Environmental Hazards of Flooding : An Overview of Sapporo

Title and Madras Experience (Environmental Hazards of Flooding)

Author(s) Thirumurthy, A. M.; Yamamura, Etsuo; Kagaya, Seiichi

Environmental science, Hokkaido : journal of the Graduate

Citation School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University,
Sapporo, 9(2): 177-193

Issue Date 1987-03-10

Doc URL http://hdl.handle.net/2115/37202

Right

Type bulletin (article)

Additional
Information

Instructions for use

Hokkaido University Collection of Scholarly and Academic Papers : HUSCAP

 177

i' Environ. sci.,''IiokR'[l"11'd"U'il' g (2) I i77N!g3 'i'' .Dec･ igs6 i

'

EnvironmentalHazardsofFlooding AnOverview
of Sapporo and Madras Experience
<Jl'nvironmentol Hazards of Flooding)

A. M. Thirurnurthy, Etsuo Yamamura and Seiichi Kagaya

I)epartment of Regional Planning, l)ivision of .Environn]ental
Science, Graduate School of Environmentai Science,
Hokkaido Univer$it,y, Sapporo 060, Japan

Abstract
I?looding of low lying areas due to heavy rains, I'lasl'i 'floocls inundation and consequent heavy
demaages to properties and lives are the common features in maany of the urban areas ef the
world. Apparently the pace of urban growtli is at a fast'er rate vLrhen compared to t/he protective
measures undert'aken. The increasing deniand for land util.ization, the c()st ancl opportunity factors
etc inore often outbeat the effect/iveness of the developnient contro] stipnlations of the local
Govts for these aureas. Tliougli t,he environinental 1iazards are comtnoa in betli the cleveloped ancl
developing "rorld yet the dhnension ancl inagnitude of the problein varies in reiation to tl)e
geographical location, socio-economic texture of the urban society ancl the function of the urban
area$. More often the frequent occurance of fioocllng, poses a host of urban plannipg and develop-
ment i$$ues for deeper tinderstanding of the problerus involved and tl)e efforts needeci te be
unclertaken by the Govts concerned.
Sesreral earlier stuclies [･tnd effort/s either proved to be inadequate or not/ in t/une "Jit'h the
diinenslons of the problein as they lacked a coniprehen$ive approach anc{ concrete solution. I'n
this paper an attempt ha$ been made to bring out the various facets of flooding hazards, the
environmental and planning is$ue$ involved and measures undertal<en and needed to be tindertaken
to mitigate the probleins in the city of Sapporo of Japan ancl Madras of IncHa.

Key Words: Floocl prc)ne areas, Drainage basin, Plains, Ilnundation, Conventional land use pattern,
Nen-renewable reso"rce, Combined sewer system, I.)esign period, Green wedges, Tropieal maritime
monsoon, Flood moderator, Sand bar effect.

1. Introduction:
'
In the history of location and development of cities, nearness of water sources
was of primary concern, while all other factors were also given due importance.
Human settlement planning was attempted on･a land normally not subiect to major
natural calamities. However at the advent of industrialization, concentration of
major activities and abunclance of employment opportunities caused a greater impact
on the physical and economic clevelopment of urban areas. As the cities grew the
laRd economics started playing a vital role in making the land available at affordable
cost for various activities. While the higher orcler activities forced their way to
178 Environmental Science, E[okl<aido Vol. 9, No. 2, 1986

occupy centrallzed locations due to high accessibility factor, the lower order activities
like residential use were pushed to the periphery creating an enormous impact on
iRdividuals accessibility to the employment centre and other essential facilities and
services. Complex urban economic systems and the individuals affordability factors
often resulted in occupation of low lying areas closer to the city center along the
river margins and other water sheds which prirnarily serve as a draiRage basin for
the whole city during monsoon seasons. These areas are often not well protected
against fiash floods and heavy rainfall and the people encounter a host of environ-
mental problems besides heavy demages to properties. Under average rainfall
conditions every year the impact of floods and inundation on the settlement
are innumerable. The effects though of short duration, more often have longer
lmpact.
The city of Sapporo has an unique short history of development and the
settlement is often subject to inundation in the low lying areas although flash fioods
during heavy rainfall are not uncommon. The geographical location of Sapporo
has special features in terms of, the river, the terrain conditions, weather conditions
and the drainage pattern. On the contrary the city of Madras in India which has
a long history of growth also faces similar hazards with clifferent geographical
conditions in terms of rivers and lakes, fiatness of the terrain and host of cyclones
and heavy rains.
Both the cities, Sapporo and Madras though fall in the Asian region, the
socio-economic conditions, the magnitude of the problem and the approach to the
problem are vastly different. In this paper therefore an attempt has been made
to bring out the salient features of the flooding causes, the hazards and impact, the
Urban planning and development issves involved and a comparative analysis of the
efforts made in these cities towards flood prevention and protection and the future
po}icy needs.

