6.

31
Application of Fiberglass
Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion
Resistant Equipment (for Piping
Systems and Pressure Vessels)
R. J. LEWANDOWSKI and W. F. BRITT, JR.
Britt Engineering, Inc., Birmingham, AL, USA

6.31.1 INTRODUCTION 2
6.31.1.1 Resins and Reinforcements 2
6.31.1.1.1 Polyesters 2
6.31.1.1.2 Vinylesters 3
6.31.1.1.3 Resin selection 3
6.31.1.1.4 Reinforcements 3
6.31.2 APPLICATIONS AND USES 3
6.31.2.1 Applications 3
6.31.2.2 Uses 3
6.31.3 DESIGN Of CORROSION RESISTANT FRP 4
6.31.3.1 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels 4
6.31.3.1.1 Operating conditions 4
6.31.3.1.2 Method of fabrication 4
6.31.3.1.3 Laminate design 6
6.31.3.1.4 Stress analysis and vessel design 7
6.31.3.1.5 Special considerations 7
6.31.3.2 Piping Systems 8
6.31.3.2.1 Background 8
6.31.3.2.2 Laminate design 9
6.31.3.2.3 Piping design 9
6.31.3.2.4 Mechanical properties 10
6.31.3.2.5 Comparisons 11
6.31.3.2.6 Design approach 11
6.31.3.2.7 Hydrostatic testing 14
6.31.3.2.8 Economic considerations 15
6.31.3.2.9 Applicable codes and standards 15
6.31.3.2.10 Layout and design of piping systems 15
6.31.3.2.11 Vibration, water hammer, and cavitation 16
6.31.3.2.12 General 19
6.31.3.3 Approaches for Design of Supports 20
6.31.3.3.1 Fitup of support 20
6.31.3.3.2 Location of supports 20
6.31.3.3.3 Location of guides 20
6.31.3.3.4 Location of anchors 20
6.31.3.3.5 Fixing of anchors 20
6.31.3.3.6 Riser supports 21

1
2 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
6.31.3.3.7 Supports for insulated pipe
6.31.3.3.8 Component supports
6.31.3.3.9 Thermal expansion
6.31.3.3.10 Coatings
6.31.3.4 Support Illustrations
6.31.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS
6.31.5 REFERENCES
6.31.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
materials has grown considerably over the past
20 years and many successful designs have
evolved to become standards. Basic rules for
design parallel those that have been successful
in steel tank design for close to 100 years.
Engineers and designers involved in the appli-
cation of FRP would be wise to follow those
successful design rules while keeping in mind
that FRP is a very different material. Under-
standing the unique mechanical properties of
FRP is essential and as successful new designs
evolve through practical applications or
through new analytical tools, we will see the
standards develop for FRP materials. The ref-
erences presented in this chapter have been
proven through experience and the analytical
methods that are included are the result of
testing and successful case histories. Some of
the design considerations are the result of ex-
periencing failures. As the applications of this
material continued to expand, it is most impor-
tant that design rules are developed from the
positive applications, and lessons are learned
from failures.
The development of materials has been the
single most important factor in the growth of
FRP in the process industry. Safe design meth-
ods, quality fabrication, and improvements in
specifications have kept the growth steady. In
years past, FRP materials were used to solve
corrosion problems before proper design meth-
ods were developed and the result almost
caused the demise of FRP, especially for appli-
cations in process piping.
A great deal of work is still required to
quantify mechanical properties, behavior
under various environments, creep, long-term
behavior, the nature of stress concentrations,
precise design limits, and unique characteristics
of shapes. As this work progresses the designer
will be given the tools to bring factors of safety
within cost efficient limits and when this plat-
eau is reached the use of this material will grow
exponentially.
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25
6.31.1.1 Resins and Reinforcements
Thermoset FRP basically derives its mechan-
ical properties from the reinforcement and its
chemical resistance from the resin matrix. The
types of resins involved are all polyester and
vinylester since these offer the cost benefits to
compete with alternate materials. An emerging
application area is the use of thermoplastic
liners for special applications.
6.31.1.1.1 Polyesters
The most common thermoset polyester
group used today is based on the combination
of a glycol and orthophthalic acid/maleic acid
reacted together. Unfortunately these resins are
very useful for producing marine, bathware,
and other items but their resistance to acids,
caustics and their hydrolytic stability at ele-
vated temperatures virtually rule out their use
in corrosion applications.
Isophthalic acid and specialty glycols yield
resins which have improved hydrolytic stability
and resistance to acids. Terephthalic acid and
glycol based resins have higher molecular
weight and hydrolytic stability. Both the iso
and tere resin family of resins are generally
acceptable for applications below 140 8F and a
pH of 8. They must not be used for caustics,
bleaches, and similar reactive chemicals. Their
mechanical properties are most applicable
under static stress conditions. The designer
should be careful with situations where high
creep, fatigue, or thermal stresses are involved.
Resilient polymer structures are favored in
these cases.
Atlas chemical was basic in propoxylation
technology and found that a propoxylated
bisphenol A structure was an ideal glycol for
reaction with maleic acid to form a polyester.
Together with a team from E. I. DuPont deNe-
mours they ascertained that these polyesters
were quite resistant to a broad range of corro-
sive chemicals. These resins became the fore-
most component in the ªcorrosion fieldº for the
 Applications and Uses
replacement of costly alloys to handle difficult
corrosion environments.
6.31.1.1.2 Vinylesters
In the early 1960s scientists from both Shell
Oil and Dow Chemical were attempting to
expand the epoxy market. They discovered
that polymeric bisphenol A epoxies could be
reacted with acrylic acids yielding a structure
with pendant vinyl groups. These resins could
be reacted with styrene to yield very resilient
thermoset structures. This chemistry has been
extended to other epoxy structures to give ªvi-
nylestersº with special properties. Chemists at
ICI Americas soon discovered that the propoy-
lated bisphenol intermediate used to make the
Atlas polyesters could be reacted with an iso-
cyanate and then used to form a urethane
modified vinylester.
6.31.1.1.3 Resin selection
After completing definition of the contained
fluids and the operating conditions, the de-
signer should contact the resin manufacturer
to assist in the selection of the most cost-
efficient resin. The resin manufacturer will
also make recommendations for selecting the
optimum corrosion barrier and will suggest the
best cure system for the application. After the
manufacturing method is defined, it is recom-
mended that the resin manufacturer be con-
tacted to insure that the selected resin is
compatible with the manufacturing process.
Whether the tank is to be filament wound or
hand lay-up construction will sometimes neces-
sitate a modification of the resin selection. The
manufacturer will need to be informed of any
design or operating changes before approval
for fabrication.
6.31.1.1.4 Reinforcements
Except in very special cases, fiberglass is the
reinforcement of choice for most designers of
industrial tanks and process vessels. ªEº (elec-
trical) glass is favored for structural laminates
because of its enormous strength. ªCº (chemi-
cal) glass is the predominant selection for the
initial corrosion barrier surface because of its
chemical resistance. Special high strength rein-
forcements such as Kevlar, ceramic, carbon,
graphite, and some special thermoplastic fibers
3
might be selected when high strengths are man-
dated by special design requirements. For the
most part these special fibers are not widely
used because of cost.
6.31.2 APPLICATIONS AND USES
6.31.2.1 Applications
Today all of these specialty structures are
utilized to produce corrosion-resistant matrices
that are very corrosion resistant. The Het
(chlorendic anhydride polyester) acid resins
are still used in various duct applications and
for strong oxidants like chromic acid.
The BPA (bisphenol A fumerate) polyesters
cover the widest range of chemical applications.
They resist both acid and caustics environments
as well as oxidizing materials. A flexible version
is suitable for filament winding and many of the
original filament wound chemical tanks made
with this version are still in service over 30 years
later.
The vinylesters give tough and resilient
matrices. They present very significant benefits
especially in filament wound structures. Most
pipe applications are produced with vinylesters.
Whenever strong stress conditions are to be
handled, such as occurs in many process vessels,
the vinylesters are the matrices chosen. Vinyl-
esters give good acid resistance, moderate alka-
line resistance, and an acceptable level of
resistance to a broad range of oxidative chemi-
cals. The urethane-modified vinylesters are re-
silient and tough with the benefits of improved
caustic resistance, temperature resistance, and
wetting properties.
6.31.2.2 Uses
When properly incorporated with glass rein-
forcement, these resins produce structures with
documented, predictable strength properties.
These in turn can be used to design tanks,
scrubbers, pipe, duct and various other FRP
equipment.
The mechanical properties used in the design
of FRP equipment include the flexural strength
and modulus, tensile strength and modulus,
compressive properties, Poisson's ratio, and
heat distortion temperature. It is important to
understand that the structural properties of any
composite are a function of glass type and
content, glass orientation, and resin properties.
It is imperative that the resin system be used in
accordance with the guidelines of the manufac-
4 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
turer to insure proper cure so that optimum
mechanical properties and chemical resistance
is achieved. All major resin manufacturers pub-
lish comprehensive corrosion guides and in-
structive bulletins to assist the user.
6.31.3 DESIGN OF CORROSION
RESISTANT FRP
6.31.3.1 Storage Tanks and Process Vessels
Improvements in resins have made contain-
ing corrosive fluids and vapors somewhat easier
for the designer but containment is still a ser-
ious problem for long-term service. It has been
aptly stated that all tank and piping failures are
the result of an overstress condition. In many
cases corrosion was thought to be the primary
cause of failure and in the past that was fre-
quently true. Even so, the degraded laminate
was overstressed as laminate strength was lost.
The newer resins provide much better protec-
tion of the laminate but FRP equipment must
be carefully designed to insure that total stres-
ses are held to approximately 10% of the ulti-
mate throughout the operating range of the
tank or equipment.
There are several important steps that the
designer must take to insure that the equipment
is capable of reaching its maximum service life.
A successful design includes:
(i) Complete identification of exact operat-
ing conditions
(ii) Resin selection
(iii) Reinforcement type
(iv) Method of fabrication
(v) Laminate design
(vi) Stress analysis and vessel design.
Experience has also shown that attention must
be given to quality control to insure that fabri-
cation techniques meet the requirements of the
design. All of the care exercised during design
can be lost due to improper fabrication or poor
quality and workmanship.
6.31.3.1.1 Operating conditions
A successful design must begin with a com-
plete identification and understanding of oper-
ating conditions. The chemical environment,
concentrations, specific gravity, and maximum
temperature of the contained fluid will set the
requirements for resin selection and mechanical
properties of the laminate. The designer can use
a design data sheet, such as the User's Basic
Requirements Specification (UBRS) form of-
fered in the ASME Standard RTP-1 (1993), to
identify all critical operating and design condi-
tions. Most standards, such as ASTM D 3299
and ASTM D 4097, or data sheets similar to
Pressure Vessel & Storage Tank Data Sheet,
Figure 1 are specifically for cylindrical tanks
for above ground, vertical installations. These
tanks are limited to atmospheric pressures and
generally have a domed top and flat bottom.
Design or operating conditions for other tank
configurations are shown in Figure 2 and will
require stringent analysis by the designer.
The designer must define all other conditions
that might subject the vessel to loads other than
hydrostatic loads. Wind, seismic, and snow
loads must be incorporated into the design.
Equipment attached to the tank, such as agita-
tors, heaters, relief or control valves and access
ladders and platforms will add to the design
loads and must be considered. In many cases
the vessel must accept heavy external piping
loads and the designer must make special ac-
commodations for weight, thermal, and dy-
namic loading imposed by the piping system.
Pumps can sometimes induce large dynamic
loads, thermal loads, or vibrations that must
be accommodated in the design.
Defining these design requirements are criti-
cal to a successful design. This information is
used to select the resin, glass reinforcement, and
method of fabrication. Any changes to the ser-
vice conditions that may be made by the owner
or process engineer after the design is complete
can negate the design. There have been a num-
ber of tank failures caused by a change in the
process fluid or operating conditions by the
owner after the tank has been put into service.
A well-designed tank will call for a prominently
displayed nameplate that incorporates all of the
design data to help prevent misuse.
6.31.3.1.2 Method of fabrication
All tanks are manufactured either by using a
hand lay-up method (HLU) sometimes referred
to as a contact molded method, or by filament
winding (FW). Filament winding, except in
very rare instances, applies only to the manu-
facture of the straight shell of the tank. HLU
can be used to manufacture the straight shell
but is the only method used for making the
heads of all tanks.
(i) Hand lay-up (HLU)
ASTM D4097 provides a comprehensive de-
scription and specification for this process. The
laminate is built up of alternate layers of a
woven roving glass material, usually ªEº
glass, and a chopped strand roving bound in
the form of a mat. Mechanical properties are
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP 5

