ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words often fail to express one’s feeling towards others, still I

express my sincere gratitude to Shri. Harishchandra , Assistant Station
Engineer DOORDARSHAN KENDRA JAIPUR for his valuable
guidance without which it would have been difficult for me to complete
my training. I also express my gratitude to Shri. O.P. Rajpurohit and
Shri SanjayJi, who helped me a lot in understanding the various
processes and concepts involved. It was really a great experience
working in the DD Kendra and learning from such experienced
engineers with hands on experience on the subject.

SURBHI DUBEY
B.TECH (E&C), 7th Sem
MAIET,
JAIPUR
The Doordarshan Kendra Jaipur

An Overview
Doordarshan Kendra Jaipur is part of the DD India, the largest
television network in the world. The first television programme
was viewed by the people of Rajasthan on 1st August,1975 under
the satellite Instructional Television Experiment in the districts of
Kota, Sawai Madhopur & Jaipur. Special educational programme
were then produced at Delhi on 1st March,1977, Upgrah
Doordarshan Kendra was set up at Delhi. The programmes
produced at UDK for Jaipur were relayed. On 1st June 1987 Jaipur
Doordarshan Kendra was set up at Jhalana Doongri and
transmission started on 6th July 1987. Initially the Kendra
produced only 30 min of programming and this was gradually
increased to about 4 hrs. From 2nd Oct 1993 the LPTs located at
Ajmer, Udaipur and Bikaner and HPT at Bundi were connected
with DDK Jaipur via satellite. Doordarshan introduced commerc ial
service at Jaipur Kendra on 11th Dec 1993.

PRESENT STATUS

Doordarshan Jaipur is the only Programme Production Center in

the Rajasthan. The studies are housed at Jhala Doongri, Jaipur and
the transmitter is located at Nahargarh Fort. As per the census
figures of 2001, the channel covers 79% by population and 72%
by area of Rajasthan. On 1 May 1995 telecast of DD2
programmes commenced from Jaipur using a 100W LPT. Now DD2
converted as DD NEWS is being telecast from a 10KW HPT set up
in 2000. The reach of the NEWS channel is 11% by area and 32%
by population. There are 47.58% snf 35.83% cables homes in
Urban Rajasthan and 25.69% TV, 7% cables homes in Rural
Rajasthan.
Presently this Kendra originates over 4hrs of daily programming
(25hrs & 30 mins Weekly) in Hindi & Rajasthani. Programmes are
also telecast in Sindhi, Urdu, English & Sanskrit. This kendra
originates to News bulletins daily 1 in hindi & 1 in Rajasthani and
feeds important stories for the national bulletins including regular
contribution in Rajyon Se Samachar at 1740 hrs daily on DD
NEWS.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION OF TRANSMITTING

FACILITIES AT DDK, JAIPUR:-
Doordarshan Kendra, Jaipur is equipped with studio, two
terrestrial transmitters and one digital up-link station. The two
terrestrial transmitters are of 10 KW power each. One is for DD-
National and the other is for DD-News telecasting.

TERRESTRIAL TRANSMITTER PARAMETERS:

DD-NEWS :CH #31 (VHF-Band-III) Pictures IF: 551.25 MHz,
Sound IF: 556.75 MHz
DOWNLINK PARAMETERS OF DD-NEWS SATELLITE PROGRAMMES
Satellite Position 93.5 degree
Satellite Insat 3A Transponder
Uplink Frequency 6165.5 MHz (Horizontal)
Downlink Frequency 3940.5 MHz (Vertical)
Modulation QPSK
 FEC ¾
Symbol rate 6.25 Mps
Azimuth Angle 144.32 degree
Elevation Angle 52.33 degree