2. Sapporo City ExperieRee:

Sapporo city is the fif#h Iargest city in Japan in terms of population (1.5 million)
and third largest in terms of area (1118 sq kms>, is located on the western plains
of Hokkaido (Figure. 1), the northern most island of Japan. The fan shaped city
of Sapporo is the capital of Hokkaido and the hub of commercial and administrative
activities. In the short history of Sapporo which dates back to 1867, an enormous
impetus was given for its development by the National Govt. Greater efforts were
made to induce people to settle in the new island by providing basic infrastructure
facilities and development of land and public facilities. Sapporo city experienced
a greater influx of people till recently and the number of inmigrants has almost
levelled off. However Sapporo city has been experiencing a 2% annual growth
of population. During winter Olympics in 1972 the Sapporo city again got a
face lift and huge amount was spent on development of infrastructure faeilities.
Though Sapporo city does not have gxeater industrial activities, interms of com-
merce, science and information it plays a vital role and is also a fast growing city
 EHvirOnmenta1蕪azardS Of FlOOding 179

。．

． ．’

     ！
・SaPP（）ro

o
o Tぐ）kvo
  鋤
，           1くyQtO●

．弓懸フ’畿

Figure 1．  Location of Sεし1）poro C玉ty．

諺    ざ
  ざ
．鍵ざ

 ∼ぐ
議
  ・ア∼占
界。、鼠、じレ

：・．i薫i，．
壕譜 ヴ艦

．1
遠ｵ

  ．読．．z 総、
猿
甘
論．・  軍
g  を
続．．
@●  訟
怠．
薫
．．

聡、．
薩馨講、…，li辮 
＿弓    』唱ヌ 
§  1 ζ   （．「き if竈 【 ，きし．r  ｛．．
’il

Do
嚢
＝ミ冴  9
黙誤一通鵬1；鞭露．
      ．．“も’ 讐

一1灘難翻 撚髪
．様∫‘：一｛3蛆。
雛 こ町夏 T．．

．顕
辱s定LI，1，監｝夏』唱．， 

  Hi琴hWay
sl‡ir［し1（1

自今：肇 7R。…3匙惚 甑
Z．
瀦．
轍翫曹辱， 一＿＿ ●
    一謎bメ、、夢
 1一三＝一
一 r F
 銭
孔禦

譜躍
1「

獅
闘P庭ir照1下Ex・・i・1・i・．e R繍…li〔・i A照・
戴r ［：羅St・c【．1漁・y i1：xchlsl、．e Rし1滅le塵lti…ll AI、てし

qe諏iし・ロual A整・轍
珊桑醒一
灘曇dg廊油・〔，d CDm睦M・・．・i｝皇l Arca
羅Cpm脚rciaし、re乱し
噛1・ヒヒ唱：卜ll；1瑞Q匡｝asレlrldl屋s崔rilL1ノ、照1．

懸ln匡h崖Suial八r鉦斗こし
顯Exξ「｝瞬w hL達蔓酬・i乙由、1・Cit

∫∼・・’・・a，、’

Figure 2．  City Land Use・
18Q Environmental Sclence, HokkaidQ VoL 9, No. 2, 1986

in the northern part of Japan.

