teas Seer CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. GENERAL nm 1a. PURPOSE AND USE OF BULLETIN a xt, Iowotuaton. ae | 101. Scape of Bulletin. —- 1 Ltt: Sometgaentsccr i fh Sommncbaron : id, Dunne Pye Femenis™ Beans roms a Cumann Gompeton Saipan Fenton. te 1,11, Definitions for Plywood Panels... - ie 1 LE BalubeaStctarl Sy or Ghagior ce 7 CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS L 20, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF Toop. aa ect +200, answers af Wad $ 20h, Benny oF Appurent Specie Gravis. 5 30h Molsure Conn ° Fe : a ow a 2 28. Fate Poprton 2” ‘ 206. Pstie Proper. > a pee, Repet Prope oo 7 i Dos, Eten of Laue & be 2.09. Miscellaneous Physical Properties... ce a'r, Goosen of Expansion. Fs 3pm, Thermal Conduct it | 2.093. Ignition Temperature. 18 u 2.094. Electrical Properties. 18 2.008, Damping Gores 6 _ OO) DEIOGTRENGTH AND BLASHG PROPERTIES GF Wood 2 20, Design Varn, Tables 2-8 and 2-7 oeaee ® 2100, Spleen Nove ue % dm. Coreion Perpndialas to Gran 2 | Bloor, Compression Parle! to Grin 2 L-NAME None‘ the Gu of Vloes nabs 9.6 and 77 Xl a oho, Reladon of Dtgn Values in Tubes 26 ang 27 0 Spe of Gai B FIN, Penton Peal vo Gran, n L 2.112, Tension Perpendienlar to Grain... a 12 Standard Pet Procedures eo 270, Stae Bending ] (dito. Means of Boiss (B20 2 | Ebon, iter Suen at Propoona! ini 2 SIG0E Modulos ot Ruptue (Foo 3% Sido Work to Mestmum Loos 002 = 21Bt Comprecion Purl! o Gran 3 LL. ahaio. Modulus of Elasticity (Es = Sian, Mer Suc at Proportions Eine Fd » o1d Maximum Crating Senge Po 2 | aie Snes, Sturmtanit wa Sen Shear Paral fo Gra Poa ” ize, Handa ‘ 2 inh, Teogon Dopod fo Gaia Pal a L 218, Elaoe Properties Not Included in Tables 2-6 and 2 ai b eee eee Rie ee eee Pee ee L CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continved vi 2.180. 2131 2.182 24. 25. 216. 2.161 2.162. . COLUMNS. . Torsional Instability . Moisture Correction for Plywood Tensile Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction) . Elements ( Moduli of Hlasticity Perpendicular to Grain (Ex, Es). Moduli of Rigidity (Giz, Gun, Gr Poisson’s Ratios (1) - Strese-strain Relations. Strength Under Multiavial Seress, Stress Concentrations. : Stress Concentrations Around a Hole in a Tension or Compression Member ‘Scress Concentrations Due to Hole Which is Not Small Compared to the Size of the Member. Primary Failure Looal Buekling and Twisting Failure Lateral Bueking. BEAMS, Form Factors. To Combined Loading General. Bending and Compression Bending and Tension. Shear Webs : Beam Section Efficiency... Torsional Properties —-— === z BASIC STRENGTH AND ELAST) : General... : Moisture-strength Relations for Plywood. 2 General. Approximate Methods for Making Moisture Corrections for Plywood Strength Properties. ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Compressive Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Shear Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction) ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Compressive Strength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction) .--— ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Tensile Strength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction) ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Shear Strength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction). Specific Gravity-strength Relations for Plywood. Stress-strain Relations for Wood and Plywood. Mobr's Stress-and-strain Circles.. Obtaining Strains from Given Stresses_ Obtaining Stresses from Given Strain: Experimental Strese-strain Date. Stress Concentrations (See See. 2.16 to 2.162). ‘ PLYWOOD STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. Elements (¢=0° or 90°). Elemente in Compression (@= 0° or 90°). Elements in Tension (6=0° or 90°). Elements in Shear (¢=0° or 90°) ny Angle) Elemente in Compression (@= Any Angle).. Elements in Tension (6= Avy Angie). Blements in Shear (@= Any Angle) Elements in Combined Compression (or Tension) and Shear (= Any Angl 2 Elements in Bending. i Defiections. Elements as Columns, ear FLAT RECTANGULAR PLYWOOD PANELS. Buckling Criteria. General. Compression (= 0° or 90°)Peete emerge Peete Pee eee eee eee eee eee eer PH Hee Se eee CHAPTER 9. 2.713. 2m. 2.715. 2.7151. 2.72. 2721. 2722, 2723. 2.73. 2.730. 2.781 2.732. 2.74. 2.15. 2.78. 2.760, 2.761 2.762. 2.77. 2q7. 2772. 2.7721. 2.7722, STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continued Shear (9=0° or 90°) Combined Compression and Shear ($=0" or 90° Compression, Shear, and Combined Compression Combined Compression (or Tension) and Shear. Strength After Buckling. General... Compression (3 Any Angle) . Shear (8=0°, 45°, or 90°) Allowable Shear in Plywoo Genersl---.--2eee-eenee Allowable Shear Stresses Buckling of Plywood Shear Webs. Lightening Holes. Torsional Strength and Rigidity of Bos Spare. Plywood Panels under Normal Loads. General. ‘Small Deflections.. Large Defections.. Stiffened Flat Plywood Panels, ‘The Stiffness of a Stiffoner Affised to a Plywood Panel A Single Stiffener Biscoting a Panel. Stiffened Panel Subjected to Edgowise Compression, Stiffener Perpendicular to the Direction of the Strest and Paralle! to Side A (8=0° or 90°) Stiffened Panel Subjected to Edgewise Compression, Stiffener Perpendicular to the Direction of the Stress (835°). . Stiffened Pane! Subjected to Bdgewise Compression, Stistener Parallel to the Direction of the Stress and to Side B (8=0° or 90°).. Stiffened Panel Subjected to Edgewise Compression, Stiffener Parallel to the Direction of the Stress (@=459).--.. Stiffened Panel Subjected to Edgewise Shear Stiffener Parallel to ages (or Ends) of Panel and fel Stiftened with A multiplicity of Closely Spaced Stifeners Parallel to One of or 90°).. Determination of Dee Determination of Die Determination of wee Stiffened Plywood Panels Subjected to Bending in the Direetion of the Stiffeners. ‘Modes of Failure in Stiffened Panels. : CURVED PLYWOOD PANELS Strength in Compression or Shear; ar Combined Compression (or Tension) and Shear. Gireular Thin-walled Plywood Cylinders Axial Compression. Compression with rain Parallel or Compression with 45° Face Grain. Compression—Effect of Length. jon and Bending. Curved Panels... Asial Compression. Shear. Longitudinally Stiftened Cylinders Stresses When Buckling Doos Not Oveu! ‘Axial Compression (or Tension) .......-.- Shour Stress Due to Torsion Buckling of Stiffened Cylinders. Axial Compression. Torsion. Bending, Stiffened Curved Panels ‘Axial Compression. 60L L L L L eee ro Pe eee SR eee CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continved CHAPTER 3. viii 2.8511 2.8512 2.882. 2.8521 2.9. 2.90. 2.900, 2.901, 2.002. 2.903. 2.904. 2.9040. 2.9041. 2.9042, 2.9048. 2.008. 2.9050. 2.0051 2.908, 2.9060, 2.9061 2.907. 2.908, 2.009. 2.9090. 2.9091, 2.91 2.910. 291. 2912. 2.02. 2.920. 23. 2A. 3.0. 3.00. 3.01 3.010. 3.011 8.0310, 3.021. 31 3.10. 3. 3.110. 3.1. az. 8.1120. 8.1121, 3.1122. B12, B.1124. S.1125. 3.118. 2.1130, B.1131. 3.1132. 3.3183, 3.04 8.1180. Stiffener Axial. -- Stiffener Cireumferential Shears. -eeceo.- Stiffener Axial, JOINTS. Bolted Joints Bearing Paralie! or Perpendicular to Grain. Beering at an Angle to the Grain, Eccentric Loading. Combined Concentrie and Keeentrie Loadings; Bolt Groups.--.- : Bolt Spacings Spacing of Bolts Loaded Parallel to the Grain. Spacing of Bolts Loaded Perpendicular to the Grain... Spacing of Bolts Loaded at an Angle to the Grain... General Notes on Bolt Spacing —.......0-00---00 Bearing in Wood-base Meterial Bearing in Plywood. Bearing in Compreg. Bearing in Reinforeed Members. : ‘Wood Members with Plywood Reinforeing Plates, Wood Members with Cros-banded Compreg Reinforcing Plates Bushings. . Hollow Bolts. General Features of Bolted Joints. Drilling of Holes. Repeated Loading of Bolted Joints. Glued Joints. Allowable Stress for Glued Joints. co Lominated and Spliced Spars and Spar : Glue Stress Between Web and Flange. Properties of Modified Wood. 2 Detailed Test Date for Tables 2-16 to 2-21, Inclusive. References. Bibliograph METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS GENERAL. Purpose, Special Considerations in Stat Element Tests. --.----------- Complete Structures Design Allowances for Test Conditions. ‘Test Procedure. WINGS. General ‘Two-spar Wings with Independent Spars... Spar Loadings. Chord Loading. Lift-truss Analyst General Lift Strats. Jury Strats Nonperallel Wires. Biplane Lift ‘Trusses. Rigging Loads. Dragetruss Analysis. Single Drag-truss Systems, Double Drag-truss Systeme, Fixity of Drag Struts Plywood Drag-truss Systeme. Spar Shears and Moments. Beam-column effects (Secondary bending) Powe 112 m2 116 16 n6 n6 116 16 16 16 18 us 122 122 122 12: 122 133 125 125 125 126 128 128 126 126 127 127eee eee eee eee reer Peete eet SE eee eee r- L L L L CHAPTER 3. BALI. 3.115, 3.1130. 3051 3.116. 8.1160. 3.1161 3.1162, 3.12. 3.120, 3121, 3.13, 3.130, 3.131 8.1310, 3311. 3.132. 3.188, 8.1330, 3.1331, 3.184 3.136. 8.1350, 3.1851, 3.1382, 3.1388, 3.1354 3.13540. 3.18541. 3.13522, 3.18543, 3.136. 8.1360, 8.13800. 3.1881 3.137, 2.1370, 3.1371 3.138. 8.1380, 2.1381 3.1382. 3.1383. 3.1384, 32, 33. 34, 3.40. 3.41 3.42. 3.421 3.422, 3.323. 23.48. 3.431 Bak 8.441 3442. 8.4421. 3.4422, 3.443, Bad, sa0Tt0° . METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS—Continued Effects of Varying Asial Load and Moment, of Inert Internal and Allowable Stresses for Spars.. General Wood Spars Special Problems in the Analysis of Two-spar Wings. Lateral Buckling of Spars. Ribs. Fabrie Attachment. ‘Two-spar Plywood Covered Wings. Single Covering. Box Type Reinforced Shell Wings ‘Computation of Shear, Bending Moment, abd Torsion Computation of Bending Stresses, Section Properties. Bending Stress Formulas. Secondary Stresses in Bending Blements ‘Computation of Shear Flows and Stresses. General, es Shear Flow Absorbed by Bending Elements Shear Correction for Bean Taper. Simple D Spar. Rational Shear Distribution - ‘Single Cell-—General Method. ‘Two Cell—General Method. ‘Two-Cell Four-Flange Wing. Shear Centers Ribs and Bulkheads.— ‘Normal Ribe ‘Rib-Crushing Loads. Bulkhead Ribs. Miscellaneous Structural Problems. Additional Bending snd Shear Stresses due to Torsion. a General Instability Strength Determination, Buekling in Skin_—_ Compression Elements Stiffened Panels Tension Elements Shesr Elements, FIXED TAIL SURFACES. : MOVABLE CONTROL SU ‘ FUSELAGES, General i Four-longeron Type. Reinforeed-shell Type. Stressed-sksin Fusclages. Computation of Bending Stresses. Computation of Shearing Stresses. Pure-shell Type. ‘Monocoque shell Fuselages: : Miscellaneous Fuselage Analysic Probleme. Analysis of Seams... ‘Analysis of Frames and Rings. ‘Maia Frames. 2 Intermediate Frames - Effects of Cut-Outs. Secondary Structures Within the 1 162 165 167 168 168 168 170 172 172 173 173 175 178 380EH Er eee eee eee t tamaaE ee SRE Ree eee CHAPTER 3. METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS—Continued B45. 3.5, 351 3.52. 3.58, 3.5. 3.55, 36 CHAPTER 4. 40. 4.00, 4.01 4.010, 4.011, 4.012, 4.013, 44, 4.10, 41 412 413, au. 45. 4:16. 4.2. 4.20 4.21 422. 4.23. 4.24. Bl . FRAMES AND BULKHEAD: |. Glue Area for Attachment of Plywood Covering. . Reinforcement for Concentrated Loads.. 80. Metal to Wood Connections. Strength Determination HULLS AND FLOATS. Main Longitudinal Girder Bottom Platin Bottom Stringer Frames. Strength Determination ‘MISCELLANEOUS. References. DETAIL STRUCTURAL DESIGN GENERAL. Introduction Definitions... Solid Wood... Laminated Wood. Plywood. General Joints in the Covering. ‘Taper in Thickness of the Covering. vior Under Tension Loads. vior Under Shear Loads.. Seart Joints in Reinforcement of Sloping Grain RIBS. ‘Types of Ribs. Special Purpose Attachment of Ribs to the Structure. ‘Types of Frames and Bulkheads. STIFFENERS.. General mat Attachment of Stringers Attachment of Intarcostals. . GLUE JOINTS. General : Eccentricities. a Avoidenee of End-Grain Joints. : Gluing of Plywood Over Wood-Piywood Combi Gluing of High Density Material MECHANICAL JOINTS. General ‘Use of Bushings. Use of High Density Material ‘Mechanieal Attachment of Ribs. Attachment of Various Types of Fittings Use of Wood Serews, Rivets, Nails, and Self-Locking Nut MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN DETAILS. 212 212 2a 215. 215 216 216CHAPTER 4. DETAIL STRUCTURAL DESIGN—Continued oi alee Batata ee a ees at far batiae ane eee Fo ca poe na oe tot es ena A (iciilege eseenata ape a 4.88, Use of Standard Plywood 4.89. Tests, i 4.9, EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL DESIGN DETAILS. : : seer eerie ay L L eae ee eee xiL gree Eee eee Eee ea EEE eee eee eee d Eutetesete SESEteeeee TEezze SRE eae CHAPTER | GENERAL 1.0. Purpose and Use of Bulletin 1.00. Ixrropucriox. This bulletin has been prepared for use in the design of both military and commercial aircraft, and contains material which is acceptable to the U. 8. Air Force, Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, and the Civil Aeronautics Admin- istration. It should, of course, be understood that methods and procedures other than those outlined herein are also acceptable, provided they are prop- erly substantiated and approved by theappropriate agency. The applicability and interpretation of the provisions of this bulletin as contract or eer- tification requirements will in each case be defined by the procuring or certificating agency. 1.01. Scope or Buttetrx. The technical ma- terial in this bulletin is contained in chapters 2, 3, and 4, and pertains to three related phases of the structural design of wood aircraft. Chapter 2 presents information on the strength and elastic properties of struetural elements con- structed of wood and plywood. This information supersedes that contained in the June 1944 edition of ANC-18, "Design of Wood Aircraft Struc- tures.” Chapter 3 contains suggested methods of struc- tural analysis for the design of various aircraft, components. Although these methods are in many cases the same as those used for metal struc- tures, special considerations have been introduced which take into account the orthotropic properties ‘of wood. Chapter 4 presents recommendations on the detail structural design of wood aircraft and con- tains some examples of how various manufacturers have treated the solution of specific detail design problems. 1.02, Acksowrepcmexr. The Panel on Sand- wich Construction of the Subcommittee on Air- Force-Navy-Civil Airoraft Design Criteria and the Forest Products Laboratory express their apprecia~ tion to aircraft manufacturers and others for the valuable assistance given in connection with various parts of this bulletin. 1.1. Nomenclature ‘This section presents the definitions of standard structural symbols which are used in the bulletin. In addition, sections 1.10 and 1.11 are presented to clarify the differentiation between the defini- tions for strength and elastic properties of plywood elements and those for like properties of plywood panels. These sections also outline the use of table 2-13 1.10. Deriimons ror Puywoop Euemenrs— Brams, Prisms, ano Conuuns iy Compression, Srares mv Tension. A plywood element is any rectangular piece of plywood that is supported, loaded, or restrained on two opposite edges only In defining the various strength and elastic prop- erty terms for plywood elements the face grain direction has been used as a reference; for exam- ple, the subscript w denotes a direction parallel to (with) the face grain, while the subscript denotes a direction perpendicular to (across) the face grain. This is illustrated by figure 1-1 ‘The strength and elastic properties given in table 2-13 of the bulletin are for plywood elements. 1.11 Derixitions ror Puywoop Panets. A plywood panel is any rectangular piece of plywood that is supported, loaded, or restrained on more than two edges. In defining the various strength and related property terms for plywood panels, the FACE GRAIN DIRECTION Eb ETOFROWS Eg by ATEFROM Whale 2-13 Tele 2-13 Figure 1-1, Plywood element (supported, loaded, or restrained ‘on two opposite edges only). 1oo Heese eee fee eH L L Be eee ee | aieeae oo side of length a rather than the face grain direc- tion has been used as the reference. For any panel having tension or compression loads (either alone or accompanied by shear) the side of length ais the loaded side. For panels having only shear Toads (with no tension or compression), the side a may be taken as either side (sec. 2.715). For panels having normal loads, side @ is the shorter side. The subscripts ¢ and J denote a direction parallel to the side of length a, and thesubscripts 4 and 2 denote @ direction perpendicular to the side of length a. ‘This is illustrated by figure 1-2. bescaaaaaaaaabocreccecizaace BT sn ag area rae Eq Ey ETC CANNOT BE Ey E,,ETC-CANNOT BE EVALUATED UNTIL FACE EVALUATED UNTIL FACE GRAIN DIRECTION 1S KOWH GRAIN DIRECTION 15 KHOWH Fire 1. Plywood pane oupporeds gad, 7 reaind Since, in panels, the directions in which E., Es, E,, E,, ete., are to be measured are related to the directions of the sides of lengths a and 6, it is necessary to relate these directions to the face grain direction before the terms can be evaluated from table 2-18. It may be stated, therefore, that: (1) When the face grain direction of » ply- wood panel is parallel to the side of length a, the values of Es, Ey, Ey, Ex ete., mey be taken from the columns for 1.12, Staxparp SrrucruRAL Sympois For CHAPTER 2. Ex, Ez, Eno, Eja, etc., respectively, in table 2-13. This is illustrated | by figure 1-3. 7 L Eq, ETC-VALUES FROM COLUMNS FOR Ey, Ejy ETC, RESPECTIVELY, IN TABLE 4A LTC™ VALUES FROM COLUIMND FOR E, FETC, RESPECTIVELY, 18 TABLE 27/3 213 Figure 1-8. Plywood panel (fase grain direcion porelil to Bef Legit ) . (2) When the face grain direction of # ply- wood panel is porpendieular to the side of length a, the values of 2, Ey, Hi, Es, ete., may be taken from the columns for Bx, Ew, Ey, Ene, ete, respectively, in table 2-13. This is illustrated by figure 1-4. FACE GRAIN DIRECTION ft Eq.8,, ETC-VALUES F, £,,ETC~VALUES. FROM COLdHNS FoR bf, ETC, COLUMNS EE, ETC, RESPECTIVELY, IN TABLE RESPECTIVELY, TN TABLE a 213 Figure J-f. Plywood ponel Jace groin direction perpendicy as vet to def eng 0 In general, symbols that sre used only in the section where they are defined are not included in this nomenclature. A —area of cross section, square inches (total). A, ——area of plies with grain direction parallel to the direction of applicd stress. ‘Ay —area of plies with grain direction per- pendicular to the direction of applied strese (surfaces of plies parallel to plane of glue joint tangential to the ennual growth rings, as for rotary-cut or flat- sliced vencer, flat-sawn lumber). @ — —the length of the loaded side of « plywood panel for compression or tension loads, and the length of either side for shear loads (sec. 2.715); subscript denoting parallel to side of length a for plywood panels,a L i SEER eee ee eee S auet An Dee Dee De Dee Das Daze —area of plies with grain direction per- pendicular to the direction of applied stress (surfaces of plies parallel to plane of glue joint radial to the annual growth rings, as for quarter-sliced veneer, quarter-sewn lumber). circumference. —diameter. —depending on direction of stiffeners, Eat oy Eat T2r, °° T2h; —same as Dy except that the stiffener is considered to be an extra ply of the plywood, —same as D, but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as a whole. depending on direction of stiffeners, Eek yy Ent! 72x, 12x; —seme as D, except that the stiffener is considered to be en extra ply of the plywood. —same as D. but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as a whole wl —same as Dy; except that the stiffener is considered to be an extra ply of the plywood. —same as Dy but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as a whole br —the length of the unloaded side of a ply. wood panel for compression or tension Toads, and the length of either side for shear loads (sec. 2.715); subscript de- noting parallel to side of length 6 for plywood panels; subscript denoting “bending” for solid wood —subseript denoting “bearing.”” —end-fixity coefficient for columns; sub- script denoting “compression”; dis- tance from neutral axis to extreme fiber. —distance from neutral axis to the extreme fiber having grain direction parallel to the applied stress (plywood) —subseript denoting “critical.” —depth or height.ete tesa | u CT rT i l Pee Ree E, En Er Eve modulus of elasticity of wood in the direction parallel to the grain, as de- termined from a static bending test. (This value is listed in table 24.) —modulus of elasticity of wood im the direction radial to the annul growth rings. —modulus of dlasticity of wood in the direction tangential to the annual growth rings —modulus of elasticity of wood in the direction parallel to the grain, as de- termined from a compression (value not listed in’ table 2-3, but ap- proximately equal to 1.1 Ey). —effective modulus of elasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression meas- ured parallel to the side of length @ of plywood panels. —effective modulus of elasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression meas- ured perpendicular to the side of length a of plywood panels. "or Ey as required, —effective modulus of clasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression meas- ured parallel to (with) the grain direc tion of the face plies. effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in tension or compression measured perpendicular to (across) the grain di- rection of the face plies. —effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured parailel to (with) the grain direction of the face plies —efiective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (Bending) measured per- pendicular to (across) the grain direc- tion of the face plies. —same as Ey, except that outermost ply on tension side is neglected (not to be used in deflection formulas.) & en er eur Coe ome —unit strain (tension or compression) in the L direction. —unit strain (tension or compression) in the R dircetion, —unit strain (tension or compression) in the T direction. unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originslly drawn in the Land I directions. —unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originally drawn in the E and R direetions —unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originally drawn in the T and R directions.eee eee ee oe Pe PEPE eee ee meee eee eee eee 5 gees E E; Foor Foye Frese —E, of a stiffener. —effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured parallel to the side of length a of plywood panels, or parallel to the axis of ply- wood cylinders. effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured per- pendicular to the side of length a of plywood panels. —allowable stress; stress determined from test, —allowable bending stress. —modulus of rupture in bending for solid ‘wood parallel to grain. —fiber stress at proportional limit in bend- ing for solid wood parallel to grain. —bearing stress at proportional limit par- allel to the grain for solid wood. —allowable ultimate bearing stress per- pendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings). allowable ultimate bearing stress parallel to grain. —allowable compressive stress. —critical compressive stress for the buck- ling of rectangular plywood panels, “stress at proportional limit in eom- pression parallel to grain for solid wood. stress at proportional limit in com- pression perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings). —stress at proportional limit in compression for plywood having the face grain di- rection parallel to (with) the applied stress —-stress at proportional limit in compres- sion for plywood having the face grain direction perpendicular to (across) the applied stress. te tu ta internal (or calculated) stress; subscript denoting “flexure” (bending) for ply- wood. —internal (or calculated) primary bending stress, —internal (or calculated) bearing stress. ~ internal (or stress, calculated) compressive —internal (or calculated) compressive stress in a longitudinal ply; i. e., any ply with its grain direction parallel to the applied stress.