Technical Overview
DDK Jaipur has the following main departments which manage the production,
storage transmission and maintenance of the two DD National channels and the
DD Rajasthan channel.
1. STUDIO
2. PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM (PCR)
3. VIDEO STORAGE AND TRANSMISSION ROOM(VTR)
4. MAIN SWITCHING ROOM(MSR)
5. DIGITAL EARTH LINK STATION
6. TRANSMITTER
Each of these departments are discussed in detail with due stress to the relevant
engineering aspects. The studio has
• Camera and lights and other equipment required for production of a
feed.
• Camera control unit or CCU
It is in the studio that all aspects related to the production of a video takes place.
The DDK has two large studios and a small studio for news production.
The PCR is where the post production activities like minor editing and
management of feed during a live program takes place. The production manager
sits in the PCR and directs the camera men and selects the angles sound parameters
etc during the production stage in the PCR. It is in the PCR that we can control all
the studio lights and all the microphones and other aspects. The PCR has a vision
mixer and an audio mixer. Its working and other aspects are discussed in detail in
the following pages. The PCR is where the phone in console and other systems are
also kept.
The VTR is the next section where copies of all programs are stored. All the
programs shot in the camera are simultaneously recorded in the VTR. Also the
VTR plays back all the videos as and when required. Videos of pre-recorded
events are queued up in the VTR and are played back without a break. Videos of
famous people and important events are stored in the central film pool.
The MSR stores all the circuitry of the DDK. All the camera base units, all the
vision mixer base units and all the audio processor base units are kept in MSR. The
audio chain and video chain of MSR is explained in detail. The monitoring and
control of all activities takes place in MSR. It is the MSR which decides what is to
go in air. The MSR also performs some additional functions like logo addition etc.
The next station is the earth station which has an uplink chain, simulcast
transmitters, audio processors video processors, up converters, modulators etc. The
earth station is in fully digital domain.
The last stage is the transmitter which has the antenna and facilities for terrestrial
transmission.
FUNDAMENTAL OF MONOCHROME AND
COLOUR TV SYSTEM:-
Picture formation:-
A picture can be considered to contain a number of small
elementary areas of light or shade which are called PICTURE
ELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the visual image of the
scene.

In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the

photosensitive surface of pick up device and a optical image is
formed. The photoelectric properties of the pick up device
convert the optical image to a electric charge image depending
on the light and shade of the scene (picture elements). Now it is
necessary to pick up this information and transmit it. Electron
beam scans the charge image and produces optical image. The
electron beam scans the image line by line and field by field to
provide signal variations in a successive order.
The scanning is both in horizontal and vertical direction
simultaneously.

The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hertz.

The vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz.

The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and
then the even lines. The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since
the frame is divided into 2 fields the flicker reduces. The field
rate is 50 Hertz. The frame rate is 25 Hertz (Field rate is the
same as power supply frequency).

Number of TV Lines per Frame:-

If the number of TV lines is high larger bandwidth of video and
hence larger R.F. channel width is required. If we go for larger RF
channel width the number of channels in the R.F. spectrum will be
reduced. However, with more no. of TV lines on the screen the
clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. With lesser number
of TV lines per frame the clarity (quality) is poor.

The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of

picture elements along scanning lines determines the horizontal
resolution. It means how many alternate black and white
elements can be there in a line. Let us also take another factor.
It is realistic to aim at equal vertical and horizontal resolution.
Therefore, the number of alternate black and white dots on line
can be 575 x 0.69 x 4/3 which is equal to 528.

It means there are 528 divided by 2 cyclic changes i.e. 264

cycles. These 264 cycles are there during 52 micro seconds.
Hence the highest frequency is 5 MHz.

Therefore the horizontal resolution of the system is 5 MHz.A

similar calculation for 525 lines system limits the highest
frequency to 4 MHz and hence the horizontal resolution of same
value.

In view of the above the horizontal bandwidth of signal in 625

lines system is 5 MHz.
The PAL Colour Television System:-

The Colour Television:-

It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary
colours i.e. Red, Blue and green in a suitable proportion.

Additive Colour Mixing

The figure 10 shows the effect of projecting red, green, blue beams of light so that they
overlap on screen.

Y= 0.3 Red + 0.59 Green + 0.11 Blue

Fig. 10 Additive Colour Mixing

The Colour Television

It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary
colours i.e., red, blue and green in suitable proportion. Thus it is
only required to convert optical information of these three colours
to electrical signals and transmit it on different carriers to be
decoded by the receiver. This can then be converted back to the
optical image at the picture tube. The phosphors for all the three
colours i.e. R, G and B are easily available to the manufacturers of
the picture tube. So the pick up from the cameras and output for
the picture tube should consists of three signals i.e. R, G and B. It
is only in between the camera and the picture tube of the receiver
we need a system to transmit this information.

