Basic Electrical Engineering

Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering K Murugesh Kumar Assistant Professor Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering PSG College of Technology Coimbatore V Jagannathan Professor Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Coimbatore Institute of Technology Coimbatore 9 VIKAS PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTDVIRAS FUDLIOMIVG MYUOlrVEI LIV 576, Masjid Road, Jangpura, New Delhi - 110014 Ph, 4315313, 4315570, 4314605 Fax: 91-11-4310879 -E-mail: chawlap@giasdl01.vsn1.net.in Internet: www.gobookshopping.com First Floor, N.S. Bhawan, 4th Cross, 4th Main Gandhi Nagar, Bangalore - 560 009 Ph. 2204639 F-20, Nand Dham Industrial Estate, Maro! 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No. 25/4, Chintamani Society, Karve Nagar, Pune - 411 052 Ph. 346 203 ISBN 81-259-0835-8 Copyright © 1999, Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior written permission of the publishers This book was developed, edited and produced Vijay Nicole besprints Consultant Publisher : P K Madhavan @ 'A-25, 4th Floor, Nelson Chambers, Project Coordinator: Anula Lydia 115, Nelson Manickam Road, Editorial Team. Aminjikarai, Chennai - 600 029 Pradeep Kumar, Kavita Nair Ph. 374 3062 / 374 1084 E-mail : pkmadhu@md3.vsnl.net.in Information contained in this work has been obtained by the Publishers from sources believed to be reliable. The publisher and its authors make no representation or warranties with respect to accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book, and shall in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damages arising out of use of this information, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose. ee Laser typeset in Times New Roman at Deo Gratis Systems. Chennai - 600 028. Printed at Chennai Micro Print. Chennai - 600 029.To The Almighty through the Student CommunityPreface Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering—this book addresses the basic requirements of B.E., B.Sc. Computer Technol- ogy and applied science students of various universities in India, in the field of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science Engineer- ing. The fundamental concepts of electrical and electronics engineering are presented in a clear and lucid manner. The entire book is written in a simple style to enable the students to understand the subject without much difficulty. In short, the book is student friendly and is hoped that it will be well received by the student community Chapters | to 8 deal with the basic principles of electrical engineering while chapters 9 to 13 present the fundamental principles of operation of different electronic devices and transducers. Chap- ter 14 deals wit’ the basics of computers. The last chapter, namely chapter 15 introduces the fundamental principles of communication. Adequate solved examples are provided under each chapter. Review questions and exercise problems with solutions are also provided at the end of every chapter. We hope that this book will be very much useful to the student community and the teaching faculty members of engineering col- leges and other technical institutions. Criticism and suggestions for further improvement of this book will be thankfully acknowledged. Coimbatore K Morucesi KUMAR August 1999 V JAGANNATHANAcknowledgements The authors wish to express their sincere thanks and indebtedness to various people who were a source of encouragement and guid- ance at the time of writing this book. K Murugesh Kumar wishes to thank the management, Principal and staff members of PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore for the continued encouragement offered by them. The author is thankful to Dr. V Subbiah, Professor and Head of the Department, other teaching and non-teaching staff members of the department of Elec- trical and electronics engineering, PSG College of Technology, for the valuable co-operation rendered by them. Thanks are also due to his wife Mrs. Mankayarkarasi and his daughters for their patience, assistance and support they have offered. Dr. V Jagannathan acknowledges the Director, Principal and Prof. P Sundaramoorthy of Coimbatore Institute of Technology. Coimbatore, for their help and encouragement during the course of writing this book. His special thanks are due to Ms. S Uma Maheswari, Senior Lecturer, Department of Electrical and Elec- tronics Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology for the valuable discussions the author had during the preparation of chapters 6 and 7. The author expresses his indebtedness to his wife Mrs. Saradha. J and his children for the patience and support they offered during the course of this work. The authors wish to thank Mr. P K Madhavan, Chief Coach, Vikas College Division and his team-mates for the efforts put in by them in bringing out this book in a very short time. K Morucess Kumar V JAGANNATHAN13 21 2.2 Contents Preface vie BASICS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 1! Electrical Quantities 1 Definitions * 2 1.2.1 Voltage 2 1.2.2 Current 2 1.2.3 Electrical Power 3 1.2.4 Electrical Energy 3 1.2.5 Resistance 5 1.2.6 Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance 6 1.2.7 Inductance 9 1.2.8 Capacitance 10 SI Units 12 Review Questions 15 Problems 15 DC CIRCUITS 17 Circuit Laws 17 2.1.1 Ohm’sLaw 17 2.1.2. Kirchhoff's Laws 18 2.1.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 18 2.1.4. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) 19 Series and Parallel Circuits 20 2.2.1 Resistors in Series 20 2.2.2 Resistors in Parallel 22 2.2.3. Series - Parallel Circuits 24 Review Questions 33 Problems 33 AC CIRCUITS 35 Characteristics of AC Circuits 35 Phasor Representation 41 3.2.1. Complex Operator j 43 3.2.2 Phasor Relations Involving R, Land C 47 Power and Power Factor SO Analysis of Single Phase AC Circuits 52 Resonance 59 3.5.1 Resonance in Series Circuits 59 3.5.2 Resonance in Parallel Circuits 61 Three-Phase AC Circuits 64 3.6.1 Three-Phase Voltage and Current 64 3.6.2 Star and Delta Connections 66x © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 3.6.3 Measurement of Power and Power Factor 69 Review Questions 74 Problems 75 4 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 77 4.1 Definition of Magnetic Quantities 77 4.1.1 Magneto Motive Force 77 4.1.2 Magnetising Force 77 4.1.3 Magnetic Flux 78 4.1.4 Magnetic Flux Density 78 4.1.5 Permeability 78 4.1.6 Reluctance and Permeance 79 4.2 Analysis of Magnetic Circuits 80 4.2.1 Series Circuits 81 4.2.2 Parallel Circuits 84 4.3 Leakage Flux 87 4.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits 88 Review Questions 88 Problems 88 5 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 91 5.1 Functions of Electrical Machines 91 5.2 Permanent Magnet 92 5.2.1 Magnetic Materials 92 5.2.2 Magnetic Field and its Behaviour 92 5.3. Electromagnet 93 5.3.1 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 93 5.3.2 Right Hand Grip Rule 94 5.3.3 Right Handed Cork Screw Rule 95 5.4 Electromagnetic Induction 96 5.4.1. Faraday’s Laws 98 5.4.2 Lenz’s Law 98 5.4.3 Statically Induced Emf 98 5.4.4 Self and Mutual Inductance 99 5.4.5 Coefficient of Coupling 100 5.4.6 Dynamically Induced Emf 101 5.4.7 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule 102 5.5 Magnetic Losses 105 5.5.1 Hysteresis Loss 106 5.5.2 Eddy Current Loss 107 5.6 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 107 5.6.1 Force on Current Carrying Conductor 108 5.6.2 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule 109 Review Questions 110 Problems 1106.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 oe) 74 Contents « xi ELECTRICAL MACHINES 113 DC Machines 113 6.1.1 Constructional Features 113 6.1.2 Principle of Operation of DC Generators 116 6.1.3 Emf Equation 118 6.1.4 Characteristics of DC Generators 119 6.1.5 Types of DC Generators 119 6.1.6 Principle of Operation of DC Motors 124 6.1.7 Torque Equation 126 6.1.8 Characteristic of a DC Motor 126 Transformers 129 6.2.1 Constructional Features 129 6.2.2 Principle of Operation 130 6.2.3. Three Phase Transformer Connections 136 Induction Motors 138 6.3.1 Constructional Features of 3-phase Induction Motors 138 6.3.2 Principle of Operation 140 6.3.3. Torque Development. 142 6.3.4 Characteristics of 3-phase'Induction Motors 143 6.3.5 Single Phase Induction Motors 144 6.3.6 Principle of Operation 145 6.3.7 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors 145 Synchronous Machines 148 6.4.1 Constructional Features 148 6.4.2 Principle of Generator Operator 150 6.4.3 Emf Equation 150 6.4.4 Load Characteristics 151 6.4.5 Principle of Motor Operation 152 Applications 154 Review Questions 155 Problems 156 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 159 Classifications 159 Principles of Analog Instruments 159 7.2.1 Deflecting Torque 160 7.2.2 Controlling Torque 160 7.2.3 Damping Torque 161 Moving Coil Instruments 162 7.3.1 Permanent Magnet Type 162 7.3.2 Dynamometer Type 163 Moving Iron Instrument 164 7.4.1 Attraction Type 164xii « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 10 75 7.6 77 7.8 91 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 7.4.2 Repulsion Type 165 Use of Voltmeter and Ammeters 166 7.5.1 PM Type Moving Coil Ammeters 166 7.5.2 PM Type Moving Coil Volimeters 167 7.5.3. Dynamometer Type Instruments 168 7.5.4 Moving Iron Instruments 168 Dynamometer Type Wattmeter 169 Induction Type Energy Meter 170 7.7.1 Driving System 170 7.7.2 Moving System 171 7.7.3. Braking/Damping System 171 7.7.4 Registering System 171 Megger 171 7.8.1 Construction 171 7.8.2 Operation 172 Review Questions 173 Problems 173 DOMESTIC WIRING 175 Wiring Materials and Accessories 175 Types of Wiring 181 8.2.1 Rules for Wiring 182 Stair-Case Wiring 182 Fluorescent Tube Wiring 183 Simple Domestic Layout 184 Earthing 186 Review Questions 187 POWER SYSTEMS 189 Generation 191 9.1.1 Types 191 9.1.2 Layout of Hydro Power Station 191 9.1.3 Layout of Thermal Power Station 192 9.1.4 Layout of Nuclear Power Station 193 Transmission 194 9.2.1 Types 194 9.2.2 Effects of Increase in Voltage 195 Distribution 196 9.3.1 Types 196 9.3.2 Comparison of OHL with UGC 197 Review Questions 197 PASSIVE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 199 Essentiak of an Electronic Circuit 199 Resistors 199i 10.3 10.4 wh 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.10 Contents © xiii 10.2.1 Fixed Resistors 200 10.2.2 Variable Resistors 202 10.2.3 Colour Coding 204 Capacitors 205 10.3.1 Variable Capacitors 205 10.3.2 Fixed Capacitors 207 10.3.3 Dissipation Factor 210 Inductors 211 10.4.1 Fixed Inductors 211 10.4.2 Variable Inductors 212 10.4.3. Chokes 212 Review Questions 213 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND CIRCUITS 215 Introduction 215 Classification of Materials 216 11.2.1 Energy Band Structures of Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor 216 Properties of Semiconductors 218 Classification of Semiconductors 218 11.4.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 219 11.4.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors 220 PN Junction 222 11.5.1 PN-Junction with Forward Bias 223. 11.5.2 PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias 224 PN-Junction Diode 225 11.6.1 U-I Characteristic of Junction Diode 226 Rectifiers 227 11.7.1 Half-Wave Rectifiers 227 11.7.2 Full-Wave Rectifiers 229 11.7.3. Bridge Rectifier 230 Zener Diode 231 11.8.1 U-I Characteristics 232 11.8.2 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator 233 Filters 234 11.9.1 Capacitor Filter 234 11.9.2 Inductor Filter 235 11.9.3 LC Fiker 236 11.9.4 7 or CLC Filter 236 Bipolar Transistors 237 11.10.1 Constructional Details 237 11.10.2 Transistor Biasing 238 11.10.3 Working of PNP Transistor 239xiv e Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12 13 11.11 11.12 11.14 11.13 11.15 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.¢ 11.10.4° Transistor Configurations 241 Static Transistor Characteristics 242 11.11-1 CE Configuration 243 Current Amplification Factors 244 Applications 245 Field Effect Transistors (FET) 246 11.12.1 Junction Field Effect Transistor 246 1.14.1 N-Channel JFET 246 11.14.2 P-Channel JFET 247 11.14.3 Principal of Working of JFET 247 11.14.4 JFET Characteristic 248 11.14.5 Advantages of JFET 249 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) 250 11.15.1 Enhancement MOSFET 250 11.15.2 Depletion MOSFET 252 Review Questions 253 Review Problems 254 SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 257 Introduction 257 Silicon Controlled Rectifier [SCR] 257 12.2.1 Constructional Details 258 12.2.2 Characteristics of SCR 258 12.2.3 Important Terms Used in the Study of SCR 260 12.2.4 Applications of SCR 260 TRIAC 260 Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 261 12.4.1 Application of UIT as a Relaxation Oscillator 263 OPTO Electronic Device 264 12.5.1 Introduction 264 12.5.2 Photo Conductive Cell (PCC) 265 12.5.3. PhotoDiode 266 12.5.4 Photo Transistor 267 12.5.5 Light Emitting Diode (LED) 267 Review Questions 269 TRANSDUCERS 271 Introduction 271 Classification of Transducers 271 Resic Requirements of Transducers 272 ~lacement Transducer 273 1 Electrical Strain Gauge 273 2.4.2 Capacitance Transducers 27614 15 13.5 13.6 13.7 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15.1 15.2 15.3 Contents © xv 13.4.3. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 277 Temperature Transducer 278 13.5.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) 278 13.5.2 Thermocouples 279 13.5.3. Thermistors 280 Piezoelectric Transducers 281 Hall Effect Transducers 282 Review Questions 284 LINEAR AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 285 Introduction 285 Advantages and Limitations of ICs 286° Classification of ICs 286 Monolithic ICs 287 Linear ICs 290 14.5.1 Operational Amplifier 290 14.5.2. Applications of OPAMP’ 290 14.5.3. IC Timer 294 Digital ICs 295 14.6.1 Boolean Algebra 296 14.6.2. Logic Gates 297 14.6.3. Universal Gates 299 14.6.4. Flip-Flop 300 Review Questions 304 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS 307 Introduction 307 15.1.1 Input Devices 307 15.1,.2..Central Processing Unit 308 15.1.3 Output Devices 310 Memory Devices 310 15.2.1 Memory Terminology 310 15.2.2. CPU—Memory Connection 311 15.2.3. Programmable ROMs (PROMs) 313 15.2.4 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) 314 15.2.5 Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) 315 15.2.6 Flash Memory 315 15.2.7 Semiconductor RAMs 316 Mass Data Storage Systems 317 15.3.1 Floppy Disk Data Storage 318 15.3.2 Magnetic Hard Disk Data Storage. 319 15.3.3 Magnetic Tape Storage 321xvi © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 15.3.4 Optical Disk Data storage 321 15.4 Computer Input Units 323 15.5 Computer Output Devices 325 15.6 Printers 327 15.6.1 Impact Printers 329 15.6.2 Non-impact Printers 329 15.7 Plotters 330 15.8 Computer Output on Microfilm and Microfiche 330 15.8.1 Graphic Display Device 330 15.8.2 Speech Output Unit 330 15.9 Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) 331 15.10 Classification of Computers 331 15.10.1 Laptop PC’s 332 15.10,2 Personal Computers 332 15.10.3 Workstations 332 15,10.4 Mainframe Computers 333 15,10.5 , Distributed Computers 333 15.10.6 Paraliel Computers 333 15.11 Microprocessors 333 7 15.11.1 INTEL 8086 Microprocessors 336 15.11.2 Internal Architecture 337 15.11.3 Pentium Processors 339 Review Questions 340 16 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATIONS 341 16.1 Introduction 341 16.2 Analog and Digital Signals 342 16.3. Analog Signals 342 16.3.1 Telephone Signals 343 16.3.2 Video Signals 343 16.3.3 Radio Signals 344 16.4 Digital Signals 344 16.4.1 Radar Signals 344 16.4.2. Binary Signals 345 16.4.3. Telecommunication Services 347 16.5 Data Transmission 348 16.5.1 Line Communication 349 16.5.2 Radio Communication 349 16.6 Basic Principle of Modulation 351 16.6.1 Need for Modulation 351 16.7 Continuous Wave Modulation 352 16.7.1 Amplitude Modulation 354 16.7.2 Frequency Modulation 35516.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 Contents « xvii Demodulation 357 ‘Pulse Modulation 357 Digital Data Transmission 360 16,10.1 Data Communication System 360 Modems 362 Communication System 364 16.12.1 Radio Communication System 364 16.12.2 TY Communication System 365 16.12.3_ Microwave Communication Links 368 16.12.4 Satellite Communication 369 16.12.5 Properties of Satellite Communication370 16.12.6 Optical Communication 370 Computer Networks 371 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 374 16.14.1 Introduction 374 16.14.2 Future of ISDN 374 16.14.3. Goals of ISDN 375 Internet 376 Review Questions 378Basics of Electrical Engineering 1.1. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES Electrical energy is being widely used due to the following reasons e Clean form of energy — absence of smoke, ashes, dust, etc, « Easily convertible to light, heat, mechanical, chemical energy etc. e Easily and economically transportable by means of running cables. Electrical energy is not available naturally and must therefore be centrally generated and transmitted to the place of use and distributed to the individual loads. Electrical energy is generated in bulk amount in various generating stations namely, e Hydro Power Station — Potential energy of water is converted into electrical energy. « Thermal Power Station — Heat energy obtained by burning coal or oil is converted into electrical energy. e Nuclear Power Station — Thermal energy obtained from atomic fissioy or fusion is converted into electrical energy. Electrical energy is also generated by other methods such as — e Diesel standby generation — Internal combustion engine run on liquid fuels like diesel, kerosene etc. driving a generator. e Solar-farms — Light energy obtained from the sun converted by solar cells. e Wind-farms — Force due to the flow of wind converted by windmills. Unfortunately, electrical energy cannot be stored in large quantities for major use.2 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Electrical energy is accounted in terms of voltage, current, power, etc, The flow of current in an electric circuit is similar to the flow of water in a system of water pipelines. A pressure difference must exist between the two ends of the pipe for the water to flow from a higher potential point to a lower potential point. Similarly, a potential difference must exist between two points in an electric circuit to drive a current to flow from a higher potential point to a lower potential point. More pressure is Tequired to force water to flow at a specified rate through a pipe with a small diameter than through a larger one. Similarly, greater the resistance, the greater will be the voltage required to pass a given current. Electrical energy is available in two forms — (i) Direct current (DC) form such as in storage batteries (ii) Alternating current (AC) form such as electrical power supplied to houses, factories, etc. In this chapter, definitions about the various quantities connected with electrical energy and electric circuits are provided. 1.2. DEFINITIONS 1.2.1 Voltage The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is called voltage. It is measured by a voltmeter. ‘U” is the variable symbol used to denote the voltage and the unit for the same is volts (V) e.g. supply voltage U = 230 V Two standard definitions are: (i) Voltage or potential difference between two points is defined as the work required to move a unit charge from one point to the other. 1 V = 1J/C (Joules/Coulomb) The joule is the SI unit of work or energy. (ii) One unit of Voltage or potential difference is defined as that difference of electrical potential between two points of wire carrying a constant (DC) current of 1 Ampere when the power dissipation between these two points is 1 Watt. 1.2.2 Current For a current to flow ina circuit, the following two conditions are to be fulfilled (i) the circuit must be a closed one and (ii) there must be a source of voltage in the circuit. The current is measuréd by an ammeter. ‘I’ is the variable symbol to denote the current and Ampere (A) is the unit.Basics of Electrical Engineering « 3 e.g. Current in the circuit / =5 A Two standard definitions are (i) Current is defined as the amount of charge Q (in coulombs) transferred over a time ¢ (in seconds) 1=2 t 1A=1C/S (ii) One unit of current is defined as that constant (DC) current which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel wires of negligible cross section placed | metre apart, in vacuum, will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10-7 newton per metre length. (ay 1.2.3 Electrical Power This is defined as the rate of doing work by electrical energy or energy supplied per unit time. It is measured by wattmeter. ‘P’ is the variable symbol to denote the power.in DC circuits and to denote the real power in AC circuits. The unit for Power/real power is Watts (W) in small values and kilo Watts (kW) in larger values. e.g. (i) Power absorbed by the lamp P = 60 W (ii) Power consumed by the heater P = 3 KW = 3000 W In DC circuits In single phase AC circuits | P=Urcos¢ )- (1.4) where cos ¢ is the power factor of the circuit. In three phase AC circuits P=3UIcos¢ A/\ = V3ULI 100s ¢ ase Current, U, and /, are line where U and J are pl voltage and line current. 1.2.4 Electrical Energy This is defined as the work done over a time. It is measured by energymeter. ‘En’ is the variable symbol to denote the energy arid4 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Watt-Hour (WH) is the unit used for smal! values and kilo-Watt-Hour (KWH) is the unit used for large values. 1000 WH = 1 kWH 1 KWH = 1 Unit En= Pt (1.7) e.g. (i) Energy consumed by a fan over a:day En = 600 WH (ii) Monthly energy consumption in the house En = 300,000 WH = 300 kWH = 300 Units. Electricity bill, for the energy consumption, is raised based on the units or kWH reading shown by the energy meter fitted in the premises. Example 1.4 An ordinary bulb takes 60 W on a 240 V DC supply. ~ Find the current passing through the bulb. Data P= 60 W; U=240 V Aim1? Solution P=Ul 7 P_ 60 a =a 749 7 OSA Example 1.2 A table fan draws 350 mA from a 230 V AC supply at 0.75 power factor. Find the real power taken by the fan. Data I = 350 mA = 0.35 A; U = 230 V; cos ¢ = 0.75 Aim P? en ke Solution pees P = Ul cos ¢ = 230 x 0.35 x 0.75 = 60.375 W £&xample 1.3 A three phase induction motor takes 10 A at 0.85 power factor from a 415 V three phase supply. Determine the real power taken by the motor. Quin vothage Data I; = 10 A; cos¢ = 0.85;. Up = 415 V Aim P? Solution P= V3ULIL cos d = V3 x 415 x 10 x 0.85 = 6109.81 W = 6.11 kW. ve Example1.4 A water heater takes 9 A from a 230 V single phase AC supply at unity power factor. If it is switched on for 5 hours in a day, calculate the energy consumption over a day.’ Basics of Electrical Engineering « 5 Data 1 =9 A; U = 230 V; cosg=1;t=5H er fe Aim En? Solution Real Power P = Ulcos ¢ = 230x9x1 = 2070 W = 2.07 kW Energy consumed En = P +t = 2.07x5 = 10.35 KWH = 10.35 Units. 1.2.5 Resistance This is the opposition to the flow of current offered in DC circuits. R is the variable symbol and ohm (2) is the unit e.g. R= 5002 = 50 ohm. Fig. 1.1 shows the schematic representation of resistance. The unit of resistance, ohm can be defined in two ways. ig R a A een + = kK tr (a) Fixed resistance (b) Variable resistance Fig. 1.1 Resistance representation (i) One unit of resistance (ohm) is defined as the resistance of a conductor, when, with a constant (DC) current of one ampere flowing through it, the potential difference between the ends of the conductor is one volt. Ug = ipR also Up =IpR (ii) One unit of resistance, ohm is defined as the resistance of a. conductor, in which, with a constant (DC) current of one ampere flowing through it, electrical energy is converted into heat at the rate of one joule per second. P=Unrlp (1.9) Substituting equation 1.8 in equation 1.9 (1.8)6 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering P= (IpR)p P=IR (1.10) UR or P= (1.11) Based on the physical dimensions of the conductor and the material with which the conductor is made up of, resistance can be accounted as R= i 1.12) ian a ( ) where / - length of the conductor in m a ~ area of cross-section of the conductor in mm? or m? and p ~ resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor material expressed in Qmm?/m or in 2m. The reciprocal of the resistance is called conductance. It is represented by the symbol G and its unit is mho or Siemens (S) 1 G=a (1.13) 1.2.6 Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance In general, the resistance of a material changes with temperature. For most of the materials the resistance increases with increase in temperature. The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as the change in resistance per ohm per degree change in temperature. Tf Ry and Rp are the resistances at temperatures 7; and T) respectively, then temperature coefficient at temperature 7) °C, a1 is oy = 2) Ri (Tz — T;) or Ro =Rf[l+ai(%,-T)] (1.15) The temperature coefficients of metals decrease with increase in temperature. If a; and a» are temperature coefficients at 7, and T> respectively, then the foilowing relation exists between them. (1.14) 1 1 7 arnt Ga-N (1.16) ay = 17 ai 1+ai(%i- TN) (117) Also Ry _ (1+ a072) aL Li Ry (1+ a071) eeeBasics of Electrical Engineering + 7 and Bye (R - Ri) (RiTz — RoT 1) where a is the temperature coefficient at 0°C The following materials/ working conditions have negative temperature coefficients i.e. their resistance decreases with increase in temperature ¢ Conduction material — Carbon e Semi conductor materials — Boron, Silicon, Germanium, etc. e Electrolytic solutions © Electric discharge through arc lamps, gas tubes, etc. Example 7.5 An electric iron is rated for 1000 W and is to be operated from a 220 V supply. Find the value of the resistance and the current taken by the iron. Data P = 1000 W; U-= 220 V (1.19) Aim R21? Solution uP _ 2207 Raa = = 48.4 P = i000 = 842 U _ 220 Papa ig tt A : P [i000 Alternatively 1 = ve = qq rts Examp/e1.6 An aluminium conductor of length 300 m has a diameter of 2.54 mm. If the resistivity of aluminium is 28.3 4 mm, calculate the resistance of the conductor. Data | = 300 m; d = 2.54 mm; p = 28.3 1.2 mm Aim R? Solution R = 5 . 2 a= se =F (2.54)? = 5.067 mm? = 5.067 x 1078 m? p= 28.3 pQ mm = 28.3 x 107° Omm = 28.3 x 10° x 10°? Om = 283 x 10°° Om 300 i 7 -9 = Resistance R = 28.3 x 107? x 5067 x 10-8 1.676 Q Conductance G = 7 a 0.597 S R 1676 Example 1.7 It is found that the resistance of a coil of wire increases from 50 ohm at 15°C to 58 ohm at 55°C. Calculate the temperature coefficient of the wire material at 0°C.8 © Basic Etectrical and Electronics Engineering Data RR, =509, T,=15°C, Ry =580; T= 55°C Aim a? Solution (Ro - Ry) dp = ° @&h— BN) (58 — 50) ((50 x 55) — (58 x 15)] ag = 0.00425/°C Example 18 The resistance of a winding wire made up of copper is 25 ohm at 30°C. What is its resistance when it operates at a temnerature of 75°C.? Assume temperature coefficient at 20°C = 0.004. Data T, =,20; a = 90.004; 7, = 30°C; R: =25.0; T; = 75°C Aim R;? Solution Resistance at 20°C faerie eee EEL (P+ ai(%@—T)) [1 + 0.004(30 — 20)] = 24.04.90 Resistance at 75°C Ry = R,(1 + a1(73 - Ti)] 24.04[1 + 0.004(75 — 20)] 29.33 2 Example 1.9 A 60 W, 230 V incandescent lamp is switched on at 30°C. The filament temperature at normal operating condition is 2000°C, Determine the current taken by the lamp (i) at normal working condition and (ii) at the time of switching on. The temperature coefficient of the filament is 0.0045/°C at 30°C. Data P= 60 W; U =230V; 7; = 30°C; T, = 2000°C Aim 1? hh? Solution At norma! working condition i.e, T; = 2000°C 1, = P/U = 60/230 = 0.261 A = 261 mA R, = U/l; = 230/0.261 = 881.23 2 At the time of switching on i.e. 7; = 30°C Ry = yah fl 881.23Basics of Electrical Engineering ¢ 9 1.2.7. Inductance It is a two-terminal storage element in which energy is stored in the magnetic field. The symbol for inductance is Z and its unit is Henry (H). eg. L=05H Fig. 1.2 shows the schematic representation of inductance Inductance is the property L of a circuit element in COOCOTM which the changing magnetic field set up by the + _ time varying current K- U; { through the inductance canses an emf induced in Fig..1.2 Inductance representation it, in a direction to oppose the change of current. dit uy = La (1.20) One unit of inductance, in Henry (H), is defined as the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force (emf) of 1 V is induced when the current in the circuit varies uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere per second. A coil of T turns wound over a magnetic core carrying current i, which produces a flux @ linking with the coil, then do L=T 12 ai; (1.21) If the coil is wound in non-magnetic core Te =7# (1.22) ip Also _ (¢2> 61) ) L= hon t (1.23) initial current in the coil; J, = final current in the coil initial flux; ¢2 = final flux T = Number of turns in the coil. Instantaneous power = tie = ie Ly Ht (1.24) PH = It La ) Equation for energy stored in the inductance can be obtained by integrating the above equation and assuming i(0) = 0 eam f par =e f iets ahi (1.25)10 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The energy stored in the inductance depends upon the instantaneous value of the current. As the current reduces to zero, the energy stored in the inductance is returned to the circuit in which it is connected. Example 1.10 A coil of 500 turns has a flux of 0.4 mWb linking with it when carrying a current of 2 A. Determine the inductance of the coil. Data T = 500; ¢=04mWb=04 x 107° Wb; i, =2A Aim L? Solution Lat UA _ 500 x 0.4 x 10-3 a 2 L=01H. Example 1.11 A coil of 800 turns when carrying a current of 12 A gives rise to a magnetic flux of 1.4 mWb. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If the current in the coil is reversed to its full extent in 0.02 s, determine the average voltage induced in the coil. Data T= 800; i) = i2A; d = 1.4mWb = 1.4x10->Wb =—-12A, d@=002s Aim L? 4? Solution « 3 1 = 7H _ 80X14 x 10" = 093 dur 12 diy uy = La diz = ip) — ity = 12 - (-12) = 24 = 0.0934 = 1116 V 00D 1.2.8 Capacitance It is a two-terminal storage element in which energy is stored in an electric field. The symbol of capacitance is C and its unit is Farad (F) e.g. C = 20 uF = 20 x 10-° F Fig. 1.3 shows the schematic representation of capacitance. Capacitance is the property of a circuit to store electric charge. . ip Cc Two conductors separated from —>— {+ each other by an insulating + - material form a capacitor. The kK Up —4 insulating material is called the : dielectric. Fig. 1.3 Capacitance representationBasics of Electrical Engineering « II One unit of capacitance in Farad (F) is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor between the conducting plates in which there appears a potential difference of 1 V when it is charged by 1 coulomb Q C== U (1.26) If a dielectric of relative permittivity €, is placed in between two conducting plates of area A each in m? and separated by a distance d metrg c= Gee (1.27) d ania €o = absolute permittivity = 8.854 x 10° The law governing the wu, i relationship of a capacitor is - duc =C— 1.28 aCe (1.28) The instantaneous power in the capacitance is : du D=tic= Cure Energy stored in the capacitance En= [pa=c | nau En=5 ce (1.29) The energy stored in the capacitance depends upon the instantaneous value of the voltage. As the voltage reduces to zero, all the energy stored in the capacitance is returned to the circuit in which it is connected. Example?.f2_ A capacitor is constructed from two metal plates whose sides each are (100 x 120) mm?. The plates are separated by a dielectric of thickness 2.2 mm and relative permittivity of 5. Calculate the capacitance. Data A = (100 x 120) mm? = 0.012 m?; d=22mm=22x 10? m; ¢ =5 Aim C? Solution C= a4 = eG 0.012 = 12: = (8.854 x 1077) x 5x 5 = 241.47 x 107? = 241.47 pF12 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Example113 Calculate the energy stored in a 12 F capacitor which has been charged to a voltage of 250 V Data C = 12 pF = 12 x 10-6 F,u, = 250 V Aim 1 =u cvs 1075) x (250)? = 0375) 1.3. SIUNITS - The international system of units, identified internationally as SI units has replaced the older systems of units used in science and technology throughout the world. It has been adopted by a resolution-of the ‘‘Conference Generale des Poids et Measures" (CGPM) as ISO Recommendation R 1000, in Feb 1969. There is a SI base unit for each of the physical quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and luminous intensity, which by convention are regarded as being dimensionally independant. The SI unit of any other quantity is derived by dimensionally appropriate simple multiplications and divisions of the SI base units without the introduction of any numerical factors. Such a system of unit is called Coherent. SI unit is also independant of the effect of the earth's gravity. There is a strict distinction between the mass with the kg as its unit and the weight, that is the force due to gravity, given in the new unit N (Newton). The force of 1 N will give an acceleration ia I m/s? toa mass of 1 kg. Table 1.1 gives SI base units Table 1,1 SI Base Units Qty. Symbol Quan. Unit Symbol Name t Length — m metre 7 Mass kg kilogram ! Time s Second t Electric current A ampere ‘Thermodynamic 7 Hee temperature Luminous intensity ed Candela The following tables give the letter synbols and SI units used in Power Transmission Engineering.Basics of Eiectrical Engineering 13 fukupir> and Submultiples Table 1.2 Decin: Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol 108 Exa E 105 Peta, Pp 102 Tera T 107 Giga G 108 Mega M 10° kilo k 10? hecto h 10 deca da 10 deci d 107? centi c 107 milli m 10-6 » micro 1 10 “nano a 1971? pico P 107' femto f 10-8 atto a Table 1.3 SI Units —~ Geometry Symbol - Quantity ‘S/Unit Symbol Name A Area mm Square metre 0.8.7 Plane angle rad Radian degree ’ Breadth m metre aé Thickness m metre d Diameter m metre h Height m metre t Lengds m metre r Radius m metre 5 Length of path m metre v Volume mi Cubic metre Table 1.4 SI Units—Time and Periodic Phenomena Symbol Quantity SlUnit Name @ Acceleration (linear) m/s a Angular acceleration rad/s? f Frequency He Herz 8 Acceleration on free fall m/s? n Rotation frequency Us 1 per second w Angular velocity rad/s rad/sec T Time constant . s second t Time s second v Velocity (linear speed) ms metre pe- sec14 » Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Table 1.5 SI Units — Mechanics Symbol Quantity S/Unit Name E ‘Modulus of Elasticity Pa pascal 7 F Force N Newton G(W) Weight N Newton J Moment of inertia kgm? —_ kilogram met sq M(T) Torque Nm Newton metre P Real power w Watt P Pressure Pa pascal é Density (mass density) kg/m? ° Stress Pa pascal W(En) Work (Energy) J Joule n Efficiency 1 u Coefficient of friction 1 Table 1.6 SI Units Thermodynamics Symbol Quantity SI Unit Name a Temperature coefficient WK I per Kelvin T Thermodynamic temperature = K Kelvin 1,6 Celcius temp °C degree celcius " AT,A@ Temperature rise K Kelvin Table 1.7 SI Units — Electricity Symbol Quantity Si Unit Name Cc Capacitance F Farad G Conductance “$s ‘Siemens I Electric current A ampere i Current density Alm? amp/sg.m L Inductance H Henry P Active power Ww Wait Q Reactive power var var R Resistance 2 ohm s Apparent power VA ‘Volt-ampere u(y) Voltage, tension, v Volt potential difference x Reactance 2 ohm Zz Impedance 2 chm Table 1.8 SI Units — Magnetism Symbol Quantity SiUnit Name B Magnetic flux density, T Testa (Wo/m*) Magnetic Induction @ Magnetic flux Wb Weber H Magnetic field strength = A/m = Ampere per metre 7 L Self Inductance H HenryBasics of Electrical Engineering » 15 REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 1.1 _ Define the voltage in an electric circuit. RQ 1.2 Define the term ‘current’ in an electric circuit. RQ 1.3 Under what conditions does a current flow in a circuit. RQ 1.4 Distinguish between Power and Energy. RQ 1.5 How is electrical energy accounted for a residential consumer? RQ 1.6 Define the term ‘Inductance* RQ 1.7 Write down the equation for capacitance of a capacitor in terms of its dimensions and material. RQ 1.8 List out the quantities and their units that are considered as base units RQ i. Define the Henry as the unit of self inductance. RQ 1.10 Explain the terms: Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance. PROBLEMS P. 1.1 Find the length of 30 SWG Nichrome wire of diameter 0.315 mm that would be required to construct a heating coil of 1000 W rating to be operated at 230 V supply. Resistivity for Nichrome can be assumed as 110 » ohm-cm. {Ans : 3.75 mi P. 1.2 The resistance of a field winding is 200 ohm at 25° C and 250 ohm at 75° C. Find the temperature coefficient of the conductor at 0°C. [Ans: 1/175] P. 1.3. Find the lamp resistance and the current taken by a 230 V. 40 W incandescent lamp? {Ans: R = 13225. 7 = 0.174 Al P.1.4 A 230 V filament lamp takes 0.5 A from the supply. Calculate its daily energy consumption if it is switched on for 12 hrs a day. {Ans: 1.38\ kWH] P. 1.5 A capacitor is made from two parallel plates separated from each other by 2.5 mm thick dielectric material of permittivity, ¢ = 500 €9. Calculate the value of the capacitor if the area of each plate is 30 cm’. {Ans: 5.31 pF] P. 1.6 A flux of 0.5 mWb is produced by a coil of 800 turns wound on a wooden ring by a current of 4 A. Calculate (i) the inductance of the coil and (ii) the average emf induced in the coil when a current of 6 A is switched off, assuming the current to fall 9 zero in 1.5 ms. {Ans: (i) L = 0.1 H; (ii) 400 V)DC Circuits Electric circuits fed by a Direct Current (DC) source are called DC circuits. DC source is one which will provide a voltage and hence a current of unidirectional nature. On steady operating condition, one or more resistances present in the circuit form the passive elements in the circuit and the source of emf provided by either batteries or DC generators form the active elements in the circuit. The flow of current through several branches of the circuit and the voltage across its several elements are governed by two basic laws (i) Ohm’s Law and (ii) Kirchhoff’s Laws. 2.1 CIRCUIT LAWS 2.1.1 Ohm's Law Statement Ohm's law states that, temperature remaining constant, the current through a passive element in the circuit is directly proportional to the voltage across the element. The passive element may be an individual element or an equivalent of | 1 v a number of passive elements connected in series or parallel or a combination of some in series and w+ some in parallel. i.e. Ohm's law can be applied to any particular part of the circuit or to a complete circuit. Fig. 2.1. Simple DC circuit IxU In the simple DC circuit shown in Fig. 2.1,18 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ie. 1-3 "ay or U=IR (2.2) or rad (2.3) 2.1.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws For circuits involving one or more active elements and a number of passive elements connected in series parallel, Kirchhoff’s laws are useful. These are obtained by the extension of Ohm’s law. 2.1.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) This is also called as Kirchhoff’s first law or Kirchhoff’s nodal law. Statement Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction or node is zero. The term ‘algebraic’ means the value of the quantity along with its sign, positive or negative. Alternate Statement Sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from the} junction. Consider Fig. 2.2 where five branches of a circuit are connected together at the junction or node A. Currents J, /, and J, are flowing towards the junction whereas currents J; and Is are flowing away from junction A. If a positive sign is assigned to the currents 1, 4, and I, that are flowing Fig. 2.2. Currents meeting in a junction into the junction then the currents J; and J, flowing away from the junction should be assigned with the opposite sign i.e. the negative sign. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to junction A +h-h+I,— J; =0 (algebraic sum is zero) The above equation gets modified as Ij + +1, = + Js (sum of currents towards the junction = sum of currents flowing away from the junction)DC Circuits « 19 2.1.4 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) This is also called as Kirchhoff’s second law or Kirchhoff’s loop or mesh law. Statement Algebraic sum of all the voltages around a closed path or closed loop at any instant is zero. * A corollary to this law follows immediately: The potential difference between any two points in an electric circuit is the same regardless of the path followed in determining the potential differences. As algebraic sum of the voltages means the magnitude and direction of the voltages, care should be taken in assigning proper signs or polarities for voltages in different sections of the circuit. The polarity of the voitages across active elements are fixed on its terminals, The polarity of the voltage drop across the passive elements (Resistance in DC circuits) should be assigned with reference to the direction of the current through the elements with the concept that the current flows from a higher potential to lower potential. Hence, the entry point of the current through the passive elements should be marked as the positive polarity of voltage drop across the element and the exit point of the current as the negative polarity. The direction of currents in different branches of the circuits are initially marked either with the known direction or assumed direction. After assigning the polarities for the voltage drops across the different passive elements, algebraic sum is accounted around a closed loop, either clockwise or anticlockwise, by assigning a particular sign, say the positive sign for all rising potentials along the path of tracing and the negative sign for all decreasing potentials. For example consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3. Fig. 2.3. Circuit for KVL20 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The circuit has three active elements with voltages E;, E, and E3. The polarity of each of them is fixed. Rj, R2 and R3 are three passive elements present in the circuit. Currents /; and J; are marked flowing into the junction A and current /, marked away from the junction with known information or assumed direction. With reference to the direction of these currents, the polarity of the voltage drops U;, U2 and U3 are marked. For loop 1 it is considered around clockwise + £,)-U,+U;-E; =0 . Fh -4R +b: -& =0 or Ey — By =hR, ~ bRs (2.4) For loop 2 it is considered anticlockwise +£y+U,-U;-E,=0 +E, + bR. + bR3 - Ey =0 or Ey -Ey=—hR, - bR3 (2.5) Two equations are obtained following Kirchhoff’s voltage law. A third equation can be written based on Kirchhoff's current law as h-h+h=0 (2.6) With the three equations, one can solve for the three currents hh, hand h. If the result obtained for J;, J; and J; are all positive, then the assumed direction of the currents are said to be along the actual direction. A negative result for one or more currents will indicate that the assumed direction of the respective current is opposite to the actual direction. 2.2 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS 2.2.1 Resistors in Series Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4(a) where three resistors are connected in series. teu ee i > li THE oll uU U (a) Three resistors in series (b) Equivalent diagram Fig. 2.4 Resistors in SeriesDC Circuits © 21 The circuit in Fig. 2.4(a) has only one closed path. Hence, a single current J flows through all the three resistances. Applying Ohm's Law to resistances R;, Rz and R3 U, = IR; U2 = IRz and U3 = IR3 Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to the single loop available. U-U-W-U,=0 UHUtr+U; = IR, + IR> + IR; U =1(R, + Rp + Rs) 7 (2.7) Applying Ohm's Law to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2.4(b) U = TRegs (2.8) From the equations (1) and (2) Regs = Ry +R + Rs In general, when ‘n’ number of resistors are connected in series, their equivalent resistance is given by Regs = [Ry + Rp + Ry +... + Re] (2.9) A or Regs = YR; (2.10) i=l * Example 2.1 _A filament lamp is rated for 100 W and 110 V. Find the value of the resistance to be connected in series with this lamp so that it can be operated on a 230 V supply. What is the power loss in the resistor? Lamp {fp U=230V Fig. 2.5 Figure for example 2.122 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Data P,=100 W; U, =110 V; U=230V Aim R? Pr? Solution To maintain the same power from the lamp, the current P, 10 f =U," Tho * 0.9091 A. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law U—Ug-U;=0 Up = U — U; = 230-110 "= 120V "yp UR _ 120 _ LR= T = gooor = 1322 Power loss in the resistor Pr = PR = (0.9091)? x 132 = 109.1 W 2.2.2 Resistors in Parallel Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6(a) where three resistors are connected in parallel. (a) Three resistors in parallel {b) Equivalent diagram Fig. 2.6 Resistors in parallel Here, voltage applied across the three resistors are same as the supply voltage U. Applying Ohm’s Law to individual elements N= U/R h=U/R, 4 = U/R3 Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law to junction A T=h+ht+h Ui UU “RRR 11 1 i=ulp+eta| (2.11)DC Circuits « 23 Applying Ohm's Law to the equivalent circuit’shown in Fig. 2.6(b) 1 ’ l=U>— 2.12, i (2.12) From equations (2.8).and (2.9) it is evident that =F lk aby x Reg {Ri Ra Rs In general, when ‘n’ number of resistors are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance is given by 1 1 ms lkte +z (2.13) 1 n or == : (2.14) Reap y HW VU oncair Example 2.2 Across a 220 V supply terminal in a house, an electric iron having a resistance of 50 ohm and two incandescent lamps of resistances 450 ohm and 800 ohm each are connected. Find the total current and power taken from the supply mains. Fig. 2.7. Diagram for example 2.2 Data U=220V; FR =502; Rn = 4502; Rp = 8002 Aim 17P? Solution: This problem can be solved by two methods. Method? 1 14 1 so ests te Rep Ri Ra Ro Soe Eee ~ 50° 450" 800 = 0.02 + 0.00222 + 0.00125 = 0.02347 Reg = 42.61 224 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering U 220 = Rpt ae FIA P= UI = 220 x 5.163 = 1135.86 W Method 2 U__ 220 haga arta U _ 220 Ta = = Fag = 0-489 A U _ 220 ==> = 0.27: In Ra ~ 800 3 T= T+ In + Ip = 4.4 + 0.489 + 0.275 = 5.164 A. Uf, = 220 x 4.4 = 968 W Py = Uly = 220 x 0.489 = 107.58 W Pp = Uln = 220 x 0,275 = 60.5 W P=P,+ Py + Pre = 968 + 107.58 + 60:5 = 1136.08 W. 2.2.3. Series—Parallel Circuits Tt may be often necessary to use combinations of series. and parallel arrangement of resistors. Suchcircuitscanbesolved by combining, first the parallel groups into an equivalent resistance and then to add this equivalent Tesistance to other series resistances to determine the total resistance. The current produced by the voltage applied can then be obtained as usual. The “Plowing example (Ex. 2.3) illustrates this procedure. ample 2.3 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8(a), find the current in the resistor of 40 ohm. Ann Barta c oo 8a \ ey <— ue — yu u 250 V DC 250 V DC (@) Circuit for example 2.3 (b) Equivalent circuit Fig. 2.8 Series-Parallel circuitDC Circuits « 25 Solution Equivalent resistance for parallel group across terminals BC Totti Rac Ry, Ry” Re etiiyl ~ 15 ~ 30" 40 = 0.067 + 0.033 + 0.025 1 =— = 0.125 Rec 1 =——=82 Rac = Ti95 = 8 Now as shown in Fig. 2.8(b) this resistance Rac = 8 2 is in series with Ry = 10 Q and Rs = 7 2. Total resistance across the terminals Rap = Rap + Rac + Rep = Ry +Rac + Rs =104+8+7=250 = WU. = 250 Total current J =--=®- 10A Voltage drop across the parallel resistors 7 Use = IRec =10x8=80V Current through Ry = 40 2 resistor 1 = Uae 80 Ry - 40 =2A iple 2.4 Assuming the battery internal resistances to be zero, calculate the current supplied by the two batteries in the network shown in Fig. 2.9. Fig. 2.9 Circuit for example 2.426 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Solution The four junctions are marked as A, B, C and D. The current through R; is assumed to flow from A to B and through R2, from C to B and finally through R3 from B to D. With reference to current directions, polarities of the voltage drop in R;, Ry and Ry are then marked as shown in the figure. Applying KCL to junction B h=h+h (1) Applying KVL to loop 1 E, -hR — BR; =0 LR, +4Ry =E; 10h + 2545 = 90 - 2) Substituting eqn (1) in eqn (2) 10h +25() +) = 90 or 35h + 25h = 90 (3) Applying KVL to loop 2 E, —- hR.— BR; =0 BR. + bR3 = Ey 5h + 25h = 125 (4) Substituting eqn (1) in eqn (4) 5h + 25(h +h) = 125 25h + 30h = 125 (5) Multiplying eqn (3) by : we get 42h + 30h = 108 (6) Subtracting eqn (6) from eqn (5) -17h =17 or L=-1lA Substituting the value of J; in eqn (5) we get h=5A As the sign of the current /; is found to be negative from the solution, the actual direction of J; is from B to A to D i.e. 90V battery gets a Zane current of 1 A. xample 2.5 A 60 W, 220 V bulb and a 100 W, 220 V bulb are connected in series across a 440 V, DC supply. (i) Find the voltage across each bulb. (ii) Which bulb would burn brighter? (iii) Determine the value of a resistor R3 to be connected in parallel with the 60 W bulb to ensure equal sharing of voltage.DC Circuits ¢ 27 60 W 100 W rR, PR ' wwe R; U=440V Fig. 2.10 Circuit for example 2.5 Data Py =60W: Un =220V: Pe =100V; U2 =220V; U=440V Aim (i) U;? U2? so that Uj) + Ux = U Gi) R3?—— sso that Uy. = Uap =% Solution Case (i) Two bulbs in series Resistance of 60 W lamp yr _ 220 a) R,; = 806.67 Resistance of 100 W lamp Total resistance R=R4R, = 806.67 + 484 = 1290672 Current U I=z _ 440 ~~ 1290.67 = 0.3409 A28 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Voltage across 60 W lamp ; Ui, = IR; = 0.3409 x 806.67 =275V Voltage across 100 W lamp Un, = IRy = 0.3409 x 484 = 165V Check: Uj, + Uz) = 275 + 165 = 440 V The 60 W lamp would be burning brighter than the 100 W lamp as it shares a much higher voltage. However, the 60 W lamp is likely to be fused out as U; > Uy Case (ii) A resistor R3 is connected in parallel with 60 W lamp so that U Uy = Un = z For equal sharing of voltage, the parallel combination of R3 and R; must have the same equivalent resistance as Rp ie. Ry |! Ro =Rr RRs Rem ® RiR3 = RiR2 + RoR3 R3(Ri — Ro) = RiRe R= RR, __806.67 x 484 3 (Ri — Ry) (806.67 — 484) / Ry = 12102 Example 2.6 A Wheatstone bridge consists of AB = 4 ohm, BC = 3 ohm, CD = 6 ohm and DA = 5 ohm. A 2.4 V cell is connected between B and D and a galvanometer of 8 ohm is connected between A and C. Find the current through the galvanometer. Data Data marked in Fig. 2.11 Aim I,? Solution Applying KVL for loop ADBA “5(h +h) +24-4h =0 or 9h + 5g = 2.4 qd) Applying KVL for loop ABCA. 4h - 3h - Big =0 or 34 -4h + 8l¢g =0 (2)DC Circuits « 29 2.4V Fig. 2.11 Circuit for example 2.6 Applying KVL for loop ACDA 81, — 6() — Ig) +5(h + Ig) =0 or 6h — 5h — 191g =0 (3) (2) x2 6h — 8h + 161g = 0 (4) (3) - (4) 3h — 35Ig = 0 (5) (5) x3 9h - 105Ig = 0 (6) (1) = (6) 110g = 2.4 Ig = 0.0218 A Example 2.7 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.12, find the value of R and U and also find the power delivered by the source. Data As given in Fig. 2.12 Aim R?U?P? Solution By applying Ohm's law, Voltage across 20 2 resistor Usp = Is x 20 = 1.5 x 20=30V Voltage across 60 2 resistor Uso = U2p = Uzp = 30 V. Current through 60 90 resistor:ly = oe 2 =O05A.30 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering I= 5A Fig. 2.12 Circuit for example 2.7 By applying KCL to node B, Current through R,3 =1,+J5=05+15=2A By applying KVL to loop CABDC (loop 2) Usc — Usa — Upp = 0 Usg = Usc — Upp = 60 — 30 =30V By applying Ohm's law to R Ugg _ 30 =| =3 7 152 By applying Ohm's law to 30 2 resistor Use _ 60 b= 39 = 307 By applying KCL to node A h=h+h=2+2=4A By applying KVL to loop 1 U (hx 5) — Use = 0 U = 5h, + Use = (5 x 4) + 60 U=80V AN P = Ul, = 80 x 4 = 320 W. Example 2.8 A battery having an emf of 210 V and an internal resistance of 1 ohm is connected in parallel with a DC generator of emf 220 V and an internal resistance of 0.5 ohm to supply a load having a resistance of 5 ©. Calculate (i) Current delivered by the battery. (ii) Current delivered by the generator and (iii) Voltage across the load.DC Circuits © 31 Fig. 2.13. Circuit for example 2.8 Data As given in Fig. 2.13 Aim 1? h? Uy? Sofution Applying KCL to node B Lh=ht+h Applying KVL to loop DABCD Uy — Ny + LR, ~ Uz = 0 210 ~ 1h + 0.5h ~ 220=0 or -h+05h = 10 (1) Applying KVL to loop BCBD U, —hR, ~ U, =0 U, — BR, ~ hR, =0 U, — DR, ~ (h + h)Ri = 0 220 -0.5h -(h+h)5=0 5.0/, + 5.5 = 220 or +1lh=44 (2) Adding equation (1) & (2) 16h, = 54 Current supplied by generator J7 = 33.75 A Substituting the value of J2 in eqn (2), 1 =44= th = 44 (1.1 x 33.75) = 44 — 37.12532 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Current supplied by battery J; = 6.875 A Load current IL = +h = 6.875 + 33.75 = 40.625 A Voltage across the load Uz = eR = 40.625 x 5 U, = 203.125 V Check: Up = (Us ~ bR,) = (Up — Ry) = 203.125 V Example 2.9 Calculate the current through the 10 ohm resistor in the network shown in Fig. 2.14 1, R, ALAR, B Fig. 2.14 Circuit for example 2.9 Data As shown in Fig. 2.14. Aim 1s? , Solution Parallel combination of Rq and Rs Ris 15 x 10 Rob = BER se 10) 7 9% Adding Rgp with R3 Rago = Rs + Rep =5+6= 110 Parallel combination of Ragp with Rz _Rpx Rapp _ 20x11 Ry +Rasp (20+ 11) Total resistance of the circuit R= R, + Rac = 5 + 7.097 = 12.0972 .. Total current J; = U/R, = 12/12.097 = 0.992 A. Rac = 7.0972DC Circuits « 33 Ure = U -LR, = 12 ~ (0.992 x 5) = 7.04 V 7.04 + hy = Usc/Rr = 30 = 0.352 A kh =h - h = 0.992 - 0.352 = 0.64 A Current through 10 resistor Ry 15 Is=h < Ra OO! * GET ay = OBA A Check: Ugc = Usac — I3R3 = 7.04 — (0.64 x 5) = 3.84 Js = Upc /Rs = ba = 0.384 A REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 2.1 State and explain Kirchhoff's Laws. RQ 2.2 State and explain Ohm's Law. RQ 2.3 Derive the equation for equivalent resistance of number of resistors connected in series. RQ 2.4 Derive the equation for equivalent resistance of number of resistor connected in parallel. RQ2.5 Ry, Ro, Ry are three resistances, Find their combined resistance when they are connected (i) in series and (ii) in parallel. PROBLEMS P 2.1 Resistors of 100 ohm, 1k ohm and 500 ohm are all connected in series across a 400 V DC supply. Find the current through each resistor and the potential difference across each resistor. Also find the total power drawn. [Ans: J = 0.25 A; 25 V, 250 V, 125 V; P = 100 W) P2.2 Three resistors of 5 ohm, 12 ohm and 6 ohm are connected in parallel across a 24 V battery of negligible internal resistance. Determine (i) the current drawn by each resistor (ii) the current delivered by the battery and (iii) total Power consumed. Ans: (i) 4.8 A, 2 A, 4 A; (ii) 10.8 A (iii) 259.2 W) P 2.3 The total current drawn by 3 resistors in parallel is 22 A from 110 V, DC supply. One resistor is 22 ohm and another is 50 ohm. Find the value of the third resistor, its current and power. [Ans: 7.4324 Q; 14.8 A. 1.628 kW] P2.4 A Wheatstone bridge consists of AB = 0.5kQ; BC = 1kQ;CD =2k | and DA = 1.2k2. A 6 V cell is connected between B and D and a galvanometer of 1k0 is connected between A and C. Find the current through the galvanometer, [Ans: 0.1165 mA from A to C] P 2.5 Resistors of values 2, 3, 4 and 5 ohm are connected in parallel. If the total power absorbed by all the resistors is 200 W, find the voltage applied to the Circuit. What is the power absorbed by each branch? [Ans: U = 12.5 V; P = 78 W, 52 W, 39 W, 31 W)34 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering P2.6 Two batteries are connected in parallel and a resistance of 1.5 ohm is connected across the terminals. Battery No.1 has an emf of 120 V and an internal resistance of 0.1 ohm. Battery No.2 has an emf of 110 V and an internal resistance of 0.2 ohm. Calculate the current supplied by each battery and the power dissipated in the 1.5 ohm resistor. [Ans: J, = 83-A; h = 8.5 A; P = 8.34 kW) P 2.7 Find the current flowing through the & ohm and 20 ohm resistors in the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.15 below. {Ans: 4.956 A, 2.202 A] 4Q 62 12Q Fig, 2.15 P 2.8 What is the value of an unknown resistor connected in series with a resistor of 24 ohm, if.the potential drop across the 24 ohm resistor is 72 V and that across the former is 48 V? [Ans: 16 2] P 2.9 In the circuit shown in fig 2.16, calculate the current in 10 ohm resistor and the power dissipated in 30 ohm resistor. {Ans: / = 0.545A; P = 1.43 W] 102 309 Ee av Fig. 2.16AC Circuits Electric circuits fed by alternating current (AC) sources are called AC circuits. AC source is one which will provide voltage and hence current which periodically passes through a definite cycle of changes. Each cycle consists of two half cycles during one of which the AC quantity acts in one direction around the circuit and during the other half cycle in the opposite direction. AC circuits may have any one or two or all the three types of passive elements namely resistors, inductors and capacitors. 3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF AC CIRCUITS Alternating quantity An alternating quantity, voltage or current, is one which varies periodically both in magnitude and direction. The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the magnitude of the quantity on Y-axis and time or angle on X-axis is called the waveform of the quantity. Fig. 3.1 shows the shape of the waveform of some of the alternating quantity. Fig. 3.1 (a) shows AC voltage of triangular waveform and Fig. 3.1 (b) shows AC current of trapezoidal waveform. From the figures it is seen that both waveforms undergo similar variations periodically. ) IN | \ 2T 2T > I T i t Ir 7 2 2 (a) AC Voltage - Triangular Waveform | (b) AC Current - Trapezoidal Waveform Fig. 3.2 Alternating quantity waveforms36 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Sinusoidal voltage and current Although, generally speaking, AC quantity waveform may have wave shapes of triangular, square, trapezoidal etc. AC voltage and current generated in power stations and used in residential or industrial or commercial places are only sinusoidal voltages and currents. Sinusoidal voltages and currents undergo changes in magnitude and direction with respect to time according to sine or cosine trigonometric functions. Fig. 3.2 shows the sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms. Fig. 3.2. Sinnsoidal voltage and current The sinusoidal voltage waveform shown in Fig. 3.2 can be mathema- tically expressed as u = Um cos wt = Um cos 8 (3.1) The sinusoidal current waveform can be expressed as i=IJ,sin wt =Insin 0 (3.2) Table 3.1 shows the variation of the voltage and current with respect to time or angle. Table 3.1 Variation of Voltage and Current S.No. ' @ w= Up coswt = Iysinwt = Uy cos = Iq sin8 1 0 0 Um 0 2 Td 30 0.866 Un 0.5 In 3 20/2 60 0.5 Um 0.86 In 4 3T/12, 90 0 fy 5 47/12 120 0.5 Up 0.866 Iy 6 ST/2 150 ~0.866 Uy, 0.5 In 7 oT/2 180 ~Um 0 8 TTA2 210 0.866 Un 0.5 I 9 sT/12 240 =0.5 Up 0.866 Jy 10 9T/2 270 0 In ul 107/12 300 05 Un 0.866 I, a NITN2 330 0.866 Uy, -05 I, 3 T 360 Un 0AC Circuits © 37 Period and frequency The Period (7) is defined as the time taken by an AC quantity to complete one cycle of waveform. Frequency (f) is defined as the number of cycles of changes undergone by an AC quantity in one second. Frequency is denoted by ‘f’ and its unit is Hertz (Hz). Period T and frequency f are related as =+ Hz (3.3) or T=; s (3.4) ‘w? is called as angular frequency and is expressed in electrical radians per second, w=2nf = 2 rad/s (3.5) The supply frequency in our country is 50 Hz. Therefore, the AC voltage and current provided by the EB supply takes T = 1/50 = 0.02 second to complete one cycle of waveform. Then, the angular frequency w=2nf = 20x 50 = 314. Peak value This is the maximum or highest value of the alternating quantity attained by it in a cycle. The peak value is also otherwise called as maximum or crest value. From Table 3.1, it can be seen that at any instant, the values of voltage and current waveforms are either equal to Um and J», or a fraction of Um, and Im. Therefore, in the equations for instantaneous value of an alternating quantity, similar to equations (3.1) and (3.2), the coefficient of cos or sin function of the equation represent the maximum or peak value of the quantity, ie if u=311 cosur then U, = 311 V Similarly if f= 10 sinwt then Tm = 10 A. Average value This is the mean or average value of an alternating quantity over one half of a cycle. The average value of an alternating quantity is also defined as the height of a rectangle having the same area as one half cycle of the given alternating quantity and having the same base. In Fig. 3.3 the half cycle of a sinusoidal voltage is shown and can be expressed as u=U, sin wt = Umsin &38 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Equivalent rectangle Um —_ — — — us Up Sin wt Sine Wave Se n/a 7 Fig. 3.3 Average value Its area can be obtained as © Area of half cycle voltage wave = / udo 0 = i Un sin 8 dt 0 = Un[- cos |g = Unll -(-1)] = 2Un Uy = height of the equivalent rectangle having the same base fra ~ base Up = 2Um 7 Uw =u, = 0.637 Un (3.6) Similarly, for a current wave Tey 2 In = 0.637 In (3.7) RMS value For all calculation purposes, the RMS value expanded as Root Mean Square Value is used, as it refers to the real power absorbed or power generated. Hence, the RMS value is also called as effective or virtual value.. AC Circuits © 39 The RMS value of an alternating current or voltage is one which gives the same heating effect value as that of the direct current or voltage. For an instantaneous current i, the instantaneous real power or heating effect is 2. Then, the average heating effect of the periodic function is 21 [2 P=-] ide mJo For sinusoidal current == nat f In? sin’ dO 0 2 = alm [fins oA a0 T 2 oO aim [,_sin26]" On 2 Jo 2 1s yoo Tm? 2 tn ea) Tnz [= = 0.107 In (3.8) Similarly, for sinusoidal voltage Un U =—2=0.707 Un, 3.9 v2 89) Peak factor . Peak factor of an alternating quantity is the ratio of peak value to rms value. It is denoted by Kp. Peak/Maximum Value aA ms Value Peak factor is also called as crest factor or the amplitude factor. For sinusoidal wave _ __Max. Value (Max. Value/V2) Kp = V2 = 1.414 (3.10) _Formfactor Form factor of an alternating quantity is the ratio of rms value to the average value. It is denoted by Ky40 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ___mms Value ¥ ™ Average Value For sinusoidal wave : __ (Max. Value//2) (2 Max. Value) nT Kp=— eel 3.11 135 (3.11) Example 3.7 An alternating voltage is given by u = 311 sin 3147 Calculate (i) frequency (ii) period (iii) maximum value (iv) average value and (v) rms value. Data u=3il sin 3147 Aim 2,12, Un?, U2; U? Ky Solution u= Um sin wt = 311 sin 3142 w= nf =314 () Frequency f = 24 = 50 Hz Oe Gi) Period T=4=4 0025 50 (iii) Maximum Value Up = 311 V (iv) Average Value Ug, =2 Un = 2 x3 Uy = 198 V Un 311 RMS Vah Us—2=—= A 7 Vivi U=220V Example 3.2 An alternating current is given by i = 707 sin 377 t Calculate (i) Frequency (ii) Maximum value (iii) Average value (iv) rms value and (v) instantaneous value of current when f = 3.5 ms. Data j= 707 sin 377¢ Aim #2, In 2, ly 2,17, i 2 att = 3.5 ms = 3.5 x 10-35 Solution t= I, sin wt = 707 sin 377 ¢ w= 377 = Inf (i) Frequency f = = 60 Hz i) Maximum value J = 707 A.AC Circuits @ 41 2 2 (iii) Average value Igy == x In = = x 707 r Tq, = 450 A L, 707 (iv) RMS value J = A “5 T=SO00A (v). atr= 3.58, i= 707 sin (377 x 3.5 x 10-3) = 707 sin (1.3195) = 707 x 0.9686 i = 684.79 A 3.2 PHASOR REPRESENTATION In Fig. 3.2 two alternating quantities, a voltage and a current are Tepresented by means of cosine and sine waveforms respectively. They are further represented in trignometric equation form as u=U,n cos wt (3.1) and i=Z sin wt (3.2) Equation 3.1 can be modified as A © u= Un sin (wt +3) (3.12) The common term between equations (3.2) and (3.12) is the angular frequency w where w = Inf (3.5) The presence of the common term w in the equations for the two alternating quantities, voltage and current indicates that both the quantities have the same frequency. Further, this can be confirmed teferring to Table 3.1 that both quantities complete one cycle of changes within the same period of T second. It can also be concluded from Table 3.1 that the quantity current takes similar values (i.e. maximum, 0,866, 0.5, 0 etc.) of voltage at an angle 90° or § radians later than the voltage. This difference $ is nothing but the same } which appeared in equation (3.12). This angle difference is called as the phase angle. Therefore, in AC circuits having number of voltages across different pair of points in the circuit and number currents through different branches of the circuit, all of them having the same frequency, it may be enough to account for their respective rms value (maximum value 1/2) and their relative phase angle. One need not keep track of their variation with respect to time as indicated by their waveform representation.42 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Phasor representation is a graphical representation in which different sinusoidal quantities having the same frequency are represented by straight lines having a definite length (proportional to their rms- value) and angular direction (equal to their phase angle difference). A four quadrant diagram in which different voltage and current phasors belonging to a single AC circuit are represented is called a phasor diagram. Ali voltage phasors are drawn with a particular scale and all current phasors are drawn with another scale. For example, in an AC circuit, if there are two voltage phasors U, = 200 V and U2 = 150 V, a voltage scale of 1 cm = 20 V may be selected and the phasor U, can be drawn to a length of 10cm and U, toa length of 7.5 cm. Similarly, in the same circuit, if there are two current phasors /; = 50 A and / = 30 A, then a current scale of lcm =5 A may be selected and current J; can be drawn to a length of 10cm and current J) to a length of 6 cm. To fix the direction of the different phasors, initially one of the phasor which is a common quantity, is considered as the reference phasor and may be drawn along positive x-axis. For example, in a parallel circuit, supply voltage which is common for all parallel paths may be considered as the reference phasor. On the other hand, in a series circuit, the current which passes through the different elements in the circuit may be considered as the reference phasor. Other phasors are drawn at suitable phase angles counted from the reference phasor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. Counting the phase angle in a clockwise direction corresponds to a lagging direction and in an anticlockwise direction corresponds to a leading direction. The terms lagging and leading have simple dictionary meanings. A lagging phasor is one which falls back in action with respect to the reference phasor and its di- tection is fixed by counting the phase angle in clockwise direction. The principle is with reference to the normal clock as shown in Fig. 3.4. Suppose 3 0’ clock is chosen Fig 3.4 Lagging + Leading in a clock as the reference time, then as 50’ clock occurs only after 2 Hrs from 3 0’ clock, 5 0’ clock is said to lag 3 0” clock by 2 Hrs. The position of 5 0’ clock is situated at an angle of 60° moving clockwise from 3 0’ clock position,AC Circuits © 43 Similarly as 12 0’ clock occurs ahead of 3 0’ clock by 3 Hrs, one can say 12 0” clock leads 3 0’ clock by 3 Hrs. The 12 0° clock position is traced by moving anticlockwise from 3 0’ clock through 90°. Hence, a phasor whose action is ahead of the reference phasor is said to be a leading phasor and its direction is fixed by counting the phase angle in anticlockwise direction. The voltage and current phasors Y which were earlier represented by waveforms in Fig. 3.2 can now be represented in a phasor diagram simply by two straight lines as shown in Fig. 3.5. Here, the current phasor J is said to lag the voltage phasor U by 90°, or, the voltage phasor U is said to lead the current phasor J by 90°. Fig. 3.5 Simple phasor diagram 3.2.1 Complex Operator / The voltage and current phasors need not always be along X or Y axis as indicated in Fig. 3.5. They may be at an inclined direction also. In Fig. 3.6 four phasors are represented. Phasor Uj is along +ve x-axis and is considered as the reference phasor. It is represented in a polar form by its magnitude and direction as Uy = 1Uj| [20 Y-axis TI quadrant +180 X-axis ~1 -18d TIT quadrant -Y-axis Fig. 3.6 Phasor diagram for example 3.344 © Basic Electrical and Electronics; Engineering It has a horizontal component alone Ug = |U;} Phasor U; is in the I quadrant, leading U; by an angle ¢2 Un = |Up| [4 +02 Any inclined phasor can be resolved into two components, one along the horizontal or X-axis and the other along the vertical or Y-axis. Horizontal components of U2 Ugz = |U2| cos(+¢2) = |U2| cosd2, when ¢2 is < 90° Vertical component of U2 Uj. = (U2}_sin(+9) = [V2] sin dr Phasor J; is an inclined phasor shown in IV quadrant lagging reference phasor U; by an angle $3 b= \bld ~¢s Horizontal component of J; Tq3 = |23| cos(—¢3) = 73 cos ¢3 when 3 is- < 90° Vertical component of J3 13 = {I5| sin(—¢3) = 15 sin ¢3 Phase /, is along +ve Y-axis. It has only a vertical component Ty = || 2 +90 Tra = lal. Therefore, in general, any phasor is said to have either a horizontal component as U, or a vertical component as J, or both horizontal and vertical components as phasors U, and J;. To distinguish a vertical component from horizontal component the complex operator ‘j’ is introduced. The operator ‘7’ is added along with the vertical component of the phasor. Its value is j=16490=V-1 (3.13) So that j?