‘oe BE eee ee ee rT Ree Fess Pew Fur Fowe Pout B Fs Pu Fs Fue Fa Pu Fur —stress at proportional limit in compres- sion for plywood having the face grain direction at an angle @ to the applied stress —ultimate compressive stress parallel to the grain for solid wood, —compressive strength perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings) (sec. 2.1000). —nultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction parallel to (with) the applied stress. —ultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction per- pendieular to (across) the applied stress, —-ultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction at an angle @ to the applied stress. —allowable shearing stress. —critical shear strese for the buckling of rectangular plywood panels. modulus of rupture in torsion. —ultimate shear stress parallel to grain for solid wood. —ultimate shear stress for plywood, wherein é designates the angle between the face grain direction and the shear stress in a plywood element so loaded in shear that the face grain is stressed in compression. —ultimate shear stress for plywood, wherein 9 designates the angle between the face grain direction and the shear stress in a plywood element s0 loaded in shear that the face grain is stressed in tension. —ultimate shear stress for plywood cle- ments for the case where the face grain is at 0° and 90° to the shear stress —allowable tension stress. —ultimate tensile stress parallel to grain for solid wood, —tensile strength perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tan- gential to the annual growth rings). f. fe Sa —internal (or calculated) shearing stress. internal (or calculated) tensile stress, internal (or calculated) tensile stress in a longitudinal ply (any ply with its grain direction parallel to the applied stress){ L feet L Fv Fas Fue Gur Gun Cre Lv M N —ultimate tensile stress for plywood having the face grain direction parallel to (with) the applied stress. —ultimate tensile stress for plywood having the face grain direction perpendicular to (across) the applied stress. —ultimate tensile stress for plywood hay- ing the face grain direction at an angle 6 to the applied stress. —mean modulus of rigidity taken as He of Ey —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the LT plane resulting from shear stresses in the LR and RT planes. —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the LR plane resulting from shear stresses in the LT and RT planes. —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the 7 plane resulting from shear stresses in the LT and LR planes. —a constant, generally theoretical. —moment of inertia. —polar moment of inertia. —torsion constant (I, for round tubes). —a constant, generally empirical. length; span; subscript denoting the direction parallel to the grai -4 where ¢ is the end-fixity coefficient. a —applied bending moment. —applied lod (total, not unit load). —static moment of a cross section. —subscript denoting the direction radial to the annual growth rings and per- pendicular to the grain direetion, —shear force. —applied torsional moment, torque; sub- script denoting the direction tangential to the annual growth rings and per- pendicular to the grain direction. te ty length of side of panel and equal to a or bas is required. —height or depth. subscript denoting “i ply.” —stiffness factor yEI/P stiffness factor VEE —not used, to avoid confusion with the numeral 1. —number of half waves. —number of plies, number of stiffeners subscript denoting “polar”; subscript de- noting “proportional limit”; load per unit area, —pounds per square inch. —shear flow, pounds per inch. —radius} adjusted ratio length to width ale)" —distance ¢ to ¢ of adjacent stiffeners; subscript denoting “shear”. thickness; subscript denoting “tension”. —thickness of central ply. —thiekness of face plyC f suzazt ee eee Ree i r NN ON ~-section modulus, I/e —polar section modulus, I,/. bur —subscript denoting “ultimate”. —Aeflection of plywood panels; load per linear inch; subscript denoting parallel to faco grain of plywood. subscript denoting perpendicular to face grain of plywood. distance from the neutral axis to any given fiber. —iistance between center of panel and neutral axis of panel stiffener combina- tion. —the engle between side of length 8 and the face grain direction as used in the de- termination of buckling criteria for panels (see. 2.71). deflection, —usually the acute angle in degrees be- tween the face grain direction and the direction of the applied stress; angle of twist in radians in a length (ZL). —Poisson’s ratio of contraction along the direction 7’ to extension slong the di- rection L due to a normal tensile stress on the pr plane; similarly, jue, Har army ney M4 tr. —radius of gyration. —usunlly the acute angle in degrees between the face grain direction and the axis of extension.CHAPTER 2 STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS 2.0, Physical Characteristics and Factors Af- fecting the Strength of Wood 2.00. Antsorropy or Woop. Wood, unlike most other commonly used structural materials, is not isotropic. It is a complex structural material, consisting essentially of fibers of cellulose cemented together by lignin. It is the shape, size, and arrangement of these fibers, together with their physical and chemical composition that govern the strength of wood, and account for the large dif ference in properties along and across the grain (ref. 2-20). The fibers ere long and hollow tubes tapering toward the ends, which are closed. Besides these vertical fibers, which are oriented with their longer dimension lengthwise of the tree and com- prise the principal part of what is called wood, all species, except palms and yuccas, contain hori- zontal strips of cells known as rays, which are oriented radially and are an important part of the tree's food transfer and storage system: Among different species the rays differ widely in their size and prevalence From the strength standpoint, this arrangement of fibers results in an anisotropic structure, that accounts for three Young’s moduli differing by ‘as much as 150 to 1, three shear moduli differing by as much as 20 to 1, six Poisson's ratios differing by as much as 40 to 1, and other properties differing by various amounts. Not all of these wood properties have, as yet, been thoroughly evaluated. Figure 2-1 shows a diagrammatic sketch of the cellular structure of wood. Each year’s growth is represented by one annual ring. The portion of the growth occurring in the spring consists of relatively thin-walled fibers, while that occurring during the later portion of the growing sesson consists of fibers having somewhat heavier walls ‘Thus, there is, for most woods, a definite line of demarcation between the growth occurring in successive years. The relation betseen the cel- lular structure of the wood and the three principal axes—longitudinal (Z), tangential (7), and radial (R)—is indicated on the sketch. Figure 2-2 shows the relation between these axes and (a) the log, (6) 2 flat-sawn board or rotary-cut veneer, and (c) an edge-grain board or quarter-sliced veneer. 2.01. Densiry or Arranexy Specie Gravrry, ‘The substance of which wood is composed is actually heavier than water, its specific gravity being nearly the same for all species and averaging about 1.5. Since a certain proportion of the volume of wood is occupied by cell cavities, the apparent specific gravity of the wood of most species is loss than unit Relations between various strength properties and specific gravity have been developed (table 2-1) and are useful in estimating the strength of a piece of wood of known specific gravity. Considerable variability from these general reln- tions is found, so that while they cannot be expected to givo exact strength values, they do give good estimates of strength. Minimum per- missible specific gravity values are listed in section 2.10. ‘The exponential values shown in table 2-1 apply to variation within a species, Thats, they are to be used in determining the relation between the strength properties of pieces of the same species but of different specific gravity. ‘For expressing the relation between the average strength proper ties of different species, the exponential values are somewhat lower. Such values are shown in table 14 of U. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 479 (ref. 2-87). 2.02. Morssure Conrenr. Wood in the natural state in the living tree has considerable water associated with it, After being converted to lumber or other usable form, or during conversion, 9‘poocuipd puv poo us euonsousp podsouriey “a-z aun SFEWNT MYID FOOT YO AFINIA OFAPS A2OUIO (2 ma rs 10eo L : L fe Pee Se eet cr Pee eee wood is commonly dried so that most of the water is removed. The water is associated with the wood in two ways, either absorbed in the cell walls, or as free water in the cell cavities. During drying, the free water in the cell cavities is removed first, then that absorbed in the cell walls. The point at which all the water has been removed from the cell cavities while the cell walls remain saturated is Known as the fiber-saturation point. For most species, the moisture content at fiber saturation js from 22 to 30 percent of the weight of the dry wood. ‘Lowering the moisture content to the fiber- saturation point results in no changes in dimension or in strength properties. Lowering the moisture content below the fiber-saturation point, however, results in shrinkage and an increase in strength properties. Wood is a hygroscopic material, continually giv- ing off or taking on moisture in accordance with the relative humidity and temperature to which it is exposed. Thus, while the strength of a piece of wood may be increased to a relatively high value by drying to a low moisture content, some of that, increase may be lost if, in use, it is exposed to atmospheric conditions that tend to increase the moisture content. While paint and other coatings may be employed to retard the rate of absorption of moisture by wood, they do not change its hygro- scopic properties, thus & piece of wood may be expected to come to the same moisture content under the same exposure conditions whether painted or unpeinted. The time required will vary, depending upon whether or not it is coated. Ibis desirable, therefore, to design a structure on the basis of the strength corresponding to the con- ditions of use. ‘Moisture content is generally expressed as @ percentage of the dry weight~of the wood. The percentage variation of wood strength properties for 1 percent change in moisture content is given in table 2-2. Since this variation is an exponential function (ref. 2-85), it is necessary that strength adjustments based on the percentage changes given in the table be made successively for each 1 percent change in moisture content until the total change bas been covered. Figure 2-8 is a chart by means of which the ratio between the adjusted strength and the original strength may be deter- mined approximately if the proper correction factor is obtained from table 2-2 and the differ~ ence in moisture content for which correction is desired is known. For positive correction factors in table 2-2, the original strength is multiplied by the strength ratio factor determined from figure 2-8 for adjustments involving decresse in moisture content, and divided by the strength ratio factor for those involving increase in moisture content. For negative factors in table 2-2, the original strength is divided by the strength ratio factor for adjustments involving decreese in moisture, and multiplied for adjustments involving increase in moisture. Table 2-1. Variation of wood strength properties with pecific gravity Say s-@) S =strength at specific gravity g ‘S'=strength at specific gravity 9’ (usually average values from column (2) of tables 2-6 and 2-7) Statio bending: 5 Fiber stress st proportional limi 1.50 Modulus of rupture. 1.50 125 2.00 2.25 1.50 Modulus of elasticity. 1.25 Height of drop 2.00 Compression parallel to grain: Fiber stress a: proportional limi - 1.25 ‘Meximum crushing strength - 125 ‘Modulus of elastici 1.25 Compression perpendicular to grain: Fiber stress a: proportional limit. - 2.50 Hardness—end, radial, tangential * Volans inthis table spp only to variations witbin spaie. See ection 2.03! SariKacs. Reduction of moisture con- tent below the fiber-saturation point results in a change in dimension of the wood. Sbrinkage in the longitudinal direction is generally negligible, but in the other two directions it is considerable. Tn general, radial shrinkage is less than tangential, the ratio between the two varying with the species. ‘A quarter-sawed board will, therefore, shrink Jess in width but more in thickness then a fat- sawed board. The smaller the ratio of radial to tangential shrinkage, the more advantage is to be gained through minimizing shrinkage in width by "area ere Re eee eee eer eee Bree eee Re Bere eee ee 1 sexe using a quarter-sawed board. The smaller the difference between radial and tangential shrinkage, the less, ordinarily, is the tendeney to check in drying and to cup with changes in moisture con- vent. In general, woods of high specific gravity shrink ar 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 2) 20 19 18 1? STRENGTH RATIO 16 4s ht as 12 ary 10, 2 4 6 and swell more for a given change in moisture content than do woods of low specific gravity. 2.04, TemprraTure. The strength of wood is greatly influenced hy its temperature, but the magnitude of the effect depends upon the moisture content of the wood and the time of exposure. a 70 2 76 MOISTURE GONTENT DIFFERENCE (PERCENT) FOR WHICH CORRECTION 1S DESIRED Figure £-8, Strength ratio chart for use in making strengih-moisture adjustments, 12t aneaay eee ae a U- L L : ME eee eet Table £2, Percentage increase in wood sirength properties for 1 percent decrease in moisture conten!) Srciet Leer omen io ae Sule benaing diets [ates Compees ivofeain, | sien Gonprex | Suearing ‘Son pe | senate pendigeas | Fort (Picea | fein Maygoees ‘ae Motus | gadinam © Hardwoods:* Ash, black ‘Ash, commercial white. Basswood, Ameriean.. ate Beech, American. i Bireh, eweet.. Bireh, yellow. Cherry, black. Cottantrooa. Elm, rock Hickory (true hickories) Khaya (“African mahogany’ Mahogans Maple, sugar. ak, commercial white and red Sweetgum- Walnut, black Yellow-poplar. Softwoods (conifers) :# Baldeypress.. Douglas-fir. Fir, noble Hemlock, western, Incense cedar, California. Pine, eastern white. Pine, red. Pine, sugar.. Pine, western white Redeedar, western. Spruce, red and Sitka. Sprace, white White-oedar, northern. White-cedar, Port Orford POOR PDR OOD AOD Pepe ere eeo eee reer 4 2 4 3 8 3 3 1 2 ee pe eee as PRE Se wep I 6 t I ee Soom bermesanaene POOR NRO PERM ENBEE prsee woman on a0 35 35 Lo a3 pe 1 ropes PEPE pee PRER ORR BEE Phere eee * Corrections othe siength properties should te made successively for each 3 perort dbange in moisture content ntl be toa ebange bas been covered, oreaeh perp: deerate sn mostare eoneat Ue strength Is rill by C4-P), here Ps te poreatageeoretins fartr shown i the tbl expressed ‘ass decimal, For ach | peeeatineveave in msiscure content, the srength is aivided by (+P) ‘Negative vaiesinaeate a dstreaee im wort to taximumn load for decane i molstre consent 2 Fer ension vals ee artion 224, Although considerable literature exists relating to permanent strength reductions resulting from pro- Jonged or cyclic exposure to temperature extremes (ref, 2-46, 2-57, 2-84) few investigations have been made with respect to transient or reversible effects resulting from differences in temperature (ref. 2-2, 2-26, 2-28, 2-36, 2-58, 2-73, 2-76, 2-81). Broadly, it would appear from date now avail able that prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 150° F. may result in permanent, Joss of strength, and that within the range 0° F. to 150° F. the reduction in static strength proper- ties (excluding modulus of elasticity) with increase in temperature for wood at about 12 percent moisture content, will approximate one-half per- cent per degree Fahrenheit. ‘The effect on impact properties is variable and cannot be generalized. Some data on the mechenieal properties of wood of different moisture contents over the tempera- 13U L L a } v eee ieee : ture range of —328° F. to +392° F, are given in NACA Technical Memorandum No. 984, refer- 37. Fariaus Properties. The fatigue char acteristies of wood have been explored to only a limited extent (ref. 2-38, 2-39, 2-41). Tests of the Forest, Products Latioratory indicate that wood is less sensitive to rapidly repeated Joads than are the more crystalline structural materials, 1 sulting in a higher endurance limit in proportion to the ultimate strength. Tension parallel-to- grain and glue joint shear tests of Douglas-fir ai white oak, and tension perpendicular-to-grain tests of Douglas-fir showed an endurance load for 30 million cycles of about 40 percent of standard test strength for both solid wood and scarf- jointed specimens when the minimum repeated load was 10 percent of the maximum repeated load for each cycle. These tests were conducted ‘at about 12 pereent moisture content, at a tem- perature of 75° F. ‘Tests of small cantilever bending specimens of solid wood and plywood, subjected to fully re- versed stresses under the same temperature- humidity conditions as above, indicate an endur- ance load of about 30 percent of the modulus of rupture of standard static tests after 30 million cycles of repeated stress. Very little data are available on the effects of notches, bolt holes, or connectors in fatigue. Some data on the effect of notches on fatigue properties of rotating beam specimens are given in reference 2-87. 2.06. Puastic Properties. Though it is known that wood, in common with other materials of con- struction, exhibits plastic as well as elastie proper- ties, quantitative evaluations of the plestic char- acteristics of wood are limited in scope (ref. 2-34). Thus, while recognizing that when load is applied to 2 wood structural member the immediate or elastic deformation subsequently will be increased by plastic yield or creep, there is, at present, no accurate means of evaluating the rate of progress of such plastic yield, nor of predicting the time at which failure may be expected to oceur. Preliminary investigations at the Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory (ref. 2-66, 2-86) involve creep tests with stresses up to 3,000 pounds per square inch in tension and compression, up to 400 pounds per square inch in shear, and at stress levels ap- proaching the short-time ultimate strength in bending. They indicate creep characteristics very 14 much alike in these strength properties at the lower stress levels. ‘There is reason to believe that creep properties differ between tension and compression as stress values approach the short-time ultimate strength in compression, but the difference has not been fully explored. From these considerations, supported by a few test results, it is believed that joints and fastenings have similar creep properties insofar as their strength is controlled by the strength of the wood. It is evident from the studies thus far completed that creep under constant load is quite rapid at first, and continues for long periods at a decreasing rate, depending upon the ratio of the applied load to that which would cause immedinte failure. No critical point in time has been found at which the rate of creep suddenly changes or at which all creep ceases. Neither has there been found a stress threshold below which no creep takes place. ‘The studies in bending and compression have indicated that with stresses at, or less than, 60 per- cent of the strength in a standard laboratory test, the ratio of creep to initial strain is approximately constant. Since strain in this range is propor- tional to stress, it may be said that creep is pro- portional to stress. Both in compression and bending, creep at 5 minutes is generally less than 2 percent, and at 1 hour is about 4 percent of the initial strain or deflection. Where stresses in bending exceed 60 percent of laboratory test strength, creep percentages are higher than the above values. It is known that temperature and moisture changes influence plastic properties, but the extent of such effects is not known, When load is removed from wood, the elastic strain is recovered immediately. There is, in addition, 2 recovery of a portion of the plastic strain, relatively rapid at first, and continuing more and more slowly for considerable periods of time. Little is known of the nature and extent of recovery, or of permanent set characteristics, hysteresis, or damping capacity (see sec. 2.095) In bending, successive repetitions of the same Toad separated by periods of recovery cause successively increased deformations which finally Jead to failure. From data now available it appears that the sum of the periods under inter- mittent load, until failure oceurs, is somewhat greater than the duration to failure under constant load at the same stress level. 2.07. Lupacr Puopestres. ‘The rate at whichL L L Aa Cc L \ U ee . Sanyoee Soiree Cc load is applied to a wood member, as well as the time during which it acts, has an important effect on its ability to carry load (secs. 2.06 and 2.10). ‘Under extremely rapid loading conditions, such as are obtained in impact tests where failure may occur in a fraction of 2 second, 2 wood member would be expected to withstand a force much greater than in a standard test. Exact relation- ships of failing stresses under static and impact loadings are not well known as, in impact tests, measurement is generally made of the absorbed energy rather than the stress imposed. A beam subjected to impact loading in the standard drop hammer impact bending test (ref. 2-57) may deflect about twice as much before failure as under static test conditions. ‘The stress, required to produce failure under such impact conditions is, therefore, correspondingly, about twice as great as for static conditions. ‘The shock resistance of wood may be measured by a single-blow impact test such as the “tough- ness” test described in USDA Tech. Bul. 479 (ref, 2-57) where average toughness values for common species are listed, together with minimum acceptance requirements for a number of aircraft woods. Recent data of the Forest Produets Laboratory (ref. 2-10, 2-14) show that the toughness of wood is considerably influenced by its moisture content. Above the fiber-saturation point, approximately 30 percent moisture content, toughness is appar- ently independent of changes in moisture. For drier material the toughness, in general, decreases slowly from the green value to a minimum at about 12 to 18 percent moisture content, and then increases substantially with further decrease in moisture. These conclusions are in general agree ment with extensive toughness and Izod tests by the Australian Forest Products Laboratory (cef. 2-35) but it has been found that results vary greatly among species, and no adequate general formule can be devised to represent toughness- moisture relations for all species. 2.08. Erect or Liquips. Some liquids, when absorbed by wood, adversely affect the strength properties, others do not. In general, nonpolar, nonswelling liquids that do not react with wood chemically do not affect the strength (ref. 219). For example, saturated, straight-chain hydro- carbon oils, such as gasoline, kerosene, and most lubricating oils, and aromatic bydrocarbons, sueh as benzene and toluene, have no significant effect on the strength of wood and they do not raise the grain. ‘Turpentine, mineral paint thinners, and linseed oil will by analogy cause practically no effect upon the strength properties nor will cleaning fluids such as carbon tetrachloride. Low molecular-weight, simple alcohols such as methyl (wood alcohol), ethyl (grain alcohol), and propyl alcohol and polybydrie aleohols such as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and glycerine swell wood appreciably and cause a considerable loss in strength properties, varying from half to almost the full strength loss caused by water. In general, the crushing strength is decreased somewhat loss than it would be if swollen to the same extent in water (ref. 2-19, 2-60). Lacquer solvents, such as acetone, methyl and ethyl acetates, and ethylone glycol monoethyl ether will reduce the strength about half as much as water. Low molecular-weight orgenie acids, such as acetic acid, will reduce the strength about three- fourths us much as water, ‘The high molecular- weight fatty acids will have a much smaller but positive effect. ‘These various liquids reduce the strength of wood only while they remain in the wood. Vola- tile liquids, hence, have only a short, temporary effect upon the strength. Low volatility liquids like glycerine will reduce the strength over con- siderable periods of time. These are apparently the only liquids with which the aircraft industry need be concerned. Some hydraulic fluids con- taining glycerine or ethylene glycol have an experimentally demonstrated. detrimental effect upon the strength of wood (ref. 2-11). Another group of liquids, strong mineral acids and bases, have @ permanent effect upon the strength of woods as a result of chemical de- gradation of the wood. This degradation varies with species. ‘The only comprehensive data available on the subject are given in the tables 2-3 and 2-4. 2.09, Misczntanxous Paysicau Prorertigs. 2.091, Coafficient of expansion. ‘The isotropic nature of wood results in differing coefficients of thermal expansion (a) along its radial, tangential, and fiber axes. ‘This anisotropy, modified by the treatments involved, remains basic property of all the derived structural products of wood, in which the fiber arrangement is not destroyed. ‘The thermal expansion of wood is so small as to 15Ae teeter ry L L fee Ee ae L- Table £-8. Deterioration. due lo four weeks soaking in acide and bases al room temperature measured by the modulus of rupture relative to that for matched waler-soaked specimens. Concentrations, $ t0 10 percent (ref. 38) T 7 Bydroebonic acid | +1, 08-0. 81 1.08.84) 1. 00-82 | o6- . 93-52 Be 48 Fs varie, AR suiforte acid Nivea 111.00| Loz095| 0960.52) 1,000.92 Tasos} 07.93) 106-51) 1.00-. 