New Zealand
Bussell Journal of Crop and in
& McKennie—Rockwool Horticultural
horticultureScience, 2004, Vol. 32: 29–37
0014–0671/04/3201–0029 © The Royal Society of New Zealand 2004
Review
Rockwool in horticulture, and its importance and sustainable use
in New Zealand
W. T. BUSSELL
School of Landscape & Plant Science
UNITEC Institute of Technology
Private Bag 92 025
Auckland, New Zealand
email: wbussell@unitec.ac.nz
S. MCKENNIE
Veg-Gro Supplies Ltd
10 Firth St
Drury, New Zealand
Abstract A brief history of the beginnings of the
use of rockwool in horticulture in overseas countries,
an outline of uses overseas of the current forms of
water absorbent and water repellent horticultural
rockwool, a summary of manufacturers of the prod-
uct, a consideration of some of its advantages and
disadvantages, and a listing of the crops grown in
horticultural rockwool are given in this paper. An
outline of the overseas experiences in both the dis-
posal of and the sustainable reuse of horticultural
rockwool is also given. A history of use in New
Zealand of horticultural rockwool and the crops
grown on the product are outlined. Options, which
are both within and outside horticulture, for the sus-
tainable reuse of the relatively small volume (c. 300
m3/year) which becomes available for reuse in New
Zealand at present are described and discussed.
Many of these options may be applicable in other
countries where the volume of horticultural
rockwool used is relatively small.
H03070; Online publication date 17 March 2004
Received 9 July 2003; accepted 19 September 2003
29
Keywords reuse; horticultural rockwool; review
INTRODUCTION
Rockwool, a fibrous “wool” or flock material, was
first discovered occurring naturally on Mauna Loa
volcano in Hawaii in 1850. It was first manufactured
in c. 1935 for use as an insulating material for build-
ings. The manufacturing process involves melting
forms of basaltic rock at temperatures of 1500°C,
incorporating additives and then feeding a stream of
the molten mixture onto a drum that is rotating at
great speed and which spins the molten mass into
fibres (Blaabjerg 1983; Smith 1987). Insulation
rockwool contains additives which prevent the prod-
uct from absorbing water. Investigations into find-
ing a suitable density of rockwool to grow plants in
and into finding an additive (or leaving an additive
out) to make rockwool water absorbent were com-
pleted in 1969 (Petersen 1994). These investigations
were the beginning of the use of water absorbent
rockwool in horticulture.
The use in horticulture of water absorbent
rockwool (and to a lesser extent water repellent
rockwool) has expanded in the past 30 years. This
expansion has been first, in the number of countries
where rockwool is used as a substrate for the propa-
gation and production of crops; second, in the
number of crops grown in rockwool; and third, in
increasing numbers of product types to maximise
crop potential.
The first aim of this paper is to give a summary
of pertinent aspects of rockwool (which is sometimes
referred to as stonewool) in horticulture overseas and
more detailed information of rockwool in horticul-
ture in New Zealand. The second aim is, using over-
seas information, to consider how the current range
of most widely used water absorbent slabs, blocks,
and plugs might be reused after their first use in New
Zealand. This consideration is likely to be of ben-
efit for other countries with small populations using
relatively small quantities of this material.
30 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 2004, Vol. 32
ROCKWOOL IN OVERSEAS
HORTICULTURE
History
Initial experiments on growing horticultural crops on
rockwool started in 1971 in Denmark. This first
commercial use was in Scandinavia in 1971–72
growing cucumbers, followed by tomatoes (1974)
and nursery crops (1972–77) (Wikesjø 1974; Jorgen
Blaabjerg pers. comm.). By the late 1970s it was
being used commercially in Holland (Verwer 1976;
Sonneveld & Voogt 1980; Verwer & Welleman
1980; Blaabjerg 1983). Rockwool was first used
during the 1980s in other countries such as Australia
(Hanger 1982; Donnan & Biggs 1984; Ellyard et al.
1985), Canada in 1982 and France in 1980 (Hans
Fig. 1 Diagrammatic representa-
tion of the cycle of a tomato crop
grown in rockwool (drawings from
Grodan A/S leaflets).
Joergen Jensen pers. comm.), Great Britain (Smith
1987), Israel in 1989 (Hans Joergen Jensen pers.
comm.), and the United States (Hanan 1983; Ingram
et al. 1993; Nelson 1998). Rockwool is now used in
over 50 countries including New Zealand. Rockwool
in horticulture in New Zealand will be discussed later
in this paper.