=12180=-1 (3.14) P=1220=12-9=-j (3.15) ji=1£360=1 40 (3.16) ifjj=1l-9=-j (3.17) With the complex operator ‘j’, the four phasors U, U2, [3 and J, shown in Fig. 3.6 can be represented in a clear complex form as U, = |U,| £0 =|Uj| (cos 0 +/ sin 0) = (U,, +0) Uz = |Ua| £ +42 = [U2] (cos do +j sin $2) = (Ua +f U2)AC Circuits © 45 13 = |b 6-43 = (Js [cos ¢3 +/ sin(-os)} = |Is| (cos #3 —j sin $3) = (Jo3 - j Lis) 14 = \I4) ¢ +90 = |Z4| (cos 90+ j sin 90) = (0+j 1,4) Conversion facility from the polar form to the complex (or rectangular) form and vice-versa are available in most of the calculators so that one need not always multiply the modulus value with sine and cosine functions. Once the phasors are represented in the complex form, then their addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are made as simple as with normal numbers. The only change is that the calculator mode of operation has to be changed to the complex mode and each phasor is to be provided with two values within a set of brackets, an active or real value and another reactive or imaginary value along with the complex operator ‘j’ or sometimes represented as ‘i’. Example 3.3 Find the resultant of the two voltages given by uy = 63.63 sin (wr+ 30°) and uy = 84.85 sin (wt + 60°) Un2=30 Uat=38.97 UU, =68.9 Fig. 3.7 Phasor diagram for example 3.3 Data Uim = 63.63; 1 = 30°; Uam = 84.85; 2 = 60 Aim Uy =U, +U,?46 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Solutic Tel Uil = Uin/VE = 45 V [Us| = Uam/-V2 = 60 V = (Ui £01 = 45 230 = 45 (cos 30+j sin 30) = (38.97+j 22.5) Us = |U2| £ dr = 00 1 60° = 60 (cos 60+, sin 60) = (30+, 51.96) Up=Ut+h= [csssrsy 22.5) + (304) 5196)] = ((2897 +30)4) (22.5 + 5196) = [sso 7446] = 101.45 £47.22 Vian = |Ural x V2 = 143.47 U2 = 143.47 sin (wt + 47.22) Example 3.4 Currents in four parallel branches of an AC circuit are ven as 7 = 10 sin wt H = 25 cosut =15 sin (ur +2) = 20 sin (ut ~ 3) 7 (i) Find the total current in the circuit and express it in the form i=J, sin(wt +) (ii) What will be the total current if J, is reversed? Data Ih, =10; $,=0; = 25 coswt = 25 sin(ut +90) Lim = 25; G2 = 90 Tam = 15; 63 = 30; Iam = 20; ba = —45 Aim @Qmaht+h+h+h (i) le =h-h+h+h Solution 4B Bn | =Tm/V2 = 7.07; [hl = = = 17.68 {ht =Tim/ {hI Vi Lan Us| = Tom /V2 = 10.61 [Ia] = AB = 14.14 {hl = Lam/ Mal AAC Circuits © 47 I, = (hiZ 0 = 7.07 (cos 0+ J sin 0) = (7.07 + j0) hy = (h!. 90 = 17.68 (cos90 + j sin 90) = (0 +/17.68) J = |I3|£ 30 = 10.61 (cos30+/ sin 30) = (9.19 + 75.305) I, = |Is|¢ — 45 = 14.14 (cos45 —j sin 45) = (10 —j10) G@) Inelt+h+h+h = ((7.07 + j0) + (0 + j17.68) + (9.19 + 75.305) + (10 — j10)| = (26.26 + 12.985) = 29.2952 26.31° Tam = In x V2 = 29.295 x V2 = 41.43 in = 41.43 sin (wt + 26.31°) A Gi) In=h-h+h+h = [(7.07 + j0) — (0+ 17.68) + (9.19 +J5.305) + (10 — j10)} = (26.26 — 22.375) = 34.5/ —40.43 Tram = Tig x V2 = 34.5 x V2 = 48.79 in = 48.79 sin (ut — 40.43) A 3.2.2 Phasor Relations Involving R, L and C In chapter 1, the instantaneous u — i relationships for the three circuit elements are given as Resistance R: Up = ipR (1.8) di Inductance L: Uy = La (1.20) . due Capacitance C: ic = Ca (1.28) Consider an input sinusoidal voltage as u = U,, sinwt. Pure resistor For a pure resistor, if the voltage across the resistor is Up = Up sinwt Then, the current through the resistor Ur Um . ig = = sin wt =] ysinwt ORR q48 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Both the current and voltage are positive sine waves. Thus the current through the resistor is in phase with the voltage across the resistor and this relation is shown in Fig. 3.8(a) Ur == (3.18) Tr R If Up = |Up| 0, then, Ip = |Ip|2 0 Resistor is an energy converting device. It converts eiectrical energy into heat energy. The resistor consumes only real power. Reactive power consumption is zero. Pure Inductor — For a pure inductor, if the voltage across the inductor is U, = Up sinwt From eqn. (1.9) . 1 F iy =z [ae = jf Un sin wt - _ Un i= =r! cos wt) dt = In(— cos wt) = Im sin (wt — 90) R le Up (a) Resistance L U, I (b) Inductance —Ue le (c) Capacitance Fig, 3.8 U-I Relationship for R, L and C The current wave, a negative cosine wave. lags the voltage wave, a positive sine wave, by 90°.AC Circuits « 49 Thus, the current through the pure inductor lags the voltage across the inductor by 90°. Ut = jal ; (3.19) The term appearing in the denominator of the equation (3.19) is the opposition to the flow of AC current offered by the pure inductor and is defined as the inductive reactance X;. X, = wh = nfl (3.20) With the definition of X,, equation (3.19) can be modified as ou h * ix Tx (3.21) If Uz =[Ur|20, then h, = {f|Z - 90° By its property, the change in the current through the inductor causes a magnetic field to be set up and hence a self induced emf to develop which opposes the building up of the current through the inductor. Hence, the current through the inductor lags the applied voltage across it by 90°. The pure inductor consumes lagging reactive power. The real power consumption is zero. Pure capacitor If the voltage across the capacitor is uc = Um sin wt from equation (1.28) 7 due d . ic= Car = C7 {Um sin wt) =wCUn cos wt ic = Im Cos wt = Im sin (wt + 90) Thus, the current through the pure capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90° Ic = j(we)Uc (3.22) Uc Ic= Tue) (3.23). The term appearing in the denominator of the equation (3.23) is the Opposition to the flow of AC current offered by the pure capacitor and is defined as the capacitive reactance Xc Xo = =e (3.24)50 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering With the definition of Xc, equation (3.23) gets modified as Uc _U Io =i i c= Ty j Xe (3.25) If Uc = {Uc|Z0, then Ic = |Ic|d + 90°. By its property, a charged capacitor can give out a current prior to applying voltage. Hence, the current through the capacitance is said to lead the voltage across it by 90°. The pure capacitor consumes leading reactive power. The real power consumption is zero. A summary of the properties of the three circuit elements are given in the following Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Properties of R, L and C Circuit Opposition Current Phasor Effect on Effecton element tothe flow for _ relation current with current with of AC current voltage increase in increase in Zinohm value of frequency element, R Z=(R+P) In= pin phase decrease Tene with Up Lo ZH (0+j%:) =e HMB decrease decrease by 90° C Z=(0-j%Xe) Te leads Uc increase increase by 90° 3.3 POWER AND POWER FACTOR Ina sjngle phase AC circuit, if u and i are the instantaneous voltage and current with a phase angle difference of ¢ U = Upsin wt i =Ipsin (wt - 6) Then, the equation for instantaneous power pau = Unlmsin wt.sin (wt ~ >) = Und [cos wt — cos(2wt -— ¢)] = Ul|cos wt — cos (2ut — ¢)]AC Circuits « 51 If T is the period of the voltage and current waveforms, then the * “average power P is given by p=r [" a p= 1 cos ¢ (3.26) Thus, although the product of rms voltage and rms current, U/, appears to be the equation for power as in DC circuits, the real power in AC circuits is the product of (U/) and a factor cos ¢. As the factor cos is present in the equation for power in AC circuit, it is called as power factor. Thus power factor pf = cos¢ (3.27) Apparent power S= UI VA (3.28) Real power P=S cos¢ = UI cosd W (3.29) Reactive power Q = S sind = UI sing var (3.30) The real power present in an AC ciruit is one which is responsible for energy conversions from electrical to heat or light or mechanical etc. Thus, the real power carries out the real work. The reactive power present in an AC circuit is one which makes a reaction to take place in the circuit that assists the energy conversion process. 4 Complex power The complex power in a single phase AC circuit is q' given by the equation S=uUr (3.31) If the voltage and current phasors are = |U|Z0= [U|(cos0+j sin0) = (U +j0) and P={\lFo = |I|[cos(#¢) + j sin(+¢)} = |I\(coso #j sing) T=1,F jl, Then S=UI" = ((U[20) (MZ = 6)" = (JU[L0) (|Z + 4) = UI L+ ¢) = UT |cos (46) + j sin (+¢)] S= UI cos¢+j UI sine S= P+jQ=(S\it¢ VA (3.32)52 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering +ve sign corresponds to lagging power and ~ve sign corresponds to leading power. In pure resistive circuit Up = |Up| £0 and Ip = [In| £0 Sp = Uple* — Unle £0 Srp =(P+j0), coso=1 In pure inductive circuit Uz = |Uz| £0 and I, = |r| 4 ~ 90° Sp = Ut" = Uh, £ +90 S_ =(0+JjQ), cos¢ =0 lagging. In pure capacitive circuit Uc =|Uc| £0 and Ic = [Ic] ¢ + 90° Se = Uclt = Ucle 1 - 90 Sc =(0-JQ), cosd = 0 leading. 3.4 ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS Example 3.5 A circuit consists of an inductor of 0.2 H and a resistor of 50 ohm, What current will flow if a voltage of 230 V at 50 Hz is applied to the circuit and what will be the phase angle between the curren, and the applied voltage? 230 V, 50 Hz Fig. 3.9 Circuit diagram for example 3.5 Data L=02H; R=500; |U|=230V: f = 50 Hz Aim 116?AC Circuits « 53 Solution X, = 2afh = 2n x 50x 0.2 = 62.832 Net impedance of the circuit Z=R+j Xz = (50 +j62.83) 2 Taking supply voltage U as the reference phasor U =|U| £0 = 230/0 = (230 + j0) The current through the circuit according to Ohm’s Law rou p= _(230-+J0) * (50 + 762.83) = ((230 +j0)/(50 +/62.83)) = (1.78 — j2.24) A = 2.864 — 51.49 || = 2.86 A o = 51.49 lagging Power factor cos @ = 0.62 lagging : S = UI" = ((230+j0) + (1.78 +2.24)) = (409.4 + 515.2) VA = 658.06 £51.5 VA Check : S= P+jQ Real power P = 409.4 = UI cos ¢ = 230 x 2.86 x 0.62 = 407.84 W Reactive power Q = +515.2 = UI sind = 2302.86 x 0.78 = 513.08 var (lagging) Small differences in result are due to round off error. Example 3.6 A circuit consisting of a resistor of 20 ohm and a capacitor of 100 uF, connected in series, is applied with 200 V supply at 50 Hz. Find the current, power and power factor. [refer Fig. 3.10] DataR=20ohm; C=100pF, [U;=200V, f=50Hz Aim 172, S82; cosd Solution eee 1 © 3aC ~ (2m x 50 x 100 x 10-5) = 31.830 Z = (Rj Xc) = (20 - 31.83) 954 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering R c 20Q U=200V, 50 Hz Fig. 3.10 Taking supply voltage as reference phasor U = 200 £0 = (200 +j0) 7 =U 2 2040) Z~ (20 —731.83) = [(200 + j0)/(20 — j31.83)] = (2.83 + j4.5) A = 5.32 57.86 A Wj = 5.32 A = 57.86 leading Power factor cos ¢ = cos 57.86 = 0.53 lead S = .UI" = ((200 +0) « (2.83 — j4.5)) = (566 ~ 7900) VA = 1063.18 -57.83 VA As S=P-jQ Apparent power S = 1063.18 VA Real power P = 566 W Reactive power Q = 900 var (leading) Check: P = ?R = 5.32? x 20 = 566.05 W (Resistance alone consumes the real power) Example 3.7 A circuit consists of a resistor of 100 ohm, an inductor of 1 H and a capacitor. connected in series across a supply of 400 V, 50 Hz. What value of capacitor will be required in order to make the current in the circuit to be 2.5 A? What will be the voltage across the capacitor in each case?AC Circuits a is. ku — Us 400 V, 50 Hz Fig. 3.11 Circuit diagram for example 3.7 Data R=1000; L=1H; U=400V; f =50 Hz: |) =25A Aim .C? Uc? Solution X, = 2nfl =2x 4x 50x 1 = 314.162 Total impedance of the circuit Z=R+jX,-jXe =R+i Xtc where Xz¢ = Xz — Xc 400 Modulus of the impedance |Z| = — = st 160 2 ZP = R + Xie Xic = Viz? - R = V160? = 1007 = £124.92 Xe = Xp +Xic = 314.16 + 124.9 = 439.06 or 189.26 Xc = 439.06 C = 1/2nf Xc = 1/(2 x 1 x 50 x 439.06) = 7.25 uF Uc = 1X¢ = 2.5 « 439.06 = 1097.65 V Xc¢ = 189.26 C= 1/(2« mx 50 x 189.26) = 16.82 uF56 © Basic siectrical and Electronics Engineering Uc = 2.5 x 189.26 = 473.15 V Example 3.8 An inductor of 1 H is connected in parallel with a resistor of 500 ©. If this circuit is connectéd to a supply of 230 V at 50 Hz, what will be the total current drawn from the supply? Also find the power factor of the circuit.? Fig. 3.12. Circuit diagram for example 3.8 Data L=1H; R= 5009; |U| = 230 V; f = 50 Hz Aim 12, cosd? Solution X, =2nf . 0 z (3.38) Quality factor = Voltage magnification _ vob Q = R (3.39) Summarising, the properties of a series resonant circuit are (i) Xio = Xco (ii) The circuit impedance Zp is minimum and purely resistive Zp = R (iii) The net current drawn by the circuit is in phase with the supply. voltage i.e. the power factor cos gp = 1AC Circuits © 61 (iv) The supply current is maximum, 7) = U/R (v) Voltage across inductance is equal to voltage across capacitance, Up = Uco (vi) The real power drawn by the circuit is a maximum, Po = ue /R 3.5.2 Resonance in Parallel Circuits In the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.16, the inverse of the total circuit impedance fo % (b) Variation of Z, I and pf Fig. 3.16 Resonance in parallel circuit At resonance frequency, fo Zo =R eee Kip Keo Xt = Xco62 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering f= TTEe U h=h=% (3.40) U U Ib => = -lo = (3.41 [ JX = -1X¢o G41) ve Po= z Quality factor = Current magnification = Qo = wR (3.42) Summarising the properties of a parallel resonant circuit are X10 = Xco (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (y) (vi) The circuit impedance Zp is maximum and purely resistive Z) = R The net current drawn by the circuit is in phase with the supply voltage i.e. the power factor cos yp = 1 The supply current is minimum, Jy = % Current through the inductance is equal to current through the capacitance, Ino = Ico The real power drawn by the circuit remains the same. Example 3.17 A circuit consists of a resistor of 12 ohm, an inductor of 0.1 H and a capacitor of 15 wF connected in series. Calculate (i) the resonant frequency, (ii) the current at resonant frequency and (iii) the voltage across each element when a voltage of 36 V at resonant frequency is applied to the circuit. Data R=122; L=01H; C=15uF, U=36V Aim fo? bh? Up, Un, Uco? Solution ° 1 Re t fir =e = (i) Resonant frequency fo = > 7a = ae Jet x15 x 10-8 di) Gii) (iv) (v) 1 = 130 Hz U_ 36 Current at resonant frequency /y = R = D =3A Up =U =36V Upp = [Xo = 3(2m x 130 x 0.1) = 245V Uco = IpXco = 7 244.9 (Gm x 130 « 15 x 10-5) ~ =Uy (as check)AC Circuits © 63 Example 3.12 A choke consisting of R and LZ is connected in series with a capacitor of 18 uF. With the supply voltage remaining constant at 240 V, the circuit takes its maximum current of 60 A when the supply frequency is 60 Hz. Calculate (i) the resistance and inductance of the choke coil and (ii) the voltage across the capacitor. Data C=18uF,; U=240V: fp=60Hz; I)=60A Aim R?, L? Uco Solution At resonance fo = 60 Hz b=% U _ 240 (i) Hence R = 7 = Gy = 40 f-— oa VEE SpeeLEEEEEt 1 © 4 BC” 4x a? x OO x 18 x 10-6 = 0.391 H fii) Voltage across the capacitor. Io 60 Yeo = loXco = 5 = ax GO x 18 x 10) = 8841.94 V : _wol _ 2nfol _ 2m x 60x 0.391 _ Check : Qo = RR a 36.851 Uco = Qo x U = 36.851 x 240 = 8844.24 V Example 3.13 A circuit consists of a resistor of 400 ohm, an inductor of 0.2 H and a capacitor of 8 uF, all of them connected in parallel. Calculate (i) the resonant frequency (ii) the current at resonant frequency and (iii) the current through each element when a voltage of 240 V is applied to this circuit at resonant frequency. Data R=4000; L=02H; C=8yF, U=240V Aim fo?. Io?, Tro, Ito, Ico? Solution 1 1 i) Resonant frequen ee ee ° reauency fo = 756 = IGT x Bx 10 = 125.82 Hz : U _ 240 (ii) fo = R= 7 = OHA iii) Tro = = 0.6A64 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (iv) Ty =1o0 = = U x 2afoC = 240 x (2 x m x 125.82 x 8 x 107) = 152A Check: Qy = woCR = 2nfyCR = 2m x 125.82 x 8 x 107° x 400 = 2.53 Tip = Qoly = 2.53 x 0.6 = 1.52 A. 3.6 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS Electrical energy in bulk amount is generated, transmitted and distributed by means of three-phase AC system due to the following advantages e Three-phase machines are smaller in size; lighter in weight and hence cheaper than a single-phase machine of the same power output. e The conductor material required to transmit the same amount of power at the same voltage over the same distance by a three- phase system is less than that required by a single-phase system. e Since a three phase supply produces a rotating magnetic field, three-phase motors are simpler in construction, smaller in size, self starting, have uniform torque, run more smoothly and are more efficient than equivalent single-phase motors. 3.6.1 Three-Phase Voltage and Current Magnetic Pole Fig. 3.17 Simple three-phase generatorAC Circuits © 65 Fig. 3.17 shows the simple arrangement of a three-phase generator: Three identical windings A, B and C are housed in the stationary part of the machine. These windings are displaced from one another by 120 electrical degrees apart. In the rotating part of the generator a two-pole magnet is placed. When the magnet is rotated by some mechanical energy source, an emf gets induced in the three windings due to a change in the magnetic field linked by them. As the three coils experience a similar change in the magnetic field, the average value, rms value and maximum value of emf induced is same in all the coils. As the coil B is physically placed 120° away from coil A the emf in coil B lags the emf in coil A by 120° when the magnet is rotated clockwise. Similarly, the emf in coi) C lags the emf in coil B by another 120°. Uy, =UL0 (3.43) Ug = UL -120 (3.44) Uc = UL -240 (3.45) (or) in trigonometric form Veet = Um sinwt (3.46) Usp = Um sin(wt ~'120) (3.47) Ucet = Um sin(wt ~ 240) = Up sin(wt +120) (3.48) Fig. 3.18 show the phasor U representation of the three ail voltages. Similarly when these three windings carry current, their magnitudes also remain the U. same in all the three windings i and they are displaced from one another by 120°. et = UL0-9 (3.49) Fie, 3.18 Voltage induced in windings Ip = UL -120-¢ (3.50) A, Band C Ie =UL-240-4 (3.51) Fig. 3.19 shows the waveform representation of the three phase voltage. As per the construction, the three windings totally have six terminals. In order to reduce the connecting wires to three, these three windings are further interconnected either in star or in delta. ca66 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 3.19 Three phase voltage waveform 3.6.2 Star and Dela Connections Star connection The three windings of the simple generator are said to be connected in star connection when their finishing terminals a;, b, and cy are connected together to form star point or otherwise called a neutral point and the remaining three (starting) terminals a, b, and c form the generator terminals A, B and C for external connections. Fig. 3.20 shows the connection diagram. c Fig. 3.20 Star connected winding In this star connection, the current flowing out of the generator terminals, the line currents /; are same as the current flowing through the respective windings, the phase current Ip IL=Ip (3.49)AC Circuits « 67 Let Up be the per phase voltage Up = |Uan| = |Uen| = |Ucv| Taking Usw as the reference phasor in Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.21 Phase and line voltages in star connected system Usn = ULO = Up(1 + 0) Usy = Up -120 = o(-3-72) z Uc = Upl +120 = w=) The line to line voltage ; Usg = Usn — Upn = Up(1 + j0) ~ [u (- 3 -7)| ~uF(15+/%) ; Ugg = V3Upé 30° (3.50) Similarly Upc = Upy — Ucn Use = V3Up/-90 © G.51) and Uca = ew — Usn Uca = V3Up! +150 (3.52)68 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The three line to line voltages Usg, Usc and Uc, have equal magnitude. They are displaced from one another by 120°. 1Uas! = [Use| = [Ucal = Ut = V3Up (3.53) Delta connection This connection is carried out by connecting the finishing terminal of A winding aj, with starting terminal of B winding b, then the finishing terminal of B winding b with the starting terminal of C winding c and then the finishing terminal of ¢ winding ¢) with the starting terminal of A. winding a. Fig. 3.22 shows the connection diagram. The resultant three terminals form the generator terminals A, B and C for external connections. In this delta connection, the winding voltages directly appear across the line terminals. Hence Fig. 3.22. Delta connected winding U, = Up (3.54) Let Jp be the per phase current. Ip = [lal = | = Mel As shown in Fig. 3.23, let Iq = Ipé -30° = Ip Fig. 3.23 Phase and line currents in delta connected systemAC Circuits « 69 3 a Ip = Ipi -150 = Ip (2 7s) I. = IpL90 = Ip(0 +j1) The line current y=la-te =p (2 ns) ~ fle(0-+1)] -($-ns) = V3 Ipi -60 (3.55) Similarly In =Iy~ In Ip = V3 Ipd ~ 180° (3.56) and Ie =I, Ip Ic = V3 Ipi + 60° (3.57) The three ine currents I, Jz and I¢ have equal magnitude. They are displaced from one another by 120° Wal = Mol = UUcl =k = V3 Ip (3.58) 3.6.3 Measurement of Power and Power factor Three phase power The equation for real power per phase is given by Pp = Uplp cosd (3.59) where ¢ is the phase angle between the phase current and the phase voltage. The total real power delivered or absorbed in all the three phases of a‘ balanced three-phase system is then P = 3Pp = 3Uplp cos (3.60) In the star connected three-phase system. Ip = Th (3.49) and i Up = U/v3 * (3.53) Substituting eqns. (3.49) and (3.53) in eqn. (3.60)70 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering pa3x zh, cos v3 ; P= V3Uzh, cos $ (3.61) In the delta connected three-phase system Up = Ut (3.54) and Ip =I [V3 (3.58) — equation (3.54) and (3. ee in the equation (3.60) P=3U,- Fos 6 P=V3 Uk cos¢ (3.61) Thus, the expression for real power in a balanced three-phase system, either star or delta connected, is P =3Uplp cos ¢ = V3 Uh cos ¢ (3.62) The above equation can be rearranged for pf as pee pelea Eee (3.62) 3Uplp /3Uph, Similarly, the equation for apparent power is |S| = 3Uplp = V3 ULI (3.63) Equation for reactive power is Q = 3Uplp sin 6 = V3 Ul, sin d (3.64) The real power in the three-phase system can be measured by two wattmeters W,, W2 connected as shown in Fig. 3.24. 3 Phase Load Fig. 3.24 Two wanmeter methodAC Circuits @ 71 The current coil of wattmeter W, is made to carry the line current in line A and its pressure coil is connected across lines A and C W, = Uz, cos £ between Usc and I, Referring to Phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.25. W,; = UzI, cos (¢ — 30) The current coil of wattmeter W3 is made to carry the line current in line B and its pressure coil is connected across lines B and C W, = Uzli cos / between Ugc and Ip = U;I, cos (¢ + 30) The sum of the readings in the two wattmeters (W, + W2) = Uzly cos( — 30) + Uzt, cos(d + 30) = U;lz[cos(¢ — 30) + cos(¢ + 30)) Fig. 3.25 Phasor diagram for two wattmeter measurement = 2U;I, cos 30 cos @ =2ULL Bos @ P= (W, + Wy) = V3UK cos 6 (3.64) Further $s = (W; — Wy) =Urksin ¢ (3.65) — {i ) Hence tan = V3 (eae Wy i] 7 7 7 (W, — W2) Pf = cos 9 = cos [an (Be) (3.66) Example 3.14 A three-phase star-connected generator has a terminal voltage of 415 V and delivers a full-load current of 200 A at 0.8 pf lagging. Find (i) the voltage per phase (ii) the full-load current per phase (iii) the kVA rating and (iv) the real power delivered at this load in kW.72 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Data Y-connected; U, = 415 V; I, = 200 A; cos ¢ = 0.8 lag. Aim Up? Ip?; $2; P? Solution For star-connection Uz _ 415 Up = = = 2396 V ea WB Ip =], = 200A V3Ur, _ V3 x 415 x 200 8 = Sp = 000 143-75 RV, P =Scos $ = 143.76 x 0.8 = 115.0 kW. &xample 3.15 Each phase of a three-phase delta-connected generator supplies a full-load current of 150 A at 230 V and at 0.6 pf lagging. Find (i) the line-voltage (ii) the line current (iii) the kVA delivered and (iv) the real power delivered in kW. Data A-connected; Jp = 150 A; Up = 230 V; cos¢ = 0.6 lag Aim Uz; [12; $2; P? Solution For delta-connection U, = Up = 230 V 1, = V3lp = V3 x 150 = 259.81 A V3ULL, _ V3 x 230 x 259.81 S = Ty90 = ogo 10S VA P = Scos @= 103.5 x 0.6 = 62.1 kW Example 3.16 Three resistances of 10 ohm each are star-connected to a 400 V three-phase supply mains. Find (i) the current through each Ie U, =400 Fig. 3.26 Circuit diagram for example 3.16AC Circuits « 73 resistance; (ii) the line current and (iii) the real power taken by the three resistances. Data Star connected, U, = 400V; Z=R= 100 Aim Ip?, 1,2; P=? Solution For star-connection ; U, _ 400 == He = 230.94 V PAB Current through each resistance can be found by applying Ohm's Law Up _ 230.94 Ip == 97 = 23.094 A I, = Ip = 23.094 A Being resistive load, pf = cosd = 1 P= V3 Uzh coso x 1073 = V3 x 400 x 23.094 x 1x 107? = 16 kW U, Also P =3 IER x 107? =3 x (23.094)? x 10 x 107? = 16 kW Example 3.17 A balanced delta-connected load of impedance Z, = (12 + j9) ohm per-phase is connected to a 3 phase, 415 V supply Find (i) the phase current; (ii) the line current (iii) power factor; (iv) total real power absorbed, (v) total reactive power absorbed and (vi) total kVA. Data A-connected; Z, = (12 +j9) 2; Up = 415 V Aim Ip? I? cos? P? Q? S? Solution For delta connection Up= Up = 415V Taking Up as reference phasor Up = 415: 0 = (415 + j0) Z = (12 +/9) Up « p= Zz ((415 + j0)/(12 + j9)] = (22.133 - 16.6) Ip = 27.667/ — 36.87 A Up] = 27.667 A hy = V3 Ip = V3 x 27.667 = 47.921 A pf = cos 0 = cos (36.87) = 0.8 lagging S= V3 Uph, x 1073 = V3 x 415 x 47.921 x 1073 = 34.496 KVA P=S cos@ = 34.446 x 0.8 = 27.557 kW74. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Q=S sin ¢ = 34.446 x 0.6 = 20.668 kvar Also P = 313 R= 3 x (27.667)? x 12 x 1073 = 27.557 kW RQ 3.1 RQ 3.2 RQ 3.3 RQ 3.4 RQ 3.5 RQ 3.6 RQ 3.7 RQ 3.8 RQ 39 RQ 3.10 RQ 3.11 RQ 3.12 RQ 3.13 RQ 3.14 RQ 3.15 RQ 3.16 RQ 3.17 RQ 3.18 RQ 3.19 RQ 3.20 RQ 3.21 RQ 3.22 RQ 3.23 RQ 3.24 RQ 3.25 RQ 3.26 REVIEW QUESTIONS Define an alternating current. What is frequency? What is the unit of frequency? Define (i) peak value (ii) average value and (iii) rms value of an alternating quantity Define peak factor. Define form-factor. What are the three possible phase relations between a current and voltage? What is a phasor diagram? What is the phase relation between the current and voltage in an AC circuit containing resistance only? What is inductive reactance? What is its unit? What is the phase relation between the applied voltage and the current in a circuit containing inductance only? What is capacitive reactance? What is its unit? What is the phase relation between the applied voltage and the current in a circuit containing capacitance only? Define (i) apparaent power (ii) real power and (iii) reactive power Define power factor. How is it used in finding the real power of an AC circuit? How can the power factor of a series AC circuit be calculated from the circuit parameters? Under what condition is an AC circuit said to be resonant? What are the properties of series resonant circuit? What are the properties of parallel resonant circuit? What is a three-phase AC circuit? What are the advantages of three-phase systems over single-phase systems? Show how the phase windings of an AC generator may be connected in star? | Give the relationship between the phase and line voltages in a star connection. How are the phase and line currents related? Show how the phase windings of an AC generator may be connected in delta. ‘What are the relations between phase and line values of voltage and current in a delta connected system? Give the formula for finding three-phase volt ampere? Show how the real power in 3-phase AC circuits can be measured with the help of two wattmeters.AC Circuits # 75 RQ 3.27 Deduce the expression for power factor in 3-phase AC circuits in terms of the two wattmeter readings. PROBLEMS P3.1 A resistor of 3 ohm and an inductive reactor of 4 ohm are connected in series. This circuit is connected across a single phase supply of 100 V. Find the current, real power and power factor. {Ans: J = 20A;P = 1200 W; cos¢ = 0.6 lag] P3.2 An alternating voltage is given by u = 500 sin 6281 V. Find (i) frequency (ii) periodic time; (iii) maximum value; (iv) rms value and (v) average value of the voltage. [Ans: f = 100; T = 0.01: Up = 500; U = 353.55; Ua = 318.31] P3.3 Find the resultant of the two voltages given by uy = 60 sin (wt + 30) 100 -sin (wf + 60) [Ans: Uy, = 154.9V; U = 109.5] P3.4 A circuit consists of an inductance of 0.2 H and a resistance of 5000 ohm. What current will flow if a voltage of 100 V at 2000 Hz is applied to the circuit and what will be the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage? [Ans: J = 0.018A; 6 = 26.66] ~ P3.5 A circuit consisting of a resistor of 1000 ohm and a capacitor of 0.1 uF is connected to a 100 V, 5000 Hz. AC supply. What current will flow and what willbe the phase angle? [Ans: J = 0.095; 6 =.17.64) P3.6 A circuit consists of a resistor of 80 ohm, an inductor, of 1 H and a capacitor in series across a supply of 350 V, 50 Hz. What value of capacitor will be required in order to make the current in the circuit equal to 2 A? What will be the voltage across the capacitor in each case? (Ans: C = 6.78 uF or 20.1 uF, Uc = 939.2V or 316 8V1] P3.7 A circuit consists of an inductor of 1 H connected in parallel with a resistor of 500 ohm. If the circuit is connected to a supply of 240 V at 50 Hz, what current will flow? What is the phase angle? [Ans: [=0.9A; © = 57.91°] P3.8 A parallel circuit consists of two branches, one containing a coil of resistance 30 ohm and inductance of 0.06 H, the other a noninductive resistor of 50 2 in series with a capacitor of 50 4F. This circuit is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (i) the current in each branch (ii) the total current in the circuit and (iii) the real power absorbed. fAns: I) = (5.5 — j3.45); ua (1.76 + j2.23); = (7.26 — j1.22) = 7.364 -9.54, P= 1.67 kW] P3.9 A resistor of 11 ohm, an inductor of 3 H and a capacitance of 20 «uF are connected in series across a 220 V, AC supply. Calculate (i) the resonant frequency (ii) the current at resonant frequency and the voltage across the capacitance. {Ans: fo = 20.55, fp = 20; Uc = 7744.77]76 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering P3.10 Three coils having each a resistance of 30 ohm and impedance of 50 ohm are connected in delta across a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply. Find(i) the line current (ii) the power factor and (iii) the real power absorbed. [Ans: I = 13.86 A; pf = 0.16 lag; P = 5.76 kW] P3.11 Three identical impedances are connected in star across a 440 V, 3- phase, 50 Hz supply. The line current is 40 A and the pf is 0.8 leading. Find the value of resistance and capacitance in each phase. [Ans: R = 5.08 2; C = 835 uF] P3.12 The power input to a 3 phase load is being measured by two wattmeters, which read 0.8 kW and 3 kW respectively. Find the total power absorbed by the load and the power factor. [Ans: 3.8 kW; 0.7061) P3.13 Three inductive coils each having resistance of 10 ohm and inductance of 0,06 H are connected in (a) Star and (b) delta across a 400 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz supply. Find the line current, phase current, pf and total real power drawn. {Ans: (a) Star : i, = [p = 10.823; pf = 0.469; P = 3.514kW (b) delta : Ip = 10.746; I, = 32.47; pf = 0.469; P = 10.542kW.]Magnetic Circuits The source of magnetic flux is either a permanent magnet or a current carrying coil. The lines of the magnetic flux always form a closed path. The closed path followed by the lines of magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit. Thus, a magnetic circuit provides a closed path for the magnetic flux and is similar to an electric circuit which provides a closed path for the flow of electric current. In this chapter, definitions about the various magnetic quantities and simple analysis of magnetic circuits are provided. 4.1 DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES 4.1.1 Magneto Motive Force MMF is the source of producing flux ina magnetic circuit. For a current / flowing through a coil of T turns, the magnetic flux is obtained as a product of J and T. Its variable symbol is F,, and its unit is Anip-turns (AT) Fn=IT AT (4.1) 4.1.2 Magnetising Force The Magnetising Force, otherwise called as Magnetic Field Intensity, is defined as the magneto motive force per unit length of the magnetic flux path. Magnetising Force is a measure of the ability of a magnetised body to produce magnetic induction in other magnetic substances. H is the variable symbol to denote magnetising force and Ampere-Turns/metre (AT/m) is the unit. AT/m (4.2)78 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 4.1.3 Magnetic Flux The magnetic lines of force or the amount of lines of a magnetic field provided by a magnet is called the magnetic flux. It is represented by the variable symbol ¢ and its unit is Webers (Wb). 1 Wb = 10° magnetic lines = 10° Maxwells (4.3) 4.1.4 Magnetic Flux Density Magnetic flux density or. Magnetic Induction is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area at right angles to the direction of the flux. B is the” variable symbol used tc denote the magnetic flux density and its unit is Weber per square metre (Wb/m’) or Tesla (T) =? Bao iT (4.4) 4.1.5 Permeabitity This is the ability of the medium to set up a magnetic flux density (B) by the magnetising force (H). Permeability of free space The flux density established in a vacuum changes linearly with respect to the magnetising force and the proportionality constant is called the permeability of free space. It is denoted by jo and has the unit of Wb/AT-m or Henry per metre (H/m). 7 = 2a arx 10-7 H/m (4.5) Relative permeability In ferromagnetic materials, like steel, by virtue of their inherent property, a given magnetising force sets up much more magnetic flux density compared with that in a vacuum. The ratio of flux density produced in a medium or material to the flux density produced in a vacuum by the same magnetising force is called as the relative permeability, denoted by pr. _ Flux density in the medium + * Flux density in the vacuum (4-6) __ Flux density in the medium(B) fo gig Et or B= pypyoH (4.7) For many magnetic materials, the value of yu, itself changes with different values of the magnetising force. The value of relative permeability in different media are 7Magnetic Circuits © 79 Hr = 1000 — 10000 for magnetic materials Hr = 1 for non-magnetic materials. Absolute Permeability The product of relative permeability and permeability of free space is called the absolute permeability and denoted by pu. = Urbo (4.8) and B= pH (4.9) 4.1.6 Reluctance and Permeance Reluctance The opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux is called as reluctance of the magnetic circuit. R,, is the variable symbol used to denote the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and its unit is Ampere-Turn/Weber (AT/Wb) The reluctance in a magnetic circuit is directly proportional to the length of the field path, J, and inversely proportional to the area of a cross-section, A, of the magnetic field path. I Rn x a L Rn = A AT/Wb (4.10) Further from equations (4.2), (4.4) and (4.9) Fin = HI =2, BL Al =Bx An = OR Thus Re, = (4.11) Permeance The reciprocal of reluctance is called permeance. Therefore, the permeance of the magnetic circuit is the readiness with which a magnetic flux is developed. P,, is the variable symbol and its unit is either Webers/Ampere-Turn (Wb/AT) or Henry (H) 1 Pm = =~ Wb/AT (4.12) Rn80 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Example 4.7 The flux produced in the air-gap between two electromagnetic pole faces is 6 x 10~* Wb. Length of air gap is 1.4 cm and cross-sectional area of the gap is 0.3 m?. Find (i) the flux density (ii) magnetic field intensity, (iii) reluctance, (iv) permeance and (v) mmf dropped. : Data ¢=6x 10-2 Wb; 1, =14cm=14x 107? m A=03m; Br =i Aim B?, H? Rn? Pm? mmf? Solution @ Flux density B= £ _ 6x 1077 03 B=02T 7 : : B a (ii) Magnetic field Intensity H = i (Ce ur = 1 for air) ____ 02 © (4m x 10-7) H = 159.155 x 10? AT/m Gi) Reductance Ry, = ae HoA _ 14x 10? ~ (4x x 107) «0.3 Rr, = 37.136 x 10? AT/Wb ee Rn 37.136 x 10 Pm = 26.928 x 107° Wb/AT (iv) Permeance Pm = (vy) MMF for air gap Fn = Rm = (6 x 107?) x (37.136 x 10°) m = 2228.16 AT 4.2 ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS The analysis of magnetic circuits is somewhat similar to the analysis of DC electric circuits discussed in Chapter 2. This is due to the existenceMagnetic Circuits © 81 of a close analogy between the magnetic circuits and a DC electric circuit. MMF, F,, is analogous to EMF, E, Flux ¢ is analogous to current /, Reluctance Rm is analogous to resistance R etc. The circuit laws, Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff's Laws discussed in relation to electric circuits hold good for magnetic circuits also Ohm’s Law for magnetic circuit is Flux = MMF _ ~ Reluctance Fn = 4 orR (4.13) Equation (4.13) is just a simple rearrangement of equation (4.11) Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) for magnetic circuit is MME setup in a loop = MMF expended in various parts of the loop. «Fin = Hil) + Hol, + Hala +... + Anln (4.14) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is applied to parallel magneti¢ circuits in which the total flux set up by a mmf divides between the different parallel paths as C=O th tort...+¢n (4.15) Further, in series magnetic circuits, the equivalent reluctance of a number of reluctances in series is given as Regs = [Rmi + Ring + Rn + + --Rinn) (4.16) In parallel magnetic circuits, the equivalent reluctance can be calculated as 1 Rrneap (4.17) 4.2.1 Series Circuits Example 4.2 A magnetic core, in the form of a closed ring, has a mean length of 30 cm and a cross-sectional area of 1.2 cm?. The relative permeability of iron is 2500. (i) What current will be required to pass on through a coil of 2000 turns uniformly wound round the ring to create a flux of 0.5 mWb in the iron? Data 1=30cm=0.3m; A= 12cm? = 1.2 x 10~“m =0.5x 1073 Wb; pu, = 2500; T= 2000; o=0.5 mWb82 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Aim 1? Solution Refer Fig 4.1 Rm (a) Magnetic core (b) Equivalent model Fig. 4.1 Diagram for example 4.2 Reluctance is 03 ~~ 2500 x (4m x 10-7) x 1.2 x 10-4 = 7.96 x 10° AT/Wb MMF required Fn = Rm = (0.5 x 1073) x (7.96 x 10°) = 398AT But Fn Mt _ 398 ~ 2000 = 199 x 103A = 199mA. Z a3 Example 4.3 An iron rod of 1.8 cm diameter is bent to form a ring of mean diameter 25 cm and wound with 250 turns of wire. A gap of 1mm exists in between the end faces. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0.6 mWb. Take relative permeability of iron as 1200. Data d= 18cm = 1.8 x 107? m; D = 25 cm = 0.25 cm; T = 250 J, = 1mm = 1 x 10-3 m= 0.001 m; ¢ = 0.6mWb = 0.6 x 10-3 Wb Aim 1.Magnetic Circuits # 83 Solution Refer Fig. 4.2 Raw wl i (a) Iron ring {b) Equivalent mode! Fig. 4.2. Diagram for example 4.3 Reluctance for iron path Circumferencial Total length of the ring l= aD = 7 x 0.25 =0.785m Length of iron h =1—[y = 0.785 - 0.001 = 0.784 m n@ xx (1.8 x 1072)? Beg = 2.54 x 10-4 m? Rew 0.784 * 1300 x (dr x 10-7) x (2.34 x 10-4) = 2.047 x 10° AT/Wb Reluctance for air-gap pk 0.001 ms yo XA (4m x 10-7)(2.54 x 10-4) = 3.133 x 10° AT/Wb Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit Rr = Ri + Rng = (2.047 x 10°) + (3.133 x 10°) = 5.18 x 10° AT/Wb84 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering MMF required Fn = Rn = (0.6 x 107) x (5.18 x 10°) ~ = 3108 AT Current Required 4.2.2 Parallel Circuits Example 4.4 The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 4.3(a) has a cast steel core of relative permeability 1300. The dimensions are as marked in the figure. The centre limb has 200 turns of wire closely wound around. Find the current required to produce a flux of 1.2 mWb in the middle limb. " Rmo (b) Equivalent circuits Fig. 4.3 Diagram for example 4.4Magnetic Circuits © 85 Data Dimensions as marked in Fig. 4.4(a) T = 200; ¢ = 1.2 mWb; yr, = 1300 Aim 1? Solution . For the centre limb Bre = —£ Mr {, = 20cm = 0.2m Ac = 2.4 x 15cm? = 3.6 x 1074 m? 0.2 * 7300 x (4 x 10-7) x (3.6 x 10-4) = 340.075 x 10° AT/Wb For each outer limb ~ to Eri Ao ly = 50cm = 0.5m Ao = 1.2 1.5 = 18cm? = 1.8 x 10-4 mM Roa OS 1300 x (4x x 10-7)(1.8 x 10-4) = 1,7 x 10°AT/Wb Rne Total reluctance : R Rm = Re + > = 340.075 x 10° + “= 1.19 x 10°AT/Wb 1.7 x 10° 2 Fm = @ Rm = (1.2 x 1073) * (1.19 x 10%) = 1428 AT ya Fn _ 1428 T ~ 200 - PeTI4A. Example 4.5 An inductor has a magnetic core built up of stampings of the shape as shown in Fig. 4.4. A coil of 600 turns being provided in the centre limb. There is a | mm air-gap in the centre limb which has a cross-sectional area of 3cm?. All the other paths in the core have a cross sectional area of 2cm*. The mean magnetic path lengths in each portion86 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (b) Equivalent circuits Fig. 4.4 Diagram for example 4.5 of the core are as shown in the figure. If the relative permeability of the steel core is 1100, find the current needed in the coil to produce a flux of 1 mWb in the centre limb. Data T = 600; /, = 1mm = 1 x 107° m; A, = 3em? = 3 x 1074 m?; Ao = 2cm? = 2 x 1074 m?*; p, = 1100; ¢ = 1 mWb = 1.1 x 107? Wb Aim 1? Solution For each outer limb eT Hr tog . 7 160 x 10-3 ~ 1100 x (4m x 10-7)(2 x 10-4) = 578.75 x 10° AT/Wb For the centre limb =HEHg Re = ode i 50 x 10-3 ~ 1100 x (4m x 10-7)(3 10-4) = 120.572 x 10° AT/WbMagnetic Circuits © 87 For the air-gap jt by Rng = ined 1x 1073 ~ an x 10-7) x 10-) = 2652.582 x 10° AT/Wb Total Reluctance Rn = Bae Ra + Roo (120572 + 26s0.s00 +2788) op = 3.063 x 10° AT/Wb Fn = 9X Ry = (1.1 x 1073) x (3.063 x 10°) = 3369.3 AT 4.3 LEAKAGE FLUX In all the examples seen so far, the mmf required for setting up the required flux is obtained from the equation Fn = 6X Rm (4.11) But in practice, the actual mmf required, to pass the same flux ¢ through the same magnetic circuit, is more than the value obtained from the above equation. This is due to the fact that the entire flux set up by passing a current through the exciting coil does not reach the magnetic circuit. Some of the fluxes are present in and around the coil itself. The above said flux, which is not doing any useful work is called leakage flux, ¢. Therefore, to give out a useful flux ¢, the total flux ¢;, required to be setup by the mmf should be little more. ie d= d+ (4.18) To take into account the leakage flux, the term ‘leakage factor’ is introduced as __ Total flux produced + gy Useful flux (419) The leakage factor is always greater than unity. It may become unity only if there is no leakage flux.88 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS Table 4.1 Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits Magnetic circuit Elactric circuit E] T R Fig. 4. (a) Magnetic circuit Fig. 4. (b) Electric circuit 1. Closed path for magnetic flux ¢ is Closed path for electric current known as a magnetic circuit 1 is known electric circuit 2. Magneto Motive Force, MMF in AT Electro Motive Force, EMF in V 3. Flux ¢ = AMES = «Current = gait = 4. Reluctance Ry, = by Resistance R = & 5. Reluctivity=—1 Resistivity =p 6. Permeance Py, = ge Conductance G = £ 7. Magnetic Field Intensity H = 5 Electric Field Intensity E = ¥ 8, Flux Density B = % Current Density J = 1 9. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit The resistance of an electric circuit is is not constant and it depends constant at Constant temperature. upon flux density in the material 10. There is no magnetic insulator. There are many electric insulators, REVIEW QUESTiONS RQ 4.1 Define Magnetic Circuit RQ 4.2 Define mmf, flux, reluctance and permeance. RQ 4.3 Derive the relationship between mmf, flux and reluctance. RQ 4.4 What is leakage factor? RQ 4.5 Compare magnetic and electric circuits. PROBLEMS P.4,1 A coil of 400 tums is wound around an iron ring of mean circumference 400 mm and cross-section of 350 mm?. If the coil has a resistance of 6 ohm and is connected to a 12 V DC supply, calculate (i) mmf (ii) magnetising force (iii) reluctance and (iv) flux. Assume the value of relative permeability as 1100. [Ans: F,, = 800; H = 2000; Rm = 826.78 x 10°; ¢ = 0.97 mWb]Magnetic Circuits © 57 P. 4.2 An iron magnetic circuit has a uniform cross-sectional area of 5 cm? and a length of 25 cm. A coil of 120 turns is wound uniformly over the magnetic circuit. When the current in the coil is 1.5 A, the total flux is 0.3 mWb; when the current is 5 A, the total flux is 0.6 mWb. For each value of current, calculate (i) the magnetising force and (ii) the relative permeability of the iron. {Ans: 1720 AT/m, 663; 2400 AT/m, 398] P.4.3 A magnetic core consists of a stack of 20 circular ring laminations each 0.5 mm thick with an outer diameter of 5.5 cm and an inner diameter of 3.5 mm. The relative permeability of the iron is 2000. A radial air-gap of 2 mm is cut in this core. Calculate the direct current that will be required in a coil of 1000 turns uniformly distributed around the core to produce a magnetic flux of 0.3 mWb in the air-gap, [Ans: 4.95 A] P.4.4 A cast steel electromagnet has an iron path of 60 cm and an air-gap length of 3 mm. Find the mmf required to establish a flux density of 0.8 T in the air-gap. Assume relative permeability of iron to be 1000. {Ans: 2291.83)Principles of Electrical Machines 5.1 FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES Electrical machines are energy converting devices. The energy conversion may fall under any one of the following: (i) Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy (ii) Electrical Energy to Mechanical Energy (iii) Electrical Energy to Electrical Energy i The machine which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is called generator. The machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called moror. In the above two energy conversion processes, one of the energy, input energy in the first case and output energy in the second case is found to be mechanical energy. Hence, the electrical machines which carry out these energy conversions should have some movable or rotating parts. Therefore Generators or Motors are otherwise called as Rotating Electrical Machines. In fact, a single rotating electrical machine can do the operation of a generator as well as a motor. Further, depending upon the nature of the electrical energy, that the electrical machines deal with, they are called as DC machines or AC machines. Transformers come under the category of AC machines. They convert AC electrical energy from one level of voltage and current into another level of voltage and current. As both the input and output energy are electrical energies, all the parts in these machines are stationary.92 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Therefore, transformers come under the category of static electrical machines. All electrical machines work on the same basic principles and only a few fundamental Jaws govern their behaviour. A thorough understanding of these fundamental laws is essential and are discussed in this chapter. The magnetic fields play an important role in the electrical machines. The energy conversion process carried out by all the electrical machines takes place via magnetic fields only. Therefore, a clear idea about the magnets and magnetic fields are essential to understand the operation of electrical machines. 5.2 PERMANENT MAGNET Any body which is capable of attracting iron pieces is called a magnet. If the magnet possess this capability on its own, without any external aid, the magnet is called a permanent magnet. 5.2.1. Magnetic Materials Permanent magnets ore available as natural ore as well as fabricated type. Ferrous oxide (Fe304) possesses the magnetic property as an ore itself. On the other hand, permanent magnets can also be fabricated to the required size and shape and they are initially magnetised by electrical power. . Once these materials are magnetised, they retain the magnetic property for a long period. The following are examples of fabricated type permanent magnets: (i) Ferrites (ii) Alnico (iii) Neomax (iv) Samarium Cobalt etc. 5.2.2 Magnetic Field and its Behaviour Around a magnet, infinite-lines of magnetic flux are present as shown in Fig. 5.1. Although these lines of flux do not physically exist, their effect is felt. The following are the important characteristics of lines of magnetic flux, ¢ The direction of a line of magnetic flux at any point in a non- magnetic medium, such as air, is that of a North seeking pole of a compass needle placed at that point i.e from N-North pole to S- South pole. e Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop.Principles of Electrical Machines © 93 Lines of magnetic Mux Fig. 5.1 Magnetic flux around a bar magnet ¢ Lines of magnetic flux do not intersect each other. e Lines of magnetic flux behave like stretched elastic cords, always trying to shorten themselves. « Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the same direction repel one another. The advantages of permanent magnets are: e Smaller in size « No extra source is required. The disadvantage of the permanent magnet is that once a magnet is fabricated to a particular size, the magnitude and direction of the magnetic flux is fixed. Hence, control over the flux produced is lost. 5.3 ELECTROMAGNET For getting the desired performance from electrical machines, the magnetic flux present in the machine should be controllable. The electromagnet provides this facility. 5.3.1 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current Whenever a conductor carries a current, a magnetic field is set up as an integral part of the electrical phenomenon of current flow, The magnetic flux lines are considered to be circular in shape and are present in a plane perpendicular to the flow of the current. The magnitude and direction of the magnetic field depends on the magnitude and direction of the current flow. In Fig. 5.2 the solid circle denotes the cross-sectional view of a round conductor. When a current is passed through this conductor, a circular94 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering shaped magnetic field, shown by dotted lines, is set up in a plane perpendicular to the current flow. A circular field can have any one of the two circular directions, namely, ciockwise or anticlockwise. In Fig. 5.2(a) the conductor carries a current in an inward direction which is shown by a cross(x) mark inside the conductor. Corresponding to this direction of current flow, the magnetic field takes a clockwise direction. The direction of the magnetic field can be changed by changing the direction of the current flow through the conductor. For an outward flow of current direction which is shown by a dot(-) mark inside the conductor in Fig. 5.2(b), the magnetic field takes an anticlockwise direction. pa ac is Poet a ees ff 72N\ \ LORNA KAA@YYY vy «OA AA \ \ \w / 1 \\.\oD7 7 1 VS A “NOS 77 es ~-7 y \ SH" Y NL anes Sw Le” (a) Current inward (b) Current outward Fig. 5.2 Magnetic field around current carrying conduction To remember the direction of magnetic field in accordance with the direction of current, any one of the following rules can be used. 5.3.2 Right Hand Grip Rule If the current carrying conductor is gripped by the right hand, of course with sufficient insulation, in such a way that the thumb points towards the direction of the current flow as shown in Fig. 5.3, then the direction of the magnetic field is given by the direction in which the other four fingers surround the conductor for gripping it. Fig. 5.3 Right hand grip rulePrinciples of Electrical Machines « 95 In Fig. 5.3, the current flow is from right to left. The conductor is gripped by the right hand so that the thumb points towards left. The lines of magnetic field are directed clockwise when viewed from the right end of the conductor as given by the direction of the four fingers. 5.3.3 Right Handed Cork Screw Rule In the conductor shown in Fig. 5.4(b) the current direction is shown from left to right. As seen from the left edge of the conductor, the current direction is inward and it sets up a magnetic field in the clockwise direction. 7 Ph Direction + SY Direction of advance ~ of rotation (a) Right handed screw (b) Current carrying conductor Fig. 5.4 Right handed cork screw rule The direction of the magnetic field set up by’ a current carrying conductor is in the same direction as that of the rotation of a right handed cork screw, so that the screw moves in the same direction as that of the current flow. Now let us apply the foresaid principles to a current carrying solenoid shown in Fig. 5.5. A solenoid is a piece of iron wound with a coil. The connection of a battery B to the solenoid in the direction shown in Fig. 5.5 causes a ear < tk \ af Fig. 5.5 Electromagnet96 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering current I to flow through the solenoid. The direction of the current in the conductors looked at the top is outward. These current carrying conductors set up lines of magnetic field in the anticlockwise direction. The conductors looked at the bottom carry the current inward and hence they set up lines of magnetic field in clockwise direction. In the resultant, the lines of the magnetic field set up by the solenoid now looks very similar to those available around the permanent magnet shown in Fig. 5.1. Therefore, by this arrangement we are able to produce a two- pole magnetic field—North pole on the right hand side and South pole on the left hand side. Now to the same solenoid, if the direction of the current is reversed by connecting the battery in the opposite direction, the North pole will appear on the left hand side and the South pole on the right hand side Thus, in the electromagnet, apart from establishing a magnetic field using electrical power, we are in a position to control the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field. 5.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Electromagnetic Induction, introduced by Michael Faraday, in the year 1831, is used to explain how emf is induced in all electrical machines. Fig. 5.6 shows the test set-ups used by Faraday to frame two laws known as Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. Coil vz Magnet 1 NX cy 1 Is ° ; ° 7 ‘S i. «Mt Cvs, mt G L4G (a) Dynamically induced Emf (b) Statically induced Emf Fig. 5.6 Faraday’s test set-ups In Fig. 5.6(a) a coil connected to a galvanometer is placed around a hollow core. The four observations made by Faraday are as follows. Observation 71 When the magnet is retained outside the core, the galvanometer reading was zero. Observation 2 When the magnet is moved from outside towards the core, there was a deflection in the galvanometer, say in the +ve direction. Observation 3 When the magnet is retained inside the hollow core, the galvanometer reading was zero.Principles of Electrical Machines © 97 Observation 4 When the magnet is again moved, but now from the core towards outside, there was a deflection in the galvanometer, now in the opposite direction as that of observation 2, i.e. -ve direction. Similar four observations were made with the second set up shown in Fig. 5.6(b). In this set-up there are two coils wound around the same core. Coil 1 is connected to a battery B through a switch S. Coil 2 is connected to the centre zero galvanometer. The two coils. are isolated from each other. Observation? When the switch S was kept open, the galvanometer reading was zero. Observation 2 Just at the time of closing the switch, there was a deflection in the galvanometer, say in the +ve direction. Observation 3 When the switch remained closed, the galvanometer reading was zero. Observation 4 Just at the time of opening the switch, there was a deflection in the galvanometer, but now in the opposite direction as that of observation 2, i.e..-ve direction. Although the two experimental set-ups are different in construction, the result obtained by them are the same. As the results are the same, there should be a common feature in the two set-ups. The deflection in the galvanometer, obtained in Observations 2 and 4 is an indication of presence of emf in the coil and the current flow due to the emf. The reason for the presence of emf is found to be the change in flux linked by the coil. 7 The change in flux is achieved by the physical movement of the magnet in the first set-up, whereas in the second set-up the change in the current in coil 1 does the job. The variation of flux linked by the coil connected to the galvanometer is shown in Fig. 5.7. ¢ Fig. 5.7 Change in flux98 e Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 5.4.1 Faraday’s Laws Faraday’ First Law Whenever a flux linking a conducting coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil. Faraday SecondLaw The amount of emf induced in a conducting coil is proportional to the rate of change in flux linked by the coil. 5.4.2 Lenz’s Law This gives the direction of induced emf in a conducting coil. The statement is: The direction of the induced emf due to electromagnetic induction is such that the current set up by it tends to oppose the change which causes the induced emf. The Faraday's Laws and Lenz's Law put together can be expressed by the equation 5.1 de e= Ta (5.1) where e is the induced emf, 7 is the number of turns in the coil, d¢ is the change in flux and df is the time taken for the change to occur. This fundamental equation is the first step to drive the emf equation of all electric machines. 5.4.3 Statically Induced Emf According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, to have an emf induced, the flux linking a conductive coil should change. In the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 5.6(b) the change in magnetic flux is carried out by the change in the current through the first coil. This change in flux linked by the second coil causes an emf induced in it. All parts in this experimental set-up are stationary. Hence, this way of emf induced, without involving any mechanical movement is called a statically induced emf. This is also otherwise known as a transformer emf and forms the basic principle of transformer action. The statically induced emf can be classified into two categories, namely, self induced emf and mutually induced emf. Mutually induced emf In the above said procedure, the emf induced in the second coil is due to the change in the flux experienced by it, the flux being set up by the change in current in the first coil. This way of getting the statically induced emf is called mutually induced emf. doa @=-T, a (5.2)Principles of Electrical Machines © 99 Self induced emf The change in the flux set up by change in the current in coil 1 will cause an emf induced in the first coil also, since coil ! present in the same core also experience a change in the magnetic flux. This kind of statically induced emf is known as self induced emf. do) e=-Ti - (5.3) 5.4.4 Self and Mutual Inductance Self inductance Equation (5.3) can be rearranged as a do; diy e=-T di; di (5.4) Comparing the above equation with equation (1.21) diy a= —Ly dy (3.5) where self inductance doy L=T, ti (5.6) Therefore, self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkages per unit current in it. Further rearranging equation 5.6 =Tx Pro - A 67) orL=T?Pp (5.8) Mutual inductance Equation (5.2) can be rearranged as diy at (5.9) 7 (5.10)100 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering where mutual inductance Mah (5.11) Therefore, mutual inductance bce two circuits is defined as the flux linkages of one coil per unit current in the other coil. Its unit is also Henry (H). Further MT, — $1 (Assuming no leakage) UT, (5.12) or M (5.13) 5.4.5 Coefficient of Coupling Consider two coils wound around a core as shown in Fig. 5.8 Let ¢ be the flux set up by coil 1 Coil I Coil 2 due to current J; in it. Then the self inductance of coil 1 a _ 7 = TR, Out of ¢; flux set up, allowing for leakage, let the flux reached and Ay iy linked by coil 2 be K,¢; where Kj is less than unity. Fig. 5.8 Mutual coupling Then, the mutual inductance of coil 2 K PNK; My = 7) S19! 3 = Bik 1 mt Similarly, let $2 be the flux set up ot the coil 2 due to current J; in it. Then, self inductance of coil 2 a hh=h= h ze (5.16) Out of ¢2 flux set up, allowing for leakage, let the flux reached and linked by coil 1 be K2@ where XK; is less than unity. Then the mutual inductance of coil 1 Kado _ TiTeKa ho Rn (5.14) . (5.15) M2 = T; —— (5.17) For a bilateral magnetic circuit My =My)=MPrinciples of Electrical Machines © 101 Multiply equation (5.15) and (5.17) 272 My, My = M? = KK, RB, : T? 7} ie M = KiKi ze Substituting equations (5.14) and (5.16) in the above equation and taking Ky = Kp = K M = K*LLy Thus the actual value of mutual coupling M=KVLily (3.18) and the coefficient of coupling M K= 5.19} VLiL2 ; For a tightly coupled circuit where there is no leakage flux, which is only theoretically possible, K can take its maximum value of K = 1. Therefore, theoretical maximum possible mutual inductance M= Vil) The ratio of the actual value of mutual inductance to the theoretical maximum value is called as coefficient of mutual coupling 5.4.6 Dynamically Induced Emf Emf induced in a coil is said to be a dynamically induced emf when change in the magnetic flux linked by the coil is caused by the relative mechanical movement between the coil and the field system. This forms the principle of all generator actions. In the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 5.6(a) the coil was held stationary and mechanical movement was given to the field system. Alternatively, the field system can be held stationary and the coil or conductor can be given a mechanical movement as shown in Fig. 5.9. Here, a stationary, uniform magnetic field of average flux density B is provided by two magnetic poles, N-North pole at the top and S-South pole at the bottom. The direction of the magnetic field is from North pole to South pole. A conductor of active length / meter is initially placed in position Y. The active length mentioned here differs from its physical length as it is the only portion of the conductor which is linked by the magnetic field Now, a mechanical force F is applied to the conductor such that the conductor is moved from left to right with a velocity of » m/s in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.102 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Due to the force, the conductor gets moved from position Y to position Z, covering a distance of d meter in ¢ second. During the movement, as the flux linking the conductor changes, according to Faraday’s first law, an emf is induced in the conductor. Faraday’s second law gives the quantitative value of the emf induced as dg =72t i dt Here T = | for a single conductor. e—i— 3 dé =BA=Bxixd rho iy di=t ; 1 x Bld H ' ee tee tl i e=Bl V (5.20) 7 7 Fig. 5.9 Generator action The above equation holds good only if the conductor moves at right angles (90°) to the magnetic field. In case if the conductor moves at an angle @ degree with respect to the magnetic field, then the equation for dynamically induced emf is e=BlSind V (5.21) Lenz's Law gives the direction of emf and hence the current. In the set-up shown in Fig. 5.9, when the conductor is moved from left to tight the current will be in an inward direction, so that the current carrying conductor sets up another magnetic field around the conductor in the clockwise direction. To the right of the conductor the direction of field set by the current is in the same direction as that of the uniform magnetic field, giving a resistive force to the movement. In this set-up, the input energy is mechanical energy, a force F is given to the conductor causing it to travel a distance d. Output energy is electrical energy available with a voltage and current for a period of t sec. ie. mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy which forms the basic principle of all types of generator actions. 5.4.7 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule The direction of the dynamically induced emf can more easily be obtained by this rule.Principles of Electrical Machines « 103 The thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right hand are held so that the three fingers are mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in Fig. 5.10 Field 4 — Forefinger — Field 7 ThuMb — Movement Middle finger — I - current —> Movement 1-Current Fig. 5.10 Fleming's right hand rule The forefinger is pointed towards the direction of the main field and the thumb towards the direction of movement of the conductor, then the middle finger gives the direction of the current set up by the emf induced in the conductor. Example. 5.1 A coil of 1000 turns is linking a flux of 0.01 Wb. The flux is reversed in an interval of 0.1 sec. Calculate the average value of the emf induced in the coil. Data T=1000; 0, =0.01 Wb; = -0.01 Wb: dr=O1s Aim Eq? Solution do Ew TS dd = ¢2 — ¢; = -0.01 — 0.01 = -0.02 Wb -0.02) Fay = ~1000 x { et ) Ey, =200V Example §.2 An air cored coil has 400 turns, a mean length of 20 cm and a cross-sectional area of 6 cm*. Calculate (i) the inductance of the coil and (ii) the average induced emf, if a current of 4 A is reversed in 50 ms. Data T=400; 1=20cm=0.2m; A=6 cm’ =6 x 10-4 m; di=4-(-4)=8A; dt=50ms=50x 107s; y,=1 Solution re © Rn Pane inee 0.2 ™ UrlloA 1x (Ar x 110°7)(6 x 10-4) = 265.26 x 10° AT/Wb104 ¢ Basic Electrical, and Electronics Engineering (400)? i 7 -6 = 365.36 x 106 603,18 x 10° H L Average emf di Ey ale = 603.18 x 107° x = 0.0965 V Example 5.3 The self inductance of a coil of 600 turns is 0.3 H. If 80% of the flux set-up by this coil is linked with a second coil of 9000 turns, calculate (i) the mutual inductance between the two coils and . (ii) emf induced in the second coil when the current in the first coil changes at the rate of 120 A/s. di Data T, = 600; L, =0.3 H; Ky =0.8; T, = 9000; <4 = 120 A/s 7 dt Aim M? e, <8 50 10-3 Solution Flux/Amp in the first coil = a = z = a =5x 1074 Ki M= nae (5.15) 1 = 9000 x 0.8 x (5 x 10-*) =36H diy . &=M7=3.6x 120 = 432 V Example 5.4 A current of 3 A flowing in a coil of 200 turns set up a flux of 0.24 mWb. When this current is reduced to zero in 2 ms, the voltage induced in a second coil placed nearby is 90 V. If the coefficient of coupling between the coils is 0.85, find (i) self inductance of the two * coils (ii) mutual inductance and (iii) the number of turns in the second coil. . Data =3A; T,=200; 9 = 0.24 mWb = 0.25 x 107? Wo; di=2ms=2x 103; e =90V; K =0.85 Aim 1L;?,l,7 M? Th Solution pO 0.24 x 10°73 1=T, Toi 200 x 3 = 16 mH diy =MSt “7 dtPrinciples of Electrical Machines « 105 a ae (di/dt) ~ (3/2 x 10-3) = 60 mH M=KV/Ll, (5.18) Mm _ (60x 10-3)" KL, (0.85)°(16 x 10-3) = 311.42 mH Ll, dg, alae doy = K dy = 0.85 x 0.25 x 1073 = 212.5 x 10°¢ 2 Z=—— 2 deja) 7 90 © (212.5 x 10-6/2 x 10-3) = 847 turns, Example 5.§ The active length of each conductor placed in a DC generator armature is 0.4 m. The armature is rotated at a speed of 1800 rpm in a magnetic field of average flux density 1.2 T. The diameter of the armature is 0.5 m. Find the emf induced in the conductor when it cuts the magnetic field at right angles. Data 1=04m; N = 1800 rpm; B= 1.2T; D=0.5m; 9 = 90° Aim e? Solution e = Biv sind = Biv 7 (5.21) «DN _ 1 x0.5 x 1800 y= = = 7. v 0 7.12 m/s e=12x«04 x 47.12 = 22.62V. 5.5 MAGNETIC LOSSES Whenever magnetic materials are subjected to periodic flux reversals. invariably hysteresis and eddy-current losses occur in them. These two losses put together are called as magnetic loss, since they occur due to magnetic flux reversals. They are also called as iron loss, W; since most of the magnetic materials are composed of iron and they are also106 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering otherwise called as core loss since these losses occurr in the core part of electrical machines. Wi =Wi+We (5.22) 5.5.1 Hysteresis Loss The word Hysteresis means lagging behind. The relationship between a change in flux density B in a ferro magnetic material due to a change in magnetising force H is called B—H curve or Hysteresis loop of the magnetic material. Typical B—H curye is shown in Fig. 5.11. Except at points a and d, where B and H attain their maximum values, the flux density B lags behind H throughout the cycle of change. For example, at point e, H = 0, B= ~B, and at point f,H = H,, B = 0. Hence, the curve gets the name Hysteresis loop. The energy absorbed by a ferromagnetic material per unit volume, as H is raised from zero to H,, is 7 Fig. 5.11 Hysteresis loop Bn | HdB= area oefagbo As H is reduced from H,, to zero, the energy returned from the magnetic field to the source of excitation with negative dB isPrinciples of Electrical Machines « 107 0 [a= area bagh Bn Hence, in half cycle of H variation, energy lost in the form of Hysteresis loss is the area oe f abo. In one complete cycle of variation, the energy lost per unit volume is the area of hysteresis loop. It is established empirically that for a given volume of ferromagnetic material, Hysteresis loss W, is accounted as Wr=CrfB, W (5.23) where C), - Hysteresis loss coefficient f - frequency of flux reversal B,, ~ maxinium flux density and n - Steinmetz exponent; varying from 1.5 to 2; typical value is 1.6 Addition of Silicon (about 4%) to steel gives rise to reduction in Hysteresis loop area and hence Hysteresis !oss. 5.5.2 Eddy Current Loss Ferromagnetic materials used for manufacturing core, being good conductors of magnetic field, are good conductors of electricity also. Hence, whenever they are subjected to flux reversals, according to the first law of Faraday, small emf called eddy emf is induced in the core. The eddy emf induced is directly proportional to the frequency of flux reversal f and maximum value of flux density By,. This eddy emf gives rise to eddy current passing through the body of the core and opposed by body resistance. The product of the square of the eddy current and resistance of the core gives rise to eddy current loss W, given by the equation. W.