CRAFT & HAWKINS DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

fundamentals of Petrophysics

TAMMY BOURGOYNE, PHD., P.E.

AND

JULIUS LANGLINAlS, PhD., P.E.

FIRST EDITION

PETROLEUM SERVICES INTERNATIONAL, PUBLISHING DIVISION

BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA

2003

1
© 2003 by Petroleum Services International. All rights reserved. No part of this docu-
ment may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing
from the publisher. Contact Petroleum Services International, Publishing Division at 225-
766-6536.

·2
 Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................. .4
2. REGARDING THE GREEK ALPHABET .•.••••..•. 5
THE GREEK ALPHABET ............................................... 5
NOMENCLATURE ......................................................... 5
3. DIMENSIONAL DECEPTIONS ........................... 7
UNlTS AND DIMENSIONS :........................................... 7
UNITS OF LENGTH AND MAss ..................................... 8
UNIT CONVERSION ...................................................... 6
UNITS OF FORCE .......................................................... 9
WEIGHT .................................................................... 12
UNIT SYSTEMS .......................................................... 12
CONSISTENT UNITS & EQUATIONS ............................. 15
4. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS REVISITED •...••••...••.••••. 20
STATES OF MATTER .................................................. 20
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVlTY ............................. 20
IDEAL GAS LAW ............................. ,.......................... 21
REAL GAS LAW ......................................................... 22
IDEAL LIQUIDS .......................................................... 23
SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS ............................ 24
FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR .................................. 27
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE .......................................... 27
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE .......................................... 27
VISCOSITY ................................................................. 28
FLUID FLOW REGIMES .............................................. 28
POISELLE'sLAW ........................................................ 28
5. PETROLEUM GEOLOGY REVISITED ........... 30
NATURE OF RESERVOIR ROCKS ................................. 30
PROCESS OF RESERVOIR FORMATION ........................ 31
RESERVOIR FLUID DISTRIBUTION ............................. 33
RESERVOIRPRESSURE ............................................... 33
6. POROSITY ............................................................ 35
POROSITY DETERMINATION ...................................... 36
SOURCES OF POROSITY ............................................ .43
FACTORS AFFECTING POROSITY .............................. .44
7. FLUID SATURATION •••••••••••••••••.••••••••••...•••••..••• 50
IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION .......................... 52
RESIDUAL OIL OR GAS SATURATION ........................ 52
DISPLACEABLE PORE VOLUME ................................. 53
RECOVERY FACTOR .................................................. 53
INITIAL OIL VOLUME ................................................. 54
8. COMPRESSIBILITY OF ROCK ........................ 55
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9. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF ROCK ......... 66
FORMATION RESISTIVITY FACTOR ............................ 69
FORMATION RESISTIVITY INDEX ............................... 72
WATER SATURATION DETERMINATION ..................... 72
EFFECT OF CLAY IN ROCK ......................................... 74
10. ABSOLUTEPERMEABILITY ••••••••.••.•.••••••..•.•• 77
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ....................................... 78
DARCY'S LAW EXTENDED ......................................... 79
THE UNITS OF PERMEABILITY ................................... 83
PERMEABILITY IN RESERVOIRS ................................. 85
EFFECT OF NET OVERBURDEN .................................. 85
RELATIONSHIP TO RESISTIVITy ................................. 86
EFFECT OF CLAY DISTRIBUTION ............................... 87
11. APPLICATION OF DARCY'S LAW ................ 90
LINEAR FLOW ............................................................ 90
RADIAL FLO\)' ........................................................... 91
ApPARENT PERMEABILITY IN SERIES ........................ 92
ApPARENT PERMEABILITY IN P ARALLEL. .................. 94
DIRECTIONAL NATURE OF PERMEABILITY ................ 93
12. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY ...................... 100
EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY ........................................ 98
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ....................................... 101
EFFECT OF SATURATION HISTORY .......................... 102
13. CAPILLARY FORCES ..................................... 107
SURFACE TENSION (GAS-LIQUID) ........................... 105
INTERFACIAL TENSION (LIQUID-LIQUID) ................ 110
WETTING AT LIQUID-SOLID INTERFACES ................ 112
RELATIVE WETT ABILITY ......................................... 113
CAPILLARY RISE ..................................................... 115
14. RESERVOIR CAPILLARY PRESSURE ....... 119
DISTRIBUTION OF FLUIDS IN RESERVOIR ................. 120
RELATIONSHIP TO WATER SATURATION ................. 125
EFFECT OF SATURATION HISTORY .......................... 124
EFFECT OF HEIGHT ABOVE WATER LEVEL .............. 125
EFFECT OF PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTI(,)N ...................... l25
EFFECT OF DENSITY DIFFERENCE ........................... 126
EFFECT OF INTERFACIAL TENSION .......................... 129
EFFECT OF ROCK WETTABILITY .............................. 129
15. PRACTICE & REVIEW PROBLEMS ........... 128
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................. 145
NOMENCLATURE ........................................... 146
Introduction
An understanding of the properties of petroleum-bearing rocks
and the interaction between these rocks'and the associatedfluids
provides the petroleum engineer with valuable insight when pre-
dicting and optimizing the production of oil and gas,

A
s will be discussed in this course, petroleum-bearing rocks act as both the
storage container and the initial transport medium or conduit for the
production of oil and gas, Without a basic understanding of the proper-
ties of petroleum-bearing rocks and the fluids associated with them fluids
and their interactions, petroleum engineering calculations become meaningless and
abstract, We first study rock properties or petrophysical properties (PETE 2031),
then fluid properties (PETE 2032), and then these are then combined in reservoir
engineering (PETE 4051 & 4052),

Furthermore, the science of petrophysics is directly applied in formation evalua-

tion (PETE 4088) which strives to link rock properties which may be measured
directly using logging and core analysis to other properties of interest to the petro-
leum engineer which may not be directly measured underground. In petrophysics,
the properties associated with petroleum-bearing rocks and the phenomena asso-
ciated which the interaction between fluids and the rock are studied.

This text is not intended to be an all encompassing survey course. The purpose is
to firmly establish a foundation in petrophysics, which permits the development of
the more advanced concepts of Petroleum Engineering.

4
Regarding the Greek Alphabet
As in mathematics and other sciences, Greek letters are a com-
monjy used short-hand notation to represent physicalproperties
and concepts in engineering.

cientific and technical fields such as engineering requite a large number of

S symbols to represent physical properties and concepts. The use of the

Greek alphabet to provide a set of useful symbols in addition to the Roman
alphabet used to communicate ideas in the English and other languages be-
gan hundreds of years ago when Greek and Latin were commonly learned by
scholars.

THE GREEK ALPHABET

Today Greek is rarely a topic of study in the conventional public education cur-
riculum. The vast majority of us are introduced only to the Greek alphabet
through their use as symbols to represent abstract ideas in mathematics. Those
who go on to more advanced levels of study in technical fields such as engineering
become familiar with their use as a short-hand notation to represent physical
properties and concepts. Table 2.1 lists all of the letters in the Greek alphabet,
upper-case and lower-case, with their names and pronunciations. The pronuncia-
tions listed are those commonly used today in English speaking countries.

NOMENCLATURE

Familiarity with the Greek Alphabet will enhance your ability to express and to
interpret technical concepts in the study and practice of engineering. In general,
the property or concept represented by each symbol is not universal. Each disci-
pline has its own customary usage for the Greek alphabet. For example, in petro-
leum engineering the Greek letter ~ (pronounced "FEE'') traditionally represents
the physical property of a rock called porosity. However, the same letter in ther-
modynamics, the study of heat transfer, represents a property referred to as avail-
ability which has nothing at all to do with the porosity of a rock. Therefore, to
avoid miscommunication good engineering practice requires that the particular use

5
of each symbol is defined on a case -by -case basis whenever symbols are used to
convey ideas. This is commonly done in textbooks and technical papers as a list-
ing of each symbol used along with a description of the property or idea it repre-
sents. This listing is commonly called the Nomenclature. Nomenclature is given
as needed throughout this text. An abridged listing of the nomenclature used in
this text is also given in Appendix C.