Uses and forms of water absorbent rockwool
The main use of water absorbent rockwool in horti-
culture is as a propagation and growing substrate in
its own right (Smith 1987). For this purpose the
material is almost exclusively formed into plugs,
blocks, or slabs. Plants of most crops are propagated
in small plugs or cubes (Fig. 1) until transplanting
stage when they are then transferred into blocks
Bussell & McKennie—Rockwool in horticulture 31

(Fig. 1). These blocks are then placed onto slabs (Fig.
1), where plants grow on to maturity. A few crops,
e.g., cucumber, are sown directly into blocks, which
are later placed onto slabs.
A wide range of blocks and slabs are currently
manufactured and they differ in density, fibre ori-
entation, fibre diameter, size, and shape. They are
also either wrapped in plastic or not wrapped. Slabs
have either a low density of rockwool fibres and a
short life (single use slabs) or a high density of
rockwool fibres and a longer life (more year slabs).
The fibre orientation in rockwool slabs is either
vertical or horizontal. Slabs with horizontal fibres
and of dual density (the top third having a high den-
sity, the remainder a lower density) have superior
water holding capacity and aeration when compared
to slabs with vertical fibres. The fibre orientation in
rockwool blocks is more variable, but densities are
Table 1 Physical details of commonly available
rockwool slabs (adapted from Smith 1998). (Most
commonly used sizes in New Zealand are in bold.)
Length (cm) 80, 90, 100, 120, 133
Width (cm) 15, 20, 25, 30
Depth (cm) 7.5, 10
Finish wrapped, unwrapped
Density normal, low, standard, and dual densities
consistent. Dimensions and other details of some of
the slabs, blocks, and loose substrates currently
available are given in Tables 1 and 2 . Further de-
tails are available on rockwool manufacturers’
websites, e.g., Grodan (http://www.grodan.com) and
Cultilene (http://www.cultilene.nl).
Water absorbent rockwool is also formed into
flock or granulate in coarse (having the highest pro-
portion of large particle sizes), medium, or fine
grades. Further details about these grades are avail-
able on rockwool manufacturers’ websites. The
major use of all grades of granulate is as a compo-
nent of growing substrates. Water absorbent granu-
lates may be used alone or mixed with water
repellent granulate and other materials. An alterna-
tive use for coarse water absorbent granulate is as a
soil conditioner both in the greenhouse, where, for
example, the water holding capacity of a sandy soil
can be greatly increased, and in the field.
Uses and forms of water repellent rockwool
Water repellent rockwool used in horticulture is
formed only as flock or granulate in coarse, medium,
and fine grades. Coarse grade water repellent
rockwool may occasionally be used as a soil condi-
tioner in the greenhouse. The main use of all grades
of water repellent rockwool is in container mixes
also comprising water absorbent rockwool flock or
other substrates such as peat, bark, and soil. Nurs-
ery, house plants, hydroponic herbs, and commer-
cial cut flower crops are grown in containers with
these mixes.

Table 2 Physical details of commonly available rockwool blocks and loose substrates (adapted from Smith 1998).

Dimensions (cm)
Common name Brief description length ¥ width ¥ depth How sold
Blocks
Plugs (Kiem plugs) Cylindrical profile 2 ¥ 2 ¥ 2.7 240/polystyrene tray
Multiblocks Cubes joined at the 2.5 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 4 200/mat
(A/O cubes) top to form mats 3.6 ¥ 3.6 ¥ 4 98/mat
5¥5¥4 50/mat
Propagation blocks Individually wrapped blocks 7.5 ¥ 7.5 ¥ 6.5 or (10) 384 (256)/carton
with or without grooved bases 10 ¥ 10 ¥ 6.5 216/carton
10 ¥ 15 ¥ 6.5 (2 holes) 144/carton
Loose substrates 10 ¥ 20 ¥ 6.5 (2 holes) 108/carton
Grocubes For pot plant or cut flower production 1¥1¥1 1100 litres/pallet
Granulates For sole use or incorporation Small, medium, or per 20 kg bale
into substrate large granules
32 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 2004, Vol. 32
Horticultural rockwool manufacturing
around the world
The first manufacturer of water absorbent rockwool
for horticultural use was the Danish company
Grodania A/S, now Grodan A/S which is the horti-
cultural marketing subsidiary of Rockwool Interna-
tional A/S, the largest rockwool manufacturer in the
world. Over the years this company has developed
different products in flock or granulate, block or
plug, and slab form. Water absorbent rockwool prod-
ucts are the major part of Grodan’s production. The
current range of Grodan rockwool (stonewool) prod-
ucts is described on the website: http://
www.grodan.com.