70 hemo) sage | ae os 175 gi le7| 88-71 or 43 a ee lela) ire 55-221 6-183 a | | 2 Values aenter ham unity ate wo the fact Dot ae 8 yore slowly abson Table 2-4 toed by the wood than water Loss in breaking load in percent due to soaking in acids at room temperature relative to matched water-soaked specimens (ref. 2-1) ine j eae wie | Bee Specie ; contra | oocesietion | contain | ecentrtien | cenctatration | equatestiog Pere Poon ‘ren Point Prot | Poet at | 50 1| 31 30 34 76 48 | 40 26 18 46 | n| 18 ° | | i be unimportant in ordinary usage, for example, Ten 7 1 percent increase in moisture content swells pasa | Se ntti yellow birch as much as does an 80° C. thermal EEE earner expansion. Only meager data are available on egies the coefficients of thermal expansion of wood and acti dear ail tceele wood-base materials, and investigators are not in fallen ail eerie close agreement in their values although there is 43) a26| 232 general agreement that the expansion across the far] sma] s163 grain is much greater than that along the grain Douglas-fir fb ett tere Sitka spruce. a} 925) 238 (ref. 2-20). ; 40} 26) 218 ‘A comprehensive study of the thermal expansion @l-asi| 2068 of wood and wood-base products has been com- pleted recently at the Forest. Products Laboratory, and the results have been published (ref. 2-82). In this work the variation of the coefficients of linear thermal expansion with specific gravity was determined on a series of solid, oven-dry specimens of 9 different species of untreated wood. The effects of radial compression, resin-treating, and cross-banding on the values of the coefficients were determined on birch laminates. ‘The values of the coefficients for papreg and hydrolyzed-wood plastic were also determined. The average coefficients of linear thermal expansion (a) per ° C. of nine species of solid wood (ref. 2-82) from +50 to —50° C. for the average specific gravity of the species are given in the following tabulation: 16 1 Average specie pravity (bases on weight and volume when oven Ar) soken fom tables of properties te U. & D. A. Teth, Bally No. 8 (ot flor spenimens incident S20 ‘ecie grav average of vats fo two speemens teste Se masated from =F 10 08 C. only ‘The coefficients of linear thermal expansion in the tangential (a,) and radial directions (a,) may be ealeulated for specific gravities other than those tabulated by use of the following equation: @ a Gg @:) where ec=coofficiont of linear thermal expansion (a, or @,) at specifie gravity @mo Oa Se eee reer Perera eer e eee te eee ee efficient of linear thermal expansion (c oF a) listed G=specific G==pecific gravity desired The coefficient of linear thermal cxpansion parallel to the grain (al) is independent of specific gravity, and is unaffected by radial or tangential compression ‘The dependency of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion on resin content in a solid piece is expressed by Exyau(l—n)+Evamy Egi=n)+ En, (2:2) where a=coefficient of linear thermal expansion (a) of the wood-resin system ay==ot wood alone aol resin alone. E=-modulus of elasticity (subscripts have the same meaning 8s for a) fraction of solid cross-section of sample consisting of resin ne General formulas were developed at the Forest Products Laboratory that permit calculation of the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of wood laminates in any grain direction of the specimen, from the original and final specific gravities, the percentage by weight of renin and glue present, the ‘percentage of cross-banding, and the slope of grain. relative to any three axes of reference. Solution of the formulas, however, should be attempted only after reference to the original publication (ref. 2-82) 2.092, Thermal conductivity. ‘The thermal con ductivity of wood is dependent on a number of factors of varying degrees of importance. Some of the more significant variables affecting the rate of heut flow in wood are the following: density and moisture content of the wood; direction of heat flow with respect to the grain; kind, quantity, and distribution of extractives or chemical substances; relative density and proportion of springwood and summerwood; defects, like checks, knots, and erose-grain structure. ‘The Forest Products Laboratory has made careful determinations of the thermal conductiv- ity of wood at various moisture contents. These tests, which covered 32 species, have furnished sufficient data on the relationship between con- ductivity, specific gravity, and moisture content to make it possible to compute the approximate thermal conductivity for any wood for which the specific gravity is known and for which the mois- ture content can be determined or assumed. Such conductivities have many practical applica- tions, such as in estimating the thermal nee or insulating value of various woods; thermal resistance being the reciprocal or inverse value of conductivity. Ir is common engineering practice to express heat conductivity, represented by K, as the amount of heat in British thermal units that will pass in 1 hour through 1 square foot of the material 1 inch thick per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference between the faces. ‘Although it is not practicable (ref. 2-45) to compute the exact conductivity of wood of given density and moisture content because of the num- ber of variables involved, the following equations permit calculation of conductivity closely enough for practical purposes: For wood having a moisture content under 40 percent: esis K=S(1.39-+0.028M) +0.165 (23) For wood having a moisture content of 40 percent or more: K=S(1.39+0.088M) +0105 (24) Where K=conductivity ‘S=specific gravity based on volume at current moisture and weight when oven-dry M=moisture content Conductivities of wood aircraft parts will ordi- narily be computed by means of equation (2:3) using 15 percent for the moisture content of air- craft to be used in the continental United States and 20 percent for the moisture content of air- craft to be used under tropical conditions (sec. 2.10). The use of species average values of specific gravity may be considered sufficiently correct for most purposes. Experiments on Dougles-fir plywood with veneer Y-inch or more in thickness (ref. 2-45) indicate that the thin film of glue between the wood surfaces has no important effect on con- ductivity, as would be expected, because of the very slight thickness of the glue coating in com- parison with the total thickness. 7sea Sree eee eee ere eee eee eee Pe eee eee ee Pee ee Tests (ref. 2-45) indicate there is a small in- crease in conductivity with increase in tempera- ture difference but, for temperature conditions normally encountered, the veriation in conduc- tivity is not significant. 2.098. Ignition temperature. Limited data are available concerning minimum temperatures re- quired to produce charring or ignition of wood. Results obtained by different investigators for ignition temperatures show wide discrepancies ‘The different values reported may be due to the specific test conditions essociated with the methods employed, and also to the different inter- pretations among investigators as to what con- stitutes ignition temperature (ref. 24). As- suming conditions favorable to the completion of the ignition process, the ignition temperature has been defined (ref. 2-4) as the temperature in the combustible at which the rate of heat de- veloped by the reactions inducing ignition just exceeds the rate at which heat is dissipated by all causes, under the given conditions. It is thus obvious that, unlike flammable liquids, which have reasonably definite ignition tempera- tures, the ignition temperature of wood, even if standard interpretation of the phenomenon were determined upon, would vary widely depending upon the size, density, moisture content, and type, distribution, and quantity of extractives present in the specimen under test, snd upon the time and rate of heating, the amount of air available, and the rate of air flow. ‘The importance of the time factor has been em- phasized by the Forest Products Laboratory (ref. 2-49) but no specific tests have been made relating Jgnition temperatures to long exposures at the lower ranges of elevated temperature. The Un- derwriters’ Laboratories (ref. 2-80) have cited an example of ignition occurring efter long-continued exposure (about 15 yrs.) toa temperature of ap- proximately 190° F. 2.094, Electrical properties. 'The resistance that wood offers to the passage of direct current depends primarily upon the moisture content of the wood (ref. 2-72). In the green state the resistivity of wood is relatively low and increases slowly with decrease in moisture until the fiber-saturation point is reached at about 30 percent moisture content, and all free water has been removed. The change of resistivity within the green range is about. 50- fold. When wood is died below the fiber-saturn- tion point, however, its resistivity increases rapidly, about a million-fold from the fiber-satura- 18 tion point to the oven dry condition, The log- arithm of resistivity is approximately inversely proportional to moisture content. At values of moisture content appronching zero the resistivity becomes very great, of the order of 10" ohm-centi- meters (ref. 2-83), and dry wood is a very good electrical insulator. In conditions of use, however, wood will not remain dry, but will absorb moisture ‘until it reaches a condition of equilibrium corre- sponding with the ambient atmosphere. ‘The resistivity of wood at a typical moisture content of 9.3 percent is 10" ohm-centimeters. ‘When alternating voltage is applied to wood the effects depend upon both moisture content and frequeney, At frequencies up to a few hundred cycles per second the behavior of wood is prac- tically the same as for direct currents. At much higher frequencies, from o million cycles per second upward, the electrical properties of wood are essentially its properties when acting as e dielectric material. In this role it is interposed between two metallic plates or sheets to form a condenser. Wood is an imperfect dielectric and, therefore, some of the electrical energy required to, charge the condenser will be lost to the wood where it appears as heat. ‘Losses in the wood depend principally upon its moisture content and the frequency of the applied voltage, and the losses increase with both moisture content, especially above about 10 percent, and frequency. Wood is a very poor insulator or di- electric at high frequencies. ‘The alternating cur- rent electrical properties of wood are concerned principally with high-frequency dielectric heating for gluing purposes (ref. 2-5, 2-74). 2.095. Damping capacity, Damping capacity may be defined as the ability of « solid to convert mechanical energy of vibration into internal energy. This causes vibrations to die out. Pub- lished information on the subject (ref. 2-33) is mainly concerned with metals, and only occasional references are made to wood. , ‘The damping capacity of timber hes been in- vestigated by Greenhill (ref, 2-29). His investi- gations indicate that “if a truly elastic material is subjected to a cycle of stress, the stress-strain curve will bee straight line. If, however, the ma- terial undergoes reversible plastic deformation during the cycle, ihe stress-strain curve will be a hysteresis loop. The area enclosed by this loop represents the amount of energy expended during each complete stress cycle. Specimens subjected to eycles of stress below the fatigue limit can dis-PE EEE SEE eer eer eee ee ee ee ee ae L L L sipate an unlimited quantity of energy as heat, without any damage. “When a solid is subjected to a periodic force, the damping capacity prevents the amplitude of vibration from becoming infinite when the fre- quency of the applied force approaches a natural, froquency of the solid. Damping capacity is of considerable importance in certain branches of engineering and, consistent with other prop- erties, it is generally agreed that materials of high damping capacity are superior to those of low damping capacity, Take, for example, the wings of aeroplanes. Under certain circum- stances these are subject to resonant vibrations, the amplitude of which depends essentially n the damping properties of the materials of con- struction, ‘The same thing applies with special, force to the blades of aeroplane propellers which are linble to vibrate violently at certain critical speeds of rotation. ‘The amplitudes of vibra- tion are great or small according to the material of which the blades are made. It is stated by experts that the endurance of the blades de- pends far more on the damping capacity of the material than on its fatigue strength.” Damping capacity has been expressed numer- ically in various ways. Greenhill and Kimball (ref. 2-29, 2-38) have used logarithmic decrement (8), and Kimbell has summarized various formulas used by different investigators for determination of this factor. Briefly, if AW is the energy dis- sipated per cycle of vibration, and W the maxi- mum energy of the cycle, the ratio AWF/IV, called the “specific energy loss” or the ‘damping ca- pacity,” gives a measure of the damping charac- teristics of the material. ‘The logarithmic decre- mont 4 is equal to one-helf the damping capacity, or AW/27, Values of the logarithmic decrement 4 for wood and a few other materials are given in table 2-5. Toble 2-5. Damping capacity—togarithmic decrements (8) for internal friction in solids Tevestigntor Material | season | ar | | areata] a, Forest Produets Laboratory. Greenhill (Ref. 2-28) - Kimball and Lovell (Ref. 2-33). A. Gemant. W. Jackson (Ref. 2-53) - Be 8s 98 Fi Compression. éo 83Pe Ee ee ete re eee Pee eee Peer eee ee eee Data other than those from Greenhill and the Forest Products Laboratory are from » compila- tion included in reference 2-33. Greenhill (ref. 2-29) found that the effect. of increasing the moisture content of wood is to in- crease its damping capacity, the relation being practically linear within the range of 8 to19 percent moisture content examined. Upon removal of stress, full recovery of strain does not take place in most materials even though the stress imposed may be less than that corre- sponding to the apparent elastic limit of the ma- terial. Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory have shown that, with a compression load epplied repeatedly to a specimen of papreg, the set. or permanent deformation was increased, but the amount of set added for each load cycle diminished A straight-line relationship was found when ac- cumulative permanent set was plotted on an arithmetical scale against the number of load cycles plotted on a logarithmic scale, It was found thet the higher the load, the greater was the permanent set after the first and all succeeding load cycles. 2.1, Basic Strength and Elastic Properties of Wood 2.10. Desien Vazurs, TapLzs 2-6 anv 2-7 Strength properties of various species for use in caleulating the strength of sireraft elements are presented in tables 2-6 and 2-7. Their applica- bility to the purpose is considered to have been substentiated by experience. The assumptions (See footnotes to tables 2-6 and 2-7) made in deriving the values in tables 2-6 and 2-7 from the results of standard tests (sec. 2.12) have been reexamined in the light of recent. data with respect to the distribution of strength values in wood for aireraft construction and the moisture content of airplane parts, together with data relating to “duration of stress” in order to clarify the basis of design (ref. 2-12, 2-13). ‘The values in table 2-6 are based on a moisture content of 15 percent and are considered applicable for design of structural parts of sireraft that are to be used in the continental United States. Values in table 2-7 are based on a moisture con- tent of 20 percent and should be used for design of structural parts of aircraft to be used under tropical conditions where high relative humidity, approximately 90 percent or over, is prevalent. 20 for long periods of time, or more or less. con tinuously ‘When tests of physical properties are made on additional species or on specially selected wood the results may be made comparable to those in tables 2~6 and 2-7 by adjusting them to 15 or 20 percent moisture content. respectively, in accord ance with table 2-2, together with the appropzinte use of the factors described in the footnotes to tables 2-6 and 2-7. For notes on acceptable procedures for static tests and the correction of test results, see sections 2.12 and 3.01 2.100. Supplemental notes, 2.1000. Compression perpendicular to grain ‘Wood does not exhibit a definite ultimate strength in compression perpendicular to the grain, par ticularly when the load is applied over only » part of the surface, as it is by fittings. Beyond the proportional limit the load continues to increase slowly until the deformation becomes several times as great as at the proportional limit and the crushing is so severe as to damage the wood seriously in other properties. A “probebility” factor was applied to average values of stress at proportional limit to take account of variability, and the result, was increased by 50 percent to get design values comparable to those for bending, compression parallel to grain, and shear as shown in tables 2-6 and 2-7. 2.1001. Compression parallel to grain. Avail- able data indicate thet the proportional limit for hardwoods is about 75 percent and for soft- woods about 80 percent of the maximum crushing strength. Accordingly, design values for fiber stress at proportional limit were obtained by multi- plying maximum crushing-strength values by a factor of 0.75 for hardwoods and 0.80 for soft- woods, and adjusting for a difference in the factors for the “rate and duration of load.” 2.11. Nores on Tar Use or Vans iw Tanuzs 2-6 anp 2-7. 1 2.110, Relation of design values in tables 2-6 and 2-7 to slope of grain. The values given in tables 2-6 and 2-7 apply for grein slopes as steep as the following: (a) For compression parallel to grain—1 in 12, (®) For bending and for tension parallel to grain—1 in 15, When materiel is used in which the steepest, grain slope is steeper than the above limite, the design values of tables 2-6 and 2-7 must be reduced according to the percentages in table 2-8.“tWVs woes 28g “ema j0 tego os roa fo aoa) era oa orued uN wea SEA ee eee eee ee eee ea 5) oarpnes suapounncia 40f 118 19 O1'e MOHD u2}uod sinysiow: Wwsa9d G1 NO pIEDg “epoom enorina Jo vonzon YAPuOAS—"O~& 190A; porto" 51-2 PE Eee EEE Eee et eee eta« |® 2 ty jee fe le 3 eofee fa le é soofey fie. 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SESE eee emt umjptowe puo2s0d gg uo porng epooat SEER eee Pe teem eee cme eee ere Ete| so coyn ua 0 aresad gisoans Moos, L L aaRR B 25ya pes 4 Imopvodead 9 sions 2)4 6) squopwodand wopsadaeD soon ert ve sop odond puna ov) 20 past NopeZ “PHO HoKEANP ps esas suns o> aus J wy Ly HERERO eee eee eee eee eee ee ee eter eee eee eee PRR Ree eee eeeHES ee ee ee ee ee eee Re a ae ee Pe eae ee me [ 2.111. Tension parallel to grain. Relatively few data are available on the tensile strength of various species parallel to grain. In the absence of sufi- cient tensile-test data upon which to base tension design values, the values used in design for modu- lus of rupture are used also for tension. While it is recognized that this is somewhat conservative, the pronounced effect of stress concentration, slope of grain (table 2-8) and other factors upon tensile strength makes the use of conservative values desirable, Pending further investigation of the effects of stress concentration at bolt holes, it is recom- mended that the stress in the area remaining to resist tension at the critical section through a bolt hole not exceed two-thirds the modulus of rupture in static bending when cross-banded rein- forcing plates are used; otherwise one-half the modulus of rupture shall not be exceeded. 2.112. Tension perpendicular to grain. of strength of various species in tension perpen- dicular to grain have been included for use as a guide in estimating the adequacy of glued joints subjected to such stresses. For example, the joints between the upper wing skin and wing framework are subjected to tensile stresses per- pendicular to the grain by reason of the lift forces exerted on the upper skin surface. Caution must be exercised in the use of these ‘values, since little experience is available to serve as a guide in relating these design values to the average property. Considering the variability of this property, however, the possible discontinuity or lack of uniformity of glue joints, and the proba- ble concentration of stress along the edges of such joints, the average test values for each species have been multiplied by a factor of 0.5 to obtain the values given in tables 2-6 and 2. Values Table 2-8. Reduction in wood strength for various grain Hopes Coresponding design vale, pecwat of valu in tabi 2-6 semowene | Sopa | anon hese 7 j | pala | Bae ‘member’ | eae ot | Modulus } Modulus | { ee a a "Pais | tire | Ucar || ah fae rere Cemee Lin35... 100 100/100 |. 98) 88) aT || 8 m| oe] a st] aw 2.12, Snaxparp Tusr Paocepunss. 2.120. Static bending. In the statie-bending test, the resistance of a beam to slowly applied londs is measured. The beam is 2 by 2 inches in cross section and 30 inches long and is supported on roller bearings which rest on knife edges 28 inches apart. Lond is applied at the center of the length through a hard maple block 3%. inches wide, having a compound curvature. ‘The curva. ture has @ radius of 8 inches over the central 2 inches of arc, and is joined by an are of 2-inch radius on each side. ‘The standard placement is with the annual rings of the specimen horizontal and the loading block bearing on the side of the piece nearest the pith. A constant rate of deflec- tion (0.1 inch per minute) is maintained until the specimen fails. Lond and deflection are read simultaneously at suitable intervals. Figure 2-4 (a) shows a statie-bending test set-up, and typical load-deflection curves for Sitka spruce and yellow birch. Date on @ number of properties are obtained from this test. These are discussed as follows 2.1200. Modulus of elasticity (Z:). The modulus of elasticity is determined from the slope of the straight line portion of the graph, the steeper the line, the higher being the modulus. Modulus of elasticity is computed by Ey PD _ Pj (2:3) pray ‘The standard static bending test is made under such conditions that shear deformations are responsible for epproximately 10 percent of the deflection. Values of E; from tests made under such conditions and calculated by the formula shown do not, therefore, represent the true modulus of elasticity of the material, but an “apparent” modulus of elasticity. ‘The use of these values of apparent modulus of clasticity in the usual formulas will give the de- flection of simple beams of ordinary length with but little error. For I- and box beams, where more exact computations are desired, and formulas are used that take into account the effect of shear deformations, a “true” value of the modulus of clasticity is necessary and may be had by adding 10 percent to the values in tables 2-8 and 2.1201. Fiber stress at proportional limit (F,p) The plotted points from which the early portions of the curves of figure 2~4 (a) were drawn lie approximately on a straight line, showing that the 27| A rae e umnadt Pe ee ee eee ee ee eae deflection is proportional to the load. As the test progresses however, this proportionality between load and deflection ceases to exist. The Loan (eounos) “PROPORTIONAL | Mir L040 (Pouns) DEFLECTION (INCHES) (a) STATIC. BENDING aR LOAD Sitka mS space ‘PROPORTIONAL Lear oao (pounos) oA0 (Pounos) DEFORMATION (INCHES) (8) COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN 5 - WO Maximum = LOAD OBTAINED 3 [| Serororrionan 5 imi SUIKA 5 una 70 MaxTMOM zg LOAD OBTAINED £ ‘DEFORMATION (INCHES) (€) COMPRES51ON PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN Figure £-4. Standard test methods and typical load-dejlee- tion curoes 28 point at which this occurs is known as the pro- portional limit. The corresponding stress in the extreme fibers of the beam is known as “fiber stress at proportional limit.” Fiber stress at proportional limit is computed by (2:6) 2.1202. Modulus of rupture (Fix). Modulus of rupture is computed by the same formule as was used in computing fiber stress at proportional limit, except that maximum load is used in place of load at proportional limit. Since the formula used is based upon an assumption of linear varia- tion of stress across the cross section of the beam, modulus of rupture is not truly a stress existing at time of rupture, but is useful in finding the Jond-carrying capacity of « beam. 2.1203. Work to mazimum load. The energy absorbed by the specimen up to the maximum load is represented by the area under the load- deflection curve from the origin to a vertical line through the abscissa representing the maximum deflection at which the maximum load is sustained. It is expressed, in tables 2-6 and 2-7, in inch- pounds per cubic inch of specimen, “Work to maximum load is computed by area under curve to Pinaz, Work to Pass = BxdXL (2:7) 2.121. Compression parallel to grain. In the compression-parallel-to-grain test, a 2- by 2- by S-inch block is compressed in the direction of its longth at a constant rate (0.024 inch per minute) ‘The loud is applied through a spherical bearing block, preferebly of the suspended self-aligaing type, to insure uniform distribution stress. On some of the specimens, the load and the deforma~ tion in a 6-inch central gage length are read simul- taneously until the proportional limit is passed. ‘The test is discontinued when the maximum load is passed and the failure appears. Figure 2~4 (b) shows a test set-up, and typical load-deflection curves for Sitka spruce and yellow birch. Data on a number of properties are ob- tained from this test. ‘These are discussed as follows: 2.1210. Modulus of elasticity (E,). ‘The modu- lus of elasticity is determined from the slope of the straight line portion of the graph, the steeperL eH SER ee eee eee eee eee L L the line the higher the modulus. The modulus of elasticity is computed by Po Aer Eu (2:8) The value of the modulus of elasticity so de- termined corresponds to the “true” value of modulus of elasticity discussed under static bend- ing. Values of the modulus of elasticity from compression-parallel-to-grain tests are not pub- Jished but may be approximated by adding 10 percent to the apparent values shown under static bending in table 2-6. A multiplying inctor of 1.1 has been inserted in various formulas throughout this bulletin to convert E, values, as shown in tables 2-6 and 2-7 to Exe values required in formulas involving direct stress, 2.1211, Fiber stress at proportional limit (F.,). The plotted points from which early portions of the curves of figure 2-4 (b) were drawn lie approx- imately on a straight line, showing thet the deformation within the gage length is proportional to the load. The point at which this propor- tionality ceases to exist is known as the pr portional limit and the stress corresponding to the load at proportional limit is the fiber stress at proportional limit. It is calculated by The 1212. Maximum erushing strength (Fey) maximum crushing strength is computed by the same formula as used in computing fiber stress at proportional limit except that maximum load is used in place of load at proportional limit. 