.
Filters for linear FM pulse compression radars are now based on two main types.
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• Digital processing (following of the A/D- conversion).

• Surface acoustic wave devices.
Figure 4: View of the Time-Side-Lobes
Time-Side-Lobes
The output of the compression filter consists of the compressed pulse accompanied by
responses at other times (i.e., at other ranges), called time or range sidelobes. The figure
shows a view of the compressed pulse of a chirp radar at an oscilloscope and at a ppi-scope
sector.
Amplitude weighting of the output signals may be used to reduce the time sidelobes to
an acceptable level. Weighting on reception only results a filter „mismatch” and some loss of
signal to noise ratio.
The sidelobe levels are an important parameter when specifying a pulse compression
radar. The application of weighting functions can reduce time sidelobes to the order of
30 db's.

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Pulse compression with non-linear FM waveform
The non-linear FM waveform has several distinct advantages. The non-linear FM

waveform requires no amplitude weighting for time-sidelobe suppression since the FM
modulation of the waveform is designed to provide the desired amplitude spectrum, i.e., low
sidelobe levels of the compressed pulse can be achieved without using amplitude weighting.
Phase-Coded Pulse Compression
Figure 8: diagram of a phase-coded pulse compression
Phase-coded waveforms differ from FM waveforms in that the long pulse is sub-
divided into a number of shorter sub pulses. Generally, each sub pulse corresponds with a
range bin. The sub pulses are of equal time duration; each is transmitted with a particular
phase. The phase of each sub-pulse is selected in accordance with a phase code. The most
widely used type of phase coding is binary coding.
The binary code consists of a sequence of either +1 and -1. The phase of the
transmitted signal alternates between 0 and 180° in accordance with the sequence of
elements, in the phase code, as shown on the figure. Since the transmitted frequency is
usually not a multiple of the reciprocal of the sub pulse width, the coded signal is generally
discontinuous at the phase-reversal points.
The selection of the so called random 0, π phases is in fact critical. A special class of
binary codes is the optimum, or Barker, codes. They are optimum in the sense that they
provide low sidelobes, which are all of equal magnitude. Only a small number of these
optimum codes exist. They are shown on the beside table. A computer based study searched
for Barker codes up to 6000, and obtained only 13 as the maximum value.
It will be noted that there are none greater than 13 which implies a maximum
compression ratio of 13, which is rather low. The sidelobe level is -22.3 db.

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Radar complexity
Radar — an old acronym for radio detection and ranging — has always been a
demanding technology, but at no time more so than today. Essentially, it works by emitting
radio frequency (RF) signals at particular frequencies, and then listening for the signal's
return — or "bounce" — off of targets of interest. At it simplest theoretical level, this does
not sound like a big deal, but putting the theory into useful practice is where advanced
technology — and designers headaches — come in.
Several different kinds of radar systems are in use today, including continuous wave
(CW), pulsed, pulsed-Doppler, phased array, and synthetic aperture.
The Mercury RACE++ Series

PowerStream 510 system is used in
applications such as advanced
radar, sonar, imaging, and
inspection.
CW radar continually transmits energy toward the desired target and receives a
reflection of this "continuous wave." These kinds of radar are useful for determining a target's
velocity by using the Doppler effect to compare differences in the transmitted and received
signals. These radar systems, however, have difficulty determining the target's range, or how
far way it is.