=67B W (5.24) Building the core by stacking thin laminated sheet steels increases the resistance of the body of core and hence decreases eddy current loss. 5.6 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION All DC motors and AC asynchronous motors, which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy work on the same principle as stated below. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, a force is developed in the conductor. Each type of motor differs from each other only by the way in which the current is passed on through the conductor and the way in which the magnetic field is set-up.108 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 5.6.1 Force on Current Carrying Conductor In Fig. 5.12 (a) a uniform magnetic field is provided by two magnetic poles. North pole at the top and South pole at the bottom. The lines of magnetic field flow from top to bottom i.e. North pole to South pole. When a current catrying conductor is placed in the space between the poles, as indicated in Fig.5.12 (b), the magnetic field set up by the inward current is in a clockwise direction. Fig.5. 12 (c) shows the resultant of the two magnetic fields. To the right of the conductor, as both fields are in the same direction, more lines of field are present that too bent round the conductor, whereas on the left of the conductor, as both fields are in opposite direction, the field strength is less. Hence, the resultant field exerts a force on the conductor from the right to the left. If the conductor is allowed to move, due to this force, it will move from the right to the left. The amount of force developed by a current carrying conductor is given by F=BI N (5.25) where F — force in Newton B — average flux density in Tesla 7 — current through the conductor in Ampere ? — active length of the conductor in metre. The force is developed in a direction Prependicular to both the current and the main field. fol) {jel }-—<----J Toso eee pee DIEU ao Z 22 Ie] Tosti od POSE eee }-——~<--—- © (a) Uniform magnetic field (b) Field around conductor (c) Resultant field Fig. 5.12, Principle of motor actionPrinciples of Electrical Machines © 109 Here, the input energy is electrical energy, a current J given to the conductor by a source voltage, E over a specified time, ¢. Output energy is mechanical energy, movement of the conductor over a distance d due to the force F experienced by it. Neglecting losses Electrical Energy «+ Mechanical Energy Elt @ F.d (Biv) Lt = (BIN d Bid = Bild Therefore, a single rotating machine is capable of operating as a generator at one time and as motor at another. time. 5.6.2 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule The direction of force developed on a current carrying conductor can more easily be obtained by this rule, This rule is similar to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule explained in section 5.4.7, except that instead of the right hand, the left hand is used as shown in Fig. 5.13. Movement t Forefinger — Field Middle finger — /-current ThuMb — Movement > —> Field > Current Fig. 5.13 Fleming's left hand rule The thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held at right-angles to each other. The forefinger is pointed along the direction of the main field and the middle finger along the direction of the current in the conductor, Then, the thumb gives the direction of force or movement if allowed, experienced by the conductor. Example 5.6 A straight conductor of 1.5 m length carries a current of 40 A. It is lying at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.8 T. Find(i). the force developed on the conductor (ii) the power required to drive the conductor at a uniform speed of 25 m/s and (iii) the emf induced in the conductor Data l=1.5m,]=40 A; B=0.8T; Aim (i) F? Gi) P? (iii) E? 25 m/s110 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Solution (i) F=BIl = 0.8 x 40 x 1.5 =48N (5.25) (i) P=Fxy =:48 x 25 = 1200 Nm/s = 1200 W (ii) E= Bh = 08x 15x 25 =30V Check: P = E x 1 = 30x 40 = 1200 W REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 5.1 What are the functions of various electrical machines? RQ 5.2 List out the properties of lines of magnetic field that are present around a permanent magnet. RQ 5.3. Explain how a magnetic field can be set-up by electricity. RQ 5.4 What are the factors on which the self inductance of a coil depend ? RQ 5.5 Explain the concept of mutual iriductance. RQ 5.6 Define coefficient of coupling. RQ 5.7 State the right handed cork screw rule. RQ 5.8 State the right handed grip rule. RQ 5.9 State and explain Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. RQ 5.10 State Lenz’s Law. RQ 5.11 Explain the principle of generator action. RQ 5.12 Explain the principle of transformer action. RQ 5.13 Explain the principle of motor action. RQ 5.14 What is the role of a magnetic fieid in electromagnetic energy conversions? RQ 5.15 State Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. RQ 5.16 State Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. RQ 5.17 What are magnetic losses and on what factors do they depend ? PROBLEMS P5.1 Accoil of 1250 turns is linking a flux of 5 mWb. The flux is reversed in an interval of 0.125 s. Calculate the average value of the induced emf in the coil {Ans: 100 V] P 5.2 The field coils of a 4 pole DC generator, each having 600 turns are connected in series. With the field winding excited, they produce a flux of 0.05Principles of Electrical Machines « LIE Wb per pole. If the field is opened in 0.025 s, calculate the average emf induced across the field terminals. The residual flux per pole is 0.001 Wb (Ans: 4704 V] P 5.3 A straight conductor 0.25 m long carries a current of 80 A and lies at right angles to a magnetic field of 0.5 T. Find the mechanical force developed on the conductor. If the force causes the conductor to move at at velocity of 12 m/s, calculate the emf induced in it. Ans: 10 N; 1.5 V] P 5.4 Calculate the self-inductance of an air-cored toroidal coil with 50 cm mean diameter and 6.25 cm? circular cross-section wound uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Also determine the induced emf in the coil when a current increasing at the rate of 200 A/s flows in the coil. {Ans: 0.5 mH. 0.1 V] P5.5 Two identical coils A and B having 800 turns lie nearby such that 80% of the flux produced by one coil finks with the other. A current-of 5 A in coil A produces in it a flux of 150 x 10-° Wb, The current in coil A changes from +20 Ato ~20A in 20 ms. Calculate (i) the self inductance of each coil (ii) the mutual inductance and (iii) the voltage induced in coil B. Ans: 0.04 H; 0.032 H: 64 VJElectrical Machines 6.1 DC MACHINES Depending on the mode of operation, a DC machine is either called as DC generator or DC motor. When the machine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy which is DC in nature it is called as a DC generator. DC motor converts electrical energy which is DC in nature to mechanical energy. 6.1.1 Constructional Features For emf to be induced in the generator operation of the machine, according to Faraday’s First law of electromagnetic induction, the following arrangements are required to be provided in construction: (i) Magnetic field system (ii) System of conductors and (ili) Relative movement between (i) and (ii) Condition (ii) can be satisfied in two different ways. The magnetic field system can be arranged in the stationary part of the machine called stator and the system of conductor in the rotating part of the machine, called rotor. Alternatively, the system of conductor can be placed in the stator and field system in the rotor. In all electrical machines, the emf induced in the coil is always alternating in nature. This necessitates the system of conductors which is otherwise called as armature to place in the rotor, along with the commutator assembly which does the job of converting AC emf induced into DC emf to the external circuit. Fig. 6.1 shows the main parts of a 4 pole DC machine.II6 « Basic Electricat and Electronics Engineering number of parallel paths A equal to number of main poles in the machine. A wave connected winding offers only two parallel paths. A=P_ for Lap winding (6.1) A=2 for Wave winding (6.2) Commutator (R3) This is cylindrical in shape, filled with he shaft on one side of the armature, namely the front side. The entire assembly is made of wedge shaped segments of hard-drawn or drop-forged copper. The number of segments is equal to the number of coils in the armature winding. The segments are insulated from one another by a thin layer of mica sheet. The segments are held together by clamping flanges. The functions of a commutator are (i) forming current collecting path between armature and brushes and (ii) converting AC emf and current from armature coils to DC emf and current to the external circuit and vice versa. Brushes (R4) They are usually made of carbon. They may also be made of either copper gauze or copper - carbon compounds or graphite. Brushes accommodated in brush holders are made to contact with commutator segments by spring force. Brush holders are fastened to a brush spindle which is attached to the front side end cover. The number of holders is equal to the number of poles. Alternate P/2 positive brushes are connected together to form the armature terminal A and the remaining negative brushes connected together to form the other armature terminal AA. Shaft (R5) The steel shaft gives mechanical support to the armature and commutator. The rotor assembly is supported and allowed to rotate freely by two bearings fitted between the two end-covers and the shaft. 6.1.2 Principle of Operation of DC Generators Consider a single coil supported by the shaft and situated in between a pair of poles as shown in Fig. 6.2(a). Assume that the coil is rotated by a prime-mover, say, in the anticlockwise direction. When the coil side ‘a’ move under the N-pole and coil side ‘b’ under the S-pole, the emf available to the external circuit across the brushes pq is say in +ve direction. After half rotation, coil side ‘a’ moves under the S-pole and side “b’ under the N-pole. Hence, emf collected from the coil, through the two slip rings and available across the brushes now is ~ve in direction. Hence the use of slip rings causes an alternating emf available to the external circuit which is induced in the coil as shown in Fig. 6.2(b). In Fig. 6.3(a) the two slip rings are replaced by a split-ring, splitted into two halves insulated from one another. This split ring is similar to the commutator assembly available in DC machinesElecirical Machines « 117 © oe Qi Use P Side ‘a Slip ring t under N-pole D q (a) Action of stip ring Sidea’ under S-pole (b) Coil voltage waveform Fig. 6.2. Emf induced in a coil Coil side ‘a’ is connected to one half of the split ring and side *b’ to the other half. Brushes p, q are in stationary position. As seen from the diagram, the brush ‘p’ is always in contact with the coil side moving under the N-pole and brush ‘q’ is always in contact with the coil side moving under the S-pole. Hence, emf available to the external circuit across brushes pq is always uni-directional as shown in Fig. 6.3(b). Thus, in a DC generator, the stationary magnetic field is provided by the main poles by passing a DC current to the field winding. Then, if the armature is rotated by a prime-mover, giving mechanical energy to the generator, an alternating emf is induced in the armature coil (Faraday’s Law). By means of commutator action, emf made available across armature terminals become uni-directional. When the generator is loaded by delivering the armature current, /;, each conductor in the armature winding carries a current J, expressed as (a) Action of commutator | (b) Unidirectional emt Fig. 6.3 AC 10 DC conversion118 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ~~ te A Current carrying armature conductors produces an extra magnetic field which gives an opposing force to the movement (Lenz’s Law). Hence, corresponding to the increase in electrical power output, the generator should be provided with more mechanical power. I (6.3) 6.1.3 Emf Equation Amount of emf induced is accounted by the Second law of Faraday. Let P - Total number of main poles Z ~ Total number of armature conductors A - Number of parallel paths © ~ Useful flux per pole N ~ Speed of the armature in rpm. do “dr In one revolution of armature dg =P¢ Time taken for one revolution dt =4 min. = sec WN Average emf induced per conductor _ Po _ PON Ea /cond = in = 60 Total emf induced by all conductors in-one parallel path Z E = (Eq,/cond) x 7 PON Zz Ee, ( 60 ) A _@ZN p ao Xa Y Example 6.1 A 4 pole lap connected DC machine armature has 40 slots with 8 conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole is 60 mWb. Find the emf available on the terminals when the armature is rotated at 1500 rpm. Data P= 4; Lap connectioni.e. A = P = 4;S = 40;Z, = 8; 6 = 60 mWb = 60 x107? Wb; N = 1500 rpmAue Lee tee trees nee Aim E? Solution Z=2,-S=8 «40 = 320 5a PNP _ (60 07) x 320 x 1500 4 60 A 60 4 E=480V. Example 6.2 A 6-pole, wave wound armature has 49 slots with 8 conductors per slot. Its useful flux per pole is 20 mWb. At what speed should the armature be roiated in order to obtain an emf of 500 V? Data P = 6; Wave-wound ie. A = 2; S = 49; Z = 8; ¢ = 20 mWb = 20 x 10-7 Wb; E = 500 V Aim N? Solution Z=Z,xS=8x 49 =392 /_O0E A oz | P 60 x 500 2 ~ Ox 103) x 384 “6 N = 1275.5 rpm 6.1.4 Characteristics of DC Generators The various characteristics of DC generators are (i) Magnedisation characteristic : E Vs J; when J, = 0 (ii) No-load/open circuit characteristic : Up Vs fy when , = 0 (iit) Load characteristic : U Vs fy 6.1.5, Types of DC Generators Fig. 6.4 shows the classification of DC generators DC machine Peer Separately excited excited Shunt Series Compound Long shunt Short shunt v DY Cumulative Differential Fig. 6.4 Types of DC generatorsSeparately excited generator Im this type of generator, the exciting current is supplied from a separate source. Fig. 6.5(a) shows the connection diagram. As seen from the connection diagram, the armature current J, is same as load current. J, = I, Hence, magnetisation characteristic itself represents the No-load characteristic. Magnetisation characteristic is obtained by changing the exciting or field current supplied from a separate source and. observing the change in inducted emf. When J; = 0, a smal] emf may be available due to a residual flux. Increase in J, initially increases E almost in a linear manner. For higher value of J, variation of E becomes non-linear and finally it remains constant when the generator becomes fully saturated as shown is Fig. 6.5(b). The characteristic is with reference to a constant (a) Connection diagram N-Const tC ______.__-__3, (b) Magnetisation characteristic uU YgRe ° N-Const Ip-Const ie ¢ \ (c) Load characteristics £5 Senarately excited generatorsspeed of operation. The magnetisation characteristic represents the B-H relation of the magnetic material used in the generator. Load characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.5(c). This characteristic is also with reference to a constant speed of operation. Prior to loading, when I, = 0, desired no-load voltage Up can be set by providing suitable excitation and then retaining it constant (J; = const). When the load current J; is increased, the generator terminal voltage, U, keeps on decreasing, of course only to a small extent. The fall in the terminal voltage is due to (i) Volt drop in the armature winding resistance and (ii) decrease in flux due to armature reaction. Shunt generator Here, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the current to the field winding is provided by the (a) Connection diagram N-Const N-Const (c) Load characteristic Fig. 6.6 Shunt generator124 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Depending upon the series field winding connection, the generator is classified as either cumulative compound or differential compound generator. b On no-load, /, = 0, the enire flux and hence emf is set up by only the shunt field winding. In a cumulative compound generator, the additional flux set up by the series field winding due to the load current is in the same direction as that of the shunt field flux. There is 2 cumulative effect. The terminal voltage on load condition therefore is more than that given by a shunt generator. Hence, the load characteristic of a cumulative compound generator lies above the shunt generator characteristic as shown in Fig. 6.8(b). If more turns are present in the series field winding, the terminal voltage on full load current will be more than the no-load volume U,. The generator is now called as an over-compounded generator. Sufficient series field turns may cause the full load termina! voltage equal to no-load level. Now the generator is called level compounded. When the load voltage is less than no-load voltage, the generator is called under-compounded. On the other hand, in the differential compound generator, the connection of series field winding is such that the additional flux set up by it, during load condition, is in the opposite direction as that of shunt 7 field winding. Hence, the net flux, which is the difference of shunt field flux and series field flux, on load condition is less than no-load condition. Load characteristic of differential compound generator therefore falls down quickly as shown in Fig. 6.8(b). 6.1.6 Principle of Operation of DC Motors The electrical energy, as the input to the motor, is supplied by a source voltage, U with a current / as shown in Fig. 6.9(a). The current J; flowing through the field winding causes a stationary magnetic field set-up by the main poles with the alternate North and South poles. The current J, entering into the armature winding via brushes and commutator get distributed such that all the conductors under the N-pole carry current in one particular direction, say outward as marked in Fig. 6.9(b) and the conductors under S-pole carry current in opposite direction, here in inward direction. Each current carrying conductor within the magnetic field develops a force given by the equation : F=Bll N (6.5) The forces developed by the conductor acting in the shaft causes net torque Ty to develop. The direction of force and torque, as obtained by Fleming's Left Hand Rule, for the shown direction of the magnetic fieldElectrical Machines ¢ 125 a) Connect (b) Current in armature (a) Connection diagram te Fig. 6.9 DC motor and direction of current is clockwise. If the torque developed is more than the load torque on the shaft and frictional torque on bearings, the armature start rotating in the same direction as that of the force, say clockwise in this case. Therefore, if the direction of rotation of the motor is to be changed. either the direction of the current through the field winding or the direction of the current through the armature is to be changed As the armature starts rotating, the flux linking the armature conductors changes. Hence, according to Faraday’s First Law. the armature conductors get emf induced. Now the emf is called back emf Ep given by aZN P =—-- V Ee 6A (6.6) The equation for the speed of the DC motor is obtained by rearranging equation 6.6 as 60E, A a P mpm (6.7) (6.8) A P The network equation for the motor armature is By = Ug ~ lay (6.9) Hence (6.10)126 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering X Thus, the motor develops mechanical energy with torque Ty and speed N. 6.1.7 Torque Equation Ina simpler way, the equation for the torque developed by a DC motor can be obtained by equating mechanical power developed by the armature with electrical power input to the armature. Pm = Pe 2nNT, 5 4 — Exly 2aNTs _ (PZN PY) I 6 60 “A} 1 P Ta = 57 Ofla G Nm (6.11) Thus on operating, factor 7; depends on ; Ti X Ta or Ty = Crola (6.12) | 1 P when Cr = aye | (6.13) Example 6.3 A 4 pole, wave wound armature has 37 slots with 10 conductors per slot. Its useful flux per pole is 30 mWb. Find the torque developed when the armature current is 50 A. Data P=4: Wave woundie.A=2; S$=37; Z,=10 9 = 30 mWb = 30x 10. =S0A Aim TT? . Solution P 1 Ta = 57 04a 4 (6.11) Z=Z,xS= 10x37 =370 1 cy 4 Ty = 5 (30 x 10°) x 370 x 505 = 176.66 Nm. 6.1.8 Characteristics of a DC Motor The various characteristics of DC motors are (i) Electrical characteristics (a) NVs I (o) Ty Vs laElectricat Machines « 127 (ii) Mechanica characteristic N Vs Tg Shunt motor In DC shunt motors, the field winding is connected across the armature as shown in Fig. 6.10 (a). T, @ oN peee A ” | v t >. b St (a) Connection diagram (b) Electrical characteristics (c) Mechanical characteristics Fig. 6.10 DC shunt motor Under normal operating conditions the field current and hence the flux produced by the main poles, @, remain constant. Desired no-load speed No can be set by the required field current. The N Vs J, characteristic then shows a slight fall in value with increase in /,, due to a slight decrease in Ey. Tke Ty Vs Iq characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as now 7y is proportional to J, only. The two electrical characteristics are shown in Fig. 6.10 (b). The mechanical characteristic is the combination of the two electrical characteristics. As the torque increases, the speed of the motor slightly falls down as shown in Fig. 6.10 (c). 7 Series motor Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in Fig. 6.11(a). As the field current J;e is either equal to or proportional to the armature current J, the flux set-up by the field current ¢ becomes. ¢ x J, when the motor is unsaturated and ¢ - const when the motor is fully saturated. On light load with less armature current, the flux set-up is small, leading to very high speed as speed is inversely proportional to the flux. Hence, series motors should always be started with sufficient load on the shaft. An =I >T 1 {a) Connection diagram (b) Electrical characteristics (e) Mechanical characteristics Fig. 6.11 DC series motor128 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering _ increase in load accompanied by increase in J, causes the flux to increase and the speed to decrease to a large extent compared with a shunt motor The torque developed increases in square proportion with the current when the machine is unsaturated i.e. for low values of J. Then, the Ty characteristics become a straight line as shown in Fig. 6.11(b). The shape of the mechanical characteristic is similar to N Vs I, characteristic as shown in Fig. 6.11(c). Compound motor Fig. 6.12(a) shows the connection diagram of a long shunt compound motor. The shape of mechanical characteristics of compound motors can be obtained with reference to the mechanical characteristic of shunt motor and series motor as shown in Fig. 6.12 (b). i Diff comp Sh Cumm. comp Se T (a) Connection diagram (b) Mechanical characteristic Fig. 6.12 Compound motor On no-load, as the armature current and hence the series field current is small, most of the flux is set-up by the shunt field winding only. Hence the compound motor starts on no-load as a shunt motor and a desired no-load speed Np can be set by suitable current J; through the shunt field winding. Classification of long and short shunt compound motor does not change the shape of the characteristic much. In a cumulative compound motor, where the flux set-up by the series field winding aids with shunt field flux, the net flux on load condition becomes more than the no-load level. Hence, a cumulative compound motor exhibits a larger fall in speed than a shunt motor and its characteristic lies between shunt and series motor characteristics. As the net flux in a differential compound motor is the difference in flux produced by shunt field winding and series field winding, the flux ‘on load condition becomes Jess than the no-load flux. This causes the speed to increase with increase in torque. The rising N—T characteristic leads to unstable operation and hence not used.Electrical Machines © 129 6.2 TRANSFORMERS The transformer transforms electrical energy from one level of voltage and current to another level of voltage and current. The energy transformation takes place via the magnetic field. As both the input and output energy are only electrical energy the transformer has no moving parts and associated mechanical loss is absent. Hencé, its full-load efficiency is higher than any other rotating energy converting machines, say around 98%. 6.2.1 . Constructional Features A single-phase transformer consists of a magnetic core and two windings. By construction, the two windings are called Low-voltage (LV) winding and High-voltage (HV) winding. The transformer core is made up of silicon content steel laminations Steel offers low reluctance path for the magnetic flux to pass through. As the type of flux present is alternating flux, the flux reversals cause the magnetic losses, hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. To reduce Hysteresis loss, silicon is added with steel to manufacture core stamping. Stacking the core by thin insulated stampings reduces Eddy current loss. The LV and HV windings are wound with copper wires * being good conductor of @lectric current. There are two basic types of transformer constructions (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer. (i) Core type transformer In this type, the core is stacked by ‘U section and ‘I’ section laminations as shown in Fig. 6.13(a). Single-phase core type transformer has two limbs, the vertical columns, around which windings are housed, two yokes, the horizontal Window 1 Lamination \ a Pa i a jee Limb i ‘winding U_ Lamination (a) Tand U lamination (b) Constructional detail Fig. 6.13 Core type transformer130 » Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering sections and one window, the space enclosed by the core. All sections of the core carries the same flux as there is a single flux path. Initially U section laminations are stacked. After placing sufficient insulation around the limbs, prewound LV windings are inserted immediately around the limb. Each LV winding has half the required number of turns. The two half LV windings are connected in series and the resultant two terminals are taken out for external connection. After providing sufficient insulation around the LV winding, each half HV coils are placed over the LV windings as shown in Fig. 6.13(b). The two half HV coils are then connected in series and resultant two terminals are taken out for external connection. (ii) Shell type transformer E and I section laminations shown in Fig. 6.14 (a) are used for stacking the shell type transformer core. LV winding. HV winding ~ ‘Middle limb TeLamination | "TE \ Yoke Pa _aaceeeanel| Outer imit Flam é nation ¢ 1 | 1 1 a (a) [and E taminations (b) Constructional detail Fig. 6.14 Shell type transformer The shell type transformer has two outer limbs, one middle limb, two yokes and two windows. There are two flux paths. Full flux ¢ pass through the middle limb and in the remaining parts of the core the flux is @/2. Hence, the middle limb width is twice as that of outer limbs. Initially E section laminations are stacked, Immediately around the middle limb the full LV winding is placed and over this HV winding is placed, of course with suitable insulation between limb and LV winding and between LV and HV windings. Finally, the magnetic circuit is closed with I section lamination. Transformers of smaller capacity may be provided with a simple enclosure with a provision for natural air circulation. Large capacity transformers are put up inside a leak proof tank and filled up with insulation oil. 6.2.2 Principle of Operation Let us consider an ideal transformer with which an explanation of the principle of operation is simpler.Electrical Machines. # 131 An ideal transformer is one which has (i) no losses in the core (ii) no losses in the two windings i.e. the windings are considered purely inductive (iii) no leakage in flux. Although in actual core type transformer, half of the two windings are . housed around each limb, in the ideal transformer considered, only one winding is shown around each limb as shown in Fig. 6.15. e p-o-— > Fig. 6.15 Ideal transformer on no-load Ideal transformer on No-load From the operating point of view, the two windings are called primary and secondary. The winding connected to the supply, which is the prime source of energy, is called the primary winding. Let 7; be its number of turns. | ° The second winding which gives out electrical energy to the load is called the secondary winding. Let 7) be its number of turns. ‘When a supply voltage U; with frequency f is given to the primary winding, the purely inductive winding draws a magnetising current Jn lagging the supply voltage U; by 90° as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 6.16. Fig. 6.16 Phasor diagram of ideal ir. on no-load132 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering if uy = Uj,Coswt (6.14) then in = Inm Sinwt (6.15) The sinusoidal magnetising current passing through the primary winding causes an alternating flux ¢ to be set up in-the core and is in phase with /n. 0 = bm Sinwt (6.16) The alternating flux ¢ linked by the primary winding causes an emf of E, induced in it. a=Tg d . = Ti Gem sinut = ~Tidmw cos wt e) = —Eym Cosut. (6.17) Comparing equations (6.17) and (6.14), the induced emf in the primary e; is in the opposite direction as that of supply voltage u,. The rms value of emf E, is given as Fin _Tidm w _ Tidm(2nf) v2 v2 v2 E, = 4.44 bnf T, V (6.18) Further, the same alternating flux ¢ is linked by the secondary winding also. Repeating the above steps now for secondary x de a= -1 = —Thdp, w Ccoswt €2 = —Exm, cosut (6.19) Ey =4ASonf Ty V (6.20) From equation 6.18 and 6.20, one can easily understand that the emf induced per tum £, remain the same for both primary and secondary. Ey £& f Bape Ras onf v (6.21) Rearranging equation 6.21 Ey_th_ R7R K (6.22) where XK is called as the transformation ratio, ratio of secondary to primary number of turns, a constant for a given transformer according to construction.Electrical Machines « 133 Although equation 6.22 is derived for ideal transformer, it is applicable to actual transformer also. 7 Further for an ideal transformer, where voltage drops in the windings are neglected E, = U, and E, = UV, Hence, in an ideal transformer E,_ Tr U; 22x 2 Rn Oy In case if T; > T, or K > 1, the secondary voltage level U2 will be greater than the supply voltage U; and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. If T2 < T; or K < 1, the secondary voltage level U2 will be less than the supply voltage U; and transformer is called a step-down transformer. Thus, the same transformer if operated with its LV winding as primary act as a step-up transformer and on another time operated with its HV winding as primary can act asa step-down transformer. ideal transformer on load condition In Fig. 6.16 a load with impedance Z, is connected across the secondary terminals. Fig, 6.16(a) Ideal transformer on load Prior to closing the load switch as per earlier explanations, the flux in the core @, is $a = ¢, Ey = U; when h = 0 When the load switch is closed, the secondary winding start carrying the load current J,. The current carrying secondary winding set-up flux 2 in opposite direction as that of main flux. o « hT2 =O h Tr where Cy is constant. : For a moment therefore the flux in the core gets reduced: which will cause E, to become less then Uy.134 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ba = O- $2 ge < be0 hence E,, < Uj. So, there exists a potential difference which will cause additional current J; to flow from a higher potential supply to the primary winding. The primary winding in turn sets up additional flux ¢; in the same direction as that of the main flux. o «x LT; b= GET The building up of the additional current J, ceases when ¢; becomes equal and opposite to ¢2 causing the flux in the core once again to become the same old value ¢ and Ey becomes equal to Uj. ie. 2 = o- b2 +94 ” $2 = 6; En =U) Thus ¢; = ¢2 or COT) = CT. Kot, 77 (6.23) Hence, as and when the secondary delivers current /2 to the Joad, the primary immediately draws additional current / from the supply. This change takes place with the help of change in magnetic field. The total primary current /; then will be the phasor addition of Im and 1. Clubbing equation (6.23) with equation (6.22), the exact relation for all transformers becomes Ah For ideal transformer further to the above Fx Tn yp bh ET; h ht, Thus, Ul, = U2ly or S; = Sz The voli-ampere delivered is equal to volt-ampere drawn from the supply for an ideal transformer. Actual transformers differ from ideal transformers on the following points. (i) The alternating flux in the core involves magnetic or iron loss in the core. This loss is met by addition of no-ldad current J). The total no-load currentElectricai Machines « 1357 Ip = 1 — jin (6.25) (ii) The primary winding offers resistance R; and leakage reactance. JX; giving rise to power loss and voltage drop. Loss in Py wd, = 1)? R (6.26) Ey = Uy -1)(Ri + 7X1) (6.27) (iii) The secondary winding offers resistance R) and leakage reactance, jX2 giving rise to power loss and voltage drop. Loss in Sy wd, = 1;?Rp (6.28) Uz = Ey — 12(R2 + JX) (6.29) Example 6.4 A transformer with 40 turns on the HV windings is to be used to step down the voltage from 240 V to 120 V. Find the number of turns in the LV winding. Data Tyz=40; Uy=240 V; U,=120V. Aim T,? Solution UT Uy TH Ur 120 Tr= Ty x Ge = 40 x 375 = 20. Example 6.5 A transformer supplies a load of 32 A at 415 V. If the primary voltage is 3320 V, find (i)-the secondary volt-ampere (ii) the primary current and (iii) primary volt-ampere. Neglect losses and magnetising current. Data =32A; U,=415V; U; = 3320V Aim 3? 2 Sy? Solution (i) & = Unh = 415 x 32 = 13280 VA Sp = 13.28 kVA ay ty _ Uy (ii) E70, _U, 415 i = 8B = ag * 2 h=4A (iii) 5, = Uh = 3320 x 4 = 13280 VA S; = 13.28 KVA136 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Example 6.6 A 100 kVA, 11 kV/440 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has an effective cross sectional area of core 0.02 m? and has 100 turns in its LV winding. Determine (i) the maximum value of flux density, (ii) the number of tums on the HV winding and (iii) full load current in each winding. Data S,=100KVA; Uy=11kV; Up, =440V; f =50 Hz; A, = 0.02 m?; 7, = 100 Aim Bn? Ty? Tn? Ur? Solution (i) Ey = Up = 4.44 fomTe U om = FEF RTL _ 440 ~ 4.44 x 50 x 100 dm = 0.0198 Wb Max. flux density _ 4m _ 0.0198 "A 0.02 =0.99 T «y Un _ Ty (ii) ue = hz 3 Ty = Te x FE = 100 x HES Ty = 2500 (iii) Full load currents Jy, = 5 = 1008 uU_ tx 10° = 9.091 A fy = 5 = 10010? UL 440 = 227.27 A. 6.2.3. Three Phase Transformer Connections Three-phase core type transformer has 3 limbs, 2 yokes and 2 windows. Around each limb, the LV and HV windings belonging to one phase are housed. Three-phase operation can be carried out either by a single three phase transformer or alternatively using three numbers of identical singleElectrical Machines @ 137 is I Us /Fi U,=KU: Uy =[FU, = KU, (a) Star-star connection (4) Star-delta connection Fig. 6.17 Three phase transformer connections138 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering phase transformers. Let A142, ByBz and C1C2 be the terminals of the three primary windings and aja, b,b) and c1C2 be the terminals of the three secondary windings. The four commonly used connections are shown in Fig. 6.17. 6.3 INDUCTION MOTORS The induction motor is the most commonly used type of AC motor. Out of the total energy conversion from electrical to mechanical, around 80% of the energy conversion is being carried out by the induction motors. The motor is cheap, simple, rugged in construction and has good operating characteristics. It requires less maintenance. 6.3.1 Constructional Features of 3-phase Induction Motors Three-phase induction motors are classified according to. its rotor construction as two types: (i) Squirrel - cage induction motor. (ii) Wound rotor’on slip ring induction motor. Both types have similar stator construction and work on the same principle. Fig. 6.18 shows the stator part of a three-phase induction motor. Stator slot Stator coil Rib Fig. 6.18 Three phase induction motor - statorElectrical Machines « 139 The outermost part of the motor is called Frame. It gives the entire support to the motor assembly. In small motors, the frame is made in a single piece of cast iron. In large sized motors, the frame is fabricated by sections of steel and then joined together to get the cylindrical shape. Stator core is pre-assembled outside by stacking silicon content steel stampings to the required length, in order to reduce magnetic losses. The inner periphery of the core has slots cut in, to accommodate 3-phase stator winding wound for specific even number of poles, P = 2, 4, 6 etc Number of stator slots S, is interger multiples of 3P. For example, if P=4,S, = 12.24, 36 etc. Stator core assembly is pressed, welded with ribs and then inserted into the frame. (i) Squirrel cage rotor Rotor core is assembled outside by stacking laminated rotor stampings to the required length. Near the outer periphery of the core, closed slots are provided. For motors of large capacity, thick copper conductors are inserted through them. The ends of the rods on the two sides are then soldered together by end rings. If one visualises the shape of the rotor conductors alone, leaving the core, it look like, a cage to keep squirrels inside. Hence the rotor gets its name. For small motors, the cage winding is formed by die-cast aluminium. Then, the shaft is inserted through the centre hole. This rotor assembly is then put inside the stator core and supported by bearings attached to the front and back end-covers. So, in this construction rotor winding is a closed one. End ring Rotor core End ting Fig. 6.19 Cage rotor (ii) Wound rotor or slip ring rotor In this type the rotor has open slots. As the name implies, the rotor is wound with 3 phase winding140 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering similar to stator winding. One end of the three windings are connected together to form the star-point. The remaining three ends are connected to three slip-rings mounted on the rotor shaft. Three brushes, accommodated in brush holders fitted with the end cover, are made to contact the slip-rings by a spring force at the time of starting. Hence, the rotor circuit is accessible for external connection. Under normal operation, slip-rings are short-circuited and brushes are lifted above slip-rings. 6.3.2 Principle. of Operation When the three phase stator winding of the motor is connected to a three-phase supply, three-phase currents flow in the windings. Current carrying stator conductors produce a rotating magnetic field. Rotating magnetic field Consider a stator wound with a three- phase winding, wound for say 2-poles. Let the stator have 18 slots accommodated with 3 coils per phase, as shown in Fig. 6.20(a). All the coils belonging to each phase are connected in series and two terminals for each phase A;A2, B)B, and C,C2z are available for external connections. Fig. 6.20b shows the waveform of three-phase current passing through the three-phase stator windings. The different instances, (1) to (6) are marked off at 60° intervals. By assuming that a positive current enters into the winding through the first terminal and a negative current comes out of the winding from the first terminal the current directions are marked in the stator conductor in Fig. 6.20(c), For example, at instant (1) current through winding A and C are positive. Hence, inward directions are marked in the conductors of these phases near the first terminal and the other side conductors are marked with outward direction. A negative current in winding B at instant (1) causes the conductors near to the first terminal marked outward and the other side conductors with inward direction. At all instances, current carrying conductors produce a 2-pole magnetic field, since the winding is wound for two poles. In successive instances, the axis of the magnetic field get rotated by 60°. In the two-pole winding shown here, the magnetic field makes one complete revolution in one cycle of current wave-form. A four pole winding will require two cycles of current wave for one revolution. Thus, in general, the field makes one revolution in P/2 cycles. . P . ie. cycles = 3% revolution P 7 or cycles/sec = 5% revolution per secElectrical Machines « 141 PN, =axXo ha _ 120% “Pp Ns (6.30) where N, is the speed of the rotating magnetic field. Since this speed is synchronous with the supply frequency f,, the speed of the rotating magnetic field is also called as synchronous speed. Instant @ Instant ©) (c) Current distribution & magnetic field 7 Fig. 6.20 Rotating magnetic fied If any twoof the three-phase supply lines to the stator winding in Fig: 6.20(a) are raversed, there by reversing the supply phase sequence, a similar analysis will show the rotation of the magnetic field in the reverse direction.142 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6.3.3 Torque Development In Fig. 6.21, a section of the induction motor stator and rotor are shown, The N-pole of the rotating magnetic field is shown rotating im the clockwise direction. The field comes out from stator and flows down to the rotor. With respect to the magnetic field, the conductor is considered to be moving from right to left. Fig. 6.21 Torque development As the flux linking the rotor conductors changes, an emf is induced in the rotor conductors, which causes them to carry the current. As the current through the rotor conductor are set up by an electro magnetic induction, the motor gets the name, induction motor. The current carrying conductors within the magnetic field develop force which in turn act on the shaft causing a torque to be developed in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field. The equation for the torque developed is given as Ta = Cr $I, cos 4, (6.31) where @ = rotating stator flux per pole 7, = rotor current cos?, = rotor circuit power factor Cr = a constant. When the T, is more than load and friction torque on the motor, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction of the rotating magnetic field. For all motor operations, the rotor speed N, is less than the synchronous speed in order to have emf induced in the rotor due to relative or slip speed. Slip speed = (N, — N,) rpm (6.32) The term ‘slip’ is defined as the ratio between slip speed and synchronous speed. (6.33)Electrical Machines © 143 Percentage slip N, — N, %S = A) 100 (6.34) Ns} The alternating emf and the current in rotor circuit is with slip frequency. . = Sf (6.35) where —f, — rotor circuit frequency J, — supply frequency to the stator winding SEx Further J, = ~ ——s (6.36) V Ro? + (SX2)? and cos ¢, = R (6.37) /R2? + (SX2) where £2 — standstill emf in the rotor per phase Ry — rotor circuit resistance per phase X3 — rotor circuit standstill reactance per phase. Substituting equations 6.35 and 6.36 in equation 6.30, the equation for torque developed in a three-phase induction motor is Tq = Cp (6.38) (Ro? + (SX2)"} Three-phase induction machines when driven by a prime-mover at speeds more than the synchronous speed, act as induction generators converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. 6.3.4 Characteristics of 3-phase Induction Motors The important characteristic of 3-phase induction motors is the Torque- slip characteristic shown in Fig. 6:22. From the torque equation (6.38) « (i) WhenS=0T,=0 7 (ii) For very low values of slip (during normal operating condition) S° X;? & R,* and hence (iii), When S = (6.39)144 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Normal operating region Synchronous Stafidstill/ speed starting condition Fig. 6.22 T-S characteristics (iv) For high values of S Ri < S* X? and hence R Tax e (v) At starting condition S = 1, the starting torque ¢ ExRo T; = Cry 6.40 TR? + Xe oa Curve (1) in Fig. 6.22 is the only 7-S characteristic of the squirrel- cage induction motor as the case rotor circuit is a permanently closed circuit. In the slip-ring induction motor, addition of external resistances Re, Req etc. in series with the rotor circuit enables the motor to develop a high starting torque. As an increase in rotor resistance is likely to cause more power loss, external resistances are added only at the time of starting. 6.3.5 Single Phase Induction Motors The most common type of single-phase AC motor which finds wide domestic, commercial and industrial applications’ is single-phaseElectrical Machines @ 145 induction motors. They are manufactured generally in the fractional kilo-watt ranges. 6.3.6 Principle of Operation . A plain single-phase induction motor consists of a single-phase winding accommodated in the stator and a cage winding in the rotor. When a single-phase AC supply is given to the single-phase winding, a pulsating magnetic field is produced. The ciosed conductors in the cage rotor experiences a pulsating force while it is stationary and hence cannot start by itself. However, a single pulsating field can be resolved into two rotating magnetic fields, rotating in opposite directions. The rotor, if it is provided with a starting torque by some means in a particular direction, will continue to rotate in the same direction, under the influence of one of the rotating magnetic fields. In other words, plain single-phase induction motors do not have Starting torque but once started, it can continue to rotate and deliver mechanical energy. Therefore, additional means are adopted to provide starting torque. 4 6.3.7 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors Based on the auxiliary means provided to start the motors, single-phase induction motors are classified into the following types: (i) Split-phase motor (ii) Capacitor start motor (iii) Capacitor start and run motor (iv) Shaded pole motor (i) Split-phase motor Split-phase motors have two stator windings, a main winding and an auxiliary or otherwise called starting windings, Auxiliary winding L-ph Centrifugal AC 7 switeh Main winding Fig. 6.23 Split-phase motor146 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering with their axis displaced 90 electrical degrees. They are connected as shown in Fig. 6.23. The auxiliary winding has a higher resistance to reactance ratio than the main winding, so that the current through the two windings are out of phase. The result is a rotating stator field which causes the motor to start. At about 75 percent of synchronous speed, the auxiliary winding is disconnected by a centrifugal switch. (ii) Capacitor start motor This type is also a split-phase motor, but the phase displacement between the currents in the two windings is achieved very close to or equal to 90° by connecting a capacitor, C in series with the auxiliary winding as shown in Fig. 6.24. This gives rise to higher starting torque. Again the auxiliary winding is disconnected at about 75 percent of synchronous speed by the centrifugal switch S. Fig. 6.24 Capacitor start motor (iii) Capacitor start and run motor This motor is similar to a capacitor start motor except for the absence of a centrifugal switch. Therefore, the auxiliary winding in series with the capacitor remains in supply always. This type is used when the motor is likely to be operated at variable speeds like cieling fans. Fig. 6.25 Capacitor start and run motor. (iv) Shaded-pole motor As shown in Fig. 6.26, the shaded pole motor has salient poles. On one side of the poles a small opening is provided. A thick copper ring called shading ring is placed around this section of the poles. Induced currents in the shading coil cause the flux in that portion to lag the flux from the remaining unshaded portion. This results in providing a starting torque.Electrical Machines » 147 Field coil Salient pole Fig. 6.26 Capacitor star and run motor Example 6.7 A three-phase 4 pole induction motor runs at 1440 rpm on a 50 Hz supply. Find (i) the synchronous speed (ii) slip and (iii) frequency of rotor emf. Data P=4;N, = 1440 rpm; f, = 50 Hz Aim N,=?; S? fr Solution 120f (i) Ns= > _ 120 x 50 “4 (6.30) = 1500 rpm (i) s="™ 1500 ~ 1440 =—500 = 0.04 or 4% (iii) fF = Sh (6.35) = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz. Example 6.8 The frequency of the emf in the rotor of a ‘6 pole induction motor is 1.5 Hz. Find the value of (i) slip and (ii) the rotor speed. The supply frequency is 50 Hz. Data P=6; f, = 1.5 Hz; f, = 50 Hz. Aim S?.N,? Solution (6.33) a = 0.03 or 3% ps 120%, 120x 50_ No = —p> = ——g— = 1000 rpm N, = (1 —S)Ns = (1 — 0.03) x 1000 = 970 rpm.148 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6.4 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Depending on the mode of operation, a synchronous machine is either called as synchronous generator or ‘synchronous motor. When the machine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy which is AC in nature, it is called as an AC generator or alternator. Further, when the alternator operates along with other alternators or with other AC supply, it is called as a synchronous generator. A synchronous motor converts electrical energy which is AC in nature to mechanical energy. 6.4.1 Constructional Features Synchronous machines can. be constructed with either system of conductors, in the form of 3-phase windings called armature, in the stator and field system in rotor or field system in stator and armature in rotor. Machines of less KVA and voltage rating can be constructed in both ways. Machines of large KVA and voltage ratings are invariably constructed with stationary armature. The advantages of stationary armature are (i) it is easier to insulate armature coils for high voltages, usually generated (6600 V or 11000 V) (ii) it is easier to collect large current from the stationary armature by a direct solid connection. (iii) Only two slip-rings are required to supply DC current to the field system in the rotor. Stator Stationary armature construction is very much similar to the stator of a 3-phase induction motor discussed in section 6.3.1 and shown in Fig. 6.18. Rotor There are two types of rotor constructions, namely (i) Salient Pole type and (ii) Cylindrical type on Non-salient pole type. Salient pole type Fig. 6.27 shows the construction of a salient pole rotor for a 6 pole machine. Salient pole rotor is suitable for slow speed machines such as synchronous generators driven by water turbines, Hence, they are constructed with a number of poles—6 or more. Laminated pole assembly with their field coils are mounted on the rim of the steel spider, which is then keyed to the shaft. Synchronons machines having this type of rotor are characterised by their large diameter and short axial length. This construction provides a good ventilating arrangement. (ii) Cylindricaltype Fig. 6.28 shows a 2-pole cylindrical type rotor. This is suitable for high-speed synchronous generators driven by a steam turbine. Number of poles is usually two (sometimes four). The rotor- Electrical Machines « 149 Damper bars Field coil Steel spider Fig. 6.27 Shaded pole motor Pole face Rotor slot Field coil Shaft Fig. 6.28 Salient type rotor diameter is usually small but it is of large axial length. The cylindrical type construction is essential for high speed machines since they offer less windage loss. The rotor may be of solid steel forging or stacked by laminations. Slots are provided on the outer surface, leaving pole-face space, to accommodate the field winding. Slots are closed by manganese-bronze or steel wedges after inserting the field coils. The overhang portions of thé field coils on either side are securely held by retaining rings of non- magnetic steel. The two ends of the field winding are connected .to the slip-rings mounted on the shaft. Two sets of brushes accommodated in brush holders fitted with the end cover, are made to contact the slip rings by a spring force. Passing a DC current via brushes, slip-rings ta the field winding causes alternate North and South pole magnetic fields to be set up in the rotor.150 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 6.4.2 Principle of Generator Operator For a generator operation to take place, the rotor is driven by a prime- mover at its rated speed. Provision of DC current to the rotor field system sets up alternate North and South pole magnetic fields. As the rotor is rotated, the flux linking stator coils changes and hence emf is induced in them according to Faraday’s Law of electro-magnetic induction. The emf induced in the coils are alternating emf with frequency f given as PN f 120 where P - number of poles in the rotor. N ~ speed of rotor in rpm. As three sets of coils are placed in the stator core physically 120 electrical degrees apart from one another, three-phase alternating voltage with a 120° phase angle displacement will be available on the terminals of AC generator. Hz (6.36) 6.4.3 Emf Equation Let ¢ ~ ‘Useful flux per pole in Wb. Z - total number of conductors connected in series per phase T - total number of turns connected in series per phase Z - 2T, as two conductors form one turn Average emf induced per conductor 4% Ean| Cond = In one revolution of rotor, a conductor experiences change of magnetic flux 7 dd = Po Time taken for one revolution dt= i min = $ Sec __ Pd _ PNS Eq,/ Cond = an a = 26 Total average emf induced/phase Egy = Eqy/Cond x Z =2¢xZ Ew = 4f¢TElectrical Machines # 151 Rms value of emf induced per phase E=Ey™ Ky = 4K; foT (6.37) where Ky is the form factor and Ky = 1.11 for sinusoidal emf. The equation (6.37) has been derived with the assumption that all the conductors belonging to each phase are in similar positions. But, in practice, the coils belonging to each phase are distributed within m slots in each pole region due to the winding arrangement. m = slots/pole/phase, an integer 1,2,3 etc. Hence, the actual emf available across the terminals is less than that given by equation (6.37) by a factor called winding factor K\,. Hence, _ the emf equation becomes E=4K; Kyoff V (6.38) where Ky = Ky Ka (6.39) Ky — pitch factor K, = 008 $ (6.40) @ is the angle by which the coil is in short of full pitch coil. _ sin (m 8/2) (6.41) ¢* sin (8/2) @ - angle between adjacent slot 180 == ( S/P 6.42) 6.4.4 Load Characteristics ~*~ When the AC generator is loaded by its local load, the terminal voltage is subject to change. As shown in Fig. 6.29, the change in terminal voltage depends on the load current as well as the power factor of the load. __————— 06 pf lead 0.8 pf lead | upr 0.8pf lag 0.6pf lag 0 ty, “ Fig. 6.29 Load characteristics of AC generators’ «*152 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering When the AC generator is made to operate in parallel with other AC generators or AC supply, its terminal voltage and frequency are synchronous with the system voltage and frequency. Hence, the AC generators under these operating conditions are called synchronous generators. The real and reactive power supplied by the synchronous generator depends on its prime-mover input and excitation condition respectively. 6.4.5 Principle of Motor Operation Consider a two-pole salient pole synchronous motor. To start with at standstill condition provision of DC current to the field winding causes a N and S pole magnetic field available in the rotor. Now, if the 3-phase supply is given to the stator windings, a rotating 2 pole magnetic field Ny and S, is created, rotating at a specific direction say clockwise decided by the phase sequence of the supply voltage. With 50Hz supply the stator field makes 3000 revolutions per minute or 50 revolutions per second. At a certain instant N; may come nearer to N, and S; come nearer to S as shown in Fig. 6.30(a). This causes the rotor to experience force of repulsion. Before the rotor responds to this force, due to its inertia, in the very next instant S, comes nearer to N and N, comes nearer to S. Now the rotor experiences force of attraction. Thus, the N (b) Force of attraction Fig. 6.30 Synchronous motor-principleElectrical Machines # 153 rotor experiences alternate forces of repulsion and attraction and unable to start by itself. The synchronous motor may be started with the help of a small auxiliary three-phase induction motor mounted on the main motor shaft. Alternatively provision of damper windings, which is nothing but a. partial squirrel-cage winding, on the pole phase of the motor can cause it to start as induction motor. When the rotor speed approaches around 95 percent of synchronous speed, ‘giving DC excitation to the rotor field winding can cause a firm force of attraction to take place between the rotor field and stator rotating magnetic field. Thereafter, the rotor continues to rotate along with the rotating magnetic field by magnetic force of attraction. Thus, the speed of the rotor is same as the speed of rotating magnetic field namely synchronous speed N, given as 120f; N, = rpm (6.30) P On no-load, the rotor field axis coincide with the stator field axis. As the load increases, the rotor axis fall back the stator field axis by some angle 6 called, as load or torque angle. As long as 6 is less than 90 electrical degrees, the rotor continues to rotate along with the stator field by the established magnetic bond. The synchronous motor is capable of operating at any desired power factor by changing its excitation condition. Example 6.9 A 3-phase, 4 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 60 slots and 8 conductors per slot. It is driven at 1500 rpm and the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, sinusoidally distributed. Find the phase and line voltages. Data 3-phase; P= 4; Con:Y; S=60; Z,=8;, N = 1500 rpm; o = 0.04 Wb; Ky = 1.11 Aim E? E,? Solution E=4K;Ky$fT V (6.38) Ky = Kp Ka (6.39) Assuming full pitch coil Kp = 1 _ sin(m 3/2) . ) 7 4 im sinl/2) (64) ma 5 0 ~ 3P 3x4 — = 180 180 _ 4, ~ S/P 60/4 _ sin(5 x 12/2) = Se * 12/9) _ 0.9567 4S sinia/ay = 2958154 » Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering PN = 6. f= 0 (6.36) 4x 1500 = 9 —x~—— = 50 Hz Zz Z;xS\ 8x60 =§=3(35) -fy-o E=4x 111 x 0.9567 x 0.04 x 50 x 80 = 679.64 V Ey = V3 E = V3 x 679.64 = 177.17 V. Example 6.10 A 3-phase, 16 pole, alternator has an air-gap flux of 0.05 Wb per pole, sinusoidally distributed. The stator has-2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot. The coil span is 150°. Calculate the phase and line induced emf when it is driven at 375 rpm. Data Phases = 3; P= 16; @ = 0.05; Ky = 1.11; m=2; Z, = 4; Coil Span = 150° i.e. @ = 180 — 150 = 30°; N = 375 rpm. Aim E? Ey Solution Ky = cos 3 = cos 2 = 0.9659 S=mx Px Phases =2x 16x3=96 2x8 _ 4X96 | “9x3 2x3 _ 180 __ 180 7 Sjp 96/16 ~ __ sin (mB/2) _ sin x 30/2) R= m sin(Q/2) 2 sin (30/2) 7 PN _ 16x 375 F339 = Tay = 5° Be E=4K;K,Kadf T = 4x L11 x 0.9659 x 0,9659 x 0.05 x $0 x 64 E = 662.78 V Ey = V3E = V3 x 662.78 = 1147.97 V. 6.5 APPLICATIONS Table 6.1 Electrical machines Applications 1. DC machines (i) Separately Excited Ges. (ii) Shunt Generators DC power supply purposes (a) Battery charging in automobiles (©) Pilot excitor for synchronous generatorElectrical Machines « 155 Gii) Series Generators (@) Booster - in rising characteristic (b) Constant current source - welding - in drooping characteristic (iv) Compound Generators DC power supply at constant voltage (v) Shunt motors Wood working machines, Battery operated fans (vi) Series motors Trains, fork lifting trucks, starter rotor in automobiles (vii) Compound motors Rolling mills, Printing machines 2. Transformers (i) Distribution Trs Electricity board transmission and distribution tines (ii) Power Trs. (a) Providing power supplies in TVs, Radios etc. (b) Providing electrical isolation in medical equipments Gii) Instrument Trs. Extending AC voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter ranges (iv) Welding Tr. Welding purposes 3. Induction me:ors (i) 3-phase Squirrel cage Lathes, drilling machine, agricultural and industrial pumps, loom motors, compressors and other industrial drives Lift, Crane, Conveyor (ii) 3-phase Stip-ring induction motor (iii) 3-phase Induction generators : (iv) Single phase Induction Windmills motors Capacitor start IM Grinders, Domestic pumps, small compressors Capacitor start and run IM Fans, washing machine Shaded pole IM Hair dryers, Sewing machines 4, Synchronous machines (i) Synchronous Mrs. Power stations, stand-by alternators, Battery charging in automobiles (ii) Synchronous Mrs. Constant speed-power applications like compressors. As synchronous condensers for power factor improvement. REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 6.1 What is (i) a generator and (ii) a motor? RQ 6.2 Name the parts of a DC machine. RQ 6.3 Name the parts in the stator of a DC machine. RQ 6.4 Name the parts in the rotor of a DC machine. RQ 6.5 How can the direction of rotation of DC motor be reversed? RQ 6.6 Derive the emf equation of a DC machine. RQ 6.7. Sketch the speed-torque characteristics of DC series and shunt motors. RQ 6.8 Sketch the load characteristics of the following types of DC Gen- erators (i) shunt generator (ii) series generator and (iii) cumulatively compound generator. RQ 6.9 Derive the torque equation of a DC- motor. RQ 6.10 Why is the efficiency of a transformer larger than any other rotating electrical machines?156 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering RQ 6.11 Distinguish between core and shell type transformers. RQ 6.12 Give the properties of various materials used in transformer constructions. RQ 6.13 With the help of connection diagrams, explain the four popular types of three-phase transformer connections. RQ 6.14 Write down the equation for emf induced in an alternator and name the terms present in the equation. RQ 6.15 State the important characteristics of a synchronous motor. RQ 6.16 Explain how a rotating magnetic field is set up in a 3-phase induction motor. RQ 6.17 Distinguish between pulsating mmf and rotating mmf. RQ 6.18 Give the constructional details of a salient pole synchronous machine. RQ 6.59 Explain clearly why a synchronous motor has no starting: torque. RQ 6.20 Explain how power is transferred from one winding to the other in a single-phase transformer, even though there is no conductive connection between the windings. RQ 6.21 Describe with neat sketches, the constructional features of a three- phase induction motor. RQ 6.22 Draw the load characteristics of 3-phase alternator-at different power factors. RQ 6.23 Describe the construction features of a single-phase core type transformer with a neat sketch. RQ 6.24 Give the important applications of three-phase induction motors. RQ 6.25 Distinguish between a cylindrical rotor ‘and salient pole rotor aiter- nators. PROBLEMS P6.1 A single-phase transformer has 525 turns in the primary and 70 turns in the secondary. If the primary is connected to a 3.3 kV supply, find the secondary emf. Neglecting losses, what is the primary current when the secondary current is 250 A? {Ans: E, = 440 V; I; = 33.3 A] P6.2 A three-phase 50 Hz induction motor has a full load speed of 710 rpm. For this motor calculate, (i) number of poles, (ii) full load slip and (iii) rotor current frequency. [Ans: P = 8; S = 5.33%; f, = 2.67 Hz] P6.3 A400 V, Y connected alternator has 4 poles and runs at 1500 rpm. The stator has 120 slots with 6 conductors per slot with full pitched winding. Esti- mate the useful flux per pole. {Ans: 9.07 mWb.] P6.4 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at 960 rpm. Calculate (i) the slip and (ii) frequency of the rotor emf. {Ans: $= 4%; f, = 2 Hz} P6.5. A six pole DC generator armature has 1100 conductors and is wave wound. If the flux per pole is 2 x 10-2 Wh and the speed is 500 rpm, calculate the emf generated. fAns: 550 V.} P6.6 An8-pole, lap connected armature has 960 conductors, with flux per pole of 40 mWb, running at a speed of 400 rpm. Calculate the emf generated on open ciruit. - [Ans: 256 V.}Electrical Machines @ 157 6.7 The armature of a 4 pole DC shunt motor has a lap connected. winding accommodated in 60 slots with 20 conductors per slot. If the useful flux per pole is 23 mWb, calculate the total torque developed, when the armature current is 50 A. [Ans: 219.42 Nm.] P6.8 A 4 pole dynamo with wave wound armature has 51 slots each containing 20 conductors. The voltage induced is 357 V and the speed is 850 rpm. Calculate the flux per pole. [Ans: 1.2353 mWb.] P6.9 The stator core of*4 pole, 3-phase AC machine has 36 slots. It carries a short pitch 3-phase winding with coil span equal to 8 slots. Determine the pitch and distribution factors. [Ans: Kp = 0.984; Kq = 0.966.}Measuring Instruments Electrical measuring instruments are used to measure electrical quantities, like voltage, current, power, energy, resistance etc. Many principles are utilised in the operation of such instruments. This chapter deals with certain indicating and integrating types of instruments which make use of magnetic or electromagnetic effect for their working. 7.1 CLASSIFICATIONS Electrical measuring instruments are classified- depending on their principle of working as (i) Moving Coil Instrument (ii) Moving Iron Instrument (iii) Dynamometer type Instrument and Gv) Induction type Instrument Depending upon the electrical quantities measured, they are classified as (i) . Voltmeters di) Ammeters (iii) Wattmeters (iv) Energy meters (v) Ohm meter etc. Depending on how the quantities are displayed or accounted the classifications are (i)’ Indicating type (ii) Integrating type (iti) Recording type 7.2 PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS Analog instruments like ammeters, voltmeter and wattmeters consist essentially of a moving system with a pointer attached to it. For160 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering satisfactory operation, the moving system is pivoted by jewelled bearings and is subjected to the following three distinct torques: (i) Deflecting torque (ii) Controlling torque and (iii) Damping torque 7.2.1 Deflecting Torque The torque which causes the moving system and the pointer of the instrument to get the required deflection is called as deflecting torque. This is produced by the magnetic or electromagnetic effects of the current flowing through the instrument. The amount of deflection is proportional to the quantity to be measured. 7.2.2 Controlling Torque The torque which controls the movement of the moving system and the pointer over the scale is called as controlling torque. This torque always opposes the deflecting torque and is made to increase with the deflection of the pointer. The deflection of the pointer ceases when the controlling torque becomes equal to the deflecting torque. It also ensures the pointer to return to its initial or zero position when the deflecting torque is removed. The controlling torque is usually provided by any one of the following two types: (i) Spring control and (ii) Gravity control (i) Spring contro! In this iY method, two spiral hair springs, WY Jewel spiralled in opposite directions i bearing are used to develop a controlling jz Springs torque. The use of two springs ' avoids errors due to temperature Pointer Spindle variations. The springs are made up of phosphor-bronze. One end of the springs is attached to a stationary point on the body of the instrument whereas the other end is attached to the moving system as shown in Fig. 7.1. In this type, if 7. is the controlling torque and @ is the angular deflection of the instrument then Tox T, = C9 Nm (7.4) Fig. 7.1 Spring controlMeasuring Instruments © 161 where C, is the spring constant in Nm per unit deflection. (ii) Gravitycontro! Fig. 7.2 shows the arrangement for gravity control. In this method, a small weight W’., called control weight, is attached to the moving system and produces the controlling torque cue to the gravita- tional force acting on it when there is deflection in the system. Here T, = Wel sind (72) or T, x sing As the movement of the control weight must be in the vertical plane, the instruments must be Pointer - 7 Balance weight Control weight Fig. 7.2. Gravity control always mounted with their dials vertical. 