2.122, Compression perpendicular to grain. ‘The specimen for the compression-perpendicular-to- grain test is 2 by 2 inches in cross section and 6 inches long. Pressure is applied through a steel plate 2 inches wide placed across the center of the specimen and at right angles to its length Hence, the plate covers one-third of the surface. The standard placement of the specimen is with the growth rings vertical. ‘The standard rate of descent of the movable head is 0.024 inch per minute. Simultaneous readings of load and compression are teken until the testis discontinued at O.1-inch compression. Figure 2-4 (c) shows a test set-up, and typical Joad-deflection curves for Sitka spruce and yellow birch, a29770°—s1—4 ‘The principal property determined is the stress at proportional limit (Fige) which is calculated by Load at proportional limit (5.49) Width of platexwidth of specimen For Tests indicate that the stress at proportional Jimit when the growth rings are placed horizontal does not differ greatly from that when the growth rings are vertical. For design purposes, therefore, the values of strength in compression perpendi- cular to grain as given in tables 2-6 and 2-7 may be used regardless of ring placement. 2.123. Shear parallel to grain (F,.). The shear- parallel-to-grain test is made by applying force to a 2 by 2inch lip projecting % inch from ® block 2X inches long. ‘The block is placed in special tool having plate that is seated on the lip and moved downward at a rate of 0.015 inch per minute, The specimen is supported at the base so that a }j-inch offset exists between the outer edge of the support and the inner edge of the loading plate. The shear tool has an adjustable seat in the plate to insure uniform lateral distribution of the lond. Specimens are so cut that # radial surface of failure is obtained in some and a tangential surface of failure in others. ‘The property obtained from the test is the maximum shearing strength parallel to grein. It is computed by Quy The value of F,, 2s found when the surface of failure is in a tangential plane does not differ greatly from that found when the surface of failure js in a radial plane, and the two values have been combined to give the values shown in column 14 of tables 2-6 and 2-7. 2.124. Hardness. Hardness is measured by the load required to embed a 0.444-inch ball to one- half its diameter in the wood. (The diameter of the ball is such that its projected area is one square centimeter.) The rate of penetration of the ball is 0.25 inch per minute. ‘Two penetra tions are made on each end, two on a radial, and two on a tangential surface of the specimen. A special tool makes it casy to determine when the proper penetration of the ball has been reached. ‘The accompanying load is recorded as the hard- ness value, Values of radial and tangential hardness as 29cae oe paeae | cee-v | S000 90-0 resto son oe My eayands snonio fo spuvjn0d 2 Tee ee eee ee eee eee et 400 | S00 SEER Eee eee tee eee eee eee 30Cc Hl L Cre Hee eee Eee ee eee ee ee eee ee aa determined by the standard test have been aver- aged to give the values of side hardness in tables 26 and 2-7. 2.125. Tension perpendicular to grain (Fier) ‘The tension-perpendicular-to-grain test is made to determine the resistance of wood across the grain to slowly applied tensile loads. The test, specimen is 2 by 2 inches in cross section, and 2 inches in overall length, with @ length at midheight of 1 inch. The load is applied with special grips, the rate of movement of the movable head of the testing machine being 0.25 inch per minute. Some specimens are cut to give a radial and others to give a tangential surface of failure. ‘The only property obtained from this test is the maximum tensile strength perpendicular to grain. It is calculated from the formula eo A Fu (2:12) ‘Tests indicate that the plane of failure being tangential or radial makes little difference in the strength in tension perpendicular to grain. Re- sults from both types of specimens have, therefore, been combined to give the values shown in tables 2-6 and 2-7. 2.13. Exastic Prorerries Nor Incuupep 1s ‘Tasins 2-6 AND 2-7. Certain elastic properties useful in design are not included in tables 2-8 and 2-7. The date in tables 2-9 and 2-7 are, in general, based on large numbers of tests, while the data on the additional elastic properties are based on relatively few tests. Available data on these properties are included in table 2-! 2.130, Moduli of elasticity perpendicular to grain, (Ez, Eq). The modulus of elasticity of wood perpendicular to the grain is designated as Ey when the direction is tangential to the annual growth rings, and Ey when the direction is radial to the annual growth rings. Tests have been made to evaluate these elastic properties for only a few species (table 2-9). The ratios Ft and F* very greatly among species and are considerably affected by differences in specific gravity and moisture content. For species not listed in the table, a rough approsimation of the values for Zr and Ex may be made by assuming values of Ez and z as 0.05 and 0.10, respectively. Values of B, are given in tables 2-6 and 2-7. 2.131. Moduli of rigidity (Gir, Gum Gar). The modulus of elasticity in shear, or the modulus of rigidity as it is called, must be associated with shear deformation in one of the three mutually perpendicular planes defined by the Z, 7, and R directions, and with shear stresses in the other two. The symbol for modulus of rigidity has subscripts denoting the plane of deformation. Thus the modulus of rigidity Gir refers to shear deforma- tions in the LT’ plane resulting from shear stresses in the LR and RT planes. Values of these moduli for a few species are given in table 2-9. The ratios of Gir, Ge, and Ger to E;, vary among species, and appear to be considerably affected by differ- ences in specific gravity and moisture content For species not listed in the table, it is recom- 6. Ge mended the approximate ratios $#=0.08, Set— 0.075, and Se 0 .018 be used in evaluating the various moduli of rigidity. ‘The two letters of the ‘subscript may be interchanged without changing the meaning of @. 2,132. Poisson’s ratios (x). The Poisson's ratio relating to the contraction in the T direction under a tensile stress acting in the L direction, and thus normal to the RT plane, is designated as ssa uaa, ney nay re, and rz, have similar significance, the first letter of the subscript in each relating to the direction of stress and the second to the direction of the lateral deformation. Thus, the two letters of the subscript may not be interchanged without changing the meaning. ‘The Poisson's ratios appear to be independent of specific gravity but are variously affected by dif- ferences in moisture content. Information on Poisson's ratios for wood is meager and values for only a few species are given in table 2-9 2.14, Stress-Sreany Retarions. For most practical purposes wood can be considered to be an orthotropic material having orthotropic axes Z, 7, and R (see sec. 2.00). If the directions of the applied stresses are parallel to a plane containing two of these axes, the methods described in seo- tions 2.56 to 2.5002, inclusive, ean be applied ‘The general equations for stresses.applied in any direction can be obtained from reference 2-53. 2.15, Srrenara Unver Mutriaxrat Stress. If the directions of the applied stresses are parallel to a plane containing two of the orthotropic axes, the methods described in section 2.610 to 2.613, inclusive, for plywood can be applied. The ulti- mate shear stress associated with relative shear displacements of the L and R axes and the L and T axes are each equal to the ultimate shear stress 3PR eee meee SRE eR ee ee eee parallel to the grain (Fy). The ultimate shear stress associated with relative shear displacements of the P and T’axes is for hardwoods approximate- ly one-half and for coniferous woods one-third of Fy (ref. 2-48). ‘The ultimate compressive stress associated with the J’and ? axes are each equal to the compressive strength perpendicular to the grain (Fir) and the ultimate tensile stress asso- ciated with these axes are each equal to the tensile strength perpendicular to the grain (Fis). The general equation defining the condition of failure for stresses applied in any direction is similar to equation (2:51) except that its left hand member contains six terms instead of three. If the ultimate stresses are given the values indicated in the preceding paragraph this equation can be written in the following form: BE) +B)+ as) Uen)* +E fon) Fra? : eee in which f,, fr, and fy are the three internal direct stresses in the directions of the axes I, T, and R, respectively, and fir, fun, and fer are the three internal shear stresses associated with shear displacements of the Land axes, the L and R axes, and the R and Taxes, respectively. Also F;, Fr, and Fy are the thrve ultimate stresses associated with the directions of the Z, 7, and B axes, respectively, and may be tensile or compressive; thus F, is tensile if J, is tensile and compressive iff, is compressive and similarly for Fy and Fy. Pus. Equation (2:13) can be handled in the manner described in section 2.613 and in reference 2-67 using the transformation equations for three di mensions given in reference 2-53, ‘The methods described in this section have not been verified by test but their verification for plywood indicates that they probably will yield reasonable values. Also equation 2:44 has been compared with results of tests on solid wood in which the specimens were constrained by the testing equipment and good agreement was found, however, shear stress associated with relative shear displacements of the F and T’ axes was not involved in these tests. 2.16. Srress ConcENTRATIONS. Wood has ‘Thus Fy is equal to Fey or Fiu; Fp is equal to Fier or Fivr; and Fp is equal to Pap or The value of K is 2 for hardwoods and 3 for coniferous woods. plastic as well as elastic properties (see sec, 2.06 on creep) and, therefore, stress concentrations in ‘tension, compression, or shear are greatly relieved with the passage of time. In compression and shear, creep is very rapid for stresses near the ultimate value and, therefore, values of stress concentration calculated by means of the'mathe- matical theory of elasticity are rarely attained Creep at high stress in tension, however, is not nearly so rapid and calculated values of stress concentration may be approximately correct if the load is suddenly applied. This fact should be given careful consideration in the design of wood and plywood tension members, and stress concentrations should be avoided. 2.161. Stress concentrations around a hole in a tension or compression member. Figure 2-5 shows a panel of wood pierced by an elliptical hole which is small compared to the size of the panel Axes y and 2 are orthotropic axes of the wood as well as axes of the ellipse. When a tensile stress (/,) is ap- plied as shown in the figure, tensile stress concentrations occur at the ends of axis a. Qa 2 VEY) stress at these points is given by equation (2:14) foh(§ v: e ‘The value of the (2:14) in which f, denotes the value of the applied stress, subscript y denotes the orthotropic axis which is parallel to the stress, and subscript z denotes the other orthotropic axis which lies in the plane of the panel. These subscripts may represent the L, T, or R directions depending upon the directions of the grain and annuel rings in the panel. Equation (2:14) applies also to a compressive stress. 32fo Figure 2-5. A wood or plywood pazel pierced by an elliptical hole, 33‘The shear stress on the periphery of the ellipse associated with relative shear displacements of axes yand z is given by equation (2:15): i LE cost 5 BE, Co [ve () eos! o+[ eh 2am |sint ebeost (2) sino V e+ sint@ sin @ cos @ (2:18) By use of equation (2:15) the shear stress can be plotted against # and its maximum value found. For a plane sawed $ found at #=78° (see ref. 2-69). Equations (2:14) and (2:15) can be used for plywood if the subseripts y and. 2 are replaced. by the subscripts b and a, respectively. 2.162. Stress concentration due to a hole which is not small compared to the size of the member. Stress concentrations in isotropic materials around holes that are not small compared to the size of the members pierced by them have been deter- mined by photoolastic methods and are well known. It is impossible to use such methods in connection with wood, however, an estimate of the stress concentrations can be obtained by use of equation (2:14). For an isotropic material equation (2:14) reduces to equation (2:16) a j=t.(2$41) (2:16) An approximate corrective factor for use with the stress concentrations obtained for isotropic mate- rials to obtain those for wood, or plywood, can be obtained by dividing values obtained by equation (2:14) by those obtained by equation (2:16). Of course such corrections do not apply to the shear stresses such as those obtained by equation (2:15). 2.2. Columns 2.20. Prumany Famune. The allowable stresses for solid wood cohimns are given by the follow- ing formulas: Long columns (2:17) Short columns (ref. 2~ FaFald (i) J (2:18) 34 itka spruce panel pierced by a circular hole ( 2) a maximum value of 0.71 fe was where Yr @), These formulas are reproduced graphically in figure 2-6 for solid wood struts of a number of species. 2.21, Locat Buextixe anp Twisrixe Partune, ‘The formulas given in section 2.20 do not apply when columns with thin outstanding flanges or low torsional rigidity are subject to local buckling or twisting failure. For such cases, the allowable stresses are given by the following formulas: Local buckling (torsionally rigid columns) F tye b OTE, G) psi (when $>s) 2:19) ‘Twisting failure (torsionally weak columns) r= 0.044 Ey (j) psi (when 4 >s) 2:20) When the width-thickness ratio (6/t) of the outstanding flange is less than the values noted, the column formulas of section 2.20 should be used. Failure duo to local buckling or twisting can occur only when the critical stress for these types of failure is less than the stress required to cause primary failure. For unconventional shapes, tests should be conducted to determine suitable column curves (ref. 2~79). 2.22. Larenat Bucxtine. When subjected to axial compressive loads, beams will act as columns tending to fail through lateral buckling. The usual column formulas (2:17 and 2:18) w: apply except that when two beams are intercon nected by ribs so that they will deflect together (eterally), the total end load carried by both beams will be the sum of the critical end loads for the individual beams. ‘The column lengths will usually be the length of a drag bay in a conventional wing. A restraintce PSS eee See eee ee eee Fe 7 ALLOWABLE COLUMEY STRESS (P.5.1) 7 WESTERN wewoce, | 77 ORFORD WHITE CEDAR i | | \ i 4200 ! WESTER HEMLOCK sas Efe I PORT ORFORD WHTE™CEOAR Tk SPRUCE i YELLOW POPLAR: p20 SASTERN WaITE PE? a 35 a a L 2 é Ts270 F i Figure 2-6, Allowable column siresaee for solid wood struts. 35Ree eee tee ee eee eee eee coefficient of 1.0 will be applicable unless the con- struction is such that additional restraint is afforded by the leading edge or similar parts. Certain rules for such conditions will be found in. the requirements of the certificating or procuring agencies. 2.3. Beams 30. Fors Facrors. When other than solid rectangular cross sections are used for beams (i-beams or box beams), the static-bending strength properties given in table 2-6 must be multiplied by a “form factor” for design purposes, ‘This form factor is the ratio of either the fiber stress at proportional limit or the modulus of rupture (in bending) of the particular section to the same property of standard 2-inch square specimen of that material. ‘The proportional limit form factor (FF,) is given by the formula: FF, 9840.42 (K be vee) (2:21) and the modulus of rupture form factor (FF,) by the formula: FF, 50+0.50 (K where total web thickness } =total flange width (including any K =constant obtained from figure 2-7 Formulas 2:21 and 2:22 cannot be used to de- termine the form factors of sections in which the top and bottom edges of the beam are not. per- pendicular to the vertical axis of the beam. In such cases, it is first necessary to convert the section to an equivalent section whose height equals the mean height of the original section, and whose width and flange areas equal those of the original section, as shown in figure 2-7. The fact that the two beams of each pair shown in figure 2-7 developed practically the seme maxi- mum load in test demonstrates the validity of this conversion (ref. 2-66 and 2-62). Tests heve indicated that the modulus of rupture which can be developed by a beam of rectangular cross section decreases with the height. Sufficient data are not available to permit exact. evaluation of the reduction as the height increases, but where deep beams of rectangular cross soc- tion ere to be used, thought should be given to the reb(s)) 36 reduction of the value for modulus of rupture given in tables 2-6 and 2.31. Tonstowat Inszaprurry. It is possible for deep thin beams to fail through torsional instability at loads less than those indicated by the usual beam formule. Reference 2-63 gives formulas for calculating the strength of such beams for various conditions of end restraint. However, in view of the difficulty of accurately evaluating the modulus of rigidity and end fixity, iv is always advisable to conduct static tests of a typical specimen. This will apply to cases in which the ratio of the moment of inertia about the horizontal axis to the moment of inertia about. the vertical axis exceeds approximately 25 (ref. 2-62 and 2-63) 2.32. Comzrnep Loapinas. 2.320. General. Because of the variation of the strength properties of wood with the direction of loading with respect to the grain, no general rules for combined loadings can be presented, other than those for combined bending snd compression given in section 2.21, and those for combined bending and tension given in section 2.322. When unusual loading combinations exist,’ static tests should be conducted to determine the de- sired information, 2.821. Bending and compression. When sub- jected to combined bending and compression, the allowable stress for spruce, Western hemlock, and noble fir beams at 15 percent moisture content can be determined from figure 2-8 and that for Douglas-fir beams from figure 2-9. The charts are based on @ method of analysis developed by the Forest Products Laboratory (ref. 2-63 and 2-78) ‘The curves of figures 2-8 and 2-9 are based on the use of a fourth-power parabola for columns of intermediate length. On these figures the hori- zontal family of curves indicates the proportional limit under combined bending and compression; the vertical family, the effect of various slenderness ratios on bending. The allowable stress, Fy, under combined load is found as follows: (2) For the cross section of a given beam, find the proportional limit in bending and the modulus of rupture from the ratios of compression-flange thickness to total depth and of web thiekness to total width, locating such points as A and B. (2) Project points 4 and B to the central line, obtaining such points as C and D.Se eee oa Cc c c ESE Ae ee ee DEPTH OF COMPRESSION FLANGE IN PERCENT OF TOTAL DEPTH 100 ° s Pea eee ea 10 09 08 Q7 06 O05 OF O03 02 Of O q < ee gas gears * Fhy+ 65 Fhy= 74 FRy=69 PR 65 Phy n357 Fy E350 FR, Ex67) Fo G28 76 Pigure £7. Porm-factor curee and equivalent beam sections,sof vauxaue agunonys “9g andag ‘% onve ooo oro ozo __ ovo o PTE rren perenne rere rey errr oer 1 17 pees : L de Eg wae 90 mam. is E |’ aan a0 ssawwoms “A ed E = oe + |e E G4 064 E 1) fe * Je oF 5 ZF Ae eb ~je eA [7 3 ree “J eT LT q cee a om Fon ; 6 E> oA 4 oth hiitiehbbubi! Hoy 74 ‘ss3u1s 3 7evMOTIV (HON! Senos U3d SoNNOd ONWSNOHL)opus aunyeone yearend do pun Buapon porque 07 ppatane ein 2Y-enybn0c] of aeeoum vO “A-8 28ND Wy one 00 oro coos oo oor oo 090 ova ° Braap red hepredeeeprpepren erp gare mere cere LT E 3 yr we ee Wo ag , + -t = , E | a. pm gepae 1 bese a E | ‘ame 20 ’ TTT SE AD a (HOM RENNES wad SaNNOd aNvSnOHL) 7% ‘SSIuLS TTEMOTIVc Sa (3) Locate » point, such as E, indicating the proportional limit of the given section under combined bending and compres- sion. This point will be at the inter- section of the curve of the “horizontal” family through @ and the curve of the slenderness ratio corresponding to the distance between points of inflection. (4) Draw line ED, (8) Locate point F on line ED, with an abscissa equal to the computed ratio of bending to total stress. ‘The ordinate of F represents the desired value of the allowable stress, ‘The following rules should be observed in the use of figures 2-8 and 2-9: (2) The length to be used in computing the slendemess ratio, Z/p should be deter- mined as follows: (a) If there are no points of inflection between supports, L should be taken as the distance between supports. (6) If there are two points of inflection between supports, L should be taken as the distance between these points of inflection when calculating the allow- able strength of any section included therein, (©) When calculating the allowable strength of a section between a point of inflec- tion and an intermediate support of a continuous beam, L should be taken as the distence between the points of inflection adjacent to the support on either side, (@ When investigating « section adjacent to an end support, Z should be taken as twice the distance between the support and the adjacent point of inflection, except that it need not exceed the distance between supports. (2) In computing the value of p for use in determining the slenderness ratio, Lip, filler blocks should be neglected and, in the case of tapered spars, the average value should be used. (8) In computing the modulus of rupture and the proportional limit in bending, the properites of the section under investiga tion should be used, Filler blocks may be included in the section for this purpose. ‘When computing the form factor of box 40 spars the total thicknesses of both webs should be used, 2.322, Bending and tension. When tensile axial louds exist, the maximum computed stress on the tension flange should not exceed the modulus of rupture of a solid beam in pure bending. Unless the tensile load is relatively large, the compression flange should also be checked, using the modulus of rupture corrected for form factor 2.33. Suzan Weps. See section 2.73. 2.34, Beam Secrion Erricrzncy. In order to obtain the maximum bending efficiency of either Tor box beams, the unequal flange dimensions can be determined by first designing a symmetrical beam of equal flanges. The amount of material to be transferred from the tension side to the compression side, keeping the total cross-sectional area, height, and width constant, is given by the following equation (ref, BwDbR (2:28) where A=total area of the cross section b= total width h=total depth w=width of flange D=clear distance between flanges Z.=moment of inertia of the symmetrical section x=thickness to be taken from tension flange and added to compression flange In using this equation, the following procedure is to be followed: (a) Determine the section modulus required (6) Determine the sizes of flanges of equal size to give the required section modulus. (c) Using equation (2:23), compute the thick- ness of material to be transferred from the tension flange to the compression flange. The procedure thus fer will result in a section modulus greater than required. To obtain ¢ beam of the required section modulus, either (d) or (©) may be followed @ Caleulate the ratio of depth of tension flange to compression flange and design a section having flanges with this ratio and the required section modulus, or (©) Carry out steps (a), (8), and (¢) starting with a symmetrical section having a section modulus less than that requiredcc L oe eT ee a aoa or v r until an unsymmetrical section having the required section modulus is obtained () Beams designed according to the foregoing procedure should always be checked for adequacy of glue area between webs and tension flange. ‘This consideration may govern the thickness of the tension flange. 