TABLE 2.1: LETTERS OF THE GREEK ALPHABET

Upper- Lower- Name Pronunciation Example of Usage

case case (Upper/Lower)
A a ALPHA "AL-fuh" / Angle in geometry
BETA "BAY-tuh" / Angle in geometry
B ~
r y GAMMA ~'GA1vI-uh" Torque/Specific gravity
L'. 8 DELTA "DEL-tuh" Change / partial derivative
E E EPSILON "EP-sil-on"
Z 1; ZETA "ZAY-tuhP
H ETA "AY-tuh" /Mobility Ratio
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<9 e THETA "THAY-tuh" / Contact Angle
I t IOTA "eye-OH-tuh"
K K KAPPA "KAP-uh"
A Ie LAiVlBDA "LAM-duh" /Mobility Ratio
M MU "1vfYOO" /Viscosity
f.L
N V NU "NOO" /velocity
C, XI "KS-EYE"
'"
0 0 OMICRON "OM-i-KRON"
IT n PI "PIE" /3.142
P P RHO "ROW" /Density
L IT SIGMA "SIG-muh" Summation /Surface Tension
T 1: TAU "TAW' /Tortuosity
y tJ UPSILON "OOP-si-LON"
<D cI>
PHI "FEE" Flow Po\ential/Porosity
X CHI "I<-EYE"
X
'¥ PSI "SIGH"
'l'
n OJ OMEGA "Oh-MAY-guh" Ohm (unit)/

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Dimensional Deceptions
Numerical values alone do not convey a pqysical quantity. Both
a numerical value and a unit must be stated together to convey
meaningfulpqysical information.

n inherent source of error and confus-ion for the engineer is the use of

A dimensional unit systems, particularly inconsistent ones. The engineer

must use both metric and English units because of the differences be-
tween science and technology. Routine conversions between these units
are only mildly troublesome, but the intermixing of gravitational and absolute unit
systems can easily complicate matters. For example, when pounds force and
pounds mass appear in the same equation, confusion will frequently arise. To
avoid these complications, the differences between these quantities - force and
mass - should be clearly understood, and their units and dimensions watched
closely in all formulas and calculations.

Values combined UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

with units convey
a physical quan- Conveying the magnitude of a physical quantity requires 2 elements. First, a dimen-
tity_ sion which identifies the nature of the quantity is required. The dimension, such as
lengrh or time, determines the choices available for the unit of measurement to be
used. A unit provides a basis of comparison or a standard reference. For exam-
ple, the dimension length might be measured in inches, feet, miles, meters, etc.
For convenience and accuracy, the unit chosen usually depends qpon the scale of
the dimension being measured. A relatively large distance might be reported in
miles or feet while a relatively small distance might be measured in inches or cen-
timeters.

Second, a numerical value which conveys how many of the standard reference
units are in the physical quantity is also required to convey meaning. The unit of
measurement chosen determines the magnitude of the numerical value. For ex-
ample, 12 inches, 1 foot, and 0.3048 meters all represent the same distance, but
the numerical value attached defining the number of unit lengths in the distance
are not equal because the standard of reference is not equal. As a result, any

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statement of a physical quantity having dimension is incomplete or meaningless

without explicitly including the unit of measurement.

Consider the following scenario. In response to the question regarding the vol-
ume of oil produced, one student answers 42,000 and the other answers 5,615.
The volume in question is 1,000 barrels. Neither student states what unit of vol-
ume he/she is using. Without stating the units, the answer is incomplete so its ac-
curacy cannot be judged without further information. When prompted, the first
student answered 42,000 gallons and the other student answered 5,615 cubic feet.
As it turns out, both of these quantities are equivalent. That is, both represent the
same volume and are also equivalent to 1000 barrels. Both students were correct
and in agreement, but the numerical value alone could not convey the volume of
oil produced. For this reason, units must always be stated explicitly in an engi-
neering calculation.

A sufficient choice The majority of physical quantities have dimensions which can be expressed in
of primary quantities terms of the dimensions of a limited number of fundamental quantities. Velocity is
for most engineering defined as the time rate of change of position. Velocity can also be expressed as a
work is mass, length divided by a time interval. Thus, velocity will require a unit for length
length, time, and combined with a unit for time. Likewise, other physical quantities may be ex-
temperature. All pressed in terms of a set of primary quantities which cannot be broken down any
other quantities can further. A sufficient choice of primary quantities for most engineering work is
be expressed in mass, length, time, and temperature. All other quantities can be expressed in
terms of these four.
terms of these four primary quantities. Any quantity which is not one of these
four primary quantities is referred to as a secondary quantity.

UNITS OF LENGTH AND MASS

The fundamental standards of length and mass designed for the entire world are
the distance between two lines inscribed on a particular platinum-iridium bar and
the mass of a certain block of platinum. Known as the international meter bar and
kilogram mass, these standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures in Sevres, France. At present, the commonly used unit of
time is the second, was defined as 1/86,400 part of a mean solar day. Customary
English units of length and mass for the U. S. are defined by reference to the
standard yard and avoirdupois pound. But, these have been statidardized by the
U. S. Congress in terms of the international meter and kilogram mass, as:

1 yard = 0.9144 meters (i.e., 1 inch = 2.54 em exactly)

=
1 pound mass 0.4535924277 kilogram mass

UNIT CONVERSION

A measurement in a particular set of units can be converted to an equivalent quan-

tity using a different set of units of the same dimensions. This algebraic manipula-

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tion is accomplished by multiplying the measurement by an appropriate "well cho-

sen value of one".

Learn and apply

this technique to Example Problem 3.1
greatly reduce unit A car is traveling at a speed of 90 miles per hour. Express its speed in (a) feet per second,
conversion errors. and (h) meters per minute.

60 min 1hr
First, we make use of the fact 1 - - - , and any expression can be multi-
1 hr 60 min
plied by 1 without changing its value. Other values of 1 are used as needed.

Solution:

mile 0 mile hr min 5280 ft (90)(5280) ft = 132~

(a) 90--=9 - - x x x
hr hr 60 min 60 sec mile (60)(60) sec sec

mile 90 mile hr 5280 ft 0.3048 meter 2414 meter

(h) 90--= - - x x x-'..:.-'--'--
hr hr 60 min mile ft mm

When this procedure is used, the probability of error is greatly reduced. Each
conversion involves the multiplication of the original quantity by a series of well
chosen, dimensionless factors, each having a numerical value of unity (one). To
verify this last statement, notice that the numerator of each factor is equal to its
denominator. That is, the fraction [ (1 hour) / (60 min)] has a value of unity, and
therefore can be used as a multiplier since multiplying by 1 does not change the
value of the original fraction.

A listing of some of the more commonly used conversion ratios or "well-chosen

l's" are listed in Table 3.1. Using these ratios and the technique illustrated in Ex-
ample 3.1

UNITS OF FORCE

It would be difficult, if not impossible, to maintain a fixed quantity of force as an

unvarying physical standard. For by its nature, the very existence of a force can
only be inferred from the changes it produces in the state of motion of a material
body. By Newton's law of motion, the acceleration, a, produced in a body of con-
stant mass, m, is attributed to the action of a force, F, whose magnitude is propor-
tional to the mass and acceleration of the body, or:

F oc rna

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Since this is a proportionality, we can make the equation an equality by introduc-

ing a constant of proportionality, g" and write:
1
F=-ma (3.1)
g,
This equation involves four quantities, force, mass, length, and time. Only three
need be fundamental, thus defining the fourth. If mass, length, and time are rec-
ognized as the primary quantities, Equation (3.1) defines the dimensions of the
derived quantity, force, as a mass times a length divided by the square of a time
interval.

More complex quantities, such as pressure and energy, are defined in terms of a
force. We do not reduce such quantities to the primary quantities as a matter of
convenience to avoid needless complexity. Instead, force is used as a convenient
secondary dimension. The size of the unit force is determined by an arbitrary
choice of acceleration effect it must produce in a given mass. Once these standard
effects have been specified, the proportionality ~onstant, &' is adjusted to preserve
the numerical and dimensional equality of the equation (3.1) expressed above.