Colour television has the constraint of compatibility and reverse

compatibility with the monochrome television system which
makes it slightly complicated. Compatibility means that when
colour TV signal is radiated the monochrome TV sets should also
display Black & White pictures. This is achieved by sending Y as
monochrome information along with the chroma signal. Y is
obtained by mixing R,G & B as per the well known equation :

Y = 0.3 R + 0.59 G + 0.11 B

Reverse compatibility means that when Black & White TV signal is

radiated the colour TV sets should display the Black & White
pictures.

If we transmit R, G, B, the reverse compatibility cannot be

achieved. Let us see how :

If we transmit Y, R & B and derive G then :

Since Y = 0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11 B

G = 1.7Y - 0.51 R - 0.19 B

In such a case what happens with a colour TV set when we

transmit black and white signal. R and B are zero, but G gun gets
1.7 Y. The net result is black & white pictures on a colour TV
screen appear as Green pictures. So reverse compatibility is not
achieved.

Colour Difference Signals

To achieve reverse compatibility, when we transmit Y, R-Y and B-Y
instead of Y, R & B, we do not take G-Y as this will always be
much lower than R-Y and B-Y and hence will needs more
amplification and will cause more noise into the system. G-Y can
be derived electronically in the TV receiver.

In the previous paragraph we have seen

G = 1.7 Y - 0.51 R - 0.19 B

So G-Y = -0.51 (R-Y) - 0.19 (B-Y)

Thus, colour difference signals fulfill the compatibility and reverse

compatibility. Because in this case the colour difference signals
are zero if the original signal is monochrome (i.e. R = B = G)

So if we take R - Y
 R - Y = R - (0.3 R + 0.59 R + 0.11 R) = 0

Similarly B - Y = 0

As such colour difference signals are zero for white or any shade
of gray whereas, Y carries the entire Luminance information.

It is to be noted while R, G, B signals always have positive

value R-Y, B-Y and G-Y signals can either be positive or negative
or even zero.

The R-Y and B - Y chrominance signals may be recovered at

the television receiver by suitable synchronous demodulation.
But sub-carrier is to be generated by a local oscillator. This
generated sub-carrier in the receiver must have same frequency
as that of transmitted sub-carrier and also the same phase. This
is achieved by transmitting 10 cycles of sub-carrier frequency on
the back porch of H synchronizing pulse. This 10 cycles sub-
carrier signal is known as BURST or colour BURST.
VIDEO CHAIN IN A TYPICAL DOORDARSHAN
STUDIO:-

STUDIO CENTRE
A Studio centre of Doordarshan has the following objectives:
1) To originate programmes from studios either for live telecast or
for recording on a video tape.
2) To knit various other sources of programs available at the
production desk i.e., camera output from studios, feed from
other kendras, outdoor, playback from pre recorded tape, film
based programs slides, video graphics and characters
generator etc. This knitting or live editing includes generation
of special effects and desired transitions between various
sources.
3) Processing/distribution of different sources to various
destinations in technical areas.
4) Routing of mixed programme for recording/transmission via
master switching room and Micro Wave to the transmitter or
any other desired destinations.

Activities in a television studio can be divided into three major

areas such as :

1) Action area,
2) Production control room, and
3) Central apparatus room,

Action area
This place requires large space and ceiling as compared to any
other technical area. Action in this area includes staging, lighting,
performance by artists, and arrangement to pick up picture and
sound. Hardware required for these activities in a studio (typical
size 20 x20x8.5 cubic meters) are:
1. Very efficient air conditioning because of lot of heat dissipation
by studio light and presence of large number of persons
including invited audience performing artists and operational
crew.
2. Uniform and even flooring for smooth operation of camera
dollies and boom microphone etc.
3. Acoustic treatment Keeping in mind that a television studio is
a multi purpose studio with lot of moving person and
 equipment during a production.

1. Supporting facilities like properties, wardrobe, and makeup

etc.
2. Effective communication facilities for the floor crew with the
production control area.
3. Studio cameras (three to four) with one of the cameras fitted
with teleprompter system and pressure dolly.
4. Luminaires and suspension system having grids or battens
(hand/motorised operation).
8. Pick up wall sockets for audio operations.

9. Tie lines box for video and audio lines from control room

10.Cyclorama and curtain tracks for blue and black curtain for
chroma keying and limbo lighting respectively.