2.4, Torsion 2.40, Gexexar. The torsional deformation of wood is related to the three moduli of rigidity, Ger Gra, and Gyr. When a member is twisted about an axis parallel to the grain, Gyr is not involved; when twisted about an'azis radial to the grain direction, Gr» is not involved; when twisted about en axis tangential to the grain direction, G.g is not involved, No general relationship has been found for the relative magnitudes of Gre. Gzz, and Gar (table 2-9) 2.41. Torstonar Prorertizs. The “mean mo- dulus of rigidity” (@) taken as 1/16 of Z;, may be safely used in the standard formulas for com- puting the torsional rigidities and internal shear stresses of solid wood members twisted about an axis parallel to the grain direction. Torsion formulas for a number of simple sections are given in table 2-10. For solid-wood members the allownble ultimate torsional shear stress (F,,) may be taken as the allowable shear stress parallel to the grain (column 14 in tables 2-6 and 2-7) multiplied by 1.18: that is, Fi=1.18 Fy. The allowable torsional shear stress at the proportional limit may be taken as two-thirds of Fy. The torsional strength and rigidity of box beams having plywood webs are given in section 2.75. Table 2-10. Formulas for torsion on symmetrical sections ‘ection Angle of ist eaaiane Cirete. Cireutar tube. TLe+b) Grae TL. on Reig (opprox) 401,7L en ae Rectangle tepprox.) “agemajr ani 2bermina ati tensidef guar tesiing ie, 2.5, Basic Strength and Elastic Properties of Plywood 2.50. Gexenat. Plywood is usually made with an odd number of sheets or plies of veneer with the grain direction of adjacent plies at right angles, Depending upon the method by which the veneer is cut, it is known as rotary-cut, sliced, or sawed veneer. Generally, the construction is symmetri- cal; that is, plies of the sume species, thickness, and grain direction are placed in pairs at equal distances from the central ply. Lack of symmetry results in twisting and warping of the finished panel. The disparity between the properties of wood in directions parallel to and across the grain is reduced by reason of the arrangement of the Moximur sber stress 18 IDs 7D I 2 a oof hort dimer 22 eppox) ¥) a midpoint of long side material in plywood. By placing some of the material with its strong direction (parallel to grain) at right angles to the remainder, the strengths in the two directions become more or less equalized. Since shrinkage of wood in the longitudinal direction is practically negligible, the transverse shrinkage of each ply is restrained by the adjacent plies. ‘Thus, the shrinking and swelling of plywood for a given change in moisture content is less than for solid wood. ‘The tendency of plywood to split is consider ably less than for solid wood as a result of the cross-banded construction. While many woods are cut into veneer, those species which have been approved for use in aircraft plywood are listed in table 2-11. a41. ANauysis or PLrwoop Srrexctu Prop- prriss. The analysis of the strength and clastie properties of plywood is complicated by the fact that the elastic moduli of adjacent layers are different. This is illustrated in figure 2-10 for bending of a three-ply panel, Assuming that strain is proportional to distance from the neutral axis, stresses on contiguous sides of a glue joint will be different by reason of the difference in the modulus of elasticity in adjacent layers. This results in a distribution of stress across the cross section as shown in figure 2-10 (c). Similer irregular stress distribution will be obtained for plywood subjected to other types of loading. From this it may be seen that the strength and elastic properties of plywood are dependent not only upon the strength of the materiel and the dimensions of the member, 2s for a solid piece, but also upon the number of plies, their relative thickness, and the species used in the individual plies. In addition, plywood may be used with the direction of the face plies at angles other than 0° or 90° to the direction of principal stress and, in special cases, the grain direction of adjacent plies may be oriented at angles other than 90°. In general, plywood for aircraft use hes the grain direction (the longitudinal direction) of adjacent plies at right angles. ‘The strength and elastic properties of the plywood are dependent upon the properties of solid wood slong and across the grain as illustrated in figure 2-11. Considerable information (tables 2-6 and 2-7) on the properties of wood parallel to the grain is available, but the data on properties across the grain are less complete. Sufficient data are avail- able, however, so that the elastic properties of wood in the two directions can be related with reasonable accuracy to the plywood properties. On this basis formulas are given whieh will enable the designer, knowing the number, relative thick- ness and species of plies, to compute the properties of plywood from the data given in tables 2-6 and 2-7. ‘The formulas given are only for plywood having the grain direction of adjacent plies at right angles and are applicable only to certain directions of stress. The limitations on the angle between the face grain and the direction of principal stress have been noted in each section. The formulas are intended for use only in these cases, and the interpolation must not be used to obtain values for intermediate angles unless specific information on these angles is given. Computed values of certain of the strength and elastie properties for many of the commonly used species and construc- tions of plywood are given in section 2.54, based on strength of wood at 15 percent moisture con- tent (table 2-6). 2.52. Baste Formvzas. For purposes of dis- cussion, plywood structural shapes may be con- veniently separated into two groups: (a) elements acting as prisms, columns, and beams, and (b) pancls, The fundamental difference between these two groups is that, in group (a) the plywood is supported or restrained only on two opposite edges, while in group (b) the plywood is supported Table 2-11. Veneer species for aircraft plywood Say American beeeb Bireh (sweet and yellow). hogany”). Maple (hard). | Southern magnolia. Pecsn.. Maple (coft) Sweetgum.. | Water wupelo Black walnut. | Douglas-fir (q1 American elm (quarter-slieed) vd. or where the plywood ist ‘oroap 1 eoeaiar dents)? ireh (Alaska and paper) | Khaya species (so-called “African me- ‘Mohogany (from tropios! America). stance 1 ebrasion, snd high strength of atoning ae Gesired, Group I woods should Steamed and bent inom form a whieh fet ren ‘ied principally for core stock and erss-taning. “However, where high beading sincngth or eedon vera bockins st snnaur ‘send, plywood made entirely from species of Group II] i ecommended | otTE. Basswood. Yellow-poplar. Port Orford White-cedar. Spruce (red, Sitka, and: white) (quarter- | sticea Ponderosa pine (quarter-slieed), Sugar pine, ‘ble fir (quarter-sliced). ~-| Western hemlock (quarter-sieed), | Beswood (qvertersie ied for fcr wack ‘specks of Group J and 1 ould be widee eee eee eee eee Pe eee ‘ Pa ee et (weureae Aris. FACE-E* Ex [$ (@) PLYWOOD (b) STRAIN @ STRESS Pigure 2-10. Threeeply plywood bean in bending, SPLY(L22.2.1) S-PLY (t:4:1611) Figure 8-11, Typical plywood constructions. Arrows indicate grain direction of each ply.cy Yaad eee Bee reer ee eee ee ee eee ee re eee ere eee eee or restrained on more than two edges. It is essential that this fundamentel difference between the two groups be kept in mind during the appli- cation of the formulas? given here and in later sections (ref. 2-25, 2-43, and 2-54). (1) The effective moduli of elasticity of ply- ‘wood in tension or compression are: E,—measured parallel to side a for panels (sec. 2.712, 2.713) By—measured perpendicular to side @ for panels (sec. 2.712, 2.713) E,—measured parallel to (with) the face grain E,—moasured perpendicular to (across) the face grain, and are deter- mined a8 ise TE et (2:24) where ‘otal thickness of plywood thickness of i iodulus of elasticity of i ply measured in the same direction as the pertinent desired E (as Ey, Ey, Ee, or E.). The value of E, is equal to Exe (1.1 Ey from tables 2-6 and 2-7), or En, or En, (table 2-9) as applicable. (2) The effective moduli of elasticity of ply- wood in bending are: E;—measured parallel to side a for panels E;—measured perpendicular to side a for panels Eye—measured parallel to (with) the face grain Eye—measured perpendicular to (across) the face grain, and are deter- mined as ae faz dS El (2:25) where E,~as defined under (1) J =moment of inertia of the totel cross section about the centerline, measured in the same direction as the pertinent desired E (namely, Ey, Fa, Eye, or Eye). 2 When compating the ratous modal of elasticity for plywood of banca onsrietion and all pes a the nue species, he folowing relationship be found etal Bit Ere Bet Ree Ft Bee Bet Bem Bet Boe 1 che rencers ae quarension’ rather than rotary, the term dowd bereplaee by Es, 44 J, =moment of inertia of the 7 ply about the neutral axis of the same total cross section. For symmetrically con- structed plywood, the neutral axis to be used in determining J, will be the centerline of the cross section, For unsymmetrical plywood construction: the neutral axis is usually not the centerline of the geometrical section. In this case the distance from this neutral axis to the extreme compression fiber is given by the equation: Save = (2:26) atk ec =distance from the extreme compression fiber to the center of the i* ply. (8) In calculating the bending strength (not stiffness) of plywood strips in bending having the face grain direction perpen dicular to the span, » modulus BE’, simi- lar to Ey is to be used. For plywood made of five or more plies, the use of Ey. for E’,,in strength calculations will result inbutrelativelysmall error. ‘The value of E’,, may be calculated in the same man- ner as that used in esloulating Ey, except that the effect of the outer ply on the tension side is neglected. The location of the neutral axes used in calculating Ey and E",, will be different. The value of E’ may also be caleulated from the following formula: on fs) 1Ee (24) # (2:27) emnty Ean iE; =distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber of the outermost longitudinal ply. Er pertains to the species of the face ply. (4) The modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity in shear) of solid wood involves the shear moduli Grr, Gir, and Grr.eae eee ren ere eer eee ge rc. ~— rm Cc rc ee ae As mentioned in section 2.131, little informa- tion is available on this elastic property, and a mean" modulus of rigidity is or- dinarily used for wood. Similarly for plywood, a value of modulus of rigidity based on the “mean” modulus of rigidity for solid wood may be used. For plywood (all plies the same species) having the facegrain parallel or perpen- dicular to the direction of principal shearing stress. the modulus of rigidity may be taken the same as for solid wood, ‘The theoretical treatment of the elastic prop- erties of plywood involves the moduli of rigidity Ge: and Gye: “They are deter- mined as Cami S Outs 2:28) Ce] 3S GT 2:29) where the summations are taken over all plies in a section perpendicular to either the « or b directions using the modulus of rigidity in each ply in the wz plane, ‘When the plywood is made of a single epecies of wood, G,r for rotary-cut veneer. Gpes= Gus 6, G Gen for quarter-sliced veneer. (5) Poisson's ration (u). Although there is very little information available on the values of Poisson’s ratios for plywood, 8 brief summary of their significance is given The effective Poisson's ratio of plywood in tension or compression (no flexure) is the ratio of the contraction along the z direction to extension along the w direc- tion due to tensile stress acting in the w direction and thus normal to the zt plane, or 1 = (E(w) (2:30) where (E,) =modulus of elasticity of the i ply in the « direction (iz)=Poisson’s ratio of contraction along the z direction to extension in the w direction due to a tensile stress act= ing the w direction and thus normal to the zt pline of the iply Similarly beer Fie Sat Heheads (2:31) It all plies are of the same species of rotary-cut veneer pam Exsere/ Ex tre Exurs/! Bw If all plies are of the same species of quarter- sliced veneer we ExuarlEs bro Expal Ee ‘These formulas give close approximations of the apparent Poiston’s ratios in these two directions when the stress is simple tension or compression. For more accurate formulas than (2:80) and (2:31) see reference 2-65. For Poisson’s ratio at an angle to the grain see section 2.56. ‘The Poisson’s ratios associated with flexure are “mS 2p NE ddwae (2:32) eve pr Sli Balltae)s (283) ‘These equations yield values identical to those of equations (2:30) and 2:31) if all plies of the ply- wood are of the same species of wood. 2.53. Approximate Mersops For CaucuLaT mo Prrwoop Srnevarus. Table 2-12 gives some approximate methods of calculating the various strength properties of plywood. These simplified methods will be found very useful in obtaining estimates on the strength of plywood, but cannot be relied upon to give results that are comparable to those obtained with the more accurate methods previously given, 2.54 Morsrune-Srrenoru Rewations ror Puy- woo. 2.540 General, ‘The design values given in the plywood strength-property tables 2-13 and 2-14 were calculated from the strength properties of solid wood as given in table 2-6 based on a moist- ure content of 15 percent; and are applicable for design of aircraft to be used in the continental United States. For design of aireraft to be used 45CC CO eee eee reg erimreeeeeeeeer eee Pete Table 2-18, Appresimote methods for clewing the srngth and sire of pywod ay [Dee strane agree | Port commas ann whe cn ADpuatsoe mpgs oreiarercahaer | se mah oo prs ¢ cee allel (Fig) oF perpen- | |) , Sienlar (Fig). -----.--) Parallel plies? only. Ultimate tensile. Parallel (Fru) oF perpen- ' Parallel plies? only dicular (Fee) Ultimate compressive (a 43° Fu’) Full cross-sectional area. (Parallel or perpendicular Full cross-sectional area. Shear. --- Full eross-sectional area, Shour in plane of plies. Parallel, perpendicular, or Joints between ribs, spars, ete, 46° ‘and continnous stressed pl-- : ‘wood coverings; joints be- | tween webs (plrwood) and flanges of 1 and box-beams: Joints between ribs, spars, tte, and stressed plywood panels when plywood te minates at. joint—use shear area over support. Bending moment M=Kl/c' where [= moment of inertia i computed on basis of par- | allel plies only; e’=distunee from neutral axis to outer | her of ovtermost piv hav ing its grain in direetion of span; K= 1.80 for three-ply plywood having grain of outer plies perpendicular to span, K=0.85 for all other plywood. Defiection may be ealeulated ' by the usual formulas, tak- | ing as the moment of inertia 1 that of the parallel plies plus 1/20 that of the per- Parallel or perpendicular... Defection in bending. Parallel or perpendiculer. pendicular plies, (When face plies are parallel, the | calewiation may be sitspli- | S82, with but tle err, by taking the moment of | imertia as that of the par- | _ altel plies onty). Deformation in tension or | Parallel or perpendicular. ..| Parallel plies? only ‘compression. | Bearing at right angles to |. plane of plywood, Loaded ares. Modulus of rupture, Full cross-sectional srea..-.-| Onesfourth modulus of rup- ture, Maximum ervching strength ‘or fiber stress at propor- tional limit, as required. One third maximum cruch- ing strength or one-third fiber stress at propor- tional limit, as required, LIS times ‘the shearing- strength parallel to grain -| 2.85 times the shearing strength parallel vo grain One-third the shearing strength parallel to grain for the weakest species, Modulus of rupture or fiber stress at proportional limit as required, Modulus of elasticity | Modutus of elasticity. | Compression perpendicular to grain, "Tone simplied srength caleulations ae to be used only a6 4 rough suide ia prsiinary design work, and ae results obtained ifr considerably fom thove obtained bythe more acurate methods given inthis buen * By “paral plies" sweat those lis whee grain direction spare o the direction of pinged srs, 46 ot aseeptabie fr fin design when thein tropical conditions, for which 20 percent mois- ture content is recommended, the design values for plywood may be calculated from basic strength properties of wood ut 20 percent moisture content as given in table 2-7, or approximate adjustments may be made as indicated in the following sections. Adjustment factors by which strength properties of solid wood may be corrected for moisture con- tent are shown in table 2-2. For plywood, moisture corrections are dependent on many variable factors, such as grain direction, combi- nations of species, and relative thicknesses of plies in each direction, so that any rational method of correction is quite laborious. An approximate method for making moisture corrections to ply- wood is given in the succeeding sections. 2.541. Approximate methods for making moisture corrections for plywood strength properties. A limited number of compression, bending, and shear tests of spruce and Douglas-fir plywood of a few constructions at moisture content values ranging approximately from 6 to 15 percent has indicated that use of the following simplified methods of correcting plywood strength properties will be satisfactory (ref. 2-10 and 2-14). 2.5410. Moisture corrections for plywood com- pressive strength (0° or 90° to face grain direction). ‘Moisture adjustments to the compressive strength of plywood, either parallel or perpendicular to the face grain direction, may be made by direct use of the correction constants given in column (6) of table 2-2. ‘When more than one species is used in the ply- wood, the correction constant should be taken for that species havings its grain direction pacallel to the applied load When plies of two species have their grain direction parallel to the applied load, the plywood correction constant should be determined by taking the mean value of the correction con- stants for the two species based on the relative areas of the longitudinal plies of each. 2.5411. Moisture correction for plywood tensile strength (0° or 90° to face grain direction). Data on the effect of moisture on the tensile strength of plywood are lacking. Limited data indicate that the effect on the tensile strength of wood is about one-third as great as on modulus of rupture. The suggested procedure for adjust ing the tensile strength of plywood is to follow that for compressive strength as given in the preceding section, using one-third of the correction factors given for modulus of rupture in column 3 foisture corrections for plywood shear or 90° to face grain direction), Moisture adjustments to the shear strength of plywood, either parallel or perpendicular to the face grain direction, Fres, may be made by direct use of empirical correction constants equal to those given in column (8) of table 2-2 for shear. ‘The use of such moisture adjustment to the shear strength of plywood is not applicable when a moisture contont of less than 7 percent is involved. When more than one species is used, the correc- tion constant, should be determined on the basis of the relative areas of each species, considering all plies. 2.5413. Moisture corrections for plywood com- pressive strength (any angle to face grain direction) The compression strength of plywood at any moisture content, and at any angle to the face grain direction, may be found by use of equation 2:51 after first correcting the compression terms Faw and Foy: in accordance with section 2.5410. 2.5414. Moisture corrections for plypoood tensile strength (any angle to face grain direction). ‘The tension strength of plywood at any moisture content, and at any angle to the face grain diree- tion, may be found by use of equation 2:53 after first correcting the tension terms Fie and Fas in accordance with section 2.5411, and the shear term Frye in accordance with section 2.5412, 2.5415. Moisture corrections for plywood shear strength (any angle to face grain direction). The shear strength of plywood at any moisture content, and at any angle to the face grain direction, may be found by use of equations 2:55 or 2:56 after first correcting the various terms in these equations by the methods outlined in the foregoing sections. 2.55. Sezcime Graviry-Sraenars Revations yor Purwoop. As in solid wood, the strength and elastic properties of plywood increase with an increase in specific gravity. The magnitude of this strength increase, however, cannot be determined by the same convenient exponential equation given in table 2-1. Specification AN-P-69a, Plywood and Veneer, Aircraft Flat Panel, controls the minimum specific gravity of the individual veneers used in the manufacture of the plywood, consequently assur- ing a minimum final specific gravity of the ply- wood. 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"~The strength properties for a piece of plywood are merely the composite strengths of each indi- L. vidual veneer in the direction being. considered. ‘Therefore, to make 1 rational specifie gravity correction to plywood strength test data, it is first necessary to determine the specific gravity of each individual veneer and then correct its strength properties to correspond to the average specific gravity value given in table 2-6 for that species. To do this, of course, is impractical and the prob- > Jem is further complicated by the effect of glue L. impreznation When substantiating the strength of a plywood structure, or when establishing design values from L static tests, the weight per square foot of the plywood used in the specimens should be near the \ values given in table 2-18 to minimize the effect of high or low specific gravity values (ref, 2-22) 2.56, SrazssSrraix Revations son Wooo > anp Piawoop. When stresses are applied to wood f soa! asin’ é costo fF 1 E+E *L6a iz Baer ent[ beds clr ee vole L sin? @ cost 6-4. or plywood in a direction at an angle to the grain, the resulting strains are quite different from thi obtained in isotropic materials. The general equations (ref. 2-52 and 2-53) relating the strains to the stresses shown in figure 2-12 are emaufiranfrban sas Ay fitdnfirten tor emmanfitanhtass, in which the stresses and strains are referred to orthogonal axes 1 and 2 f; and ¢, are stress and strain in the direction of axis 1 fz and e; are stress and strain in the direction of axis 2. Jas and ens are shear stress and shear strain associated with the directions of axes 1 and 2, and in whieh: 4 (2:34) 2p | sin? eos! 9 [cost @—sin? 6]? oe sin? 8 cost 6-52 [sit #+cost : ee Baio soe of 24 2 sin bee 2] an ocoe where 9 is measured positively from the direction of the face grain of the plywood to the direction of L881 a8 shown in figure 2-12, The inverses of equations (2:26) are: L Sim butit bite+ brstere L in which L Se ae ee (2:35) 55eae Base Drard (Ext Ex 44 Gee) sin* 8 005" 8-+ Eater (Cost 6-+sin )} : innae = Bttze2Geq) Sin* 8.008 6 (Be— Betine—20Ge) sin 6 005%6) UE,— Etise 2% Ger) sin 8 0089 B—(Ey— Etre 2h One) sin? 8 608 6) Awl pectiew See eee | L Figure £-18, General stress distribution in plywood. 56L L L L L ! L L L | u cu re oe eee CT L If the stresses are known, equations (2:34) completely define the strains. For exemple, if the plywood is subjected only to a tensile stross fi applied at an angle @ to the direction of the face grain, then fs and equations (2:34) reduce to: If the strains are known, equations (2:35) completely define the stresses in a like manner ‘The usual transformation equations for stresses and strains apply. ‘The transformation from the arbitrary coordinate system 1, 2 to that of I, IT is given by Srmfi cov 0+ f, sin? O-+2f,12 sin 8 cos é fu 0+ fr Cos? 6—2f,s2 sin § cos 8 Janz —fisindcos6+ f,siné cos6+-f,12(cos’?—sin*®) (2:36) 2 = oO and eye; cos? Obey sin” B-Leys sit 8 cos 8 ene; Sin? 9+, cos F—e, 2 SiN @ COSA ar = — 2e,sindeos§+ 2e,sinGcosd + ¢,,{cos"@—sin*4) 2:37) where @ is measured positively from the 01 axis to the OJ axis, as shown in figure 2-13. Very often the linear strains in three arbitrary directions are known rather than those given in equations (2:34) and (2:35), The required strains can be found by use of the first of equations (2:37) for each of the directions shown in figure 2-14, The following equations result: @ (ee- a sin? 6, sin? “'Lsin? sin? 8, ere 008 6; cos B = sin 6, sin 8, & ee nf cO8H, sn By = sin 8, 008 6 cos ® (2:38) zr / Figure 2-18. zes for transformation equations, 2 / Figure 2-14. Arbitrary directions in which linear strains are known. 37L L L L PEE Ree ee u ee fi L L 58 SHEAR STRESS Lf NORMAL 7 STRESS Figure 2-15. Stress circle for siresser shown in figure #12. SHEAR STRAINS NORMAL STRAINS Figure 2-16. Strain circle resulting from equation (2:41)ge eee eer eee eee eee eee reer eee eee ee eee FREE ee eee ee CT and if 4,= 45° and 6,=90°, meme Came 2.560. Mohr's stress-and-strain circles. Mobt’s stress-and-strain circles are a means of showing, graphically, tbe relation of stress or strain in one direetion to the stress or strain in any other direction and are an aid in the visuslization and evaluation of these relations. Reference 2-65 treats extensively the general problem of the use of Mohr’s circles in connection with wood and plywood. Only a limited general treatment is presented herein. 2.5600. Obtaining strains from. given stresses. Assume a stress distribution in a piece of plywood as shown upon the outer square in figure 2-12 (direction of arrows indicates positive direction). ‘The stress circle can be drawn by use of the follow- ing equations as shown. in figure 2-15, and the stresses parallel and perpendicular to the face grain direction can be determined. athe (2:38) R=VF—OFGa? (2:40) ‘The strains parellel and perpendicular to the face grain direction ean be found by use of the equations fe _ fe Con Ele Oe where ie: and ure are given hy equations (2:30) and (2:51), respectively. ‘The strain circle ean then be drawn, by the following equations, as shown in figure 2-18 and the strains in any direction can be determined. (2:42) (2:43) 2.5001. Obiaining stresses from given. strains, The foregoing process can be reversed if strains are given and stresses required. For this purpose strains are usually measured in the three directions shown in figure 2-17. The strain circle can be drawn, by use of the following equations, as shown in figure 2-18, and the strains parallel and perpen- dicular to the face grain can be found. saslaeaeceaLsseueat re Vi -evthlemed? (244) ‘The stresces parallel and perpendicular to the face grain direction can be obtained from the following equations: SemEw 1 (beaten) ‘The stress circle ean then be drawn, by the use of the following equations, as shown in figure 2-19, and the stress at any angle to the face grain direc- tion may be found C=$ Ueto (2:48) BaVGe—CF FU. (2:47) 2.5602. Experimental stress-strain data. Figures 2-20, 2-21, and 2-22 present stress-strain curves of five-ply yellow-poplar plywood subjected to ten- sion, compression, and shear, respectively, at var- Bp, fet betes Gt xe See T= Grete) fete ious angles to the face grain. reproduced from reference 2-67. 2.57. Srress ConcENTRATIONS. 2-16-2.1611) These figures are (See sections 2.6. Plywood Structural Elements ‘The following formulas for strength of plywood elements are applicable only when elastic instability (buckling) is not involved, except in the case of column formulas. For cases involving buckling, see section 2.71 2.60. ELEMENTS @=(0° or 90°) 59i L PE eee eee eee C7 Figure #17, | SHEAR STRAINS Directions of meanured strains, NORMAL STRAINS Figure 2-18, Strain circle for measured strains. 