TABLE 3.1: C01-hI10NLY USED CONVERSION RATIOS OR tlWElL-CHOSEN 1 'S".

Length Mass Area Viscosity Volume

,
1 foot = 12 inches 1 kg - 1000 grams 1 Acre = 43,560 feet' 1000 cp - 1 Pa-s 1 gallon - 231 in' I
1 yard - 3 feet 1 pound - 453.6 grams 1 barrel - 42 gallons I
1 mile = 5280 feet 1 Acre ft - 43,560 ft' ,
1 inch - 2.54 cm_
100 cm = 1 meter I

Example 3.2
A particular unit of force, called a dyne, is defined as that force required to accelerate a
gram of mass at the rate of one centimeter per second squared. Calculate the value of the
constant, gc, to be used with set of units.

Solution:

When the above definition is introduced into Equation 2.1, we have, by definition

1 1 2
F = -rna = -(1 gm)(1 cm/sec ) = 1 dyne
gc gc
To preserve dimensional as well as numerical equality, gc must have the value:

2
g = 1 gm(cm/sec )
c dyne

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Thus, we see that the constant go serves the twofold purpose of (1) defining the standard
effects expected of a certain nnit force, and (2) identifying this unit by name. Since mass
and force are not independenr quantities, the conversion factor go will appear in all prob-
lems that involve dynamics, for it allows the simultaneous use of both quantities in the
same equation.

Example 3.3
Remember that Develop an expression for the kinetic energy Ek of a body of mass m, moving at a con-
the constant, ge, is stant velocity v using the definition of Work = force x disrance.
not an accelera..
Solution:
tion term, but a
conversion factor
Assume the body to be originally at resr. Upon application of a steady unbalanced force
between the unit
(F) acting through a sufficient distance (s), the body will acquire the required velocity (v).
of force and its
In accordance with Equation (3.1), this force gives the body of mass m a constant accel-
assigned primary
eration a:
units.
1
F=-ma
g,
and the distance s traveled by the body while acquiring the velocity v is relared to its ac-
celeration as follows:

Unreliable mental conversions are eliminated by the presence of the constant gc. The
definition of each force unit is contained within the definitiDn of gc for each system of
units.

The energy imparted to the body is then

=work=FS=(maJ(~J= mv
2
Ek = gm (em/sec): mv 2
--dynecm
g, 2a 2g, 2gmem/sec 2
dyne

This last equation, as given in elementary physics, probably did not contain go. But the
dimensions of the result, (m L' / t') or (gm-cm2 /s 2 ), are not associated with energy until
one makes the mental conversion 1 dyne:= 1 gm-em / 52, Unreliable mental conversions
are eliminated by the presence of go.

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. WEIGHT

The force of attraction which the earth exerts on a material body is called the
weight of the body. Being a force quantity, the weight, W, of a body of mass, m,
may be calculated using Newton's law in the form

1
W=-mg (3.2)
g,
where g is the acceleration which gravity would impart to the body in a free fall.
Unfortunately, the term "weight" is sometimes used improperly as a synonym for
mass. Therefore, it cannot be over-emphasized that weight has the dimensions of
force.

UNIT SYSTEMS

Each time an arbitrary choice of basic units is made for mass, length, and time, a
new system of units is established together with'an opportunity for defining a new
unit of force. Unit systems commonly used in scientific and engineering calcula-
tions are listed in Table 3.2. While each system is self-consistent, the various sys-
tems are not compatible with each other. The units of force are defined by the
following statements:

• A force of 1 dyne will accelerate a one gram mass at the rate of 1 cm/ S2.
• A force of 1 gram force (gf) will accelerate a one gram mass (gm) at the rate of
980.665 ft/ S2.
• A force of 1 pound force (lbf) will accelerate a one pound mass (Ibm) at the
rate of 32.174 ft/ S2.
• A force of 1 pound force will accelerate a mass of one slug at the rate of 1
ftls'.
• A force of 1 Newton (N) will accelerate a mass of one kilogram (kg) at the rate
of 1 mls'.

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•
TABLE 3.2: C01:1J\[ON PHYSICAL QUAl'\lTITIES AND THEIR DIlYIENSIONS AND UNITS.

Remember that
Quantity Symbol CGS SI Engineer - Engineer- Technical
the constant gc is
Metric English English
not an accelera-
tion term but is a IvIass M gram, g kilogram, Gram (mass), Pound (mass), Slug
conversion factor kg gm Ibm
between the unit
Length L centimeter, Meter, m centimeter, foot, ft Foot, ft
offorce and its
em em
assigned primary
Time T second, s second, s second, s second, S Second, s
units.
Force F; ML dyne Newton, gram (force), Pound (force), Pound
r' Nt gf lbf (force),
lbf

ML gem gem slugft

Conversion 1 kg m 32.17lbmft 1--
g, = FT' 1 980.7-- Ibf s'
constant, gc dynes
2
Nts 2 • gf s 2 lbf S2

Velocity v=L/T em/s m/s em/s ft/s ft/s

Accelera- g= L/T' g=980.7 g = 9.81 g = 980.7 g =32.17 g = 32.17

tion, gravity em/52 mis' em/52 ft/s' ft/s'

Area U em' m' em' ft' ft'

Volume L' em3 m3 em 3 ft 3 ft3

Density p=M/L' g/em3 kg/m3 gm/em3 lbm/ ft3 slug/ft3

Flow Rate Q = L3/T cm3/sec m3 /sec cm3 /sec ft 3/sec ft3 /sec

Specific V =L3/lbm ----- ---- ----- ft3/lbf ft3/lbf

Volume

Absolute
Viscosity M -g- ~ gm lbm
--
slug
fi= LT em s ms em s ft s ft s
(pa s) (poise)

Energy E=FL Dyne-em Nt-m gkm Ft-Ibf Ft-Ibf

(work) (erg) Goule)

Power P=FL/T erg/s J/s gf-em /s Hp = 550 Hp=550

(Watt) ft-Ibf/s ft-Ibf/s

Pressure P=F/L' Dyne/em2 Nt/m' gf/cm 2 lbf/ft' Ibf/ft2

(pascal)

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FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Even though the Frequently, the terms )ve;{ghtand mass are often used interchangeably. Notice that in those
numerical values unit systems wherein the acceleration due to gravity was included "in the definition (i.e.,
of mass and gram force, pound force) the mass of an object located on the surface of the earth is nu-
weight are often merically equal to the weight. In other systems of units, the force unit is defined such that
equal, the dimen- the value of the conversion constant gc is 1. For these reasons, the conversion constant,
sions and units of g, is typically dropped from equations relating mass and force. However, when this con-
the 2 quantities version constant is 1, weight and mass are not numerically equaL Even though the nu-
are not.
merical values of mass and weight (when measured on the surface of the earth) are often
equal, the dimensions and units of the 2 quantities are not.
Inclusion of the constant gc serves as a reniinder of the relationship between the quantities
of mass and weight and their units. In addition, its inclusion is required when the object
is not strictly located on the surface of the earth! Furthermore, a "weight" reported in
kilograms is really a mass and is NOT numerically equal to its true weight in Newtons in
the SI system of units. For example, a mass of 1 kg weighs 9.80 N on the surface of the
earth.

The units and numerical value of g, are obtained by substitution of the defining
statements of the force units into the general form of Newton's equation as previ-
ously illustrated in Example 3.2. These values are given along with the primary
and derived units for each system are listed in Table 3.2. Remember that the
constant & is not an acceleration term but is a conversion factor between the unit
of force and its assigned primary units. This is illustrated in Examples 3.4.1 and
3.4.2. Note in each example that each ratio has a value of 1, so the equality is pre-
served. In this way, the conversion factor between any quantity within or among
any system of units can de determined using a few "well-chosen ones" either from
memory or using Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.