(1) Development and Land Use Pattern qf Samporo:

The Figure. 2 shows the Iand use pattern ofthe city of Sapporo. The pattern
of developments is one that of Gird iron pattern with moderately wide roads. Akin
to the grid pattern, though the city is served with mass transport facilities like
Tube railway, buses and tram cars, the effectiveness of the ￡ransport facilities are
not to the optimum Ievel of service in terms of percentage population served. The
city basically depends on private mocle of transport to a greater extent. The core
of the city being the Odori area, encompasses all the major business and administra-
tive establishments with all the major transport corridors converging towards the
city center. The central area in general and the public transport facilities in
particular experience a tidal flow conditioRs during the peak hours. Surrounding
the central business district second order activities like commercial and mixed resi-
dential activities are located. The Sapporo city does not have major heavy and
pollution causing industries, however all the minor and light industries are located
along the thorough fares away from the central area. The third order use viz
the resiclential use is predoininantly located along the periphery of the city. The
conventional land use clevelopment pattern of the city has brought in a host of
problems to the city center.
(2) Rai7iftill i7i Samporo:
Sapporo city experiences a widly varied rainfall pattem due to typhoon activities.
The average annual rainfall varies from 120 to 130cnis (including snow fall) with
heavy showers in the month of August ancl September at an average rate of 13
to 15cms. Snow fall starts in mid november and continues till March with an
average annual accumulation of about 500cms depth of snow. The minimum tein-
perature during win￡er goes down to as low as -150C and maximum temperature
during summer reaches a level of 33"C. For a major period of the year Sapporo
experiences a cooler climate.

(3) TopograPhy of Sa2iboro:

Sapporo ls located in the south western part of the Ishikari plain (Figure, 3).
Green mountainous regions cover more than half of the entire city area. Urban
activities center principally on the fan shaped area formed by the Toyohira River
which runs bifurcating the city of Sapporo towards the Ishikari Iow land. The
Toyohira river which originates in the mountains on the west has a very small
plain which is the central core of the city and runs in the East over a very large
delta region. The city on the southern direction of Toyohira river is comparatively
on a higher level than the northern part of the city. Besides the main stream
of the river there are many drainage channels running throvgh the city area and
ultimately joining with the main at maRy Iocations. River Toyohira is the tributory
of the bigger river called the Ishikari river. The region where the Toyohira
river merges with Ishil<ari river the land is at a very low level and the soil is of
very poor character. The Sapporo city being sandwiched between the high moun-
 Environmental Hazards of FIoocling 181

x-. &,,,.<1:'ggs'
"'x I'SU CITY

INI"i,U"T("LX l]lll.Oi 511)l,1 T"WX

tx lt ' ･.･ )･･".ili;lll,jlll'l,,,,,
'/.'.g)}>II/ l-
t
lt . .d(2,,

tl vy, "pt<x

-gf-lx
l;' l '
t Xs ol,'l'eNnTliE{Ni'tlNl+t
ws. i' --
･N t-"1.
t,t.. /
'
-t''
Y:.lfJlli"
'' li;;li/:

"･･
-. }"xXt/
;
i.)l
Z'･･,>iltrj,.
.../v,-"il 'J,N
",,･,,".,111'1-t'' N
.l4, . .t
J" mu･･･.
.,l･,v't .･ -

:
t;:tij"tttt

'Y 'pt' (･III

' itl,, r:Er . - ,1.
V'[',V{l
s
.. /1
VITI '"tl)""'/'/ ,Nl{p ,,
:c.=".--. *1., ignc t7!il},x`iil
<;,'･'C:'-v
,{} "･
x
TUYVIII±l,1 IS'

v.
,.--
,.
<1 ･
' .l,1,
/t
1.,,}. . II}s
't/t"vt
" .X'l3Ill
XX',1[t
NXOas"ii,V･･
xy...
x?I
////./.)i,t'v.,.t///,/ /t/t

.t t-
'･, -'
L' " i, ,,,,,,.ll;II,Ir lii.'..l/>'i"i::'imu-'`'i ti-M`iitil],,,,,,,,,,,,
`x･.u,`,. M,,.,,
'Nl/tL//m: -""""-l.c-g,'u,.l-----------
･21･････, Vr[Nui vlut-ing r{batl
-"ttji/t'if'tttt' Nutlut;"-vttd
'/ --N:LGonnlroai.l{1)huuied.}
.nv""mhl'h'{/fvftttdtnlvoutl
ts11/:':1umL":1.l,lr･:/"if''''i" "'nr(tlx]t.ddit]:it)'
1{"l[tuh.vf$iil)wlLy
>
Figure 3. Sapporo City ancl its General Topography.