Other manufacturers of water absorbent rockwool
for horticultural use who, like Grodan A/S, also sell
product in New Zealand include: Cultilene
(France—http://www.cultilene.nl)—this company
produces propagation plugs, cubes, blocks, slabs,
and granulate (flock); Growool (Australia)—this
company primarily produces horticultural propaga-
tion cubes, blocks, slabs, and granulate (flock); and
Vacroc (Slovak Republic)—this company, previ-
ously produced a product known as Isotone, pro-
duces cubes, blocks, and slabs.
There are many other manufacturers of horticul-
tural rockwool throughout the world. Details of most
of these are available on Internet search engines.
Advantages for crop production
in the rockwool manufacturing process
The high temperatures used in the manufacture of
rockwool ensure that the material is essentially ren-
dered chemically and biologically inert, making it
free of any potential pests, diseases, and weed seeds.
This high degree of sterility is a major advantage
over some alternative substrates used in greenhouse
crop production.
Other advantages of rockwool include a manufac-
turing process that produces a very consistent prod-
uct and that some products are able to be sterilised
for reuse. However, losses in productivity and mar-
ginal economics see only small volumes being steri-
lised for reuse.
Rockwool slabs and blocks can be watered
frequently as they drain freely and can thus be
managed to provide an optimum ratio between air
and water for crop production through the season.
These products do not modify or restrict nutrient
availability, with more than 98% of the water and
fertiliser applied being readily available for uptake
by the crop, and they can quickly respond to changes
in liquid feeding (i.e., electrical conductivity (EC)
or pH) requirements delivered by the irrigation to
the root zone of a hydroponic crop. Smith (1998)
outlines some of the changes made to the charac-
teristics of rockwool slabs to improve crop produc-
tion. Further improvements continue to be made,
with the latest information on manufacturers’
websites.
Disadvantages of rockwool
A perceived disadvantage of rockwool use is find-
ing an acceptable and sustainable second use after
its first use. We consider this matter in more detail
later in this paper. Health concerns, particularly in
relation to some lung cancers, had been expressed
(Drent et al. 2000). However, in 2001 the Interna-
tional Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) con-
cluded a re-evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of
airborne man-made vitreous fibres including all
mineral wool fibre products such as rockwool. As a
result of this re-evaluation these products are now
classified as non-carcinogenic to humans (IARC
2001—http://www.iarc.fr/pageroot/PRELEASES/
pr137a.html, IARC monographs programme re-
evaluates carcinogenic risks from airborne man-
made vitreous fibres).
Crops grown in rockwool
The major food crops grown in rockwool are tomato,
pepper (capsicum), cucumber, melon, climbing green
beans, egg plant (aubergine), lettuce, and strawberry.
Descriptions of cultural practices for these crops,
which are mostly grown on slabs or in blocks, are
given in a number of publications including Smith
(1998), websites of rockwool manufacturers, and
websites of extension and advisory organisations.
Other food crops (including asparagus, citrus, grape,
loquat, olive, and yard long bean) have been grown
on rockwool, mostly for propagation only.
The major ornamental and nursery crops grown
in rockwool are rose (grown on slabs), gerbera
(grown on slabs, blocks, and grocubes), and
cymbidium orchid (grown in granulate). Descrip-
tions of cultural practices for these crops are given
in a number of publications including Smith (1998)
and websites. Other ornamental and nursery crops
grown on rockwool include anthurium, Australian
native plants, big trees in shopping malls, bouvardia,
bulbs, camellia, carnation, chrysanthemum,
euphorbia, hibiscus, lily, pelargonium, pine and
other timber trees, poinsettia, rhododendron, and
snapdragon (Ellyard et al. 1985; Hansen 1988;
Contrisciano & Holcomb 1993; Hansen et al. 1993;
Heiskanen 1994; Smith 1998).
Bussell & McKennie—Rockwool in horticulture
Disposal of rockwool
Disposal of used horticultural rockwool in a landfill
has been carried out in all countries where crops have
been grown on rockwool. Such a disposal method
is either increasingly less available or regarded as
inappropriate or unsustainable. However, it is still
sometimes the best solution to handling used
rockwool when an analysis of the total environmen-
tal impact (including costs of transport to central
collecting depots and costs of alternative solutions)
through a product life-cycle analysis is taken into
account. At present used rockwool is commonly
disposed of in a landfill in many developing coun-
tries, in the United States and other developed coun-
tries where appropriate sites, e.g., disused quarries,
are readily available, or in situations where the vol-
ume of rockwool used is small.