Figure 1 Pressure vessel/storage tank data sheet (cylindrical, above ground, vertical installation).

presented in the standard with ultimate tensile
strength varying between 9000 and 15 000 psi
depending on the thickness.
This process offers exceptional corrosion
resistance due to the high resin content where
the to glass to resin ratio ranges from 0.3 to 0.4.
A corrosion barrier thickness of 0.100º is
standard and consists of a ªCº veil and two
1.5 oz./ft2 mat layers.
(ii) Filament wound (FW)
Filament winding is a popular method of
fabricating but it is applicable only to surfaces
of revolution. Because it offers a much higher
tensile strength than the hand lay-up method
it becomes a more cost-effective method of
production, especially when manufacturing
more than one tank of the same size. Strength
6 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
Figure 2 Various tank configurations.
is derived from the glass orientation, preten-
sioning of the glass roving, and the high glass to
resin content. The glass to resin ratio can be as
high as 0.75 by weight, but the low resin content
means that this laminate is not as corrosion
resistant as the HLU laminate. The same
0.100º corrosion barrier used in the hand lay-
up method is standard for FW construction
(ASTM 4097).
The manufacturing equipment used to fila-
ment wind is more expensive than that required
for hand lay-up but production is much faster
and less hand labor is required. Strength is the
main advantage of FW structures but an addi-
tional advantage is the highly consistent glass
pattern that is precisely controlled by the wind-
ing equipment. Wall thickness and resin to glass
ratios are also consistent.
6.31.3.1.3 Laminate design
Composites obtain their strength from the
reinforcement, in most cases fiberglass, and
derive their corrosion resistance from the
resin. One of the most attractive features of
glass reinforced plastics is the wide range of
laminate designs that are available. Manufac-
turers of composites can easily provide any
glass orientation, thickness, or combinations
of glass types that the designer can imagine.
Directional strength is obtained by aligning the
glass strands parallel to the axis where maxi-
mum strength is required. By placing equal
amounts of glass in a bidirectional pattern,
strength is highest in these two directions. Ap-
plying the glass in random pattern results in a
laminate with equal strength in all directions.
With this latitude for design, it becomes pos-
sible to apply these three patterns to obtain al-
most any laminate properties that a design
would require. There are analytical programs
available such as ªTriLamº and ªSuperLam,º
produced by Osborne Composite Engineering,
ON, Canada, that allows the designer to mix and
match glass types, orientations, glass weights,
resin types and ratios, and thicknesses to obtain
the most efficient composite available for a par-
ticular set of requirements. Fortunately in the
design of tanks there are a few standard laminate
designs that have been developed which have
been extremely successful and cost-effective for
the production of most tanks and vessels.
FW tank shells are manufactured using an
80±858 wind angle. A 908 angle would be a flat
wind angle and would provide maximum hoop
strength. The slight angular pitch, 80±858, of-
fers a component of axial strength (along the
axis of the tank) to pull the shell from the
mandrel and provides the strength needed to
lift the tank. Where additional axial strength
is required, several layers of low angle glass
(30±458) might be intermixed during the wind-
ing process. Some manufacturers have also ap-
plied layers of a knitted (textile style) cloth with
all of the glass oriented in the axial direction.
When knitted cloths are used it is necessary that
a mat layer be applied before and after the
cloth. These mat layers enhance the bonding
of the two types of glass.
Hand lay-up shells are manufactured using
alternate layers of mat and woven roving. This
procedure produces both a uniform bidirec-
tional pattern with the woven roving but also
a multidirectional pattern with the mat layers.
The woven roving provides the hoop and axial
strength while the mat provides a uniform
multidirectional strength. Another key feature
of the mat layers is the bond strength that it
provides between the layers of woven roving.
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
6.31.3.1.4 Stress analysis and vessel design
The geometry of the tank will dictate the
method of analysis used to design the tank.
Vertical, cylindrical tanks with flat bottoms
are the simplest designs and usually follow
long established rules as specified in API 650,
ASTM D 3299, ASTM D 4097, and ASME
RTP-1 (1993). Each of these standards provides
design rules for calculating wall thickness, joint
dimensions, and nozzle requirements. Calcula-
tions for the top heads are not provided in API
or ASTM standards but Part 3 of RTP-1 pro-
vides a comprehensive method for calculating
the heads, external loads, stiffeners, and offers
rules for the reinforcement of openings and
attachments for flanges.
Design by stress analysis is included in Ap-
pendix M-4 of RTP-1 and is an adaptation of
Section VIII, Div. 2, of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code. This procedure is a rig-
orous engineering exercise and should be per-
formed by a professional engineer with
composite experience. There are other methods
of analysis that will provide a satisfactory de-
sign. The use of finite element analysis (FEA)
has grown in popularity and is becoming an
acceptable method of design but it is also a
rigorous procedure and is highly dependent
on the accuracy of the definition of the mechan-
ical properties of the laminate.
The design procedures presented in Megyesy
(1995) can be employed but the engineer must
take care to use the properties of the composite
and insure that factors of safety comply with
the referenced standards and specifications.
Mallinson (1988) also offers an excellent pro-
cedure for the design of vertical, cylindrical
vessels as well as other tank configurations.
This reference provides many design examples
as well as details for nozzles, stiffeners, lugs,
and special consideration of agitators, external
pressure, knuckles, and special openings.
6.31.3.1.5 Special considerations
All of the above references will guide the
designer and provide sufficient background in-
formation on the selection of materials, analy-
sis, and fabrication and offer most of the details
used in the design of standard tanks. However,
the designer should be aware of several special
considerations when designing FRP tanks.
These are listed for the designer's review, and
while most of the references do not address
these special details, these have been found by
experience to be important issues.
Secondary bonds. Structural welds are always
applied to the outside of the tank and only
7
under special conditions installed inside of the
tank. Corrosion barriers can be applied inside
the tank but structural welds applied inside the
tank are prone to delamination when hydro-
static loads are applied. Laminates shrink when
they cure and this shrinkage generates a shear
force that works against the bond strength of
the laminate.
Tank bottom. Flat bottoms should be at-
tached to the tank shell by means of a standard
knuckle as defined in the ASTM Standards,
RTP-1, and other referenced documents.
RTP-1, Section 4, presents several knuckle de-
signs that have proven successful. Recent de-
signs have incorporated an internal knuckle,
described as an internal ªflexibleº or in some
cases as an internal ªrigidº knuckle. This design
employs a heavy structural lay-up inside the
tank and has been found to develop stress
cracks around the perimeter of the tank. The
cracks usually occur near the lower tangent
where the curved surface ties into the tank
floor. While repairs can be made, this design
has required frequent maintenance and could
fail catastrophically unless carefully inspected
on a frequent basis.
Tank top. Elliptical or flanged and dished
heads should be detailed by the designer and
should include fabrication details describing the
weld to the tank shell. Recommended details
are shown in Part 4 of RTP-1. Flat, cone, or
spherical tops should incorporate a transition
radius to the tank shell or should be flanged to
mate with a body flange on the tank.
Flanged nozzles. Many tank manufacturers
and designers specify 25 psi rated flanges for
most tank storage tanks. A 100 psi rated nozzle
is recommended as a minimum for all nozzles
except for manholes and tank vents, where a 25
psi rating is acceptable.
Vents. Vents must be sized to accommodate
the largest inlet nozzle. A general rule is to
specify a vent size at least one size larger than
the inlet. Where more than one inlet is used the
vent must be sized to accommodate both.
Foundations. The foundation must be flat
within 1/4º over the entire tank area. Voids or
low spots must be grouted. After the concrete
has cured, a corrosion resistant top coat should
be applied and allowed to cure. Two layers of
building felt should be smoothly rolled over the
surface to cushion the tank.
Insulation. Insulated tanks should employ
clips or support rings to keep the insulation in
place. Rings should be provided with weep holes
to allow condensation to drain. A 1/8º outer
skin of FRP, pigmented to reduce UV degrada-
tion, provides an excellent cover for the insula-
tion. Glass rock insulation has been a material
of choice where fire protection is required.
8 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
Nozzle load. All nozzles 4º in diameter and
below should be gusseted to reduce nozzle
stresses caused by excessive piping loads. Be-
fore the tank design is completed it is recom-
mended that the tank designer check all piping
loads into the tank nozzles. In cases where
piping loads cannot be reduced by re-routing
the pipe or by supports, the tank and/or the
nozzle must be reinforced so that the pipe does
not overstress the tank or nozzle.
Hold down lugs. Hold down lugs should be
made of FRP, stainless steel, or in some cases
galvanized steel depending on the service of the
tank. Lugs should not be drilled for a single
anchor bolt but should incorporate a fish plate
or hold down clip that is anchored separately
from the tank lug. This arrangement provides a
secure attachment without restricting thermal
expansion of the tank. In a number of cases, the
anchored lug has caused severe buckling and
radial cracking of the tank bottom.
Lifting lugs. Lifting lugs use the same materi-
als as for hold down lugs. The lifting lugs must
be designed to allow the tank to be lifted onto
the foundation without inducing buckling loads
into the top and shell and should have a design
load factor of 10. The designer should provide
information on the drawing that specifies de-
tails for lifting. Cable connections, spreader
bars, and tag lines should be called out. It is
good practice to call for a special permanent tag
to be attached to the tank that specifies lifting
details and the empty weight of the tank.
6.31.3.2 Piping Systems
6.31.3.2.1 Background
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, FRP ma-
terials were being developed that would bring
the market for FRP pipe to new heights. FRP
was specified in many applications where only
specialty alloys had been used and as the appli-
cations expanded, FRP was becoming the com-
plete problem solver for corrosion service.
Resin manufacturers were developing new
polyesters and vinylesters that were tougher
and more resilient. Manufacturers were devel-
oping fabrication methods that improved qual-
ity and reduced costs. In 1974 several business
projections indicated that FRP was to be the
growth industry of the future but at about the
same time some plant owners and engineers
began to experience frequent piping failures.
Many users were questioning the ability of
this material to handle the operating stress of
process piping.
One of the major producers of resins began a
study in an attempt to understand the cause of
these frequent failures. They discovered that
95% of all failures were tensile failures in the
axial direction of the pipe and were the result of
axial thrust or bending. Also of interest, 95% of
these failures occurred at pipe joints. This study
led engineers to believe that by restraining the
pipe in the axial direction and by guiding the
pipe to reduce bending, the failures could be
eliminated. Support spans were reduced to
compensate for pressure stress, which adds to
the bending stresses. Almost all span calcula-
tions had been based on simple bending stress
instead of total stress resulting in extremely
long support spans. The most important find-
ing from this study was that FRP piping could
be successfully used when careful analysis
of support, guide, and anchor placement is
considered.
The responsibility of the engineer is to insure
that the piping system operates within allow-
able stresses when the system is subjected to the
most severe operating conditions. The allow-
able stress is usually 0.100 times the ultimate
strength for hoop stress and 0.050 times the
ultimate strength in the axial direction. The
major difference between the design of a piping
system and a tank is that the tank is one finite
structure with easily defined boundariesÐa
piping system is a complex three-dimensional
frame that has three degrees of freedom. An
engineer usually performs the stress analysis,
however, the layout of the FRP piping system is
best left to an experienced piping designer. This
person learned the art of piping by years of
painful experience with very little help from
textbooks or handbooks.
If the designer does his job well, the layout
will consider expansion, support locations, ac-
cess to equipment and control stations, and will
provide access and clearance for maintenance.
The designer will find that FRP piping is some-
what more complex than metallic piping be-
cause of the lower strength, higher coefficient
of expansion, installation differences, and be-
cause FRP requires positive restraint to keep
stresses within acceptable boundaries. A well
planned routing will allow the engineer to ana-
lyze the system and with adequate support
provisions, the system stresses can be
controlled.
Before laying out the system the designer and
engineer are referred to several technical papers
that address important considerations for suc-
cessful design (Escher, 1979; Britt, 1979, 1983).
Britt (1979, 1983) provides a simplified method
of analysis for FRP pipe that is presented in this
chapter. There are several formal stress pro-
grams that are designed for PCs that have
been used by experienced engineers but with a
great deal of caution since the programs were
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP 9

Table 1 Pipe physical properties comparsion.

