2 The Objectives Of Structural Design a exeated to serve a definite purpose maybe required to stir uy travel othe tng aod chor sy be buen he iy mpl of tamenon construction ate are rock nd ert ‘cepanding Sern 2.1 conns a trie aru of tome {in mos sport carters of el, contre, and ter, ing of ruc [Finlay rl in ene econ owes td the lou of sna tlle ss desig, is based on the stwurption that ifthe strewes underA ferent sppvoach to sexy i involved in song dg, mate seg dg, plate ig, ag, i at a Tse tere faci have spacal meanings, but the methods of desig he i commen {he mmption tha havo tale or some be behavior theaold ittufiem margin of alex bcween te expected working nde nd he ‘leat Fue loads. He fre snes ot he Tied fare capac ‘Te sractare by necting the wrking ln ah od factor eter than unky aod chen dang Se arucure to cree ta ths Peiced Spy een ne ui the szength dcngn mess Denute owedge of aes nny be to gurante fasta margin of ste) agains fre, nd the pre ‘ison of the fae lon may nt guaran sasatry performance Str working lads The design of pentreedconeete waucers (tert apd spuce recurs te eeples of ch shone In adkion co salety again falar, sucre mst Rave adequste sericea. This mean ht al aspects ofpeformanes mas be cep ‘efor th intended se, Dehection and erckng mort be nied wo ha they are silly islet the lsman. Vibration and oie should be ‘sled. Ligid and consiners must not leak, and foundations rust not sete excnsvely, Servicaiiy requirements connie an “ow niles Ist and mast be aefllytalored to the need f the tiga structure The key tothe sts of the mri [equitment 2 all underuanding of the behavior of the sTUCure {nughost lof ts lading and entronmental pc. "racture may be ae and have adequate sersceniiy, but alo hi ic tales ani the rare fb Economic fui of pre ‘nount importance Once this exablihed he tutu it be opable tng comtructed. Many desig dcions are dependent om consacion Sheds, andthe stucturalenpioeer et be fine with hese “ihe svctral engineer is responsible tos cient who may not be pte to hie de necomiy sill and Hnowledge to lly understand the prinples of srucural design. The enginer sao responsible to susie att whee ce ht dekion afer tha afta the quality [iberentitmene, Under thes conditions, cot antr ofthe market psc ie napproprite.Inead here te pofesooal and lg cole {nthe decion powers ofthe deigne. Inthe case of common types of SSratures the potesion creates design codes of brace that rail ‘ment viewpoin on stengh, sericea, sd consrution prs ‘These deigh codes are fen snacted int law by the varow piel isticcions thas proving egal means of peuccton for the ent sd he genet publ. Unustl races scar nuclear consent ‘sland, spel bridges, andthe Ike are aot uray conte bY ‘ih code the tive the tepuaion aod pefeconal responsi) ‘tibeenplwer re the meane of Freon Cade of prcze vary dey isle, ebjetines, 2nd approach, Some conan dese vequiementsfegrding lod, were, eng, design ‘oem apd ether deme Others, caled porno cy spl the ‘quia performance of the competed sractare tt Not sto prtenbe the method of abiving tha pesormanc Suh cider re {ning importance and wil play lrg ro fotune desig They sgn Shore responsbiy to te engees and should chle moe imaginative ‘sige ‘thorough understanding of mates ie basic to underanding the ‘chair of members snd stzucires Materale are dacused in more inl i Volume 3, bat a be dcunon of te porta pa to ‘Te of common mater e appropriate cart n'a sady of stra rycen Although mnt structure are abetted eo comple, oa ten theeedimentional set states the base sacral properties ofIuding marl are deterined on simple specimens onde in eter ‘eulon or compreston, ‘Sel sae fra vere mores frets fe etry iene properties tenon in ompretion that mont important proper EGn te escrmina vom tenon tests msl secnens: Fgure 22 indiotes 9 strewsrin carte for typical sacra carbon sel Tht Paricular se har ye srengh of 86 lh scl ate svae Fora wide range of arenhe up to around 100 a and ore, Ne the ‘efnions ofthe various sager of sere and sain in Figure 22. The flop ofthe ese strain curse sa mesere of ies incl the mo ‘uve diye Bnd basa wale o about 0% 10" (200000 ME or cls the rain mil ad yr the pao sain ‘One ofthe most nporant charset of can sel & sd jee aH \mgora"| mo f + ey | | iy, Aer yielding, the ee specimen can sia lange amount (on the order of 208) before fa roprre. The lamste eade srengh ‘Shout 50% greater than the eld seni forthe partuarwres so are show Hee. Sel difle sn ds regard, and third che (crn ffet the dsc of safety lve Even duce sea) fa {tril manne under cern condion, suche low empeates, {Concet a completely