11.Audio and video monitoring facilities.

12.Studio warning light and safety devices like fire alarm system
and fire fighting equipments etc.

13.Digital clock display.

Operational requirement from the technical crew may vary from

programme to programme. These requirements for lighting,
audio pick up and special effects etc. depends upon the
programme requirement such as establishing a period, time,
formal or informal situation.

Production control area

Activities in this area are:-

1. Direction to the production crew by the producer of the

programme.
2. Timing a production/telecast.
3. Editing of different sources available at the production desk.
4. Monitoring of output/off air signal.
Hardware provided in this area include:

• Monitoring facilities for all the input and output

sources(audio/video).
• Remote control for video mixer, telecine and library store
and special effect (ADO) etc.
• Communication facilities with technical areas and studio
floor.

Vision mixing and switching

Unlike films, television media allows switching between different

sources simultaneously at the video switcher in Production control
room operated by the Vision Mixer on the direction of the
program producer. The producer directs the cameramen for
proper shots on various cameras through intercom and the vision
mixer (also called VM engineer) switches shots from the selected
camera/cameras with split second accuracy, in close cooperation
with the producer. The shots can be switched from one video
source to another video source, superimposed, cross faded, faded
in or faded out electronically with actual switching being done
during the vertical intervals between the picture frames.
Electronics special effects are also used now days as a transition
between the two sources.

Vision Mixer (or Video Switcher)

Though the video switching is done by the VM at the remote
panel, the electronics is located in CAR. The vision mixer is
typically a 10 x 6 or 20 x 10 cross bar switcher selecting anyone
of the 10 or 20 input sources to 6 or 10 different output lines. The
input sources include: Camera 1, camera 2, camera 3, VTR1,
VTR2, Telecine 1, Telecine 2, Test signal etc. The vision mixer
provides for the following operational facilities for editing of TV
programs:-

(i)Take: Selection of any input source

or

Cut: switching clearly from one source to another.

(ii) DISSOLVE: Fading out of one source of video and fading

in another source of video.
(iii) SUPERPOSITION OF TWO SOURCES: Keyed caption when
selected inlay is superimposed on the background picture.
(iv) SPECIAL EFFECTS: A choice of a number of wipe patterns for
split screen or wipe effects.
The selected output can be monitored in the corresponding pre-
view monitor. All the picture sources are available on the
monitors. The preview monitors can be used for previewing the
telecine, VTR; test signals etc. with any desired special effect,
prior to its actual switching.

The switcher also provides cue facilities to switch camera tally

lights as an indication to the cameraman whether his camera is
on output of the switcher.

Present day PCR’s have:

• 24 input video special effects switchers
• (CD 680 or CD 682-SP)
• Character generators
• Telecine/DLS remote controls
• Adequate monitoring equipment

Character Generator(CG)
Character Generator provides titles and credit captions during
production in Roman script. It provides high resolution
characters, different colours for colorizing characters,
background, edges etc. At present bilingual and trilingual C.G are
also being used by Doordarshan.

Character Generator is a microcomputer with Texts along

instructions when typed in at the keyboard is stored on a floppy
or a Hard disk. Many pages of scripts can be stored on the disk
and recalled when needed, by typing the addresses for the stored
pages, to appear as one of the video sources.

Sync Pulse-Generator(SPG)
It is essential that all the video sources as input to the switcher
are in synchronism i.e., start and end of each line or all the
frames of video sources is concurrent. This requirement is
ensured by the sync pulse generator (SPG). SPG consists of
highly stable crystal oscillator. Various pulses of standard width
and frequency are derived from this crystal electronically which
form clock for the generation of video signal. These pulses are
fed to all the video generating equipment to achieve this
objective of synchronism. Because of its importance, SPG is
normally duplicated for change over in case of failure.

It provide the following outputs:

• Line drive
• Field drive
• Mixed blanking
• Mixed sync
• colour subcarrier
• A burst insertion pulse
• PAL phase Indent pulses

Camera Control Unit (CCU)

The television cameras which include camera head with its
optical focusing lens, pan and tilt head, video signal pre-amplifier
view finder and other associated electronic circuitry are mounted
on cameras trolleys and operate inside the studios. The output of
cameras is pre-amplified in the head and then connected to the
camera control unit (CCU) through long multi-core cable (35 to 40
cores), or triax cable.