Example 3.4.1
To eliminate confu- Calculate a factor for converting pounds of force to equivalent dynes of force.
sion, the pound
mass is often ab.. Solution:
breviated as Ibmthe
1 Ibf = 1 Ibf X 32.17 Ibm ft x 453.6gm x 2.54cm x 12in x dyne sec'
pound force as Ibf,
and the gram mass Ibf sec' Ibm in ft I gm em
asgm.
Ilbf= (32.17)(453.6)(2.54)(12) dyne = 444,773.7 dynes
(I)

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Example 3.4.2
Calculate a factor for converting pounds of force to equivalent Newtons (N) of force.

Solution:

32.17 Ibm ft 453.6 gm 1 kg 2.54 em 12 in m N s'

llbf= 11bfx x x x x--x x---
Ibfs' Ibm 1000 gm In ft 100 em I kgm

Ilbf= (32.17)(453.6)(2.54)(12) N = 4.447737 N

(1000)(100)

CONSISTENT UNITS & EQUATIONS

Rather than an arbitrary choice of units for each secondary quantity, mechanical
units not listed in Table 3.2 are derived from the units of mass, length, time, and
force specified for each system. For example, area is defined as the square of
length. As a result, the consistent unit adopted for area in the engineering English
system is the square foot since the foot has already been selected as the unit of
length. Likewise, the consistent unit choice for area in the CGS system is the
square centimeter.

Similarly in the engineering English system, the consistent unit for volume is cubic
feet, for pressure is pounds force per square foot (ps£), for volumetric flow rate is
cubic feet per second, and for work or energy is foot pounds force. In the deriva- .
tion of a physical equation, exclusive use of a consistent system of units, including
the ubiquitous gO' has a distinct advantage. The resulting expression can be used
with any other system of consistent units without further modifications.

Example 3.5
The pressure drop required to maintain a fluid in laminar flow through a horizontal pipe
is given by the equation:
The equation is in
balance dimen-
sionally or is di-
mensionally co-
herentwhich must where p denotes pressure, fl denotes viscosity of the fluid, L denotes length of the pipe, V
be true for any denotes velocity of the fluid, and d denotes diameter of the pipe. Referring to the second
valid equation. column of Table 3.2, let us investigate the dimensional properties of this equation:

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A good engineer
always knows the
units of each value
given or calCUR
lated. Units may
As shown above, the dimensions of the pressure term on the left shown to be the same as
always be used as the combined dimensions of all terms on the right. Therefore, the equation is in balance
an error check or dimensionally or is dimensionallY coherent which must be true for any valid equation.
as a reminder of
the definition or This dimensional balance may also be shown by substituting consistent units from any sys·
dimensions of any tern of units. Referring to Table 3.2, repeat the process substituting units from the engi-
secondary quan- neering English system:
tity.
lbl Ibm ft ft Ibf s' x--=--
--=--x-x -x
1 lbl
ft' ft s 1 s Ibm ft ft' ft'
As a consequence, consistent units from ~ system may be used in this equation as given,
without any other conversion factors or additional qualifying remarks.

Empirical equations based on experimental data rather than derived mathemati-

cally from fundamental engineering or scientific principles, as well as physical
equations which have been modified to accept certain quantities expressed in
more Hpractical" units, are usually inconsistent. These equations cannot stand
alone, but must be ac!,ompanied by a detailed listing of particular units to be used
with each different quantity.

Example 3.6
Modify the equation for pressure drop presented in Example 2.5 to accept the following
"field units" or preferred set of inconsistent units:

Quantity: LIp !l L v d
Desired Unit: lbf/in' , psi centipoise (cp) ft ftls in

Solution:

Since the original equation as given will accept any consistent set of units, the desired
"field" units will be converted to consistent engineering English units for substitution into
the original equation.

16
 ©2003. All RIGHTS RESERVED .

Quantity: "'p fl L v d
Desired Unit: Ibf/in2 , psi centipoise (cp) ft ft/s In

Consistent Unit: Ibf/fe Ibm/ (ft s) ft ft/s ft

Let us adopt the convention that the original variable (i.e., "'p) represents a value for the
quantity expressed in the consistent unit while the same vatiable primed (i.e., "'p') repre-
sents the correspondingvalue for the quantity expressed in the desired unit. Note that
the numerical values are not equal, but the physical quantity represented by the value and
unit combination are equal. For example, !'J.p '" !'J.p' numerically, but the physical pres-
sure drop represented is the same (1Ibf/ft2 = 1/144Ibf/in2).

'" Ibf = '" ,fbi X (12in )' ('" ,lbl)(i 44 in' ) =144('" ') lbl
.p ft' .p in' (ft)' .p in' ft' .p ft'

Ibm, Pa s (N/m') kg ill Ibm • 1000 gm ill 2.54 em 12 in

f.l --=J..l cp x X x--2-x _ X X X x--
ft s 1000 ep Pa Ns 453.6 gm kg 100 em in 1ft
Ibm, 1 1 1000 2.54 1 12 ( p' ) Ibm
Ji fts =Ji cpx lOOO x 453.6 - I - x -I- x IOO x -I = 1488.2
x fig
Lft=L'ft

ft , ft
V -=v -
s s

d ft = d' in x J..!!...
12 in
= (£)
12
ft

These variables representing values in the desired units have now been expressed in terms
of the consistent unit. Because these expressions are in terms of a set of consistent units,
they may now be substituted into the original equation.

( 144!'J. ') =
(32)
( ')
P
1488.2
LV
(32)(12)' jlL'v' 0.09625 p'L'v'
(32.17)(1488.2) (df (d'?
.p 32.17 ( ~2')'

!'J. ,_ 0.09625 p'L'v' => !'J.p' = 0.00066840 p'L'v'

P - 144 (d')' (d')'
where all values must be in specified "desired" units. Our final equation is no longer con-
sistent, for all quantities must now be expressed in the desired units specified, or else the
equation will give a wrong answer.

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

One might ask, "\'V'hy must we go through all the trouble of altering the equation to fit
our desired units? ... Wouldn't it be straight forward to simply convert the values to the
proper consistent umts before inserting them into the equation? ... \'7hy alter the equa-
tion and then be forced to remember the "practical" units for the altered form of the
equation?"
In answer, a hint is given in the common names for these inconsistent sets of units which
are often referred to as "practical" or "field" units. These "practical" or "field" units, as
the names imply, are the units in which quantities are measured by the practicing engineer
or technician on site in the oil field or laboratory. Suppose that as an engineer or techni-
cian or field hand, you wish to estimate the pressute drop through section of horizontal
pipe in the field. The pressute itself in the section of pipe of interest cannot be readily
measured, but you can easily measure or already know the viscosity of the fluid in centi-
poise (cp), the length of the pipe section in feet (ft), the velocity of the flowing fluid inside
the pipe in feet per second (ft/ s), and the diameter of the pipe in inches (in). Thus, you

.
have all the information you need to estimate the pressure drop .
Now further consider that this is a routine calculation which you perform often. You
have !\Va options:
• Convert each measured value to its corresponding consistent Engineering Eng-
lish unit each time you need to calculate the pressure drop and then convert the
calculated pressure drop in Ibf/ ft' to the more familiar Ibf/in 2 or "psi" so that
the value will have physical meaning to you since psi is the pressure unit that you
work with on a daily basis, OR
Convert the equation itself for use with your set of units as shown in Example
2.6 and use the measured values directly in the equation without need of conver-
sion. In addition, the computed answer js in the desired units of "psi".
Keeping in mind that this calculation is one that you make often, the second option is
obviously preferable.