Filament Centrifugally Hand lay-up Low carbon

wounda castb (contacted molded) steel

Modulus of elasticity 1.0±2.7 6 106 1.3±1.5 6 106 0.8±1.8 6 106 3.5±4.0 6 105 29 6 106
in tension axial
(77 8F psi)
Ultimate axial tensile 8000±10 000 25 000 9000±18 000 6000±7000 50 000±70 000
strength (77 8F psi)
Ultimate hoop tensile 24 000±50 000 25 000 9000±10 000 6000±7000 50 000±70 000
strength (77 8F psi)
Modulus of elasticity 1±2 6 106 1.3±1.5 6 106 1.0±1.2 6 106 3.5 6 105 29 6 106
in beam flexure
(77 8F psi)
Thermal expansion 8.5±12.7 6 1076 13 6 1076 15 6 1076 3.0 6 1075 6.0 6 1076
(in. /in/8 F)
Heat deflection 200±300 200±300 200±250 155±165 N/A
temperature
(264 psi 8 F)c
Thermal conductivity 1.3±2.0 0.9 1.5 1.0±1.4 300±350
BTU/h/ft2 8 F/in)
Specific gravity 1.8±1.9 1.58 1.3±1.7 1.3±1.6 7.85

Source: Escher (1979). For exact values contact pipe manufacturer.

a
Values shown for filament -wound pipe are based on pipe wound at an angle of approximately 548 bAs published by a leading manufacturer of
centrifugally cast pipe.cASTM D 648.

not primarily designed to handle the unique cage. The accepted angle of wind is 54 + 18
properties of nonisotropic materials such as measured from the axis of the pipe. The wind
FRP. angle was mathematically derived to balance
the axial and hoop stress.

6.31.3.2.2 Laminate design

(i) Hand lay-up
NBS PS 15-69 (1969) provides a description
of the hand lay-up pipe. The laminate begins
with a corrosion liner consisting of a resin-rich
layer that is reinforced with a ªCº veil and two
1.5 oz./ft2 ªEº glass mat layers. The structural
wall consists of alternate layers of 24 oz./yd2
ªEº glass woven roving and mat. The method
of construction provides a resin-rich laminate
that is ideal for corrosion service.
(ii) Filament wound
ASTM D 2996 describes the process for fila-
ment-wound pipe. This type of pipe offers an
economical method of manufacture and pro-
vides exceptional hoop strength. The corrosion
liner is applied by hand lay-up on a rotating
mandrel in exactly the same way as the hand
laid-up pipe. The standard liner is the same
glass material and thickness. Once the liner
has gelled a pretensioned glass roving is
wound over the pipe to form a structural
(iii) Centrifugally cast
The manufacture of this pipe is described in
ASTM D2997. Glass fiber is in the form of mat,
woven roving, or chopped strand. The amount
of glass is determined by the desired wall thick-
ness. The glass is inserted into a mold which is a
tube with the required inside diameter and the
tube is rotated at high speeds. Centrifugal force
presses the glass against the wall of the spinning
tube and as the resin is injected it is also forced
to the wall, fully wetting the glass. This process
produces a laminate that is completely free of
air and results in a smooth, resin-rich inner
layer for corrosion resistance. This method
produces a very uniform pipe with excellent
mechanical properties (see Table 1).
6.31.3.2.3 Piping design
The following steps concerning the design
and installation of FRP pipe and supports are
provided as a help to the designer or engineer.
These design steps are intended to serve as a
guide to the proper use of the supports, and
10 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
while it is impossible to cover every piping
condition, experience indicates that approxi-
mately 95% of the design requirements can be
met through the use of these procedures. If the
designer is faced with special conditions where a
special design might be required, he/she should
contact the engineer for assistance.
(i) Review piping specifications.
(ii) Review piping drawings.
(iii) Review structural drawings.
(iv) Review valve and fitting specifications.
(v) Locate possible hanger locations.
(vi) Analyze thermal movement, stress, and
flexibility of the piping system.
(vii) Calculate hanger loads.
(viii) Select hanger types.
(ix) Check piping and hanger clearance
around existing piping structure and equip-
ment.
The principles of design and analysis for FRP
pipe differ considerably from the principles of
design for metallic pipe. The analysis of steel
pipe normally begins with maximum flexibility
and the final support-guide-anchor design ends
when allowables are achieved. When dealing
with FRP pipe, the analysis normally begins
with a fully anchored system and the final sup-
port-guide-anchor configuration is established
when the minimum stress condition is reached
(based on the available structural steel).
The fully anchored FRP piping system is
often referred to as an anchor to anchor system.
This simply means that an anchor is placed at
each end of a straight run of piping. The pipe is
restrained from growing thermally by the an-
chors and is guided to prevent buckling. This
arrangement is never considered with metallic
pipe but the low compressive modulus of FRP
allows anchoring. The anchor loads are nor-
mally less than 1/60th that of steel but must be
considered in the structural design of the sup-
port system, especially in large-diameter pipe.
6.31.3.2.4 Mechanical properties
After the selection of a resin system, determi-
nation of the type of pipe must be made. There
are three major categories of FRP pipe con-
struction: (i) contact molded, (ii) filament
wound, and (iii) centrifugally cast. The mechan-
ical properties of the pipe are closely linked to
the method of fabrication and those properties
vary considerably among the three types.
Despite conjecture as to the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of pipe construc-
tion, it has been found that any of the three can
be utilized if the pipe is of high quality and if the
system has been properly designed and sup-
ported. The specific mechanical properties of
the pipe selected are incorporated into the de-
sign of the system. This includes the location
and type of support. The mechanical properties
inherent to the method of pipe fabrication are
discussed in Section 6.31.3.2.12.
The most important factor in the design of a
piping system is the determination of the me-
chanical properties of the pipe over the opera-
tional temperature range of the system. The
catalogs for many pipe manufacturers list the
range of properties for various laminates, but
very few provide performance data at elevated
temperatures. The equation, which is used to
determine the design aspects of any structural
system, utilizes factors for the mechanical prop-
erties under the expected design conditions,
including temperature. Without this informa-
tion, the designer is severely handicapped.
Many piping catalogs include tables that the
designer can use to determine support, guide,
and hanger spacing. The spacings are usually
based on a specific gravity of 1.2, a liquid
temperature of 160 or 180 8F, and a limited
deflection of 1/2º. This information is useful
for estimating but in most instances the spa-
cings are not based on total pipe stress. Very
seldom is pressure stress considered in the deri-
vation of these tables. In FRP piping systems it
is very important that the total stress be con-
sidered when selecting support spans. By using
the equations presented in Section 6.31.3.2.6,
the designer can accurately define support and
guide spacings and be assured that the pipe is
designed to operate within the specified allow-
able stress.
The use of the procedures outlined in this
section will greatly improve the reliability and
service life of any FRP piping system. The same
procedures will work equally well with duct
systems. As these procedures were being devel-
oped it became evident that there were no
commercially available standard supports for
FRP piping. Many different designs were illu-
strated in many of the catalogs but a review of
the designs indicated that additional work
would be needed to make them acceptable for
FRP piping and ducting. A family of special
FRP pipe support designs is illustrated in Fig-
ure 13. This family of supports has been used in
almost every environment and in almost every
condition found in process industries. The ap-
plications need to be carefully checked to insure
that loads are compatible but the basic design
can be extended to include pipe diameters up to
120º.
When specifying the supports, the designer
will become familiar with the unique features
that are important to the design of an FRP
system. The long support with a fully bonded
liner eliminates failures due to local stresses.
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
Figure 3 Tensile modulus, E1, vs. temperature
(8F).
The low profile of supports keeps the pipe close
to the structural steel, thus reducing the size and
amount of auxiliary steel. Selecting standards
greatly reduces design time and the standardi-
zation of supports reduces manufacturing
costs. Interchangeability and standardization
reduces or eliminates field rework, thereby re-
ducing construction costs. Each support should
be clearly marked to identify type and location.
Duct systems can be supported using these
same basic designs, however, since duct systems
very seldom have fluid loads, the supports can
be much lighter.
Figure 3 shows the change in modulus at
elevated temperatures for two filament-wound
polyester pipes. This type of data is required in
system analysis if the design is to be sound.
6.31.3.2.5 Comparisons
The following sections compare and contrast
the design features and advantages of the three
types of FRP pipe.
(i) Contact molded
The high resin to glass fiber ratio of this pipe
makes it ideal for highly corrosive fluids. In
order to meet the strength requirements in the
hoop direction, it usually has a thicker wall
than the other types of pipe. For this reason,
it is heavier. Also, since it is virtually hand-
made, it is more expensive. Strength in the
axial direction is higher than filament wound
pipe. Because the pipe is hand-made, it is sub-
ject to wider manufacturing tolerances than
other types of pipe. This is especially important
11
to the support designer who is responsible for
the designed fit of supports. Contact molded
pipe is highly recommended for use where it
might be subject to a severe exterior environ-
ment. Fittings are normally joined to the pipe
using the butt and strap method.
(ii) Filament wound
A high glass content and precise fiber orien-
tation make this type of pipe ideal for pressure
applications. Machines are used more in its
fabrication so the tolerances are closer, the
mechanical properties more consistent, and
the production cost is lower than for contact
molded pipe. Due to the low resin to glass fiber
ratio, a corrosion liner of a minimum 100 mils
should be provided. Since the axial strength of
filament wound pipe is less than that for con-
tact molded pipe, at the same pressure rating,
the filament wound pipe will require a much
closer support spacing. This is due to the thin-
ner wall common with filament wound pipe.
The preferred method of joining fittings and
pipe is the butt and strap method, although
several manufacturers provide tapered bell
and spigot ends for joining pipe and fittings.
The bell and spigot joint is an adhesive joint
that is dependent on the glue line between the
bell and spigot.
(iii) Centrifugally cast
This type of pipe is almost fully machine
made and it provides the most consistent me-
chanical properties and the closest tolerances. It
has a lower glass fiber content than filament
wound pipe and features higher corrosion re-
sistance. The smooth outside diameter also fa-
cilitates a more consistent support design. Cast
pipe, due to fiber orientation and higher glass
content, has a higher axial strength than either
the filament wound or contact molded pipe.
Cast pipe has an unreinforced corrosion liner,
which is susceptible to damage by impact, but if
the pipe is properly handled and supported, it
should pose no problems. Fittings are normally
of the socket weld type that can be over-
wrapped if added joint security is desired. How-
ever, with correct installation procedures and
inspection, the overwrap is generally considered
unnecessary.
6.31.3.2.6 Design approach
Contact molded FRP pipe, made according
to PS 15-69 (1969), is normally rated by pres-
sure in increments of 25 psi up to 150 psi. Stan-
12 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
Figure 4 Anchor loads.
dard machine made pipe does not follow this
type of rating and the designers should refer to
the ultimate pressure rating listed in the manu-
facturer's catalog. It is important to note that
these ratings are based on the allowable pressure
of a continuously supported pipe subject to pres-
sure stress only. Since piping systems are almost
never continuously supported, the stresses of
bending must be considered when determining
the allowable working pressure of an FRP pipe.
The equations presented in Section 6.31.3.3
take these stresses into account.
Wall thickness is based on a 10:1 safety factor
in the hoop direction and it is customary to use
a 5:1 or 6:1 safely factor in the axial direction.
By maintaining these safety factors in the de-
sign, stress risers in elbows and other fittings
will be within the allowable stress limit.
The method of design layout preferred by
many engineering firms is an anchor to anchor
design. This design method can be economical
and offers many advantages. The anchor to
anchor system is more rigid and less susceptible
to damage due to dynamic loading. This system
also provides a means for controlling expansion
(thermal and pressure), thereby reducing the
length of offsets and eliminating the need for
expansion joints. Anchors are placed on either
side of every change in pipe direction and as
near to the fitting as possible. The amount of
structural steel required to absorb the loads
imposed on the anchors (see Figure 4) can be
minimized by keeping the pipe elevation close
to the steel and by utilizing tension members
between anchors. It is important to recognize
that the pipe must be guided between anchors
to prevent buckling. In cases where there are
long straight runs, anchors should be placed no
more than 150±200 feet apart.
In many cases where the anchor to anchor
design is not used, the pipe is often simply hung
with rod hangers (see Figures 5±7). This is an
example of a highly flexible piping system.
Expansion is uncontrolled and dynamic forces
can cause very large movements of the pipe
system. This design will work where the operat-
ing temperature is near ambient temperature
and fluid velocities are very low. However,
even mild fluid dynamic forces can destroy a
pumped system that is installed in this manner.
Vibrations induced by the pump can damage
sections of the system where frequencies are
within the resonant range. Wind loads can
also induce damaging stresses. To reduce vibra-
tion and wind load effects, the pipe should be
laterally restrained at specified intervals along
the pipe. These restraints should not be located
near changes in direction where offset legs are
required for flexibility.
Many piping system failures that occur
during hydrotesting, or even after years of ser-
vice, have been attributed to poor workman-
Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP 13