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Pulsed radar, on the other hand, sends out a series of short RF pulses. By measuring
how long it takes to receive the returns from these pulses, system operators can estimate the
range to the target. Pulse Doppler radar, in addition, uses Doppler shifts with radar pulses to
determine the velocities of moving targets. These systems can determine the velocities,
angles, and ranges of targets. These added capabilities, however, make pulse Doppler radar
much more compute-intensive than simple pulsed radar.
Phased array radar systems, meanwhile, arrange large numbers of transceiver modules
arranged on flat or curved surface. The system controls the phase — or a slight variation in
the transmit and receive time of groups of transceiver modules — with computer commands,
and in essence "steers" the radar beams quickly, enabling the phased array radar to scan
specific areas quickly, "stare" at targets of interest, or do a variety of other tasks, all without
the need to move the transceiver array mechanically.
The ability of phased array radar systems to manipulate their groups of transceivers
also gives this system an "adaptive array" capability, which not only can steer beams quickly,
but also enables the system to shift the focus of radar beams to "null out" electronic
interference or jamming.
Precise radar images most often come from synthetic aperture radar systems. These
so-called "side-looking" aircraft-mounted systems — such as the U.S. Joint Surveillance and
Target Attack Radar System known as Joint STARS — produce two-dimensional images,
where one dimension is the range, or distance from the radar to the target using Doppler
processing, and the other dimension is the azimuth, which requires a physically large antenna
to focus the transmitted and received RF signal into a sharp beam. Synthetic aperture radar,
better known as SAR — collects data over a long distance, and processes the data as if it
came from a physically long antenna. SAR requires extremely fast processing and very fast
signal sampling rates.
After all this, the way in which a radar system processes information also can change
the nature of the radar system itself. Take radar pulse compression, for example. This is a
technique that makes the most of the radar's sensitivity and resolution by balancing the
effects of radar pulse duration, radar pulse power, and radar pulse bandwidth.

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Pulse compression uses Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processing to massage the
signal as it comes in from the A-D converters. "With pulse compression, you need to take an
FFT of the radar signal to remove as much stuff that doesn't belong to the return signals as
possible," explains Rodger Hosking, vice president of Pentek Inc. of Upper Saddle River,
N.J., which supplies single-board processors to radar designers.
"So they send out a 'chirp', or a unique signal that doesn't exist in nature," Hosking
continues. "You convert what comes back into frequency domain, and take the frequency
domain of your outgoing pulse and correlate the two. You extract only the part of the signal
coming back that has to do with the outgoing pulse. Then you do an inverse FFT, and you get
a very nice 'blip'." Until recently, Hosking explains, that kind of processing has been done in
analog, and in DSPs. "It's a very demanding problem to do in real time."
Processing challenges
One of the first and most serious problems confronting radar systems involves noise
and clutter in the return signal. After all, RF energy bounces off a lot more than simply the
target of interest; it bounces off trees, buildings, mountains, vehicles, and about anything else
in its path, and in various degrees of intensity depending on the reflecting materials.
One of the most important tasks of modern radar systems is to reject, or "filter-out,"
return signals that are not of interest. Next, radar users today want far more from their
systems than simply the proverbial "blip on the screen." Many modern radar systems are able
to filter their return signals so finely that these signals produce an actual image of the target.
Finally, most radar systems — particularly those for military and aerospace applications —
must operate in real time. All these factors combine to produce a challenge of staggering
computational intensity for all but the simplest radar systems.
Today's radar systems digitize their signals very quickly after receiving them. After
analog-to-digital conversion, advanced algorithms process the signals to eliminate noise by
filtering out unwanted portions of the signal, perform Doppler calculations to help determine
range, and do many other operations to prepare the data for further processing later that will
do tasks like enter radar signatures into databases and display the information on graphical
screens.

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In the front-end "pre-processing" stage, the processor of choice increasingly is the