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Common Oil Field Units and Measurements

Linear and Distance Measurements

Depths and lengths in the U.S. are measured in feet, but world wide, the meter is typically
used. By definition, 1 inch = 2.54 em, or

. (2.54cm)
1£t= 12m in = 30.48 em

or 1 ft = 0.3048 meters. Inversely, 1 meter = 3.28 ft

For example, a 10,000 ft well is

10,000 ( lmeter) = 3048 meters

3.28 ft

Tubing diameter is measured in inches or em, e.g., 2 ;3/8 inch aD tubing has a 1.995 inch
. (2.54cm)
ID, and 2.375m in = 6.0325 em (60.325 mm) and 1.995 in ID = 5.067 em
(50.67 mm)

Area

5280 2 (ft/mD2
An acre is defined as 1/640 of a square mile or 2 = 43,560 ft 2/acre (/1.
640 acres/mi
section of land is defined as a mile by a mile in area (mile2), and again by definition, the
square mile of area contains 640 acres).

Thus 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 (1 m/3.28 ft)2 = 4048.9 m 2

Since a hectare is 10,000 m 2 (100 m x 100 m), then 1 acre = 0.405 hectares,

or,1 hectare = 1/0.405 = 2.47 acres

Flow Rates

Liquid Flow Rate

Typically, flow rate is measured in barrels, which is defined to be 42 gallons. A gallon is

defined to be 231 in3, or a barrel is

3 3
1 bbl(42 gal)(231 in J( ft J=5.615ft 3
bbl gal 12 3 in 3 ,

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 ©2__003. All RIGHTS RESERVED.

1 bbl/day = -1 bblJ(
- -lday- - J( lhr. ) =0.000694 bbls/mm
. = 0.029 gal/min
( day 24 hrs 60 mm

5.615ft3 J(0.3048m)3
For flow rates in m 3 /day, start with 1 bbl, or = 0.159 m3 /bbl
( bbl ft

Inversely, 0.159 m3 /bbl implies 6.29 bbls/m3. Thus, a well flowing 500 m3 /day of oil is a
rate of 3,145 bbls/ day. A well flowing 400 bbls/day is flowing 63.6 m3 /day.

Gas Flow Rate

Gas flow rate is given in standard cubic ft per day, or scf/ d. We also use msef/ day for
1000 scf/ day, and mmscf/ d for 1,000,000 scf/ day. To convert flow rate to a different
pressure, we use

P, v, PV
--=--
1; Z, TZ

where

P - pressure, psia

v - Volume, ft3
Z - gas deviation factor (Z = 1 at standard conditions)

s - refers to standard conditions, eg, 14.7 psia and 60 deg F (520 deg Rankine)

For example, a well flowing 10 mmscf/d has a flow rate at 1000 psia and 100 deg F of

14.7(10,000,000) (1000)V
----''----''-'--- or V = 140,260 ft3. Therefore, the actual flow
(460+60)(1) (460+100)(0.886)
rate will be 140.26 mef/day (at 100 deg F and 1000 psia).

Density:

In addition to standard measures of density, such as Ibm/ ft3, petroleum engineers also use
densities such as Ibm/gal. For example, fresh water has a density of 62.4Ibm/ft3• Con-
verting this to Ibm/gal (ppg)

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(
62.4lbmJ(_ft_J(231in
ft 3 12in 3 gal
3
J
=8.34 lbm/ al
g

Specific gravity is a very useful concept when comparing densities. In the case of liquids
and solids, their densities are compared to the density of water, or

density of material
Specific gravity = - - - " - - - - - -
density of water

For example, a specific gravity = 2 implies the material is twice as heavy as water (twice
the density). A 16 ppg mud has a specific gravity of 16/8.34 = 1.92. A cubic foot of this
mud would have a mass of 1.92 (62.4) = 119.7 Ibm, which would weight 119.7(g) / g, =
119.7Ibf.

Oil density is typically given in degrees API, which is a scale varying from 0 upwards to
values such as 60 or so (larger the number, the less dense the oil). The relationship be-
tween specific gravity and API is

141.5
Specific Gravity = - - - - -
131.5+ API

Pressure

Engineers typically measure pressure in Ibf/in2, but the engineering system of units re-
quires Ibf/ ft 2 . A factor of 144 is needed, that is,

1 lbf ( 144in2 J= 144 Ibf

in
2
l ft
2
~ ft
2

The SI u~t of pressure is the Pascal, or Nt/m2 • to convert from SI to psi, we use

1.1~f ( in )2 [4.4477 Nt](100em)2 = 6,894Nt/m2

In 2.54 em Ib f m

This is a rather large number, so typically we USe the unit of kilopascal, or 1000 pascals.
Thus, 1psi = 1 Ibf/in2 = 6.894 kilopascals. For example, a pressure of SilO psia is 500
(6.894) = 3447 kpa .

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 ©2003. ALL RI

Physics of Fluids Revisited

A general understanding of some basic definitions and concepts
in fluid mechanics is helpful bifore discussing the nature of pe-
troleum accumulations and the rocks associated with them.

M
uch of the material presented in this chapter is a review of material
covered in previous courses in physical science or physics. Specifically,
several fundamental definitions and concepts related to fluid mechanics
will be revisited before proceeding with a discussion of the nature of
petroleum accumulations and the rocks associated with them. In addition, a few
definitions specific to petroleum engineering have been included.

STATES OF MATTER

Matter exists is 3 ordinary states which are solid, liquid, and gas. The 3 states are
distinguished by the degree to which each maintains its shape and volume. Except
under crushing forces, a solid maintains its shape under an applied force. Aliquid
is also able to maintain its volume almost constant under pressure, but its shape is
dictated by the container or other forces acting on it. A gas maintains neither a
fixed shape or volume. A gas expands or compresses as needed to exactly fit its
container. A substance which is able to flow is referred to as a fluid. Thus, a fluid
can either be a liquid or a gas.

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density is defined as mass per unit volume and is often denoted by the lower case
of the Greek letter ''RHO'', p. Density may be expressed mathematically as fol-
lows:
m
p=- (4.1)
V

Specific gravity of a liquid or solid is defined as the ratio of the density of the solid
or liquid to the density of water at 40°C. Specific gravity is a .dimensionless num-

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ber often denoted in petroleum engineering by the lower case of the Greek letter
"GANIMA" and may be expressed mathematically as follows:
p .
Y= (4.2)
Pw@40'C

Similarly, the specific gravity of a gas is defined as the ratio of the density of the
gas to the density of air at a given pressure and temperature. Gas specific gravity
is most often defined at standard conditions. It is also a dimensionless number
and is also often denoted in petroleum engineering by the lower case of the Greek
letter "GAtvIMA" with the subscript "g" to denote gas and may be expressed
mathematically as follows:
Pg@p,T
Y '= (4.3)
g
Pair
@ p, T

IDEAL GAS LAw

The Ideal Gas Law is a combination of Charles' and Boyle's laws which expresses
the changes in g;g; volume as a result of changes in pressure and or temperature.
The Ideal Gas Law may be used for real gases at pressures close to atmospheric.
The Ideal Gas Law may be expressed mathematically as follows where p is the ab-
solute pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the uruver-
sal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.
pV = nRT (4.4)

"When pressure is measured using a gauge the pressure reading is relative to at-
mospheric pressure. A gauge indicating a pressure of Zero on the surface of the
earth would be indicating an absolute pressure equal to atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure depends upon elevation and also changes slightly from day
to day. It is customary to use a standard or reference value for atmospheric pres-
sure when determining a gas volume at standard conditions. A standard atmos-
phere of 14.7 psi is generally used when applying the gas law. This value will be
approximately equal to atmospheric pressure at sea level. However, when working
with gases in a laboratory, measuring and using the actual barometric pressure in
the laboratory is necessary to accurately determine the absolute pressure from the
pressure gauge readings.

The pressure indicated by the gauge is often referred to as the gauge pressure. Abso-
lute pressure is equal to the gauge pressure plus a pressure equal to 1 atmosphere.
For example when pressure is in units of pounds force per square inch (psi), abso-
lute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus 14.7 psi.

Absolute p = Gauge p + 1 atmosphere (4.5)

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Often a gauge pressure reported in petroleum engineering practice in units of psi

will be reported in "units" of "psig" where the "g" serves as a reminder that the
pressure is a gauge pressure reading not an absolute pressure. Likewise, absolute
pressures are often reported in "units" of "psia". Note that each pressure is actu-
ally in ~he same pressure units of "psi" and that the "g" or "a" serve only as a
shorthand reminder to convert the pressure from a gauge reading relative to at-
mospheric pressure to an absolute pressure when needed.