Figure 5 Support spans.

Figure 6 Offsets.
14 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
Figure 7 Guide spacing.
ship. In reality, failures are caused by overstress
and this could be due to poor workmanship
and/or unsatisfactory design. The task of the
designer is to eliminate, as much as possible, the
likelihood of failure. With sufficient effort
spent on the design and in the instruction of
installation personnel, failures can be effecre-
duced.
The design techniques presented here have
helped to standardize a conservative design
approach. Beyond this, a great deal of work is
necessary to standardize installation techni-
ques, especially the methods for fabricating
joints.
In an effort to reduce the possibility of fail-
ure, the designer should seriously consider the
following:
(i) Keep the pipe run away from high traffic
areas where damage from equipment impact is
likely.
(ii) Keep flange joints to a minimum.
Flanges are expensive components and sources
of leaks.
(iii) Provide vents at each high point to allow
air to be removed from the system prior to
testing and system start up.
(iv) Provide drains at each low point or
pocket. Drains with blind flanges will allow
the line to be drained if repairs are necessary.
(v) Ensure that all supports, anchors, and
guides are installed prior to the hydrotest.
This cannot be overemphasized since the pipe
system can be severely damaged without proper
pipe support.
(vi) All valves and valve operators or com-
ponents in the system must be independently
supported.
(vii) Valves that require high torque to open
and close should be anchored so that the high
torque does not damage the pipe.
(viii) Riser supports for vertical runs should
be guided or laterally restrained to reduce
vibration and effects of wind load.
6.31.3.2.7 Hydrostatic testing
When filling the system for hydrostatic test-
ing, all high point vents should be opened to
allow air to be vented. Fill the system at the
lowest point and connect a small, positive dis-
placement pump with a maximum flow rate of
3±5 gpm. The pump should be equipped with a
pressure regulator and bypass that will allow
the system pressure to build slowly.
Hold pressure at 25, 50, 75, 100, and 120% of
the design pressure. The hold time at each level
should allow sufficient time for checking for
leaks. Any leaking flanges will require retor-
quing of bolts. Bleed off all pressure before
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
retorquing. Increase torque to 110% of initial
recommended value and retest the system. If
the flanges continue to leak, bleed of pressure
and increase torque to 120%. If the flanges
continue to leak, drain the system and inspect
the flange faces and examine the gasket for
damage. Never retorque bolts when the system
is under pressure.
6.31.3.2.8 Economic considerations
With material prices and the cost of labor
rising frequently, a cost comparison between an
FRP system and any other corrosion resistant
materials is difficult. FRP is normally selected
because of its corrosion resistance, however,
one important point that should be made con-
cerning any comparison is that the total in-
stalled cost be considered. Many studies do
not include data on the support system required
for FRP pipe. This is because most analysis
procedures tend to regard all piping systems
as being supported in the same manner and at
the same relative cost. In addition, the cost of
auxiliary steel, and the labor necessary to install
that steel, should be evaluated.
The service life of each system is an impor-
tant factor and should be included in the eva-
luation if sufficient historical data can be
obtained. Many designers would probably
elect to use materials other than FRP when
the installed price of the two systems is rela-
tively close, but the extended service life of FRP
systems will usually be more favorable. Gener-
ally, experience has indicated that FRP systems
are more economical than other systems in pipe
sizes above 4º where special metallic materials
are considered.
6.31.3.2.9 Applicable codes and standards
There are very few codes or standards applic-
able to the design of FRP piping systems. The
designer should be familiar with the American
National Standard Code for Pressure Piping
(ANSI) B31.3; although it deals mainly with
metallic pipe it has been expanded to cover
nonmetallics including thermoplastic and ther-
moset materials. The only other standard that
could prove useful for design purposes is the
NBS Voluntary Product Standard PS 15-69
(1969), which covers custom contact molded
FRP equipment. This document is no longer
published by NBS but copies can be obtained
through some of the resin and glass manufac-
turers. The tables for pipe included in this
standard should be used with care.
The American Society for Testing and Ma-
terials (ASTM) has published standards for
15
Plastic Pipe and Building Products, Section 8,
Volume 08.04 (1993). This document is a com-
pilation of test procedures and methods for
establishing material and mechanical properties
for plastics used in piping.
A number of codes and standards are being
developed to promote standardization of the
product, but they are not available at this
time. One excellent guide that is available is a
book by Mallinson (1988). Another book that
provides good overall coverage of the use of
FRP is by N.P. Cheremisinoff and P.N. Cher-
emisinoff (1978).
The Composites Institute of the Society of
Plastics Industry published a Fiberglass Pipe
Handbook in 1989 that is a document written
by the Fiberglass Pipe Institute, New York.
The handbook is a compilation of technical
sections covering above and below ground
piping systems and while it is an excellent
reference for piping design, the methods of
analysis and design of supports presented in
this book are not the same as recommended in
this section. Expansion joints and expansion
loops are very rarely used in practice and the
supports recommended in the handbook
should not be used except in very light duty
service.
6.31.3.2.10 Layout and design of piping
systems
The preliminary piping layout for FRP pip-
ing is the same as for any other system
(Figure 8). Once a general piping arrangement
has been selected, an isometric of the system
should be made and the following steps taken.
(i) Locate available support steel and estab-
lish the location of additional support steel as
required. Existing bridges, pipe racks, and
building structural steel will establish the avail-
able support spacing.
(ii) Locate anchors at each change in pipe
direction and as close as possible to elbows.
(iii) Locate riser supports and component
supports. Riser supports can be tentatively
located on 10-foot centers until calculations
are made.
(iv) Establish support design criteria and
pipe wall thickness required using the equations
in Figures 3±7 factoring the operating tempera-
ture and pressure of the system. An iterative
process is employed to obtain wall thickness
and to define acceptable support spans.
(v) Tabulate support design criteria shown
in Table 2 and rearrange support spacing and
anchor locations on the isometric to meet
design criteria. Add guides at locations deter-
mined in the table.
16 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment

(vi) Check offset leg requirements between
anchors at directional changes. Relocate
anchors as required to meet offset require-
ments.
(vii) Rearrange riser support locations. The
distance between centers should not exceed the
guide spacing. In areas where offset leg require-
ments cannot be met, consideration should be
given to rerouting the pipe to provide more
flexibility.
6.31.3.2.11 Vibration, water hammer, and
cavitation
(i) Vibration
Pump or equipment vibrations are usually
absorbed by an FRP piping system with little
effect; however, it is an accepted practice by
some engineers to use an expansion joint at the
pump discharge. If the piping cannot be an-
chored the expansion joint must be restrained
with tie rods. The use of an expansion joint may
allow thrust loads to be imposed on the pump
and care must be exercised to insure that the
pump is capable of handling the thrust loads
and/or thermal loads that are developed by the
piping system.
It is sometimes possible to have segments of a
piping system that are subjected to vibrations
that result in large deflections of the piping.
This usually occurs when segments are not
supported or guided. Severe damage can
occur during start up or shut down if the pipe
is subjected to frequencies at or near the natural
frequency of the pipe. The natural frequencies
of several pipe sizes are shown as a function of
support span in Figure 9. The forcing frequen-
cies generated by a pump are normally much
higher than the natural frequencies of the pipe

Figure 8 Typical pipe run (after Britt and Britt, 1993).