field programmable gate array (FPGA) from companies such as Xilinx Inc. in San Jose,
Calif., and Actel Corp. in Sunnyvale, Calif. This is primarily a move away from DSPs on the
front end, experts say. At the same time, systems designers rely more heavily than ever
before on high-end general-purpose processors such as the Altivec on the back end.
The rise of FPGAs
FPGAs only recently have achieved the kinds of densities necessary for fast and
demanding radar front-end processing, experts say. "FPGAs are now so much bigger and so
much faster than they were years ago," says Jane Donaldson, president and chief executive
officer of Annapolis Micro Systems Inc. a radar processing firm in Annapolis, Md.
"Normally you can have 30 million gates in a single VME slot, while five years ago you
would struggle to get a million gates. You have enough processing power now to solve the
problem."
This fast expansion in number of gates per device has made all the difference for
radar systems integrators and their signal processing systems providers. "Over the past year
we have been seeing a swing to more FPGA processing, particularly at the front end of radar
and sonar processing, for repetitive math functions, filtering, and things that go on at the front
end of the processor," says Stuart Heptonstall, product marketing manager for DSP products
at Radstone Technology, a single-board radar processor supplier in Towcester, England.
"FPGAs you can code exactly how you want, to keep them chunking away at that front-end
data," he says, and enable designers to change the front-end processor for different platforms.
"Our customers, the prime contractors, all are looking to put FPGAs as close to the
radar sensing elements as possible — the antennas, transmitters, and receivers — to do pre-
processing," says Philip Lindsay, northeast regional sales manager at Thales Computers Inc.
in Raleigh, N.C. FPGAs, he says, are valuable for "massaging the data and lining it up so it is
amenable to quick-corner turns, or quick FFTs, or quick FIRs [finite responses] so it can be
processed almost immediately by the CPUs. They get the data as they need it, and you reduce
latency."
The radar signal-processing challenge is not fundamentally different today from how
it was decades ago; what is changed is the processing approaches, which is where FPGAs

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come in today, says Larry Nork, director of radar business development at Mercury
Computer Systems in Chelmsford, Mass.
The Lockheed Martin Medium Extended Air Defence System (MEADS) uses a UHF
surveillance radar and X-band Multifunction Fire Control Radar.
"In radar signal processing. What you needed in the past you need today, but you
might do it more efficiently today," Nork explains. "You take channel equalization, phase
compensation, and follow that up with pulse compression done with convolution processing
where you have an FFT and a complex multiply, then do a inverse FFT, and that allows you
to match filter processing on the radar return. Those are data-independent functions that are
performed in a streaming fashion no mater what is coming into the input of the radar receiver,
where the same function is repeated time after time, with no need for programmability. So
you can add efficiency to the processing by using FPGAs, as opposed to using a
programmable RISC processor."
Still, Radstone's Heptonstall cautions that the necessary investment in FPGAs is

relatively high, and implementers also must invest a lot of time providing the FPGA function.
The FPGA programmer must write his own VHDL FFT code to engineer that solution, while
today's DSPs often are easier to program than are FPGAs.
Many systems designers insist that DSPs still have a role in radar processing; the trick
is to determine the niche that FPGAs and DSP processors serve, says Bernard Pelon, director
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of product research at CSPI Inc., a radar processing supplier in Billerica, Mass. Either the
FPGA or DSP might do better on some classes of problems, but might be more difficult to
use, he says. "That may be why we begin to look at FPGAs and specialized processors. We
need to understand where each applies and balance them out."
No matter the choice of the FPGA or DSP, Pelon points out that both represent a step
away from trends toward general-purpose processors that are not application specific,
although he says FPGAs are farther away from the general-purpose ideal than are today's
DSPs. "In both cases you lose generality; there is no question that they are not general-
purpose hardware," he says. "What we are facing is a non-standard world. The FPGA inside
is a profusion of non-standard things, such as how you connect your gates, so with the
specialized DSP there is an advantage. Now we need to define a standard internal FPGA bus,
and we are nowhere close to that."
As far as CSPI is concerned, "we lean to FPGA and specialized DSP; there is space
for both, Pelon says. They are both in the spatial function side." He points to new generations
of DSPs, such as the Analog Devices TigerSHARC, and the FastMATH and FastMIPS
architectures from Intrinsity Inc. in Austin, Texas, that might cause radar designers to take
another look at DSPs — either for front- or back-end processing.
The PowerPC Altivec
On back-end radar processing, meanwhile, "two to three years ago we started seeing a
shift away from dedicated DSP chips over to the PowerPC processors," Heptonstall says. The
DSP chips required coding in low-level languages, such as assembler, "which is great if you
know how to do it, and have the time, but we need to get to market quicker today," he says.
"It's too much of a pain and an investment to program in assembler all the time."
Rapid increases in the PowerPC Altivec's clock speed and other performance
parameters started gaining the attention of radar systems integrators about three years ago
when Motorola first introduced the Altivec version of the venerable PowerPC
microprocessor, CSPI's Pelon says.
"Before Altivec, PowerPC was not judged to be very attractive, but after Altivec it
was judged to be a very good solution," Pelon says. It was significant because you were