diferent materal than sec ah = hot srpising that methods of dein fer Irom thw Tor sel. Conese {ery nak in teson in compare oi compressnesength iaare ie pica srearatein curve based on compression inom inden racial comprenhe srengh fe, ones frm & te iy bi higher ‘eng miser can be made. The mod of eli for cone in ‘east oath concrete aengih ands ¢wlue about one ten tat of cot Concrete doe aot havea defuite ik sipenge bu ater the “tessa carve connote tingly tothe pent of rapa a se Sf abou 0.004 iin The lack of lines af the sreartrsin cue a igh sone pores sme probleme in saaise berate the rewling Satavior of cncete member i noninesr Secon catalase ‘Sono inert and sonnei. Uy eam amr Integy in oe uli of enforced conte sructres ‘Bens ofthe low ene eng of concrete, we place ering bors in Yogi of tenson in cnerete mem The ce scrton the Sas. componte one with he two mater et ones, wing together ‘The tidy of enforced conree in Vea 3 of is ie Istlver an dertading ofthis compos bee “The behavior of woad it unigue snd dependent onthe grin and ‘oll aracure of wood. Sl dear specs of wend are en le ine Base wood propetes ‘The Beaor near inthe tall teerange Wood i ot duce ike sel, bu i does havea high capacity isorb energy rong from apily applied loads. The mote ot ‘hsiiy of rood varies vith the specs pial vale 18% 1 Is, ‘Wood his the advariage of high avengibeoweigh rao, so that se in log span srucares te stvancagenn Ir ealy work, and ease of tadern glaing technaogy end members maybe abe ito wld sins snd shapes, Wont doesnot lve spree strength wen hed, and ge wood members te olten move fe esa than ‘rblemessced wih grin ruse mist be acrounted for when stesgning io nber, Shear eng slong the grin low, a ese Strength across the gan. A full unereanding ofthe adranages 25d treakeencr of wood pers the desigw of many besufel and dort Uber simctres ich athe oe showin gue 2 although there are many apetspecltt te, concrte,o tines bhai nteentng to note that io steel desgh the Duk of ‘ember or thin plate clement ia primary problem ip oncece dss ‘tacking creep ead weigh, and dct ae of once: ann tbe Df timber the design of connections af grea importance scrntural engineer Deause they ae the Most direct means of protecson ite and propery, To fll his heyy reponse egies ut fly ubdentand the enonment and wie ofthe sretue a thee proc stra bear. An impart pat of hs proces the fy peated to rake appropriate loans forthe eer led (ihe petiton of iad eflaae ad areal espose ‘Wher comiering snes raremene i tata forthe engine 0 conison a umber of rice lad ager ae imposed onthe sv Inne etch sage being more severe than the Is I Ferforancs othe race drough eich loud sage considered n dea tbe engine Vly chive understanding of Bis secure hei lod stage tat correrponng o land wich are expec 19 ccc repented. Pee tay be seul lor loading nora erm vind Nae, rack ode oft magnede, ‘ey maybe aerator spac nf ladigs under condions of oral itneuves. Sh lod \fnqucny ithe ie of se aracare an tinder them the aractre e ‘Roured to pron indfnitywithou dese Viva ll of the sy ines inthe hs of te sructare, Tesla often eorespond o wor} seed neg ce The oh sre eq ita tran omsly and egy reponse fr sufocory performance ofthe truce Fiore 22° showr's pedestrian fooidge under a simul. wovking tte land, The spon luted ith ple of erent heed {St shown here. Sinukaons occrrene of ever! ype of odings very unlely, and for Dit reson the rere salty margin aie spe may be redaced under such condigons. An example wold be ‘he sultatous eonerence of the fll design working hve lod and Fal deign ind lea “The third stage ems of severe and rate las chat might poly act diving thee of he ruta but for which ao enone to ‘spec favlss roca perfomance. Tnduded in thi category are ‘treme wind lds such a ora, rae extrsegal tack nade wtih fre ocasonal found onthe highway inspite of the execs of wee os} and los euking fot meray re ertguaies vel feigned srusturem eypeced wo cary toh leads without ie of ie wahinor repiae damage. Figure 26 indicates a prestesed concrete eum outed Yeyond tering land” Notre excenive defetion id the craks near dep chown marked by sy Bsc nes). The beset add capable of carying cred lod, Some datiage in he third lad tage i srepale bere the economic cnsequenees of the dadage Unage. Major problems exit in atenpang to ind the proper balance teinean cn and srengih under these ccinstages. tn iso region the responses ofthe engineer are shared wi howe responsible ‘onral of a The fe lading age i shat corcsponding to imminent fae This ies ypotheil sage in real trans bu i is ase that must be cn tiered if bear a