Table 2 Sample calculations

Wall Support Offset Guide

Nominal thickness span leg spacing Anchor load
pipe size (in.) (Max.) (Min.) (Min.) (Max.)
p
4 0.202 8.3 0.47p
L 11.5 3500
6 0.202 9.6 0.64pL  16.7 5200
10 0.250 12.3 0.82pL  28.0 9842
12 0.265 13.1 0.90 L 33.7 12250
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
Figure 9 Natural frequency vs. support span (after
Britt and Clark, 1996).
but transient frequencies during start and stop
can produce high deflections and high stresses.
Figure 9 can be used to approximate the
required spacing to insure that dynamic condi-
tions cannot damage the pipe.
(ii) Water hammer
Water hammer in a piping system is caused
by high-energy fluid transients and is easily
identified by the sound that can be compared
to the sound of a series of hammer blows to the
pipe (see Figure 10). The magnitude of the
transient is a function of the fluid properties,
change in velocity, and modulus of elasticity of
Figure 10 The build up of shock waves by quickly closing a valve at the end of a line.
17
the pipe. The transient condition results in a
pressure wave that can produce a shock that
may exceed five times the normal system pres-
sure (see Figure 10).
(a) Calculation of pressure rise. Consider
a fluid flowing frictionless in a rigid pipe of
uniform area A with a velocity V. The pipe
has a length L, and an inlet pressure p1 and a
pressure at the outlet of p2 at L. At length L,
there is a valve which can suddenly reduce the
velocity at L to V±DV. The equivalent mass
rate of flow of a pressure wave traveling at
sonic velocity c, M = rAc. From the impulse-
momentum equation, M(V2 7 V1) = p2Ap1A1;
for this application (rAc)(V 7 DV 7 V) =
p2A 7 p1A, or the increase in pressure
Dp = 7rcV. When the fluid is flowing in an
elastic pipe, such as in an FRP pipe, the equa-
tion must be modified to account for the ex-
pansion of the pipe; thus
s
Es
cˆ …1†
P‰1 ‡ …Es =Ep †…Do ‡ Di †=…Do ÿ Di †Š
where r = mass density of the fluid, Es is
the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid, Ep
is the axial modulus of elasticity of the pipe, Do
is the outside diameter of the pipe, and Di is
the the inside diameter of the pipe.
In many cases the piping system can be sub-
jected to large movements which can cause
severe overstress. The cause of the hammer is
a very rapid change in fluid velocity as a result
of a quick closing valve or a rapid start or shut
down of a pump. The best way to reduce the
shock due to valve opening is to slow the open-
ing and closure of the valve. Air or hydraulic
actuated valves can be programmed to open
more slowly by restricting the actuation pres-
sure. A needle valve installed in either the inlet
or outlet side of the actuator provides a simple
18 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
Figure 11 Cross-sectional view of a gas filled
pulsation dampener.
way to reduce operating speeds. Experience has
indicated that by restricting the opening and
closing to approximately 10±20 s, most pressure
surges can be eliminated.
(b) Time of closure. These calculations
will provide the engineer with an approxima-
tion of the severity of the pressure wave and the
closure time for the valve can be established to
attenuate or eliminate the shock. The time for a
pressure wave to travel the length of a pipe L
and return is t = 2L/c. If the time of closure tc is
equal to or less than t, the approximate pressure
rise
p = 72rV(L/t c) (2)
Typical values for fluid and material properties
are r = 1.937 lb-s2/ft4 for water, Es = 319 000
lb/in2, Ep = 1.0 6 106 lb/in2 axial modulus for
FRP pipe; and c = 4860 ft/s.
When the system shocks cannot be controlled
or eliminated by slowing the valve closure,
other means of attenuation must be employed.
Air chambers, surge tanks, expansion joints,
and standpipes are a few of such devices that
have been used for this purpose. These are
expensive and have disadvantages such as
limited life, excessive maintenance, or they
Figure 12 Pulsation damper
may not cover the full range of pressures.
Each of these devices requires special engineer-
ing and should be carefully reviewed by the
manufacturer of the device. Many piping sys-
tems carry process fluids containing solids or
may be corrosive. The operation of the device
must not be affected by a build up of solids or
corrosion. Two typical devices are illustrated in
Figures 11 and 12.
The pump start up can be a problem, espe-
cially if the line is empty when the pump starts.
A full line is important and if the discharge
valve is properly timed there is usually very
little shock. The main problem occurs when
there is a power failure resulting in a quick
rundown of the pump. This can cause a vacuum
to be formed in the pipe and can result in a
phenomenon called water column separation.
This occurs in long lines where the momentum
of the fluid column causes a vacuum to be
formed at the pump discharge or at a point
just downstream of the pump. As the fluid
column slows and stops there is a reversal of
flow and when the two columns collide at the
point of separation there is a large pressure rise
at the point of collision. Whenever this condi-
tion occurs, normal water hammer solutions
are no longer valid. Whenever possible, water
column separation should be avoided because
of the potentially high-pressure rises and the
vacuum conditions which can cause pipe fail-
ure. Water column separation presents a very
difficult problem for analysis. One method of
solving this problem is presented in a paper by
Kephart and Davis (1961).
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
Water hammer can be a serious enemy of
FRP piping systems but a properly supported
and anchored piping system can safely handle
all but the most severe shock conditions. If
continual shock problems persist, the source
and cause of the hammer should be determined
and corrected.
(i) Cavitation
This is caused by a restriction in the line, such
as a control valve, that causes a drop in local
pressure due to high flow velocities through the
restriction. Cavitation will eventually erode the
corrosion barrier and in time, damage the struc-
tural wall of the pipe. The effects of cavitation
are usually limited to a short section of pipe just
downstream of the restriction and can be de-
tected by a noise that sounds like gravel being
pumped through the line. Gate valves have
much better flow characteristics than butterfly
valves and should be used whenever possible. A
very popular and successful solution to cavi-
tation can be achieved by continuously intro-
ducing a small continuous flow of air into the
piping system just upstream of the valve or con-
striction. Large diameter systems may require
air injection at several points around the pipe.
Cavitation usually occurs when a small valve
is used to control flow in a line size that is 2±3
times the size of the valve size. The small valve
is selected because of cost or because the con-
trol range is narrow and the smaller valve is
easier to control. Some engineers have installed
two valves in series with a short spool between
the valves to reduce the local drop across each
valve. This is an expensive solution but will
work when the process will not allow air to be
bled into the system.
6.31.3.2.12 General
The design approach presented in this section
has been successfully used for over 20 years and
will provide the engineer and designer with
analytical tools and procedures that will insure
a successful piping system if reasonable care
and control is exercised when the pipe is in-
stalled. The supports, guides, and anchors that
are illustrated have been designed to match the
analysis and support requirements for FRP
pipe and will provide maximum service life for
any FRP system. The designer is again cau-
tioned to specify the finish and/or coating for
the support to prevent or reduce corrosion of
the supports. Standard finishes for most condi-
tions are either epoxy primer or hot dip galva-
nize. Special coatings must be specified for
extreme corrosion conditions and suppliers of
19
these materials should be consulted for recom-
mendations and specifications.
There is a wide selection of materials, meth-
ods of manufacture, pipe grades, and ratings
available to the engineer when specifying FRP
pipe. Generally the hand lay-up pipe is specified
for extreme conditions, especially where exter-
nal corrosion might be expected. While this
pipe has a lower hoop strength, the higher
axial strength provides better beam strength.
The method of fabrication allows this type of
pipe to act more like an isotropic composite.
When the designer is considering the use of
the more economical filament wound pipe he/
she should consult the manufacturer's catalog
data for mechanical properties. It is often as-
sumed that the axial strength of the filament
wound pipe is the same as the hoop strength;
this is a dangerous assumption. The axial
strength of this pipe varies between 9000 and
11 000 psi. It is common practice to use 9000 psi
for all calculations.
The cast pipe offers some unique mechanical
properties due to the nature of construction.
Hoop and axial strengths are as high as
25 000 psi providing excellent mechanical prop-
erties for maintaining longer spans.
Selecting the method of joining pipe sections
and fittings is an important consideration for
the designer and while joint strength is a critical
issue, the joint quality will always dictate the
success of the piping system. There are three
basic methods being used today, not counting
the bolted flanged connection, which must be
considered. The most widely accepted method
is the butt and strap joint. In its simplest form,
two pipe ends are butted together and over-
wapped around the outer circumference of the
pipe. This has been called the workhorse of all
connections and is the easiest to fabricate and
inspect for quality. The outer wrap shrinks as it
cures and provides a strong mechanical bond.
Each step of the lay-up is performed in open
view and any discrepancies are easily detected