2,600. Elements in compression (8=0° or 90°) When a plywood prism is subjected to a direct compression load, the relation between the inter- nal stress (jr) in any longitudinal ply and the average P/A stress is given by the following equations: (Ref. 2-43) Face grain parallel to applied Joad PI (2:48) Ey Jom Toe See Face grain perpendicular to applied load PiAm fan FE fee (2:49) ‘The allowable stresses at the proportional limit Frye and F,,, or the allowable ultimate stresses Fewe and Fie are obtained from these equa- tions, respectively, when the stress et the propor- tional limit F., or the ultimate crushing stress Fey trom tables 2-6 or 2-7, whichever is required, is substituted for /,. When more than one species is used in the longitudinal plies, the species having the lowest ratio of F.,/E, and F./E, must be used in determining the correct. llowables, For certain species and plywood constructions, the compression allowables for the 15 percent moisture content condition may be obtained from table 2-13.Aree eee reer ear fee " L Peer eee ee eee eee eee eee ee eee Tt SHEAR STRESS + Figure 2-10. Stress circle resulting from equations (2:46) 2.601. Elements in tension (@=0° or 90°). The allowable ultimate tensile stress for a plywood strip (designated as Frye when the face grain direction is parallel to the applied load, and Fre when the face grain is perpendicular to the applied Joad) is equal to the sum of the strengths of the longitudinal plies divided by the total area of the cross section. ‘The strength of any longitudinal ply is equal to its area multiplied by the modulus of rupture for the species of that ply'as given in cohimn § of tables 2-6 and 2-7. For certain species and plywood constructions, the tension allowables may be obtained from table 2-13. 2.602. Elements in shear (9=0° or 10°). ‘The allowable ultimate stress of plywood elements subjected to shear is given by the empirical for- mula: (Ref. 2-88) t tiga Poet Frer= 55, (2:50) in which the factor” shall not be assigned values greater than 35 and in which tis the thickness of the i® ply and Fy is the shear strength of wood of the 7 ply obtained from tables 2-6 or 2-7. For certain species and plywood constructions the shear allowables for the 15 percent moisture content condition may be obtained from table 2-13. 261 = Avy Aver). Evewents ongrt0*—s1—6 2.610. Elements in compression (6=any angle) Based upon the resulis of compression tests of @ few species and constructions of plywood, the ultimate compressive stress of narrow elements may be given by: hee [Freost ay acost [2 Fa Fr and the ultimate compressive stress of wide ele- ments, by: Foe Fev? C864 Pag? SiO 4 Fae? sin where g=angle between the face grain and the direction of the applied load. Foue=ultimate compressive strength of the plywood parallel to the face grain; from formula (2:48). Fuz= ultimate compressive strength of the plywood perpendicular to the face grain; from formula (2:49) timate shear strength of the plywood when the face grain direction is parallel and perpendicular to the shear stresses, from section 2.602 Fus= otmE td base SHEE eae eee eee eee eae eee eeeroped fo sim payout ayy No paonsnan 34 nb senor 20906 ano fs | 7 ar m 7 08 ont |_A ont 1 —}-}—— ||} | |---| nee $ om & ore 3 oust a ae waste © oe 6 & vie 00 100 eave e000 100 ise evo 9000 o 8 ier A aaa Er ‘ont | LZ] to a ait oor S| eed <7] ah ae Ut te ae aed area Ee stat Eros anne ole peeeeleeeal rp ah ee ee eee eee ee eee ee ee aeoe 2.611, Elements in tension (@=any angle). The ultimate tensile strength of narrow elements is given by the formula and the tensile strength of wide elements, by Fem Fre? C0804 Fae SOF i Fie sin’ 08 (2:54) where Fue and Fy p=ultimate tensile strength of plrwood pereliel and per~ pendicular to the face grain direction, respectively, from section 2.601. 2.612. Elements in shear (@=any angle). ‘The ultimate shear strength of plywood in this case is given by equations (2:55) and (2:56). When shear tends to place the face grain in tension, equation (2:38) should be used. When shear tends to place the face grain in compression, equation (2:58) should be used. ‘When face grain is in tension Pa= (2:55) Var For the special caso of the face grain at 45° to the side of the panel, equations (2:55) and (2:56) reduce to vee) 2.613. Elements in combined compression (or tension) and shear (@=any angle). The condition 64 for failure of plywood elements subjected to com- bined stresses in the plaue of the plywood is given by the following equation. Formulas (2:53) to (2:58) are special cases of this general equation. . Gee Jel F,.=ratio of the internal tension or com- pression stress, parallel to the face grain, to the allowable ten- sion or compression stress in the same direction. fol F-=ratio of the internal tension or com- pression stress, perpendicular to the face grain, to the allowable tension or compression stress in the same direction. Sews!Foes=ratio of the internal shear stress, parallel and perpendicular to the face grain, to the allowsble shear stress in the same direction. In the use of equation (2:59), it is necessary first to resolve the internal stresses into directions thet are parallel and perpendicular to the face grain direction by use of the following transfor- mation equations: So=f, cos? 6+ J; sin? —2fn2 sin 8 cos? Go=f, sin* 0-+f, 00s? 0+ 2fnz sin 8 cos 6 fr— fy) Sin 6 608 6+ furs (cos? 6—sin® (2:60) de in which the symbols have the meanings indicated in figure 2-12 and @ is measured positively from the direction of the face grain to the direction of axis 1. In order to clarify the use which can be made of the combined loading equation (2:59), the com- plete derivation of equation (2:53) is given. It is desired to find the allowable tensile stress of a plywood element which is loaded as shown in figure 2-28. ‘Thus in equation (2:60) fu=Sw. =f. hate and fo=fro=0; and the equations reduce to: Foor 008 fy sin? Sun J, 5in 8 0080C pga rpc Mreeeg st eet reece a mm <~ mo Pe eee eee ee eee ee eee Pee Substituting these terms in the combined loading the following is obtained: [eyo T Dividing through by /, and setting its value equal to the allowable tensile stress, F40, gives equation (2:53), or sin 003 77, Ful Vc aan vWee]+ Equations (2:51), (2:56), and (2:56) may be derived in exactly the same manner Equation (2:38) is derived in a similar manner in which f, and faz are not equated to zero but are allowed to assume values which make fy a maximum. Equation (2:37) also may be derived in this manner. ‘These equations were taken from reference 2-67. 2.614. Elements in bending. The apparent moduli of elasticity (Ej and Ej) of plywood beams in bending are given by the general formulas in section 2.5. When all of the plies are of equal thickness and one species, these general formulas reduce to the following forms: For rotary-cut veneer, throeply; Eyam (Zt+26) 2:61) 5 (142037) five-pl (2:62) seven-ply; (99 xt) Fe (ooo e (2:63) nine-ply; 24a Erase) Fa(owenss x (2:64) For quarter-sliced veneer, Ey/E;, should be re- placed by Ex/Ex (see. 2.13) ‘The bending stress in the extreme fiber of the outermost longitudinal ply is given by the follow= ing formulas: Face grain parallel to span fs ise ie (2:65) Face grain perpendicular to span 0.91 ME FE (or sply) 2:66) Me (2:67) | re (all other) where distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber of outermost longitudinal ply B’q_=same as Ey, except that outermost ply in tension is neglected. Ey, may be used in place of Z’,, in formula (2:67) with only slight error. E,, is taken for the species of the outermost Jongitudinal ply. e 65mm oe 4 eater eee ee ee eee ee eee eee | ieeaa! The allowable bending stress st proportional limit (F,,) and the modulus of rupture in bending (Fm) are given in tables 2-6 and 2-7. (Ref. 2-25) 2.6140. Deftections. ‘The deflection of plywood beams with face grain parallel or perpendicular to the span may be obtained by using Eye ot Eye in the ordinary beam formulas. ">, is used only for determining strengths in bending and not the defiection, For plywood beams with face grain at an angle @ to the direction of the span, the effective modulus of elasticity to be used in the deflection formula is given by the equation: Bmp [By 0056+ En sin! 0-4 (2 Bete + 4X, Gree) Sin? 8.008? 6} (2:68) in whieh dy when (1) The loading is constant: across the width of the beam at any point in its span. (2) The beam width is sufficient to cause the defiection to be constant, across the bear at any point in the span. (3) The beam is held so that it cannot leave the supports. There are no methods available by which the strength of plywood beams may be calculated Brest ee when the grain direction of the face plies is other than parallel or penpendicular to the spen, 2.615. Elements as columns. The allowable stresses for plywood columns are given by the followiing formulas: Long columns Z ae (face grain parallel to length) (2:69) Fe 85 Ee (face grain dicular to length lp jace grain perpendicular to length) Wp)am= 3.554 | L Cirom 3.55) F= or 8.584) 2 respectively Short columns n=F.[1-i(g) | E=W'loe Powe When face grain is parallel to length ‘eur When face grain is perpendicular to length (71) 6.0 T T | 50 4.0 © x K=10 3.0 ~ it K08 - K=06 L J —T K0.4 ot SERS vias es Ko it TI as Os: O08 12 16 20 24 28 32 3 . r Figure 225, Plot of equation (8:74). 6eae See eer ’ saad Re rere | ate See ee eee ered eo Pee C 9.7. Flat Rectangular Plywood Panels 2.71, Buoxune Crrreara. 711. General. When buckling oceurs in ply- wood panels at loads less than the required design Joads, the resulting redistribution of stresses must be considered in the analysis of the structure. ‘The buckling criteria in this section are based on mathematical analyses and are confirmed by periments for stresses below the proportional limit. Visible buckling may oceur at lower stresses than those indicated by these criteria, due to the imper- fections and eccentric londings which usually exist in structures. Experiments have indicated, how- ever, that the redistribution of stresses due to ‘duckling corresponds more closely to the degree of buckling indicated by these theoretical criteria than it does to visible buckling. ‘These criteria can, therefore, be used in various parameters for Since the mathematical analyses are based on, the assumption of elastic behavior, these criteria cannot be directly applied when the stresses are above proportional limit. The behavior at such stresses has been investigated experimentally for some cases, as described in sections 2.72 and 2.760. Because of the low modulus of elasticity of wood across the grain it is difficult to approach clamped- edge conditions. 2.712. Compression (8=0° or 90°). The criti- cal buckling stress of flat rectangular plywood panels subjecter| to uniform compressive stress is, given by the following formula (¢ (272) in which H, depends upon the edge conditions of the panel and other considerations in the follow cases. a plotting test results of design allowables against ree oe the degree of buckling, and to compute the degree Case I All edges simply supporte of buckling in a structure. ‘This is done in sections PT/rY (mo oe 2.72 and 2.760. A 51@ (2y +2] (2:73) 70 6.0 % DY so 4.0 + : 3005 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 r Figure 2-25, Plot of equation (2:75) 67fee ere eee ee a cm rm mm po rT eee eee eee eee Reece error err C 60 70 oo WN 50 } ° ANN 2 6.0 t NS + arta te Koa ne ] TN 06 + Kos | / t e02 20 10, 05 08 12. «16 ~~ ~<20 84 28 3B 36-40 A Figure 2-26, Plot of equation (2:75) in which By yi E;, m=the number of half-wave lengths in the shape of the buckled panel defined by the inequality, vmim—1) |_| I sits fon an» « ” zener (Via=er" ealy (ia Figure 2-80 (, f) Continued rere eM eeeere eee a ee ee eee eee seas roetewo E sche Fon fe ano (a) Srey (etl 0" ) Sey (rti)B+ 8 Figure 2-81 (a, B). Curves of critical buckling constants for infinitely long rectangular plywood pancls under combined loading. Edges simply supported. 9=angle between face grain and direction of applied stress. Three-ply construction, BHeer eee meee ream eaee ee Pee Cc 4 LTT [ T 7 e Ly t — ca =r * I of ~ - eT BS + Tt i 1 en I POA Eat I cr ! I Leatth E i iS +-T al PEF Tit PPP Try wittehed | 7 ‘a “) srr (laiianse Sri ost ooo oo kl ET I 1 | Coo CT t I Teel "he t ie = { Ne H i ki Hi fl [ +t ut Soe A ab > sche For io 7 OI SPUr (rr) ane a SP (nt) a= 78* Figure 8-81 (6, d, ¢,)—Contioued.Aer errr eer ere eM ge me Merepear recede Meee We oo Pe ree erm rem e eeteee cr oH SPY (pase Srey eo etal f 1 a) Van eee Seal H Pe oie + | aa Ss I x Liu Fork fo » [sche Fon 8 w o PMO Facey (nesi)anist s0by (2H a020" Figure 2-81 (g, hy i, J—Continued. 5eerie reer ae oe oe c ce mm) Spur fei ands” Bey (r 2 be 60" (my ve) SePLy (1:23) p05" SPUR) B30 Figure 8-81 (, m, n, p) Continued, 16eee ea eer eae erecta fee Re eee ee ee ree rere eee eee ee eee seas for Go wrk ba. & nr than a seuct fon hans r offs, senirietion Figure 2-82 (a,b, cl. Curtes of critical buckling constants for infinitely long rectangular plyzoott panels under combined load- ing with edges clamped. angle between face grain ond direction of applied stress. Three-ply construction. "ees Tas a eo Sage ena olSlain a (f) srr ieee oe Figure £-88 (2, ¢, f). Curves of critical bucking constants for infinitely long rectangular plywood panels under combined load: ‘ing with edges clamped. Bangle between face grain and direction of applied stress. Five-ply construction, 78ce ppt ec epg em tee Crete eerste eee Meee re Peer ere ree oe fo val Sper (ten 8-0 SPLy (erst) ais" T T T 4 1 LTT tel TAN. | [ pee Sta Ci al qT | {i NN Cea - jell Le cs coe + + i 3p Sat Pam sr +t + ue ro hw LETT sen 08 Sata 7 i SePLY (Ilslskt) 830° SOPLY (IelsktH) 8=45° Pigure &34 (a, 5, ¢, d). Curves of evitical buckling constants Sor infinitely long rectangular plywood panels under combined loading. Edges simply supported. B=angle between face grain and direction af applied stress. Fiveeply construction. 19ee eee eee eee rena ae gM rereged ed Meg ete eee reece Orrget te rege eee Were eee eet Creer pe pis 80 (e) Pty (st) eco" 2) Spuv(iiapaest w spy itnadige rt scat efi 7", Figure 2-84 (¢, 4, 9, )—Continued, th) SPU eee) B-0Wee ee ee ees ee C0 1 ie i IT male HH a Pr ry X¥ Poor ‘al Cry ae a Totter | [fee ! Le 2 rH | sane eof sce Fan andy a SPL (ek 2D Bs Figure 2-84 G, j, b, m)—Continued. omy SPL (N22 29» 60" atCc Ca aaa PEEL 4 ve 8 cut Pon te ab > [sete rate 7 l ow Sev (222i) ge 13" eo Spi (ieeedarsd Figure 2-84 (n, p)—Continued. recting K,« values or K,e values in table 2-14 for panel size by means of figure 2-37. In using these figures 0’ a is first obtained from table 2-14 and 4/b’ computed. For a more exact determi- nation of K, or K; or to determine these buckling constants for a plywood construction different from those specified in AN-NN-P-511b or figures 2-30 to 2-36, calculate EntEp in ace cordance with section 2.52, read Kye or Kec and Bio trom figures 2-38 10 2-41 and correct for panel size by means of figure 2-37. 2.7151. Combined compression (or tension) and shear. The analytical method of determining the critical buckling stresses for rectangular panels subjected to combined loadings is quite compli- cated, and only the graphical solutions for a few types of plywood construction are given in figures 2-30 to 2-36. When the plywood construction being used is not the same as any of those illustrated, its buckling constants may be obtained by @ straight Tine interpolation (or extrapolation), on the basis 82 of pine of the buckling constants for two plywood constructions whose values of the ratio ren close to thet of the plywood under consideration. The values of these ratios for the plywood construetions considered in figures 2-30 to 2-36 may be calculated with sufficient accuracy by assuming E,=0.05 Ey. These figures apply to panels of infinite length and values of the buckling constants from the curves must be corrected for actual panel length. Values of the shear constant Ky. snd the com- pression constant K.@ are indicated on the ver- tical and horizontal axes, respectively, ‘The points at which the curve crosses these axes give the values of Kyo or Ke at which buckling will just oveur in # pane! of infinite length in either pure shear or pure compression, The particular combination of stresses represented by each of the four quadrants is shown by the small stress sketches. Buckling will occur under these com- bined stresses whenever the location of a point Kya, Keo, lies on or outside the curve. are fairls| eae EE fa) i srry (eens ae 0 9 PLY (eesti) Be 1S L a a { : oe "bow LL PL 1B t He crt + - + TTS | L Uscaug foe as > arte kat | { co @ SREY (hnnestnae 30° sey (renner) ges” Pigure 2-35 (a,b, c,d). Curves of critical buckling constante for infinitely long rectangular plywood panels unvler combined loading. Edges simply supported, angle between face grain ond direction of applied stress.” Nine-ply construction, 83Maer ere eee ee Pee ee eee 84 Sint fot ans 2M soe & s-puy (ivnrvisnyas eo Senay ovuenied) ante i cue toekeao >| | 1 | L cl guy (erts re an 78° See fan Moe 0) sorr(izenan nrone Figure £35 (¢, J, 9, W)—Continued.o OC Tr us CO ee Cc. L L L eae fan a sia Be a 7) prmeynenzzc:tn)anest Srer(exeee2eeiyaeser Figure 2-85 (i, J Continued, eae ro beady @ w rer one ane 90 mas" Figure 2-88 (a, 8). Curves of eritieal bucking constents for infinitely long recangular plywood panels under combined loading. Biges simply supported. fanple between face grain and divection of applied sires. Infnite-ply construction. ea07z6-—s1—t 83co or eee i eee ee CT PRR 86 «© pur 60" oe sine oa ako » Figure 2-36 (6, 4, ¢, f) Continued. a meee B75"co co FO F eee L L ae | a iE ee L 7 } 0 3 oe Figure 8-37. Corrections for panel size: Top, when 8=0°, 45°, or 90° and panel is subjected to shear stress; bottom, chen the Panel is subjected to compression with the edges simply supported and 0° or $0? is a computed eurve (ref. 250), PRE tee 87LM, aM, a ol $60 60 s0 90 $0 10 s90 90 ss0 #0 zo vo 20 vo or a7 _s60_60 so go 5? 40 390 90 $90 so, * zo 97 0 90 oz hr =] vo zz fea Ps ov ve Po | ie f Pas io 27 8 oo ot PS c be: 5 Pe oe oy ee er Ly WIA oy en ee TE ae % tit NoIssaudh et || 9 on ze VO ae oz +— " ve ee iE re01 560 60 s#0 $0 sv Lo $90 90 sso so o zo ji \I/ >} ovale: \ Pa ¢0 oA — 7 Be eeseeg ey, Reem eH ea eee gee 01 960 60 S@0 80 Slo Lo S90 90 S90 59 Pee eee ee eee pd = Hat HEHETable £14. Buckling constants for plywood ! L THREP-PLY L I = I a eee fad Teme | tome | ” | BO [ie | ai mass = rue] vs MB | ae | om oe | vm | ceam | vm | om om | aso8 | we = jee 4 a fee | ale | @ [ee f@ | @ [om | a | mf | ow pa esas i 0.035} 0.60) 213 205! 0.60! 0. 0.95) 350] 174) 188; 071] 053] O86] oss oro} “80 re} 2) “sy ae] Loe] Bae] um] Lee] Cw] Coe) Los] “Sr wo} 75 185] 210, a6) 173) ios} age] real cer] cs] [oo] Kos) ‘0 w3, a5 170) 213) la lav| dao] sar| na| uss} lary les] naz] as us| loc) ses} 2as! lta] lol Gia] Sa] ago! use| cso! lor] tas] cae 185 95: 164) 214] 178 .94) 113) 322° 170] 1.50 90 | nal loa y ! i | | Le FIVE-PLY pow! vasfre) se] os! sm] am] 2m] ze] on] ne! em] v0] om wo] ras} 135) 212] cer) rai] cao] aer| cer! tas! tor eo] ise) v8 ms| var} tas) zu les) Lael var] 270] Les] a5] cos) lar| tar] las yim) ao] as} 2ia] les} as | as] aac] cee] tas} cos] lao aaa] las Leis) an] aan] asa] ls) Lar} uas| 287) es) 1297 Los 1a2| os me) rae) as) bos] cee) nor) ise] 200) cm) tao) Los) lat) kee) | | He = L SEVEN-PLY (al ples of equa thicken) 1 ] T 1 q j any) nao; naz] 230] 089) rao] 2) 275) 162| 123) 100! 092 1.50, o99 a { J i i NINE-PLY (al plies of equal thickness) i Taal aa ee Ls) 1.26 206! 0.94 1.63} 1.37 260; 1.59) Liz} 109! 0.86! 166] 099 t iH i 1 | ad ELEVEN-PLY (ail plies of equal thickness) aay] uso! ia] 208] 000) 172] a0 sae) aan) aoe) toa] oe a0! ee ‘ | | _1mbe basing constants listed inthis table correspond onl to the plywood thicmnesses and constructions listed in table 18 that edresoond to Arr Novy speciteation AN-NN-P-pi1b (Plywood and Veneer: Atsraft Flat Panel). The valves in ths table ere computed as ows: sor each crnetueton Ere ‘ir in table 8a rust ~~ wascomputed tom colomns Sand Goftable2-1, "eve values foreach hes were verge and the avert vans | -were nen in entering Sgures 2, 2-9, 240, and 2-1 ‘rom wbiah the value of this table were obtszed, Fora more exact determination ofthese buckling | + constants oro determine te bucking oustents oa plywood construction diferent rom those speclted la AN-NN=P-Silb, se weton 27 [> ‘The curve marked 6’fa is the ratio of half the the correction factors for panels of finite length L. wave length (6) of a buckle in an infinitely long to be applied to Kr. panel to its width (a). This ratio is to be used in ‘The curves in figures 2-30 to 2-36 marked y conjunction with figures 2-37 to 2-41 in obtaining give the slope of the panel wrinkles with respect n ro} [a hee Ct ro to the O-X axis indiceted on the stress sketches. ‘The procedure in the use of these figures is as follows: (1) From the analysis the shear stress (/,) ‘and the compression (f.) or tension stress (—fe) acting on a particular plywood panel will have been calculated. (2) Determine the ratio j,/f. and, on the figure giving the same plywood construction and angle g, draw ® line through the origin having e slope (positive or nega- tive) equal to this ratio. When the ply- wood construction is not the same as that given in the figures, thie procedure for determining the buckling constant will have to be run through on the fwo most similar constructions and an interpola. tion of the results made on the basis of (8) The point at which the constructed line crosses the curve gives the critical buck- ling constants K,. and K.. at which an infinitely long panel will just buckle when subjected to the same ratio of shear to compression that exists on the panel in question. (4) Read the value of 8’/a for the point on the b’/a curve whieh is obtained by pro- jecting horizontally from K,. deter mined in step (3). (5) From the panel dimensions compute 6/ and 5/6. (6) Figures 2-37 to 2-41 will give the ratio of K,/Kre from which the value of Ky can be computed (K, is always taken as positive). (7) The critical buckling shear stress (Fy) may then be determined by equation (2:80). This represents the maximum allowable shear stress which the penel in question can sustein without buckling when subjected simultaneously to a com- pressive stress equal to that given in step (1). 2.72. Srrencts Arrer Buckuixe. 2.721. General. Plywood panels may sustain greater Joads than those sufficient to cause buck- ling. When buckling takes place the stresses within the panel are redistributed, the maximum stresses occurring et the edges. ‘The panel will continue to accept load until these stresses reach 92 the ultimate value. ‘The load at failure is obtained from empirical curves in which the ratio of the average stress at failure to the ultimate strength of the plywood is plotted against the ratio of the width of the panel to the width of a hypothetical panel that will fail at its buckling load, 2.722. Compression (8=any angle). The ab- seissa of figure 2-43 is obtained from the equation (2:81) in which Fae is obtained from equation (2:51) or (2:52) and Fy, from equation (2:77) of (2:78). ‘The ordinstes give the ratio of the everage stress at which failure will occur to the ultimate compressive strength (Frat) of the plywood. 723. Shear (8=0°, 45°, or 90°), The abccissa of figure 2-44 is obtained from the equation a"VE (2:82) in which F, is obtained from equation (2:50) (2:57), or (2:58) and Fy, from equation (2:7) or (2:80). The ordinates gi-e the ratio of the aver- age stress at which ilure will take place to the ultimate shear stress (F,) of the plywood. 2.73. ALLOWABLE SuEan IN PLywoop Wess. 2.730. General. Beams are required to have a high strength-weight ratio and, therefore, they are generally designed so that they will fail in shear at about the load which will cause bending failures. A higher strength-weight ratio is usually obtained if the beams fail in bending before shear failure can occur. Plywood when used as webs of beams is sub- jected to different stress conditions from those when it is used in simple shear frames. It is es- sential, therefore, that tests to determine the strengths of shear webs be made upon specimen beams designed with flenges only sufficiently strong to bold the load at which shear failure is expected. Plywood webs tested in heavy shear frames with hinged corners will give shear strengths that are too high for direct application to beam design. In any case where buckling is obtained, the stiffeners must have adequate strength to resist the additional loads due to such buckling, and the webs must be fastened to the flanges in such a manner as to overcome the tendency of the buckles. in the web to project themselves into this fastening and cause premature failure (ref. 2-23 and 2-42).(0/0) H1OIM TaNKd 40 ¥BLIIVEINS THNOISNIHIONON 09 ss os se o % 7 606 20 86 409 se oF $2 oz 09 pa fo afi “6h 8 NB 10 zo TN IAILII1IT 10 OLLYe 2.3 8 (% ee) LS FLV WIL 0 0 PLY Id C3THINGNA 4O SSTMLS FLPWILTA- OL 57% o7 93 s20Tt0° 31on v8 os ss (°0/0) wsowm awa 30 w2L3NVNE TNOISMIMIONON ompafa “th-@ osntag os sy oy stor sz on a ono °5 — zo | aS fas 90 a TY Bs lor Hetero eee eee ee ee eee eee Doo) 23 ed Da Woanod O01 40 SEIUIS ZIYMLD ‘+ SSRUS UMMA BAIA 94oe ee or ot ze of 92 92 e222 02 a1 91 gta) g0__9C_90 20 0 — SUB, Maza3e aus i SD NSM SIAWND FIL 35M [awnidna 3781850 40 0Vve (2ex'2 Nou935) 29"NO FO t [= FAs OW NONE TANIA sanwno fee 2] ot aNodszuEo? FOS DNOT FHL Sv NIA SID eee {Tt = | J LAT S3Auno ZavraLTn Pu (sie'2 NOUDIS) $3909 DHU40dANS ATANIS HLIM WS rand SEES AE a ani] da eel g anne) tee eaeeC REECSEE sno gp Oefo eo — 7 ie Pere eee eee eee ee Bee oy Cc Ct ee 2.731. Allowable shear stresses. The allowable shear stresses of plywood webs having the face grain direction at 0°, 45°, or 90° to the main beam axis may be obtained from figure 2-46. Values of the parameter = are obtained from equation (2:82) as explained in section 2.723. Each curve of the family shown in the figure is similar to the curve of figure 2-44. The allow- able shear stress (F,) for the web can be obtained in terms of F,/F» from figure 2-45. (For a/a, values greater than 4.0, the a/b curves may be cxtrapolaied es straight lines ta meet at a point corresponding to a/a,=10 and F,/Fyw=0.2.) ‘The direct use of figure 2-45 for any type of beam having 45° shear webs has been verified by numerous tests of I- and box-beams. A few ex- ploratory tests of beams having 0° and 90° plywood shear webs has indicated that the allowable ulti mate shear stresses obtained for these construc~ tions by using figure 2-45 are conservative, Plywood shear webs of 45° are more efficient than 0° or 90° webs. The designer is cautioned that box beams may fail at a load lower than that indicated by the strength of the webs as shown in figure 2-45, be- cause of inedequate glue areas of webs at stiffeners or flanges. Such premature failures result from a separation of the web from the flanges or stiffeners. Figure 2-45 contains a parameter a/6 in the form of family of curves. The ajb=1 curve represents a spacing between stiffeners just equal to the clear depth between flanges. The curves below a/b=1 should be used for the design of shear webs of ‘beams whose stiffener spacing exceeds the clear distance between flanges. The upper set of curves should be used for the design of beams whose stiff- ener spacing is less than the clear distance between flanges. 