All the camera control voltages are fed from the CCU to the
camera head over the multi-core camera cable. The view-finder
signal is also sent over the camera cable to the camera head
view-finder for helping the cameraman in proper focusing,
adjusting and composing the shots.

The video signal so obtained is amplified, H.F. corrected,

equalized for cable delays, D.C. clamped, horizontal, and vertical
blanking pulses are added to it. The peak white level is also
clipped to avoid overloading of the following stages and avoiding
over modulation in the transmitter. The composite sync signals
are then added and these video signals are fed to a distribution
amplifier, which normally gives multiple outputs for monitoring
etc.

Light Control
The scene to be televised must be well illuminated to produce a
clear and noise free picture. The lighting should also give the
depth, the correct contrast and artistic display of various shades
without multiple shadows.

The lighting arrangements in a TV studio have to be very

elaborate. A large number of lights are used to meet the needs of
‘key’, ‘fill’, and ‘back’ lights etc. Lights are classified as spot and
soft lights. These are suspended from motorized hoists and
telescopes. The up and down movement is remotely controlled.
The switching on and off the lights at the required time and their
dimming is controlled from the light control panel inside a lighting
control room using SCR dimmer controls. These remotely control
various lights are inside the studios.
Sound mixing and control
As a rule, in television, sound accompanies the picture. Several
microphones are generally required for production of complex
television programs besides other audio sources also called
marred sound from telecine, VTR, and audio tape/disc replays. All
these audio sources are connected to the sound control console.

The sounds from different sources are controlled and mixed in

accordance with the requirement of the program. Split second
accuracy is required for providing the correct audio source in
synchronisation with the picture thus requiring lot of skill from the
engineer. Even the level of sound sometimes is varied in
accordance with the shot composition called prospective.

Audio facilities
An audio mixing console, with a number of inputs, say about 32
inputs is provided in major studio. This includes special facilities
such as equalisation, PFL, phase reversal, echo send/receive and
digital reverberation units at some places Meltron console tape
recorders and EMI 938 disc reproducers are provided for playing
back/creating audio effects as independent sources (Unmarried)
to the switcher.

Video Tape recorders

VTR room is provided at each studio center. It houses a few
Broadcast standard Videocassette recorders (VCRs). In these
recorders, sound and video signals are recorded simultaneously
on the same tape.

Most of the TV centers have professional quality B-Format BCN-51

One inch VTRs. For broadcast quality playback it is equipped with
correction electronics i.e. a processor which comprises velocity
error compensation, drop-out compensation and time base
correction. It also comprises a digital variable motion unit
enabling still reproduction, slow motion and visible search
operation.

New centers are being supplied with Sony U-matic high band
VCRs along with ½” Sony Betacam SP VCRs, DVC Pro.

Post Production Suites

Modern videotape editing has revolutionised the production of

television programs over the years. The latest trend all over the
world is to have more of fully equipped post production suites
than number of studios. Most of the present day shootings are
done on locations using single camera. The actual production is
done in these suites. The job for a post production suites is:-

a. To knit program available on various sources.

b. While doing editing with multiple sources, it should be
possible to have any kind of transition.
c. Adding/Mixing sound tracks.
d. Voice over facilities.
e. Creating special effects.
The concept of live editing on vision mixer is being replaced by
“to do it at leisure” in post production suites.

A well equipped post production suite will have:-

1. Five VTRs/VCRs, may be of different format remotely

controlled by the editor.
2. Vision mixing with special effect and wipes etc. with control
from a remote editor panel.
3. Ampex Digital Optics (ADO) for special effects.
4. Audio mixer with remote control from the editor remote
panel.
5. Multi-track audio recorder with time code facilities and
remote operation.
6. Character generator for titles.
7. Adequate monitoring facilities.
8. Supported by “Offline editing systems” to save time in post
production suites.
9. One man operation.

Coverage of Outside events :

Outside broadcasts(or OBs) provide an important part of the
television programs. Major events like sports, important functions
and performances are covered with an O.B. van which contains all
the essential production facilities.