and corrected before the joint is complete.
Some pipe, especially the commodity type, is
normally joined by means of a bell and spigot
joint. The spigot end of the pipe is coated with
an adhesive and inserted into the bell. Some-
times the bell and spigot is tapered rather than
straight. Both of these joints are satisfactory
when assembled by a skilled craftsman. Apply-
ing an even and smooth coating of adhesive is
important as well as insuring that the spigot is
inserted completely into the bell. Keeping the
pipe rigid as the adhesive cures is critical as any
movement can ruin the joint. The tapered joint
adds a bit more difficulty and does not seem to
offer any great structural advantage over the
straight bell and spigot. After the joint has been
20 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment
completed there is no way to determine if the
joint was properly made. The proof of the joint
is not determined until the entire system is
pressurized. Repairing discrepant joints at this
point is very expensive.
In most critical process systems it is wise to
select an engineered (custom) pipe and to use
the Butt and Strap joint for most connections.
Flanges should be kept to a minimum.
The most important factor in insuring a rea-
sonable service life is the consideration of a
well-designed support system. The designer
can contribute to the success by routing the
pipe through areas where access to structure is
available for supporting the pipe. Many systems
are compromised when the designer attempts to
shorten the routing by using diagonal routes to
save a few feet of pipe. The 45-degree fittings
with diagonal runs are difficult to analyze and
pose awkward support problems. The engineer
and the designer need to work closely together
during the preliminary pipe design in order to
reduce support and structural costs.
Maintenance is a matter of paramount im-
portance when designing the system. Keep
clearances between pipes and between struc-
tures large enough to make joint repairs.
Make sure that FRP pipe is never allowed to
rub or contact sharp edges during operation.
Abrasion and impact damage can drastically
shorten the life.
With all of the advantages that FRP can offer
in handling corrosive fluids, it is easy to see why
the designer and engineer might prefer these
materials, and when the principles of design
are carefully followed there is no other cost-
effective competitor. But when the wrong resin
or type of construction is selected, or when the
designer neglects to properly design the re-
quired supports, these materials can pose ser-
ious problems and cause the owner doubts as to
whether there is a real advantage. The design
principles in this section were developed for
FRP pipe and have proven that failures can
be virtually eliminated when put into practice.
6.31.3.3 Approaches for Design of Supports
The designer should review the following de-
sign considerations to insure that all supports
are correctly used. If there are any deviations
from these standard practices and designs, the
designer should contact the engineer (Britt and
Britt, 1993).
6.31.3.3.1 Fitup of support
The designer must specify the maximum out-
side diameter (OD) of the FRP pipe to insure
proper support fit. Pipe specifications normally
require the pipe manufacturer to maintain a
tolerance +1/8º, 70.0º on the OD and the
manufacturer is required to state the maximum
OD in the quotation. The support will be man-
ufactured to fit within 1/16º of the maximum
OD.
6.31.3.3.2 Location of supports
When supporting pipe inside a building, the
building steel will provide the easiest support
points. If the support spacing is based on the
spacing of the structural steel, and is found to
exceed the calculated support spacing, use a
slightly (1/16º) thicker pipe wall and re-run
spacing calculations. Continue adding wall
thickness until the required span is reached or
until the added wall thickness starts to decrease
the span capability. If the pipe will not meet the
span then intermediate supports, requiring the
addition of auxiliary steel, are required. Of
course a comparison of the increased pipe cost
vs. the cost of auxiliary steel will allow the
designer to decide whether a heavier pipe will
offer advantages.
6.31.3.3.3 Location of guides
Guides serve as supports and also provide
lateral restraint to prevent buckling of the
pipe due to forced generated by thermal expan-
sion. Small diameter piping will require more
frequent guiding and in some cases the use of
guides may be required at every support point.
Large piping may require every other support
point to be a guide. Calculations should be
made to determine exact requirements.
6.31.3.3.4 Location of anchors
Anchors can be located at each change of
direction in many applications and allow the
system to operate at the lowest possible stress.
This increases service life and greatly reduces
the susceptibility of failure due to dynamics. In
some cases it may not be possible to fully
anchor portions of the system due to structural
limitations. When this occurs, the amount of
offset must be determined through the use of
the offset equation shown in Figure 6.
6.31.3.3.5 Fixing of anchors
FRP anchors are designed to lightly grip the
pipe and are never to be allowed to clamp the
pipe with any excessive force. The anchor is
fixed to the pipe by applying shear collars or
 Design of Corrosion Resistant FRP
FRP bands to the pipe on either side of the
anchor. Except for very unusual cases the col-
lars are applied in the field after the anchor has
been installed. The collars are built up of layers
of 1.5 oz. mat to a thickness that allows the
anchor to bear against the collar (see
Figure 13.21).
6.31.3.3.6 Riser supports
Vertical runs of pipe inside a building are
normally supported on floor sleeves or off of
curbs surrounding a pipe chase through the
floor. Riser supports or riser guides when re-
quired are fixed to the pipe using the same shear
collars used with anchors, however, the collar
need only be applied to the top side of the
support so that the weight of the riser can be
carried by the riser support. The rule for riser
guide spacing is the same as other guides unless
the pipe is subjected to wind loads where more
frequent guiding is required. It is important to
note that loads for riser supports can be very
high, especially in large diameter pipe. Loads in
excess of support ratings will require special
designs and should be brought to the attention
of the engineer.
6.31.3.3.7 Supports for insulated pipe
Special supports are used to accommodate
up to 4º of insulation. In all except very special
cases the supports, anchors, and guides are
attached to the pipe and are not designed to
clamp or support the outside of the insulation.
When heat tracing is required the tracing passes
outside of the support. Please note that if heat
tracing is required, contact an engineer for
special details and designs.
6.31.3.3.8 Component supports
It is very important that all valves and inline
components be supported independently of the
pipe. In some instances it is necessary to anchor
the component where heavy actuators are
cantilevered off of the valve or component or
where external loads or dynamics might da-
mage the pipe. Components in vertical and
horizontal pipe runs require support although
components in vertical runs may not require
independent support of each component.
6.31.3.3.9 Thermal expansion
The thermal expansion of FRP is 2±3 times
that of steel and requires special attention espe-
cially where a fully anchored system is not used.
21
Expansion joints and expansion loops are
sometimes specified but these add a weakness
to the system. Expansion loops in addition to
adding extra piping will add as many as four
fittings and at least eight more joints. Each joint
is an additional point of weakness. If lack of
structural restraint presents a problem where
anchor loads might preclude the use of the
anchored system, there are several other design
methods that can be employed, but in most
cases the anchored system can be incorporated.
The descriptions of the other design methods
are beyond the scope of this chapter because
these are special cases.
6.31.3.3.10 Coatings
The standard coating for most support ap-
plications is either a high-quality prime coat
that is applied by spray coating, or hot dip
galvanizing. Paint systems must comply with
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regu-
lations regarding volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and hazardous materials. It is very
important that the designer select a corrosion
resistant coating that will withstand the envir-
onmental conditions in the area where the pipe
supports are to be installed. If special high
performance coatings are required these should
be specified in the purchase documents.
6.31.3.4 Support Illustrations
The following illustrations from Britt (1983)
present a variety of supports that have been
successfully used in conjunction with the design
procedures and practices that have been pre-
sented in this section. These support designs
cover almost any requirement needed in the
design of an FRP piping system and can be
adapted to duct systems by simply making a
few design alterations to accommodate the
lighter loads imposed by ducting.
Caution is again raised to insure the support
hardware is protected by the proper coating or
by galvanizing. The supports shown are pro-
duced with a low Durometer rubber liner
bonded to the inside of the support to protect
the pipe surface. Roundness and concentricity
are key elements of the support specification
and the support diameter should closely match
the unique diameter of the FRP pipe. Low
clamping forces must be used so that local stress
does not crush the pipe. Clamping forces should
never be used to restrain the pipe. Piping and
dynamic forces are transferred to the anchor or
riser support by means of a field applied shear
collar. Shear collars are illustrated in Figure 13.
22 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment

Figure 13 Support illustrations (after Britt and Britt, 1993)

6.31.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS AND
FUTURE PROJECTIONS
The fiberglass industry was born in the early
1950s as an alternate material competing with
coated steel, stainless steel, and other specialty
alloys. FRP began to make inroads into the
automotive industry when FRP bodies were
introduced at about the same time. Plastics
today are used in almost every product we
buy and use.
This chapter has addressed the use of FRP in
industrial applications where the acceptance
has been much slower. The slow development
of standards and codes for this unique material
has been a major impediment to growth but, in
the 1970s, as corrosion became a primary issue,
many new applications were attempted with a
great deal of success. Failures were not uncom-
mon but as engineering became familiar with
the mechanical properties, design practices
began to evolve and with the publication of
 Concluding Comments and Future Projections
Figure 13
case histories, codes and standards began to be
developed.
Today corrosion problems plague the chemi-
cal process industry, costing this industry more
than $82 billion a year. Studies have indicated
that more than one-half of this cost could be
saved through the use of FRP in plant design.
Corrosion has spurred a rapid growth in the use
of these materials but recent US environmental
legislation, CFR 40, Resource Conservation
and Reclamation Act (RCRA) and EPA man-
23
(continued)
dates for clean air and water will greatly in-
crease the demand for FRP piping, tanks, and
ducting.
In the US a recent market survey (Britt, 1998)
has indicated that the industrial market (pulp
and paper, chemical, and power industries) for
the next five years in just the environmental
applications will exceed $1.6 billion per year.
A great deal of work is underway to develop
new guidelines, specifications, codes, and stan-
dards and as these are put into the hands of the
24 Application of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic to Corrosion Resistant Equipment

Figure 13 (continued)

engineers the growth of the FRP industry will
be based on a solid foundation.
The rising cost of oil presents an economic
deterrent to the growth of the FRP market and
it is having an effect as the cost of this material
approaches or exceeds the cost of such materi-
als as stainless steel, titanium, and special steel
alloys. It is important to improve competitive
difference and this can be achieved by engineer-
ing. Design factors can be reduced as engineers
become more confident of the mechanical prop-
erties of this material. This is being accom-
plished through testing and improved
analytical tools, and will be a factor in reducing
equipment costs. Efficient designs will help fuel
the demand for new applications.
 References
6.31.5 REFERENCES
`API Standard 650 Welded Steel Storage Tanks for Oil
Storage', American Petroleum Institute, Washington,
DC.
ASME RTP- 1, `Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion
Resistant Equipment', The American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, New York, 1993.
ASME B31.3, `Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery
Piping', The American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, New York.
ASTM, `Plastic Pipe and Building Products', American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
vol. 08.04.
ASTM D2996, `Standard Specification for Filament
Wound Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe', Amer-
ican Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
PA.
ASTM D2997, `Standard Specification for Centrifugally
Cast ReinforcedThermosetting Resin Pipe', American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
ASTM D 3299, `Standard Specification for Filament-
Wound Glass-Fiber Reinforced Thermoset Resin Che-
mical-Resistant Tanks', American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
ASTM D 4097, `Standard Specification for Contact-
Molded Glass-Fiber Reinforced Thermoset Resin Che-
mical-Resistant Tanks', American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
F. Britt, in `Business Projections for Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastics, FRP Symposium', Niagara Frontier Section of
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers Inter-
national (NACE), Buffalo, NY, 1998.
F. Britt and C. K. Clark, Basic Requirements for Ship-
ping FRP Equipment, Clark, Ph.D., National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers, Frontier Conference,
Buffalo, NY, 1996.
W. F. Britt, Jr., `Design Consideration for FRP Piping
Systems', Managing Corrosion with Plastics, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1979, vol. IV.
W. F. Britt, Jr., in `Providing Proper Supports for Re-
Copyright # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic,
electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
25
inforced Thermoset and Non-Reinforced Thermoplastic
Process Pipe', The National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Paper No. 92, The International Corrosion
Forum by the National Association of Corrosion En-
gineers, Anaheim, CA, April 1983.
W. F. Britt and W. F. Britt, Jr., `FRP Piping Design
Manual', Britt Engineering Inc., Birmingham, AL,
1993.
N. P. Cheremisinoff and P. N. Cheremisinoff, `Fiberglass
Reinforced Plastics Deskbook', Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, MI, 1978.
G. A. Escher, `Transition to FRP, Basic Guidelines for
Piping Designers and Users', Managing Corrosion with
Plastics, National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston, TX, 1979, vol. 4.
Fiberglass Pipe Institute, Fiberglass Pipe Handbook, The
Composites Institute of the Society of Plastics Industry,
New York, 1989.
J. T. Kephart and K. Davis, Trans. ASME J., 1961,
September, 334±342.
J. Mallinson, `Corrosion-Resistant Plastic Composites in
Chemical Plant Design', Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York, 1988.
Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1996.
E. Megyesy, `Pressure Vessel Handbook', Pressure Vessel
Publishing, Tulsa, OK, 1995.
M. L. Nayyar, `Piping Handbook', 6th edn, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1992.
NBS Voluntary Product Standard PS 15-69, Custom
Contact-Molded Reinforced Polyester Chemical Resis-
tant Process Equipment, 1969.
Pulsation Preventor, Pulse Guard, Inc., PO Box 506,
Hampstead, NC 28 443, USA.
Pump Handbook, 2nd edn., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1995.
J. H. Smith, `Fluid Energy ControlÐSome Causes and
Some Controls of Hydraulic Transients in Piping Sys-
tems, Managing Corrosion with Plastics', National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1979, vol. 4.
Comprehensive Composite Materials
ISBN (set): 0-08 0429939
Volume 6; (ISBN: 0-080437249); pp. 599±623