V･L..
itu - ny

.. r

Z vat,,z2/#.//K`lt
z
't

2z
t/tt

Zi
uath
, ,z n.
//lla
x

'<L,･Sl,,v//1;,.... z
vet n jt,,
!,C/L

'1,

/
va ･ly
i

ttrt'
1,

", fiZ,'"i･

ys
,,t lt,

/
I,..I//l(,lI};ND:

tJ･rbatiization I)ro]noiion Area.

ww I:']oocled At'ea.

= River Basin.

Figure `l･. Sapporo City F}oocE Affected Areas in 1980.

tains on the west and the low lying land on the East has greater possibilities for
periodic flooding during heavy downpour seasons as the catchment area is a very
large mounatainous area with a veyy small plain which can hardly neutralize the
fury of flood. Sapporo city experienced seveye fiooding during (Figures 4. & 5)
the years 1980 ancl 1981 and the damages were also considerable.
182 Environmental Science, Hol<kaido Vol. 9, No. 2, 1986

-
xty-
K sx . -.tr

iz, ,'iiiifZlli#,va,,,,ZI.iii
hL . ?;tx
u,7.

fn2zZ
ll7;'

Zn,
,i
%
t./.

,･k if .li.
t.tt

"
,,<'z
1 tr.
`z,,et'
･ tt
/"./t/ i
' ' '
Z,,6h "' .,,,,
tt
'
(,
lah ig ･ .i ･Z2,,,.il, R

･e,..
"z'･,..va CIZ,,Il {alfell,,,pt,,
l'l 7x
tt;ttlll'1.

tt .t
'
l/2',.
2 'N

ttt.
v
.. ･'v
'
.･
"
t/.tt '" ?Xlzrllt,

fi

' it
` t/
1.h]GENI):
Urbanizatiei} I'ro]notioti Ai'va. D
ww Ii'ivoded Aroa.
as 1'x'iver Bafiin.

Figure 5. Sapporo City Flood Affected Areas in 1981.

3. EnviroRmental Kazards ef Flooding and Urban Planning

Issues in Sappore:
(1). The developrnent thrust and the population infiux in to the city induced a
greater demand for land utilization in the plains of Toyohira river aRd the con-
sequent exhorbitant land cost forced the Iower order uses (predominantly residential
use> to spread to the delta region of the river which are mostly low lying areas
subject to frequent flooding and inundation. The urban planning and development
issue has been, how and where safe land could be provided for development
purposes as the non renewable source (the Iand) is very less when compared to the
population in Japan.
(2). While the Toyohira river has constantly been improved for fiood protection,
the pace of construction and the level of construction have not been commen-
surate with the need and severity of the situation. Though high flood risk areas
have been banned for any urban development purposes in the delta region, the
areas where clevelopments are permitted are not devoid of fiooding or inundation,
however the yisk of fiooding is less frequent. E[ere the major planRing and develop-
ment consensus has been that the frequency of high flood risk is very less and
the possible damage to the properties will be very less.
(3). At the time when there was a heavy demand for land utilization, developments
were initiated along the valleys in the mountainous region of west and southern
parts of the city. However flash fioods in the streams and intermitent landslides
proved the venture to be more dangerous compared to the development in the
low lying areas of the delta regions and thus the delta region attained greater
 Environmental Hazards of Flooding 183
significance.
(4). One of the many studies conducted in these areas indicates that most of the
settlers of the flood prone areas were not aware of the problems before settling
there. The major criteria for the settlers was that Iand was available at an affordable
cost. Lack of adequate and proper information on the flood prone areas seemed
to have been the greatest handicap.
(5). In the city of Sapporo there is no separate system of rain, snow water drainage
and sewage. What has been planned and constructed is a combined form of
sewerage system. While the combined system has its own advantages, for the
terrain and weather conditions of Sapporo it proves to be inaclequate and inefficient
during the heavy rains. Taking in to consideration the need for proctecting a vast
area of the city from the devastating effects of flooding of Toyohira river the
National Govt has conceivecl a Toyohira yiver iinprovement scheme for a design
period of hundred years and the civil works are being constructed accorclingly. OR
the other hand the combined system of sewerage has been planned by the Local Govt
for a design period of thirty years which has left a great gap in the effectiveness
of the sewerage system to drain into the Toyohira river.
<6). Frequency of heavy fioods in Toyohira river and coRsequent breaching of the
bunds and 'fiooding of the city is very less, however the water which gets colleted
due to rains in the low lying city area (Delta region) itself is very large in quantity
and causes inundation for several days. This is fuyther aggravated by the flow of
water from high lands (Plains) of the city which has a very high coefiffcient of
runoff due to intense developments. The pumping stations which have been located
along the river sides are more often inaclequate to meet the demand and xe}ieving
the area of the rain water in the shortest time possib]e.
(7). More serious environrr}ental hazard is caused by the corr],bined sewey system
itself. The sewage getting mixed with the rain water while running towards the
treatment plants chokes the sewer system. This is due to the large and suclden
influx of rain water. This in turn over fiows through the manholes located along
the streets of low lying areas, not only inundating the whole area with the sewage
but also c]reates an unhygenic environment.
(8). The enormous quantity of water collected during the fiooding seasons at the
sewage treatment plant more often increases the load on the treatment plant. As
a resvlt it becomes impossible to treat the entire infiow and therefore almost half
of the sewage is led into the rivers untxeated, thereby polluting ehem.
(9). Residential buildings located in the delta region with adequate protection against
inundation get affected less than other buildings. It is a common feature that a
high clegree of dampness is mostly caused to the buildings constructed with thermaly
insulated walls due to inundation. In many cases the dampness has led to the
total destyuction of buildings.
(10). Considering the physical constraints for further developments, the Sapporo
Development plan for 1995 stipulates for restriction of population to 1.85 iitillion
from the present leve] o/f l.5 million. "fhile there is still the problem of 'fiooding
184 Environxnental Science, Hol<1<aido Vel. 9, No. 2, 1986