SUSTAINABLE REUSE OF ROCKWOOL
IN OVERSEAS COUNTRIES
Reasons for investigating sustainable reuse of hor-
ticultural rockwool in overseas countries now in-
clude: in Europe a general waste regulation has led
to soil amendment with “good” wastes (including
rockwool) being abandoned in many countries due
to the difficulty of distinguishing good from “bad”
wastes such as “sewage sludge” containing heavy
metals; landfill costs are becoming increasingly
expensive or landfill sites are becoming increasingly
unavailable in some countries; rockwool has fewer
cultural demands and generally produces more re-
producible results than other substrates used in com-
mercial greenhouses (Pieters et al. 1998), and
therefore use is increasing; and rockwool manufac-
turers are increasingly wishing to contribute to a
good image for their product.
Table 3 Means of re-using rockwool investigated and
reported by Grodan A/S.
Solution no. Title of solution
1 Recycling to rockwool factory
2 Soil amendment
3 Mixing into other substrate, e.g., peat
4 Mixing into compost
5 Brick production
7 Landfill cover
8 Mining cover/recultivation
9 Mushroom casing
33
Research on the reuse of rockwool has been and
continues to be conducted by rockwool manufactur-
ers, particularly Grodan A/S and Grodan BNF. The
Grodan studies to date are summarised in the
“Grodan solutions” listed in Table 3. Two of these,
solutions 1 and 5, are now used widely in the United
Kingdom and Holland. In both countries nearly all
of the used rockwool from crops is now collected
together and processed at large facilities (Anon.
2000; Neefjes 2001). Within these large facilities the
used slabs and blocks are ground with their plastic
sleeves still on them. The ground material is left to
weather for a period so the root material partially
decomposes. Plastic and rockwool is then separated
easier. The majority of the ground rockwool from
these facilities is made into bricks for houses or
remanufactured into both horticultural and insulation
rockwool.
Research has been conducted, using many species
of ornamental plants, on the incorporation of ground
used rockwool into potting mixes containing com-
post or other substrates (“Grodan solutions” 3 and 4
in Table 3) in Poland (Strojny 1997) and Korea
(Jeong 2000; Kim et al. 2000; Shin & Jeong 2000;
Lim & Jeong 2000; Jeong & Hwang 2001; Kim &
Jeong 2003). The other substrates have included
peat, bark, perlite, rice hull, pinewood chips, and
chestnut woodchips. Rockwool incorporation into
compost or other substrates results in improved aera-
tion and increased water holding capacity of the
mixture (Fonteno & Nelson 1990; Choi et al.1999,
2000). The Korean research has emphasised the need
to grind rockwool and other components of the mix-
tures to a suitable grade, to have certain substrates,
particularly bark and wood chip, weathered or
soaked to remove chemicals harmful to plant growth,
and to steam sterilise ground used rockwool during
the preparation of mixtures.
ROCKWOOL IN NEW ZEALAND
HORTICULTURE
History
Horticultural rockwool, in the form of the product
Growool manufactured by Bradford Insulation Ltd
in Australia, was first introduced to New Zealand at
a Vegfed Conference in Christchurch in the 1980s.
New Zealand greenhouse growers did not take up
Growool then. The growers instead began using
nutrient film techniques, sawdust modules, or bags
in soilless culture. It was felt that Growool was
34 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 2004, Vol. 32
comparatively too expensive and there was a hint of
quality variability and collapse during use, which has
since been eliminated. Individual growers undertook
a few trials but it failed to be generally accepted.
Bradford Insulation also failed to appoint an appro-
priate agent in New Zealand and therefore their prod-
uct was neither adequately nor at all aggressively
marketed.
The horticultural rockwool product Grodan has
been commercially distributed in New Zealand since
1996. Before a few growers had imported a small
amount of Grodan more year slabs on their own
account. The volume of Grodan rockwool used has
increased considerably since it became commer-
cially available and is likely to continue to increase.
In the year to March 2003, 17.5 ha of the c. 250 ha
of crops in greenhouses were grown on Grodan
rockwool. Single use slabs (which comprised 95%
of the slabs imported in the year to March 2003)
rather than more year slabs are likely to be the most
widely used slabs in New Zealand in future. This is
because single use slabs are pest and disease free for
the start of a crop, they are homogeneous from slab
to slab, and EC and water content can be controlled
with greater accuracy.