2.732. Buckling of plyroood shear webs. In con- nection with shear web tests on various types of beams, it was observed that for plywood webs in the a/a, range of less than 1.2, buckling was of the inelastic type that often caused visible damage soon after buekling and sometimes just es the ‘buckles appeared for those webs designed to fail in the neighborhood of Fy. No accurate criteria can-be presented at this time, but the designer is cautioned to avoid the use of webs that may be damaged by buckling before the limit or yield stress is reached. ‘The buckling curve established by these tests is shown in figure 2-45. 2.74. Licutenine Houes. When the computed 96 shear stress for a full depth web of practical design is relatively low, as in some rib designs, the effici- ency, or strength-weight ratio, mey be inereased by the careful use of lightening holes and reinforce- ments. General theoretical or empirical methods for determining the strength of plywood webs with lightening holes are not available, and tests should therefore, be made for specific cases (ref. 2-64), 2.75, Torsioxas Sraexera axp Ricrprry oF Box Svans. The maximum shear stresses in ply wood webs for most types of box spars subjected to torsion may be calculated from the following formula: igecee eee TAO} (2:83) where t= thickness of one web mean width of spar (total width minus thickness of one web) C'=average of the outside and inside peri- phery of the cross section ‘The allowable ultimate stress in torsion of ply- wood webs is determined as in section 2.728. ‘The torsional rigidity of box beams up to the proportional limit, or to the buekling stress (which- ever is the lesser) is given by the formula pene cae ( (2:84) 2.76. Puxwoop Pazis Unpen Noraas Loaps. 2.760. General. When rectangular plywood panels, which have the face grain direction par- allel or perpendicular io the edges, are subjected to normal loads, the deflections and in some cases the stresses developed, are given by the following approximate formulas. If the maximum panel defiection exceeds about one-half its thickness, the formulas for large deflections will give results which sre somewhst more accurate than those given by the formulas for small deflections (ref, 2-51). 2.761. Small deflections. (a) Uniform -load—all edges simply sup- ported. x, Pat 0.185%, BS (2:85) where w,= deflection at center of panel p=load per unit area ‘width of plate (short side) constant from figure 2-46 (a) ‘The maximum bending moment at the center of the panel on # section perpendicular to side @apoy poucaone (snou297430 2uv7) swoLLenoT ANGNON SMONIB NI 38 401 SINVESHOD ne gjound poomfyd snybunypes poy 4nf syeojsuo> wo (sWOI37130 TWAS) 13NVd 30 YBINGD LY SININON 1UON3O (swo1.937430 TTYWS) swoLtWAO? WOUIITAIO NM 357 40d SINVLSNOD (2) ce (o) . a 2 ite (4 CO 0 lara : 4200 jn zo ae ee pies a a se +00 “WRINID OPLVHLNIINOD-H~ wo. 29. a ala ea OvO7 MuOINN-*- eo \c0 . sd O3dMY 70 $3003 Tn | GuwadEns Anas $3003} Sse fee tt fe LK] " #0 Xe) oe £0 aro = ry ae caucds sal: sve Z ovo7 myosin ~ p——T Ae os Lo 1 Ee eee ee eee See eee a Fee BREE EERE Peet 7Perret eMart eee eee eee gee Eee rere Ree eee eee eee Hy may be obtained from figure 2-46 (b). The maximum bending moment on a section perpen- dicular to side } is given by the same curve, provided a and 8, and E; and B, are interchanged in the abscissa, and a is replaced by 6 in the ordinate, ‘The corresponding stresses can be eal- culated from the formulas given in section 2.614 (0) Uniform load—all edges clamped. 0.081 K, Be (2:86) where constant from figure 2-46 (a) (©) Concentrated load at center—all edges simply supported M4 Pg? rs EB (2:87) 028K (FP where : constant from figure 2-46 (a). 2.762. Large deflections. (@) Uniform Joad—all edges simply sup- ported The relation between the load and deflection is given by the formula: p=K Eww, 5+ K Bw (2:88) x where K, and K; are constants whose epproximate values aré given in table 2-15. Ey is taken for the species of the face ply. The maximum bending moment at the center of the panel can be calculated from the following approximate formule provided the length of the panel exceeds its width by a moderate amount, Men, =) Eytos 2 (long narrow panels only) (2:89) where d=constant from figure 2~46 (©) Although the edge support conditions are taken as simply supported, it is assumed that the panel length and width remain unchanged after the panel has been deflected. Therefore, in addition to the bending stress, there will be a Girect tensile or membrane stress set up in the plane of the plywood, and the total stress in any ply will be the algebraic sum of the bending stress and direct stress in that ply. The maximum ‘otal stress will occur in the extreme fiber of the “98 outermost ply having its grain direction perpen- dicular to the plane of the section upon which the moment was taken; the bonding stress being calculated from formula (2:67) and the direct stress from section 2.601 after first. determining the average direct stress aeross the section from the formula: 53B, (2) (ong narrow panels a Fawa= @) Uniform lowd—all edges clamped The load-deflection relation, formula (2:88), will also apply to this case provided Ky and K; from table 2-15 are substituted for Ki and Ks, respec tively. The maximum total stress may also be determined as outlined in (a) above, provided A: from figure 2-46 (¢) is substituted for 2. in formula (2:89). Table $13. Valuer of constants in the approzimate defection formulas for plywood panels under normal loads » ‘Unlirm ead a sarcoma | alarmed Pros omsration* Scotian ecase a) Ke | we | Bplseme | 1.0) Gor | tee oa" Spisence "The values gin inthis wble are for sprace plywood pie of equal ‘hikes, bat they ray also be oonsiderd applica poo! of eter pecles and of the some eoustrctios, For plywood ede of ture ty fe pls oof uneqeat py thiemnee, the above Sable aay be wards etl ‘Tuide in arbitrary eleating aloes of hese consnats 16s te ante between the foe sai eiecics an deo he pane 2.77. Smrexzp Fuar Puywoop Panzis, 2.771, The stiffness of a stiffener afired to a plywood panel (ref. 2.71). When a stiffener is effixed to a panel the neutral surface of the panel moves toward the stiffener as illustrated in figure 247. The amount of this movement is given by the equation: (2:81)Fe te eee eae eee Bree eee cv SE eee ee ee eee ee +H co (jee 1 EE gE") e=1 if the edge of length 5 is simply, sup- ported if the edge of length d is clamped E,=modulus of elasticity of the stiffener in the direction of its length The stiffness in the neighborhood of the stiffener added to the plate by the presence of the stiffener is approximately: Ey 1 (ED, [P+3¢+d—2Z,)|+thE,Z,? (2:92) 2.772. A single stiffener bisecting a panel. It the stiffener is sufficiently stiff it will substantially, divide the panel into two identical panels that can be designed according to the methods of sections 2.71 and 2.72. The minimum stiffness of the stiffener that will accomplish this purpose is defined in the following sections, 27721, Stiffened panel subjected to edgewise compression, stiffener perpendicular to the direction of the stress and parallel to side a (8=0° or 90°) (ref. 2-80). 2) (2:93) in which (ED); is the critical value of (ED, a8 determined by equation (2:92); Fry and Fiyq are the critical buelsing stresses of the panel, con- sidered to be unstiffened and adequately stiffened n ane UTRAL SURFACE 2 ieee ai x i l Figure 2-47. Nomenclature for equations (2:91) and (2:98).24) 404 91ND “gh-g 22nd Sp See eee ee eee + 3} _3F _} J J} Lo\ u Pe ere eee CT eee \ Le respectively, obtained by means of the method of section 2.712, Case I. 2.1722. Stiffened panel subjected to edgewixe com- pression, stiffener perpendicular to the direction of the stress (8—=45°). The stiffness in the neighbor- hood of the stiffener added to the plate by the stiffener is assumed to be the stiffness of the stiff- ener alone (2:04) and the critical stiffness of the stiffener is approx- imately (2:93) FOE (em eers) in which a=the dimension of the panel perpendicular to the direction of the stress b=the dimension of the panel parallel to the direction of the stress and in which the values of ox» and mm are ob- tained from the critical buckling stresses of the panel, considered to be unstiffened and adequately stiffened respectively, by means of figure 2-48 and the method of section 2.713 for panels with edges simply supported and baving their face grain at 45° to thet edges. 2.7728, Stifened panel subjected to edgewise com- pression, stiffener parallel to the direction of the stress and to side b (8=0° or 90°). )- Fer Taare LF (14 (2:96) in which (Elje is the critical value of (ED), as determined by equation (2:92); Fay and Fan are the critical buckling stresses of the panel, con- sidered to be unstiffened and adequately stiffened respectively, obtained by the means of the method of section 2.712, Case I, and n is the number of half-waves that occur in the unstiffoned panel. It may be noted that the dimensions of the stiffener, and h, appear in equation (2:96) as well as in equations (2:91) and (2:92) and, therefore, it is necessary to estimate the values of these dimen- sions and verify the estimate by use of equation (2:96). ‘The compressive stress in the stiffener asso- ciated with the critical stress of the panel is: Sure Porm (2:97) ‘The lond carried by the panel and the stiffener at the critieal stress of the panel is: P. -=Fen[ar+pidh] (98) The ultimate lond of the stiffened panel cannot be greater than the sum of the ultimate loads of the two half panels according to section 2.722 plus the ultimate load of the stiffener considered as a short column, The reduction of this sum in terms of the a/a, of one of the half panels is given by figure 2-49 (ref. 2-30). 2.7724, Stiffenad panel eubjected to edgewise compression, stiffener parallel to the direction of the stress (8=45°). The stiffness in the neighbor- hood of the stiffener added to the panel by the stiffener is assumed to be the stiffness of the stif- fener alone and is given by formula (2:94). The critical stiffness of the stiffener is: ED er = tab? Ferm Ferg) 299) in which (ED, is the critical value of (EI), as determined by equation (2:94); Pq and Fay are the critical buckling stresses of the panel, consid- ered to be adequately stiffened and unstiffened, respectively, obtained by means of the method of section 2.715; and @ and 6 are the dimensions of the panel perpendicular and parallel to the direc- tion of the stress, respectively (ref. 2-70) . Stiffened panel subjected to edgewise shear. Stiffener parallel to edges (or ends) of panel and B=0° or 90°. EDw Mh @:100) in which (ED =the critical value of (EN, as deter mined by equation (2:92) LE =length of stiffener @ — =width of panel (indepensent of the direction of the stiffener) K, __ is determined by meahs of figure 2-46 ‘The critical stress of the stiffened: panel is com puted by means of section 2.713 equation (2:77) applied to one half of the panel as divided by the stiffener, provided that (ET), is equal to or greater then (ED se 2.773. A plywood panel stiffened with « multi- plicity of closely spaced stiffeners parallel to one of ‘ts edges (8=0° or 90°). If the spacing of the stiffeners is not too great the formulas for plywood i: 101L L * L oy { 8 L 8 5 © : 7 i i L L : Ie \ g u - 2 * : ' x é L g L 5 8 é i s 2 2 x u o~ ca Ss S Ss Ss SYINFISILS FHL IO LVHL SNA e STINVd STVH OML FHL IO SOVOT FLVWILTIN JO WS avo7 ZLVWILIN 102mo To oT ro Hee : Le f of section 2.71 can be applied to such panels. It is convenient. to employ formulas for the loud per inch of length of the of the stiffened panel rather than formulas for stress, thus Precr= Freer te where #, is the effective thickness of the stiffened panel, which it will not be necessary to compute ‘The following nomenclature is convenient. Ent ,, Ent?) forstifeners parallel TSR | or perpendicular pee ae to the direction of Et, Bat e face grain of Dim Fis o° Toa, |, panel respec GructY 12 Dee, Dre, and Deze are computed similarly to the above except that the stiffener is considered as an extra ply of the plywood. The location of the neutral axis is taken into account as described in section 2.52, Doe, Dye, 804 Deze axe elfective values that apply to the stiffened pancl. ‘The subscripts w and 2 applied to D denote directions parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the direction of the stiffeners, and subscripts 1 and 2 denote directions parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the direction of the stress for panels subjected to compression and to the direc- tion of side 8 for panels subjected to shear. Equations '2) and (2:77) become 3 Per 12H Desde (2:101) Pry 12H, (DieDal!" 2 (2102) in which D.\ #(n%) 2.7731. Determination of Dye The stiffeners being closely spaced, the usual engineering formula that takes into account the location of the neutral axis, can be employed. in which g= the width of the panel across the stiffen- ers and is equal to @ or b as required = the number of stiffeners £,=modulus of elasticity of the stiffeners in the direction of their length. 2.7732. Determination of Dz. When a panel is bent across the stiffeners, the variation of the stiff- ness at the stiffeners and between the stiffeners, and the presence of a sharp kink at the edges of the stiffeners due to stress concentrations, ure taken into account. Hb-2) (2:104) in which iistance center to center of two adjacent stiffeners, 2.7788. Determination of Deze 1 Dese=7 (1g—nh| Datu [h— et +O} Deze} (2:105) s in whieh g is the width of the panel across the stiffeners, n is the number of stiffeners, and « is, determined from figures 2-50 and 2-51 2.7734. Determination of tree Nites Mtgew Dre Dae Be (2:106) Hirer in which the values of ujee aNd jyee are taken from equations (2:32) and (2:33) of section 2.52, as- suming that the stiffener is an added ply of the plywood, ‘2.774. Stiffened plywood panels eubjected to bend- ing in the direction of the stiffeners. ‘The maximum, bending stress in stiffened plywood panels can be calculated from the following formula, when the face grain direction is 0° or 90° to the direo- tion of the span: ME, Dew (2:107) whe distance from the neutral axis of the com- posite section to the extreme longitudinal fiber E, is taken for the species of the outermost longitudinal ber, 103os os oe o> fo somos ou “9 LH) € oo 7 Si oe se 94) sof sang “09-@ 240 Dp oe st ov 10 zo £0 +0 450 90 Se eee eee eee | J ee | eee Pe £0 oot Peer eee 104er ot ot 9p fo s2 we a 7 or +4) 7G Y 8 soe 20nd Bee HoH Pee 105 0 70 ro o Tle 90 ao or fetes felecasia beessnsait esrataaiy‘stony ayy MN hmmSee eee eee Pe eee mt Herter 1 anes L This maximum bending stress should not: exceed the modulus of rupture of the material in which the maximum stress exists. If the stiffener is of an I or box section, the modulus of rupture must be corrected by a form factor as follows: When the load is applied so that the outer flange of the stiffener will fail in compression, the proper form factor to use is that for a beam having the same flange dimensions as the outer flange of the stiffener, and the sume web thickness as the stiffener, but of a depth equal to 22, If the load is applied so that the panel will fail in compression, the proper form factor to use is that of a beam having flange dimensions equal to that of the effective sheet plus the flange of the stiffener adjacent ‘to the panel, and a web thickness equal to that of the stiffener but a depth of 2(@+t—z). In either case no form factor need be used if the neutral axis lies within the compression flange, where 7 is the distance from the neutral axis to the stiffener face away from the panel as shown in figure 2 ‘The effective width of the panel for stresses below the proportional limit is: (2:108) in which Z, is obtained from equation (2:91) and bis in the direction of the stiffeners. If the spacing of the stiffener (¢ in fig. 2~52) is less than a,, the value of Dy, is obtained from equation (2:103) and Zeb x itd (2:109) SB aE, If this is not the case, then Lhd? mo tegen oh 22, Dus Det AE By tB y+ Ge Blt+d—22,) (2:10) in which Z, is obtained from equation (2:91), a. from equation (2:108), and 6 is in the direction of the stiffeners. For stiffened panels having the face grain direc- tion 45° to the length of the stiffeners, the plywood is neglected in the computations and the stiffeners designed to carry the total load. 2.775. Modes of failure in stiffened panels. ‘Modes of failure other than failure of the panel or the stiffeners are not considered here. ‘A possible mode of failure, which has been in vestigated for only one particular type of con- struction, is the premature separation of the ply- wood panel from its stiffeners occurring when the forces required to restrain the edges of the buekled panels become too great for the strength of the plswood or its attachment to the stiffeners. ‘Since no eriteria suitable for general application are available for predicting the critical modes of failure, it is reeommended that typicel panels of ench particular type of construction be tested. 2.8. Curved Plywood Panels 2.81, Srrencrs 1v Compression or SHEAR; OR Compinep Compresston (on TENSION) AND Swear. When failure by buckling does not oceur, the ultimate strength of curved plywood panels subjected to compression or shear, or combined compression (or tension) end shear may be ob- tained by the method given in section 2.613. This method is applicable when the face grain direction is at any angle. 2.82. Crrcunar Tain-Wattep Puywoop Cri- INDERS, 2.821. Axial compression. 2.9211. Compression with face grain parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The theoretical buckling stress for a long cylincler (to be modified for design as described later in the section) is given by the formula: Fe = Ke (Epet Ex} (@:111) r where E, is for the species of the face plies ickness of plywood r=radius of cylinder K, ipa buelding constant thats a funetion of and is determined from figure E+E, 2-53. In using figure 2-53, EZ, is the flexural stiffness of the plywood in the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder, Eis equal to Eye when the face grain is longitudinal and is equal to Em when the face grain is circum- ferential. Z, is the flexural stiffness of the plywood in the circumferential direce tion. By-+E; is equal to Ey+ Ee. Because of the steepness of the curve for Kat the extreme right and left. portions, it appears advisable to avoid, when possible, the use of types of plywood for which the ratio gy is small or nearly equal to unity. 107| l axis, the theoretical buekling stress m: For use in design, the theoretical buckling stress must be modified as the proportional-limit. stress is approached. This is accomplished by the use of figure 2-54. The proportional-limit stress used with this chart is the compressive proportional limit for the plywood in the direction of the cylin- der axis and is determined from table 2-18 or from section 2.600. Fiy=Fiyy when the face grain is longitudinal. F.,=:Fege when the face grain is cirenmferential. ‘The chart is entered along the abscissa with the ratio F,,, (theoretical)/F,,. The design buckling stress, Fis, is then obtained by multiplying the ordinate by > Limited amounts of double curvature have negligible effect on buckling loads. 2.8212. Compression with 45° face grain. When the face grain is at an angle of 45° to the cylinder be taken as the average of the theoretical buckling stresses obtained by assuming the face grain direction to be: (1) parallel to the cylinder axis, (2) circum- ferential. In using figure 2-54, however, to obtain the design buckling stress, the proportional-limit value F,, should be that for the plywood at 45° to the face grain. F,,., may be taken as where Fox is determined by section 2.610. 2.8213. Compression—effeet of length. If the cylinders are not long, an adjusted value by K, designated by Kis. should be used in formula (2:11), Values of Hy, can be determined from figure 2-55 in which Lis the length of the cylinder, and the subscripts 1 and 2 apply to the axial and circumferential directions respectively. 2.822, Bending. For bending, the design buck- ling stress determined as for compression may be increased 10 percent. 2.828. Torsion. The buckling stresses of thin plywood cylinders can be computed by the formula Fug =K,(Epet By) * (2:12) in which the value of K, depends upon values of WU, pAtpe and 6 angle between face grain and generator of cylinder (Bg. 2-38) Values of K for different values of W’, U, and @ are given in figures 2-57, 2-58, and 2-59. The nomenclature is illustrated in figure 2-56. (Ref. 2-93) 2.824. Combined torsion and bending Cases of combined Joading can be checked by the fol- lowing interaction formula: — GG fa=applied torsional shear stress pplied bending stress pure torsion design bucking stress Fye=pure bending design buckling stress 2.83. Cunven PaNzis. 2.831. Arial compression. ‘The buckling stre is that of a cofaplete cylinder, of which the curved panel can be considered to be a part, of a length equal to the axial dimension of the panel. Tt can be obtained by use of formula (2:11) corrected for length by the method of section 2.8213. If the curved panel is very accurately made, higher values may be obtained by test but cannot, be counted upon in design. 2.892. Shear. An approximation of the buck- ling stress is obtained by adding the buckling stress, of the panel considered to be flat to that of the cylinder of which the panel can be considered to bee part. Thus the buckling stress is givon ap- proximately by (ref. 2-40) sue Fre BH, BEN (LY 4 Ki Brot Eo) 0 (2:11) (14) a y =| (2:13) in which formula (2:114) comes from (2:77) and (2:112); formula (2:115) comes from (2:80) and (2:112). 2.84, Lonerruprvatty Srirrenep Cy.inpers. ‘A multiplicity of evenly spaced idéntieal stiffeners attached to the inner surface of the cylinders. 2.841, Stresses when buckling does not occur ‘The strengths can be computed by use of sections 2.610 to 2.614. 2.8411, Axial compression (or tension). The compressive stress in the plywood is: eee nhd E, +270 By or 2 Et Bal[ KS te (@:116) 109aot st +t ‘nope poonind popes % SSPUS LIMIT TWNOILYOd OY WIHLIWOL "3;)] SEFULS INITHING TWOLLIAODAL LL 9-3 ands) so 40 £0 2 0 8 5s * gs § $€ $ & SSIYLE LIWIT WNOILYOSOYS SSFULS ONITHING NSISII s ( &y pissed ta) (waisaa 7%, g 110| aaa L L | Lu Pe emer Peat ey eee 40) 36! 3.2 16 12 co 6 20 Le pbayt vaele/* 25 30 we Figure 8-85. Curve showing length effect of cylinders subjected to axial compression. and that in the stiffeners is (2:117) in which P is the total load on the stiffened cylinder, Z, and E, apply to the plywood and the stiffonors, respectively, in the direction of the axis of the cylinder, r is the mean radius of the plywood. cylinder, n is the number of the stiffeners, h and d are the crose-sectional dimensions of an indi- vidual stiffener, and ¢ is the thickness of the plywood. 8412. Shear stress due to torsion. stress in the plywood is: ‘The shear (2:118) 4CC eee # aameae L and that in the stiffener is: 26.7 rs Tt eal re) (2:119) in which r, is the radius of a cylinder tangent to the inner surfaces of the stiffeners, rs and 7, are ‘the inner and outer radii of the cylinder, respec- tively, Ges and G, are the moduli of rigidity of the plywood and the stiffeners, respectively, with reference to longitudinal and circumferential axes, and J is the applied torque. ‘DIRECTION OF FACE GRAIN Figure 2-56. Illustration of the meaning of the symbols ‘used for eylindere subjected to torsion. 2.842. Buekling of stiffened eylinders 2.8491. Avial compression. In general the ply- wood will buckle between the stiffeners when the stress in it equals the buckling stress for the 112 cylinder, the effect of the stiffeners being ignored, and, therefore, formula (2:11) employed. ‘The load at which such buckling occurs can be found by setting this stress (Fee from formula 2:111) equal to f, in formula (2:116) and solving for the ond P. Tests indicate thet unless the stiffeners are quite stiff they will buckle with the eylinder and fail at the load computed in the above manner. If the stiffeners are so stiff that they do not buckle with the cylinder, the maximura load will be greater than that computed. However, no methods are available for the determination of the size stiffeners required to obtain this effect por to compute the maximum loads that are obtained. (Ref. 2-93) 2.8422. Torsion. The shear buckling stress of the curved plywood shell between the stiffeners is about 85 percent of that obtained by formula (2:112) for the cylinder, neglecting the effect of the stiffeners, The torque at which buckling occurs can be found by setting this stress 0.855 Frye from (2:112) equal to f, in formula (2:118} and solving for the torque T. ‘Tests indicate that the maximum torque coin- cides with the torque at which buckles form. 2.8423. Bending. For bending, the design buek- ling stress determined as for compression may be increased 10 percent. Tests indicate that for yery stiff stiffeners this percentage may be increased. (Ref. 2-96) 2.85, SrirFENED Curvsp PAnets. stiffener bisecting the panel. 