7.2.3. Damping Torque When the moving system of an instrument is subjected to deflecting and controlling torques, due to its inertia, the pointer oscillates around its final position before it settles down there. This type of oscillation makes it difficult to obtain the accurate readings quickly. The’ damping torque helps the instrument to damp out the oscillations and brings the pointer to its final deflected position quickly. The damping should oppose the movement of the pointer but should be, at the same time, dependent on it so that it ceases to operate once the pointer comes to rest and hence does not affect its final deflection. The methods commonly used for developing damping torque are: (i) Air friction damping and (ii) Eddy current damping. (i) Air friction damping In this method, a light aluminium piston, which is attached to the moving system, moves in an air chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. 7.3. There is very little clearance Pointer a }<—~ Spindle Cylindrical air chamber Piston Fig. 7.3 Air friction dampingtectrical and Electronics Engineering 162 « Basi between the piston and the air chamber. When the spindle moves due to a deflecting torque. the piston also moves along with it, say out of the cylinder, the air pressure inside the cylinder falls and thus the outward movement of the piston is opposed by the outside air at atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when the piston is moved into the cylinder, the air trapped inside the chamber is compressed and opposes the movement. Thus, the suction and compression action on the air inside the chamber produces the necessary damping torque and thereby the oscillation of the pointer is arrested. fii) Eddy currentdamping In eddy-current damping, a thin disc of conducting but non-magnetic material like aluminium or copper is attached to the instrument spindle as shown in Fig. 7.4, The disc is allowed to move along <— Spindle with the spindle inside the Permanent magnetic field provided by a Disc Magnet permanent magnet. The movement of the disc causes an eddy emf to get induced in it causing an eddy current to flow. The TT flux set up by this eddy current interacting with the magnetic field exert a force on the disc. The force by Lenz’s Law, opposes the movement of the Fig. 7.4 Eddy current damping disc. Thus necessary damping 7 torque is provided. 7.3 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS 7.3.1 Permanent Magnet Type Fig. 7.5 shows the main parts of a permanent magnet type moving coil instrument. It consists cf a coil of very thin insulated copper wire wound on an aluminium former and placed in the field of a strong horseshoe shaped permanent magnet. The aluminium former carrying the coil is fitted to the shaft. The shaft ends are housed in jewel bearings to facilitate frictionless movement of the former together with the coil. The current to the coil is fed through two spiral springs, one on either side of the coil. The springs in addition to serving as lead wires, also provide the controlling torque. A pointer is attached to the shaft and the entire moving system is carefully balanced by suitable counter weights.Measuring Instruments © 163 4 ~~ Moving Permanent 4 coil A, (@p— Spring [| Jewel Byy<— bearing Fig. 7.5 Permanent magnet type moving coil instrument When a current passes through the coil, a deflecting torque is produced causing the moving system, including the pointer, swings through an angle proportional to the current. The pointer is usually provided with a knife edge and is arranged to move over a graduated: dial. A mirror is also provided on the dial besides the graduations to facilitate observing readings without parallax error. The deflecting torque Ty is given by Ta xl (7.3) The controlling torque 7; offered by the two spiral springs Tex The pointer reaches a steady position when T.=Tg 7 or 6 xl (7.4) Therefore, scale graduation in moving coil instruments will be uniform throughout the range. The instrument cannot be used in AC circuits. 7.3.2 Dynamometer Type In this type, the operating magnetic field is produced by air-cored electromagnets excited by two fixed coils as shown in Fig. 7.6. In all other aspects, they are similar to the permanent magnet moving coil instrument. As the force on the moving coil is proportional to the flux produced by the fixed coils (and hence the current through it, J) and the current in the moving coil, J, the deflecting torque. Ta & Ipln (7.5)164 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Pointer Moving coil Spring Fig. 7.6 Dynamometer type moving coil instrument Therefore, it is seen from the above equation, that the meter deflection is not affected when the currents through the coils are reversed. Thus, this type of instrument can be used in both AC and DC circuits. 7.4 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT There are two types of moving iron instruments, viz., (i) Attraction type and (ii) Repulsion type. ePointer 7.4.1 Attraction Type In this type of instrument, a stationary field coil carries the current proportional to the current to be measured in case of ammeter or voltage to be measured in case of voltmeter. The current carrying coil produces a magnetic field inside it. A small iron piece placed nearby and fitted to the spindle of the instru- Fig. 7.7. Attraction type MI ment, gets attracted by the magnetic instrument Moving iron Fixed coilMeasuring Instruments © 168 field and urns towards the coil. This causes the spindle and pointer attached to it to get the required deflection. The pointer moves over a graduated scale As the force of attraction due to an electromagnet varies in proportion to the square of the flux density, the deflecting torque in this type of instrument is proportional to the square of the current through the field coil. . Te xP (7.6) Hence, MI instruments can be used in both DC and AC circuits. 7.4.2 Repulsion Type The principle of this instrument is that two iron pieces kept within close proximity in a magnetic field get magnetised to the same polarity and - exert a force of repulsion within themselves. As seen in Fig. 7.8, there are two vanes of iron inside the field coil. One of the vane is rigidly mounted to the frame of the instrument and other vane is attached to the spindle. Pointer BRA <— Jewel bearing t. Control = spring Fixed vane Fixed \ te : GZ + ala Moving vane Fig. 7.8 Repulsion type MI instrument . When a current flows through the coil, both the vanes are magnetised with the same polarity and there results a force of repulsion between them Asa result of this force of repulsion, the movable vane rotates causing a corresponding deflection in the pointer. It is evident that, in this case too, the deflecting torque is proportional to the square. of the current166 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Tax P (7.6) Hence, the instrument can be used in both DC and AC circuits. 7.5 USE OF VOLTMETER AND AMMETERS 7.5.1 PM Type Moving Coil Ammeters An ammeter, being an instrument to be connected in series with the circuit, must have a low resistance so that it will not cause a voltage change in it. The control springs which take the current to the moving coil are capable of carrying the current to a few milli ampere, (= and in some cases to microam- ay pere. Therefore, if the moving coil instrument has to be used as I, an ammeter capable of measur- ! ct ee ing a large current , it should be 2 used in conjunction with suitable Fig. 7.9 Moving coil ammeter shunts as shown in Fig. 7.9. A shunt is, essentially, a low resistor, usually made of manganin strips so that its resistance practically remains constant irrespective of temperature changes and is connected in parallel with the moving coil meter. Ry ~ Meter resistance Rey - resistance of the shunt Tn ~ current through the meter Zs, - current through the shunt Then current to be measured L=In+lsn Also TnRm = TsnRsr Tn Rn = Tn Rn Im 7 =". 7 R= py Be a7) Equation 7.7 gives the value of shunt resistance to be used in parallel with the meter for measuring a maximum current of / ampere. Example 71 A moving coil instrument requires 20 mA and 100 mV for full scale deflection. What is the value of the shunt required to use the above meter to read upto 10 A? Data l,=20mA; Um =100mV; [=10A Aim Ryn?Measuring Instruments. © 167 Solution a, Ue 100% 09 5g "Im 20x 10-3 InRm Ru = 7.7) TT) ; 20 x 1073 x 5 ~ (10 = 20 x 10-3) Ryn = 0.01002 2 7.5.2 PM Type Moving Coil Voltmeters A voltmeter should have a large resistance so that its power consumption, when connected across the supply lines should be as low as possible. Therefore, 2 moving coil instrument can be used as a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with the instrument as shown in Fig. 7.10. The value of the external resistance, R, must be adjusted so that the total resistance limits the current within maximum meter current Ln R, = (Rn + Re) =7 im (7.8) Example 7.2 A moving coil instrument has 50 22 coil resistance and gives maximum deflection at 5 mA. Find the external resistance to be connected in series with the instrument so as to read upto 300 V.. Data Rx=500; Im =SmA =5x 103A; U=300V oS Ra R,, S 150 V oe 300 V o-—________1 Fig. 7.10 Moving coil voltmeter Aim R.? Solution U R, = (Rm + Re) = i (7.8) m _ 300 ~ 5x 103 R, = 60000 2 R, = R, — Rm = 60000 — 50 Re = 59950 2168 @ Basic Electrica! and Electronics Engineering 7.5.3 Dynamometer Type Instruments When used as an ammeter, the stationary coil carries most of the current to be measured and is wound with thick wires. The moving coil carries a definite fraction of the current to be measured as shown in Fig. 7.11(a). When used as a voltmeter, all the coils carry the same amount of current proportional to voltage to be measured. The coil current can be limited by adding a high resistance in series with instrument coils as shown in Fig. 7.11(b). I Shunt Fixed coils High Moving resistance coil (a) Dynamometer ammeter Fixed coils c Moving coil High resistance + (b) Dynamometer voltmeter Fig. 7.11 Dynamometer instrument connections °7.5.4 Moving Iron Instruments Except for the field coil, there is essentially no difference in the construction of the other parts between ammeters and voltmeters. As ammeters are required to be of very low resistance, the exciting coil is wound with wires of large cross section and contain only few turns. In voltmeters the required amp-turns are produced by passing a small current through a large number of turns. Hence, the coil is wound with thin wires of large number of turns; thereby giving the required higher coil resistance. 7Measuring Instruments © 169 7.6 DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER Wattineter measures the real power, P in a circuit. In DC circuits P = UJ and may be measured either by wattmeter or by an ammeter and voltmeter and then their product. In AC circuits the real power at any instance is given ds P = ui, and the average power is given by P = UJ cos which can be measured by a wattmeter only. The Dynamometer type wattmeter measures real power both in AC and DC circuits. The dynamometer wattmeter is similar in construction to dynamometer type MC instrument discussed in section 7.3. The two fixed coils carry the current in the circuit and are known as current coils. The moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage in the circuit and the coil is called a pressure coil. Fig. 7.12(a) shows the coil connection and Fig. 7.12(b) shows the schematic connection. FC LLLLL LLL LLL Load (b) Schematic connection Fig. 7.12. Dynamometer ype waltmeter Ta x Im Ip (7.5) xu (7.9) Tg x UI cos@ in AC circuits Tq UI in DC circuits170 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 7.7 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER Energy meter is an integrating type instrument. It measures the quantity of electrical energy consumed in kilo Watt-Hour (kWh) called Units. 1 Unit = 1 kWh (7.10) 1 Unit = 1000 Wh (7.11) A single-phase induction type energy meter consists of the following systems. @ Driving system (ii) Moving system (iii) Braking/damping system and (iv) Registering system. 7.7.1 Driving System The driving system of the energy meter consists of two electromagnets, a shunt magnet and a series magnet as shown in Fig. 7.13. The shunt magnet is excited by the pressure coil which carries current proportional to the supply voltage. The series magnet is provided with the current coil excited by the load current. Short circuited copper bands are provided on the lower part of the central limb of the shunt magnet. These loops are called as power factor compensators. Registering system magnet Series magnet Fig. 7.13 Induction type energy meterMeasuring Instruments © 171 7.7.2 Moving System The moving system consists of a thin aluminium disc mounted on the spindle. The disc is placed in the air-gap between the shunt and series magnets. The current proportional to supply voltage in the shunt magnet produces a flux @., which in turn produces an eddy current i,, in the aluminium disc, Similarly the load current in the series magnet sets up a flux se which produces an eddy current ise in the disc. The interaction of these fluxes and eddy currents causes torque developed in the disc and it starts rotating. The torque developed and hence the speed of rotation is proportional to the real power taken by the load circuit. 7.7.3 Braking/Damping System The braking system consists of a permanent magnet called as brake magnet. It is placed near the edge of the aluminium disc. The brake magnet provides eddy current damping to the moving system. The amount of braking on damping torque can be adjusted by adjusting the position of the magnet. 7.7.4 Registering System The spindle is connected through gears to a counting mechanism. This mechanism keeps on register, the number of revolutions of the disc calibrated in kWh energy consumption. 7.8 MEGGER Megger is a portable instrument used for measuring insulation resistance - of electrical machines, electrical appliances and electrical installations. The instrument works on the principle’ of ratiometer or ohmmeter. As the insulation resistance measured are usually in the range of a few mega-ohm the instrument gets its name megger. 7.8.1 Construction Fig. 7.14 shows the constructional details of a megger which is similar to the permanent magnet type moving coil instrument. It has a horseshoe shaped permanent magnet. The moving system consists of two coils, pressure coil PC and current coil CC. The two coils are fitted to the spindle at a fixed angle. A pointer attached to the spindle can move over an ohmic scale graduated from 0 to oc(infinity).172 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Pointer Test brobes Fig. 7.14 Megger The necessary voltage for resistance measurement (usually 250 V or 500 V) is generated by means of a small permanent magnet DC generator provided within the instrument and is hand driven. The pressure coil or control coil is connected across the armature through a current limiting resistor Rp. The current .coil or deflecting coil is connected to the armature through a current limiting resistor R, and rest probe terminals. 7.8.2 Operation With the test probes in open position, if the generator handle is rotated at full speed, the pressure or controlling coil alone gets the current. The current carrying pressure coil or sets itself perpendicular to the magnetic field provided by the permanent magnet and the pointer shows the reading as infinity marked on one end of the scale. When the generator handle is rctated slowly with test brobes short circuited, a high current flowing through the current or deflecting coil causes a large deflection and the pointer moves to the other end of the scale with zero as the reading. With sufficient insulation resistance available across the test brobes, if the generator handle is rotated at full speed, the moving system gets a deflection proportional to the ratio of voltage to current in the insulation resistance.Measuring Insiruments © 173 REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 7.1 Howare the measuring instruments classified ? RQ 7.2. Name the torques to which the moving system of an indicating instrument are subjected. RQ 7.3. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the principle of operation of a permanent magnet moving coil instrument. RQ 7.4 Describe with the help of a neat sketch the working of a dynamometer type wattmeter. , RQ 7.5 Why cannot a moving coil instrument be used in AC circuits ? RQ 7.6 Explain, with the help of a neat sketch, the principle of working of a single-phase induction type energy meter RQ 7.7. Explain how a moving coil instrument can be converted into voltmeters and ammeters. RQ 7.8 . List the merits and demerits of dynamometer type instruments. RQ 7.9 Explain the purpose of shunts used in ammeters. RQ 7.10 What are (i) Indicating instruments and (ii) Recording instruments 7 Explain. RQ 7.11 Draw neat sketches of various methods of damping provided in in- dicatiag instruments. RQ 7.12 Justify the necessity of controlling torque in indicating instruments Discuss the various methods of producing the same. RQ 7.13 Whatis a megger ? Explain its working. RQ 7.14 Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the construction and operation of a repulsion-type moving iron instrument. RQ 7.15 ‘Describe, with the help of a labelled diagram, the construction and operation of an attraction type moving iron instrument. PROBLEMS P 7.1 A moving coil instrument requires 50 mA and 100 mV for full-scale deflection. What is the valve of the shunt required to convert it to read upto 5 A? [Ans: 0.0202 2} P 7.2 A moving coil instrument takes 100 micro ampere for full-scale deflection, its coil resistance is 1000 ohm. Find the value of the series resistance to be connected if it has to be converted to have 0-150/300 V ranges. [Ans: 1.499 MQ, 2.999 MQ} P 7.3 A moving coil instrument gives a full-scale reading of 24 mA when the potential difference across its terminals is 72 mV. Calculate (i) the value of shunt resistance for a full-scale deflection corresponding to 100 A. (ii) The series resistance for a full-scale, reading with 500 V [Ans: Ry, = 0.72 MQ, Re = 20.830 kO}Domestic Wiring Wiring is the method of drawing or laying wires or cables and connecting accessories and fittings for the purpose of distributing electrical power to the various points, equipments and appliances from the mains. Wiring system is broadly classified as (i) Domestic Wiring and (ii) Industrial Wiring. Wiring of residential places, hostels, office buildings, multistoried buildings etc. come under the classification of domestic wiring. Factory wiring, street light wiring, generating station wiring etc. come under industrial wiring. This chapter gives information about the wiring practices normally followed for residential places. 8.1 WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES The following are the wiring materials used for domestic wiring: (i) switches (ii) fuse units (iii) push-button switches (iv) socket outlets (v) plugs (vi) lamp holders (vii) ceiling roses (viii) mounting blocks (ix) switch boards (x) teakwood batten (xi) conduits (xii) screws (xiii) wiring clips and conduit clamps (xiv) wires and cables (xv) earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) (xvi) miniature circuit breakers (MCB). The accessories used for domestic wiring are screw driver, side cutung plier, diagonal cutting plier, long nose plier, slip plier, pocket knife, hammer, woodsaw, hacksaw, chisels, scratch awl, hand drill/ portable electric drilling machine, auger bit, rawlplug, centre punch, test lamp, wire gauge, wite stripper etc.176 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (i) Switches A switch is used to make or break an electric circuit. It must make the contacts firmly. While breaking, the switch should break the current without formation of an arc between the switch blades and contact terminals. A spring is provided with the movable blade, thereby causing quick breaking and avoiding arc formation. The following are different types of switches which are in common use. Tumbler switches These switches are mounted on the mounting block or switchboards. They project out of the surface of walls. These switches are either single-way or two-way types. They are manufactured in either complete bakelite or porcelain base and bakelite cover. Flush switch As the name indicates these switches are fixed flush with the wall and do not project out. All modern wiring make use of only this type of switches. They are available in either single-way or two-way types. Pull switches These switches are fixed on the ceiling or raised places and all the live parts are out of reach of the operator. The switch is operated by pulling the cord provided. Gridswitches Grid switches are similar to tumbler switches and are used in portable machines such as hand drills. Architrave switches These types of switches are designed for flush muunting on architraves. Rotary snap switches — This type of switch consists of an insulated handle to which blades are fixed. The movement of the handle makes these blades move in a step-wise fashion and make contacts between a set of terminals and may also break contacts between another set of terminals. They are used for speed control and speed reversals of small motors, varying the range of heaters etc. Main switches These switches are used to switch on or switch off the supply to the entire building or part of the building. They are made of cast iron for current ranges of 5, 15 and 30 A. Switches with a current capacity of 30 A, 63 A 100 A, 200 A etc. may be fabricated by steel plates. These switches are available in two types: ICDP for single-phase and ICTP for three-phase. They are fitted with fuse units and neutral links. The switch has a handle of sufficient strength and the operation is controlled by a spring. (ii) Fuse Units A fuse unit is a safety device, a weak link connected in series with the circuit. The number of fuse units is equal to the number of circuits withDomestic Wiring © 177 which the entire load is splitted. Whenever the current in the circuit exceeds the value of the fuse provided, either due to overload or short circuit, the fuse melts thus opening the circuit and protecting other materials in the circuit. Fuse units are to be provided as per IS 2086/ 1963 and IS 2208/1962 specifications. They are available in two types, » wire fuse (of copper, tin or lead) and HRC catridge fuse. (ii) Push Button Switches This type of switch consists of one blade which is given a rocking action by a push bution. Its movement is controlled by a cam and a spring. These switches are normally used to control light power circuits. . (iv) Socket Outlets Three pin sockets are available in 5 A and 15 A capacities They are provided in the switchboards to tap power to appliances like electric irons, TVs, refrigerators, water-heaters, air conditioners, table fans etc. The right side pin carries the supply line, the left side pin gives neutral connection and the top pin, which is larger in diameter than the other two pins, gives ground connection to the appliances in order to protect the user against any electrical leakage. (v) Plugs Three pin plugs of 5 A or 15 A capacity are used for tapping power from the socket outlets. The plugs should have an appropriate finger grip for inserting and withdrawing with the sockets. (vi) Lamp Holders They are classified as i) Bayonet cap lamp holders.[for lamps upto 200 W ] (ii) Screwed lamp holders [for lamps above 200 W] Bayonet cap lamp holders are further classified as (a) Batten holders and Angle Batten holders for screwing on toa surface rigidly (b) Pendant holders for suspending the lamps from the ceiling (c) Fluorescent tube lamp holders Types of screwed lamp holders are (a) Edison screw lamp holders [200 W to 300 W lamps] (b) Goliath screw holders [above 300 W lamps]178 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (vii) Ceiling Roses These are used as tapping points for the supply to the ceiling fans, pendant holders, fluorescent tube lights etc. Connections to the above mentioned fittings are provided from the ceiling roses by flexible wires. {viii}, Mounting Blocks They are used to fix the ceiling roses, batten lamp holders, surface switches, pull switches etc. (ix) Switch Boards They are used for mounting switches, socket outlets, regulators and fuse units. The material used for construction of the board may be iron or teakwood. The top cover may be of a laminated type. They are available in the following sizes (a) 100 mm x 100 mm (b) 150 mm x 100 mm (c) 200 mm x 150 mm (d) 300 mm x 200 mm (x) Teakwood Batten These are used to lay the wires on the walls. The batten is initially fixed over the wall and then wires are firmly fixed over the batten by wiring clips. The battens are available in widths of 13 mm, 19 mm, 25 mm, 31 mm, 38 mm, 44 mm etc. {xi} Condults IS 1653/1963 specifies the different types of conduits. They are either metallic such as mild steel or non-metallic such as PVC. Metallic conduits are coated with a black enamel or they are galvanised. Conduits are available in different diameters, 16 mm, 19 mm, 25 mm, 30 mm, 35 mm etc. ixil) Screws Screws are made up of brass or iron. They are available in lengths of 4 mm, 6 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm etc. The two types are wood screws and metallic screws. Wood screws are used to fix wiring materials like switchboards, teakwood batten, mounting blocks etc. on walls. Metallic screws with nuts are used to fix switches, socket outlets etc. on switch boards.Domestic Wiring # 179 {xii} Wiring Clips and Conduit Clamps Wiring clips are used to fix insulated wires on teakwood batten. Clips are initially fixed on batten by nails at suitable intervals along its length. They are made up of brass on tinned brass and available in lengths of 30 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm. Conduit clamps are used to fix the conduits on the walls. (xiv) Wires and Cables The different types are listed below. {a} VIR Wires Insulation: Vulcanised India Rubber (VIR) Voltage grade: 250 V or 660 V No. of cores: single or twin Conductor maierial: Copper or Aluminium Conductor size (mm’): 6, 10, 15, 20, 25 Use: Generaly used in cleat, wooden casing and capping and Batten wiring. (b) TRS Wires Insulation: Tough rubber sheath (TRS) Voltage grade: 250 V or 660 V No. of cores: single or twin Conductor material: Copper or Aluminum Conductor size (mm): 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25 Use: Suitable for places where acids and alkalies are likely to be present. {c} PVC Cabies Insulation: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Voltage grade: 250 V or 660 V No.of cores: single or twin Conductor material: Copper or Aluminum Conductor size (mm): 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10. 15, 20, 25 Use: Generally used in all types of wiring. (d) Wheather Proof (WP) Cables Insulation: Vulcanised India Rubber Voltage grade: 250 V or 660 V No. of cores: single or twin180 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Conductor materiat: Aluminium Conductor size (mm?); 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20 Use: For service connections. (e) Sheathed Cables Specification: IS 692/1957 Insulation: Paper or PVC insulated with lead alloy sheath with or without steel armouring. Voltage grade: 660 V, 1100 V No. of cores: 2, 3, 3.5, or 4 Conductor material: Copper or Aluminium Conductor size (m*): 4, 16, 25, 35, 50, 185, 300, 500 Use: For service connection and outdoor fittings connections (f) Flexible Cord Insulation: VIR and/or PVC Voltage grade: 250 V or 660 V No. of cores: 2, 3 or 4 : Conductor material: Copper or Aluminium Conductor size (mm*): 0.4, 0.6, 1, 2, 3. 4 Use: For taking supply from socket outlets, ceiling roses etc. (xv) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker This cai be optionally fitted in the main supply circuit to open the circuit automatically in the event of any supply leakage in any part of the circuit. Under healthy condition in a single-phase AC circuit, the current through the line wire and neutral wire are equal and opposite. As and when any leakage occurs, there exists a difference in the current in the two wires and this will make the circuit breaker to trip-off, opening the supply and thus safegaurding the users against electric shock. (xvi) Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) MCBs are equivalent to have a switch and fuse in a single unit. They are normally used to make and break the supply in sub-circuits. In addition to the above purpose, it also protects the circuit against overloading or short circuiting. They are available in single, two, three or four pole configurations with current ratings 5 A, 16 A, 32 A etc. As and when the circuit current exceeds the capacity of MCB, it gets trip- off.Domestic Wiring © 181 8.2 TYPES OF WIRING The type of wiring to be selected for a particular place of use is based on several factors like durability, safety, mechanical protection, appearance, environmental condition, accessibility for extension, cost etc. The various types of wiring in practice are (i) Cleat wiring Gi) Wooden casing and capping wiring (iii) Batten wiring (iv) Conduit wiring (v) Lead sheathed wiring. (i) Cleat Wiring This system of wiring is used for temporary shelters and farmhouses. Porcelain or seasoned teakwood cleats are made of two halves, base and top. The cleats are available as two-way, three-way, four-way etc. according to the number of grooves provided. The base cleats are fixed on wooden plugs fitted on walls or other supporting surface. Spacing between adjacent cleats vary from 30 cm to 60 cm. After laying the wires on the grooves, top cleats are fixed to the base cleats thus holding the wires firmly. (ii) Wooden Casing and Capping Wiring This type of wiring make use of wooden casing with grooves and cap made from first class seasoned teakwood or any other approved wood. VIR wires or PVC wires are used. The casing is initially fitted on the walls. Then, wires are laid in such a way that wires of opposite polarity are laid in different grooves. The casing is then covered at the top by means of capping. (ii) Batten Wiring This type of wiring is most commonly used since it is cheap and can be quickly installed. The wooden battens are fixed to the walls or ceiling by means of wooden plugs with wood screws. The wood screws should be fixed on the batten at an interval not exceeding 75 cm. The minimum width of the batten is 13 mm for two wires. The width increases with increase in the number of wires. Wires are firmly fixed over the batten by means of wiring clips. Clips are initially nailed on the batten at an interval of 10 cm in case of horizontal run and 15 cm in the case of vertical run.182 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (iv) Conduit Wiring The advantages of this type of wiring are, it provides good mechanical protection, electrical protection, fire proof, damp-proof etc. and are more durable. When the conduits are buried inside the walls and ceilings they give good appearance. Conduits may also be fixed on walls and ceilings by clamps. The required number of wires are then drawn through the conduits and connections are then given. {v) Lead Sheathed Wiring Sheathed wiring are carried out on places exposed to the sun, rain and other damp conditions provided no joints are exposed. Sheathed cables may be directly clamped on walls or ceilings. Armoured sheath cables may be laid underground for outdoor connections. 8.2.1 Rules for Wiring According to IS specifications, the following rules have to be kept in mind while wiring: (i) The total lighting load in a sub-circuit should not be more than 800 W. The maximum power load in a sub-circuit should not exceed 2000 W. Every fitting or appliance must be controlled by a switch. Every socket outlet must also be controlled by a switch. The switch should be on the line conductor. The incandescent lamps should be hanged at least 2.5 m above the floor level. (vi) All ceiling fans should be hanged at least 2.75 m above the floor level. (vii) Power wiring should be separated from light wiring. (viii) Every sub-circuit must have a separate distribution fuse. (ix) The switches and starters of the motors should be easily accessible. (x) All the metal coverings, frames etc. should be earthed 8.3 STAIR-CASE WIRING In this wiring a single lamp is controlled by two switches installed in two different places. The wiring is carried out by two, two-way switches, S; and S2, as shown in the Fig. 8.1. Table 8.1 gives the operation and control of the lamp.Domestic Wiring © 183 Ss) 82 Fig. 8.1 Stair-case wiring Table 8.1 Stair-Case Switch Position Switch $, position Switch S; position Conditon of lamp L 1 ON 1 2 OFF 2 2 ON 2 1 OFF 8.4 FLUORESCENT TUBE WIRING Fluorescent mbe light has two filaments on either side of the tube and is filled with mercury vapour. The filaments are coated with electron emitting material. The inside wall of the tube has a phosphorous coating which converts ultraviolet radiation into visible light. A steel cored copper or aluminium ballast or otherwise called-as choke is used to obtain a transient high voltage at the time of starting to initiate the electron movement. Other accessories are a bimetallic starter and capacitors. Fig. 8.2 shows the connection diagram. When the supply switch S is closed, a current initially passes through the ballast, the two filaments of the tube and the starter. The bimetallic strip in the starter, after getting heated up, suddenly opens the circuit. Due to the high inductive property of the ballast, a transient high voltage appears across the two filaments, causing the initial electron flow to take~ 184 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Filament Fig. 8.2 Fluorescent tube wiring place between the filaments. The lamp starts glowing and now the current from the supply passes through the ballast, the two filaments and the mercury vapour inside the tube. A capacitor C across the supply is to improve the power factor of the circuit and another capacitor across the starter is to suppress radio interference. 8.5 SIMPLE DOMESTIC LAYOUT Fig. 8.3 shows the layout for a residential building. The supply is taken from EB distribution lines through service mains. It goes to energy meter, the main switch and then to the distribution board. Supply to the entire building may be divided into 3 circuits. Circuit 1: 1. Study Room - 2 Lights - 1 Fan 2. Verandah - 2 Lights 3. Bed 1 - 2 Lights - 1 Fan 4, Toilet 1 - 1 Light - 1 Exhaust FanFig. 8.3. Domestic layout 5. Bath 1 - 1 Light - 1 Water Heater Circuit 2: 6, Hall - 3 Lights - 2 Fans - 1 TV 7, Dining - 2 Lights - 1 Fan - 1 Refrigerator Circuit 3: 8. Toilet 2- 1 Light - 1 Exhaust Fan 9, Bath 2 - 1 Light - Water Heater 10. Bed 2 - 2 Lights - 1 Fan Domestic Wiring © 185 é Service > mains186 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11. Kitchen ~ 2 Lights - 1 Exhaust Fan ~ 1 Grinder - 1 Mixer 12. Store - 1 Light. In addition to the above sufficient socket outlets are provided in various rooms. 8.6 EARTHING Earthing generally. means connecting the body of the equipments, appliances etc. to the earth so as to ensure at all times that an immediate and safe discharge of electric current to the earth should take place in the event of any leakage, faults etc. The earth is considered to be at zero potential. This arrangement is to provide enough safety to the user from electric shock. All metallic parts of every electrical wiring system such as metallic conduits, metallic sheaths, steel armouring of cables, metallic frames, iron clad switches, household appliances, motor body, starting gear frame, earth point of socket outlet etc. should be earthed by running one continuous earth bus (thick bare copper wire/strip) throughout the wiring layout. No joints are permitted in the earth bus. Only firm connections are recommended. The two ends of the earth bus are to be connected to two separate earth pits installed just outside the building with suitable spacing. If sufficient spacing is not available one earth pit may be used. Two different earthing systems are practised (i) Pipe earthing and (ii) Plate earthing. {i) Pipe Earthing Galvanised iron pipe of 38 mm diameter, 2 m length with 12 mm holes on its surface is buried vertically into the ground. Alternate layers of powdered charcoal and salt are arranged 15 cm around the pipe. A funnel with a mesh is connected at the top of the pipe and water is poured in it periodically for maintaining a good earth connection. (ii) Plate Earthing In this system, in addition to the arrangement listed in pipe earthing, additional earth plate is provided at the bottom of the earth rod. The size of the plate is 60 cm x 60 cm x 6.3 mm if it is made of galvanised iron or 60 cmx 60 cm x 3.15 mm if it is made of copper. Alternate layers of powdered charcoal and salt are arranged both below and top of the earth plate.RQ 8.1 RQ 8.2 RQ 8.3 RQ 8.4 RQ 8.5 RQ 8.6 RQ 8.7 RQ 8.8 RQ 89 RQ 8.10 RQ 8.11 RQ 8.12 RQ 8.13 Domestic Wiring © 187 REVIEW QUESTIONS List the various materials used for electrical wiring. List the various accessories used for electrical wiring. Describe the operation of a low pressure fluorescent lamp with a circuit diagram. Give particulars about the different kinds of wires and cables used for a domestic wiring. Draw the wiring diagram for controlling one lamp from two different places. cE ‘What are the various types of wiring used for residential buildings? What are the advantages of earthing? Discuss the safety measures used in a domestic wiring Draw a neat wiring diagram for a staircase lighting and explain its working. 7 Present a simple domestic layout and explain how wiring is carried out in it. Exphin the following types of wiring system (i) Batten Wiring (ii) Conduit Wiring. List the varicus types of switches used in a domestic wiring. ‘What are the various types of lamp holders?Power Systems Compared with other forms of energy, electrical energy possesses the following unique advantages: (i) It may be carried in far greater quantities and to far greater distances at high efficiency. (ii) The methods of control are extremely elastic and convenient. (iii) Electric energy in fact is the highest grade of energy, since it can easily be changed to other forms like, heat, light, mechanical energy, chemical action etc. The electric energy consumption in every coyntry is increasing at an enormous rate every year. The objectives of an electric energy system are: (i) to generate electric energy in sufficient quantities at the most generating locality (ii) to transmit it in bulk quantities to the load centres and then (iii) to distribute it to the individual customers in proper form and quality and {iv) to do the above at the lowest possible ecological and economic prices. Such energy sytems are known as power systems. The Figure 9.1 shows a single-line diagram of a typical alternating current (AC) power system. In the generating stations, AC generators generate electrical energy at 11 kV (6.6 kV/33 kV), the transformer steps up the voltage to 230 kV (110 kV/132 kV/400 kV) at which long distance transmission takes place. The receiving station steps down the voltage to 33 kV and feed the substations where the system voltage is further stepped down to 3.3 kV (6.6 kV). High tension distribution starts from the substations and bulk consumers are provided the electric energy at this voltage level and a consumer has his own transformer station. There are other transformer stations maintained by the system authority where the voltage is stepped190 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Generators (Synch Grs) 4 1kV (6.633 faa. BUS Generating Va station abe 11 kvi230 KV Tr ~~ Step-up-Transformers Te i TLS To Receiving stations | 230 kV (HT-Transmission Line) (110 kV, 132 kV, 400 kV) Lh / To Substations 133 Vv (LT transmission line/feeders) niveto 4 tr ele 33 kV KV Sub-station / 33 kV, (66kV)) 7 7 7 HT distribution or a to transformer stations 35 Ww sation bulk ho Or pu consumers J tren 3 3 VIS V 4 41 ‘St ‘—> LT distribution Fig. 9.1 AC Power system lay-outPower Systems ¢ 191 down to 415 V/240 V. (415 V between lines and 240 V between line and neutral) at which other consumers draw the electric energy to their loads HT transmission may be carried out by HVDC system also. Several generating stations may be interconnected aiming at a good grid connection for the integrated process of continuous generation transmission and distribution. 9.1 GENERATION For generation of electrical energy, the three main sources are (i) hydropower (ii) fossil fuels like coal, gas or oil and (iii) nuclear fission Other possible alternate sources of energy are Gi) solar power (ii) wind power (iii) tidal power (iv) biogas ~ (v) nuclear fuston (vi) geothermal energy etc. 9.1.1 Types Electrical energy in bulk amount are generated in the following three types of generating stations: (i) Hydro - power station (ii) Thermal - power station (iii) Nuclear - power station. 9.1.2 Layout of Hydro Power Station Apart from electric energy generation, Hydro Power Stations are designed and installed with the following other objectives (i) River flood control Gi) Storage of water for irrigation purposes iii) Water for drinking purposes etc. The main features of a typical Hydro Power Station are (i) the catchment area, reservoir and dam (ii) the pipelines, tunnels and surge tank (ili) the turbines (iv) the electrical plant (v) the discharge arrangement and the tail race.192 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 9.2 shows the typical layout of Hydro Power Station. The dam is constructed to create the required water head and water from catchment area collects at the back of the dam, to form a reservoir. From the dam, the water is allowed to flow to the power house usually by two or more pipelines. In case an imtervening mountain is present, tunnelling is Dam Surge tank | e—Nalve house v Reservoir Pewee house > Tail race J : CP TF DOPE? Fig. 9.2. Hydro power station lay-out employed. Prior to the valve house, a surge tank is provided. In the event of load being suddenly thrown off and water turbines likely to be shut off by closing the valves, the sudden pressure build up in the waterway can be instantly dissipated by the rise in water level in this tank. The potential energy of water is converted into mechanical energy by water turbines. The choice of turbine depends on the water head. For high head, above 200 m, Pelton wheel is used. For medium heads i.e. 70-200 m Francis turbines are used. Kaplan and propeller turbines are used for low heads i.e. less than 70 m. A synchronous generator coupled with the water turbine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. 9.1.3 Layout of Thermal Power Station Steam turbines are used in thermal as well as nuclear power stations which convert thermal energy obtained from steam to mechanical energy. The steam is obtained from high pressure boilers in thermal power stations and the fuel used can be either solid, liquid or gas. Fig. 9.3 shows a simple lay-out of a thermal power station where coal is used as fuel. In the boiler house the fuel is burnt and the water is converted into steam at high pressure which is further super heated in a super heater. The super heated steam is passed into the turbine which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.Power Systems © 193 Coal storage Chimney Coal handling “Aah storage AGA / Dust disposal ee Boiler -—>_Air heater -ollector ‘Turbine _ High pr feed ==) ‘water heater | Boiler feed water Low pr Lead feed water heat ‘Condenser Condenser ‘Cold water extraction pump Circulating ‘water pump 1 - Cooling tower Fig. 9.3 Thermal power station lay-out The pressure of the steam decreases and its volume increases, after imparting energy to the turbine rotor, it passes out the turbine blades into the condenser. In the condenser the cold water is circulated with the help of a pump which condenses the low pressure wet steam. This condensed water is further supplied to a low pressure water heater where the low pressure steam supplied from the turbine causes the temperature of the feed water to increase, it is again heated in the high pressure heater where high pressure steam is used for heating. The method of taking out steam from turbines for feed water heating is called bleeding of turbines, which increases the overall efficiency of the boiler. The steam turbine acts as the prime-mover of the synchronous generator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. 9.1.4 Layout of Nuclear Power Station Here, the heat energy required to produce steam is obtained by nuclear fission carrie¢ out in a nuclear reactor. The two materials which undergo nuclear fission are Uranium (U 35} and Plutonium (PU.39) These are the heaviest materials existing on earth. Heat energy obtained194 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering from 1 kg of uranium is equivalent to that obtained from burning 36,000 tonnes of coal. Fig. 9.4 shows the typical lay-out of a Nuclear Power Station. High pressure steam Heat exchanger / Turbine Gr [_ LS] bp Hot gas | es Bus Moderator. ] ay Feed water Condenser Reactor = heater core Gold Gos’ Pump (air, hydrogen, helium) = (or water or liquid metals) Conérete shield Fig..9.4 Nuclear power station lay-out A nuclear power station consists of a steam turbine, synchronous generator, condenser, feed water heater etc. as in a thermal power station. But here the heat is produced by nuclear fission carried out in the reactor house. The heat is taken to the heat exchanger by suitable gas or liquid. The steam at the required pressure and temperature is produced in the heat exchanger and passed into the steam turbine. 9.2 TRANSMISSION The necessity of long transmission lines arose from the fact that the electrical energy obtained by harnessing the water can be available in bulk quantities at a very low running cost. These hydro power stations are always situated at very far distances from the plains where the electric energy is required for industrial, commercial and residential purposes. 9.2.1 Types Basically, there are two types of transmission systems: (i) High Voltage Direct - Current (HVDC) system and (ii) High Voltage Alternating - Current (HVAC) system. The above two systems can further be classified as: (i) HVDC system (a) DC two-wire system (b) DC two-wire with mid-point earthed system (c) DC three-wire system.Power Systems 195 (ii) HVAC system (a) Single-phase. AC, two—wire system (b) Single-phase. AC, two-wire with mid-point earthed system (c) Single-phase, AC, three-wire system (d) Two-phase, AC, three-wire system (e) Two-phase, AC, four—wire system (f) Three-phase, AC, three—wire system (g) Three-phase, AC, four—wire system Advantages of HVDC system (i) Only two conductors are required ii) Potential stress produced on the insulation by the DC system is approximately 70% of the AC effective voltage. (iii) Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems are not there. (iv) No stabilisers are required (v) Economical use of underground cables is possible. Advantages of HVAC system (i) It is possible to generate electric energy at very high voltage at 33 kV in AC as compared to 11 kV in DC. (ii) The AC voltage can be stepped-up by transformers. (iii) Stepping down the voltage at the substation is easier and cheaper. (iv) Static substation using transformers are much efficient. (v) Maintenance of AC substation is easier and cheaper. 9.2.2 Effects of Increase in Voltage By suitable derivations it may be proved that e For the same power to be transmitted the line loss is inversely proportional to the square of voltage and pf. For the same power to be transmitted with the same line loss the weight of the conductor materials is inversely proportional! to the square of the voltage and pf. e For the same power to be transmitted the line efficiency will increase with square of increase in voltage and pf. For the same amount of power, the voltage regulation of the transmission line decreases with increase in. voltage in square proportion and with increase in pf. Cost for insulation, line supports, switch-gears etc. increases with increase in system voltage. The following are the voltage levels employed at different parts of the power-system: For Generation: 6.6, 11, 13.2 or 33. kV .196 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering For HT transmission: 110, 132, 230 or 400 kV. ¢ For LT transmission: 11, 33 or 66 kV © For HT distribution: 3.3, 6.6 or 11 kV e For LT distribution: 415 V, 3 phase 240 V, 1 phase 9.3 DISTRIBUTION Distribution system consist of three elements: (i). Feeders - (ii) Distributors (iii) Service mains. Feeders are conductors of large current carrying capacity, supplying power to the distributors at the feeding point. Distributors are conductors from which power is tapped off for supply to the consumers. Service mains are the small cables taking power from the distributor to the consumer premises. 9.3.1 Types Distribution system is classified into the following two types: Gi) Radial system (ii) Ring main system (i) Radialsystem Fig. 9.5 shows the typical arrangement in a radial system: Here, the distributor is connected to the supply system on one end only by the feeder. yDistibutor ®@ Nason @ Service mains Feeder Fig. 9.5. Radial system (ii) Ring main system Fig. 9.6 shows the arrangement in ring main system. In this system, the distribution starting from point A, after . covering different areas B, C, D and E finally ends up with the startingPower Systems » 197 \€- Distributor Feeder Service main Fig. 9.6 Ring main system point A itself. The supply is given to the distributor by the feeder at point ‘A. Ring main system is more reliable than radial system. 9.3.2 Comparison of OHL with UGC Advantages of over head line (OHL) (i) Transmission and distribution are cheaper. (ii) High voltage can be employed easily. (iii) Easy accessibility for extensions and repairs. Advantages of under ground cables (UGC) (i) Cable transmission and distribution are not subjected to supply interruption caused by lightning, birds and other severe weather conditions. 7 (ii) It reduces accidents caused by, the breaking of conductors. The use of cables does not spoil the beauty of the cities. REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 9.1 State the different systems of power transmission. RQ 9.2 Compare the merits and demerits of underground cables and overhead lines. RQ 9.3. With the help of a neat sketch explain the various components of a nuclear power station. RQ 9.4 Discuss the working of a Hydro-electric power station with a suitable layout diagram. RQ 9.5 Explain the general layout of generation, transmission and distribution of an electric power system. RQ 9.6 Why are high voltages adopted for transmission? Explain. RQ 9.7 Distinguish the different types of distribution system. RQ 9.8 Discuss the working of a thermal power station with a suitable layout diagram.Passive Electronic Components 10.1 ESSENTIALS OF AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT An electronic circuit essentially consists of two types of components, namely (i) Active component (ii) Passive component. 7 Active and passive components Voltage and current sources, semiconductors, and vacuum devices come under the category of active components. Active components activate electronic circuits to function. In addition to these components, passive components such as resistors, capacitors and inductors are also necessary to control electronic circuits. This chapter deals with passive components while the theory, operation and application of semiconductor devices are covered in the subsequent chapters. . Passive components are capable of controlling the current, rate of change of current and the rate of change of voltage in an electronic circuit. Further, signals of desired shapes can also be derived using proper combination of these elements. However, for signal generation, in addition to passive components, active components are also required. 10.2 RESISTORS Any material that offers resistance to the flow of electric current is called a resistor. A resistor is capable of conducting current in both directions. But, while doing so, a fraction of the energy is converted into200 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering heat energy. In electronic circuits, resistances are mainly used for limiting the current flow (to a safe value) through the devices. The specifications of a resistor include its ohmic value, power rating, tolerance and working voltage. Resistors are classified into two types. They are— (i) Fixed resistors (ii) Variable resistors. 10.2.1 Fixed Resistors A fixed resistor is one whose value cannot be changed by the user. It could be any one of the following types: (i) Carbon composition resistors Gi) Thin film ‘resistors (iii) Wire wound resistors. Solid resistance element Embedded lead Moulded body Fig. 10.1 Cross-sectional view of a carbon composition resistor Carbon composition resistors These resistors are made of finely divided carbon or graphite, mixed with a powdered insulator material as a binder. The resistance element is usually enclosed in a plastic case for mechanical strength and insulation. The two ends of the carbon resistance element are fixed to metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire. Carbon composition resistors are available with ohmic values ranging from 1 2 to 20 mega (2. The size as well as the power ratings of these resistors are small. Quarter watt and half watt resistances are very commonly used in electronic circuits. The cross-sectional view of a carbon composition resistor is shown in Fig. 10.1. The resistance values are indicated by circular rings of different colours which follow a specific colour code. Thin film resistors These resistors are manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of conducting material on an insulated rod, tube or platePassive Electronic Components « 201 made of ceramic .or glass. There are two types of-thin film resistors, namely. (i) Carbon film resistors (ii) Metal film resistors. Fig, 10.2 Carbon film resistor Carbon film resistor (Fig. 10.2) These resistors are manufactured by depositing pure carbon on a ceramic substrate by thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons at 1273 K. Lead wires are attached to the film at each end and the whole assembly is surrounded by an insulating material. The sheet resistance of the film is controlled by the carbon film thickness. These resistors are commercially available in the range of 102 to 10 MQ. With the power rating available upto 5 watts, carbon film resistors are less noisy in comparison to carbon composition resistors, These resistors are used in measuring instruments where close tolerances are required. They also have better stability. Metal film resistors _ A metal film resistor is obtained by depositing a very thin layer of metal like nickel on a ceramic or glass rod by means of electrolytic decomposition in a chemical bath containing hypo phosphate. The resistance values change only slightly with the variation in temperature. However, they can be considered very stable because of their high reliability and stability. These resistors are preferred in electronic equipments. Metal film resistors are available with resistance values ranging from 0.5 to 10k. Their power rating is as high as 5 watts with tolerance values ranging from +3 per cent to —3 per cent Wire wound on ceramic core Enamel coating Fig. 10.3 Wire wound resistor202 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Wire-wound resistors This type of resistor is obtained by tightly winding a known length of wire on a cylindrical ceramic core. The material for the wire is chosen from high resistivity alloys like Nichrome and Manganin. The wire is normally applied with a coating of an insulating material like enamel. Resistors of different values are obtained by varying the length or thickness of the wire, or both. The end leads are soldered to end card and the whole assembly is coated with a protective material such as enamel to prevent the ingress of moisture. A wire wound resistor is shown in Fig, 10.3. Wire wound resistors are available with resistance values ranging from 0.1 ohm to 1 mega ohm. They are preferred when resistors of high power rating (10 W to 75 W) are required. 10.2.2 Variable Resistors Variable resistors are those whose resistance values can be adjusted between zero and a maximum value. They are immensely useful in adjusting voltages and currents. Volume control in radio, brightness control in television are examples of the application of variable resistors. Variable resistors can be classified into— (i) Wire-wound variable resistors (ii) Carbon composition potentiometers. Wire-wound variable resistors The wire-wound variable resistors are further classified into three types. They are— (i) Wire-wound rotoray variable type resistor (ii) Wire-wound solenoid type resistor (iii) Helical-wound variable resistor Wire-wound rotary variable resistor . These types of resistors are popular in TV and radio receivers for effecting volume control. Resistance element Wiper Terminal lugs Fig. 10.4 Wire-wound rotary variable resistor On a strip of Bakelite former, a nichrome wire is wound as shown in Fig. 10.4. The strip is then bent to form an arc which is fixed in a Bakelite mould with end plates and screws as shown in the figure. ForPassive Electronic Components © 203 high power dissipation, an aluminium former with an oxide coating is preferred. Fig. 10.5 Rheostat Wire-wound solenoid type resistor The wire-wound solenoid type resistor makes use of copper in an oxidised form as the resistance winding. The winding is of circular or hexagonal shape, wound on a ceramic or steel former. The commercial wire wound solenoid resistor is depicted in Fig. 10.5. This type of resistor is also referred as rheostar. The resistance of a rheostat is changed by varying the position of the sliding brush contact. Copper or graphite can be used as the brush material. The theostat is capable of withstanding temperatures upto 300°C. These are used in industries and laboratories for obtaining the desired voltage drop. Fig. 10.6 Helical (Multiturn) potentiometer Helical-wound variable resistor (Fig. 10.6) These resistors are obtained by winding the. resistance element over a helical former of circular or rectangular cross-section. These resistors are highly linear, possess a very large angle of rotation and high revolution. They are available in the resistance range of 1 to 10kQ. The power ratings can go upto 200 watts. .204 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Carbon composition potentiometer Carbon composition potentiometer can be classified into two types. i) Moulded type 7 (ii) Coated film type. | 1-MQ carbon Fist keyway composition for knob resistor element Shaft Spring wiper contact Rotating arm Shaft OOO Soldering lugs (a) External view (b) Internal view Fig. 10.7 Variable carbon-resistance control Moulded type potentiometer In this type, the carbon composition mixture is moulded into a cavity over a plastic base, or a mixture of carbon is coated on a ring of insulating material. The resistance can be changed: by varying the movable contact brush made of carbon. This type of potentiometers find applications in industries and defence. Coated filmtype The coated film type potentiometers find their use in Televisions for effecting brightness and contrast control. They are also used in radio receivers and measuring instruments.” The coated film potentiometer is obtained by coating a mixture of carbon and silica with a binder on a ring of insulating material. The film surface is hardened to minimise the abrasiveness of the film due to sliding. 10.2.3 Colour Coding Resistors are coded using different colour bands to indicate their resistance values and tolerance. There are four colour bands drawn side by side at the left end of a resistor. Reading from /eft to right, the first band close to the left edge gives the first digit of the resistance value. The next band indicates the second digit. The third band gives the number of zeros after the two digits while the fourth band gives the tolerance value. Fig 10.8 shows the colour codes and tolerance values for various colours. For example, a resistor with the following colour bands— Red - Red - Orange - Gold - will have 22009 with tolerance resistance.Passive Electronic Components * 205 X \ N N Ny y sy 1 I I T Fig. 10.8 Colour coding system Iv + 10.3 CAPACITORS The function of a capacitor is to store electric charge. Capacitors vary in shape, size and design, depending on intended use. Capacitors are generally classified into two types— (i) Variable capacitors (ii) Fixed capacitors. 10.3.1 Variable Capacitors Variable capacitors are so named because of their ability to vary their , capacitance values. The different types of variable capacitors are— (i) Trimmer capacitor and Padders (ii) General purpose variable capacitor (iii) Precision type variable capacitor Trimmer capacitor and padders Trimmer capacitors are small variable units consisting of two metal plates usually separated by a thin piece of mica. The capacitance is changed by means of a small screw that brings the plates closer to each other. Trimmer capacitors are used in receivers and other equipments for the fine adjustment of capacity of the tuned circuit for accurate alignment. Padders are similar to Trimmers but larger in size. They have additional plates when compared to wimmers and their value ranges from 10 p.f. to 500 p-f. (Fig. 10.9) (a) Cornmin type (b) Mine type Fig. 10.9 Trimmers and padders206 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering General purpose variable capacitor The rotor stator capacitor comes under this type. It consists of two sets of metal plates. The fixed plates are connected together and form the stator. The movable plates are connected together to the shaft and form the rotor. The capacitance is varied by rotating the shaft in such a way that the rotor plates mesh with the stator plates. There is no electric contact between the two sets of plates; air is the dielectric medium. When the plates are fully meshed, the effective plate area is at its greatest, and hence maximum capacitance results. Conversely, when the plates are out of mesh, the effective plate area is greatly reduced, and minimum capacitance results. Theoretically, an infinite number of continuous variable capacitances can be realized between the limits of maximum and minimum capacitances. t ‘ ' ------s (ce) (b) Midget single Fig. 10.10 Variable capacitors a split stator Two rotor-stator capacitors are shown in Fig. 10.10. alongwith their symbols. The split-stator capacitor in Fig. 10.10(a) is similar to the capacitor used for tuning most (older) types of radio receivers. The mid get single capacitor shown in Fig. 10.10(b) is used for tuning high frequency circuits. The dotted lines joining the symbol in Fig. 10.10(c) indicates that the capacitors are ganged together; that is both the rotors move simultaneously because they are attached to a common shaft. Precision variable capacitor The precision variable capacitor comprising a stator and a rotor with aluminium plates is shown inPassive Electronic Components « 207 Rotor Fig. 10.11 Precision variable capacitor Fig. 10.11. Quartz is used to insulate the light alloy and plates which are mounted on a duralium shaft. The capacitance value ranges from 40 pico farads to 1000 pico farads. The drive to the moving assembly is provided by a spring loaded worm wheel. 10.3.2 Fixed Capacitors Fixed capacitors are manufactured according to specific values which ~ cannot be changed. Most capacitors used in industries are of this type. They are made in different shapes and sizes depending on the required capacity, voltage rating, mounting requirements and permissible leakage. Customarily, they are named according to the type of dielectric used. The most common kinds are described below with emphasis on their salient characteristics. The most commonly used fixed capacitors are— (i) Paper capacitors (ii) Mica capacitors - (ii) Ceramic capacitors (iv) Plastic capacitors (v) Electrolytic capacitors. Fig. 10.12 Paper capacitor208 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Paper capacitors (Fig 10.12) Paper capacitors are the least expensive and, therefore, most widely used fixed capacitors. The dielectric is kraft paper, a relatively heavy, high strength sulphate paper, inserted between thin aluminium foil plates, rolled together and impregnated with resin. The entire unit is encapsulated in a tubular plastic or metal sheath to make it impervious to moisture and contaminants. Axial leads are usually brought out of each end. Typical capacities range from about 0.0001 to 2 jf with voltage ratings ranging from 200 V to 600 V. Mica capacitors (Fig. 10.13) Mica capacitors find application when capacitors of high voltage ratings are required. As mica is one of the best insulators with low loss, radio transmitters use these capacitors since the voltage rating and current may go as high as 30 KV and 100 A. Fig. 10.13 Mica capacitor These units are structurally quite large and capacities in excess of 0.05 pf are uncommon. A variation of this kind of capacitor is the-silver- mica capacitor. A thin layer of silver is deposited on the surface of the mica, and the resulting capacitor has excellent stability and tolerance properties. These capacitors are used principally for temperature compensation in radio frequency tuned circuits owing to their predictable, linear temperature-capacitance (TC) variations. Ceramic capacitors Ceramic capacitors consist of a ceramic disc with silver electrodes (plates) attached to each flat surface. Leads are bonded to these electrodes to provide connection to the unit. Fig. 10.14 shows the details of a monolithic ceramic capacitor. Ceramic capacitors are used in applications with requirements ranging from low frequency and audio to high, very high and ultra high frequency, through 1000 MHz. Dielectric materials for ceramic capacitors are made from mixtures of barium and strontium titanates, blended with rare earth and other additives for improving electrical characteristics. Plastic capacitors Plastic films such as polystyrene or Mylar have largely replaced paper as a dielectric for general purpose capacitors.Passive Electronic Components « 209 (a) Disc type (b) Tubular type Fig. 10.14 Ceramic capacitors Plastic is much denser than paper and contamination due to foreign particles is absent. Plastic can withstand higher temperatures and is more stable than paper. Plastic film and paper capacitors are generally constructed in same manner. The details of construction of a plastic film extended foil capacitor is shown in Fig. 10.15. ~ Plate t : Plate 2 Plate | Plastic film Plate 2 / (b) Plastic film @) Lead soldered or welded Ends folded (ec) (d) Fig. 10.15 Construction of a plastic-firm, extended-foi capacitor. {a) Assembly of plates, (b) Plates wound, (c) Ends folded, (4) Leads soldered Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are used when a large amount of capacitance is needed, and the leakage current is not critical. Their capacities range from a few microfarads to hundreds of thousands of farads. Generally, they are not rated higher than 450 V in values upto210 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering several hundred microfarads. The voltage ratings tend to decrease as the capacitance increases because thinner dielectrics are used in larger capacitances. In its simplest form, the electrolytic capacitors are constructed similar fo paper capacitors. The construction of an electrolytic capacitor is shown in Fig. 10.16. Negative plate Electrolyte Aluminium oxide ie . Aluminium foil Positive plate Fig. 10.16 Electrolytic capacitor The electrolytic capacitor consists of a rol] of aluminium foil coated on one side with aluminium oxide, the aluminium being the positive plate and the oxide the dielectric. A layer of porous paper or gauze saturated with an electrolyte is placed over the aluminium oxide. Another layer of ‘aluminium without the oxide coating is then placed over this layer which serves as the negative plate. In most cases, the negative plate is connected directly to the aluminium container. Since the dielectric film is extremely thin, very large capacitors are possible. In electrolytic capacitors, tantalum is used in place of aluminium when the size of the capacitor is a consideration. In tantalum capacitors, a dielectric oxide film — tantalum pentoxide can be electrolytically formed on a tantalum metal. These capacitors are superior to aluminium capacitors. There are two types of tantalum electrolytic capacitors-- (i) Wet type (i) Dry type 10.3.3 Dissipation Factor The dissipation factor gives a relation between the power wasted and power stored in a capacitor. Power wasted per cycle ‘Power stored per cycle where power wastage is due to dielectric losses and current leakage. Dissipation factor =Passive Electronic Components © 211 10.4 . INDUCTORS An inductor is a passive component that is capable of storing energy. Jt always opposes the change in the current flowing through it by producing a self-induced emf. There are two types of inductors. (i) Fixed type (i) Variable type. 10.4.1 Fixed Inductors In fixed inductors, the inductance value remains unchanged. They are further classified as — i) Air-core inductors (ii) Iren-core inductors (ii) Ferrite-core inductors. Aircore inductors The shape and symbol of an air-core inductor is shown in Fig. 10.17. Air core inductors are most widely used in communication circuits. Since, only air is present within the coils, they have very low values of inductance ranging from a fraction of pH to a few wH. Sometimes, the coil of wire is wound over non-magnetic materials like ceramic rods and plastics which also come under the category of Air core inductors. They are used at frequencies upto 200 MHz (RF). They are employed mainly in radio and TV equipments. oo (a) Symbol (b) Shape Fig. 10.17 Air-core inductor froncore inductors When a coil is wound over a solid or laminated iron core, an iron cored inductor is obtained. Usually, the iron core is laminated by pressing together thin laminated sheets to reduce eddy current loss. Iron core inductors (Fig. 10.18) are used in low frequency circuits such as filter circuits in power supplies, chokes in fluorescent tubes. Ferrite core inductors An iron core inductor is not suitable for high frequency applications because of increase in hysteries and eddy current loss. This difficulty is overcome by using ferrite materials as core. Ferrite core inductors are shown in Fig. 10.19. A ferrite is basically an insulator having a very high permeability. Ferrites are212 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (a) Symbol (b) Shape Fig. 10.18 Iron-core inductors non-metallic compounds. The values of ferrite inductors range from a few micro henry to few milli henry. The typical application of ferrite core inductors are in the following circuits. (a) Symbol (b) Shape Fig. 10.19 Ferrite-core inductors (i) RF chokes Gi) Switching mode power supply ii) Fitters and communication equipments. 