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bringing DSP into a scalar architecture. You increased by a factor of four the operations you
could run. It was fantastic news for anyone who had chosen the PowerPC architecture."
Six years ago, for example, the most advanced PowerPC processors ran at clock
speeds of 200 MHz, "but then, with the Altivec, you had 400 MHz — four times the
operations, plus the processor's L2 cache was improved. So overall you had a factor of 20
improvement for FFT processing" Pelon says. PowerPC Altivec processors soon will be
available that run at clock speeds as fast as 1 GHz.
Software issues also make up an attractive aspect of general-purpose processors such

as the Altivec, experts say. Radstone's Heptonstall says he believes the Motorola suite of
advanced PowerPC Altivec processors "have much more easy user interfaces and support for
off-the-shelf real-time operating systems such as Wind River VX Works, Linux,
LynuxWorks LynxOS, and the OSE real-time operating system," than do the industry's DSP
offerings. "The processors have a lot of momentum for these operating systems and have
commonality with slot-1 single-board computers, which are predominantly the PowerPC
processor. It makes the whole thing easier and more user friendly," he says.
Aside from its advantages in speed, the PowerPC Altivec also offers designers the
benefits of a standard off-the-shelf architecture that is well understood throughout the
industry. "The benefit of standard hardware and software is concurrent engineering," says
CSPI's Pelon. "If I have a piece of software that you can run on any workstation, then you can
have several players doing concurrent engineering, and that couldn't be done in the past. That
translates into minimizing development time, which is very important in terms of effective
results and solutions and quality."
Another factor running in the Altivec's favor is the new crop of fast switched-network
architectures, such as RapidIO, Infiniband, and StarFabric, which promise to boost the
Altivec's power when many processors combine on a network. In terms of fabric, none of this
can work without a very fast fabric to connect general-purpose processor nodes with some of
the more specialized nodes," Pelon says. "We need more than ever a high-speed
interconnect."

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Architectural considerations
Often the type of radar system under development will help determine the signal-
processing architecture. Large fixed-site radar systems with virtually unlimited capacity for
space, weight, and power, for example, might accommodate a processing architecture heavy
on general-purpose processors. Yet fighter aircraft radar, which places a premium on small
size, lightweight, and low power consumption, might require a processor architecture heavy
on FPGA and DSPs, and might not accommodate general-purpose processors at all.
"The requirements for small-volume and low weight in advanced applications rely
heavily on FPGAs. Other areas where we are not as restricted is where we can use the off-
the-shelf processors," explains Kam Insky, manager of radar engineering project management
at Lockheed Martin Naval Electronics & Surveillance Systems in Syracuse, N.Y. Lockheed
Martin Syracuse provides a wide variety of radar systems, from large ground-based air traffic
control systems, to space-constrained airborne systems.
The AN/TPS-77 Tactical

Transportable Radar can be
operational in less than one hour.
"In our advanced ground and airborne systems, where we not only deal with volume
and weight, but also in advanced technologies such as digital advanced beamforming, we use