The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) now discourages this practice and sug-
gests that the word "pressure" be preceded by the qualifier "gauge" or "absolute"
in the text or heading. For example, a pressure should be reported as an absolute
pressure of 1000 psi rather than a pressure of 1000 psia. Likewise, pressure reading
should be reported as a gattge pressure of 1000 psi rather than a pressure of 1000 psig.

The unit of absolute temperature most frequently used in petroleum engineering is

degrees Rankine ~R) which is related to degrees Fahrenheit by the following rela-
tionship:

(4.6)

The numerica1 value of the universa1 gas constant (R) depends upon the units cho-
sen for the other variables. For practica1 petroleum engineering units where pres-
sure is in psi, volume is in cubic feet, and temperature is in oR, the va1ue an units
of R are as follows:

R = 10.73 psi ft3 (4.7)

oR

Recall that moles (n) are defined as follows:

m
n=- (4.8)
M
where m is the mass of the gas and M is the molecu1ar weight of the gas. Molecu-
lar weight is a physica1 property which is constant for a given gas ..

REAL GAS LAW

Natura1 gases do not follow the Idea1 Gas Law closely enough to allow it's use at
the higher pressures commonly found in the subsurface of the earth. To more
closely approximate the behavior of natura1 gases at high pressure, a deviation fac-
tor is added to the Idea1 Gas Law. This modified form of the Gas Law referred to
as the Real Gas Law. The deviation factor is commonly designated by the letter Z
and is commonly referred to in petroleum engineering as the :cfactor.

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

pV=znRT (4.9)

. This deviation factor is not a constant but is a function of pressure, temperature,

and the gas composition. The z -factor is the ratio of the actual volume of a gas
to the volume of the gas as if it were behaving ideally at a given temperature and
pressure. At low pressures, natural gases approach ideal behavior and as a result
the z-factor approaches 1.0. The z-factor is defined as follows:

Actual volume ocuppied by n moles of gas @ p, T

z =----------"-"---"-----"'---"'-'-''---- (4.1 0)
Ideal volume ocuppied by n moles of gas @ p, T

Since the value of z-factor is a function of pressure and temperature for a given
gas composition, these values must be determined experimentally. Tables, charts,
and correlations (equations) based on these experimental measurements have been
compiled and published in various handbooks and other literature. An example of
one of these correlations for estimating the z-factor for a natural gas is listed as a
set of equations in Table 4.1. •

IDEAL LIQUIDS

Under isothermal (constant temperature) conditions, an ideal liquid is one which

has a constant compressibility factor, c. The compressibility factor expresses the
change in either volume or density with changes in pressure. In equation form, the
compressibility factor of an ideal liquid is defined as follows:

1 dV 1 dp
C= ----;or:c = - - (4.11)
Vdp pdp

where V is the original liquid volume, p is the liquid density and p is the pressure.
A useful form of this equation may be obtained by separating the variables and
integrating between a pressure where the density is known and a pressure where
the density is desired. Putting this result in exponential form we get the following:
p = poec(p-po) (4.12)

By inspection of Equation (4.11) or (4.12), the compressibility factor for a fluid

whose volume or density is constant as a function of pressure is equal to zero. A
value of zero for the variable c in Equation (4.12) would yield a density equal to
the original density regardless of pressure. A liquid with a compressibility factor
of zero is called incompressible. As the term implies, an incompressible liquid can-
not be compressed. Neither volume nor density will change no matter how much
or litde pressure is applied.

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

'L\BLE 4.1: EXAMPLE Z-FACTOR CORRELATION

PARAi\fETER NAME SYNIBOL i\.t"'lDjOR EQUATION
PSUEDO-CRITlCAL
PRESSURE; Ppc
PSUEDO-REDUCED
PRESSURE:
p
Ppr=-
Ppc
TfuvfPERATURE, oR:
T
PSUEDO-CRITlCAT.
TEMPERATURE, oR: Tpc
PSUEDO-REDUCED
TENfPERATURE; T
Tp'=-
TpC
Z-FACTOR (Z)
Z = A+(l- A)e(-B) +C(p~) where:
A =1.39~I;" -0.92 -0.36I;" -0.101
B=B1+B2+B3 .
B1= pp,(0.62-0.23I;,,)

B2 = 2 [0.066 _0.037]
PP' (I;,r -0.86)
6
B3=0.32( . PP' )
J20.723 (Tl'-ll]

C = 0.l32- 0.32LoglO (I;,,)

G
D=e
G = 0.715 -1. 128(I;" ) + 0.42(T),)
SLIGHTLY COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

A fluid with a very small compressibility factor (c) is referred to as slightly compressi-
ble. Liquids such as oil and water are slighdy compressible. Expanding the expo-
nent term in Equation (4.12) by using Maclauren's series, we get: .

(4.13)

The series in Equation (4.13) may be truncated after the second term in the pa-
renthesis to get a very useful equation for the density of slighdy compressible liq-
uidsas follows: p= Po(l+c(p-po)) (4.14)

26
 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR

The petroleum producing industry uses the formation volume factor, B, to relate
fluid volumes in the reservoir to fluid volumes at surface conditions. This factor
includes both compressibility and solubility changes with the change in pressure
and temperature. The factor is defined simply as the volume occupied by the fluid
at the reservoir pressure and temperature divided by the volume it would occupy
at the surface pressure and temperature (most often taken to be standard condi-
tions). Subscripts w, 0, and g are used to signiry water, oil and gas. The factor
should be dimensionless, but this is not always the case --- especially for gas --- so
beware of units!

The formation volume factor for oil is .defined as follows:

liquid oil volume in the reservoir

B =--~------------------ (4.15)
o liquid oil volume in the stock tank

The formation volume factor for gas is defined as follows:

B = volume ocuppied by gas in the reservoir

(4.16)
g volume occupied by gas at standard conditions

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Suppose for a moment that you are swimming in the ocean. As you swim deeper
below the surface of the water, the pressure on Y0ll! body increases. Just as in the
deep end of a swimming pool, Y0ll! ears begin to hurt if you go deeper than about
10 feet. The pain is caused by the increase in pressure as you submerge in a body
of water. As the water depth increases so does the pressure. This pressure due to
a change in elevation within a motionless (static) body of water is referred to as
hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is the reason that a maximum limit exists
for safe scuba diving. If you go too far down in the water, the pressure becomes
greater than your body can withstand safely.

Hydrostatic pressure is due to the weight of the overlying water. Recalling that
pressure is defmed as a force applied per unit area and that the weight of the over-
lying water can be related to the density of the water, the following expression for
hydrostatic pressure can be found:

F W mg (pV)g p(Ah)g pgh

p 0" - =- =- = -"-.-'-"- (4.17)
A A Ag, Ag, Ag, g,

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Thus, hydrostatic pressure is directly related to the density (p) of the water (or
other fluid) and the change in elevation (h) where the surface of the water has an
elevation of zero and downward is positive.
Pressure change
due to a change in
elevation within a
The change in hydrostatic pressure per foot of change in elevation is called the
motionless (static)
hydrostatic gradient. By inspection, the hydrostatic gradient in a particular liquid is
body of water is constant as long as the liquid's density is constant. The hydrostatic gradient in
referred to as hy- fresh water is about 0,433 pounds force per square inch per foot. The hydrostatic
drostatic pressure. gradient in salt water (brine) is slightly higher since salt water is heavier than fresh
water. The hydrostatic gradient in some sea water is about 0,465 psi/ft.