10.4.2 Variable Inductor Variable inductors are those inductors whose inductance can be varied to a desired value. This can be made either by moving the coil in and out of the core or by varying the air gap in the core. It can also be done by varying the number of turns of coil used in the inductors. 10.4.3. Chokes A choke is an inductance coil to restrict the flow of alternating current. Chokes may be classified as:Passive Electronic Components ¢ 213 (i) Filter choke (ii) Audio frequency choke (iii) Radio frequency choke. Filter choke They are usually laminated iron core inductors. These are used for smoothing pulsating current output from a rectifier. Audio frequency choke These are used to provide high impedance to audio frequencies. Their size and inductance values are less than that of filter choke Radio frequency choke Chokes having still lesser inductance value are used as radio frequency chokes to block the radio frequency RQ 10.1 RQ 10.2 RQ 10.3 RQ 10.4 RQ 10.5 RQ 10.6 RQ 10.7 RQ 10.8 RQ 10.9 RQ 10.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS List a few passive circuit components and active circuit components, Distinguish between resistors and the other passive circuit components namely L and C Name different types of potentiometers, Explain carbon potentiometer in detail. What is colour coding? Explain. What is meant by tolerance of resistors? List the various capacitors used in electronic circuits. What is polarised and non-polarised electrolytic capacitors? Compare the constructional features and characteristics of a) paper b) mica c) ceramic and d) plastic capacitors. What is the application of the choke? Give an account of fixed inductors.Basic Semiconductor Devices and Circuits 11.1. INTRODUCTION Electronics is 2 branch of Science and Engineering, which deals with the study of current conduction phenomena in vacuum or gas or semiconductor and the utilisation of the devices based on these phenomena. Vacuum tubes and gas tubes were the dominant electronic devices before the advent of the transistor in the year 1948. The growth of electronics during the last five decades, starting from 1950, is astounding. It is during this’ period many important semiconductor devices were invented and new branches of Electronic Engineering and Technology came into existence. Miniaturization of electronic equipments with the introduction of Integrated circuit technology had also gained momentum during the last three decades. Electronics today finds wide ranging applications in various fields like communications, control, and automation of industrial processes, computers, medicine, defence and consumer electronics etc. In day-to-day life, clectronics has become very essential and indispensable. Hence the study of this important area has acquired prominence over the recent years. Germanium, Silicon and Galium Arsenide are some of the important semiconductor materials, forming the backbone of solidstate electronics A semiconductor device like the transistor is credited with small size, long life, low operating voltage and low cost. This chapter deals with the principle of operation, characteristics and applications of few basic semiconductor devices like Junction diodes, tansistors, and Field Effect Transistors (FET), etc.216 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS Materials like copper, silver and aluminium known as conductors are the good conductors of electricity while materials like glass, rubber, and porcelain collectively known as insulators are the poor conductors of electricity. Semiconductors like germanium, silicon and gallium arsenide have their conductivity ranging between these two extremes. The differences in conducting properties of these three classes of materials are found to arise from their different energy band structures, they possess. A typical energy band diagram depicting an energy band structure is shown in Fig. 11.1 pani * | LG <- - ~ ~ Conduction band energy Ze - - Energy gap (eV) WILLA « ~~ ~~ Valence band Fig. 11.1 Typical energy band diagram 11.2.1 Energy Band Structures of Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor The keywords used in the description of the energy band structures and their meanings are given below: Valence electrons Electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom are called valence electrons. Energy band The range of energies possessed by electrons in an atom is known as energy band. The electron energy is expressed in Electron Volts (eV). One electron volt is equivalent to 1.6 x 107'9 W- Sec. Valence band The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. Conduction (Free) electrons The electrons that are free to move and thereby conduct current in a material are called the conduction (Free) electrons. Conduction band The range of energies possessed by conduction electrons is known as conduction band. Forbidden band The gap between conduction band and valence band expressed in eV is known as forbidden band. It is also called forbidden gap. ‘Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits ¢ 217 Conductor Energy band diagram of a good conductor is shown in Fig. 11.2. Here, valence band and conduction band overlap indicating the absence of forbidden band, Therefore, at room temperatures, valence electrons can become free. For example, one electron/atom becomes free in the case of copper, in this way. Hence ‘plenty of electrons are available for conduction. Application of small electric field results in the movement of free electrons constituting an electric current. Resistivity in this case is very low. Conduction band fos band Fig. 11.2. Energy band diagram: conductor insulator The energy band diagram of an insulator, shown in Fig.11.3. exhibits filled valence band, an empty conduction band and a large band gap separating them: All the valence electrons are tightly bound to their parent atoms. The large band gap ensures that no electron at room temperature can jump from valence band to conduction band Thus, insulator behaves as a bad conductor. Resistivity is very high in this case. However, application of a very strong electric field results in the flow of small current. This is because, valence electrons are set free by the large force exerted by this field. These electrons constitute the | current in the outer circuit. Under this condition the insulator is said to have ‘broken’ down i.e it has become conductive. KQMMQAY conduction band Energy gap (wide) QQ valence band Fig. 11.3 Energy band diagram: insulator Semiconductor Semiconductors like Germanium and- Silicon possess almost filied valence band and nearly empty conduction band, with a very small energy gap (1.1 eV in the case of silicon) separating them as shown in Fig. 11.4. This narrow band gap implies that only, a small amount of energy is needed to take the valence electrons to the conduction band. Therefore, at room temperatures a few electrons on218 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering acquiring thermal energy can get themselves detached from the parent atom and jump into the conduction band to take part in current conduction. Number of electrons getting into the conduction band in this manner increases with temperatures. However, the semiconductor behaves like an insulator at absolute zero temperature as the conduction band is then completely empty. The forbidden energy gap for Germanium is 0.7 eV and for Silicon it is 1.1 eV. CLL, Conduction band nergy gap (narrow) WILLA Valence band Fig. 11.4 Energy band diagram: semiconductor 11.3 PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS Germanium and silicon are the semiconductors which possess the following properties: (1) They are tetravalent i.e they have four valence electrons (2) They have negative temperature coefficient i.e the resistivity decreases as the temperature increases. Their conductivities lie between that of conductor and insulator at room temperatures. (4) The conductivity can be improved by the addition of suitable impurities. It also increases with incidence of light. (5) The current in the semiconductor is constituted by the movement of holes and electrons. (3. 11.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS Semiconductor Intrinsic (Pure)Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Cirtuits © 219 11.4.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor ' The semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic semiconductor. ‘The covalent bond arrangement of pure germanium is shown in Fig. 11.5. In the case of these semiconductors, a few free electrons can be traced in the conduction band even at room temperatures, due to the Outer orbit Valence electron Nucleus and other electron Fig. 11.5 Crystal structure of perfect germanium breaking of covalent bonds. They are the valence electrons which acquire enough thermal energy (0.7 eV and above for Germanium, 1.1 eV and above for silicon) to crossover to the conduction band. As the electron leaves the valence band, a vacant space or void is created. This void is termed as hole and this in fact means the absence of electron. Holes therefore are treated as positive charges since electrons are negative charges. Thus, every electron that crosses into the conduction band leaves a aole in the valence band creating what is called a hole- electron pair. When subjected to an electric field, hole-electron pairs dirft i.e holes to the negative terminals of the supply and electrons to its positive termiral as shown in Fig. 11.6. Therefore, the total current <— Electrons Al <— < o> o> a— Fig. 11.6 Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor 7 Wt220 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering inside the semiconductor is the sum of the currents due to electrons and holes. However, the current in the external wires is only due to electrons. This type of conduction is called intrinsic conduction. 11.4.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor Intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction capability at room temperatures. To be useful as a semiconductor device its conduction property has to be vastly improved. This can be achieved by adding suitable impurities to the plain semiconductor. Addition of impurities to the semiconductor significantly increases the number of holes or electrons. The semiconductor with added impurities is called extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities is called doping, the impurities being referred to as doping agents or dopants. Aluminium and Boron are trivalent doping agents, whereas phosphorus and antimony are pentavalent doping agents. The doped semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor is either N-type or P-type depending on the valency of doping agents. N-type semiconductor Addition of pentavalent impurity to intrinsic silicon results in N-type semiconductor. A covalent bonding arrangement between one phosphorous atom(a pentavalent impurity) and four silicon atoms in its neighbourhood shown in Fig. 11.7 accounts for four valence electrons belonging to phosphorous atom. Fifth valence electron of phosphorous which is unable to enter into covalent bonding with silicon (which has only four valence electrons), is almost free and can cross over to conduction band very easily, at room temperatures. eae electron Donor impurity Fig. 11.7 Thus for every impurity atom one free electron is available and this kind of impurity is called Donor impurity. The number of free electrons produced in this manner is extremely large in comparison to the holesBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 221 belonging to thermally generated hole-electron pairs. The current contribution in an N-type semiconductor shown in Fig. 11.8 is predominantly by these free electrons i.e Negative charges and hence the name N-lype. Here, negative electrons are mobile charges and positive donot ions (of the impurity atoms) are fixed charges. It should be remembered that an N-type semiconductor as a whole is electrically neutral. Free electrons Ld Fig. 11.8 P-type semiconductor This is obtained by doping the intrinsic silicon with a trivalent impurity such as Boron. Silicon having four valence electrons enters into a covalent bonding with trivalent boron. While doing so, three of the four electrons belonging to silicon forms covalent bonds with three electrons of boron. The fourth silicon electron is unable to complete the bonding, as boron cannot provide an electron from its side. The formation of covalent bonds between silicon and trivalent boron impurity is depicted in Fig. 11.9. The absence of electron at ‘X’ gives rise to a hole. Thus, every Boron impurity atom Location of ay GZ impurity (Fig. 11.9222 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering contributes one hole. This type of impurity is referred to as acceptor impurity. The holes which are the positive ions outnumber the electrons, hence the semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor. Current conduction in this type of semiconductor, shown in Fig. 11.10 is predominantly by holes. Holes are mobile charges and negative acceptor ions are fixed charges. Holes = Fig. 11.10 11.5 PN-JUNCTION PN-Junction shown in Fig. 11.11 is the boundary region between N-type material on the right and P-type material op the left of a continuous and single crystalline structure. They are usually manufactured by planar diffusion process. The study of PN-junction is more important as it forms the basic building block of diodes and other more versatile semiconductor devices like transistors. No sooner than a PN-junction is formed, the highly concentrated holes in the P-region moves towards the N-region and highly concentrated electrons in the N-region move in the opposite direction towards the P-region. This process is called diffusion. During the diffusion process, electrons and holes recombine in the neighbouring areas of the junctions and annihilate one anocher. In fact, recombination leaves open fixed charges f.e. positive donor ions in the N-region and negative acceptor ions in the P-region lying adjacent to the junction. Further diffusion of holes and electrons are prevented by the positive and negative fixed charges. Positive charge on N side repels holes that comes from ‘P” side to ‘N’ side and similarly, negative charge in P-side repels free electrons that come from the N-side to P-side. Thus a barrierBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits # 223 Depletion P region | N | U, Gunction potential) | Y { Fig. 11.11 P-N junction is set up against the further movement of carriers. This is called potential barrier or Junction barrier. This is of the order of 0.1U to 0.3U(volt). The electric field set up by this barrier potential prevents further flow of majority carriers across this junction. The region on either side of the junction contains only fixed charges and is depleted of holes and electrons. Hence this region is also called depletion region. 11.5.1 PN-Junction with Forward Bias Application of an external voltage to PN-junction produces interesting effects on the junction depending on the nature of the biasing it provides to the junction. A forward biased PN-junction is shown in Fig. 11.12. To apply forward bias to the junction, positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type layer and negative terminal to the N-type layer. A reverse bias results when N-type layer is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and P-type layer to the negative terminal of the battery. During the forward bias, electrons, gets repelled by the negative terminal and holes by its positive terminal of the battery. As a result, both move towards the junction, thus reducing the potential barrier. A small forward voltage (0.1U to 0.3U) is sufficient to’ wipe off this potential224 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Depletion region 4 [TT 1 t No external | ---E reid ’ \/ | | | bod. Enema 71 | | field 7 OE ei ot Fig. 11.12 P-N junction under forward bias barrier by which a low resistance path is established in the circuit. Hence considerable amount of forward current results. Therefore, in forward biasing current conduction is due to majority carriers only. 11.5.2. PN-Junction under Reverse Bias During the reverse bias, positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-type and negative terminal to P-type. Hence electrons gets attracted by the positive terminal of the battery and holes by its negative terminal. As a result, there is a widening of the depletion region accompanied by an increase in barrier potential as shown in Fig. 11.13 This increased barrier potential.prevents the flow of majority carriers across the junction. Therefore, there should not be any current in the external circuit. But in practice a small current of the order of a few microamperes flows in the external circuit under reverse biased condition. This isBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits 225 Depletion region | | A<— External field No external > ! fea = 4 Fig. 11.13 P-N junction under reverse bias caused by the following process: Electrons forming the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms absorb energy mainly due to the rise in temperature and free themselves from the covalent bonds. As a result, hole-electron pairs are produced under the reverse biased condition. Holes in the P-region drift towards the negative terminal of the battery and electrons towards its positive terminal. But electrons in the P-regions and holes in the N-region being the minority carriers, easily drift across the junction under the influence of the barrier potential. 11.6 PN JUNCTION DIODE It is a two terminal device that makes use of the ‘valve’ nature of the junction by allowing the currents flow in one direction and blocking it in the other direction. The circuit symbol of the device is shown in Fig. 11.14. The unidirectional conduction property of the device makes it useful in the rectifier circuits, that are meant for converting the alternating current into direct current.226 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering —— > Conventional current flow Anode ; Cathode Fig. 11.14 Circuit symbol of PN junction diode 11.6.1 U-I Characteristics of Junction Diode U-I characteristics shown in Fig. 11.15 is plotted in the first and third quadrants of the graph. The characteristic shown in the first quadrant is called the forward characteristic as it represents the relationship between voltage and current under forward biased condition. 1, (ma) Ir Break down voltage 0| 0.30.6\0.9 1.2 (Volts) <— Reverse bias U, voltage (Uk) | Forward bias voltage (Ug) —> D] Reverse break down] J 1, (mA) Fig. 11.15 Up characteristics of a P-N junction diode The forward current is very small for low initial forward voltages. Once the forward voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the diode current starts increasing. The voltage at which the current starts rising rapidly is called cut in or threshold voltage (U,). For forward voltages less than U, barrier, potential exists and it blocks majority carrier flow. For forward voltages greater than U,, barrier potential disappears and majority carriers start crossing the junction in large numbers constituting relatively large amount of current flow in the outer circuit. The volt-ampere characteristics of the diode under reverse biased condition is shown in third quadrant. The current under reverse biased condition is of the order of microamperes and is constituted by minority carriers as explained in the earlier section. As the reverse biasing voltage is gradually increased, the current remains almost constant until the biasing voltage attains a particular high value called breakdown voltage. At this voltage, the current suddenly and sharply rises due to the onset of phenomenon called avalanche breakdown. At very high reverse voltage, the electron velocities shootup* Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 227 under the influence of large potential gradients. Hence their kinetic energies attain large values. Hence when they collide, they knockout electrons from the semiconductor atoms. The knocked out electrons also join the colliding electrons and further collisions take place. This results in avalanche multiplication of electrons which is the cause for the sudden rise in diode current. The breakdown depends on the level of doping. The heavily doped diode will have low breakdown voltage while the lightly doped diode will have high breakdown voltage. Diode ratings The satisfactory operation of the diode is possible only when following parameters do not exceed their maximum values. They are: ’ (i) Maximum forward current (ii) Peak inverse voltage—the maximum negative voltage the diode experience when it is operating (iii) “Maximum power rating. 11.7 RECTIFIERS The circuits which are used to convert alternating voltage to unidirectional voltage are called Rectifiers. They perform this function by using the diodes. As studied in section 11.6, the junction diodes can conduct current only in one direction. This property of the diode is made use of in designing various rectifier circuits. The rectifier circuits are classified as follows: (i) Half-wave rectifier i) Full-wave rectifier (iii) Bridge-wave rectifier, 11.7.1 Half-wave Rectifiers The half-wave rectifier circuit in its simplest form is shown in Fig. 11.16 and its input and output waveforms of this rectifier is given Fig. 11.16 Half-wave rectifier228 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 11.17 1/8 and O/P waveform in Fig. 11.17. Only the positive half of the input sine wave is available as output (U4), since the diode can conduct only during the +ve half, Output voltage is pulsating unidirectional voltage while the input is a sine wave, Sometimes, it is necessary to use a transformer as shown in Fig. 11.18. The transformer provides the necessary isolation between the load circuit and supply. More importantly, the turns ratio of the transformer can be chosen so that any desired DC output voltage can be_ obtained. During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the diode is reverse biased and therefore it cannot conduct. No output voltage is available across the load during this period. The average value of output voltage is given by Ln, where U,, is the maximum value of the AC supply voltage given by u = U,msinwt. The average value of load current is equal to average value of load voltage divided by load resistance. A measure of purity of the DC output voltage is given by the term ripple factor. This is defined as the ratio of RMS value of the AC component in the DC wave to the average value of the DC wave. RMS value of the AC component Average value of the DC wave It is 1.21 for half-wave rectifier. Another quantity of interest is rectification efficiency which is defined as — Ripple factor =Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 229 . 7 DC power output _ Pac Rectification efficiency = —=—————— Pepe reer AC power input ~ Pac Rectification efficiency for half-wave rectifier is 40.6 per cent. Excessive ripple factor and low rectification efficiency makes the half-wave rectifier circuit unsuitable for rectification of large amounts of power. Peak inverse voltage = U,, for this rectifier. Fig. 11.18 Half-wave rectifier with transformer U; = Umsinat — input voltage ig = Rectified current U, = Rectified voltage 11.7.2 Full-Wave Rectifier Full wave rectifier circuit makes available to the load resistance R; both the positive half and negative halves of the input sine wave. The circuit arrangement and waveforms are given in Fig. 11 19 and Fig. 11.20 respectively. During positive half cycle, the diode D, gets forward Transformer ‘ lo ma 7+ oe. t . Fig. 11.19 Full-wave rectifier U; = Um sinwt — input voltage U, = Rectified output voltage ig = Rectified output current230 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 11.20 I/P and O/P waveform biased and diode D2 gets reverse biased. Dj, therefore, conducts during this period and positive half of the input wave appears across the load. During negative half cycle, diode D2 gets farward biased and diode D; is reverse biased. The current flows through D2 and hence negative half of the input wave appears across the load. During both the half cycles current through the load is in the same direction producing two voltage pulses across the load for each cycle of the input wave. The output voltage in this case is twice the output voltage of half wave rectifier. But the ripple factor reduces to 0.48 from 1.21, indicating higher degree of purity for the output voltage. The rectification efficiency increases to 81.2 per cent which is twice that of half-wave rectifier. However, peak inverse voltage is twice that of single phase of half-wave rectifier. 11.7.3 Bridge Rectifier This is the most frequently used circuit for electronic DC power supplies. Unlike the full-wave rectifier, the bridge rectifier does not require a transformer for its operation. However, it can be used for obtaining the desired output voltage and isolation. The circuit configuration and waveforms for this rectifier is given in Fig. }).2).Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits » 231 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the diodes D, and Dz conduct whereas during the negative half cycle, diodes D, and Ds conduct, The current flow through the load is unidirectional as shown in Fig. 11.21 during positive and negative half cycles. co Unsin ak uy & a . ‘an = ut w.! On of ® aot Fig. 11.21 Bridge rectifier circuit, waveforms U, = Un, sinwt — input voltage U, = Rectified output voltage i, = Rectified output current The polarity of the output voltage remains the same during both the half cycles i.e. positive at the top and negative at the bottom. The bridge rectifier has the following merits: (i) There is no need for a centre tapped transformer as is the case with full-wave rectifier. (ii) The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of Diode is less. It is actually half the rating required for full-wave rectifier, for the same output voltage. ii) For the same output voltage, the transformer secondary voltage is only 50 per cent of the value required in the case of full-wave rectifier. (iv) It is suitable for high voltage applications. Tt should be noted that ripple factor and rectification efficiency are same for both full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier. Thus a bridge rectifier is economical in comparison to full-wave rectifier, Comparison of rectifier circuits A comparison of various kinds of rectifiers is given in Table 11.1. 11.8 ZENER DIODE Zener Diode is a Special Diode operating in the breakdown region of ordinary diode. Circuit symbol for Zener diode is given in Fig. 11.22.232 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Table 11.1 Important Parameters of Different Rectifier Circuits Si.No. Parameter Type of rectifier Half-wave — Full-wave Bridge Ripple factor Tai a8 48 2. Rectification efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2% / 3, PV Um 2Um Um 4, No. of diodes 1 2 4 5. Pulse frequency f 4 Y However, Zener diode is different from ordinary diode with regard to its doping level. It is heavily doped than the ordinary diode. Heavy doping makes the depletion layer narrow and K consequently, breakdown of the junction can occur even at low reverse voltages. This type of breakdown is called Zener breakdown. For a given reverse voltage, as the depletion layer is thin, a strong electric field is produced. This exerts a strong force on the bound electrons of semiconductor atoms pulling them away from their covalent A bonds. This action results in the crea- Fig. 11.22 Circuit symbol tion of large number of electron-hole pairs. Thus, a large reverse current flows at this low reverse breakdown voltage. This breakdown phenomena is reversible and does not damage the junction, provided the power loss is small. A properly doped diode will have a sharp breakdown voltage. Such diodes are designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to operate in the breakdown region. Zener diodes with voltage ratings from 3 V to 100 V, and power dissipation from few milli watts to 50 W are available. 11.8.1 U-1 Characteristics U-I characteristics of Zener diode is depicted in Fig. 11.23. This operation of Zener diode is not different from the ordinary diode. This is revealed from its forward characteristics, which is same as that of ordinary diode. Breakdown occurs at point ‘X’ of reverse saturation characteristic. Magnitude of this breakdown voltage depends on the degree of doping. Lightly doped diode will have higher breakdown voltage. This breakdown voltage can be selected by the amount of doping. At higher breakdown voltage, avalanche breakdown (explainedBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits ¢ 233 Forward characteristics Up —> 1 (Volts) J | Reversefcharacteristics a Fig. 11.23 VI characteristics in Section 11.5.2) also comes into play enhancing the conductivity of the junction. It should be emphasised that ‘oa’ the breakdown region of the Zener diode characteristics is its region of operation. 11.8.2 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator The sharp breakdown characteristics of the Zener diode is useful in devices where it can serve as voltage reference or voltage regulator. A simple Zener diode voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 11.24. Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across the load resistance, Ry even when (i) the load current (Jz) varies over a small range and (ii) the input voltage Us varies over a small range The relevant equations are; Uo = Uz = Vin — lin Roe Tin= le +h & Us=MRi Fig. 11.24 Voltage regulator circuit Uj = Unregulated DC voltage U, = Regulated DC voltage234 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11.9 FILTERS The output voltage from a rectifier though unidirectional is pulsating. The output voltage has a DC component, which is nothing but its average value in addition to (Fig. 11.25) AC components. AC components are responsible for pulsation of the output voltage. These are minimised by means of filter circuits. eaneeet. ™ 2m 3x of * + AC Up Filter | U. < pe “ | - Use — —-fAK a f) o> Fig. 11.25 The commonly used filters are: (i) Capacitor filter (ii) Inductor filter iii) LC filter and (iv) 7 filter. 11.9.1 Capacitor Filter The capacitor filter is formed by connecting capacitor directly across the load of a bridge rectifier circuit. It is shown in Fig. 11.26. Fig. 11.26Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 235 The output voltage waveform with and without capacitor are shown in Fig. 11.27. The output voltage is nearly a constant and is equal to the maximum value of the supply voltage. The capacitor gets charged during the period when rectifier diodes conduct. When the diodes are off, capacitor discharges through the load. The current through the rectifier diodes is pulsating as shown in Fig. 11.27. The capacitor filter performs better at lighter loads. As the load cursent increases, ripple increases. Hence it is essentially a voltage filter. U, (with filter) iN U, (without een filter) 3x —> ot Fig. 11.27 11.9.2 Inductor Filter Juductor filter is formed by connecting a choke in series with a load as shown in Fig. 11.28. It is well-known that, inductor has the inherent “property of opposing the changes in current. Introduction of inductor in series with the load, will have a smoothing effect on the load current as Fig. 11.28236 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 11.29 shown in Fig. 11.29. The inductor filter performs well under’ heavy loads. It is essentially a current filter. 11.9.3 LC Filter From the studies of L filter and C filter, we conclude that ripple factor is directly proportional to the load resistance R, in an inductor filter and inversely proportional to R, in a capacitor filter. Therefore, if these two filters are combined to form LC filter or L section filter as shown in Fig. 11.30, the ripple factor can be expected to remain constant independent of the load. L a filter = 1 Fig. 11.30 11.9.4 7 or CLC Filter A full-wave rectifier with 7 filter is shown in Fig 11.31. A resistor can replace inductor for lighter loads, The ripple factors for various types of filters are given in Table 11.2. Here w = 27f, where f is supply frequency.Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits ¢ 237 X filter Fig. 11.31 Table 11.2 Sl.No. Type of filter Ripple factor L c VAVURLO 2. L R,/3V3eL) 3, Le aan nee : 622 EC) 4. CLC or v2 wC C2E Rt 11.10 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 11.10.1 Constructional Details A bipolar or junction transistor is a three layer, two junction device obtained by sandwiching a layer of doped semiconductor between two layers of oppositely doped semiconductor. With N-type and P-type semiconductors available, it is possible to arrive at two types of transistors, namely. PNP and NPN transistors. The transistors and their circuit symbols are given in Fig. 11.32 and Fig. 11.33. eC OB Collector (C) Base (B) Emitter (E) Fig. 11.32238 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering CBE Collector (C) Itt base(®) PIN Emitter (E) Fig, 11.33 Three regions of the transistors are emitter, base and collector, denoted by letters E, B and C respectively. The arrow on the connection to the emitter indicates the conventional direction of current tlow. The junctions between emitter and base and between collector and base are referred to as emitter-base junction and collector-base junction respectively. These PN junctions exhibit the diode characteristics. It is important to note that the E, B and C regions does not have the same thickness, and are not doped to the same level. This is necessary for the transistor to be used as an active device. For improved transistor action, the following steps are taken: (i) Emitter is heavily doped and it has a considerable thickness. (ii) Base is lightly doped and it is very thin. (iii) Collector is moderately doped but it is thicker than emitter. 11.10.2 Transistor Biasing For normal transistor operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased. Transistor has another EB oC N P N iliF- “iF Use Ue, “WJ AVF Usg Use Fig. 11.34Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits ¢ 239 interesting mode of operation of acting as switch. If both the junctions are forward biased, then transistor acts like a closed switch. On the other hand, if both the junctions are reverse biased, then transistor acts like an open switch. The transistor biasing for NPN and PNP transistors for normal operation are shown in Fig. 11.34. 11.10.3. Working of PNP Transistor A. properly biased PNP transistor for normal operation is shown in Fig. 11.35. When emitter-base junction is forward biased, significant current will flow through it once the base to emitter voltage exceeds the threshold value. In this P-type, emitter holes are the majority carriers. The forward biasing causes the holes to diffuse from emitter into the base. For the same reason, the electrons from the base region diffuse across the forward biased junction (E-B) to the emitter. The total current across the junction is due to the movement of these two types of carriers At the emitter-bise junction, some of the holes and electrons combine and annihilate one another. Since base region is thin and lightly doped, the electrons are relatively small in number therefore, only a few majority carriers are Jost by the way of recombination with electrons. The base current (/g) produced by this action is only about 2 per cent of the emitter current (Zz), the balance being the collector current (/c¢). Since the base region is very thin and the attraction of negative collector Minority carriers Majority carriers P N P Yhv Depletion|regions {, B Fig. 11.35240 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering potential being relatively high, almost all the holes that diffuse into the base, enter the collector region and produce a hole current in the collector, Therefore, collector current (/c) is almost equal to emitter current (/g). In the three layers of PNP transistor, holes contribute to the current flow. But in the outer circuit, the current flow remains only electronic. In.the case of NPN transistor shown in Fig. 11.36, when the emitter- base junction is forward biased the electrons diffuse into the base region. Simultaneously a smal] number of holes from the base diffuse into the emitter region, as shown in Fig. 11.36. Some of the electrons recombine with this holes in the base region producing a base current (Jz). As the collector-base junction is reverse biased, minority carriers namely electrons in the base region and holes in the collector region can drift across the reverse biased collector-base junction, thus constituting the collector current (Ic). Majority carriers Minority carriers P el Depletion} regions Fig. 11.36 For both NPN and PNP transistor, Tg =Ip+Ic Ig ~ Emitter current Ip - Base current ~ Ie - Collector current.Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 241 11.10.4 Transistor Configurations There are three useful transistor connections or configuration. They are (1) commen emitter (CE) (2) common base (CB) and (3) common collector (CC) CE Configuration Base and emitter forms the input terminals while collector ard emitter forms the output terminals. Emitter is common to both input and output terminals and hence the name common emitter. Emitter terminal is usually grounded. CE configuration for NPN transistor is shown in Fig. 11.37. Fig. 11:37 CE configuration CB Configuration 1n this configuration, ernitter and base constitute input terminal while collector and base forms the output terminals. The common terminal base is usually grounded. CB configuration for NPN. transistor is shown in Fig. 11.38. k<— 5 c Fig. 11.38 CB configuration242 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering CC Configuration In this configuration, emitter and collector constitute input terminals while base and collector forms the output terminals. The common terminal collector is usually grounded. CC configuration for NPN transistor is shown in Fig. 11.39. ’ => Fig. 11.39 CC configuration 11.11 STATIC TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS Common emitter (CE) configuration is the most popular one, since this possesses the properties suitable for wide ranging applications (refer Table 11.3), For CE configuration voltage and current gains are high. Input resistance is low and output resistance is high. In this section, input and output characteristics of the CE transistor are studied, Table 11.3 Comparison of Transistor Configurations Parameters Configuration input Output Current Voltage resistance | resistance gain gain Common Emitter Low Hi High High (CE) igh ig! igh seem EE Very low Very hi <1 High (CB) ry ery high a Common Collector (CC) High Low High <1Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 243 11.11.1 CE Configuration Input characteristics The input characteristics of transistor in CE configuration is shown in Fig. 11.4]. It is the relationship between Ugg and J, for a constant value of Ucg. The input characteristics is nothing but emitter diode junction characteristics. The circuit useful for obtaining characteristics is shown in Fig. 11.4D. The transistor input characteristics is essentially that of a forward biased base-emitter junction, with'some dependence upon the transistor, Ucg. To determine the input characteristics, the collector to emitter voltage (Uce) is kept constant at zero volt and base current (/g) is increased from zero in suitable steps by increasing Uge in the circuit shown in Fig. 11.40 The value of Ugg is noted for each setting of Jp. This procedure is repeated for higher fixed values of Uce and the curves of Jy versus Ugg are . drawn. The input characteristics are shown in Fig. 11.41 kee ae Uses T Uge —> Fig. 11.41 Input characteristics When Uce = 0, emitter-base junction acts as forward biased diode. Hence the input characteristic for Uce = 0 is similar to that of a forward-biased diode. When Uczg is increased, the width of the depletion region at the reverse biased collector-base junction will increase. Hence the effective width of the base will decrease. This effect causes a decrease in the base current Js. Hence, to get the same value of J, as that244 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering for Uc = 0, Upz should be increased. Therefore the curve shifts to the right as Ucg increases. Output characteristics To determine the output characteristics, the base current Jg is kept constant at a suitable value by adjusting base- emitter voltage Use. The magnitude of collector-emitter voltage Ucg is increased in suitable steps from zero and the collector current Jc is noted for each Ucg Ic Us Ucg plotted for different constant values of Is. The output characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 11.42. cut-off region 0 Ucg (U) —> Fig. 11.42 Output characteristics (CE configuration) The output characteristics have three regions namely, saturation region, cut-off region and active region. The region of curves to the left of the line OA is called the saruration region. In this region, both junctions are forward biased and an increase in the base current /g does Not cause a corresponding large change in Jc. The ratio of Ucg to Ic at any point in this region is called saturation resistance. The region below the curve for Jz = 0 is called the cut-off region. In this region, both junctions are reverse biased. The central region where the curves are almost uniform in spacing and slope is called the active region. In this region, emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. For the transistor to be used as a linear amplifier, it should be operated in the active region. 41.12 CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTORS Current amplification factor (a) In the CB configuration (Fig. 11.38) of a transistor, Jz is the input ~urrent and Jc is the outputBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits 245 current. The current amplification factor a is given by the ratio of collector current Jc to emitter current Jz. Thus, Ic Te Current amplification factor (f) In the CE configuration (Fig. 11.37) of a transistor, Jg is the input current and J¢ is the output current. The current amplification factor 9 is given by the ratio of collector current Jc to base current Ig. Thus, I oe b= iA Relation between aand 3 Ina transistor, le=Ip+Ic Dividing by Jc, on both sides of the equation, Iz _ Ip te de* 11 anat} its B ae eu 1+6 a Also =Tra Example .1 Find the value of § if a = 0.95. ; a 0.95 Solution We know that 8 = Tra 70057 19. Example .2 Find the value of a if 8 = 40. Solution We know that a= ~2. = * 0.976. B+. 41 Example .3 Ina CB connection, Jc = 0.95 mA, and Jp = 0.05mA. Find the value of a. a Ic _ 0.95mA Solution We know that Ig = Jp + Ic = [mA and a =F, = 7.00mA = 0.95. 11.12.1 Applications (i) Transistors are used in amplifier circuits to amplify weak signals. (ii) They are used in oscillators as active devices.246 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (iii) Transistors can also be used as switches in digital circuits, and power transistors are used in Power Control Circuits. 11.13 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS In bipolar transistors, current conduction occur due to majority and minority carriers. But conduction in Field Effect Transistors is solely by majority carriers and therefore it is monopolar. Also the current conduction is controlled by an electric field in this device. There are two types of FET, namely Junction FET (JFET) and Metal oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET). JFET is further classified into (i) N- channel JFET with electrons as majority ‘carriers and (ii) P-channel JFET with holes as majority carriers. Also, it should be noted that FET is a voltage controlled device like tubes, unlike the transistors which are the current controlled devices. 11.14 JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR 11.14.1 N-Channel JFET The symbolic representation of N-channel JFET and the details of construction are shown in Fig. 11.43 and Fig. 11.44, respectively. It consists of an N-type silicon bar having ohmic contacts (terminals) at its ends. These terminals are source and drain which are similar to emitter and collector respectively of a bipolar transistor. A heavily doped P-type silicon layer is diffused on the two sides of this bar. These P layers are joined together and connected to the third terminal called, ‘Gate’, which is similar to base of the transistor. The N-type silicon bar forms a conducting channel for majority carriers. wD 7 J ; SAN? [Poo UI Uog \ Us les Ss . So si Fig. 11.43. Symbol and biasingBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits 247 Gate (G) er P yi ! Source (S) | Drain (D) N | N |k-o , : | | 1 P: ZA | I pn Fig. 11.44 Construction of N channel FET The electrons enter the bar at source terminal and leave the bar at the drain terminal. The gate is used to control the flow of electrons from source to drain. : 11.14.2 P-Channel JFET Holes are the majority carriers of P-channel JFET. The circuit symbol and.constructional details of the JFET are shown in Figs. 11.45 and 11.46, respectively. The holes, being the majority carriers, enter the P- type silicon bar, at the source terminal and leave the bar at the drain terminal. The heavily doped N regions on both sides of the bar, function as gate terminal controlling the movement of holes fre urce to drain. Vea so Fig. 1145. Symbol and biasing 11.14.3 Principle of Working of JFET An N-channel JFET with positive drain to source voltage Ups is shown in fig. 11.43. As the result of Ups, an electron current flows from248 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering source to drain. This drain current Ip, flowing in the channel between two P regions can be controlled by controlling the width of the channel. This is accomplished by Ugs, which can be easily varied. The operation and control of P-channel JFET follow the same lines as that of N-channel JFET, However, the polarity of the biasing voltages, Ups and Ugs are reversed. 11,14.4 JFET Characteristics The circuit arrangements for obtaining the output characteristics of N- channel JFET is given in Fig. 11.47. These characteristics plotted in Fig. 11.48 relates drain current (/p) to drain to source voltage (Ups) for different values of gate to source voltage (Ugs). Keeping Ugs constant at 0, Ups is increased in steps. Zp increases linearly with Ups initially, but tends to become constant when Ups attains a voltage called ‘‘pinch-off”’ voltage. Further increase in Ups, do not cause Jp to increase. This is due to the fact that for Ups above pinch-off voltage depletions layers formed at the junctions (Fig. 11.49) expand and almost touch each other making the channel narrow. Gate (G) Source (S) Drain (D) L—o -~-—-4 Fig. 11.46 Construction of P channel FET Ip A) <— ey G IP + L 8 + > [- +2, Ues sO Fig. 11.47Basic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 249 | Pinch-off voltage a 7 Up ——> Urs Fig. 11.48 Drain characteristics For negative values of Ugs, the curves shift downwards because of the- fact that pinch-off occurs for the lower values of Ups. Depletion 4 G region LLAMAS Z| CKAZZZZA Fig. 11.49 11.14.5 Advantages of JFET (i) It has much higher input inpedance than BJT enabling high degree of isolation between input and output. (ii) FET is less noisy than BJT. (iii) FET is easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs. (iv) FET is normally less sensitive to temperature250 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Application of JFET FET is preferred in phase-shift oscillators. They can also serve as buffers bridging amplifier stages. 11.15 METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET (MOSFET) The MOSFET is a field effect transistor in which the metal gate is insulated from the semiconductor channel by a very thin oxide layer. There are two types of MOSFETs. (i) Enhancement MOSFET and (ii) Depletion MOSFET. MOSFET is also called insulated gate FET (IGFET). The major difference between JFET and MOSFET is that MOSFET has much larger input resistance than JFET. The other important feature of MOSFET is its low power consumption. 11.15.1 Enhancement MOSFET The constructional details and circuit symbol of N-channel Enhancement MOSFET is depicted in Fig. 11.50 (a) and 11.50 (b) respectively. Two heavily doped, N+, regions are diffused over a lightly doped P-type silicon substrate. One N+ region is called the source while the other one is called Drain. A thin insulating layer of SiOz is grown over the surface of the structure and the holes are drilled into this oxide layer for making contacts with the source and the drain. Also, a thin layer of metal Aluminium |_ Substrate ‘Tw tk Zz Induced N channel iy ~ SIO, 4 insulation iH a ae Un N+ Ugg Fig. 11.50(a) Enhancement typeBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits « 251 dD Ss Fig. 11.50(b) Symbol aluminium is formed over the Si02. This metal layer covers the entire channel region. The ohmic contact made with this metal layer forms the gate terminal. The metal area of the gate in conjunction with the insulating oxide of a SiO; and the semiconductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor. The SiOz layer is responsible for high input resistance. Working principle If a positive voltage is applied to the gate with respect to the grounded substrate, positive charge on G induces an equa! negative charge on the substrate side between the source and the drain regions. Thus ar electric field is produced between the source and drain regions. The negative charge of electrons which are the minority carriers in the P-type substrate forms an inversion layer. As positive voltage of the gate increases, induced negative charge in the semiconducto: increases. Hence the conductivity increases and current flows from the source to the drain through the induced channel. Thus the drain current is enhanced by the positive gate voltage. This can be clearly seen from the volt-ampere characteristic shown in Fig. 11.50 (c). , 1, (ma) Enhancement Enhancement MOSFET characteristics Fig. 11.50(0)252 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 11,15.2 Depletion MOSFET The constructional details of N-channel depletion MOSFET is depicted in Fig. 11.51(a) and Symbol in Fig. 11.51(b). Here N-channel is diffused between source and drain. With Ugs = 0 if the drain D is kept at higher potential with respect to the source, the electrons flow through N- channel from S to D, If the gate voltage is made negative, positive charge consisting of holes is induced in the channel through SiO, of the SIO, Insulation |_— N channel A Aluminiuni [+ —epletion region Fig. 11.51a) Depletion type MOSFET 9D ae os Fig. 11.51(b) Civ-uit symbol gate channel capacitor. The introduction of the positive charge causes depletion of the mobile electron in the channel. Thus a depletion region is produced in the channel. The shape of the depletion region depends on Uggs and Ups. The channel as the result, will appear wedge shaped. When Ups increases, Ip also increases and it becomes constant at a certain value of Ups called pinch-off voltage Since the current in a FETBasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits .¢ 253 is due to majority carriers, only induced positive charge makes the channel less conductive because of the reduction in the number of electrons. Therefore, Ip drops as Ucs is made more negative. It is thus clear that N-channel is modulated for higher or lower conductivity by changing the polarity as well as magnitude of the Ugs. Drain characteristics of this type of MOSFET is shown in Fig. 11.51(c) for both enhancement mode and depletion mode. RQ 11 RQ 11.2 RQ U3 RQ 11.4 RQ 11.5 RQ 11.6 RQ 11.7 RQ 118 RQ Ld RQ 11.10 RQ ILL } Enhancement Depletion mode Fig. 11.51(¢) Depletion MOSFET characteristics REVIEW QUESTIONS What is a semiconductor? What is energy band diagram? and what is the si gap? How does the energy band structure of a semiconductor differ from that of a conductor and an insulator? What is an intrinsic semiconductor? How can the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor be improved? Define doping and dopant. What is a N-type semiconductor? Is a P-type semiconductor electrically positive? If no, explain why? How does a PN Junction behave under forward and reverse biased conditions? Draw the complete VI-characteristics of a junction diode and mark on the plot the following: a) knee voltage or cut-in voltage. b) peak inverse voltage. i Define Ripple factor and Transform Utilisation factor254 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering RQ 11.12 Compare single phase full-wave rectifier with single phase bridge rectifier and bring out the merits of the latter. RQ 11.13 What is Zener breakdown? How does it differ from avalanche breakdown? How does a Zener diode differ from an ordinary diode. RQ 11.14 Draw a simple voltage regulator circuit using a Zener diode and explain its operation. Explain the need of the series resistance in the above circuit. RQ 11.15 Plot the Zener diode characteristics and mark its region of operation. RQ 11.16 Give the constructional details of the bipolar Transistor. RQ 11.17 What are the three configurations of BJT? Which is the most commonly used one? RQ 11.18 Draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in CE mode. RQ 11.19 Define the current gain parameters a and { of a-transistor and obrain the relationship between them. RQ 11.20 Why is current gain factor a always less than 1? Explain. RQ 11.21 Compare FET with BJT. RQ 11.22 Explain the construction of an N-channel FET. RQ 11.23 What is pinch-off voitage? RQ 11.24 Explain the working of depletion type MOSFET. RQ 11.25 Compare FET and MOSFET. RQ 11.26 What are the precautions needed when MOSFETs are handled? RQ 11.27 Give the application of (i) BJT (ii) FET and (iii) MOSFET. RQ 11.28 Explain the use of filters. RQ 11.29 What are the different types of filters? RQ 11.30 Sketch the output voltage wave of a bridge rectifier with and without capacitor input filter. RQ 11.31 What are the advantages of LC filter? RQ 11.32 Compare C filter with L filter. RQ 11.33 What is the effect of changing the LC parameters, frequency and ripple factor of LC filter? RQ 11.34 What is 7 filter? Write the expression for its ripple factor. REVIEW PROBLEMS 11.1 Calculate the ripple factor if the RMS value of the ripple voltage is 20 mV for a 20 V DC output. 11.2. A half-wave rectifier uses a transformer whose turns ratio is 3:1. If the input voltage is 230 V, find a) the DC input voltage, b) PIV of the diode used. Hint: Ug, = where U,, is max. value of the input voltage 11.3 Find the output voltage of a 1 phase bridge rectifier fed from a 230 V supply through a transformer of ratio 4:1. Hint: Uye = #4", where Um is the max. value of the input voltage. 11.4 If a wansistor is with 6 = 100, calculate the emitter current if its base current is 15 ZABasic Semi Conductor Devices and Circuits ¢ 255 11.5 A transistor has @ = 120, calculate the collector and base currents if the emitter current is 10 mA. 11.6 In 2 common base configuration, fc = 1.2 mA and fp = 100 yA. Find the value of a. 11.7. Find the value of emitter current in CE transistor for which 8 = 100 and base current is 20 pA. 11.8 From the given figure, determine the value of Ry.Special Semiconductor Devices 12.1 INTRODUCTION This unit deals with some of the popular industrial application devices such as SCR, UJT, LED etc. SCR and its related devices collectively known as thyristors have revolutionised industrial power control applications. UJT is used in wave generation and in trigger circuits for thyristors. Opto electronics devices like solar cell, LED, etc. are used in energy conversion, display and in many industrial control Circuits. In addition, there are‘many other modern devices used in power control. They are power transistors, power MOSFETs and IGBTs etc. However, these devices will be studied later. 12.2 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (SCR) SCR was invented in the year 1957. With the advent of SCR the control of electrical drives underwent enormous changes. But for this device and other devices belonging to thyristor family, automation and control of many industrial processes could not have been, sucessfully implemented. SCR still remains popular in the area of control of bulk power. It is used in HVDC (High voltage DC transmission) systems because it has peak inverse voltages of the order of several kilovolts and can conduct current of the order of several kilo amperes.258 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12.2.1 Constructional Details The SCR is a four-layered three terminal, three junction device. The three terminals are (i) anode (A) (ii) cathode (K) and (iii) Gate (G). The four layers of alternate P-type and N-type semiconductors forming three junctions at J;,J2 and J3 are shown in Fig. 12.1 along with its circuit symbol. © Anode (A) A 6 # Cathode (K) K (a) Structure (b) Circuit symbol Fig. 12.1 Structure and symbol of SCR SCR is a rectifying device like diode. But it requires the application of trigger pulse to switch into conduction. When its anode to cathode voltage is positive, the device conducts once the trigger pulse is applied. This is called ‘turn ON’ of SCR. Once the device is ON, gate loses its control over it. To switch OFF the thyristor, the current flowing in the device has to be brought down to zero. This is done either by applying negative voltage to the thyristor or by increasing the resistance in series with the thyristor. This process is called ‘turn OFF’. 12.2.2 Characteristics of SCR Since SCR is basically a rectifying element like diode, its characteristics cover the first quadrant as well as the third quadrant. While the reverse characteristics of SCR resembles that of the diode, its forward characteristics exhibit a difference (Fig. 12.2) Forward characteristics The forward characteristics lying in the first quadrant includes— (i) @ forward blocking region when SCR conducts a small leakage current from anode to cathode (ii) conducting region when the thyristor conducts large currentsSpecial Semicondictor Devices 2sy (iii) transition region between forward blocking ang conducti region. During forward blocking state, the SCR acts tike , ae Tesistance. It will switch over to conducting state when its Sains to cathode voltage attains a high value called Forward break-over voltage (Ugg). This occurs even when the gate is open ([, = 0). But it is possible to turn ON the device even for smaller forward voltages by applying gate current tothe SCR. From the forward characteristics it is clear that for large gate currents, the SCR is turned ON for lower anode to cathode voltages. During conduction, SCR resistance becomes very low and therefore SCR can be considered equivalent to a closed switch. Thus turn ON can be defined as a process in which SCR switches over to a low resistance state from its high resistance states whereas the turn OFF is a reverse process in which SCR transits from conducting state to non-conducting state. This transition is possible when the current through it becomes very small i.e. close to zero. —> Forward conduction Latching current Holding current LK, PI? hey Reverse leakage current Forward Forward leakage blocking current Ugo ~ Forward breakover voltage Ugg — Reverse breakover voltage 1, - Gate current Fig. 12.2 Characteristics of SCR Reverse charaderistics The region ob shown in Fig. 12.2 is the reverse blocking region. A small reverse saturation current flows through the SCR like a diode, When the reverse voltage increases and reaches the value of Ugr which is same as peak inverse voltage of diode, SCR experiences the reverse breakdown. The device cannot be used again since it is an irreversible process.260 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 12.2.3 Important Terms Used in the Study of SCR (i) Break over voltage (Ugo) The minimum forward voltage at which SCR will conduct even if the gate circuit is open (Ig). (ii) Peak reverse voltage The maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to SCR, when the device is in non-conducting state. (iii) Holding current The minimum value of the anode current tequired for the device to conduct. (iv) Forward current rating The maximum anode current that the device can conduct in forward direction without getting damaged. (v) Latching current It is the minimum value of the anode current required for the SCR to stay in conduction even when the gate signal is removed. 12.2.4 Application of SCR (i) It is used'in AC to DC convertors. (ii) It is used in AC voltage controllers. (iii) It is used in DC to AC invertors. (iv) It is used in HVDC transmission UPS, and static circuit breakers. 12.3 TRIAC Unlike SCR, which is an unidirectional switching device, TRIAC is a bidirectional switching device with three terminals. It is used for controlling alternating current in a load. The basic structure and its circuit symbol for a TRIAC are shown in Fig. 12.3(a) and 12.3() respectively. TRIAC is functionally equivalent to two SCRs, connected MT Omn : MT) ~ Main Terminal 2 e MT 7 MT, - Main Terminal | ®, ; VA: x o~| “LS G MT, OMT, (a) Structure. (b) Circuit symbol (c) Fig. 12.3Special Semiconductor Devices © 261 in antiparallel as shown in Fig. 12.3(c). The characteristics of a TRIAC is given in Fig. 12.4 Applications TRIACs are used extensively in residential lamp dimmers, heat control and for speed control of single phase induction motor. MT, positive Teo > Ter >Teo Lgo=0 cleo mle he: MT, negative Fig. 12.4 U-1 characteristics of a TRIAC 12.4 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT) UIT is a three terminal semiconductor switching device commonly called as urijunction transistor (UJT) as it has only one junction. An UST is mad up of an N-type silicon base to which a P-type emitter is 9B,embedded (Fig. 12.5). RB; and RB are the internal resistances from bases B; and Bp to point A. Tis symbolic representation is given Fig. 12.6 and its equivalent circuit is shown Fig, 12.7. When a voltage Ugg is applied across the base terminal B; and B, the potential of point A with respect to B; is given by— Use Uap, = RB, + RB,’ RB, Vas, RB, + RB, Use = Upp: Where = mo is called intrinsic stand-off ratio. Typical values of n are 0.51 to 0.82. Interbase resistance (Reg = RB; + RB2) is of the order of 5-10 kQ, As the input voltage Ug is increased the P-N diode is reverse biased till the peak point P is reached (Fig. 12.8). It is because Ug < Ugg. At P, the diode starts conducting since Ug > 7Ugg and holes are injected into the N-layer. Hence resistance decreases thereby decreasing Ug for an increase in Jz. + So there is a negative resistance region from peak point P to valley point V. After the valley point, the device is driven into saturation and behaves like a conventional forward biased PN junction diode. Us Negative resistance t i} region I [ | Up ) Peak point : 1 ! Ss. i aturation | region > t 1 i Cut off a Leakage D> current Fig. 12.8 UIT characteristics A unique characteristic of UJT is that when it is triggered, the emitter current increases regeneratively until it is limited by eminer powersupply. Due to this negative resistance property, UJT can be employed in a variety of applications, such as in saw-tooth wave generator, pulse generator, switching, timing and phase control circuits. 12.4.1 Application of UJT as Relaxation Oscillator The negative resistance portion of the characteristics is an advantage in a relaxation oscillator where the discharging of a capacitor through the UJT can develop a pulse of output voltage. A practical oscillator is shown in Fig, 12.9. Fig. 12.9 UJT relaxation oscillator Capacitor C charges through R from Usp until Ug reaches Up and the UIT turas ON. Now capacitor C discharges rapidly through R; giving a pulse of output voltage Ug,. When Ug drops to about 2V, the emitter ceases to conduct and the UJT switches off, allowing C to charge again. The frequency of oscillation depends upon the time constant RC and the UIT, but the frequency is fairly independent of Ugg and temperature. The period of oscillation is given by tal f =RCiIn ; 1-n =2 SRC logy264 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The input and output voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 12.10. Ve (charging (Cy discharging I ; 1 6v i | | kt ——} Fig. 12.10 Voltage waveforms 12.5 OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 12.5.1 Introduction When light Radiation falls on certain semiconductors their conductivity increases. This Phenomena is called Photo conductive effect. Light radiation is nothing but a stream of photons with each photon having an of energy E="f where fh = 6.626 x 10 Js, his plank’s constant and f is the frequency of the incident light. Energy © «6 « {<= Conduction band : Band gap © 2 9 |< Valence band © hole * electron Fig. 12.11 Energy band diagram of semiconductorSpecial Semiconductor Devices © 265 Consider the energy band diagram of a semiconductor shown in Fig. 12.11. If the energy received from the light radiation is greater than the band gap energy electrons in the valence band, on absorption of incident light, transit from valence band to conduction band. This results in the formation of electron-hole pairs, electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. The increased number of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band improves the conductivity of the semiconductor. Such a semiconductor is called photoconductor or photoresistor. For photoconduction effect to take place in an intrinsic semiconductor, it is important that the photon energy exceeds its band gap energy. This leads to the calculation of the minimum radiating frequency f, as : E f= : where E, is the gap energy. 12.5.2 Photoconductive Cell (PCC) PCC or light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made of a thin layer of semiconductor such as lead sulphide, cadmium sulphide and cadmium Selenide. The semiconductor layer is enclosed in a sealed housing. A glass window in the housing allows the incident of light to fall on the cell. The PCC exhibits negative resistance characteristics in the presence of light i.e., its resistance decreases. A simple circuit illustrating the action of the PCC is shown in Fig. 12.12. When the cell is exposed to light, the resistance of PCC falls and the meter current increases. — Light Om PC ‘To 3 Fig. 12,12 Photoconductive cell266 » Basic Eiectrical and Electronics Engineering 12.5.3 Photo Diode The other name for photodiode is photodetector. The constructional details are shown in Fig. 12.13. A very simple photodetector is a reverse biased silicon P-N junction diode, whose current flow depends on the incident radiation. Photodetectors ‘are made use of materials like germanium. Light dd ED le u Fig. 12.13(a) - Photodiode Fig. 12.13(b) Circuit symbol When a light of proper wavelength falls on such a reverse biased P-N junction, electron-hole pairs are generated. This process is called Photogeneration of electron-hole pairs. The photo generated electron and hole may recombine and get lost. Alternatively, the photo generated electron will move to the N-side and the photo generated hole will move to the P-side. This process leads to a flow of photocurrent in external circuit. The silicon photo diode has a broad wavelength response but its current output is small. U, in volts DARK CURRENT 800 LUX Fig. 12.14 Photodiode-characteristicsSpecial Semiconductor Devices « 267 The characteristics of a photodiode are shown in Fig. 12.14. The reverse current increases in direct proportion to the level of illumination. Even when no light is applied there is a minimum reverse leakage current called dark current, flowing through the device. Photo diodes are therefore used as light detectors, demodulators and encoders, They are also used in optical communication systems and switching circuits. 