fale i o be undartod In onder to sy be Ivor inthis oad range, est are conducted. Figure 27 indicates» aa thot steel column leaded beyond the Pld level and Tage 28 ints ong stl column Sac Inter In is flue moet hs aot eis are len han il, bt flue nent Te eget man beable to conol and prod he mde of fare, ssi to ‘compl thit hae profound elect on the reed ste lee ce 1 propery directed gradaal faire ode my envre that hana ete ams can be evacuated belore caper. The consequence of fe sre therefore much fedsced. permiting & more «obi spprasch To eign a ‘Atwiher modaton for detailed undersaning of ale proces tata ange amount of ebergy can be bored by 8 meri ster inelasizaly beyond the proporsona nk, Thi eats tht saga [ir ofthe tual energy ofan caringuake o ther eto om the scare i absorbed in the nt mages of rural deformation tore ealapse Thus, wih adequate ducity im both member snd connections rea cpt ma Seal permcing ation nd pon epanderson by the designer. comison ep af frei that of yelding Fike nme. This ie accompanied by ange deforations and ust Sy Some vearbon i forces win te suctere, Anosher type of Fale stb oe being This may our at very Tow sree, ad ‘ayo ay not be secon i by lshe deformation, Some racer ‘ch nether mate of thn ple, nay undergo baling be slave ‘Msn capac eve afer bucling bos eceree. Thi bebo {led portucuing seam, tc fen weed fn dengn. Failure may ako ‘eur by bride facture vesng from various caen, sich at Tape Spotiaion of lead. shape eles ceuing sre concentatins, low tmp ‘Pluresemritiemen oy shomal anion ar rem conven. fects of ‘Geep may case fare by vlan wodeneale deformation inthe “iiiGure: Creep tme-dependentpucnomenon wher the ain Imncralinceier tnder conan linge x defte problem 5 ‘Sncate structure, Fay the flr of tet revera or repeie ‘futons of ee tough many thonandsof owls ane sree alu. Thi phenomenon, know a fig, mut be considered inthe “sign of srrft and spacer highnay and raihny bdr, cane ‘ineiye and dhe strctre hat serve lod sion epee. ‘hgh arucaal performance may Be cored through al the tay ager dicated code requirements ten Toon fein key wth expesation that stfacon of code ceria tone or evo spe i core aceepable performance at al stage “Tv iewpoins are omaanly found In specs and coe! the Get f thse aed ‘an allowable sess philoso the second ona zengs phony Albi Set Dass Allowable ze design Begins wih the shlce of approprite dein working aad "The nature aad mageitule nf design working lade are Iied'ea the ype of recur For esnmpey che American Natal Sssndatd Insite (ANSD, rough Is combi. ABB, ee deg onkng Toads for buldings These ae on er sind have no eg ‘ifmicince The Base Building Cae (BOCAL 70) adap te age [Stby the ANSI as design working lads The Sane Bing Cade then ‘cll ogo lw by van ter td we, When legally nope yt ‘monner, the load become legless ae wrocureleogneer = regled to we them ae such ip his desgh Other examples of sgn ‘ong lands are those speedy the mean Aaacnton of Sine ‘one pacing highoay Beige lagings an esenmetod for hhwsy Stren. Theses ay then adopt the lading, perhaps ith mod. licon a andar for sucrner nthe jain. Coes ay not ‘ener al posable uation The alle ner Bridge docased in Cher "rs daigned for henry lagging traci The mock lowing Ns ase ‘iatageed i by he engine an teen and var Cove vepeset ‘heave ely logy ack. Loads are dared in dea in Caper ‘once design working loads ate ealisheds the satu anced rer anumpions of Cat beavis reserve deerined. Alo se maxi sewer ae speed by approprns code wing bats, Sch alow stems are chosen ae ftcon font 603) ofthe ates “cvtesponing ko fare by whntve fare moi gover This as be Tie bucling sean. the ftpue lini tee the ye ses, or anchor Stes ated th atures Thi procedure ena tat ner ey ithe trueure wl Bedave neaty slay tnd wil nt be suber so ein. fadgue or eter fare modes Dasign of acta abd saceratt rca: flows am allowable ses pldbephy. Te design working lads are securatly determined forthe movin condone enauotered onthe minon Allowable ess ides‘hex loads an their poste combinations ae et very owe or equal the jin sues oF fo srener coresponding to es ature mode. "Thi usted by areal and acer teog and eon of atria. Indien to ths proved, szengih spprach is uned ruling hat Ulimate neength be witicn recat foding about 1 tne the ‘al degn woking laud Strength Deion Strength design begins wth 2 deterination of the design working loads, jst ain llowsble pets dng. These loads are then utp tad acto determine the requtedsrengd As we have mensoned. (he ind face for strat aod spacceratsucttes about Iv The {accor for hl engineering actors i he sage range. but 