Example 4.1
A manometer is an instrument which measures pressure using the concept of hydrostatic

~
pressure. Determine the pressure difference existing across the wall of the soap bubble
formed on the end of a pipe which is attached to a manometer as shown if the difference
in elevation between the 2 water levels shown in the manometer is 1.2 mm.
I water
Solution:

The hydrostatic pressure in a column of fluid is equal along lines of constant ele-
vation. Moving downward in a column of fluid causes pressure to increase while
moving upward causes pressure to decrease. At atmospheric pressure, the change
in hydrostatic pressure due to a change in elevation in the air may be neglected.
Since the system is open to the atmosphere at both ends, the pressure difference
across the bubble can be determined as follows:

Pout = PlItm

PIn.=Paim +pgh,_pgh2=paim +pg(h-h)

12
gc gc K
r······ )~· . . ~~···rIz:;:±;l i. hI
1 = + pg t:Jz = + (lgml ee)(980.7eml S2) (1.2mm X lem )
: ................................ "."" .......i Pm Pat", P atm gm em 10
g, 980.7 mm
water gfs2

Pin = Patm + 1(~) gf2 = Patm +.

0 12 gf2
10 em em

I'1p = Pin - P au , = P atm +0.12 gf2 - Pol'" = 0.12 gf2

em em
Notice that a manometer inherently measures a pressure difference directly as a height or
elevation difference. Pressure expressed as an elevation difference is often referred to as a
head. In this example, the pressure difference is a water head of 1.2 mm.

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

Archimedes' Principle states that the apparent weight loss of a solid immersed in
liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid. In other words,
the buoyant force on a body immersed in liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the body. Thus, by immersing a solid of unknown volume or density
into a liquid of known density and measuring the apparent weight loss of the im-
mersed solid, the volume or density of the solid may be calculated. Determining
the volume or density of an object by fluid displacement is especially useful when
the volume of an object may not be easily or accurately determined by measure-
ment of its physical dimensions.

As the story goes, Archimedes was inspired one day while taking a bath and pon-
dering how he might discover the authenticity of the king's new "gold" crown.
Archimedes knew that the specific gravity of pure gold is 19.3. Archimedes also
knew that he could easily determine the specific gravity of the crown if he knew its
volume. However, directly calculating the volmne of an irregularly-shaped crown
is not easily accomplished. Archimedes realized that the buoyant force acting on a
body immersed in liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
Using this principle, Archimedes was able to determine the specific gravity of the
crown.

Example 4.2
Suppose that the king's crown weighed 14.7 kg when measured in air and that it appeared
to weigh 13.4 kg when submerged in \-vater.

Solution:
Note that the "weights" are reported in kilograms which means that these quantities are
actually mass and "apparent mass". The mass does not really change, but only appears to
change due to the lifting effect of buoyancy. Recalling that the buoyant force (Ph) acting
on a body immersed in liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced ('\fIf) by the
body and using the relationships among weight, mass, and density, an expression relating
weight to mass and to density can be written as follows:

mog Po~g
W gc w;, gc Po
Ll~pparent (mo -m;)g Wf PfVfg Pf
gc gc

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 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

w rno 1 Po ;:=Po =Yo

.6. ~pparent m, -m, Pj Pw
14.7 kg
(14.7 kg - 13.4kg)

Yo = 11.3

Thus, the specific gravity (y) of an object submerged in water is equal to the ratio of the
objects true weight to its apparent loss in weight. As shown, the same is also true with
regards to the object's mass. The specific gravity of the crown in this case is not equal to
19.3, the specific gravity of gold, but rather is equal to the specific gravity of lead.

VISCOSITY

Viscosity is a property of fluids which is a measure of the internal friction existing

between the different layers of a fluid in motion. In liquids, this internal friction is
due to the cohesive forces between the molecules of the liquid. In gases, the in-
ternal friction results from the collisions occurring among the gas molecules. In
general, the internal friction for a liquid in motion is much greater than the inter-
nal friction for a gas in motion. Thus, the viscosity of a liquid is generally greater
than the viscosity of a gas. Viscosity is often denoted by the lower case Greek let-
ter "MU" (fl) in petroleum engineering.

FLUID FLOW REGIMES

Fluid flows in 2 distinct regimes. Fluid that is flowing smoothly along orderly
paths called streamlines is said to be in laminar flow. Streamlines never cross one
another and are well-defined paths or flow boundaries which may be predicted
mathematically. Fluid that is flowing in unpredictable and complex eddies similar
to tiny whirlpools is said to be in turbulent flow. The fluid velocity is one of the
factors which determines the flow regime. For a given fluid in a given flow system
of a given geometry, a particular velocity exists above which the fluid flow regime
will change from laminar to turbulent.

POI SELLE'S LAw

In the early 1800's a French physicist named]. Poiseuille was interested in describ-
ing blood circulation. In the course of his work, Poiseuille developed a relation-
ship to predict the flow rate of a viscous fluid in a capillary tube. The relationship
is now known as Poiseuille's Law and can be expressed as follows for a tube of
radius, r, transmitting a fluid with viscosity, fl under a pressure gradient (dp/ dl):

30
 ©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

_,,-r 4 dp
(4.18)
q = 81' dl

Note that the volumetric flow rate, q, is directly proportional to the pressure gra-
dient and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. The viscosity unit
poise is named after Poiseuille. Later in this course, a law developed for the flow of
fluids in petroleum reservoirs will be discussed which will be very similar to Equa-
tion (4.18) .

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Petroleum Geology Revisited

A general understanding of the process in which hydrocarbon-
bearing rocks were formed provides insZght into the study of
rock properties and the natural distribution of fluids within the
rock.

A
common misconception is that oil and gas (hydrocatbons) accumulate
and exist as "latge undergtound pools" which are surrounded by "solid"
rock. This misconception is fueled by the notion that all rock is a "solid"
(non-porous) material. In reality, rock which is capable of bearing hydro-
carbons is porous like a sponge.

The "solid" portion of the rock is referred to as the rock matrix and the often mi-
croscopic void spaces in the rock are referred to as pores. The hydrocarbons reside
within the pores of the rock itself. The particular volume of rock wherein the oil
and natural gas resides is referred to as the rese1710ir: Understanding of the process
in which hydrocarbon-bearing rocks were formed provides insight into the study
of petrophysics (rock properties) and the natural distribution of fluids within the
reservoir.

NATURE OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

Hydrocatbon-bearing rocks are generally sedimentary rocks. As the name implies,

the rocks ate composed primarily of sediment or pieces of broken rock eroded and
carried by water. The sediment is washed away from its source and into lakes and
rivers which transport and deposit the sediment downstream, eventually ending in
the ocean. Sedimentaty rocks may also be composed of chemicals which result
from a chemical process or prectpztate in the water, such as calcium carbonate.
Note that in either case water is involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks.

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The primary type of Successive !.lyers of sediment are deposited one on top the other in the deposi-
hydrocarbon-bearing tional environment. The weight of the overlying layers acts to compress and
rock is the sedimen- compact the underlying sediments while the precipitation of minerals from the
tary rock. water ill-which the sediment was deposited acts to cement the sediment grains to-
gether. The result is a layer of sedimentary rock. The rock matrix is composed of
some combination of rock grains and cement and the pores are originally filled
A particular layer with water. A particular layer of rock deposited at a particular time is often re-
of rock deposited ferred to as a formation. Because a formation is a unit of rock created at the same
at a particular time time and in the same environment, the physical properties of a formation are gen-
is often referred to erally consistent over a wide area.
as a formation.
Types of sedimentary rock which commonly bear hydrocarbons include sand-
stone, limestone, and dolomite. As the name implies, the primary ingredient in
sandstone is sand or quartz. Likewise the primary ingredient in limestone is lime
(calcium carbonate). Dolomite is a secondary form of limestone.