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a hybrid — or FPGA — approach, primarily on the front end," Insky explains. "For backend
data processing, we use general-purpose processors" such as the PowerPC.
"There are niches," Insky points out. "I see an evolution to more use of FPGAs than
the dedicated DSPs, but we still have a product that relies heavily on DSPs" — an airborne
system that uses the Analog Devices SHARC, he says. It is primarily driven by application
— and in our applications now, we see continued use of FPGAs."
Popularity of the Altivec helps designers re-invent the DSP
Although some radar systems designers may be writing off the digital signal processor
(DSP) as a thing of the past in radar processing systems, proponents of the DSP say word of
their passing is premature.
The recently released TigerSHARC DSP from Analog Devices in Norwood, Mass., is
perhaps the strongest argument against the demise of the DSP in radar applications. Yet the
TigerSHARC and other new DSPs are competing head-to-head with the PowerPC Altivec
microprocessor, not field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), in radar applications, experts
say.
The TigerSHARC is an ultra high-performance static superscalar architecture for

computationally demanding applications, and combines elements of RISC, VLIW, and
standard DSP processors for 1-, 8-, 16-, and 32-bit fixed and floating-point processing.
The original Analog Devices SHARC 21060 DSP — short for Super Harvard
Architecture — dominated radar and sonar signal processing applications throughout the
1990s, yet gradually gave way to fast Altivec processors as the new century dawned.
DSP proponents say the new TigerSHARC will give a big boost not only to the
Analog Devices DSP product line, but also to DSP architectures across the board.
"We've seen with the introduction of the TigerSHARC, our competitive environment
changed 180 degrees; historically when we introduced the SHARC, we competed with Texas
Instruments [DSPs}. Now with the introduction of the TigerSHARC, we are competing with
the Altivec," says Darren Taylor, vice president of sales and marketing at BittWare Inc., a
single-board DSP designer in Concord, N.H.
L - 51504061/ECE/2K5
"The TigerSHARC serves very well in some of these radar applications; we are seeing
it across the board for radar systems," particularly for air traffic control, over-the-horizon,
and 3D-based radar applications, Taylor says.
The European radar manufacturer Alenia Marconi, for example, is using the
TigerSHARC as their processor of choice for next-generation 3D air traffic control radar
systems, Taylor says. "They did this because of the ability to do the continuous data
movement and processing."
Taylor admits that the Altivec G4 general-purpose processor can crunch data faster
than the TigerSHARC can, "but you need to get the data in and the data out," he says. "That
is where the TigerSHARC does much better in the real world."
In addition, Taylor says, the TigerSHARC is more attractive in terms of power

consumption. "The G4s are huge consumers of power" from five to 20 watts per chip, he
says. "You are limited to the number of processors you can get on a board."

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BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 1

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public Sector

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 3

CORPORATE MOTTO , MISSION AND OBJECTIVES:

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 4

GHAZIABAD (UTTER PRADESH)

MACHILIPATNAM (ANDHRA PRADESH)

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 5

CHENNAI (TAMIL NADU)

KOTDWARA (UTTER PRADESH)

HYDERABAD (ANDHRA PRADESH)

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 6

BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 7

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 8

SERVICES OF BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED (BEL):-

 Electronic Voting Machine

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 9

1. Test Equipment and Automation

TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION

A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done

The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are:

Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 11

A --- Physical and Mechanical defects.

After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department

which is rectified there.

 Single Sided Board : Circuits on one side.

Raw material for PCB’s

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 12

Procedure for through hole metallization

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 13

Rinse- Electrolyses Copper-Plating-Plating- Spray water-Rinse-Anti Tarnish Dip-Hot Air

After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed by

There are three types of solder marking done in BEL:

The next is ink preparation:

(150 gms.) : (300gms.)

Butyrate solo solve 50gms/kg.

Catalyst----10% of total weight

Reducer-----10% of total weight

For wash out, following procedure takes place.

Water-Lactic acid-Water-Bleaching power-Water-caustic Soda-Water-Air dry-TCE.

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 15

The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as:

After a mistake is detected following actions are taken:

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 16

It has been broadly classified as:

 WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA –II, REPORTER.

The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is:

o Preparation of part list that is to be assembled.

In work assembly following things are done :

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 17

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 18

This department basically consists of three sections :

1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan the

2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being

3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is

The various types of transformers are as follows :

1. Air cored transformers

4. P.C.B Mounting transformers :-

GTBKIET.Six Months Training 19

Bel Project & Training Report

Bel Project & Training Report