12.5.4 Phototransistor The current produced by a photodiode is very low. Hence this current should be amplified for the use in control circuits. Any bipolar junction transistor is affected by light on its collector-base junction, Photo- transistor is constructed to optimize its light activating characteristics. It is an NPN transistor with the collector-base junction reverse biased as shown in Fig. 12.15. A lens is built into the package to direct the radiation on collector-base junction. Generally only two leads from the emitter and collector are used. In this device as base currerit is generated by the light incident in the base-collector junction. Bo KE Radiation - c R, Fig. 12.15 Phototransistor The current in the photo transistor is mainly dependent on the intensity of light entering the lens and it is affected by the voltage applied to the external circuit. Fig. 12.15 (b) shows a graph of collector current Jc as a function of collector emitter voltage Ucg and as a function of illumination H. 12.5.5 Light Emitting Diode (LED) The photodiode and photo transistor produce current when their light sensitive junction is exposed to radiation. The LED on the other hand,268 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ot 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ug? Fig. 12.15(b) Phototransistor-characterjstics emits light when it conducts current in the forward direction. This phenomenon is called electroluminescence. L? [x] A arte (b) q+ Emitted light aac © Holes @ Electrons () Fig. 12.16 When a current is made to flow in forward direction of PN junction, visible light is emitted from the depletion region. This is due to aSpecial Semiconductor Devices © 269 recombination of minority carriers. When an electron falls from the conduction band into the valence band, energy is released in a visible form (the mechanism is opposite to that of a photodiode). Such a light emitting diode is referred to as an LED for short. The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used for LED as given below: Gallium Arsenide (GA) Infra-red radiation Gallium Phosphide (GP) Red or green Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GAP) Red or yellow. LEDs operate at voltage levels ranging from 1.5 V to 3.3 V drawing currents of tens of milli amps. Applications. They are used in burglar alarms, calculators, digital computers and optical communication systems. REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 12.1 What is thyristor? What is a SCR? RQ 12.2 Compare Diode and SCR. RQ 12.3 Sketch the VI characteristics of a SCR and mark various regions of operations. ; RQ 12.4 What are the applications of SCR? RQ ‘12.5 What is a TRIAC? RQ 12.6 Draw a TRIAC circuit for speed control of a ceiling fan. RQ 12.7. What is a photodiode? RQ 12.8 Explain the working of LED. RQ 12.9 Draw the UST oscillator circuit and explain its operation. RQ 12.10 List the various opto electronic devices you know. RQ 12.11 Explain the operation of the photo conductive cell (PCC).Transducers 13.1 INTRODUCTION A wansducer serves as a vital link between the physical process and its instrumentation system. It extracts information from the physical process by converting the physical parameters into electrical signals. A broad definition to the transducer can be given as follows: It is a device that receives energy from one system (usually the process) in one form and retransmits it to another system (usually the instrumentation sysiem) in another form. In practice, the transducers that convert non- electrical signals to electrical signals are normally used. It is because electrical signals are usually processed by different signal conditioning circuits and displayed by display devices like Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO). This chapter describes: a few important transducers such as Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT), strain gauge, etc. 13.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS Basically there are two types of transducers: Active transducers and Passive transducers, A list of active and passive transducers are shown in Table 13.1. Active transducer An active transducer converts energy directly from one form to another. It does not require any external power source or excitation for this conversion. Hence they are also referred to as Self- generating transducers. Passive transducers This type of transducer derives the power required for energy conversion from an external source. Hence they are also referred to as Externally powered transducers.272 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Table 13.1 Active and Passive Transducers Active transducers Passive transducers (i) Thermocouple (i) Resistance transducer Thermistor Photo conductive cell Resistance strain gauge (ii) Piezoelectric transducer (ii) Inductance transducer LVDT (iii) Photvoltaic cell (iii) Capacitance transducer (iv) Moving coil generator (iv) Photoemissive cell Thermocouple is an active transducer, since it converts heat energy to electrical energy directly, while strain gauge is a passive transducer (sensor). Strain caused in the body, in which the strain gauge is embedded due to application of stress to the body leads to the change in Tesistance of the strain gauge wire. This results in the change in the output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge with strain gauge forming one of its four arms. It is to be noted that the battery source is required for its operation. It is important that a distinction should be made between transducers and sensors. The word ‘transducer’ refers to the whole assembly of the device while the sensor is a part of the transducer which responds directly to the quantity to be measured. For example, microphone is a transducer and its diaphragm is its sensor. 13.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSDUCERS For satisfactory operation, a transducer has to meet the following requirements: (i) Linearity The output of the transducer should maintain a straight line relationship with its input. (ii) Accuracy The transducer output should confirm to the actual value to be measured. (iii) Sensitivity The transducer should be highly sensitive if its resolving power is to be high. (iv) Ruggedness The transducer should be rugged enough to withstand overloads and shocks. (v) Frequency response The transducer gain should remain constant over the measurement range of frequencies. Also, it should Tespond to its input changes as fast as possible ensuring good dynamic response. (vi) Repeatability The transducer should produce identical output signals when the same input signal is applied at different times under the same environmental conditions.Transducers @ 273 13.4 DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS Displacement is normally defined as the change in position (location) of some object with reference to a fixed point. It can either be along a straight line (linear) or rotational (angular). The importance of displacement transducers which produce electrical signals in proportion to the mechanical displacements can be well understood by the fact that many physical variables are first converted to mechanical displacements and then to the electrical signals using suitable transducers. For example, for the measurement of pressure, mechanical elements shown in Fig. 13,1 are normally used to convert the applied pressure into mechanical displacement. The displacement so produced is converted into electrical signal with the help of suitable transducers. These mechanical elements like diaphragm, bellows etc are also called as force summing devices. Transducers like resistance strain gauge, capacitance transducer, LVDT, etc. are used to convert mechanical displacements to electrical signals. em Pressure. P > Displacement. X 7 (d) Bellows (e} Circular Bourdon tube ——_(f) Straight tube Fig. 13.1 Force summing devices 13.4.1 Electrical Strain Gauges If a metal conductor is elongated or compressed due to a tensile or compression stress, its resistance changes bécause of the changes in its dimensions, namely, length (L) and area of cross-secuon A. If a wire elongates from L to L + AL under the influence of a tensile stress, its resistance increases from R to R+ AR. The strain produced by the stress is given by elongation/length i.e. (. The sensitivity of a strain274 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering gauge is described in terms of a characteristic variable, called Gauge factor G. It is actually, the unit change in resistance to unit change in length. Gauge factor G For better performance, gauge factor G should be high. In addition, the strain gauge wire should be made of a material which has low temperature coefficient of resistance. There should be a linear relationship between the stress and the strain. The strain gauge is used to measure strain and thereby compute the stress caused due to strain. Resistance strain gauges are available in two forms such as unbonded strain gauge and bonded strain gauge. Unbonded strain gauge The unbonded strain gauge is depicted in Fig. 13.2. The arrangement shown in the figure is capable of detecting displacements as low as 50m. It consists of four sapphire posts holding equal lengths of tungsten-platinum wire with the diameter of 25m. The unbounded strain gauge is connected to form a Wheatstone bridge. On no load condition the bridge is in balanced state and hence there is no output voltage. But when the load is applied to the strain gauge, the Force Force rod Welded joints Ring Sapphire pins ICross spring (a) Resistance wire Fixed frame Moving armature A Bj) ome = —=_, Direction D C| of movement Stretched unbonded Strain gauge wire (b) Fig. 13.2 Unbonded strain gaugeTransducers « 275 armature moves in the direction shown in Fig. 13.2. This results in the coils getting stressed differently in which some coils get elongated and the remaining get compressed. This leads to an unbalanced Wheat-stone bridge and hence an output voltage is produced. Thus the external force causes variation in the resistances of wires unbalancing the bridge and causing an output voltage. This output voltage is proportional to the pressure or load applied. Bonded strain gauge It consists of grid of thin wire made of nichrome, platinum or constantan of about 25j.m diameter. This grid is cemented to a carrier or base. The base may be made of paper, bakelite or teflon sheet. The carrier is bonded to the structure under study by means of an adhesive material. : Here again the strain gauge wire forms one of the four arms of the Wheats-tone bridge. When the structure is stressed by means of a force, the gauge wire is subjected to the strain causing a change in its resistance. This affects the balance of the bridge circuit and produces an output voltage which is thus proportional to the applied force. The most commonly used bonded strain gauges are— (i) Linear strain gauge (ii) Rossette (iii) Torque gauge and (iv) Helical gauge They are shown in Fig. 13.3. Carrier (Base) Wire grid [Terminals Wire grid Base (a) Linear strain guage Base Terminals Wire grid (c) Torque guage (d) Helical guage Fig. 13.3. Bonded strain gauges276 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 13.4.2 Capacitance Transducer The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is expressed as A C= e065 a where A: - area of plates in m?. d - distance between the plates in m. €o - dielectric constant (permittivity) of free space. €, ~ Telative dielectric constant of the material. From the above, it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional to ‘A’ and inversely proportional to ‘d’. Therefore, any variation in ‘d’ leads to variation in ‘C’. The capacitance transducer shown in Fig. 13.4 makes use of this principle. The capacitance transducer is depicted in Fig. 13.4. It consists of a diaphragm a static plate and a dielectric between these two plates, constituting a variable capacitor. On the application of force, diaphragm gets deflected which causes the change in the distance between the plates. This results in the change of capacitance, which can be measured by means of suitable AC bridge. Alternatively, an oscillator can be used to measure the change of capacitance, as this affects the oscillator frequency. Indirectly it is a measure of applied force. The capacitive transducer can measure static and dynamic changes. The drawback of this transducer is its sensitivity to the temperature variations. Deflected diaphragm Diaphragm static t | : position i Insulating material x } Rear cavity I terminations etc. Pressure —}-—» 7 ' t t 1 Ny t va Dielectric Fig. 13.4 Capacitance transducerTransducers « 277 13.4.3 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive transducer. It is a costly displacement transducer with excellent performance. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 13.5. Core. Fig. 13.5. LVDT The LVDT consist of a primary coil (P), two identical secondary coils {S; and &) and a rod shaped magnetic core (C) at the centre. The primary coil is connected to an alternating current source. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the core. An alternating current is fed into the primary coil and hencé voltages Y, and Ue2 are induced in the secondary coils. As these coils are connected in series opposition, the output voltage Up = Ug; — Un2. If the core is placed ideally at the central position or null position, the output voltage is Uy = 0, as the source voltages Uo, = Uo2. An upward displacement of the core from its null position, will make U, positive as Uo, > Ug. On the other hand, the downward movement of the core from its aull position, will make U,) > U,, resulting in the negative output voltage Uo. Thus the voltage available across the secondary output terminals is a measure of displacement from its null position, The sign of the output voltage (i.e. whether U, is positive or negative) represents the direction of the movement of the core from its null position. The characteristic of the LVDT is depicted in Fig. 13.6. The output voltage is linear over a considerable range but becomes flat at both the ends. Advantages (i) LYDT has a rugged construction and can withstand high degree of shock and vibration.278 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Output voltage F -- iResidual voltage Core down <— 0 —> Core up Fig. 13.6 LVDT characteristics (ii) It does not possess any sliding contacts and therefore has less friction with less noise. (iii) It possess high sensitivity. (iv) It also possess high and continuous resolution. (v) The output voltage is practically linear over a considerable range. (vi) It has excellent repeatability. Disadvantages @_ LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic field. Gi) For appreciable differential ourput, relatively large/displacement is required. (iii) The mass of the core and frequency of the applied voltage limits the dynamic response of the transducer. 13.5 TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS Temperature transducers are normally employed to monitor, record, and control temperatures in industrial processes. The different types of temperature transducers are: (i) Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) (ii) Thermocouples and (iti) Thermistors 13.5.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) In RTDs, the property of change in electrical resistance due to the change in temperature is employed in the measurement of temperature.Transducers © 279 The platinum resistance thermometer is widely used in temperature Mmeasuremen between the boiling point of oxygen (—182.96°C) to the boiling poin: of antimony (630.74°C). The fabrication of a strain free platinum resistance thermometer is described as follows: A helically spiralled platinum wire is wound over a mica cruciform as shown in Fig. 13.7. The two pieces of mica are normally notched to receive the platinum wire. Sealed capsule Mica cross Inert gas fill Loose winding 4 Leads efefelelelele 0 C¥CVCVCYEES Fig. 13.7 Platinum resistance temperature detector (PRTD) The winding is annealed and the value of the resistance is adjusted. Normally, two gold leads are welded at each end of the platinum winding. The assembly is then fitted in a glass tube (made of borosilicate glass). The leads are insulated with glass tubing spaced with washers of mica. The assembly is normally evacuatied at one-half atmosphere of dry air and sealed. Such a construction is usable over the temperature range of —190°C to 500°C. The protecting tubing for PTRD is made of pyrex glass or mica depending on temperature. Platinum is good for industrial environment due to its stability and ability to withstand high temperatures. A PTRD can show an accuracy of +0.1°C. For a resistance temperature detector, the variation of resistance with temperature is typically given as— RTz = RT;{1 + a(T, - T))] where R7> is resistance of the thermometer at temperature 72, RT, is the resistance of the thermometer at temperature 7; (the reference temperature), q@ is the temperature coefficient of resistance, T, is the operating temperature. 13.5.2 Thermocouples A thermocouple is a device for measuring temperature. It has a junction between two dissimilar metals or semiconductors that generates a small voltage, typically in the millivolt range, with a coefficient of about 50uV/°C. A typical thermocouple circuit for temperature measurement is shown in Fig. 13.8. It consists of two junctions namely reference junction and280 » Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering [ron Reference junction ————— Sensing junction Millivolt meter 7 Constantan Fig. 13.8 A thermocouple circuit sensing junction. Each junction is made by welding two dissimilar metals together. They are maintained at different temperatures. Usually, the reference junction is maintained at a fixed temperature and the output voltage depends on the temperature of sensing junction. As only a relatively small output voltage of the order of millivolts is obtained from this arrangement, it is necessary to amplify the output for calibration and measurement. If the sensing junction of a thermocouple is kept at a temperature of 1, °C and if the temperature of the reference junction is T; °C then emf of the thermocouple can be approximately given as — : E = ao(Tz Th) + aa (72 - 7?) where a» and a; are the thermocouple constants. The copper-constantan thermocouple can be used for the temperature measurement over a range of ~184 to 400°C and chromel-constantan thermocouple junction can be used for the temperature measurement over a range of 0 to 982°C. 13.5.3 Thermistor Thermistor is a semiconductor device having negative temperature coefficient of resistance. The symbol and characteristics of this element are shown in Fig. 13.9. Materials employed in the manufacture of thermistor include oxides of cobalt, nickel, copper, iron and manganese. The thermistor has very high coefficient of resistance of the order of 3 per cent to 5 per cent per °C making it highly suitable temperature transducer. The resistance at any temperature 7, can be theoretically estimated from the equation— ae! mak, ap (2-2)Transducers @ 281 where Rr = Thermistor resistance at temperature T(K) R, = themistor resistance at temperature T,(K) 3 = a constant determined by calibration At high temperatures, this equation reduces to Rr =R, exp (3) An observation of the resistance-temperature characteristics is shown in Fig. 13.9. The characteristic curve is highly non-linear and the resistance drops from 5000 ohms to 10 ohm for an increasing temperature from 20°C to 100°C. This property of the thermistor finds applications in industrial control mechanisms. Thermistors can also be used to measure temperature, fluid flow pressure, and also as compensation element in electronic circuts. -———(v) ——. (a) Symbol Re 10°} — a 10° 3 4 z 10 38 107 Er 2? = 3> 10°- B a s \¢7 a 10° rt HHH “1000 100 200 300 400 Temperature (°C) (b) Characteristics Fig. 13.9 Symbol and characteristics 13.6 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS If the dimeasions of asymmetrical crystalline materials such as quartz, rochelle sait and barium titanite are changed by the application of a282 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering mechanical force, the crystal produces an emf. This property is used in Piezo- electric transducers (Fig. 13.10). In a piezoelectric crystal, a surface 7 deformation will take place under the action of tension, compression or shear. d This will develop a surface charge that is directly proportional to the force exerted. Thus charge Q developed on the surface when subjected to a pressure difference [P; — P2] is given by Q= KP, — Pr)A | Fig. 13.10 Piezoelectric where (P; ~ P2) is the pressure exerted transducer A is the area and & is the crystal charge sensitivity. The voltage developed across the device is Q Us= Cc (or) kK(P; — P2)A U= Khia Pad = K(P, — P2)td (where d ig metres} The crystal sensitivity of Quartz is k = 2.2 x 107° coulombs/N and K =0.05V - m/N. Pressure spikes may sometimes damage the transducers. These transients are caused by pumps and valves. A Snubber in the form of a restriction in the pressure post prevent the transducer from such spikes. This transducer has very high frequency response and therefore used in high frequency accelerometers. It is an active transducer. 13.7. HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCER When a transverse magnetic field ‘B’ is applied to a metal or a semiconductor carrying a curent J, an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both J and B. This phenomenon is called as the Hail effect. The principle of Hall effect can be explained using an arrangement depicted in Fig. 13.11 An electron travelling with the velocity V in a magnetic field will experience a force F equal to F =eE=BeVTransducers « 283 Fig. 13.11 Hall effect transducer: Schematic arrangement In an N-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers. When such a semiconductor carrying current / is placed in a magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 13.11, a Hall voltage Uy will appear across the semiconductor because of the accumulation of electrons on one side. The Hall voltage across surfaces 1 and 2 is given by Un = ar where ¢ is the thickness of the semiconductor in the direction of magnetic field and the Hall coefficients Ry = } where p is the charge density. If the polarity of terminal 2 is positive with respect to terminal 1, the semiconductor must be N-type and p = ne, where n is the electron concentration. On the other hand, if the polarity of Uy is positive at terminal 1 with respect to terminal 2, the semiconductor must be P-type and p = Pe, where ‘P’ is the hole concentration. The conductivity o and the mobility ware related by the equation o = py or u = Ryo. The Hall effect is used to find whether a semiconductor is N or P-type and to determine the carrier concentration. The mobility 4 can also be calculated with simultaneous measurement of the conductivity o. Advantages Hall-effect transducers are non-contact devices with high resolution and small size. Applications (i) It is used in the measurements of velocity, rpm, sorting, limit sensing. (i) It is also used for non-contact current and magnetic field measurements.284 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 13.1 What is a transducer? What is its need? RQ 13.2 How does a transducer differ from a sensor? RQ 13.3. Classify the transducers and give examples of each type. RQ 13.4 What are the requirements of a transducer? RQ 13.5 What is Gauge factor? What is its significance in strain gauge transducer? RQ 13.6 Explain the operation of an unbonded strain gauge. RQ 13.7 Explain the working of a capacitance transducer. RQ 13.8 What is LVDT? Explain in detail its working. RQ 13.9 Write a brief note on following temperature transducers. (i) Thermocouples (ii) Thermistors “RQ 13.10 What is Piezoelectric effect? How is this effect useful in transducers? RQ 13.11 Write a brief note on Hall effect transducer.Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits 14.1 INTRODUCTION There has been tremendous growth in the field of Electronics in the recent past. New electronic devices were invented during this period, opening up new areas in this field. Simultaneously, there has been a consistent effort to improve the characteristics of devices and components. Also there were attempts towards miniaturisation of these devices and components and circuits using them. This resulted in the advent of integrated circuit technology. An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic assembly in which all the devices, components and their inter-connections are fabricated on a small silicon chip. A small IC chip can be made to hold thousands of devices and components. In an integrated. circuit, the devices and components are formed at the same time and once formed they cannot be accessed individually. This arrangement is in contrast to that of a discrete circuit in which individual resistors, diodes, capacitors, transistors and other components are inter-connected externally to form a working circuit. Discrete circuits are therefore larger in size and are costly. Besides, ICs possess many other advantages over discrete circuits. Therefore, the discrete circuits are being seplaced by ICs. In fact the present day developments have lead froma integrated circuits to intergration systems. Today, integration systefns have developed from Small Scale Integration (SSI) to Medium Scale Integration (MSI) and further to Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) systems.286 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 14.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF ICS The following are the advantages of ICs over discrete components: (i) Small size and weight. (ii) Low cost. (iii) Low power consumption. (iv) High reliability. (v) Easy replacements. (vi) Improved performance. (vii) Standard packaging. There are, however, many disadvantages with the ICs. They are: (Limited range of values for the passive components. (ii) High grade of PNP unit is not easily possible. (iii) Large saturation resistors of transistors. (iv) Limitations in the building of inductors and transformers. (v) As IC is small in size, it is made to dissipate large amount of power. This offers severe limitations to the current carrying capacity of the IC. 14.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ICS On the basis of functions and signals, ICs are classified as: (i) Linear ICs: Linear ICs include operational amplifiers, voltage regulators, voltage comparators, and timers. These ICs handle analog or continuous signals. (ii) Digital ICs: These include logic gates, flip flops, counters, memory chips, microprocessors, etc. These ICs operate on signals representing binary values 0 or 1. On the basis of fabrication process used, ICs can be classified as: (@ Monolithic ICs and (i) Hybrid ICs. Monolithic is a greek word meaning one stone. In monolithic type, all the devices and components are fabricated together on a single piece of silicon material. Thin film and thick film ICs are the two broad categories of hybrid ICs. Passive component values (resistance and capacitance) can be trimmed to precision in the case of hybrid ICs. Hybrid ICs use lied of integrated and discrete circuit components. Monolithic ICs are more common, and the next section describes the formation of monolithic ICs.Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits « 287 14.4 MONOLITHIC ICS Manufacturing ICs of monolithic type has the following stages: @ Silicon wafer preparation (i) Expitaxial and oxide layer growth (iii) Photolithography (iv) Diffusion 7 (v) Aluminium metallisation (i) Silicon wafer preparation The starting material for ICs is pure silicon, Required amount of dopants are added to obtain either p-type or n-type silicon. The silicon obtained in this manner is cut into thin slices called wafers. One side of the wafer is polished to get rid of any surface imperfection. This is also called as substrate where the ICs are built. (ii) Epitaxial ayer growth During this process, a thin n-type or p- type epitaxial layer of about 0.02 mm thickness is grown. on the substrate Epitaxy means growing an additional ‘silicon layer on the original wafer These layers are closely controlled for their thickness and resistivity. (iii) Oxide layer growth In order to prevent contamination of the epitaxial layer, pure oxygen is blown over the surface to grow an oxide layer of about 0.00005 mm thickness over the surface. This layer of silicon dioxide (SiO) seals the surface and prevents further chemical reaction. This is also called passivation. The arrangement of the apparatus to carry out oxidation as well as epitaxial layer growth is shown Fig. 14.1. The silicon wafers are kept in a quartz boat and inserted into a quartz tube. The tube is heated to about 1000° C. A gas mixture of silicon atoms and pentavalent atoms is then passed over the silicon wafers for n-type layer formation. For oxide layer growth, pure Contiol valve Nitrogen 4 , Zoned heating coils WELZ Clean area 4 Oxygen Quartz ce boat with wee (Te—Herter Silicon slices Fig. 14.1 Arrangemeru for epitaxial and oxide layer growth205 © BASIC LlECINICUL Uris CleLrUINLS Eriguieer ig gen is blown over the surface of the wafer, keeping it at the same semperature. (iv) Photolithography The entire top surface of silica is now covered with a film of photo-sensitive emulsion such as kodak photo- resist (KPR). This material is soluble in certain solvents unless it is polymerised. Polymerisation takes place when KPR is exposed to ultraviolet light. A photographic mask containing electrical isolation pattern is placed over the silica and then exposed to UV light when only the transparent areas get polymerised. The unexposed areas are then dissolved in a chemical to remove the layer of photo-resist, and it is then etched by an etching solution to remove silicon oxide layer. The various stages involved in the development of NPN transistor IC is detailed below: (i) A P-type silicon crystal, two to five cms in diameter and several cms long, is formed and sliced into several thin wafers as shown in Fig. 14.2 (a) and (b). (ii) A thin layer of N-type semiconductor is formed over P-type substrate by epitaxial growth [Fig. 14.2 (c)]. (iii) A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiOz) is formed on this epitaxial layer as shown in Fig. 14.2 (d). Then, the entire top surface area of the silica is covered with a thin layer of photo-resist. (iv) The mask is placed in contact with the oxide layer. Now, when exposed to UV light, the photo-resist under the exposed region of the mask gets polymerised whereas the remaining area is unaffected. The mask is then removed. The area under the protected region is removed of photo-resist film using a suitable chemical. The chip is now dipped in an etching solution of hydroflouric acid. This removes the oxide layer under the Epitaxial layer N <-P-substrate P P-substrate eas @ () © Mask = 44 | |. <—UV light u Photo resist S102 layer LE Si _& N N N P-substrate P-substrate (a) @ © Fig. 14.2) (vi) (vii) Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits « 289 protected region of the wafer. The wafer is now ready for the formation of Transistor. The water under this condition is shown in Fig. 14,2 (e) and Fig. 14.2 (f). Part of SiO layer having been etched off, the N-type epitaxial layer in the exposed areas is converted to P type material in this strips [Fig. 14.3 (a)]. This process is called diffusion. The oxide layer is formed again [Fig. 14.3 (b)] and then a hole is etched at the center of SiOz layer to expose the N-type layer. This hole is called a window. This forms the collector of the transistor [Fig. 14.3 (©)]. To get the base, trivalent atoms are passed through the window. When these impurities diffuse into the epitaxial layer, an island P- type material is formed as shown in [Fig. 14.3 (d)]. The SiO layer is then reformed before a window is again etched to form the emitter [Fig. 14.3 (e), 14.3 (f) and 14.3 (g)]. The structure is then passivated by forming SiO) layer on the wafer [Fig. 14.3 (h)]. During the manufacture of ICs, it is necessary to deposit a thin layer of metal on the silicon to form the aluminium interconnections using vacuum deposition technique. Thus transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors can be easily integrated on a chip in a similar manner. SiO, esi, Collector N N N | P P P (a) (b) te) Base Z fz Z P P P N N N P P P (d) (e) (f) Emitter | N N | Pp P N N P P © P-substrate Fig. 14.3290 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 14.5 LINEAR ICS 14.5.1 Operational Amplifier An Operational Amplifier (OPAMP) is a direct-coupled amplifier with high gain, in which feed back is added to control its overall response characteristics. It is used to perform wide variety of functions; it forms a basic building block of many electronic circuit applications. An operational amplifier is so called because it is used ‘to carry out mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration and differentiation, etc. Circuit symbol for an OPAMP is shown in Fig. 14.4. It has two inputs: an inverting input (marked ~), a non-inverting input (marked +), and an output. The signs (+) and (—) indicate the polarity of the gain offered to the signals at that input with respect to ground. The terminal Ut indicates the supply voltage terminal to which the positive polarity of the battery or power supply is connected, and its negative is grounded. U~ indicates another supply voltage terminal to which a second battery is connected with its negative to U~, and the positive of the battery is grounded. ut Inverting input Non- ‘Out inverting input u- Fig. 14.4 OPAMP Characteristics of an Ideal Operational Amplifier @) Infinite voltage gain (i) Infinite bandwidth Gii) Infinite input impedance (iv) Zero output impedance 14.5.2 Applications of OPAMP. . Inverting amplifier An inverting amplifier circuit using an OPAMP is shown in Fig. 14.14. The input U;, is given to inverting input terminal of the OPAMP through a resistance R;. The feedback resistance Ry is connected between output terminal and the inverting input. The non- inverting input terminal is groundedLANG UNG LYNE fucyrmeE Vireus © wre Fig. 14.5. Inverting amplifier Un _ Uc Current, i = RoR as input impedance Rj = oo. Therefore, wy - Yow _ _ Rr Gain = —~ = -= Un Ri R, Uae = (-H) Un R Uow = —KUi,. where K = Ri From the above relationship between U4; and Ujn, it may be concluded that Up depends on K, for a given U;,. The-inverting amplifier can also be considered a sign charger, if Rj = Ry. Then, Upue = —Uin, as K = 1. Note that the output voltage is the negative of the input voltage. Non-inverting amplifier The circuit arrangement using the OPAMP is shown in Fig. 14.6. It can be shown that: Vou = A’(Uin - fou) R; here f = where f Ret Ry and A’ is the open loop gain Ujyo———+ Vout Ry He Fig. 14.6 Non-inverting amplifier292 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Use 11 OR +R Hence, low = (: + ®) Uin Vou = K’ Vin As the constant ‘K’’ is positive, the output voltage will be of the same sign as the input voltage. Differential amplifier The circuit diagram of this amplifier using OPAMP is shown in Fig. 14.7. Note that the inputs are given to both inverting and aon-inverting terminals. The output will be the difference between these two inputs. Hence, this can also be called a subtractor. Ry = R Fig. 14.7 Differential amplifier The output voltage U,,, consists of two components: U,; due to input Ui and U2 due to input Ujn2, R Now, Ust = —Uini ze | Y Ya = + Uae R = +Uin 7 therefore, Uo = Vor + Uor = (Ving — Uini ih i Adder or summing amplifier This arrangement shown Fig. 14.8 can be used to add different input voltages. The voltages Ujn), Uina, etc. are connected to inverting input terminal of the OPAMP, and the non- inverting input terminal is grounded. Making use of the result obtained for inverting amplifier, it can be shown thatLinear and Digital Integrated Circuits © 293 Ria Ry Vin? hl Ri2 Ving Ry Lo Vins VW Vout Rig iL Vina? vv H R; ' 1 : Lig = =~ Fig. 14.8 Adder Vout = —Ry Vins, Vina, Vins 2) sink +a. (ee R2 Ris Rin If Ry =Ra=Ry = 0 = Rn =F Vow = — (Vin + Using + Uing +++ Vina) Integrator This is an important Operational Amplifier used to integrate the input signal. The circuit arrangement for an integrator is shown in Fig. 14.9, ie. Undt = -CRAdU.; -If. Therefore, Usu = R | Cait Differentiator An operational amplifier differentiator circuit is shown in Fig. 14.10. Here, the output signal is the time derivative of the input signal.294 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Vous Fig. 14.10 Differentiatior a ou = ROG Vin Voltage regulator A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a constant de voltage independent of the load current and input voltage variations. IC voltage regulators offer the advantages of extremely good regulation, compact size, and ease of use. Linear IC voltage regulators are classified into three types: (i) Fixed positive output voltage regulator (ii) Fixed negative output voltage regulator (iii) Adjustable output voltage regulators 78 XX series are three terminal, positive fixed voltage regulators. 7805 IC gives a stable +5V supply. 7812 IC and 7815 provide +12V and +15V respectively. 79 XX series are negative fixed voltage regulators. The circuit arrangement for a monolithic regulator is shown is Fig. 14.11. Input capacitor C; is used to cancel the inductive effects due to long distribution loads and the output capacitor C2 is for improving the transient response of the regulator. LM 723 and yA 723 are the adjustable voltage regulators. 1 7805 i —* + Us Un (regulated) + (unregulated) Fig. 14.11 Monolithic voltage regulator 14.5.3 IC Timer Timer circuits play an important part in the control of many industrial and other applications. The 555 IC timer is a versatile IC timer. It can,Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits « 295 Upel 45 10 #15V) ty Thresh “y ‘Threshold 7 comparator 1 @ | Contfoly ane Flip-flop voltage f Oxia | l | Output R ‘Trigger Q | a ‘comparator s my — | Trigged (2) \ a Fiz. 14.12 Internal circuit diagram of 1C 555 timer also be used as square wave generator, sawtooth wave generator, etc. Accurate time delays can also be obtained from this timer. Wave form generator using IC 555 Pin connections and block diagram of IC 555 are shown in Fig. 14.12. It will be seen from this figure that a resistive voltage divider is used to set the comparator voltage levels. As the three resistors have equal values (= 5 k92), the upper or threshold comparator has a voitage reference of 2Uce The lower comparator has a voltage reference of }Uze. When the tigger * voltage goes delow 4Uccs the flip-flop sets and the output goes to the high level. The threshold input is fed by an RC network. When the external capacitor voltage increases above 2U ce, the upper comparator resets the flip-flop, which inturn switches the output back to its low level. If the output is low, then the discharge transistor turns ON and if an external timing capacitor is connected, then the discharge transistor provides path for it. Fig. 14.13 shows the arrangement of IC timer for delay time generation. Time delay T = 1.1RC, where R and C are the resistance . and capacitance of the external RC network. 14.6 DIGITAL ICS A digital ICs operates in a binary manner, i-e., it can be only in (wo states. If the output voltage of IC is high, then the state of the IC is 1. On296 © Basic Eiectrical and Electronics Engineering Se —O +0, 7 Perret ele Ouput L_ 1b) Waveforms 355 TIT (a) Delay ume calculation Using an external RC network — one shot multivibrator Fig. 14 13 Time delay generator the other hand, if the outpi.: is low, then the State of the IC is 0. This is according to the convention known as positive logic system. There is also a negative logic system where low output voltage corresponds to 1 and high output voltage to 0. 14.6.1 Boolean Algebra It is the algebra of digital circuits. Here, a variable can take only two values, either zero or one. This is employed to simplify the digital circuits and to minimise the number of devices. Some of the Boolean laws are given below: OR laws AND laws Complementation laws A¢+1l=1 A-1=A ie A+05A A-0=0 A=A A+A=A A-A=0 T=0 AvA=1 A-A=A O=1 Other important logic functions are: A+AB=A A+AB=A+B (A +B)(A+C)=A+BC De Morgan's theorems © Theorem 1 \t says the complement of the sum equals the product of the complements. A+B+C+--=A-B-C..-os Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits * 297 Theorem 2 It says the complement of a product equals the sum of the complements. i ABC. =A+B+C+--- 14.6.2 Logic Gates The elements for performing logic functions are called Gates. OR gate The OR gate performs logical addition, commonly called as OR functions. The OR gate has two or more inputs and only one output. The symbolic representation, Truth Table, and Boolean expression of OR operation are shown in Fig. 14.14, for a two-input OR gate. Truth table reveals that for an OR Gate, the output will be high when both the inputs are high or when any one input is high. The output is zero when all the inputs are zero. Boolean expression for an OR gate is given by Y =A+B, where A, B are inputs and Y is the output. Y=A+B Fig. 14.14 OR Gate AND gate The symbolic representation of AND gate in shown in Fig. 14.114, The output will be high only when both the inputs are high Boolean expression and truth table for a two-input AND gate is shown in Fig. 14.15. Fig. 14.15 AND Gate NOT gate (Invertor) The NOT gate performs a basic function called inversion or complementation. It is a gate with single input and single output. It is a gate for level changing, i.e. 0 to 1 or 1 to 0. Fig. 14.16 gives Boolean expression, symbol, and Truth Table.298 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering A] Y=A o}1 1} o Fig. 14.16 NOT Gate NOR gate It is a series combination of NOT gate and OR gate. It is available as a single unit with many inputs and single output. In this gate, when any one or all the inputs are high, output is low. Only when all the inputs are low, the output is high. The symbol, Boolean expression, and Truth Table are given in Fig. 14.17. A B [Y=A+B A y=AB 7] B 1 0 [! Fig. 14.17 NOR Gate NAND gate NAND gate is a combination of NOT and AND gates. It has two or more inputs and only one output. When all the inputs are high, the output is low. If any of the inputs is low, the output is high. The logic symbol and Boolean expression are given in Fig. 14.18. Truth table for NAND gate in also shown. ~-oo coco Fig. 14.18 NAND Gate Exclusive OR (XOR) gate The logical symbol for XOR gate is shown in Fig. 14.19. The output will be high only if any of the inputs is high. The Boolean expression for the gate is given by Y=AB+AB A Y= A@B =A@B OB Fig. 14.19 XOR GateLinear and Digital Integrated Circuits © 299 The symbol © represents XOR operation. The truth table is depicted in table form. Exclusive NOR (XNOR) gate Exclusive NOR gate is the exact inverse of the Exclusive OR gate. It is a gate with two inputs and single output. The output is governed by the Boolean expression. Y = AB+ AB = AGB. Its output is ow (0) if the two inputs are at different levels. The logical symbol is given in Fig. 14.20. The truth table for this gate is given in table form. A|B | Y=A@B Y=A@B ) = ofo4i 1}o [0 Ee of1 fo phi |a Fig. 14.20 XNOR Gate 14.6.3 Universal Gates NAND ane NOR gates are known as basic or universal gates as it is possible to synthesize any logic function by using these gates. The logic Y=KA=A cis (a) Inverter Ao AB Y= NAND }—~{_] NAND }>—o Be (b) AND all aw > & > zZ > Zz 0 >t > oll " > z wo B B of NAND LY (c)OR Fig. 14.21 Using NAND gates300 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 14.22. Using NOR gates functions of OR, AND, NOT and other gates using these universal gates can be realised as shown in Fig. 14.21 and Fig. 14.22. 14.6.4 Flip-Flop A flip-flop is an electronic circuit that can remain in two different stable states, and hence is referred to as bistable circuit. Flip-flops possess memory and hence they are used to store binary digits. They are referred to as sequential logical elements. The other names for the flip- flops are Latches and Multivibrators. This section deals with three types of flip-flops. They are: (i) RS flip-flop (ii) flip-flop (iii) JK flip-flop RS flip-flop The logic symbol and the truth table for this circuit is given in Fig. 14.23. The flip-flop has two inputs and two outputs. The two inputs are Set(S) and Reset (R) inputs. The two outputs are Q and its complements Q.. Linear and Digital integrated Curcuus © svt INPUTS OUTPUTS se >] 5 Qk s R { Q Q 0 O | Last state Resei 2—| R Qo 1 0 i 0 (a) Symbol 7 : 9 ! i i Not allowed (b) Truth table Fig. 14.23 RS flip-flop with symbol and truth able Set (S} >——be-—_— ° al Reset (R) >_> (a) RS flip-flop for RS (Latch) using NAND gates Set (S) al Reset (R) > (b) RS flip-flop using NOR gates Fig. 14.24 RS flip-flop using NAND and NOR gates302 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The construction of flip-flop using NAND gates and NOR gates is shown in Fig, 14.24. The operation of the circuit is revealed by its truth table. When both the inputs are zero, ie. R= 0,8 = 0, then Q and Q reman unchanged. With R = 0, set input S = 1, th flip-flop output Q becomes 1, Q rmains at 0. If the reset input R = | and set input S$ = 0. the output Q flips to zero and Q becomes 1. However, when R and S are simultaneously 1, it produces a racing condition in the flip-flop and the outputs become unpredictable. Therefore, this input condition is not usually permitted. O flip-flop 1m the case of RS flip-flop, two signals are required to drive the flip-flop. This turns out to be a disadvantage in many applications. This disadvantage is removed in a D flip-flop where only one input is given, i.e. input D. Ina level clocked D flip-flop, when D is low, Q is low; when D is high. Q is high. Thus, the output follows the input. Symbol and the truth table for the D flip-flop are given in Fig. 14.25. Racing condition obtained in the SR flip-flop when S = 1, R = 1 is avoided in this D flip-flop, since input R will always be the negation of inputs. Inputs. Outputs D Ss are rs dD ete ¥ : 0 o fo R Q@pReo l 1 | 0 tae 0 o fi Fig. 14.25. D flip-flop: Symbol and truth table JK flip-flop The JK flip-flop is much more versatile and popular when compared to RS and D flip-flops. It is an improved version over RS flip-flop since the racing condition is eliminated and also the inputs J = 1 and K = | are simultaneously permitted. In this condition, the output is the complement of the previous state. Fig. 14.26. gives the block schematic of basic JK flip-flop along with its truth table. JK flip-flop is widely used in the construction of counters and registers. 14.6.5 Counters A counter counts the number of clock pulses arriving at the clock input of flip-flops. Because of the frequency of the clock pulses, the counter can also be used as frequency divider. Counters are used in the instruments that measure frequency and time. There are two types of counters:posses en) ys] K | Q | 0 0 7 Q& 1 0 1 Oo 1 0 Lt t ® (b) Truth table Fig. 14.16 JK flip-flop (i) Asyachronous counter or serial counter ii) Synchronous counter or parallel counter. Asynchronous counter Figure 14.27 shows a four-bit binary ripple counter. The output of each flip-flop serves as the clock input for the next flip-flop. In this type of ripple counter, four negative edge- triggered T flip-flops are connected in series. T flip-flop is obtained if JK inputs are connected to a single input. Using this 4-bit ripple counter, clock pulses up to 15 can be counted a R aI m a x at Fig. 14.27 Asynchronous (ripple) counter304 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Synchronous counter In the case of synchronous counters, all the flip-flops are trigged simultaneously by the clock input pulses. Fig. 14.28 shows synchronous mod 16 counter, which can count up to 15. Fig. 14.28 Synchronous (Mod 16) counter Decade counter A decade counter is a counter which can count ‘ten’ distinct states. A decade counter that can count from zero (0000) to decimal nine 9 (1001) is termed as BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) counter, The construction of a Mod 10 counter is depicted in Fig. 14.29. 7 ot FF al fi ey Q1% Lp Kd La JULI K K K Q a Fig. 14.29 Decade counter REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 14.1 What is an integrated circuit? Explain. RQ 14.2 List the advantages and limitations of an IC. RQ 14.3 Classify ICs on the basis of (i) Function and (ii) Fabrication technology.RQ 14.4 RQ 14.5 RQ 14:6 RQ 14.7 RQ 14.8 RQ 14.9 RQ 14.10 RQ 14.11 RQ 14.12 RQ 14.13 RQ 14.14 RQ 14.15 RQ 14.16 RQ 14.17 RQ 14.18 RQ 14.19 Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits « 305 Explain the process of epitaxial growth in the fabrication of ICs. What is meant by photolithography? Explain how an IC transistor is fabricated. What do you mean by the terms: SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI. List the characteristics of an ideal OPAMP. Explain the construction of the following circuits using OPAMP: @) Sign changer (ii) Scale changer Gili) Adder (iv) Subtractor Explain with diagram the operation of an IC voltage regulator. Explain the operation of IC 555 timer circuit. What are its uses? Define Gate. What are basic Gates? What are Universal Gates? Why are they called so? Show how OR, AND, NOT Gates are realised using NAND Gates Show how OR, AND, NOT Gates are realised using NOR Gates. What is a flip-flop? List various flip-flops you know. How are they important? What is a racing condition in SR flip-flop? How is it eliminated in D flip-flop? Explain the operation of JK flip-flop. Mention its applications. Write a brief note on: i) Ripple counter tii) Decade counter iii) Shift registerFundamentals of Computers 15.1 INTRODUCTION A computer is a fast and accurate symbol manipulating system that is organised to accept, store and process data and produce’ the desired output results under the direction of a stored program of instructions. Basic organisation of a typical computer is shown in Fig. 15.1. Blocks represent the key elements of such a computer. Let us examine each component of the system in more detail. i Central Input Processing Output devices Unit — devices ooenene (CPU) Fig. 13.1. Basic organisation of computer 15.1.1 Input Devices Computer systems use many devices for input purposes. Some allow direct human machine communication. The keyboard of a workstation connected directly to-or online to a computer is an example. Some Tequire data to be recorded on an input medium such as paper or magnetizable material as Shown in Fig. 15.2. Devices that read data magnetically recorded on specially coated plastic tapes or floppy plastic308 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering diskettes are popular. Regardless of the type of device used, these are the components used to interpret and communicate between people and computer systems. Other commonly used input devices are Mouse, Light Pen, Analog to digital convertor (ADC) and Digitizer. 15.1.2 Central Processing Unit The heart of the computer system is the central processing unit (CPU). Fig. 15.2 shows, three main sections that are generally located within CPU of all sizes. They are: (i) Primary storage section (ii) Arithmetic logic section and (iii) Control section. Primary storage section The primary storage section (internal memory) is used for four purposes. Three of these relate to the data processing. (i) Datas are fed into an input storage area where they are stored until it is ready to be processed. (ii) A working storage space, similar to a sheet of scratch paper, is used to hold the data which is being processed and the intermediate results of such processing. (iii) An output storage area holds the output results of the processing operations until they are released. On line secondary storage devices Rigid magnetic | Floppy magnetic disk storage unit] disk Storage unit Off line secondary storage media Output devices Visual display Floppy disk Printer {storage area | Arithmetic logic section Fig. 15.2 Components in the CPU | [Magnetic tape Punch cardFundamensals of Computers © 309 (iv) In addition to these data-related purposes, the primary storage section also contains a program storage area that holds the processing instructions. The separate areas used for these four general purposes are not fixed by built-in physical boundaries in the storage section, rather, they can vary from one application to another. In addition to the primary storage or main memory section, most computers also have secondary (sometimes called auxiliary or external) mass storage capabilities. Auxiliary memory operates at a much slower speed than internal memory. As shown in Fig. 15.2. in CPU, the secondary storage devices are machines that are generally connected online to the CPU where they serve as reference libraries by accepting data directly from and returning data directly to the CPU without human intervention. Common auxiliary memory devices are magnetic disk, magnetic tape and semi conductor magnetic bubble memory (MBM). Arithmetic-logic section All calculations and all comparisons (decisions) are performed in the ALU of the CPU. Once data are fed into primary storage from input devices, they are held and transferred as and when needed to the arithmetic-logic section where the processing take place. No processing occurs in primary storage. Intermediate results generated in the arithmetic-logic unit are temporarily placed ina designated working storage area until they are needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to the arithmetic-logic unit and back again to storage many times before the processing is completed. Once it is completed, the final results are released to an output device. The type and the number of arithmetic and logie- operations, a computer can perform are determined by the engineering design of the CPU. Controlsection How does the input device know when to feed data into storage? How does the ALU know what should be done with the data once they are received? And how is the output device be able to obtain finished output rather than intermediate results? It is by selecting, interpreting and seeing to the execution of the program instructions that the control section of the CPU is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. Although it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as’a central nervous system for the other components of the computer. At the beginning of the processing, the first program instruction is selected and fed into the control section from the program storage area. There it is interpreted, and the signals are sent to the other components to execute the necessary actions. Other program instructions are then selected and executed in a sequential fashion until the processing gets completed.310 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 15.1.3 Output Devices Like input units, output devices are used to interpret and communicate between the human beings and the computer system. As shown in Fig. 15.2, these devices take ouput results from the CPU in machine- coded form and convert them into a form that can be used (a) by people (b) as machine input in another processing cycle. Commonly used output devices are Monitor, Printer, Plotter Floppy disks, Hard disks and Digital Analog Convertor (DAC). 15,2 MEMORY DEVICES A major advantage of digital over analog systems is the ability to store large quantities of digital information and data easily for short or long periods. This memory capability is the one which makes the digital system so versatile and adaptable to many situations. We have already seen about flipflop in previous chapter, which is an electronic memory element. A flipflop is a one bit read-write memory. The data can be written into it by applying a data bit to’ the input and applying a clock pulse, The data bit can read from Q output. Stored data can be changed by simply applying the new data to the input with a clock pulse. A group of flipflops called register, is used to store a binary word of parallel data. To store more than one word, we can use several registers. Thus, these flipflop registers are high speed memory elements which are used extensively in the internal operations of a digital computer, where digital information is continually being moved from one location to another. Advances in LSI and VLSI technology have made it possible to have these high speed memories at a reduced cost. 15.2,1 Memory Terminology Memorycell A device or electrical circuit used to store a single binary digit (0 or 1). Examples of memory cells include a flipflop, a charged capacitor and a single spot on magnetic tape or disk. Any type of memory that requires the application of electrical power in order to store information. If the electrical power is removed. all information stored in the memory will be lost. Many semiconductor memories are volatile, while all magnetic memories are non-volatile, which means they can store information without an electrical power. Memory word A group of bits (cells) in a memory that represents instructions or data of some type. Byte A special term used for a group of 8 bits. Capacity A way of specifying the number of bits that can be stored in a particular memory device or complete memory system. ForFundamentals of Computers © 311 example, a memory that has a storage capacity of 4K x 8 is actually a 4096 x 8 memory when expressed in this way, the number (4096) denotes the number of words and the second number (8) denotes the number of bits per word. Density it is the another term for capacity. Address A mumber that identifies the location of a word in the memory. Each word stored in a memory device or system has a unique address. Read operation The operation whereby the binary word is stored in a specific memory location (address) is sensed and then transferred to another device. Write operation The operation whereby a new word is placed into a particular memory location. Access time lt is the measure of operating speed of a memory device i.e. the amount of time required to perform a read operation. More specifically, it is the time between the memory receiving a new address input, and the data becoming available at the memory output. It is denoted by the symbol tacc. Random-access memory (RAM) Memory in which the actual physical location of a memory word has no effect on how long it takes to read from or write into that location. In other words, the access time is the same for any address in the memory. Sequential-access memory (SAM) A type of memory in which the access time is not constant but varies depending on the address location. Example of SAM devices include magnetic tape, disk and magnetic bubble memory. Read/write memory (RWM) Any memory that can be read from _ or written into with equal case. Read only memory (ROM) A ROM is a non-volatile memory and can be written (Programmed) only once. Thereafter information can only be read from the memory. Static memory devices Semiconductor memory devices are those in which the stored data will remain permanently stored as long as power is applied, and the data need not be written periodically into the memory Dynamic memory devices Semiconductor memory devices are those in which the stored data will not remain permanently stored, even with power applied, unless the data are periodically rewritten into the > memory. The latter operation is called a refresh operation 15.2.2 CPU-Memory Connection A computer's internal memory is made up of RAM and ROM ICs that are interfaced to the CPU over three groups of signai lines or buses.312 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering These are the address bus, data bus and control bus. Whenever the CPU wants to write data to a particular memory location, the following steps are performed: Write operation (i) The CPU supplies the binary address of the memory location where the data are to be stored. It places this address on the address bus lines. (ii) The CPU places the data to be stored on the data bus lines. (iii) The CPU activates the appropriate control signal lines for the memory write operation. (iv) The memory ICs decode the binary address to determine which location is being selected for the store operation. (v) The data on the data bus are transferred to the selected memory location. Whenever the CPU wants to read data from a specific memory location, the following steps are performed: Read operation (i) The CPU supplies the binary address of the memory location from which data are to be retrieved. It places this address on the address bus line. (ii) The CPU activates the appropriate control signal lines for the memory read operation. (iii) The memory ICs decode the binary address to determine which location is being selected for the read operation. (iv) The memory ICs place data from the selected memory location on to the data bus, from where they are transferred to the CPU. The read only memory is a type of semiconductor memory that is designed to hold data that are either permanent or will not change frequently. ROMs are used to store data and information that do not Address Data inputs outputs D. Ay D. 16x8 . A = ROM Ds Aor Dy D; Ags s o Dy D CS (Chip select) Control input Fig. 15.3 (a) ROM block diagramFundamentals of Computers © 313 Address Data Word | Ay Az A; Ay | D7 Do DE 3A 35 AF 19 7B 00 ED 3C FF 88 Bo co Al 27 96 TMUONODPCMI KHER O 1S Fig. 15.3(b) Table showing hex data at each location change during the normal operation of a system. The data can only be ' read from the ROM. For some ROMs, the data that are stored have to be built in during the manufacturing process, and for other ROMs. the data can be entered electrically. The process of entering data is called programming or burning the ROM. Since all ROMs are non-volatile, stored programs are not lost when the electrical power is turned off. When the microcomputer is turned on, it can immediately begin executing the program which is stored in ROM. ROMs are also used to store program and data in microprocessor . controlled equipment such as electronic cash registers, appliances and security systems. A typical block diagram for a ROM is shown in Fig. 15.3. It has three sets of signals; address. inputs (4p — A3), control input (CS) and data input (Do ~ D;). This ROM stores 16 words. since it has 2* = 16 Possible addresses and each word containing 8 bit. Therefore it is a 16 x 8 ROM. The control input CS stands for chip select. This is essentially an-enable input that enables or disables the ROM outputs 15.2.3 Programmable ROMs (PROMs) A mask programmable ROM is very expensive and cannot be used except in high volume applications, where cost would be spread out over Many units. For lower volume applications, manufacturers have314 * Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering developed fusible link PROMs that are user-programmable, i.e. they are not programmed during the manufacturing process but are custom- programmed by the user. Once it is programmed, however. a PROM is like an MPROM in which it cannot be erased and reprogrammed. Thus if the program in the PROM is faulty or has to be changed, the PROM has to be thrown away. Hence, these devices are often referred to as ‘one time programmable’ ROMs. The process of programming a PROM and verifying thai the stored data are correct, is rarely done manually. rather it is done automatically by a PROM chip which is plugged into a %cbket on the PROM programmer. The programmer circuitry selects each address of the PROM. burns in the correct data at that address, and verifies the data and sequences to the next address to repeat the process. The data to be burnt into the PROM are input to the programmer from a keyboard, from a disk drive or transferred from a computer. 15.2.4 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) An EPROM can be programmed by the user and it can also be erased and reprogrammed as often as desired. Once the EPROM is programmed the memory becomes non-volatile that will hold its stored data indefinitely. The storage calls in an EPROM are MOS transistor with a silicon gate that has no electrical connection (i.e a floating gate). In its normal state, each transistor is off and each cell stores a logic 1. A transistor can be turned on by the application of a high voltage programming pulse that injects high-energy electrons into the floating gate region. Even when she pulse is terminated, these electrons remain trapped in this region as there is no discharge path. This keeps the transistor ‘on’ permanently even when the power is removed from the device, and the cell now stores a logic 0. During the process of programming the EPROM’s, address and data pins select which memory cells are to be programmed as 0’s and which ones to be left as 1’s. Once an EPROM cell has been programmed, it can be erased by exposing it to an Ultra violet (UV) light applied through a window on the chip package. The UV light produces a photocurrent from the floating gate back to the silicon substrate, thereby removing the stored charges, turning thetransistor off and restoring the cell to Logic | state. This erasing process typically requires 15 to 20 minutes of exposure 10 UV rays. Unfortunately the UV light erases all cells at the same time there is no way to erase only the selected cells. So that an erased EPROM stores all 1’s and once it is erased, the EPROM can be reprogrammed again.Fundamentals of Computers « 315 However, these EPROM have their own drawbacks which include: (i) To erase or to reprogram the EPROM, it has to be removed from their circuit. (ii) The erase and reprogramming process typically takes 20 minutes or more. (iii) During the erase operation, UV light erases the entire chip. 15.2.5 Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) The disadvantages wi the EPROM were overcome by the development of the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM). The EEPROM retain the same floating gate structure as EPROM, but with the addition of a very thin oxide region above the drain of the MOSFET memory cell. This modification produces the EEPROM’s major characteristics i.e its electrical erasability. By applying a high voltage (21 V) between the MOSFET’s gate and drain, a charge can be induced on to the floating gate. where it remains, even when power is removed. Reversal of the same voltage causes the removal of tapped charges from the floating gate and erases the cell. Since this charge transport mechanism requires very low current, the erasing and programming of an EEPROM can be done ina circuit. Another advantage of the EEPROM over the EPROM is the ability to electrically erase and rewrite individual bytes (8 bit words) in the memory array. Additionally, an EEPROM can be programmed more rapidly than many EPROMs. The byte erasibility of the EEPROM and its high level of integration come with two penalties; density and cost. The memory cell complexity and the on-chip support circuitry place EEPROMs far behind EPROM in bit capacity per square millimetre of silicon, a 1M bit EEPROM requires about twice as much silicon as a I-M bit EPROM. So, despite its operational superiority, the EEPROMs short comings in density and cost effectiveness have Kept it from replacing the EPROM in applications where density and cost are the paramount factors 15.2.6 Flash Memory The challenge for semiconductor engineers was to fabricate a non- volatile memory with the EEPROMs in-circuit electrical erasability but with densities and costs much closer to EPROMs, while retaining the high speed read access of both. The response to this challenge was the flash memory. Structurally, a flash memory cell is like the simple single-transistor EPROM cel! (Unlike the more complex two-transistor EEPROM) being316 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering only slightly larger. It has a thinner gate-oxide layer that allows electrical erasability but can be build with much higher density than EEPROMs. Flash memories are so-called because of their rapid erase and write times. Most flash chips use a bulk erase operation in which all cells on the chips are erased simultanéously, Some newer flash memories offer a sector erase mode, where specific sectors of the memory arrray (e.g. 512 bytes) can be erased at one time. This prevents having to erase and reprogram all cells where only a portion of the memory needs to be updated. A typical flash memory has a write time of 10 yS per byte compared to 100 4S for the most advanced EPROMs and 5 ms for EEPROM. Because of their non-volatility, high speed, low power requirements and lack of moving parts, flash memory modules have become feasible alternatives to magnetic disk storage. This is especially true for low capacity (SM bytes or less) where flash is cost-competitive with magnetic disk. The low power consumption of flash memory makes it particularly attractive for laptop and note book computers which use battery power. ‘15.2.7 Semiconductor RAMs 7 Recall that the term RAM stands for random-access memory which. means that any memory address location is as easily accesible as any other. A RAM is usually taken to mean read/write memory (RWM) as opposed to ROM. RAM is used in computer for the temporary storage of program and data. The contents of many RAM address locations will be read from and written to, as the computer executes a program. This requires fast read and write cycle times for the RAM so that it does not slow down the computer operation. A major disadvantage of RAM is that it is volatile and loses all information when the power is off. Some CMOS RAMs. however, use such small amount of power in the standby mode (no read of write operations taking place) that they can be powered from batteries whenever the main power is interrupted. RAM cells are basically classified as static RAM cells and Dynamic RAM cells. Static RAM cells are essentially flipflops that will stay in a given state (Store a bit) indefinitely, provided that power to the circuit is not interrupted. They are available in bipolar, MOS and CMOS technologies. Dynamic RAMs store data as charges on capacitors. With dynamic RAMs, the stored data will gradually disappear because of capacitor discharge, Therefore it is necessary to refresh the data periodically i.e., to recharge the capacitors. Dynamic RAMs are fabricated using MOSFundamentals of Computers. « 317 technology and are noted for their high capacity. low power requirement and moderate operating speed. The need for refreshing is a drawback of dynamic RAM to Static RAM because it may require external support circuitry. Some DRAM chips have built-in refresh control circuitry that does not require extra external hardware but does require special timing of the chips input control signals. Designing with and using DRAM ina system is more complex than SRAM. For the applications where speed and reduced complexity are more critical than, cost, space and power considerations, static RAMs are still the best. They ate generally faster than dynamic RAMs and does not require refresh operation. They are simpler to design with but they cannot compete with the higher capacity (4 times) and lower power requirements of dynamic RAMs. A Address” A ms a SRAM L 1/0, we E WE IK x8 - or — EC =I E Ss, - L110, L- 1/0, Fig. 15.4 SRAM We confine our discussions with a typical SRAM chip. Fig. 15.4 shows the block diagram of a RAM chip. It has 10 address lines and 8 1/O lines. Hence it can address 2'° = 1 K bytes of memory location with 8 bit word. The four control input determine the device operating mode. The WE write enable input will write data into the RAM provided the device is selected through the two control inputs CS; and CS2, the chip select 1 and2. A HIGH at WE enables the read operation provided that the device is selected and the output buffers are enabled by OF = Low. When the device is deselected, the device is in its low power mode and none of the other inputs have any effect. 