2.851. Axial compression 2.8511. Stiffener axial. ‘The critical stress in the plywood is computed according to the method of section 2.831, and the critical load of the stiffened panel can be obtained by substituting this value for f. in equation (2:116), placing equal to unity, and solving for P. 2.8512. Stiffener circumferential, The critical stress is computed according to the method of section 2.831, using the distance between the stiffener and the end of the pancl as the length of the cylinder, provided that A. single ED), >0.4 Perth? (2:120) in which (ED, is given by formula (2:84), and Fr is the critical stress of the entire panel, neglecting the stiffener, computed by the method of section 2.881.u ae 7 en | L | ow — on - | [eee L 3 3 z g he rE a) L 1 on : a0 ‘as 70 em . ANGLE OF PACE Raine 0 ote on oon oa 1 - ws a a ' oan wor - Ln _ = - . 3 3g 8 1 § g eet eee Sov Sos i : ee z é [ i ont ket t : ee eae [ ot on , | | | | a0 ; on | + 4, 4 Cr ea ae a fi 4 a ee ANGLE OF Face GRuIme 90 ANGLE OF FACE GRai—es Figure 2-57, Theoretical buckling constants for thin-walled plywood oylinders in torsion, Wm 0.036. 1138 § g | g = sun : 1 L L L L L Figure 8-58, Theoretical bnickling constants for thin-walled plyscood cylinders in torsion, W=0.056. 7 | | u i | Be 7 ANGLE OF FACE Gharn-vas L 208 i f L { L er | ah om a g 3 wet | — He Tr cede | L : Son tye § g | £ g se L : = L I : a a 0s oe a7 ee oy ao "65 oe or ca ey 7 L 7, eat 114r eo oe Peer es 7 ee | L § ie d qa SI : USS \ zk ¥ oa] Se ERY é = | b—~ 7 A (rmeoneneay 1A (rsconcreat) | ow ‘aaa a Eee Erte snes or Bean rate OF HEE ota Figure 2-59. Theoretical buckling constants for thin-walled plywood cylinders in torsion, W=- 0.090. 115mer oo { u oH Hee ro 2.852. Shear. 2.8521. Stiffener azial. The stiffened curved panel can be considered to be a part of e stiffened cylinder. Thus the critical stress of the plywood panel without the stiffener is computed according to section 2.832. This stress is substituted for the Jeft hand member of equation (2:118) using: nm (2:121) and the equation solved for the torque 7. The stress applied to the edges of the stiffened panel which will cause it to buckle is then given by: (2:122) ‘This method leads to values which are slightly conservative 2.9. Joints 2.90. Bourep Jorts. 2.900. Bearing parallel or perpendicular to grain. ‘The strength of wood in bearing parallel to the grain against solid steel sireraft belts disposed ulong the member in single or double lines with the lond divided equally between the two ends of the bolt (concentric loading) can be determined by use of figure 2-60. The stress at ultimate and at the proportional limit is expressed in terms of the maximum crushing strength for L/D ratios up to 18, The stress does not vary significantly below an L/D of 8 for softwoods and 5 for hard- woods but drops rapidly as the L/D ratio is in- creased above these values. ‘The ratio of ultimate bearing stress to the bearing stress at the proportional limit is 1.4 or less (fig. 2-61) at low L/D ratio for both softwoods and hardwoods. Thus, if a ratio of ultimate to limit bearing load higher then 14 is desired, it follows that the limit load in the low Z/D range must be based on stresses below the proportional limit. For example, if a ratio of 1.5 is desired for softwoods (shown by broken lines in figs. 2-60 and 2-61) the limit lond will be less than the pro- portional limit load up to an L/D ratio of 8.5 beyond which the proportional limit stress is used to determine the limit load. ‘The bearing strength of wood perpendicular to grain under aircraft bolts can be found by use of figure 2-82 (ref. 2-77). It may be noted that while bearing stress is only moderately reduced as the L/D ratio becomes greater than 9, there is a 116 marked variation with bolt diameter, particularly in the smaller sizes. The bearing stress at pro- portional limit when bearing perpendicular to grain, in general may be found with sufficient necuracy by dividing the ultimate bearing strength by 1.33 for all L/D ratios. 2.901. Bearing at an angle to the grain (ref, 2-61). When the load on a bolt is applied at an angle between 0° and 90° to the grain, the allowable load (proportional limit or ultimate) may be computed from the expression . Pg =P sn Teas (2:12) where N=the allowable bolt load at angle # ‘=the allowable bolt load parallel to the grain Q=the allowable bolt load perpendicular to the grain =the angle between the applied load and the direetion of the grain Equation (2:123) is solved graphically by the Scholten Nomograph, figure 2-63. 2.902. Eccentric loading. When load is applied at only one end of a bolt (eccentric loading), the allowable ultimate load may be taken as one half the ultimate two-end load computed as above. At proportional limit, however, the al- lowable eccentric load may be taken as only one- fourth of the two-end proportional limit load for two-end loading parallel to grain. his ratio may be increased to one-half if deformations ap- proximately equel to those occurring at propor- tional limit under two-end loading are not objec- tionable even though they ‘are well beyond those corresponding to the one-end proportional limit load. Proportional limit values for one-end loading perpendicular to grain may be taken as one-half of the proportional limit values for two-end loading. 2.903. Combined concentric and eccentric loadings; bolt groups. When the design loads on a group of bolts are either all concentric or all eccentric and are all in the same direction, the allowable loads for the individual bolts may be added direetly to determine the total allowable load for the group. When the design loads are in different directions (as when the load causes a moment about the cen- troid of the bolt group) or when they are partly concentric and partly eccentric, each bolt must be treatedseparately. ‘The design loads and momentsos 1 [ 22 1 : sees na au i oe | ) Ms 1 , | uurimare Loeo| | | | | os a a | | Le t : ~ z L bom | 5 T ; i 2 oe 8 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT LOB0 —7~ TK os} { | { 3 g : j 3 os : ES bh ow Bo. ae = Logo <4 1g L Fas § ; | j % 0. t | ae | | 3 | | fea err I os { i | uerimare 1040 | | L I | | | os ' f i | | ie i } Pe 2. i t + / PROPORTIONAL LIMIT LOAD) | | - I fect " ozl | Esa eee “2 1e 4 5 6 7 e 9 10 “ 12 1S 1 1S 16 8 “py + Plgure 2-80. Relation between bearing strength and mazimum erushing strength for wood under airerajt bolts bearing pavallet fo grain. A, hardwoods; B, softwoods. 117ee coor Pe re ee Poe | L ie ‘SOFTWOOD REINFORCED WITH) iY li 10 T0 30 PERCENT PLYWOOD gg ) Fal xs S gz gs i SOFT WODD. { 8 7 u SS 2/4 ay Sr SE vol 5 10 PERCENT COMPREK = (e — S¢ Le ae gt 13 PERCENT COMPA gs [|— ERs 20 PERCENT COMPRES: SOFTWOOD REINFORCED WITH is GROSS-BANDED COMPRES 26 PERCENT COMPRES Le & ° 2 ¢ 6 @ 0 2 “6 BEARING LENGTH OF BOLT/ BOLT DIAMETER (4/0 RATIO) au rere r Pigure 2-61. Relation between ullimate bearing strength and bearing strength at proportional lrmit for voriows types of members must be distributed to each bolt in proportion to its resistance and the geometry of the bolt group. This often requires a trial and error calculation. 2.904. Bolt spacings. The following bolt spacing criteria are based on spruce. For other species the paralle]-to-grain spacings and end margins should be multiplied by the expression: Kahin (2324) where F.,=allowable stress at proportional limit in compression parallel to the grain F,,= allowable shearing stress parallel to the gzain of the material 118 Spacings perpendicular to grain and edge mar- gins as given below are applicable to all species, 2.9040. Spacing of bolts loaded parallel to the grain. : (1) Spacing parallel to the grain. ‘The mini- mum distance from the center of any bolt to the edge of the next bolt in a spruce member having cross-banded reinforeing plates, subjected to either tension or com- pression, is given in figure 2-64, The minimum distance from the edge of a bolt, to the end of such a member subject to tension is also given. For spruce mem- bers without reinforcement these values must be inereased by 50 percent.ney “20-8 2m “urnal 07 soynotpusdiod easenan 6IHON/)7-L108 YO YFHSVMA IO a9 te NY vt NV et NW Zi NW HoNW Ol NW 6 NY LNV 9 NV SNV > NV ENV oF sy or ay ey +7 4708 YO YFHSUM SO UPLINVIT NI NOLLVIVA HLM NIVY9 OL [— YY TNNONAALFA SCFIYLS FAISSTYAWOD FLU WILTN OL SSPYLS OM/MVIT FLUWILIN JO OLLVY NI NOLLVIMYA SS TAISSFYANOD PLVWILIN SSIYLE ONISVIT FLUW/LIN 6 WHHL YILVIVE SolLve T YO NIVYS OL YY TADIONIdYAT A 3 8 I SL70@ LIVYILIY GYVONVLS NY JO [AL SS FYL8 ONIVIT NI NOLLINGTY, voLayy L024 _SSTHL Ley wolLanaze g Pt Pa 8 haa etait Aan 7 eee eae f Ratti’) tae See) Orv g ee eee eee eeevy 7 dvsbonon woes “Ky (osoivsoavT sizno0us £59804 M1 40 norssru~za 49 092000%878) WIVID FHL OL SFITINY SNOLIYA LY BOOM 40 HLINFILS ONIYYTS ONININYILIO BOF HAVAIOWON NILTOHIS ‘313 ‘Souwsnons ‘$0240NNH ‘SN2L—N4'0'S 404 (06d mi) ssz81s 90 (raNnod ml) avoT TBYMOTTO L ’ é z ‘ 2 9 5 1 0, i SEE EEE J See PE it Pettey | | dt ay] Pt} EH] | LL |_| 7 2802 D6 82M dy F FA svIMWSOd NOSHINUTUR 3HL 30 MOLLaTOS TWIIKAUYD ¥ $1 LH¥ND 3HL i fy) ie 24 13110ad O90" L700 TIBUAOIE NYG sao ; eI framers 6 1 49 s6auie wo iba Didesr ie 0 a ¢ WIE, 120 ge eee eee ee He BE EeeEee Heer tat 1MNIMIM ALLOWABLE DISTENCES 1 REWFORCED SPRUCE BETWEEN AN STANDARD See aad oe sat Soa sea ce oo MEMBERS WHEW BEARING 15 PARALLEL TO GRAN. SEE SECTION 2.904 FOR SPACINGS L ‘AND MARGINS IN OTHER SPECIES. a { | | | 7 u Pe a | al ' 0 + L — [ees seat a 7 ago cai ve] i ee eee ool t 1 Ley | 55) + | ee \ oH ny \ j 17} L : on 1 | ——T Z T —_ 7 | Cs ‘ 20] |—77| u ae | frat [1 | = ie ae ea i cd t ee | “ as} | | 1 J Eg meee TE cE nes E> TOTAL THCKNESS OF MEMBER (INCHES) Figure 2-64, Allowable distances between bolts and allowable end margin for bolts in spruce members having croes-banded reinforcing plates when bearing & parallel to grain of spruce 121Y eseaue eee L gee eee ee | L L Cc [a 2.9041 the grain 122, @) @ a) Q) @) ‘The minimum distance from the edge of a bolt to the end of a member subject to compression should be 3% bolt diameters. Spacing perpendicular to the grain. ‘The minimum distance between the edges of adjacent boits or between the edge of the member and the edge of the nearest bolt should be one bolt diameter for all species. It is recommended that the stress in the area remaining to resist tension at the critical section through a bolt hole not. exceed two-thirds the modulus of rupture in static bending when eross-banded re- inforeing plates are used; otherwise one- half the modulus of rupture shall not be exceeded. W a bolt load is less than the allow- able Icad parallel to the grain, the spacing may be reduced in the following way: The bolt spacing given in figure 2-64 can be multiplied by the ratio of actual load to allowable load except that, the spacing should be not less than three dolt diameters. The bolt spacing per- pendicular to the grain cannot be reduced below one bolt diameter. « Spacing of belts loaded perpendicular to Spacing perpendicular to the grain. The minimum distance from the edge of a bolt to the edge of the member toward which the bolt pressure is acting should be 3% bolt diameters. The mar- gin on the opposite edge and the distance between the edges of adjacent bolts should be not less than one bolt diameter. Spacing parallel to-the grain. The mini- mum distance between edges of adjacent Bolts should be three bolt diameters and the distance between the end of the member and the edge of the nearest bolt should be not Jess then four bolt diameters. When a bolt load is lesa then the allow- cble lood perpendicular to the grain, all bolt spacings may be multiplied by the ratio of actual load to allowable load except that: the spacing should be not less than one bolt diameter. The distance between the end of the member and the edge of the nearest bolt, measured parallel to the grain, should be not less than three bolt diameters, however. 2.9042. Spacing of bolts loaded at an angle to the groin. When bolts are loaded at some angle to the grain, the load can he resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to the grain and the spacings thereafter determined in accordance with sections 2.9040 and 2.9041. 2.9043. General notes on bolt spacing. When bushings are used in combination with bolts, the spacing should be based upon the outside diameter of the bushing. When adjacent bolts or bushings are of different diameters, the spacing should be based upon the larger. When staggered rows of bolts are employed in design, the distance between the center lines of adjacent bolt rows should be not less than the sum of the diameters of the largest bolt in each row 2.905. Bearing in wood-base materials. 2.9050. Bearing in plywood (ref. 2-47). For plywood constructed of a single species in accord ance with Specification AN-P-69a (Plywood and eer: Aircraft Flat Panel) or any other approxi- mately balance construction (nearly equal thi ness of material in both directions}, the propor- tional limit bearing strength under solid steel air- craft. bolts loaded at any angle to the face grain can be determined from figure 2-65. The propor- tional limit stress expressed in terms of the ultimate compressive stress is related to diameter of bolt for various thicknesses of plywood. Ultimate loads can be assumed to be at least 50 percent above these values For appreciably unbalanced constructions or for balanced constructions in which the use of two species results in an appreciable difference between Fe 80d Foy, the proportional limit bearing stresses under aircraft bolts may be found by multiplying the appropriate ratio from figure 2-65 by Fue for bolts loaded at 0° to the face grain and by Few for bolts loaded at 90° to the face grain. For loadings at other angles, the proportional limit stresses may be found by straight-line interpola- tion between values found by the procedures given above for loadings at 0° and 90°. ‘The minimum distance from the edge of a bolt to the edge of a member in a single-bolt connection loaded parallel to the face grain is one diemeter for cither tensile or compressive loading. When the face grain is at 45° or 90° to the direction of load- ing, the edge distance must not be less than one and one-half diameters. Where several bolts disposed slong the center line are employed in a connection the edge distance should be determined by multi plying the single-bolt edge distance given above byce BEE EE EE eee eee eevee eee eee eee eee ro oe Heer : 4.00 © — PLYWOOD 0.125" OR 0.155" THICK [-— & — PLrwoop 0.315" THICK @ — PLYWOOD 0.590" THICK 2 a 8 0.20 L * Lt — 2 2 DIAMETER OF BOLT (INCH) Figure £-£5. Retation of proportional limit bearing stress to mazimum crushing strength of plysoood for three bolt diameters ‘and four thicknesses of plywood. the number of bolts. Where bolts ere disposed in two lines, each line should coincide with the center line of the half-width of the member in which the line of bolts is placed, and the edge distance for each line should be equal to the number of bolts in that line multiplied by the edge distance for @ single bolt. ‘The minimum distance from the edge of the bolt to the end of the member is two diameters under tensile loading for any grain orientation. For compressive loading a minimum of one diameter should be used. ‘The most common use in which plywood will have to sustain boltbearing londs will be as rein- forcing plates on solid wood members (sec. 2.906). 2.9051. Bearing in compreg (ref. 2-31). For cross-banded compreg of approximately balanced construction that conforms to AAF Specification 15065-B (Panels: Compressed Wood, Impregnated) the bearing strength under solid-steel aircraft bolts loaded at any angle to the grain can be determined from figure 2-66. The stress at proportional limit and at ultimate, expressed in terms of the ultimate compressive stress, is related to bolt diameter for several thicknesses of compreg. Ultimate loads are at least 50 percent above the proportional limit value. No variation in bearing strength with direction of loading has been noted for unbalanced con structions tested. It is suggested, however, that when the unbalance exceeds 2 60-40 relationship, the bearing stresses may be found by multiplying the appropriate ratio from figure 2-66 bY Feu for bolts loaded at 0° to the face grain and by Pes for bolts loaded at 90° to the face grain. For loadings at other angles, the bearing stresses may be found by straight-line interpolation between values found by the procedures outlined above for loadings at 0° and 90° For a single-bolt joint under compressive load- ing, the minimum distance from the edge of the bolt to the edge of the member is one and one-half diameters for any grain orientation. The distance from the edge of the bolt to the end of the member should be at least one bolt diameter. For a single-bolt joint loaded in tension, the minimum end or edge distances are the same and vary with the face grain orientation as follows parallel and perpendicular to face grain, 4% di- ameters; 45° to face grain, 2 diameters. For connections employing more than one bolt, edge distances should be determined as indicated for plywood in section 2.9050. ‘At a ratio of bearing length to bolt diameter of 123220.-—-————_ —__,————_, u L fee eee eee ee ree fanaa BEARING STRESS (PERCENT OF MAXIMUM CRUSHING STRENGTH) Pee eee eee 40 3 z 3 ‘ rr DIAMETER OF BOLT Pigure 2-68, Ultimate (A) and proportional limit (B) bearing slresses of commercial cross-banded compreg expressed as Dpercent of ultimate compressive stress for three diameters of bolis (bu, 2s, and 1 inch) and for three Whicknceses of compreg 4, 6, and J inch). 124feree Peete eee rreeee eee eee eererer eee Ieee eee eee eee eee meee eae eee 4, the bearing strength of compreg exceeds the double shear strength of the bolt. The most common use in which comprez will have to sustain bearing loads will be as reinforcing plates on solid wood members. 2.906. Bearing in reinforced members (ref. 2-68). 2.9060. Wood members with plywood reinforeing plates, ‘The allowable limit bearing load parallel to the grain of members symmetrieally reinforced with plywood (AN-P-692), the thiekness of which (two plates) is 10 to 30 percent of the total thick- ness of the member and reinforcement, under solid steel aircraft bolts may be determined as follows: (1) Select tentative thickness of reinforee- ment and diameter of bolt. (2) Compute the L/D ratio based on the total leugth of the bolt in beari (8) From figure 2-60 read the ordinate on the proportional limit curve for the wood member corresponding to the L/D ratio found in (2) (4) From figure 2-65 read the ordinate on the proportional limit curve for the thickness of reinforcement (one plate) and at the bolt diameter chosen. (5) Multiply the factors determined in steps (3) and (4) by the appropriate maximum erushing strengths to obtain the allow- able proportional limit bearing stresses of the materials involved. (6) Multiply the stresses so obtained by the corresponding bearing areas to obtain the bearing load for each material. The summation of these bearing loads closely approximates the proportional limit bear~ ing strength of the reinforced member, being only slightly conservative, If the ratio of the ultimate stress to the propor- tional limit stress indicated by the curve of figure 1 for the construction chosen is less than the ratio of ultimate load to limit lond (usually 1.5) specified by the design requirements, it is obvious that the limit bearing load chosen for use in design must be less than the load corresponding to pro- portional limit stress computed by the steps out- lined above, and will be equal to the computed oad multiplied by the ratio of the ordinate from the curve of figure 2-61 to the desired ratio. If on the other hand, the ratio from figure 2-61 is greater than that specified, the design ultimate bearing ond must be less than the actual ultimate 9sa7To-—s1—10 load if the limit bearing load is to be no greater than the bearing load at proportional limit, The preceding method applies to plywood re- inforeing plates regardless of the angle between the load and the face grain direction ‘The allowable concentric bearing load perpen- dicular to the grain can be obtained in a similar manner except that in step (3) figure 2-62 shall be used. When the load on a bolt is applied at an angle Detween 0° aud 90° to the grain, the allowable load on the wood member may be computed by substituting in equation (2:123) the parallel and perpendicular bearing loads determined by the methods outlined in the preceding paragraphs. For loads on the reinforcing plates refer to see- tion 2.9050. 2.9061. Wood members with cross-banded com preg reinforcing plates. The allowable bear stress parallel to the grain of wood members symmetrically reinforced with cross-banded com- preg, the thickness of which (two ‘plates) is 10 to 30 percent of the total thiekness of the member and reinforcement, under solid steel aireraft bolts may be determined as follows: (2) Select tentative thickness of reinforce- ment and diameter of bolt. (2) Compute the L/D ratio based on the total length of the bolt in bearing. (3).From figure 2-60 read the ordinate on the ultimate stress curve corresponding to the L/D ratio found in (2) (4) From figure 2-66 read the ordinate on the ultimate stress curve for the thickness, of reinforcement (one plate) and at the bolt: diameter chosen in (1) (8) Multiply the factors determined in steps (3) and (4) by the appropriate maximum crushing strengths to obtain the allow- able bearmg stresses of the materials involved. . (6) Multiply the stresses so obtained by the corresponding bearing areas to obtain the maximum bearing load for each material. ‘The summation of these bear- ing loads is the maximum bearing strength, The ratio of the ultimate stress to the propor- tional limit may be obtained from the curves in figure 2-61. 195rT eT eT hr a Poe tr | L L eee eee ‘When compreg reinforcing plates are applied to members under tensile loading, the grain of the ‘compreg must be at 45° to the direetion of loading. The allowable concentric bearing load perpen- dicular to the grain can be obtained in a similar manner except that in step (8) figure 2-62 shall be used. ‘When the load on a bolt is applied at an angle between 0° and 90° to the grain, the allowable load on the wood member may be computed by substituting in equation (2:1%3) the parallel and perpendicular bearing loads determined by the methods outlined in the preceding paragraphs. For londs on the reinforcing plates, refer to section 2.9051 2.907. Bushings. Bushings of light alloys or fiber materials may be used to increase the bearing strength of bolts. Since the possible combina- tions of material for bolts and bushings are numerous, a specific set of allowable loads for all possible combinations cannot. be given ‘The allowable bearing loads for aluminum bush- ings used in combination with steel bolts, and for other combinations of materials, should be de- termined by a special test. 2.908. Hollow bclts. ‘The use of hollow bolts with comparatively thin walls for bearing in wood is not recommended, as tests at the Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory show that such bolts are little if any more efficient on a weight basis than solid bolts. When used, the allowable stress parallel to the grain may be obtained from N. A.C. A Technical Note 206 (ref. 2-77). In general, tests should be made to determine the allowable loads at other angles to the grain 2.908. General features of bolted joints 2.9000. Drilling of holes (ref. 2-27). In order to use the bolt-bearing stresses shown in the pre- ceding sections, holes must have accurate aline- ment and spacing and the surfaces must be smooth and true. This requires control of rate of feed and rotational speed as well as sclection of the proper type of drill. Most suceessful results have been obtained with a twist drill carefully centered in the chuck, rotated at the highest speed com- patible with a reasonable drill life, and fed at a rate that will produce cutting, not tearing. In general, the smoothest hole produces the most desirable bolt-bearing characteristics. 2.9091. Repeated loading of bolted joints. The proportional limit load may be repeatedly applied without producing an appreciable increase in the deformation or “slip” of the joint. In general, 126 Joads as high as 75 percent of the ultimate may be safely repeated without excessive deformation. Since this is close to the proportional limit for low LiD ratios, it is seen that the amount the loed may be inereased above the proportional Jimit increases with the L/D ratio. Since in a few cases in reinforced members the maximum sefe value is below 75 percent of ultimate, it is probably best to consider the proportional limit to be the optimum limit load. 2.91, Guvep Jorxrs. £10, Allowable stress for glued joints (ref 2-48). (2) An allowable glue joint stress equal to one-third F,, (column 14 of table 2-8) for softwoods or one-half Fy, for hard- woods for the weaker species in the joint should be used for all plywood-to- plywood or plywood-to-solid-wood joints regardless of face grain direction and for joints between solid wood members in which the relative grain direction is essentially perpendicular. The re- duction for joints in whieh the face grain direction of the plywood is parallel to the grain of the solid wood is necessary primarily because of the unequal stress distribution common to most plywood glue joints (2) The allowable shear stress on the glue area for all joints hetween pieces of solid wood having parallel-grain gluing, is equal to the allowable shear stress paral- lel to the grain for the weaker species in the joint. - This value is found in column M4 of table 2-6 and should be used only when uniform stress distribution in the clue joint is assured. (8) The allowable shear stress on the glue area for joints between pieces whose grain ‘directions make an angle of other than 0° or 90° may be found by use of formula (2:123) (see. 2.901), using allow- able values for 0° and 90° joints com- puted as in (1) and (2) above. Figure 2-64 may be used for a graphical solu- tion of formula (2:123). When the angle between the grain directions of the ad- jacent pieces does not exceed 15°, the shearing strength allowed for parallel- grain gluing as deseribed in (2) above may be assumed to apply without cor rection.