3) "277 Inacconance wi the ype o lad o Sod eombenaons "Sct sel desig or certain eper of ang and bide an Be cared ut wing» ssnathsppronch Thiele pl ig beste the plaenton that octet the see cos season when apple ‘Soments me sal the Besurl eld sengih of the secon. Conetete (Sedge ty ths meth call renee dng, For cere structure he Sncrent vari of ters and Bld pensions necseats the ue F'n act ranging rom abou 0.65 up oO the for fap to the theoretic snemer seengeh to eae che minimum Sscngth scaly provided. ture Approaches o Strat! Sty Allof he methods o rus fey ae based onthe fc cata margin of mer is needed to saver une In losing, mater, methods of rly ad qusliy of comuracton. The theory of probably may be ‘Sedu mote prams of ancora, and show promise of contain {Dike sahain'ol problems af uncer tn srcrral safety in the net fue, Some prog har seady ben made, sd methods ae now sa fe that may tat the determination of load factors ov ote pa Ines that toa in aly decison. Structural engineer tong {penden om inison and jdgment based om experience, so tbat ae ‘Scions cannot te made sey wh sales! moder of potable and technic, The decion of he experienced ence wil away enn the tone inporant factor design A dicoion of mean of shiviog sey is harly complete without some conatertion of the consequence fhe. A knowedge of some ‘Seco floes of the pase may Be well co the engineer who mus, Ales for ee ure ‘One ofthe more serous stra allarsnreen ts yas the cl late ding consructon of the Second Natrow Brier Veneer 1, in 1858 Figure 29 shows the strucure during consraton ta scr Tadure which peared suddenly and rene nthe ests OF nay 2 ‘en. Several enign errs nthe temporary supporting plage shown in the ower iat ploograph were sponse forthe aaeAnolber ridge fle. with ah of 78 Hes, ook place when the ‘quence Beige coped during consti on Abgut 29,198, Thi ‘ore cued Scion sad lated Io Fgue 3.4 "The Second Narr ac Goebcebrigesfled ring cosracton, ste recent rag fre ofthe 0. 95 Hpay Bridge at Pin Psat, var oxned in December 1967 stile te rate was onde wih Yeh ure wesc y Brite rsa of dea eel com ‘ponent and dacised In Capler 2, Vue ‘Although bridge veal ome pecan fares, expecially daring consracnal pe a srctrar ae vuoerble. Dans Rave bad pte ‘any igh mony rte. In the Gea 60 year of thi ony. ew 1680 don over a8 fac high were eomarated nthe Used State ad 19% of thes ted wah sess of wate: Over det were ethed byuhse liver There have been major dam flores in ther counties For camp the Maps Damn Frans fled tn December 1999 {igs of abut 40 Ines ac Fite 210 Danmar parca ulnertle ‘ime Om vo the wncerintie sociated with foundaons tnd carcwork. Dam ‘Srey au teen the objec mach deus i secnt years Ge Bae sd Chater (1971) ana Glee (1971). hling have lo had their sare of falore Lack of adeqante racing of aeal fumes and shoring of eanerete have een common esse, A ‘hngh maw fares neu during constuction, some do happen hile theta is tn we Gee Figure 21. Many of ws have fee dhe annoying effec: of maton or vibration in 3 ‘aig oor or other trctre as produ! y an sear ochiney, tr tmply by people moving tent. We have sen chore that haw tolod bane delet downy sften with sn aeompanying unas Thor appetance Such sic signe of por srucural performance uncommon. Unully'«nrctere appen co be Tid an wnmoring SSothowgh every lodenping clement rbjeced to rete snd co ‘ponding rine. The cum elfec of ssn dplacement of the (are frm it onginl unsesedposion. A major at the tual engineer i fo snderwand, conta, and ect thie npr iuvior taal a sructare that performs kan aecepble manner rend to ronger materia, wit cnrxpondngl tighter sed hoc ‘Sons, brings with inresag problems of ation tnd deflect, re moet obvious maison of suai aa aructre the dace meat ude sate lod- Under given loads ths quantity ca ey Bee ite, ands often ined ae tructuralsqureent Adonward ‘ina beam i unsightly tnd lends an appenanoe ot weakness the Sircure even though the seength maybe gute adeuate Dacre Ie"loade so tae daplaceents under ed val mt pest are, Figure 1 showeaconinu pt gder re ombered tpwardete counter. wl hee of dead lad connec dee) sil toe added The “ee of Boor may ao be contlled by hmiton o sae di pncament A Boor th percep ance may be conde nadeate bythe users: ‘This spew of Behavior Ie cowl rele tothe vise de Neon, since nether sewaly indices weaknes, ut blk ge = py log ecg of weakness ‘nether important conbolng for for delesion requirement is lod tothe interaction of structural componente th eit tems. A glas window under 2 spandre beam would ersck eve the ‘ight beam defi were tsponed on th window edge, For ie