Video Chain :
The block diagram on facing page connects all these sections and
it can be observed that the CAR is the nodal area. Now let us
follow a CAM-I signal. CAM-I first goes to a Camera electronics in
CAR via a multi-core cable, the signal is then matched/adjusted
for quality in CCU and then like any other sources it goes to video
switcher via PP (Patch Panel) and respective VDAs(Video
Distribution Amplifiers) and optional Hum compensator/Cable
equilizers.

Output from the switcher goes to stabilizing amplifier via PP

and VDAs. Output from the stab. Is further distributed to various
destinations.
TV LIGHTING:-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent.
There is always a tremendous scope for doing experiments to
achieve the required effect. Light is a kind of electromagnetic
radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e. wave
length from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to
effectively use the hardware and software connected with lighting
it is important to know more about this energy.

Light Source
Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured
in Candelas. Candela is equivalent to an intensity released by
standard one candle source of light.

Basic Three Point Lighting

Key light : This is the principal light source of illumination. It gives shape
and modeling by casting shadows. It is treated like "sun" in the sky and it
should cast only one shadow. Normally it is a hard source.

Fill Light : Controls the lighting contrast by filling in shadows. It can also
provide catch lights in the eyes. Normally it is a soft source.

Back light : Separates the body from the background, gives roundness to
the subject and reveals texture. Normally it is hard source.

Background Light : Separates the person from the background, reveals

background interest and shape. Normally it is a hard source.In three point
lighting the ratio of 3/2/1 (Back/Key/Fill) for mono and 3/2/2 for colour
provides good portrait lighting.

TV CAMERA:-
Introduction

A TV Camera consists of three sections :

a) A Camera lens and optics: To form optical image on the

face plate of a pick up
device.

b) A transducer or pick up device : To convert optical image into

an electrical
signal.

c) Electronics : To process output of a

transducer to get a CCVS
signal.

CCD CAMERAS
Introduction
Any camera will need a device to convert optical image into an
electrical signal. Now let us consider a picture frame made of
small picture element. For more sharpness or better resolution
we have to increase these elements. This picture frame can now
be focused on to a structure of so many CCD elements. Each CCD
element will now convert the light information on it to a charge
signal. All we need now is to have an arrangement to collect this
charge and convert it to voltage. This is the basic principle on
which CCD cameras are based.
Latest CCD Cameras
CCD were launched in 1983 for broadcasting with pixel count
from a mere 2,50,000 which increased to 20,00,000 in 1994 for
HDTV application. Noise and aliasing has been reduced to
negligible level. CCD cameras now offers fully modulated video
output at light level as low as 6.0 lumens. A typical specification
for a studio camera now available in market are some thing like
2/3 inch, FIT, lens on chip CCD with 6,00,000 pixel, 850 lines H
resolution, S/N more than 60 dB, sensitivity F-8 (2000 lux) etc.

Block Diagram of a typical Camera

HIGH POWER TV TRANSMITTER:-

Design:-
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist
of an exciter followed by power amplifiers which boost the exciter
power to the required level.

Exciter:-
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It
contains pre-corrector units both at base band as well as at IF
stage, so that after passing through all subsequent transmitter
stages, an acceptable signal is available. Since the number and
type of amplifier stages, may differ according to the required
output power, the characteristics of the pre-correction circuits can
be varied over a wide range.

Vision and Sound Signal Amplification:-

In HPTs the vision and sound carriers can be generated,
modulated and amplified separately and then combined in the
diplexer at the transmitter output.

In LPTs, on the other hand, sound and vision are modulated

separately but amplified jointly. This is common vision and aural
amplification.

A special group delay equalization circuit is needed in the first

case because of errors caused by TV diplexer. In the second case
the intermodulation products are more prominent and special
filters for suppressing them is required.

As it is difficult to meet the intermodulation requirements

particularly at higher power ratings, separate amplification is
used in HPTs though combined amplification requires fewer
amplifier stages.

Power Amplifier Stages

In BEL mark I & II transmitters three valve stages (BEL 450 CX,
BEL 4500 CX and BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter
chain and two valves (BEL 450 CX and BEL 4500 CX) in aural
transmitter chain. In BEL mark III transmitter only two valve
stages (BEL 4500 CX and BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision
transmitter chain. Aural transmitter chain is fully solid state in
Mark III transmitter.