Crops grown on rockwool
The vegetable crops currently grown on rockwool
in New Zealand are tomato, capsicum, cucumber,
egg plant, lettuce, and herb vegetables. The orna-
mental crops are rose, gerbera, and orchid. Seedlings
and cuttings of many species of cutflower and nurs-
ery plants, plants which have been tissue cultured,
and aquatic plants are also grown on rockwool.
Table 4 Patents for uses of waste from insulation rockwool having possible
application in the reuse of horticultural rockwool in New Zealand.
Brief patent title
Treatment of waste rock wool
Fibrous mats for pressing
Method for treating waste rock wool
Manufacture of artificial soil from
waste rock wool
Mineral wool waste cement
Asbestos-free, fibre reinforced
composite cement products
Fillers for bituminous mixtures,
especially asphalt mastic
Adhesive mastic
These crops are grown on one or more of the fol-
lowing rockwool products manufactured by
Grodan—slabs, grocubes, granulates, kiem plugs,
blocks, and A/O cubes. The rockwool products are
either wrapped in plastic or not wrapped.
Reuse of rockwool in New Zealand
There have been no formal studies to date on the
reuse (2nd use) of rockwool in New Zealand. A pi-
lot study involving placing used slabs (with the plas-
tic sleeves removed) as a mulch around avocado
trees has been conducted. The mulch has success-
fully suppressed weed growth for 2 years and crop
growth has not been affected. New tree roots have
grown into the slabs causing breakdown of the slabs.
Mulching of avocado and other tree crops (e.g., cit-
rus) with surface roots may be a worthwhile and
appropriate reuse (2nd use) of rockwool in New
Zealand. A second crop in the now widely used
single use slabs is unlikely except for cucumbers,
where three crops could be grown in the same green-
house in a calendar year. The disadvantages of
reusing single use slabs include being broken more
easily when moved than more year slabs, the possi-
bility of incomplete steam sterilisation between
crops and the occurrence of variable amounts of root
matter in used slabs making water content and EC
control much more difficult than in new slabs. The
volume of rockwool available for reuse, namely all
of the slabs and c. 10% of the blocks and plugs used
each year, is relatively small and will always be
small compared to some countries.
We can examine possibilities for sustainable use
of a product by conducting a life cycle analysis
Patent application
JP 89-180809 19890712 (1991)
CN 95-10070 19950106 (1996)
FR 90-15279 19901206 (1992)
CN 95-10070 19950106 (1996)
JP 95-199224 19950712 (1997)
US 85-789691 19851021 (1987)
DD 89-329861 19890622 (1990)
US 95-568791 19951207 (1997)
SU 85-3928669 19850716 (1987)
Bussell & McKennie—Rockwool in horticulture
Fig. 2 Proposed rockwool recycling system for New Zealand.
(LCA), the objective of which is to provide a quick
and reliable insight into the environmental profiles
of a crop production system throughout its “life
cycle”. The parts include extraction of raw materi-
als, processing and manufacture of a product (in this
instance rockwool), distribution of the product, crop
production in the product, and finally the discard-
ing or reuse of waste material. A stylised partial LCA
for rockwool in New Zealand, including assumed
volumes, is given in Fig. 2. It starts at the point of
sale in New Zealand (since there is no manufacturer
here) and ends at the point of granulation and reuse
(using incorporation of the used slabs by a compost
manufacturer as an example of a reuse option).
The three key people in the life cycle of rockwool
in New Zealand are: wholesaler/distributor, who
sells the product(s) to the grower; grower, who pur-
chases the product, wraps it (if not ordered and sold
pre-wrapped), carries out the cultural practices of
hydration, planting, production (which adds water,
fertiliser, and root matter from the plant to the sys-
tem), crop pull out at the conclusion of the growing
cycle, de-sleeves the product and finally transports
the used product to the place of granulation; and
compost manufacturer (or other end user), who
granulates the used product, separates any waste, and
incorporates the granulated material into composts
(or any other end product) for sale or use.
35
The detail of preparing rockwool for reuse and
how it might be reused may become quite specific
for New Zealand. It is likely that some of the
“Grodan solutions” (Table 3) and some of the other
current European means of reuse, e.g., brick mak-
ing, will not be immediately applicable for New
Zealand. Further clues for the reuse of horticultural
rockwool in New Zealand may be provided by some
of the patents developed (Table 4) for the use of
waste from the manufacturing of insulation
rockwool. These matters await further investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Sustainable Farming Fund; Tomato Sector, VegFed; Veg-
Gro Supplies Ltd; and Grodan A/S for financial support.
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