15.3 MASS DATA STORAGE SYSTEMS The ROM and RAM in a computer, does not possibly hold all the” programs that has to be run or the data which are analysed. Therefore a318 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering computer system needs some other form of data storage which can hold massive amount of data which are non-volatile and can be updated and has relatively low cost. The most common devices used for main data storage are floppy magnetic disks, hard magnetic disks and optical disks. 15.3.1 Floppy Disk Data Storage A floppy diskette is an ultra thin plastic (MYLAR) piece in circular shape. The name floppy is used because the thickness of the mylar disk is only thousands of an inch. It is coated with magnetic material and enclosed in a protection jacket so as to provide contact between the read/ write head and the diskette. The common sizes of disks are 8, 5.25 and 3.5 inches. Fig. 15.5 shows a picture of a typical floppy disk. Slit for read/ write head +> Hole for hub. [-> Card board cover Index hole ¢| 1-> Floppy disk Write protect my notch Fig. 15.5 Floppy disk . Newer 3.5 inch floppy disks are packed in a thick hard plastic cartridge with an opening for the read-write head. These openings remain closed until the cartridge is inserted into a floppy drive. They are opened when the disk starts spinning. Read/write head reads the contents of the disk through this opening. Data is stored on the disk in concentric circular tracks. Fig. 15.6 shows a diagram of a read/write head. In the write mode, a current passing through the coil in the head creates a magnetic flux in the iron core of the head. A gap in the iron core allows the magnetic flux to spill out and magnetize the material on the eee a) Magnetic coated disk “Flux iin Iron core —> Housing Fig. 15.6 Magnetic disk read/write headFundamentals of Computers © 319 disk. Once the region on the disk is magnetized in a particular direction, it retains that magnetism. The polarity of the magnetized region is determined by the direction of the current through the coil. Data can be read from the disk with the. same head. Whenever the polarity of the magnetism changes as the track passes over the gap in the read/write head, a small voltage, typically a few millivolts, is induced in the coil. An amplifier and comparator are used to convert this small signal to standard logic levels. The write protect notch in a floppy disk envelope is used to protect stored data from being written over..An LED and a phototransistor can indicate wheher the notch is present and disable the write circuits. An index hole punched in the disk indicates the start of the recorded tracks. An LED and a phototransistor are used to detect when the index hole passes. The normal net data storage capacity of 3.5 inches floppy is 1.4 M bytes. These floppies use 192 tracks per side, 512 bytes per sector and 9 sectors per track which gives a gross unformatted capacity of 1.76 M bytes which ‘s larger than the formatted data storage capacity. 15.3.2 Magnetic Hard Disk Data Storage The floppy disks that we discussed earlier have the advantage that they are relatively inexpensive and removable. The amount of data that can be stored on floppy disks, is limited to a large extent by the flexibility of the disks. The rate at which data can be read off a disk is limited to 300 or 360 rpm. To solve these problems we use a hard disk system. The basic s:ructure of a hard disk is similar to that of a diskette. The major difference between a hard disk and a floppy disk is that the hard disk has more than (wo sides and is much more faster than a floppy disk The soft recording media is used for diskettes and hence they are called as floppy disks whereas the recording media which uses platter (hard surface) are called fard disks. Hard Disks are often refered to as Winchester. Fig. 15.7 shows a cutaway view of a hard disk. Physically the hard disk consists of one or more platters, each of which has two sides. The number of platters depend upon the capacity of the hard disk. Each side of the platter has a read-write head. Each disk surface is coated with a magnetic media and the read-write head stores data on it by rearranging the magnetic field. It reads data from the surface by interpreting the variations in the magnetic field. The platters are mounted on a fixed spindle which rotates at the speed of 3600 RPM. The read-write head moves horizontally across the platters from the edge to the centre so that they can read/write data to320 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Plotter Actuator arms ‘> Disk head Fig. 15.7 Cutaway view of a hard disk any part of the surface. All the heads are assembled with an actuator and the movement of which is centrolled by a stepper motor called head Stepper motor. ‘A stopper is provided for the indication of track when the head moves towards the outer most track, A series of concentric circles on each platter are called tracks. The divisions of tracks into smaller unit are called sectors. The collection of tracks that can be accessed without moving the head is called a cylinder. The disks in a hard disk systems are made of a metal alloy, coated on both sides with a magnetic material. Hard disks are more dimensionally stable, which means that they can be spun at higher speed and that tracks the bits on the tracks can be put closer together. In most cases, the hard disks are permanently fastened in the drive mechanism and sealed in a dust free package, but some systems do have removable enclosed disks. The size of common hard disk are 3.5, 5.25, 8, 10.5, 14 and 20 inches. To increase the amount of storage per drive, several disks may be stacked with spacers between. To interface a hard disk drive to a microcomputer system, dedicated disk controller is used. The disk controller accepts commands from the computer and positions the read- write heads of the specified disk for reading or writing. In order to read from or write on a disk pack, the computer must specify the drive number, cylinder number, surface number and the sector number. Drive number is specified, because a controller normally controls more than one drive. The disk controller also checks whether the data sent from the memory of the computer is correctly written on the disk.Fundamentals of Computers » 321 15.3.3 Magnetic Tape Storage To preven: the data loss during the event of head crash, hard disk files are backed upon some other medium such as floppy disks or magnetic Track 39 Track > Fig, 15.8 Tracks on a disk tape. The difficulty of using floppy disks for backup is that it requires a number of disks. Backing up a 14 M byte hard disk with 1.4 K byte. Floppy requires 10 disks and considerable time saving in taking disks in and out. Many systems now use a high speed magnetic tape system for backup. The tape is usually a Mylar with a thin coating of magnetic iron oxide. It varies in width from 0.15 inch tape used in small Philips cassettes jor portable recorders, to 2 or 3 inch wide tape, commonly used in large main frame computers. The read/write mechanism in these magnetic iapes are similar to the read/write mechanism in the magnetic floppy disks. The data recorded on a tape cannot be addressed. They can be retrived sequentially in the order in which they are written. Thus if a desired record is at the end of the tape is required all the earlier records have to be read before it is reached. The access time of information stored on the tape is very high compared to that stored on a disk. Tapes are primarily used to save old information for long periods of time (archival store) and are less expensive than disks and can be stored conveniently. 15.3.4 Optica! Disk Data Storage Optical disks are probably familiar to us from their use as laser disks or compact cisks (CD). The latest and the most promising technology for high capacity secondary storage is the Laser Disk Technology. This technology has evolved out of the entertainment electronics market where cassette tapes and long playing records are being replaced by CDs. Similiar technology is used in digital computers. The disks used for data storage are know as Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM). The CDROM disk, also known as a laser disk, is a shiny metal like disk whose diameter is 5.25 inches. It can store around 650 Megabytes (equivalent to 2,50,000 pages of printed text). Disk sizes of 12 inches and 14 inches are available in the market.322 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ~~ -> Cylinder , Sector | i Cylinder ¢, Sector © 1 sector Ke Siores 512 bytes (0.5 K) Fig. 15.9 Tracks and sectors In addition to their ability to store large amount of data, optical disks have the advantages that they are relatively inexpensive, immune to dust, and in most cases it is removable. Also, since the data is written on the disk and read off the disk with the light from a tiny laser diode, the read/write head does not have to touch the disk. ‘The laser head is held in positions above the disk. So there is no disk wear and the head cannot crash and destroy. the recorded data as it can with magnetic hard disks. The actual drive and head positioning mechanism for optical disk drives are similar,to those for magnetic hard disk drives, Some optical disk systems record data in concentric tracks as magnetic disks do. The CD disk system and other systems récord data on a single spiral track as a phonograph record does. Optical disk systetns are available in three basic types: read only, write once/read and read write. Read only systems allow only pre-recorded disks to be read out. A disk which can only be read from is often referred to as an optical ROM or OROM. Write once/read systems allow you to write data in a disk, but once the data is written, it cannot be erased or changed. Once the data is written, it cannot be erased or changed. It can be read as many times as required. Disks used for read only and write once/read systems are coated with a substance which will be altered when a high-intensity laser beam is focussed on it with a beam. The principle here is similiar to a magnifying glass which burns holes in paper as it was done in earlier days. In some systems, the focussed laser light actually produces tiny pit as along as track represent 1’s. In other systems, special metal coating isFundamentals of Computers ¢ 323 applied to the disk over a plastic polymer layer. When the laser beam is focussed on a spot on the metal, ‘heat is transferred to the polymer, causing it to give off a gas. The gas given off produces a microscopic bubble at that spot on the thin metaj coating to representa stored }. Both these recording mechanisms are irreversible, so once written can only be read. Data can be read from this type of disk using the same laser diode used for recording, but at reduced power. For the most common reatl/write optical disk system, the disks are coated with an exotic metal alloy which has the required magnetic properties. The read/write head in this type of system has a laser diode and a coil of wire. A current is passed through the coil to produce a magnetic field perpendicular to the disk. At room temperature, the applied vertical magnetic field will not be strong enough to change the horizontal magnetization present on the disk. To record a ‘1’ at a spot in a data track, a pulse of light from the laser diode is used to head up that spot which create a tiny vertical magnet. To read data from the disk, polarized laser light is focussed on the track. When the polarized light reflects from one of the tiny vertical light magnets representing.a 1, its plane of polarization is rotated 10 few degrees. Special optical circuitry can detect thin shift and convert the reflection from a data track to a data stream of 1’s and 0’s. A bit is erased by turning off the vertical magnetic field and heating the spot corresponding to that bit with the laser. When heated with no field present, the magnetisation of the spot will flip around in line with the horizontal field on the disk. 15.4 COMPUTER INPUT UNITS (aj Keyboard A keyboard is similar to the typewritter but has a few more keys. Each key stroke displays the corresponding character on the CRT screen or does the corresponding action. All informations are transferred to computer in streams of binary digits 0 or 1. All characters on the keyboard have equivalent binary codes. One such code is called ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). When a key is pressed, the electronic circuitry associated with keyboard control produces the corresponding binary pattern which is transferred to the memory. The key code is identified by the computer and then it does the corresponding action (either displayed on the CRT screen or the corresponding command is executed by the CPU). (b) Magnetic ink character recognition In this method, human readable characters are printed on documents such as cheques using a special magnetic ink. A magnetic ink character reader can recognise the characters. In a cheque, for instance, the branch code, account number and cheque number are preprinted by using magnetic ink.324 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The amount of cheque is entered later by a clerk using a machine which prints with the magnetic ink. The cheque itself can now be read by the special input unit which can recognize magnetic ink characters. This method of reading eliminates the data entry work. (c) Optical mark reading andrecognition \n this method, special preprinted forms are designed with boxes which can be marked with a dark pencil or ink. Each box is annotated distinclty so that the user can clearly understand the response which he is making. Such a document is read by a document reader which transcribes the marks into electrical pulses which are transmitted to the computer. These documents are applicable in areas where responses are one out of a small number of alternatives and the volume of data to be processed is large. Thus they are used for: (i) Objective type answer papers in examinations in which large number of candidates appear. (ii) Order forms containing a small choice of items. (iii) Market surveys, population surveys etc. where responses can be restricted to one or more out of a few possibilities. (iv) Time sheets of factory employees in which factory in and out time _ are marked. The advantage of this method is that information is entered at source and no further transcription is required. This minimises unreliability of data. The main disadvantage is the need for accurate alignment of printing on forms and the need for good quality expensive paper. Forms cannot be frequently redesigned because any change will require reprinting of the form, which is expensive. (d) Optical charecter recognition An optical scanner is a device used to read an image, convert it into a set of 0’s and 1’s and store this in computer memory. The image may be a hand-written, typed or printed document, or a picture. (e) Bar coding In this method, small bars of varying thickness and spacing are printed on packages, badges, tags etc., which are read by optical readers and converted to electrical pulses by optical readers. The pattern of bars must be unique and standardized. Commercially, these bar codes are used to identify products (e.g) Books, grocery items etc. by giving them a unique code. Fig. 15.10 illustrates a typical bar code. (f) Speech input unit A unit which takes its input in the form of spoken words and converts them to a form which can be ‘understood’ by a computer is called a speech unit. By understanding, it means that the unit can uniquely code (as a sequence of bits) each spoken word, and can Fig. 15.10 Bar codingFundamentals of Computers. « 325 interpret and initiate action based on the word. Giving a spoken command is much quicker than typing out such a command. Speech input unit is particularly used in situation where commands are to be given to a remote computer using a telephone or when ones hands are not free. (g) Graphic inputdevice Mouse is categorised as a general graphic input device, which controls the movement of graphic cursor, Other graphic input devices are keyboard (arrow keys), Light pen (Gross pointing Devices) Joysticks, Digitizers etc. Typically, the requirements of a graphic system can be spelled out as- (1) It can move the cursor fast anywhere. (2) Can select command from menu (Pointing). (3) Can wansfer the already existing. graphical informaion. (curve tracing, points, etc.) (4) Can draw lines, curves, etc. (5) Can input numerical and textual data. Ergonomic studies have shown that the input mouse is better than keyboard, light pen, joystick, etc. The. present day mouse is connected through Rs. 232 port ( a standard serial communication port). Graphic tablets Graphic Tablets are the input devices to input graphical information such as drawings and maps. A digitizing tablet locates the coordinates on maps surface by the tip of a stylus and feeds electrical pulses. These pulses are picked up by electrodes embedded on the Tablet. The position of the electrode which picks up a particular pulse locates the x-y coordinates of the stylus. (h) Analogto digital converter The function of an A/D converter is to produce a digital word which represents the magnitude of analog voltage or current. In the applications like industrial automation or process control, we need to determine the values of variables such as pressure, temperature and flow. The physical values of these variables are first converted to electrical signal by sensors and transducers. These electrical signal, either voltage or current are the input to the Analog to Digital converters (ADC). The digital Outputs of ADCs are then fed to the computer for the required processing in control applications. 15.5 COMPUTER OUTPUT DEVICES (a) Video display unit (VDU) A video display unit consists of a television screen/CRT terminal, CRT controller and associated electronics. The far more prevalent type of CRT display is called raster scan tape. This type is used in most CRT terminals designed for the display of alphanumeric and graphical data. The first step towards making the326 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fig. 15.11 Raster scan display screen useful is to eliminate the retrace portion by sufficiently reducing the intensity of the beam during retrace. The resultant pattern on the screen is illustrated as in Fig. 15.11. The characters or graphics are generated on the CRT screen as a pattern of light and dark dots. To obtain this, the electron beam is made on and off as it sweeps across the screen as shown in Fig. 15.12. The dark dots in the figure present the beam on and the empty dots represent the beam off. With this dot matrix, we can produce a reasonable approximation to any letter or symbol. Common dot matrix sizes for a character are 5 x 7, 7 x 9 and 7 x 12. To provide a separation border around this alphanumeric character, the top and the bottom lines are left blank and a one-segment border on the left and right edges of the 7 x 9 matrix is provided. 1234567 1aqqgcaaa 20 @ @ @ @ @ G Scaniine 1 308oo0oM8Do 2 40mococomag 3 sommmnoo 4 6aomomoo0o0 35 70m00Mm00 6 somoooma 7 9oq0o0o0o000 Fig. 15.12 Character The dot patterns for each character to be ‘lisplayed are stored ina ROM called a character generator ROM. The ASCII code for the characters to be displayed on the screen are stored in a RAM so that they can be changed when the display pattern on the screen has to be changed. This RAM is often referred to as display RAM or display refresh RAM. A display normally has 80 characters per horizontal line and 24 such lines on the screen. Fig. 15.13 illustrates the sequence that occurs during theFundamentals of Computers © 327 ist Character 2nd Character 3rd Character 4th Character ee ey COPPRDDDD CB DDDC Ce eDDCOCeee” First line of a character row CO@ee0000 Bee D000 ee e000e 0@0000008000800080008000 Sccond line of a character row ° COCD Bee D000 ee eD00Dee SeoddedcedKoKO MOK DDD eKOOCe 0€0000000000 e008000000000e000 Third line of a character row Scan line 00@880000 Oe 000088 e000 O88 800 6@0000000000 8008000800008000 0@0000008000000800000000e8000 000000000000 e0000e80000508000 200000090000 e000000800008000 2@000 00008000 e008@000e00000e000 00@8@0000008800000088000008000 Fig. 15.13 Display of one 80 character row of data display of single 80 characters row of alphanumeric data on a CRT screen. The dot pattern for all 80 characters on scan line 1 must be presented as input to the CRT monitor serially on the VIDEO input. Obviously some logic must be provided to convert data that is normally handled in 8 bit parallel bytes in a computer system into the serial bit stream. The dot patterns for all 80 characters on scan line 1 must be presented to the CRT a total of seven times. The dot pattern presented for each characters differs for every scan line. This sequence of operation is repeated for the display of all 24 ‘character Ines on the monitor. The monitor screen has to be refreshed repeatedly with the data available in the display RAM or. display refresh RAM 15.6 PRINTERS The printer is an electromechanical device which has both electronic circuit conrol known as printer electronics and mechanical assemblies. The electronic circuit control the mechanical assemblies. Fig. 15:14 shows a sanple block diagram of a printer. The compiler interface which sends command and data, links the printer with the computer. The printer electronics has necessary circuits to decode the commands and generate control signals and activates the printer mechanism to print the data received from the computer. The mechanical assembly includes the Print Head assembly, print carriage motor, ribton assembly, paper feed assembly, sensor assembly etc328 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering vO ‘Control electronics Memor : y Printer mechanism “| CPU —s 5.12. 24V Power | | Control supply || panel Fig. 15.14 Printer block diagram Printer functions The printer receives data characters from the computers and prints the character from the computer on the paper. In addition, the printer also receives control characters from the computer. These control characters can only convey information to the printer and are not printable. Some of the control characters widely used are CR (Carriage Return), LF (Line Feed) and FF (Form Feed). The Carriage return CR, specifies when the printer head carriage should return to the first print column. Any subsequent data characters received will be printed starting from the first column. The Line feed LF informs the printer to skip one line on the paper. The form feed FF instructs the printer to skip the paper to the beginning of the next page (or form). The printer stationery is available in the form of continuous sheets folded into pages where each page is known as form. Printer types Printers are classified into various types, such as: Features Classifications (i) Printing technique (a) Impact printers (b) Non-Impact printers Gi) Printing sequence (a) Character printer (b) Line printer (c) Page printer (ii) Printer mechanism (a) Dot Matrix printer {b) Daisy Wheel printer {c) Drum printer (d) Ink-jet printer (e) Laser printer (iv) Printer interface (a) Parallel/centronics interface (b) Serial interface/RS-232C (v) Printer direction. 7 (a) Uni-directional (b) Bi-directional (c) Reverse (vi) Print quality (a) Draft quality (b) LQP (Letter quality printer) (c) NLQ (Near letter quality)Fundamentals of Computers « 329 Impact printers work on the principle that characters are formed by pressing against the paper through a ribbon under the force of an impact. Non-impact printers have images created on paper by technique similar to ink-jet, healing electrostatic effects, etc. Multiple copies are possible in impact printing while it is not so in non-impact printing. Common printers in use are line printer, Dot-matrix printer. Daisy wheel printer, ink-jet printer and laser printer. 15.6.1 Impact Printer (a) Line printer In line printer, complete line is printed at a time. The characters to be printed are first aligned and are pressed against the paper. Line printers speed is relatively high of about 1500 lines/min, hence useful for offset printing. But it is expensive and generally requires special environment for consistent output. (b) Dot-matrix printer Each character is formed by 5 x 7 or 7 x 9 matrix and each dot has a corresponding pin on the print head Characters are formed when the pins strike the ribbon, leaving the dots of inks on the paper thus forming a readable character. They are versatile (i.e can print both graphics and text) and inexpensive. But they are noisy and in high resolution NLQ mode they become very slow, : (c}) Daisy wheel printer Physical character fonts are placed on the tip of the strokes of a whee]. Characters are printed by the tips of the sirokes and strikes the ribbon in succession as the wheel rotates It is a lewer quality printer (LQP) but they are slow and noisy Generally, they are incapable of printing graphics or different fonts. Fonts can be changed only by changing the Daisy whee! 15.6.2 Non-impact Printers a) Ink jet printers Mechanically, they are similar in operation to that of a dot-matrix printer. The printer use ‘ink cartridges’ which are the modules that store a reservoir of ink. The print head contains a series of nozzles arranged vertically that produces a fire drop of ink and forms a character. The resolution depends on the number of nozzles. Ink cartridges cost more and do not last Jong. Ink may take more time to dry. (b) Laser printers It is similar to a photocopy machine. Here the laser beam scans a bit mapped image ofa page on to an electrostatic drum. This process is called exposure. Toner (dry ink) is then attracted to the charged areas since it is electrically sensitive. This process is called development. The image is then transferred electrostatically to the paper and fused on using hot fuse rollers. Lasers are much more330 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering complex and anything more than routine preventive maintenance requires specially trained people. 15.7, PLOTTERS Apart from printed outputs, in many application, a graphical output is useful. For example, pie charts, bar charts and graphs with annotations are useful representations of information. Dot-matrix character printers which are now manufactured can move the print head from left to right and right to left where the paper ovement is also controllable and also it can move the print head up or down. This enables the printer to draw graphs, pie charts, etc. Some printers come with multiple colour ribbons. The ribbon movement is controllable and ribbons of the appropriate colour can be positioned in front of the print head at appropriate times. This allows printing of multicolour graphs and charts. 15.8 COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFILM AND MICROFICHE This is often used to store massive data in a compact form. The output from the computer, instead of being printed on a line printer, is displayed on a high resolution cathode ray tube. This is photographed on a 35 mm film. A camera is controlled to film successive output pages on the screen of the cathode ray tube. A special microfilm reader is used to read the output. In some systems, the microfilm is converted to a microfiche form. A microfiche is a 4" x 6" sheet of film that holds 98 frames of 8" x 11" page images reduced to 24 times. It is easier to read a microfiche with a microfiche reader than to read a microfilm. Besides this, microfiche is easier to mail between locations and hence its popularity. 15.8.1 Graphic Display Device Video terminals (both monochrome and colour) are capable of displaying graphs and pictorial data are very popular with computer users. Such terminals afe particularly useful since pictorial information enhances over understanding of solutions to the problems. 15.8.2 Speech Output Unit A speech output unit is one which reads strings of characters stored in a computer memory and converts them into spoken sentences.Fundamentals of Compruers «331 Combinaticns of letters form a unit of speech called 2» phoneme. Electronic chips are designed in such a way that it accepts ASCII characters of a sentence and combine the sequence of words into a phoneme. It is then amplified and outputs them through a small loud speaker uni. These speech units of English have been greatly refined and a near natural speech emerges out of such limits. These units are useful in many applications. They are used to give voice commands to operators of plants based on the results of computations. They are used as parts of a machine which can read out printed matter to blind persons. Sentences which are given as input and stored ina floppy disk can be read out to the blind by using these units. New machines are being sold in which a printed text can be placed ona flat bed scanner where it is scanned and the text are spoken out. This enables the blind persons to read books as soon as they are printed, rather than to wait for the book to appear in braille 15.9 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS (DAC) Digital to Asalog converters are used to convert the binary data read off by a digita. unit to its analog equivalent. The output of this D/A converters (DAC) after proper amplification can be used to activate the actuators or relays in many control applications. They may also be used to drive display units that are used as annunciators. Thus D/A converters ‘ind a wider application in areas like process control, industrial automation, laser disk, speech synthesizing units, etc. 15.10 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS Computers zre classfied into a number of generations based ‘on the electronic technology used in construction of the computer, associated system software and applications Computers come in a wide variety of sizes and capabilities. Based on the size computers are classified as microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframes. The largest and most powerful are often called as mainframe computers. Mainframe computer is so large that it may occupy an ertire room. They are designed to work at very high speeds “with large data words and they have massive amounts of memory Scaled down versions of mainframe computers are often called as minicomputers. The main unit of a minicomputer usually fits in a small box. Microcomputers are small computers and range from small controllers that work directly with 4-bit words and can address a few thousand bytes of memory to larger units that work directly with 32 bit words and can address billions of bytes of memory. One distinguishing332 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering feature of a microcomputer is that the CPU is usually a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor. With the improvement in integrated circuit technology, it is now possible to get sophisticated VLSI chips to be used as CPU in computers. Thus right classification are based on the nature of use, Based on interconnection, computers are also classified as distributed computers and parallel computers Based on the nature of use, computers as classified as Laptop computers, Personal computers, Workstations or Mainframes. 7 15.10.1 Laptop PC’s Laptop PC’s are’ portable computers. They use keyboard, flat screen liquid crystal display, and a pentium or power PC processor. They normally run MS-DOS or Windows OS. Laptops come with both hard disk and floppy disk. It is run with batteries and are thus designed to conserve energy. Many laptops can be connected to a network. The most common use of laptop computers are word processing and spread sheet computing while a person is travelling. 15.10.2 Personal Computers These PC’s are low cost desk top machines used for word processing, small data base maintenance and executing small programs, The machines made by IBM are called IBM PC’s. Other manufacturers use IBM’s specifications and design their own PC’s. IBM PC’s mostly use MSDOS or MS-Windows, WINDOWS NT or UNIX as operating system. OS/2 is also available for IBM PC’s. PC’s are also made by another company called APPLE and are known as Apple Macintosh. They use Apple’s proprietory OS which is designed for simplicity of use. Apple Macintosh Machines use Motorola 68030 microprocessors but are now changing over to power PC processors. 15.103 Workstations Workstations are used by professionals for intensive computation, computer-aided design, simulation and graphical visualisation. These are also desk-top machines but processing speed is about 10 times higher than PC’s. Normally, they have a large colour video display unit and large memory capacity. Workstations normally use RISC processors. Some manufacturers of workstations are Silicon Graphics (SIG), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), SUM Microsystem, IBM and Hewlett Packard (HP). The standard operating system of workstations is UNIX ‘and its derivatives are AIX (IBM), Solarin (SUN) which provides good graphic facilities.Fundamemals of Computers « 333 15.10.4 Mainframe Computers Mainframes are used for massive transaction processing in organisations such as banks and insurance companies where it processes large number of transactions on-line. They have very large storage capacity and can transfer data from disk to main memory at several hundred Megabytes/ sec. IBM, DEC are a few manufactures of mainframes. The number of mainframe users are being reduced, as many organisations are rewriting their system to use networks of powerful workstations. Mainframes are much bigger in size and more expensive. 15.10.5 Distributed Computers These computers consist of number of workstations or PC’s interconnected by a communication network. A common mode to use the distributed computers is a client server configuration. In this mode, specialized services such as large disk resource, numeric intensive computing and printing are provided by servers which are used by clients in the network. Clients would use multiple servers to get problems solved. 15.10.6 Parallel Computers A set of computers connected together by a high speed communication network, are programmed in such a way that they cooperate to solve a single large problem. Such a type of computer is called parallel computers. There are two types of parallel computers known as shared memory parallel computer and distributed memory parallel computer. In shared memory computer, many CPU's share a common main memory. In distributed memory parallel computers, many independent computers are connected by a high speed network. Here a job is broken up into number of parts and are allocated to each of the computers in the system. The computers cooperatively solve the problem by locally computing and by exchanging message among them. 15.11 MICROPROCESSORS Microprocessors, because of their powerful hardware and software, have found usage in a variety of application in process control. consumer electronics, instrumentation, robotics etc. Microprocessors are basically the ‘CPU’ in a computer like system. It is a single integrated circuit that contains an arithmetic and logic unit as well as control capability for memory and input/output access.334 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program counter [ errs Instruction register - [Stack pointer| Inpuvioutput control lines —— Memory contro! fines, Timing and Fj Interrupt control unit requests service| Fig. 15.15 Functional units of a microprocessor The main function of the microporcessor is to. process data. A set of instruction, called program is used for processing the data. As discussed earlier, a digital computer is built wit (a) A processor which can interpret and execute programs (b) A memory for storing data and programs (c) A mechanism for exchange of information between the memory and processor (d) A means for transferring information between the computing system and external world. The microprocessor supports the digital computer in all data manipulating tasks and generates the necessary control signals for its operation. Fig. 15.15 shows the basic functional units of a micro processor. Arithmetic and logic unit performs the arithmetic and logic operations. The instruction execution in a microprocessor takes place in two steps: (i) Fetching the instructions from memory one at a time and (ii) Executing the instruction one at a time. Program execution consists of repeating the process of instruction execution. The processing required for a single instruction is called instruction cycle. It consists of a fetch and execute cycle. In a typical microprocessor, a register called program counter (PC) is used to keep track of the instruction stream. This register is incremented after each fetch depending upon the size of the instruction. The fetched instruction is loaded into a register in the microprocessor known as the Instruction Register (IR). The instruction is in the form of a binary code that specifies the action of the processor. The processor decodes the instruction and performs the required action in the execution Temporary register Arithmetic and logic unit General purpose! registerFuredamentals of Computers: cycle. Instruction cycle, in fact, consists of all or some of the following phases of micro-operations: (i) Instruction address ¢afculation — determination of address of the next instruction to be executed. This involves adding a fixed number to the address of the prévioys instruction. (ii) instruction fetch — reading of instruction from its memory location. (iii) Instruction decading — analysis of the instruction to determine the operation to be performed and operands to be used. (iv) Operand address calculation — if the operation involves reference to an operand in memory or available via I/O, theh address of the operand is determined through this operation. {v) Operand fetch — fetch the operand from memory or read it from 1/0 devices. (vi) Operation — the actual operation (like addition, logical AND, etc.) specified in the instruction is performed in this phase. (vii) Operand store — write the result into memory or out to output device. Normal execution of a sequence of instructions by the CPU can be interrupted by modules like I/O, memory or CPU itself. CPU interrupts also called internal interrupts are generated due to the conditions like division by zero that occurs as a result of execution of an instruction. An I/O device generates an interrupt to indicate the availability of data, completion of an operation or an error condition. Memory module can generate interrupt if an error condition like parity error occurs. From the point of view of user program, an interrupt causes suspension of execution of the mext instruction. On completion of interrupt processing, execution of the program is resumed. In order to ensure smooth resumption, before processing the interrupt, the address of the next instruction and any other data relevant to processor’s current activity are saved in the memory by CPU. In a computer system buses provide the channel of communication between different components. A bus that connects major computer components (CPU, memory and I/O devices) is called a system bus. It , consists of a large number of signal lines and each line is assigned with particular meaning or function. On any bus, the lines are classified into three functional groups — data lines, addresss lines and control lines. Data lines are bidirectional and provides a path for moving data between system modules. These lines are collectively called as data bus. Number of data lines (8,16, 32, or more) denotes the width of the data bus which is critically linked to the overall system performance. Address lines are unidirectional and are used to designate the source or destination of the336 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering data on the data bus. For read or write operations, processors put address of the target locations on the address bus. Width of the address bus determines the number of memory and I/O locations addressable by the system. If the processor has N address lines then it can directly address 2% memory locations. For example, a processor with 16 address lines can address 2! or 65,536 memory locations. Control lines (forming the control bus) are used to control the access to and the use of the address lines are shared by the comporients of the system. Control signals provide command and timing information for coordination of activities of different system components. Development of VLS1 technology led to the introduction of 16 bit microprocessors such as Intel’s 8086 (1978), Z8000 and motorola’s MC 68000. High performance 32 bit processors (68020, 80X86) with hardware support for virtual memory, multitasking and multiprocessing came to the market in Eighties. Microcomputer has given rise to a new class of general purpose machines called personal computers. Most of the early personal computer systems were designed with 16 bit microprocessors, IBM- PC and IBM-PC XT used 8088 microprocessor, 8088 is a variant of 8086 with 8 bit wide external memory interfaced. Apple computer used the 68000 in its original Melntosh personal computer. Newer generation personal computers. are designed with 32. bit microprocessors like INTEL's 80X86and Motorola’s 68020, 68030. The 32 bit microprocessors are also finding applications in telecommunication equipments and high perfotmance computer interfaces. 15.11.1 INTEL 8086 Microprocessor Since the operation and programming of even a few of the available processors are not described in this book, we confine our discussion to primarily the Intel processors. The 8086 microprocessor.is an IC belonging to a family of microprocessors called 80X86 (which includes IC’s like 8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, etc.) designed by INTEL. This family of processors is evolved from the original 8086 and was introduced in 1978. Basic motivation behind introducing this family of processors was.to provide facilities of a general purpose CPU on a single chip supported by optional special purpose coprocessors. A numeric coprocessor 8087 and an IO coprocessor 8089 can be used with 8086 microprocessor. By using the numeric coprocessor 8087 with 8086, complex floating point arithmetic operations can be performed 100 times faster than with 8086 or 8088 can be anywhere between 5 and 10 MHz.Fundamentals of Computers © 337 15.11.2 Internal Architecture 8086 is a 16-bit processor. It means that its arithmetic logic unit, internal registers and most of its instructions are designed to work with 16 bit binary words. 8086 has 16-bit wide external data bus so that it can read data from or write data to memory and ports either 16 bits or 8 bits at a time. Its address bus is 20 bit wide. So the maximum memory address that it can access is 27° (i.e.) 1 M bytes. The address and data lines are multiplexed. Fig. 15.16 shows the internal block diagram of 8086 processor. Its CPU is divided into two independent functional parts: Bus Interface unit (BIU) and Execution unit (EU). g ot 1 | I I | I | | | If | | I i Instruction Stream : 6 5 ] 4 Byte; i ER 37] Queue 2 i }OPERANDS| FLAGS: Fig. 15.16 8086 Internal block diagram (Intel corp.) The main function of the BIU is to generate memory and I/O address. for the transfer of data between outside world and the execution unit. It consists of the following functional parts. (i) Instruction queue * Gi) Segment registers (iii) Instruction Pointers338 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (iv) Bus Interface and Memory addressing logic. The instruction queue is a group of first-in first-out registers which prefetches instruction and databytes to speed up the program execution. The process of prefetching the next instruction while the previous instruction is under execution is called Pipelining. The BIU has four 16-bit registers. They are: (i) Code Segment (CS) register-holds program instruction code (ii) Stack Segment (SS) register-holds data for the program (iii) Extra Segment (ES) register-is an extra data requirement (iv) Data Segment (DS) register-used to store interrupt and Subroutine return addresses. These registers are used in physical address calculation of the instruction code and operands. Using these registers four logic segments can be specified in the memory map of 80815. Contents of these registers constitute upper sixteen bits of the starting address of the corresponding segments. Remaining four bits are zero. For example, if a segment register contain 1234H and offset by BIU is 22H then physical address of the location is obtained by evaluating (12340H + 22H) = 12362H. Hence, using a segment register we can address maximum of 64K memory. Therefore, INTEL 8086 family devices are so designed to use memory segmentation. The first reason is that, by working with only 64K byte segments of memory at a time, the 8086 only has to work with 16-bit effective address to access any location in the segment. The second reason has to do with the multiuser environment in which the CPU is used in a time shared basis. Segmentation makes the switching from one user to another user easy. . The program counter (PC) or Instruction Pointer (IP) is used to hold the address of the next instruction to be executed. Execution unit Execution unit informs BIU the location from where the instruction and/or data is to be fetched, decodes and executes instructions. The functional components of EU are: (i) Control and decode circuitry (ii) ALU (iii) Flag register (iv) General purpose registers (v) Index and pointer group of registers. An instruction prefetched by BIU is decoded by the decoder and the operation to be performed by ALU is identified. The 16 bit ALU does the 16 bit arithmetic and logical operations. The EU can store the results in its internal general purpose registers and can also store the results in external memory location or write to output parts through BIU, EU and BIU operate asynchronously and overlapped in time.Fundamentals of Computers « 339 8086 has a 16 bit flag register. A flag is a flipflop which indicates some condition set by execution of an instruction or controls instruction execution by EU. 8086 has four 16 bit general purpose registers AX, BX, CX and DX. Each of these registers can also be referred to as two separate eight bit registers, e.g. AX as AH and AL where H refers to high byte and L refers to 1000 byte. AX register is a special register that serves as a primary accumulator and also supports I/O operations. The registers BX refers to Base register, CX to the count register and DX to the data register. EU of 8086 has two 16 bit pointers. There are two registers namely the Base Pointer (BP) and Stack Pointer (SP). These registers are used to store datas in stack segment. They may be used as operands in all 16 bits arithmetic/logical instructions. The Stack Pointer (SP) register allows the implementation of stack in memory using SR as the segment register. A stack is nothing but a scratch pad where the data are stored temporarily. Index register namely Source Index (SI) and Destination Index (DI) are used for occurring data typically from Data segment or Extra segment. They may be used as operands in 16 bits arithmetic/logical instructions. 15.11.3 Pentium Processors The pentium introduced in 1993, was similar to the 80386 and 80486 microprocessors. This microprocessor was originally labelled with P5 or 80586, but Intel decided not to use a number because it appeared to be impossible to copyright a number. The two introductory versions of the Pentium operated with a clocking frequency of 60 MHz and 66 MHz and a speed of 110 MTPs, with a higher frequency 100 MHz one and one-half clocked version operating at 150 MTP’s. The double-clocked Pentium, operating at 120 MHz and 133 MHz is also available. @ Pentium has 64 bit data bus, but internally it is a 32 bit processor. The data bus serves on chip caches directly and the 32 bit processor registers indirectly. The internal data paths of Pentium are between 128 and 256 bits wide so that the transfer of data and codes can be carried out quickly. Address bus is of 32 bits. Pentium maintains two separate and independent 8K bytes caches for code and data. It has two five stage pipeline for execution of instructions that do not contain floating point operations. Because of two pipe lines, Pentium can execute two integer commands in one clock cycle under ideal conditions. It also has an eight stage pipeline for the execution of floating point instructions. Branch prediction logic gives an advantage for handling branching (jump and call) instructions which under normal (for processors other than340 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Pentium) circumstances effect execution speed by causing fresh sequence of prefetching of instruction of the processor. The latest entry from Intel in the Pentium pro-microprocessor, formerly code-named as P6 microprocessor. The basic clock frequency is 150 MHz and 166 MHz in the initial offering made available in late 1995. In addition to the internal 16K level one (I) cache (8K for data and 8K for instruction) the Pentium-pro contain a 256K level two (1,2) cache. One more significant change is that it can execute upto three interior at a time. The Pentium pro-microprocessor has been optimized to execute 32 bit code efficiently. Hence it is often bundled with Windows 98. Still another change is that the Pentium pro (work at 333 MHz, support 128 KB Cache and) can address either a 4G byte memory systems for a 64G byte memory system. The Pentium pro has a 36-bit address bus if configured for a 64G memory system. REVIEW QUESTIONS. RQ 15.1 What are the major functions of a computer? RQ 15.2 What is CPU? Explain its functions. i RQ 15.3 Discuss computer memory. RQ 15.4 Explain in detail any two input and output devices. RQ 15.5 Write short note on: (i) PROM (ii) EPROM (iii) EEPROM RQ 15.6 Briefly explain INTEL 8086 microprocessor. RQ 15.7 Write a brief note on Pentium processors.Fundamentals of Communications 16.1 INTRODUCTION Tie fundamental requirement of a communication system is to exchange data between two parties. It consists of an information source and destination connected by a communication channel (medium), that transfer messages from transmitter to receiver. The basic block diagram of a communication system is shown in Fig. 16.1 (Encoding (Decoding modulation) modulation) { Transmission} { Source | Transmit- system Receiver Destination] { Le channel | ~ eee Source Destivation system system Fig. 16.1 General block diagran: of communication system In fact, telecommunications involve the conversion of messages which may be in the form of words or coded symbols into electrical voltage or current which varies with the time and is used to carry information from sending end to receiving end. Such electrical quantities are termed as signals. This conversion process is referred to as encoding. This encoded signal is then fed to the modulator where the signal is mixed with the carrier for transmission. The process of encoding and modulation takes place in the transmitter. In addition to their normal function of message (information) to signal (data) conversion, modern encoders also employ various data processing342 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering techniques to protect the data from channel disturbances so that the information can be easily retrieved back at the receiver by simple decoding process. The communication channei is the path or medium for electrical or electromagnetic transmission between the transmitter and the receiver. This may be either a guided transmission line such as a single wire, pair of wires, wave guides, fibre optic cables and coaxial lines, or a non-guided atmospheric or space channels such as radio wave, microwave and Jaser beam. At the receiving end, it is required that a corresponding back-mapping is done to reconvert the signal into the original message. This process is referred to as decoding or demodulation. The associated module with this process is the receiver. 16.2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS Messages from an information source are usually represented by some kind of time varying electrical waveforms (or signals). Often two terms like ‘information’ and ‘data’ in communication are used interchangeably to mean the samé thing. But there is a subtle difference between them. Information is the set of messages (i.e. numbers, symbols, values and so on) which are applied to the transmitter as input and are recovered from the receiver as output. On the other hand, ‘Data’ is the sequence of electrical signals to which the meaning can be assigned and are transmitted by the data communication system. The message waveform can be of two types. They are : (i) Analog signals or continuous signals (ii) Digital signals or discrete signals They are shown in Fig. 16.2. Signals that involve human communication, are intrinsically analog (for e.g.: voice, picture etc.), On the other hand, computer communication invariably involves digital signal. However, analog signals can be converted to an equivalent digital form by digitization or A/D (Analog to Digital) conversion. The output of the digitization process is a finite set of digitally encoded steps that approximate the input analog signal. The reverse process (i.e. decoding) is called D/A (Digital to Analog) conversion where the original analog signal can be faithfully reconstructed by decoding. 16.3 ANALOG SIGNALS Analog data takes continuous values on some interval. The most familiar examples of analog signals are the data collected by sensors, such as temperature and pressure.Fundamentals of Communications © 343 Amplitude time (a) Analog (continuous) signal Amplitude al of! oof}! fo + > | (b) Digital (discrete) signal Fig. 16.2. Signal sypes 16.3.1 Telephone Signals A telephone message comprises of speech and sound having vowels and consonants. The sounds produce audio waves which makes the diaphragm of a microphone to vibrate. To this diaphragm a coil is attached which is surrounded by a static magnetic field on all the sides. The motion of the coil in this field causes emf to be induced in the coil which is the electrical equivalent of the sound waves. These electrical signals are continucus and.vary with time. 16.3.2 Video Signals In Television broadcasting, a picture is urnsmited as bright and dark dots in a particular sequence in the order in which it is scanned. The video chain in the tiansmitter begins with a wansducer which converts light (video) into electrical signals, a camera tube very basically. A camera tube has a mosaic screen on to which the scene is focussed, through the lens system of the television camera. An electron gun forms a beam which is accelerated forward this photoelectric screen. The beam scans the screen, from left to right and top to bottom, covering the344 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering entire screen. The beam intensity is affected by the charge on the screen at that point, and this in turn depends on the brightness of the point. The current-modulated beam is collected at a target electrode, located just beyond the screen. The output voltage from this electrode is a varying (video) voltage, whose amplitude is proportional to the screen brightness at the point-being scanned. In colour transmission, light is split into the three basic colours and applied to either three separator tubes or a single tube which has different areas sensitized to the different colours. As a result, three separate signals are produced for one picture element. 16.3.3 Radio Signals Another well known example of analog signal is the Radio signal. A Radio signal may be in the form of speech or music. Though the speech signals occupy a bandwidth of 4 KHz only, the music signals occupy a considerably large bandwidth. A high fidelity music programme occupies a frequency band tirat extends from 20 Hz to 16 KHz giving a bandwidth of 16 KHz approximately. Thus, a high fidelity music programme occupies as much channel bandwidth as is required by four telephone channels. For ordinary radio broadcast, music and other programmes a frequency bandwidth of 5 KHz is usually employed. 16.4 DIGITAL SIGNALS A familiar example of digital data is text or character strings. While textual data are most convenient for human beings, they cannot be easily stored in character form or transmitted by data processing and communication systems. Such systems are designed for binary data. Thus, a number of codes have been devised by which characters are represented by a sequence of bits. Perhaps the earliest common example of this is, the morse code. A telegraph and teleprinter are the most common instruments that are used to transmit written texts in the form coded signals. Today, the most commonly used code in United States and many other countries is the ASCII code. (American Standard Code of Information Interchange). 16.4.1 Radar Signals The name ‘RADAR’ is the acronym of Radio Detecting and Ranging. A RADAR is a device which is used to find out the location of distant objects in terms of range and bearing. This is done by transmitting aFundamentals of Communications « 345 skort period signal and beaming it to the target. The reflected signal is picked up by the radar receiver and is used to determine the location of the object. The radar signal shown in Fig. 16.3 below is basically a train of rectangular pulses transmitted at a low pulse repetition frequency (around 1 KHz). The width of the pulse employed is in the range of G.1 psec to 1.0 usec duration. Time period Volts gist Pulse width — > Time Fig. 16.3 Radar signal 16.4.2 Binary Signals Finally, the third example is the general case of binary digital data. A commonly used signal for such data is at two instants (DC) voltage levels one level for binary 1 and one level for binary 0. In the foregoing discussion, we have seen analog signals are used to represent analog data and digital signals are used to represent digital data. Generally, analog data is a function of time and occupy a limited frequency spectrum; such data can be represented by a electromagnetic signal occupying the same spectrum. Digital data can be represented by digital signals, with a different voltage level for each of the two binary digits. Analog signals are purely CACT (Continuous in Amplitude and Continuous in Time) in nature. These are not the only possibilities. When the analog signals are sampled, the output remains continuous in Amplitude but becomes Discrete in Time (CADT) signal. Sampled signals are next quantized to produce pure digital or DADT (Discrete in Amplitude and Discrete in Time) signals sampling and quantization together are known as digitization, Digital data can also be represented by analog signals by use of a MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator). The MODEM converts a series binary (two-valued) voltage pulses into an analog signals by encoding one digital data onto a carrier frequency. The resulting signal occupies a certain spectrum of frequency centred about the carrier and may be346» Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Analog data —> | [38 —> Analog signal Digital data Analog (modulated nalog (modulates (Binary volage ——> —_ Pr 7 7 on cartier frequency) pulses) Fig. 16.4 (a) Analog signals: represent data with continuously varving electromagnetic wave propagated across a medium suitable for that carrier. The most common modems represent digital data in the voice spectrum and hence, allow those data to be propagated over ordinary voice-grade telephone lines At the other end of the linc, the modem demodulates the signal to recover the original data. Sometimes, however, digital data can be directly transmitted through the channel without any kind of mapping whatsoever, and then we call the channel itself to be digital. A digital channel (or carrier) acts merely like a bit pipe carrying a stream of bits from input to output. A carrier which is deigned to carry digital data directly, is capable of achieving higher data rate at lower error probability than that of an analog channel. DIGITIZER DIGITAL pieiral TRANSMITTER “a 5 Digital signal Fig. 16.4 (b) Digital signals represents data with sequence of voltage pulses This Fig. 16.4 suggest that data may be encoded into signals in a variety of ways..Pundanentals of Communcations © 347 16.4.3 Telecommunication Services Telecommunication systems are used to provide a wide variety of services to community: public, private, military etc. ‘Tele’ means ‘far’ or ‘at a distance’. ‘Communication’ means conveying or exchanging information. So telecommunication can be detined as one art and science of communicating at a distance. It all started with the transmitting purely Continuous Amplitude and Continuous Time (CACT) analog signals by radio waves. Later on, with the introduction of digitation technique and digital transmission technological, communication of Discrete Ampli- tude and Discrete Time (DADT) digital signals (i.e. data) took over from CACT sigmis and began dominating the communication industry Telecommunication services are roughly categorized in this sections in terms of encoders-decoders employed at the transmitter and the receiver terminals and the type of message information communicated. Wherever possible, the channel bandwidth required by different telecommunication services are also discussed. This is done because bandwidth is a major constraint in these links (e.g) telephone cables can carry signals of a limited bandwidth, gain is also limited because of bandwidth consideration, noise picked up is dependant upon bandwidth. Accordingly major types of telecommunication links are listed below. Telephone links - Telephone represents the most wide and extensive application of telecormunication services. ‘rhey employ all types of transmission chainels available from a single wire system with earth as return path, cables, radiotelephony, microwave links and satellite links. The required bandwidth is about 3 KHz for intelligible reception. The standard voice band recommended by CCITT (Internation Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony) is 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz. Radio telephone links are also used for aircraft to ground, ship to shore, police, hespitals, taxi services, fire services etc. Telegraph/Teleprinter links This is one of the important telecommunication services for transmission and reception of written texts. Usual operating speed of teleprinters in 50 bands occupying a bandwidth of 120 Hz. However, there are teletype writers that can operate at higher bauds. Such teletype writers can be operated with CCITT standard tansmission channels that can accommodate pulse rates of 200 bauds. Teleprinters always operate via special exchanges called telex. These links may also utilize cables, radio, microwave or satellite channel transmission. Sound and music transmission These are not true way links but are used for transmission of entertainment and educational programmes tor the general public and occupy a bandwidth +5 KHz. For high quality sound and music programmes a bandwidth of about 16 KHz is necessary. For this reason, the ordinary programmes are transmitted by348 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering AM tansmitters, while high quality programmes are transmitted over FM transmission channels. Television transmission These are also meant for general public and occupy a bandwidth of 5.5 MHz with 8 MHz spacing between two adjacent channels. The most common TV transmission is by means of radio waves in VHF and UHF frequency ranges. Provisions for cable transmission of signals also exists in regions where radio transmission has proved to be poor. Facsimile Facsimile means an exact reproduction. Fascimile process consists of transmission and exact reproduction of still photography, documents, weather maps and other written communication. The facsimile system is so designed that the output of.a facsimile transmitter occupies the same frequency spectrum as the normal telephony thus enabling the ordinary telephone lines to be used for fascimile transmission. Facsimile picture transmission employs the principle of optical scanning. The document to be transmitted is mounted on a rotating cylinder which is scanned by a photocell mounted on a lead screw linked to the cylinder. Photocell produces an electrical analogue signal which varies in accordance with light and dark spots on the document. The electrical signal is then transmitted most commonly through cables to the distant place. Time taken to transmit a given document is dependent upon the bandwidth of the system. Closed circuitTV Closed circuit TV utilizes transmission of vision signals over cables and may be used for a variety of purposes such as remote surveillance of road traffic, aerodrome, railway platforms etc. A bandwidth in the range of | to 5 MHz is normally employed. Vision phones When two people talk on telephone, they cannot see each other and a good amount of information which is in the form of facial expression, gestures etc is lost. This information can sometimes prove to be very helpful eg. a patient stating his physical condition to a doctor on phone. Sometimes it may change the sense of a message completely. A device termed as picture phone has been developed that transmits the movie photographs over an additional television link cable. However, because of the large bandwidths to be accommodated expensive cables have to be used. As a result the system is highly expensive and therefore not very popular. 16.5 DATA TRANSMISSION A large variety of data has to be transmitted from one place to another. Typical examples are data transfers between a computer and users, Telemetry, remote control etc.Fundamentals of Communications « 349 Transmission paths In general the transmission of messages can be carried out by means of transmission lines or by radio waves. The former is generally termed as Line communication (Guided Transmis- sion) while the latter is termed as Radio communication (wireless communication) In this section, different types of communication links under these catogories are discused briefy. 