BEL 10 kW TV TRANSMITTER
A block diagram of BEL 10 kW TV Transmitter is shown in Fig. 10.
It consists of :

a) Input Equipment Rack

b) Monitoring Equipment Rack
c) Control Console
d) Indoor Co-axial Equipment comprising of :
• U-link Rack with U-link panel A and B, T-Transformer and
10 kW Dummy Load.
• Aural Harmonic Filter.
• CIN Diplexer
• Aural Notch Filter and Band Pass Filter.
e) Antenna system with junction box, feeder cables etc.
 Block Diagram of 10kW TV Transmitter

SOLID STATE POWER AMPLIFIERS

1) Has got two identical sections. Each capable of delivering 10

W.
2) Gets 28 V power supply through relay in 80 W ARAJASTHAN.
3) Sample of output is available at front panel for RF
monitoring.
4) Provides A DC output corresponding to sync peak out put for
vision monitoring unit.
5) Thermostat on heat sink is connected in series with
thermostat or 80 W Amp and provides thermal protection.
(Operating temp. 70oC.)
 TX. Block Diagram

Vision Chain of Exciter

TRANSMITTER CONTROL SYSTEM:-

The transmitter control unit performs the task of transmitter
interlocking and control. Also it supports operation from control
console. The XTR control unit (TCU) has two independent system
viz.

1. Main control system. (MCS)

2. Back-up Control System (BCS)
System Description of Exciter :

Block
Diagram of TV Exciter

Video Chain:-The input video signal is fed to a video

processor. In VHF transmitters LPF, Delay equalizer and receiver
pre-corrector precede the video processor.

Low Pass Filter : Limits incoming video signal to 5 MHz.

Delay Equalizer : Group delay introduced by LPF is

corrected. It also pre-distorts the video for compensating group
delay errors introduced in the subsequent stages and diplexer.

Receiver pre-corrector : Pre-distorts the signal providing

partial compensation of GD which occurs in domestic
receivers.Both the delay equaliser and receiver precorrector are
combined in the delay equaliser module in Mark III version.

DP/DG Corrector
This is also used in the exciter preceding LPF (mark III) for pre-
correcting the differential gain and differential phase errors
occurring in the transmitter.

Video Processor
The block diagram of video processor is given in fig. 3.

Functions

• Amplification of Video signal

• Clamping at back porch of video signal.
Clamping gives constant peak power. Zero volt reference line is
steady irrespective of video signal pattern when clamping takes
place otherwise the base line starts an excursion about the zero
reference depending on the video signal.

Block Diagram of Video Processor

Vision Modulator
The block diagram of Vision modulator is given in fig. 4 and
schematic diagram is shown in fig. 5

Functions
 • Amplification of Vision IF at 38.9 MHz.
• Linear amplitude modulation of Vision IF by video from the
video processor in a balanced modulator.

IF Amplifier
IF is amplified to provide sufficient level to the modulator. It
operates as an amplitude limiter for maintaining constant output.

Modulator
A balanced modulator using two IS-1993 diodes is used in the
modulator.

Band pass amplifier

Modulated signal is amplified to 10 mW in double tuned amplifier
which provides a flat response within 0.5 dB in 7 MHz band.

Block Diagram of Vision Modulator

 Schematic Diagram of Vision Modulator

VSBF and Mixer :

The block diagram of VSBF and Mixer is given in fig. 6. It consists

of following stages :
• VSB filter
• ALC amplifier
• Mixer
• Helical Filter
• Mixer Amplfier
 Block Diagram of VSBF Mixer

VSB Filter
Surface Acoustic wave (SAW) filter provide a very steep side band
response with high attenuation outside designated channel. It
has a linear phase characteristic with a low amplitude and group
delay ripple. (Fig. 7.)

Block Diagram of V.S.B.Filter

.
Local Oscillator
The block diagram of Local Oscillator is given in fig. 8. It supplies
three equal outputs of + 8 dBm each at a frequency of fv + fvif.
This unit has 3 sub units.

(1) fc/4 oscillator : Generates frequency which is 1/4 of desired

channel frequency. Fine freq. control is done by VC1.
(2) LO Mixer/Power divider : Here the above fc/4 frequency is
multiplied by four to obtain channel frequency of fc and then
mixed with fvif. Power divider is also incorporated to provide
three isolated outputs of equal level.

Block Diagram of Local Oscillator

AUDIO CHAIN:-
Aural Modulator
The aural modulator unit consists of audio amplifier, VCO, mixer
and APC.