PROCESS OF RESERVOIR FORMATION

Although the exact process by which hydrocarbons are created is not fully known,
the geologic conditions favorable to forming petroleum reservoirs are known.
The theory explaining petroleum reservoir formation may be summarized as fol-
lows. When organic material becomes buried to a sufficient depth, the elevated
temperature and pressure cause it to be converted to petroleum. Tectonic forces
in the earth's crust and the huge pressures generated by the weight of overlying
rock layer caused the petroleum to ooze from its source and migrate upward fol-
lowing a meandering and tortuous path through pores of the overlying rock layers
toward the surface until a barrier to flow is encountered.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

You might be asking yourself, "Why does the petroleum migrate upward? Why not flow
in other directions?" In response, consider that the pores of sedimentary rocks are
originally filled with water according to the theory of sedimentary rock formation (dis-
cussed in the previous section). Also recall that oil and natural gas are generally less dense
(lighter) than water. As a result, gravity will tend to cause gas, oil, and water to segregate
(separate) with the lightest fluid on top. This mechanism is often referred to as gravity segre-
gation. In processes driven by gravity segregation, the fluids will redistribute until the
lighter fluid (petroleum) floats on top of the heavier fluid (water).

A barrier to flow will halt upward migration of the oozing droplets of petroleum.
As a result, the petroleum droplets will begin to coalesce (combine) and accumu-
late beneath the barrier. Without some type of barrier, the petroleum would con-
tinue to percolate upward through the subsurface rock layers until it reached the
surface of the earth. Thus, one of the necessary geologic conditions for the for-
mation of a petroleum reservoir is the presence of a barrier which prevents further

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migration. The combination of the barrier and the rock layers containing the ac~
cumulated petroleum is referred to as a trap. According to this definition, the res~
ervoir rock itself is part of the trap.

One of the neces- Traps are classified as either .rtTl4ctttra~ Jtratigraphic or combination. As the name im~
sary geologic con- plies, structural traps are usually associated with some type of deformation of the
ditions for the ac- original configuration of the rock layers, such as folding or faulting. Examples of
cumulation of hy- structural traps include anticlinal traps, fault traps, and dome plug traps. \'{Ihereas
drocarbons in the stratigraphic traps are usually associated with a condition or process associated
subsurface is a with the deposition of the sediments. Examples of stratigraphic traps include un~
trap. conformities and lenticular traps.

An unconformity can be thought of ",S a "time gap in the geologic record" (Van
Dyke, 1987). When a previously formed layer of rock is brought to the surface, it
will begin to erode. If after a period of erosion, a new layer or sediment is depos~
ited over the eroded surface, an unconformity will result. Lenticular traps derive
their name from the shape of the reservoir roGk which resembles a lens. Often
these reservoirs result from an uneven deposition of sand and clay as will often
occur in the formation of river sandbars. Once buried, the sandbar may form a
lenticular trap.

Structural traps are often associated with a structural anomaly or irregularity in the
subsurface. In the earliest days of petroleum exploration before the mechanics of
reservoir formation were understood, petroleum prospectors looked for distinc~
rive geologic structures outcropping at the surface. Experience had shown these
prospectors that oil and gas reservoirs could often be found by drWing around to~
pographic features such as salt domes. Salt domes often are indicated on the sur~
face by a "dome~shaped" hill. A hill in the middle of a low~lying coastal marsh
area is a very distinctive indication of a structural anomaly (irregularity) in the sub~
surface rock layers. In the past, the structure of the subsurface had to be inferred
from an analysis of the surface. With the advent and advance of seismic technol~
ogy, much more is known about the subsurface structures associated with the
formation of petroleum reservoirs and traps.

RESERVOIR FLUID DISTRIBUTION

Reservoir rock typically contains 2 or 3 types of fluid in varying proportions

within the pore space. These 3 fluids are water, oil, and/or natural gas. The pres~
ence of oil and/or gas is required for the rock to be classified as a reservoir. The
presence of the water along with the oil and/or gas and the location and configu~
ration of the fluids within the pores is a result of the following:
(1) the process .in which sedimentary rocks are formed,
(2) the properties of the reservoir rock,
(3) the properties of the fluids within the rock, and
(4) the interaction between the roc)< & the fluids contained within it.

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Typically, water coats all grains of the reservoir rock and exists as a flim between
the inner surfaces of the rock's pores and the oil and/or gas. \'V'hen both oil and
gas are present, gas occupies the largest pore spaces while the oil occupies the in-
termediate pore spaces. The smallest pore spaces remain completely filled with
water. This configuration, while not always true, is mote common than the alter-
native. The reasons and mechanisms behind both the typical and alternative dis-
tribution of fluids within the reservoir rock are too complex to be discussed here.
Explaining these mechanisms will be the purpose behind many of the future top-
ics of this course in petrophysics.

RESERVOIR PRESSURE

Petroleum reservoirs are generally under pressure. In other words, the pressure
within the pore space of the reservoir rock is greater than the pressure at the sur-
face of the earth. The level of pressure within a particular reservoir is a function
of the geologic conditions in which the rock was created. The pressure exhibited
by a particular reservoir is strongly dependent upon the depth of the reservoir be-
low the surface of the earth. As depth increases so does pressure.
Normal pressure in The vast majority of reservoirs are normally pressured while some exhibit a pressure
the Gulf Coast re- greater than would be expected at a particular depth and are abnormally pressured.
gion of the United As the name implies, normal pressure is that level of pressure which can be ex-
States is 0.456 pected at a particular depth. What is considered normal.varies regionally. In the
pounds force per Gulf Coast region of the United States, the normal pressure is 0.465 pounds force
square inch per per square inch per foot of depth. Consider again the process which creates sedi-
foot of depth. mentary rocks. Sediments are transported and deposited in water then buried and
compacted by successive layers of sediment deposited over time. Since the sedi-
ment is deposited in water, water occupies all of the spaces between the individual
particles of sediment. As the sediments are buried and compacted, some of the
water is pushed our. As long as the water has a escape path to the top of the
sediments (the sea floor), the sediments will not be under an additional or abnor-
mal pressure. That is, the pressure within the rock that these sediments eventually
form will exhibit a normal pressure. If the water's path of escape to the surface is
removed or sealed, the water will not be able to escape as the sediments are com-
pacted. This trapped and compressed volume of water will lead to an abnormally
high pressure or abnormal pressure within the rock.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

What does this value tell us about the subsurface pressure in the area of the Gulf of Mex-
ico? This means that for every foot down below the surface of the earth in the area of the
Gulf of Mexico, the pressure will increase by 0.465 pounds force per square inch. At a
. depth of 10,000 feet below the surface of the earth on the campus ofLSU, one would
expect to find a pressure of (0.465 psi/ft)(10,000 ftl = 4,650 psi.

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The hydrostatic pressure gradient in the sea water is 0.442 psi/ft. Notice that the change
The hydrostatic
in pressure per foot of depth observed in the subsurface rock layers in the normally pres-
gradient in sea sured areas of the Gulf Coast is approximately equal to that observed in a body of sea
water is aboUt. water. Why is that?
0.442 psi/ft.
Imagine that you have an open tank filled with clean sea water. Leaving the tank open,
gravel is placed into the water-filled tank until the gravel reaches the top of the tank and
no more gravel will fit into the tank. What will happen as the gravel is placed into the
tank? Since the tank is open, a volume of water equal to the volume of the gravel in the
tank will slosh over the sides of the tank. Once the gravel has settled to the "bottom" of
the tank, what will be the hydrostatic pressure gradient in the tank?

Consider the following facts:

(1) the hydrostatic pressure gradient is related to the density of the fluid,
(2) all of the water in the tank is still in contact or communication with itself (i.e.
none of it is sealed off or trapped), and
(3) the gravel particles have settled so that they are resting one on top of the
other and are not suspended in the water.

The water occupies all of the space in the tank among the pieces of gravel except for
where the pieces of gravel touch each other. Because the gravel is not suspended in the
water, the density of the sea water within the tank remains the same as before. The
weight of the bottom-most layer of gravel is suppotted by the bottom of the tank. The
weight in the next layer of gravel upward is supported by the bottom-most layer of gravel.
Likewise, each successive layer of gravel is supported by the layer directly below it. Thus,
the presence of the gravel in the tank under these conditions does not affect the hydro-
static gradient in the tank. It is the same as before, 0.442 psi! ft. This illustrates concep-
tually why the normal pres~ure gradien~ in subsurface layers of rock is essentially equal to
the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the sea water in which they were originally deposited.

36