16.5.1 Line Communication The most common form oi Aine communication is telephone and telex networks. They are carried out using overhead lines on poles and also by the use of buried cables. Such cables with large capacities (upto 4000 pairs) are available. The pairs are twisted to avoid cross-talk among subscribers. For long distance calls, repeaters may be used at proper intervals. Such cables are usuable upto 500 KHz. For higher frequencies coaxial cables are employed. A coaxial cable consist of a pair of concentric conductors with some insulation filling the middle space. A number of such cables are usually bunched together inside a protective sleeve. The outer conductor of every coaxial cable provides an electrical shielding. However, effective shielding occurs only at frequencies roughly above 60 KHz. At frequencies lower than this, the cross-talk becomes excessive. They are used for long distance communication with the help of repeaters. Line communication in UHF (Ultra High Frequency) range and above are carried out by the use of wave guides. In wave guides, the signals propagation takes place by means of radio waves provided the cross- sectional dimension of the wave guide (rectangular hollow pipe) maintain a proper relation with the wavelength of the wave. Wave guides are employed as transmission lines for microwave communication in the frequency range 2 GHz to 11 GHz. Wave guides do not wansmit signals below cut-off frequency and can have bandwidth in excess of 20 per cent of their operating frequencies. Consider for example a wave guide of 10 GHz. It can have a bandwidth of 2 GHz which can accommodate 500,000 telephone channels occupying 4 KHz. Optical wave guides have been developed in the form of glass fibres to carry light modulated signals at frequencies of the order of 100 THz. “(1 Tera Hertz = 10! Hertz) from LASERS. This will have a very vast capacity to carry signals. 16.5.2 Radio Communication In radio communication, propagation of signals through atmosphere is used. Non-directional antennae are employed for broadcast transmission350 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering and reception while directional antennae are employed in radio telephony and other point to point links. Radiowaves are commonly termed as unbounded waves but generally they are. bounded by the surface of earth and various ionospheric that lie between a height of 50 km and 400 km above ground. Different frequency signals are reflected by different ionospheric layers. Radio waves may travel several times around the earth by successive reflection from the ionosphere and earth surface. Radio wave in VLF (Very Low Frequency) range is used mainly for navigation and military application for providing long distance point to point communication. Frequency in the LF range (Low frequency) generally known as long waves and in the MF (Medium Frequency) termed as medium waves are used for radio broadcast work. Propagation in HF (high frequency) band termed as short waves takes place by sky waves. This band is used for long distance broadcast, marine and aeronautical communication, radio telephony and telex links. Frequencies of transmission are different at erent times to avoid fading and are determined from the forecasts of ionospheric condition based upon observation of daily and seasonal fading pattern. This band is heavily crowded. High frequency communications are also possible by ground waves over small distances VHF (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra high frequency) waves can propagate as space waves over relatively short distances ranging from a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres, depending upon heights of transmitter and receiver antenna and the terrain in the propagation path. These bands are relatively free of interference from distant stations because of limited range. These bands are used for TV broadcast and high quality FM radio programme. Frequencies above 1 GHz are generally termed as microwaves. They include a part of UHF and SHF (Super High Frequency) band space. Wave propagation at these frequencies is used for point to broad band communication. Antennae are placed on special towers or hills to ensure better range. Repeaters are placed at about 40 km spacing. Microwave communication is now increasingly carried out using narrow beam transmission to satellite which can operate as repeaters for long distance telephone, TV and data links. A phenomenon known as Tropospheric scatter is also sometimes used in UHF and SHF bands to provide reliable wide band links over several hundred kilometres. The troposphere is a region of the atmosphere that extends from 10 to 16 kilometres above ground. It is not an ionised region but beams of radio waves crossing it are scattered due to unknown seasons. Large transmitter powers are however required (because of scattering). These links are used in highly inaccessible _ regions like Arctic or oil drilling rigs deep inside seas.Fuadamenals of Communications « 351 16.6 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MODULATION Modulation is the process in which some characteristic of a high frequency sine wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the (modulating) signal. Such a sine wave may be represented by the equation e = Esinijwt + 0), where ‘e’ is the instantaneous value of the sine wave, called the carrier, E is the maximum amplitude w is the angular velocity and © 1s its phase relation with respect to some reference. Any of these last three characteristics, or parameters, of the carrier may be varied by the modulating signal, giving rise to amplitude irequency or phase modulation respectively. 16.6.1 Need for Modulation Several difficulties are involved. in the propagation of electromagnetic waves at frequencies corresponding to the audio spectrum (i.e) below 20 KHz. The greatest of these is that for efficient radiation and reception, the transmitting and receiving antennas should possess heights comparable to a quarter-wavelength of the frequency used. This is 75 m at 1 MHz, in the broadcast band. but at 15 KHz it has to be increased to 5000 im. A vertical antenna of this size is really unthinkable There is one mcre important argument against transmitting signal frequencies directly: all sound is concentrated within the range from 20 Hz to 20 KHz. so that all signals from the different sources would be helplessly and inextricably mixed up. In any city, the broadcasting stations alone would completely blanket the ‘air and yet they represent a very small proportion of the total number of transmitters in use. In order to separate the Various signals it is neccessary to translate them all to different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum: each must be given its own ‘pigeon hole’. This also overcomes the difficulties of poor radiunon at low frequencies. It is also a fact that the carrier of various frequencies alone cannot by themselves. be used to transmit intelligence. An unmodulated carrier has a constant maximum amplitude. a constant frequency and a constant phase relationship with respect to some reference; in fact. all its parameters are constant. A message, however, consists of ever-varying quantities: speech for instance is made up of rapid and unpredictable variations in amplitude (volume) and frequency (pitch). Since it is impossible to represent these two variable by a set of three constant parameters, an unmodulated carrier cannot be used to convey information. These factors necessitate the process of modulation for effective transmission of messages. Over long distance stated otherwise. the process of matching the properties of the transmitted signal to the352 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering channel characteristics in order to avoid signal distortion is called Modulation. Apart from this primary requirement for modulation of signals, these are additional objectives which are met by modulation (a) Ease of radiation As the signals are translated to higher frequencies. it becomes relatively easier to design amplifiers circuits as well as antenna systems at these increased frequencies (b) Adjustment of bandwidth Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. Signal to noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by proper control of bandwidth at the modulating stage. (c) Shifting signal frequency to an assigned value The modulation process permits changing the signals frequency to a pre- assigned band. This frequency: may be changed many times by successive modulation Depending upon the nature of the carrier waveform used, the two fundamental modulation techniques are (i) Continuous Wave (cw) Modulation and (ii) Pulse Modulation. In cw modulation a CACT signal is used as the carrier waveform and a parameter of the signal waveform (such as amplitude, phase and frequency) is varied in proportion to the message content of the modulating signal. In pulse modulation, the carrier is usually a rectangular pulse train, a parameter of which (such as pulse height, width and repetition rate) is changed according to the sampled values of the message signal. 16.7 CONTINUOUS WAVE MODULATION The most common continuous wave carrier is the sinusoidal carrier given by @ (t) = Ey sin (wet + 9) where Ac is its amplitude, f- = $¢ is its frequency, and 6(1) = wet + 6 is phase (Fig. 16.5), The message i modulates any one of these three carrier parameters while the remaining two are constant. When the amplitude £, varies linearly with the message signal m(r) it is called amplitude modulation. When the phase (f) linearly related to m(t) we have phase modulation (PM) and when time derivative of phase (i.e.) instantaneous frequency is related to the temporal variation of m(r) it is known as frequency modulation (FM). PM and FM are together known as angle modulation. Though the modulating signal is usually an audio wave of speech or music which is complex in nature, the analysis of the AM system as well as others is restricted to a modulating signal that is sinusoidal and has a single frequency.Fundamentals of Conununications « 353 Fig. 16.5 | Unmodulated carrier signal Fig. 16.6 and Fig. 16.7 show typical AM and FM waveforms respectively. Amplitude Fig. 16.6 (i) Modutating signal Fig. 16.6 (ji) Modulaied wave eee tAt (Modulating wave} toai-ar t , t f, Fig. 16.7 (i) Modulared wave354 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering OE ° 1 +Fig, 16.7 (ii) Frequency modulated wave 16.7.1. Amplitude Modulation The process of amplitude modulation consists of varying the’ peak amplitude of a sinusoidal carrier: wave in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. The process of modulation increase the peak amplitude of the carrier so that for the modulated wave, Enod = Ee + En, Sil wnt. Cod = Emod Sin wet = (Eo+ Em sinwmt) sinwet = Ee sinwed + Ey sinwyal sinwet ; m, In Cmod = Ee sitwet +E, 6oslue — win i — ek COSle + win Ee 2 where mq = E/E is termed as degree of mudulation, The above equations show that AM wave consists of three components, E, sinwet is the original carrier that is undisturbed, abe COS(We — iyn)f is the component that has the peak amplitude take and a frequency that is the difference between the carrier and the modulating signal and lastly the component =444 cos (we + wm)t is the component that has an amplitude equal to the second component but opposite in phase and a frequency that is the sum of the carrier and signal frequencies. Consequently, these two components are termed as Lower Side Band (LSB) and Upper-Side Band (USB). Each of the side bands is equally spaced from thé carrier frequency and has a magnitude 0.5 i, times the carrier amplitude £,. - Frequency spectrum of the AM wave so obtained is shown in Fig. 16.8 However for a binary digital waveform, which has only. two discrete values, the modulation remains no longer continuous: because the modulated ‘parameters now has only two possible values to switch between depending upon whether a ‘0’ pulse or a ‘1’ pulse is transmitted. So, when the modulating signal is binary, modulation ts usually called Shift Keying. In Amplitude shift keying (ASK) two different amplitude levels of a carrier wave are used-to represent a °1" and a ‘0’. ASK is rarely used in MODEMS because it is highly susceptible to noise.Fundamentals of Communwanons «© 355 E, Caner LSB-—> <— USB fom fin 7 f+ fon Fig, 16.8 Upper and tower side bands for single frequency AM wave 16.7.2 Frequency Modulation Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a “carrier wave im proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal without any variation in the amplitude of the carrier wave. Because the amplitude of the wave remains unchanged, the power associated with an FM wave is constant. As can be seen from Fig. 16.7 when the modulating signal is zero, the output frequency equals f- (centre frequency). When the modulating signal reaches its positive peak the frequency of the modulated signal is maximum and equals (f- + fin) At negative peaks of the modulating signal, the frequency of the FM wave becomes minimum and equal to (f- — fn). Thus the process of frequency modulation makes the frequency of FM wave to deviate from its centre frequency (f-) by an amount (Af) where Af is termed as the trequency deviation of the system. During this process, the total power in the wave does not change but a part of the carrier power is transferred to the side bands. Assuming the modulating signal to be represented by e, = En COSwylt and the carrier wave being represented by e, = E-sin(w,t + 6) the equation for the frequency modulated wave. Cmod = Ep sittiwel + my sittwmt) where m) is the ratio #4 and is termed as the modulation index of the trequency modulaied wave The FM modulaed wave as the matter of fact. contains an infinite number of side bands, each side band is separated from the next by fin. Fig. 16.9 shows the frequency spectrum of the FM wave. Howeyer out of these, there are only a few sidebands which carry significant amount of power. The remaining side bands have such a low5356 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engincering m,=05 (fom fi) (fem Find FE Nd he lad (a) m,=5 (fe Sfrn) f, (f+ Sty) (b) Fig. 16.8(Q.) Frequency spectrum of FM wave with (a) my = 0.5 (b) my = 5 power that they get attracted during propagation and do not convey any message to the receiver. It is the usual practice to notify all the side bands having amplitudes greater than 5 per cent of the carrier as significant side bands and neglect all the remaining side bands with the amplitude less than 5 per cent of the carrier. As increase in the modulating frequency signal amplitude at the transmitter results in a larger frequency deviation and as a consequence in a larger bandwidth of the modulated signal. Thus. if unchecked may sometimes result in overlapping of the upper side band components of an FM channel wjth the lower side band components of the adjacent FM channel. Precaution should made to avoid this possibility. For a binary digital waveform, in frequency shift keying (FSK), binary zerd and one are presented by two different carrier frequencies. The carrier takes on any of the two predetermined frequencies at the rate of the binary modulating signal. FSK is commonly used in low-speed asynchronous MODEMS, upto about 1.2 kbps, where no clock reference is available. In phase shift keying (PSK), the phase of the carrier is changed by pi radians (180°) every time the binary modulating signal changes from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1. Thus PSK signal switches between two carrier signals with 180° phase difference to represent binary 0 and 1. When PSK isFundamentals of Communicanuns oe Binary digit O° °° O° Binary Modulating signal f f, f, ft, f, >, FSK signal U Fig. 16.9 Frequency shift keying . combined with AM to transmit tribits or tetrabits in high speed modems operating at 2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 kbps. 16.8 DEMODULATION The message signal must be extracted from the modulated carrier at the receiver and the process of converting a modulated signal back to its original form is known as demodulation or detection. These are two common methods of demodulation namely, synchronous or coherent detection and envelope detection. In coherent detection, the incoming signal is multiplied by a locally generated signal (at the receiver) having the same frequency as that of the carrier. The resultant signal is then low-pass filtered to recover the original modulatung signal. In envelope detection, the incoming signal is passed through a non-linear device and then the non-linear output is low-pass filtered to extract the message signal. Demodulation is easier in case of shift keying because it involves detection of two values only. 16.9 PULSE MODULATION Pulse Modulation may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speed or data, Pulse modulation differs CW modulation in two important aspects (i) a pulse train is used as a carrier instead of a sinusoidal carrier and (ii) a sampled representation of the information signal is used as the modulating signal. The original signal is first sampled (i.e) converted to an equivalent CADT signa! to produce a sequence of samples, representing the signal. These sample values are then utilized to directly modulate a periodic pulse train with one pulse——355-s Basic blectrical and Electronics Engineering for each sample. Modulation is done by varying one of the pulse parameters, namely amplitude, duration (or width or length) and relative position. in direct proportion to the sample values. Accordingly. the modulation techniques are known as Pulse Amplitude Modulation, Pulse Duration (width) Modulation or Pulse Position Modulation respectively. Pulse Modulation may be subdivided broadly into wo categories, analog and digital. In the former, the indication of sample amplitude may be infinitely variable, while in the latter a code is sent which indicates the sample amplitude to the nearest pre-determined level. Pulse amplitude and Pulse duration modulation are both analog while pulse code and delta modulation are both digital. 7 (i} Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) PAM is-a pulse modulation system in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals. and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling. The pulses are then either sent by wire/cable or else used to modulate a carrier. A shown in Fig. 16.10 the two types are double polarity PAM which is self-explanatory and single polarity PAM, in which a fixed DC level is added to the signal, to ensure that the pulses are always positive. It is very easy to demodulate PAM. Amplitude (ay Signal = (b) Double poiarity > PAM (e) Single polarity PAM => Fig. 16.10 Pulse amplitude modulationFundamentals of Communications « $99 Pulse-time modulation (PTM) n PTM the signal is sampied as betore, but the pulse indicating instantaneous sample amplitude themselves all have a constant amplitude. However, one of their timing characteristics is varied, being made proportional to the sampled signal amplitude at that instant, The variable characterisitic way to width, position or frequency as stated earlier. It should be noted that all forms of PTM have the same advantage over PAM as frequency modulation has over amplitude modulation. In all of them the pulse amplitude remains constant, so that amplitude limiters can be used to provide a good degree of noise immunity. Sampling theorem This states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with vanishingly smal! distortion. Fig. 16.1! shows a pulse width modulated signal which has a fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant, (a) Signal (b) Pulse (Width variation) ° Fig. 16.11 Pulse width modulation Instead of sending a pulse train capable of continuously varying one of the parameters, the PCM generator produces a series of numbers or digits. Each one of these digits, almost always in binary code, represents the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant. The approximation can be made as close as desired, but it is always just that an approximation. Three sequential basic processes which form the foundation of PCM and other similar techniques are sampling, quantizing and coding into binary waveform. By the process called quantizing, the sampled signals are quantized to some predetermined level. Quantization and coding together are implemented in a A/D converter at the transmitter. Similarly a D/A converter decodes the signal at the receiver. In differential PCM (DPCM), instead of samples, the difference between consecutive samples are quantized and coded. If the signal does360 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering not change abruptly, the range of the sample differences will not be as large as that of the samples themselves and hence the number of quantization levels [(i.e.) bits per sample] will be less than 256. If this number becomes two [(i.e.) one bit per sample),the system is the simplest one and is called Delta Modulation (DM). 16.10 DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION Digital data in the form of logic pulses are converted by a MODEM also known as data set) into a form suitable for transmission across telephone lines which are made up of twisted pair wires to handle waveforms within the frequency range of 300 Hz to 3300 Hz (which is adequate for human voice). In a digital system, bit is the fundamental data unit represented as a | (mark) or 0 (space). A sequence of bits is called bit stream when it is transmitted over a communication channel. A byte of data consist of a group of eight bits. The number of signal elements or condition changes per second is called baud rate. The baud is a unit of signalling speed (rate) on the transmission line. Digital signals can be transmitted over either analog channels or digital links. But, if digital pulses are transmitted through an analog channel, a highly distorted and attenuated version emerges at the far end because high frequency components cannot be transmitted faithfully due to limited bandwidth. An useful solution is to employ suitable modems for. transmission. The advantages of digital transmission are manifold. Digital signals may be regenerated to extend the length of the link without accumulating additional noise and distortion as would be the case with analog repeaters. Correctly designed digital circuits are less susceptible to distortion and interference and hence can achieve extremely low error rate. Digital circuit.components are less expensive and more reliable than analog ones. Digital multiplexing is simpler than analog multiplexing. Various forms of digital signal such as data, digitized voice. digitized television and facsimile can be integrated and transmitred together over a single digital link. 16.10.1 Data Communication System Installing a new digital network to transmit digital signals over long distances is prohibitively expensive; therefore in most of the cases, the existing analog networks are used. Long distance data communication was initially started using available teletype lines, but the earliest instance of data transmission associated with computers used the publicFundamentals of Communications ¢ 361 telephone system. Now-a-days, telephone lines, be it public, leased. private or satellite are extensively used to transmit data bits from one digital device to another as shown in Fig. 16.12 Computer 008 — tn Jexchanze ZL car | ; Local [Computer 1_|telepone MODEM —| | change} 7 ou Fig, 16.42 The basic data communication system elements are identified as — (a) Transmission line This is the medium, which transfers signals over a distance. (b) Data circuii-terminating equipment (DCE) It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating a connection. It also performs any siznal-conversion and coding that may be needed to interface user device to the network. (ce) Datacircuit This is the data path which includes the transmission line, regenerators if any, and the DCE at each end. It is a means of two- way communication between two or more points. (d) Data channel! A cata circuit can support a number of ‘independent transfer paths by a multiplexing technique. Each path called a data channel, carrier information in a partial direction. A multiplexed circuit thus support multiple channels. Note that a channel implies one-way transmission whereas a circuit implies two-way transmission. (e) Data-link In includes a data circuit and some equipments which control the circuit as well as perform error detection and correction function. (i) Data terminal equipment (DTE) 1t is user’s data processing equipment (example : computer) which is connected to a data circuit ina362 ¢ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering communication network. It can be anything from a simple terminal to a front-end processor or a large computer system. A communication channel can be used in one of the following three modes: (i) Simplex transmission Data is transferred in one direction only and never in the opposite direction. Half-duplex transmission’ Data is transferred in either direction but not in both direction simultaneously (iii) Full-duplex transmission Data is wansferred simultaneously in both direction. Also data can be transmitted either in serial (one bit at a time) or parallel (8,16 or even 32 bits simultaneously). Serial data may be transmitted either synchronously or asynchronously. Data system is defined as one that transmits data at a constant (variable) speed. 16.11 MODEMS Long distance data communication over analog channels. requires modems to convert digital signals into modulated analog signals with frequencies within the bandwidth of the channel. In today’s data communication systems, modems bring together digital signals and analog lines by performing the actual signalling on the channel MODEMS accept binary serial data from the transmitting DTE and provide binary serial data stream to the receiving equipment. MODEMS make up two basic functional sections: The modulator and the demodulator. The modulator accepts digital inputs from computers or terminals and converts the base band pulses into analog modulated signals for transmission. A demodulator in the receiver modem at the other end reconverts the modulated signal to base band digital signal. Modems are referred to under many names: data sets, DCEs and data communications equipments. Binary serial DCE’s fall into four general categories. 1. Voice grade modems and telephone couplers 2. Wide band modems 3. Short haul modems and 4. Modem eliminators or line drivers/receivers. Voice-grade modems are more common because they work with the widely used voice grade telephone lines having an effective bandwidth of 2.7 KHz (300 Hz to 3 KHz) where a short transmission path is required for local connections. it is possible to use a | ‘Xpensive form ot limited distance modem, short-haul modem, line driver or modem eliminator rather than a proper modem. Short haul modems operate overFundamentals of Communications « 363 standard telephone lines but due to lack of proper equalization techniques. the uansmission speed slows down with’ in ing length Line drivers used a base band uransmission technique which avoids the need for modulation by a carrier frequency. A direct current path is required, without amplifiers, in order to pass the base band pulses. A form of DC phase encoding is commonly employed to provide - simultaneous clock and data transmission and to increase the noise immunity. Acoustic couplers are used, where no direct connection to the telephone lines is available and telephone hand set is to be used to pick up modulated signal. Voice grade modems transmit either synchronously or asynchronously . Both the transmitting (modulation) and receiving (demodulation) functions are contained within each modem, permutting data transmission in both directions simultaneously (i.¢.) full duplex operation. Fig. 16.13 shows a typical modem system application. The terminal modem, that places a call, is referred to as the originate modem, whereas the terminal, receiving this call. is the answer modem, Modems, operating at data rates upto 1-8 kbps, generally employ FSK and are designed for asynchronous operation. At data rates of 2.4 kbps or more, modems employ more complex form of modulation that demand synchronization between transmitung and receiving modems. Synchronous modems are only suitable tor use with synchronous intertace, and the clock signals, required by the computers or terminals. are produced by the modem thus improving data transmission efficiency. Duplex J \ ooo Modulator IK <4 Modulator -————_ ee | Modem control | Modem control oy fSormuae bel iy} [Demoauaor | ho = \ 54 Demotutaror | 4 lephone nework Fig. 16.13. Typical modem system Telecommunicaiion authorities are now promoting all-digital networks to which the subscriber data enters in digital form, through a standard interface thus making modems unnecessary. But, in many instances, instead of installing a new network to transmit digital signals over long distances (which is prohibitively expensive), the existing telephone lines, which are readily available, are extensively used with the help of364 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering modems, so the need for modems to communicate over public switched telephone networks will remain for several years before this is replaced by an ISDN. 16.12 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 16.12.1 Radio Communication System A radio transmitter is a device that wansraits information by means of radio waves. The signal intelligence is translated in terms of a high frequency wave commonly termed as carrier wave by the process of modulation. All radio transmitters use one form of modulation or the other for transmission of intelligence. All radio transmitting systems must, therefore, have a section for generation of high frequency carrier wave, a section for converting information into electrical impulses and amplifying them to the required level, a section for modulating the carrier with signal intelligence, amplification stages for increasing the level of the modulated wave to the derived power and antenna system for transmitting these signals into free space. A basic set up for a radio transmitter is shown in Fig. 16.14, Signal Modutating wansducer amplifier Modulating Power amplifier en amplifier Cartier Carrier wave wave generator amplifier Fig. 16.14 A basic radio transmission system A radio receiver is a device that picks up the desired signal from the numerous signals propagating at that time through the atmosphere, amplifies the desired signal to the requisite level, recovers from it the original modulating signal and eventually gives it in the desired manner Though various forms of receiver circuits have been developed at one time or the other, the superheterodyne circuit (shown in Fig. 16.15) is used in the present day radio receiver. The RF amplifier, being a tuned voltage amplifier, selects the desired signals from the antenna and after amplification delivers it to the mixer.Fundamentals of Communications « 36S j ag ft | i i amplitier Hr] IF | Mixer LH netector, amplifier} | i Local oscillator Fig. 16.15 Block diagram of a superheterodyne reciever At the mixer, the signal voltage is mixed with local oscillator voltage and at the output of the mixer a voltage of intermediate frequency is selected. This voltage is amplified by the IF amplifier: a fixed frequency tuned voltage amplifier. The output of this amplifier is fed to a linear diode detector which not only provide AF signal to the audio amplifier, but also supplies bias to the RF and IF stages in the form of Automatic Gain Control AGC. The AF signal is amplified by the audio amplifier stages and fed to the loud speaker which converts it into sound waves. 16.12.2 TV Communication Systera Television is used for transmission and reception of picture signals. where the elements of pictures are continuously changing. Television. system also employs the process of scanning as in facsimile system described earlier, but its scanning rate is very fast. The minimum rate at which the still shots must be shown to a human eye so that they appear as continuous because of perception of eye is found to be 16 photo frames per second, but in practice, in a television system the scanning rate is slightly increased and made equal to the supply frequency to avoid hum pick ups. Thus in India, where the supply frequency in 50 Hz the scanning rate is kept 25 photo frames per second, each frame period is split into two parts termed as fields. TV transmission and receiving system must have same rate of scanning (j.e.) the scanning spots in the two systems must have same scanning speeds while scanning horizontal line is from left to right. Also the start of the scanning of the next horizontal line at the transmission and receiving ends must be synchronized. When the right edge of the last horizontal line is reached, the scanning spot should be quickly brought back to the top left edge of the picture for rescanning the picture. Vertical motion of the spots should therefore also be synchronized. A scanning system known as Interlaced scanning is used366 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Television system, to avoid the problem of flickering and to reduce the Bandwidth, J 5 Modulated] ; x CAMERA Video | J a ddert | Modu RE Power : PL amplitier tator [Lamptitior PE? | tine and 7 | Master oscillator [ Seeeeh Lf Audio eS oRF RF [ Seeeeh Lf amplifier modulator {~)oscillator!“}amplitier | Fig. 16.16 Block diagram of a television transmitter Video signals produced by a TV camera contain picture information during the scan period but during retrace on flyback period, the camera output is zero. In order to transmit these signals, it is essential to add the synchronization pulses before modulating this signal at the desired carrier frequency. It is also necessary that sound signals are processed for simultaneous transmission. Outlines of the complete setup of such a TV transmission system are shown in Fig. 16.16 above. Video signals produced by the camera are amplified by the video amplifier and given to the Adder circuit where line and field synchronisation pulses are added to the signal. These pulses also play an important role in keeping TV receivers synchronized with the transmission system thereby allowing picture reception The complete video signal is used to amplitude modulate an RF cartier. The modulated wave is passed through a VSB Filter and its power level is increased to the desired value by a power amplifier before being radiated by the aerial. The audio chain comprises of an audio.amplifier which amplifies the audio signals received from the microphone and feeds them to a FM modulator. This modulator changes’ the RF oscillator frequency in accordance with the amplitude of the AF signal thereby producing a FM wave. This signal is amplified to the desired magnitude by an RF amplifier stage and passed on to the common aerial for transmission A television receiver whether monochrome or colour is basically a super-heterodyne receiver which is designed to pick up TV signals in theFundamentals of Cominunications * 367 VHF or UHF range, process them and detect from them video and audio signals which are then converted into their original form (i.e.) picture and sound., Outlines of a monochrome TV receiver are shown in Fig. 16.17. ' I \ 7 ; - RF Locmadatarr J Vices ; amplifier Tomntti i 1 RE TUNER Sound IF ! amplifier Lu AP amplifier Discriminator pul Fig. 16.17 Monochrome TV receiver The TV signals picked up by the receiving antennas are in VHF or UHF range and are very weak. These signals are fed to the receiver tuner comprising of RF amplifier in the front end, followed by a mixer stage to which the local oscillator output is also fed for frequency — conversion. Vision IF. (Intermediate Frequency) Amplifier provides a high gain amplification and selectivity to the tuner output signals. The Video Detector is employed for detection of vision IF signals and obtain from them video signals lying in the range 0-5 MHz and frequency modulated sound signals at 5.5 MHz, the carrier frequencies and harmonic components are filtered out from the output of the detector Video signal obtained at the video detectors output is very small and is amplified by one or two video amplifier stages, which drives the picture tube. Besides driving the picture tube, it also feeds signals to keyed asynchronous and synchronous circuits. The asynchronous bias is used to control the gain of the RF and IF stages of the TV receiver. The synehronous circuits separate the synchronous pulses contro! the frequency of the horizontal and vertical oscillator, synchronizing it with the transmitted scanning frequency, Sound circuit comprises’sound IF amplifier that amplifies the 5.5 MHz frequency modulated sound signal and has an adequate bandwidth for the purpose. It also provides limiting action to produce a noise free FM368 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering signal with constant amplitude which is then fed to the discrimination circuit for obtaining audio signals. The audio signal is amplified by audio stages to the required voltage before being fed to the last stage. which is usually a push-pull circuit to drive the loud speaker. 16.12.3 Microwave Communication Links For unguided media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna. For transmission the antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium (usually air) and for reception, the antenna picks up electromagnetic waves from the surrounding medium. There are basically two types of configuration for wireless transmission; directional and omnidirectional. For the directional configuration, the transmitting antenna puts out a focussed electromagnetic beams. In omnidirectional case, the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions and can be received by many antennas. In general the higher the frequency of a signal, the more it is possible to focus it into a directional beam . In wireless transmission frequencies in the range of about 2 GHz to 40 GHz are referred to as microwave frequencies. At these frequencies, highly directional beams are possible and microwave is quiet suitable for point to point transmission. Microwave is also used for satellite communication. The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic ‘dish’ A typical size is about 10 feet in diameter. The antenna is fixed rigidly and focusses a narrow beam to achieve line of sight transmission to receiving antenna Microwave links are extremely used to carry telephone trunks where coaxial or fibre optic cables are not practical. The development of transmission and reception technique for radar, operating in microwave range, led to the development of wideband microwave communication links in the 1950°s. A direct line of sight (LOS) is required for transmission in the SHF band; so it is necessary to locate microwave antenna on high towers or on top of hills to ensure a direct path with-the minimum number of intervening repeaters. The earliest microwave systems carried TV signals and FDM telephony links, but they are now used extensively to carry TDM data channels. Microwave links may have bit error rates in the range lin 10° to lin 10'' depending upon the signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) at receiver on each link. The use of terrestrial microwave links has some advantages over satellite relayed microwave links; these include continuous operation, maintenance provision and a shorter propagation time.Fundamentals of Communications © 369 16.12.4 Satellite Communication A communicaticn satellite is in effect 2 microwave relay station. It is used to link two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receiver, known as earth stations or ground stations. The satellite receivers transmit on one frequency band (uplink) amplifies or repeats the signal and transmits it on an other frequency (downlink). A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency bands, called transponder channels or simply transponders. Satellite \ ir HO Fig. 16.18 (a) Point to point link via, satellite arth Satellite eee Receiver - Receiver Receiver 7 Transmitter Fig. 16.18 (b) Satellite communication configurarion Fig. 16.18 above depicts, in a general way, two convenient configuration for satellite sommunication. In the first, the satellite is being used to370 « Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering provide a point to point link between two distant ground-based antennas. In the second, the satellite provides communications between one ground based transmitter anda number of ground based receiver For a communication satellite to function effectively, it is generally required that it remain stationary with respect to its position over the earth otherwise, it would not be within the line of sight of its earth stations at all times. To remain stationary, the satellite must have a period of rotation equal to the earth's period of rotation. This match occurs at a height of 35,784 km. 5 The communication satellite is a technological revolution, as important as fibre optics. Among the most important application for satellite are — (i) Television distribution (ii) Long distance telephone transmission (iii) Private business networks. The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is 1 to 10 GHz. Below | GHz there is significant noise from natural sources, including galactic, solar atmospheric noise and human made interference from various electronic devices. Above 10 GHz the signal is severely attenuated by atmospheric absorption and precipitation. 16.12.5 Properties of Satellite Communication (i) Because of long distances involved there is a propagation delay of about a quarter second between transmission from one earth station and reception by another earth station. (ii) Satellite microwave is inherently a broadcast facility, Many stations can transmit to the satellite and a transmission from a satellite can be received by many stations. 16.12.6 Optical Communication Development in recent-times shows that the cost per unit information bandwidth is reduced if a system is used in which each information carrier has a bandwidth capable of carrying simultaneously a large volume of communication traffic. This concept led to the development of micro communication links. Optical communication is also an extension of same concept. The principal components of an optical communication chain include the light source, the light wave modulator, optical fibre and photo detector. 7 7 Light source Optical waves are produced by optical wave generators termed as LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). Laser is a nearly perfect single optical frequency source withFundamentals of Conimunications « 371 phase ccherence. All existing radio frequency techniques like modulation, detection etc. can be extended to this. Radiation from lasers is due to stimulated emission. Nd-YAG laser, He-Ne laser, Argon laser are a few elements that are used to produce laser action Modulation A laser may be internally modulated at a frequency equal to the frequency separation between axial modes. This phenomenon 1s termed as mode locking. The output in a mode locked laser is a clock pulse train or sometimes by direct variation of injection currents. Direct variation of the drive current to the optical source produces intensity modulation. Effects like elector-optic. magnetic- optic, electro-acoustic etc., may be used to provide electrical or optical interaction enabling different: modulation schemes to be achieved Bandwidth approaching 1GHz is obtainable in electro optical modulators while travelling wave structure modulators can give bandwidth of several GHz Photoaetectors Photodetectors may be divided into photo emis- sive, phato voltaic or photo conductive type. They convert the optical signals into electrical currents. When optical energy is focussed upon this devices, they produce output current in proportion to the light intensi"y of the optical wave falling into it. Optical fibres An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric wave guide that operates at optical frequencies. It transmits light, rather than electrical signals, which implies that this medium is unaffected by electrical inteference. Light is total internally reflected to make it propagate along one tenth of the fibre wave guide. The advantages of fibre optics cables over electrical cables are numerous: higher transmission speed, increased transmission capacity. no electromagnetic interfereace, low attenuation rare and low bit error rate are some of them: However it is necessary to convert electrical signal to light pulses before transmission and perform the opposite at the destination point This conversion overhead introduces additional cost and complexity in design. But high transmission quality and data rates, that can be achieved even in the areas of disturbing levels of electrical interference make optical fibres on attractive option for long distance, high data rate. tunk communications and local connection of computers and peripherals are well. 16.13 COMPUTER NETWORKS Over the years, the communication techniques has improved significantly with the advent of wireless, satellite and fibre optic technique Computer communication has added a new dimension to this technology, which was made possible through the discovery and372 © Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering formulation of certain basic principles to prescribe the capabilities and constraints of transferring information between computers. Spectacular growth in the integrated circuit technology over the past two decades have resulted in abundant availability of low and moderate cost computers. At the same time, application of digital techniques has vastly improved the electronic communication technology yielding highly reli.ble and low cost data communication capability. Availability ot low cost yet reasonably powerful computers along with reliable and efficient data communication facilities have motivated engineers to build networks of computers for deriving several important benefits. r—Autonomous computer Users” j | nici T Users Je Any communication channel Users, i” Users. $d Users Fig. 16.19 A schematic representation of a computer network A computer network is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected through communication media. Autonomy of the computer imply that they are all controlled by themselves so that there is no ‘‘master’’ or ‘‘slave’’ computer in the network. These autonomous computers are interconnected, directly or indirectly, through some communication media like copper wires, microwaves, satellites or optical fibres which enable them to exchange information. One important aspect of a computer network is that the individual computers may be located at an arbitrary distance from one another. The important goals of a computer networks are — 1. Resource sharing Any computer must be able to use the various sharable software and hardware resources available with any other computer network, Sharable software resources include various special purpose and sophisticated program packages, useful databases etc.,Fundamentals of Conimunications © 373 while the hardware resources may be in the form of printers, plotters, disks ete. 2. Load sharing Any computer, whenever it is overloaded with » computational load, may get a part or the whole of some programs transferred to and executed by other computers 3. High reliability In case a computer suffers a partial failure in its hardware or software (eg. a damaged disk unit) it can fall back upon another computer that has an identical resource. 4. Platform for numerous applications Computer networks have been employed to build many different application systems like office automation, electronic mail, automated library systems, distributed computing system etc. A large number of computer networks are in existence all over the world. These networks may be broadly classified under the following three categories depehding upon their geographical spread. Wide area network (WAN) These are large networks spanning a number of countries, an entire country or part of a country. These networks are usually owned by multiple organisations Metropolital « ea network (MAN) These are medium sized networks spanning an entire metropolis, or atleast a major part of it. A MAN may be owned by a single organisation or multiple organisations Local area network (LAN) These are relatively small networks having a diameter not exceeding a few kilometres. These are usually owned by a single organisation. LANs although innumerable in number and no less useful compared to WAN’s and MAN'’s, have a restricted scope that is limited-to only a small geographic area but also a small collection of machines. On the other hand WAN's have a wider scope and are useful to a much wider user population. WAN’s are often classified as ‘’public’’ networks or private networks. Public networks are built by common carrier — usually government organization or in some countries, private companies. Private networks are built within a single or a group of large private or government organizations and interconnect all their computers located in their various offices, factories etc. Private data networks have the advantages of freedom and flexibility while public data networks have the potential advantage of resource sharing Example for networks Few well known networks given below are all WAN’s, LAN’s and MAN’s are not individually well known, in general ARPANET 1 is one of the most well known WAN’s which was created out of a research project sponsored by the US Department of Defence through their Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) Subsequently renamed as Defence ARPA (DARPA). It was a large scale374 @ Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering general purpose data network interconnecting computers of a large number of universities and research organizations. Later it was interconnected to a large number of networks spread all over the world and the interconnection is called INTERNET. SNA (Systems Network Architecture) It is a network intended to allow IBM customers to construct their own private networks. DEC NET It is a network architecture to allow DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) customers to construct their own private networks. ERNET (Educational and Research Network) \t is an experi- aental network set up by the Department of Electronics (DOE), Government of India, for interconnecting the computers in the acaclemic and research institutions 16.14 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN) 16.14.1 Introduction The fast increasing demand for worldwide data, facsimile and video- based communication services had, in the decade of Seventies, triggered the idea of redesigning the world-wide telephone system as an Integrated Services Digital Network [ISDN]. ISDN is an ambitious goal and it will evolve slowly. The rate of evolution will vary from country to country and the technological concepts will also evolve with the time Among the many new communication services, some notably the video-based ones, need very high speed end-to-end communication which the relatively ‘‘narrow-band” ISDN cannot provide efficiently or meaningfully. Hence the concept of a broad band ISDN (B-ISDN) has emerged of date. For the efficient implementation of B-ISDN an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) has been preferred over the traditional synchronous Transfer Mode that has employed for building ISDN. 16.14.2 Features of ISDN The primary goal of ISDN data communication system is to integrate voice and non-voice transmission. The main features of ISDN are as follows: (i) Support of voice and non-voice applications using a limited set of standardized facilities. Proposedly, ISDN will support various service related to voice communications (telephone calls) and non- voice communications (digital data exchanger) (ii). Support for switched and non-switched application. ISDN should be able to support both circuit switching and packet switching. InFundamenials of Communications © 375 circuit switching, a physical path is actually established between a source and a destination. In case of packet switching, data is kept in a packet and routed through the interconnection network without establishing a physical connection path. ISDN supports on-switched services in the form of dedicated lines (iii) ISDN is designed to provide circuit switched and packet switched connecticns at 64 kbps. (iv) ISDN should be intelligent enough to provide sophisticated service features, maintenance and network management functions. (vy) ISDN can be implemented in a variety of configurations according to specific national situations. Various physical configurations are due to difference in nationai policy, in'the state of technology. and in the needs and existing equipment of the customer site. 16.14.3 Goals of ISDN a) Standardization b) Transparency ee c) Separation of competitive functions d) Leased end switched services e) Cost-relited tariffs f) Smooth migration g) Multiplexed support In order to achieve the success of developing ISDN, standardization is essential. Standards make provisions for universal access to the network. The property of transparency is one of the most important criteria of digital transmission service. The service does not effect the data to be transmitted. Moreover the user can send any type of information and can employ encryption technique to provide security of his/her information. ISDN must be developed in a way that does not preclude the separation of competitive functions from the basic digital transmission services. ISDN should provide leased and switched services. The user will get the greatest range of options in configuring network services. This will allow a user (0 optimize on the basis of cost and performance. The price of ISDN service should be related with cost and independent of the type of data being transmitted. This cost related tariff will assure that one type of service is not in a position of subsidizing others. Prices will be related with the cost of providing specific performance and functional characteristics of a service. Development of ISDN from existing telephone networks will be a slow process. Herce, ISDN will have to coexist with the existing equipment and services, To provide for a smooth migration to ISDN, ISDN interfaces, and interworking arrangements must be designed.376 » Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering In addition to providing low-capacity support to users, a provision for muluplexed support is very much essential so that a user owned PABX (Private Automatic Branch Exchanger] and local area network [LAN] equipment can be accommodated ISDN services ISDN will provide a variety of services, supporting existing voice and data applications as well as many new applications currently being developed. Some of the new services are videotex, teletex, facsimile and telemetry etc. 16.15 INTERNET With the growing availability of cheap and powerful computers the user community felt a desire to interconnect these autonomous computers into computer networks. In an exactly similar manner, with the growth in the availability of a large number of networks, especially LAN’s, the user community next felt the same desire to interconnect many networks to form an ‘‘Internetwork”’ or an “‘internet’’ in short. This internet would allow all the benefits of networking to be farther extended in terms of sharing much larger resources spread over a much larger geographic area and among a much larger user community. In order to interconnect a number of networks, both WAN’s and LAN’s, devices that connect two or more networks to allow internetwork traffic flow are employed, The generic name for such interconnecting devices is Relay although they are known by various names like Repeaters, Bridges, Routers, Gateways etc., depending on the layer at which they are working. The greatest difficulty is the design of relays is posed by the fact that a large variety of different networks exist. Though the OSI Reference Model promises the future availability of networks having a common standard, yet non-compatible networks will continue to exist for many years to come mainly because of the large and even growing installed base of non-OSI networks like SNA, DECNET etc., supplied by large vendors. Furthermore, so far as LAN’s are concerned, there is not one but three standards, namely, IEEE 802-3 (Ethernet), IEEE 802-4 (Token Bus) and IEEE 802.5 (Token ring). Thus when a general imternet working scenario like the one shown in Fig. 16.20 is considered, relays have to be designed not with three symmetrical specifications for LAN-LAN LAN-WAN and WAN-WAN interconnections but with many different sets of asymmetrical relaying specifications. As a matter of fact, the complexity of a relay depends on the mutual differences in the message format, access protocol etc. between the networks.Frandamentals of Communications « 377 I Tel B = BRIDGE G= GATEWAY fi} Fig. 16.20 A typical internet working scenario Depending on the layer at which the relay makes an interconnection, it may be categorized into one of the following three types Repeater A layer 1 relay that copies individual bits between two or more cable segments. Bridge A layer 2 relay that stores and forwards frames between two or more LANs Gateway A layer 3 and above relay that stores and forwards messages/packets/frames between a WAN and one or more WAN’s or LAN’s The main function of repeaters is to amplify electrical signals representing bits so that they can propagate over longer distances. A bridge receives and stores an entire frame from one of its adjacent LAN’s. A bridge may connect two or more similar or dissimilar LAN’s Gateways are fairly similar to bridges but operate in the network layer or above. A gateway can interconnect a WAN with one or more WAN’s or LAN’s ail of which can mutually differ much more than in case of a bridge.378 © Basie Electrical and Elecironies Engineering REVIEW QUESTIONS RQ 16.1 What are analog and digital signals? Explain. RQ 16,2 What is modulation? List different types of modulation. RQ 16.3 What is modem and how does it work? RQ 16.4 Explain the working of superheterodyne, RQ 16.5 Explain how the television works. RQ 16.6 Give brief details of communication satellites. RQ 16.7 What are the advantages and disadvantages of fibre optic cables? RQ 16.8 What is ISDN? How is it important? RQ 16.9 Write briefly about E-mail RQ 16.10 What is Internet?Index A Absolute Permeability 79 AC Circuits 35 Active 199 Access time 311 Active transducer 271 Accuracy 272 Adder or summing amplifier 292 Address 311 Aircore inductors 211 Air friction damping 161 Amplitude Modulation 354 Analog and Digital Signals 342 Analog Signals 342 AND gate 297 Analogto digital converter 325 Architrave switches 176 Armature core (R1) 115 Armature winding(R2) 115 Arithmetic-logic section 309 Audio frequencychoke 213 ARPANET 373 Asynchronous counter 303 Attraction Type 164 Average value 37 B Barcoding 324 Bipolar Transistor 237 Binary Signal 345 Bonded strain gauge 275 Boolean Algebra 296 Bridge Rectifier 230 Braking/Lamping System 171 Bridge 377 Bridge Rectifier 231 Brushes (Rd) 116 Break over voltage 260 Byte 310 Cc Capacitor Filter 234 Capacitance Transducers 276 Capacitor start motor 146 Capacitor start and run motor 146 Carbon composition resistors 200 Carbon film resistor 201 Carbon composition potentiometer 204 Capacity 310 Capacitors 205 Capacitance 10 Ceramiccapacitors 208 Chokes 212 Closed circuitTV 348 Computer Networks 37] Commutator (R3) 116 ColourCode 204 Continuous Wave Modulation 352 Communication System 364 Complex power 51 Compound generator 123 Coated film type 204 Conduction (Free) electrons 216 Conduction band 216380 + Index Conductor 217 Compound motor 128 Control section 309 Controlling Torque 160 Core type transformer 129 CPU Memory Connection 311 Current 2 Current amplification factor(a) 244 Current amplification factor(b) 245 Cylindrical type 148 D DD flip-flop 302 Daisy wheel printer 329 Damping Torque 161 Data Transmission 348 Data Communication System 260 Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) 361 Data circuit 361 Datachannel 361 Data-link 361 Data terminal equipment (DTE) 361 DC Circuits 17 DC Machines 113 Decade counter 304 Density 311 DEC NET 374 Demodulation 357 Deltaconnection 68 De Morgan’s theorems. 296 Depletion MOSFET 252 Deflecting Torque 160 Diade Ratings 227 Differential amplifier DigitalIC’s 295 Digital Signal 344 Displacement of Transducer 273 Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) 331 Distributed Computers 333 Digital Data Transmission 360 Difierentiator 293 292 Dot-matrix printer 329 Domestic Wiring 175 Driving System 170 Dynamic memory devices 311 Dynamometer Type Instruments 168 Dynamometer Type Wattmeter 169 Dynamically Induced Emf\ 101 E Earthing 186 Eddy Current Loss 107 Eddy current damping 162 Electrical Machines 113 Electrical Quantities 1 Electrical Power 3 Electrical Energy . 3 Electrical Swain Gauge 272 Electromagnet 93 Electromagnetic Induction 96 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 107 Electrically Erasable PROM. (EEPROM) 315 EmfEquation 118, 150 Enhancement MOSFET 250 Energy band 216 ERNET (Educational and Research Network) 374 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) 314 Exttusive OR (XOR) gate 298 Exclusive NOR (XNOR) gate 299 Extrinsic Semiconductors 220 F Facsimile 348 Faraday’s First Law 98 -Faraday’s SecondLaw 98 Ferrite core inductors 211 Fixed Resistors 200 Fixed Inductor 211 Fixed Capacitors. 207Filters 242 Filterchoke 213 Field Effect Transistors (FET) 246 Flash Menory 315 Fluoresceat Tube Wiring 183 Fleming’sLeft Hand Rule 109 Fleming’sRightHandRule 102 Flush switch 176 Floppy Disk Data Storage” 317 Flip Flop 300 Forbiddenband 216 Form factor 39 Frame/Yoke(S1) 114 Frequency response 272 Frequency Modulation 355 Full-duplex transmission 362 Full WaveRectifier 233 “ G Gateway 377 Generation 191 General purpose variable capacitor 206 Graphic Display Device 330 Graphic input device 325 Graphic tablets 325 Gravity control 161 Grid switches 175 H Half-Wave Rectifiers 227 Half-duplex transmission 362 Hall Effet Transducers 282 Half Wave Rectifiers 232 Helical-wound variable resistor HVDC system 194 HVAC system 195 Hysteresis Loss 106 203 IC Timer 294 Ideal transformer on No-load = 131 Index * 381 Ideal transformer on load condition 133 Intrinsic Semiconductors 219 Inductor 21] Ink jet printers Inductor Filter Input Devices 307 Inpact Printer 329 Induction Type Energy Meter 170 Induction Motors 138 Inductance 9 INTEL 8086 Microprocessors 336 Internal Architecture 337 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 374 Intemet 376 Interpoles ($4) 115 Insulator 217 Inverting amplifier Integrator 293 Interpole winding ($5) 115 Iron core inductors 211 329 235 290 J JK flip-flop 302 Junction Fieid Effect Transistor 246 K Keyboard 323 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) 18 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL) 19 L Latching current 260 Laser printers 329 ~Laptop PC’s 332 LC Filter 236 Leakage Flux 87 Lenz'sLaw 98 Light Emitting Diode (LED) 267 Linear Variable Differential382 + Index Transformer (LVDT) 277 Linear and Digital Integrated Circuits 285 LinearIC’s 290 Linearity 272 Line printer 329 Light source 370 LineCommunication 349 Logic Gates 297 Load sharing 373 Local area network(LAN) 373 M Mass Data Storage Systems 317 Magnetic Hard Disk Data ,, Storage 319 Magnetic Tape Storage 321 _ Mainframe Computers 333 Main poles (S2) 114 Main field windings ($3) 114 Main switches 176 Magnetic ink character recognition 323 Magnetic Circuits 77 Magneto Motive Force 77 Magnetising Force 77 Magnetic Flux 78 Magnetic Flux Density 78 Magnetic Materials 92 Magnetic Hard Disk Data Storage 319 Magnetic Tape Storage 321 Mainframe Computers 333 Magnetic Losses 105 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 93 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) 250 Memory Devices 310 Metal film resistors 201 Memorycell 310 Memory word 310 Metropolital area network (MAN) 373 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) 250 Memory Devices 310 Megger 171 Microprocessors 333 Microwave Communication Links 368 Mica capacitors 208 Microprocessors 333 Modulation 371 Monolithgic IC's 287 Modems 362 Moulded type potentiometer 204 Moving Coil Instruments 162 Moving Iron Instrument 164 Moving Iron Instruments 168 Moving System 171 Mutually induced emf 98 Mutual inductance 99 N Netype semiconductor 220 N-Channel JFET 246 NAND gate 298 Non-impact Printers 329 Non-inverting amplifier 291 NOT gate (Invertor) 297 NOR gate 298 oO Ohm's Law 17 Optical mark reading and recognition 324 Optical character recognition 324 Optical fibres 371 Opto Electronic Device 264 Operational Amplifier 290 Optical Disk Data storage 321 Optical Communication 370 OR gate 297 Oxide layer growth 287Pp porCLC Filter, 236 P-Channel JFET 247 P-type semiconductor 221 Paper capasitors 208 Passive Electronic Components 199 Parallel Computers 333 Parallel Circuits 84 Passive transducers 271 Permeability of free space 78 Permeance 79 Pentium Processors 339 Personal Computers 332 Permanent Magnet 92 Permanent Magnet Type 162 Peak reverse voltage 260 Photodetectors 371 Photolithography 288 Photo Conductive Cell (PCC) 265 PhotoDiod: 266 Photo Trarsistor 267 Phasor Representation 41 Piezoelectric Transducers 281 Plastic capacitors 208 Plotters 330 PM Type Moving Coil Ammeters 166 PM Type Moving Coil Voltmeters 167 PN Junction 222 PN Junction Diode 225 Power Sysems 189 Power and Power Factor 50 Precision variable capacitor 206 Primary storage section 308 Printer functions 328 Printer types 328 Programmeble ROMs (PROMs) 313 Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) 358 Pulse-time modulation (PTM) 359 Pure resistor 47 . Index + 383 Pure Inductor 48 Pure capacitor 49 Pulse Modulation Pull switches 176 357 R Radial system 196 Radio Signal 344 Radar Signal 344 Radio Communication 349 Radio Communication System 364 Radio frequency choke 213 Random-access memory RAM) 311 Resource sharing 372 Repeater 377 Resistance 5 Resistors in Series 20 Resistors in Parallel 23 Resistors 199 Relative permeability 78 Reluctance 79 Repeatability 272 Rectifiers 231 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) 278 Read/write memory (RWM) 311 Read only memory (ROM) 311 Resonance 59 Registering System 171 Repulsion Type 165 Reluctance and Permeance 79 Right Hand Grip Rule 94 Right Handed Cork Screw Rule | 95 Ring main system 196 RMS value 38 Rotating magnetic field 140 Rotary snap switches 176 RS flip-flop 300 Ruggedness 272 Ss Sampling theorem 359 Satellite Communication 369384 + Index Salient pole type 148 Series Circuits 81 Series and Parallel Circuits 20 Self and Mutual Inductance 99 Series — Parallel Circuits 24 Semiconductor RAMs 316 Selfinducedemf 99 Selfinductance 99 Series generator 122 Semiconductor 217 Sensitivity 272 Sequential-access memory (SAM) 311 Shaft(R5) 116 Shunt generator 121 “Shunt motor 127 Shell type transformer 130 Shaded-pole motor 146 Single Phase Induction Motors 144 Simplex transmission 362 Silicon Controlled Rectifier [SCR] 257 Sinusoidal voltage and current 36 SNA (Systems Network Aschitecture) 374 Sound.and music transmission 347 Special Semiconductor devices 257 Split-phase motor 145 Squirrel cage rotor 139 Star and Delta Connections 66 Static memory devices 311 Statically Induced Emf 98 Stair-Case Wiring 182 Starconnection 66 Stator 148 Synchronous Machines 148 T Temperature Transducer 278 Telephone Signal 343 Television transmission 348 Temperature Transducer 278 Telephone Signal 343 Telegraph/Teleprinter links 347 Three-Phase AC Circuits 64 Three-Phase Voltage and Current 64. Thermocouples 279 Thermistors 280 Three phase power 69 Thin film resistors 200 Thermocouples 279 Thermistors 280 Torque Equation 126 Torque Development 142 Transistor Biasing 238 Triac 260 Transducers 271 Trimmer capacitor and padders 205 Transistor Biasing 238 Triac 260 Trimmer capacitor and padders 205 Transmission paths 349 Transmission line 361 Transformers 129 Tumbler switches 176 TV Communication System 365 U Unijunction Transistor (UIT) 261 Universal Gates 299 Unbonded strain gauge 274 Vv Valence electrons 216 Valence band 216 Variable Resistors 202 Variable Inductor 212 Variable Capacitors 205 Video display unit(VDU) 325 Vision phones 348 Video Signal 343 Voltage 2 Voltage regulator 294w Wire-wound resistors 202 Wire-wound variable resistors 202 Wide areanetwork (WAN) 373 Wire-wound rotary variable resistor 202 ire-wourd solenoid type resisto: 203 Workstations 332 Wound roior or slip ring rotor 139 Index * 385

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