The block diagram of Aural modulator is given in fig. 9.

 Block Diagram of Aural Modulator

Audio Amplifier
A balanced audio signal at + 10 dBm from studio is converted to
unbalanced signal by audio transformer T4. The output of this is
taken through potentiometer to the input of Hybrid Audio Amp
BMC 1003. A 50 micro second pre-emphasis is also provided.

VCO
This is a varactor tuned oscillator. Its frequency can be varied by
coil L4. Transistor TR-17 forms the oscillator. VCO output is
frequency modulated by the audio signal. Output level is 0 dBm.

TV TRANSMITTER ANTENNA SYSTEM:-

TV Antenna System is that part of the Broadcasting Network

which accepts RF Energy from transmitter and launches
electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization of the radiation
as adopted by Doordarshan is linear horizontal. The system is
installed on a supporting tower and consists of antenna panels,
power dividers, baluns, branch feeder cable, junction boxes and
main feeder cables. Dipole antenna elements, in one or the other
form are common at VHF frequencies where as slot antennae are
mostly used at UHF frequencies. Omni directional radiation
pattern is obtained by arranging the dipoles in the form of
turnstile (Fig.15) and exciting the same in quadrature phase.
Desired gain is obtained by stacking the dipoles in vertical plane.
As a result of stacking, most of the RF energy is directed in the
horizontal plane. Radiation in vertical plane is minimized. The
installed antenna system should fulfil the following requirements :

a) It should have required gain and provide desired field

strength at the point of reception.
b) It should have desired horizontal radiation pattern and
directivity for serving the planned area of interest. The
radiation pattern should be omni directional if the location of
the transmitting station is at the center of the service area
and directional one, if the location is otherwise.
c) It should offer proper impedance to the main feeder cable
and thereby to the transmitter so that optimum RF energy is
transferred into space. Impedance mismatch results into
reflection of power and formation of standing waves. The
standard RF impedance at VHF/UHF is 50 ohms.

Turnstile Antenna and its Horizontal Pattern

Radiation Pattern and Gain

The horizontal and vertical radiation pattern are shown in fig. 19
and 20. The total gain depends upon the type of the antenna
panel and no. of stacks as given in table-1.

Fig. 19 Typical Horizontal radiation pattern

VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND TRANSMISSION:-

Another feature of present day TV Transmitters is vestigial side
band transmission. If normal amplitude modulation technique is
used for picture transmission, the minimum transmission channel
bandwidth should be around 11 MHz taking into account the
space for sound carrier and a small guard band of around 0.25
MHz. Using such large transmission BW will limit the number of
channels in the spectrum allotted for TV transmission. To
accommodate large number of channels in the allotted spectrum,
reduction in transmission BW was considered necessary. The
transmission BW could be reduced to around 5.75 MHz by using
single side band (SSB) AM technique, because in principle one
side band of the double side band (DSB) AM could be suppressed,
since the two side bands have the same signal content.
 It was not considered feasible to suppress one complete side
band in the case of TV signal as most of the energy is contained
in lower frequencies and these frequencies contain the most
important information of the picture. If these frequencies are
removed, it causes objectionable phase distortion at these
frequencies which will affect picture quality. Thus as a
compromise only a part of lower side band is suppressed while
taking full advantage of the fact that:
• Visual disturbance due to phase errors are severe and
unacceptable where large picture areas are concerned
(i.e. at LF) but
• Phase errors become difficult to see on small details (i.e.
in HF region) in the picture. Thus low modulating
frequencies must minimize phase distortion where as high
frequencies are tolerant of phase distortions as they are
very difficult to see.
The radiated signal thus contains full upper side band
together with carrier and the vestige (remaining part) of the
partially suppressed LSB. The lower side band contains
frequencies up to 0.75 MHz with a slope of 0.5 MHz so that the
final cut off is at 1.25 MHz.

Standards
The characteristics of the TV signal is sections 1 and 2 refer to
CCIR B/G standards. Various other standards are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Frequency Range Vision/sound carrier
spacing channel width
Vision sound carrier spacing 5.5 MHz
Channel width 7 MHz (B) in VHF OR 8 MHz
 (G) in UHF
Sound Modulation FM
FM deviation (maximum) + 50 kHz