persisting for the existing populatlon adequate planning aRd development efforts are
needed to be taken care of for the anticipated population.
(11). Developments in low lying flood prone areas are the manifestation of sky
rocl<eting land prices in the central and surrounding area and greater danger of
living in mountainous areas. While the landuse or Zonal plans have 1)een effective
iR controlling the land uses, they are not effective in controlling the land cost and
therefore the landuse plans in use do not seem to be functional in their existance.
(12). So far the major thrust was on improving the Toyohira river alone against
flood. The Ishikari river of which the Toyohira river is a tributory has not been
given adequate importance. Though there have been many studies relating to
the flood hazards in the flood plains of the river a comprehensive hydyoiogical
model, characteristics of flooding and its impacts do not seem to exist. In the
absence of such a study document it may not be possible to take major investment
decisions.

4. Madras City Experience:

1). Genaral:
Madras is the fourth largest city in India vgrith a population of 4.5 million in
an area of 1761 sq.km, is located on the eastern sea board of the sub continent
(Figure. 6) with a harbour that caters for a fifth of the country's iinports and
exports. It is well located in relation to rail routes to the rest of India aitd has
a firm but relatively static base of large scale formal industry and commerce includ-
ing insurance, shipping and l)anl<ing. It is relatively uncongested city by Indlan
standards and is expanding outwards rather than upwards because of the ready
availability of Land (Figure. 7>..
Nevertheless the Madras Metropolitan area is experiencing acute problems of
rapid urban growth. Its population is increasing rapidly at the xate of 3.2% per

IN DIA
-
1)Ii]!..MI

-BOMBA¥ CALCUTTA

Arablun Seu l3av ef Betigal

MAD}･tAS

Figure 6. Location of Madras.

 Environmental Hazards of Flooding 185

..s ,-'4.iN.
rt-v.r '-'v,J iytiY'-'L
"xt'l'll`""aw
( .".
NdN.1
,--,j
s
s

X''N'-'-"
sJ
l-.
t
r')
t!
gt,.･,ra
5
a"y･･･,,,.,t",I,AJ.?1.
iaLDLEBATTU
ttmak
,.,.,,IS'.

e +.d.t
F l.+･-l- i.--i-F+･-,--.
.+t -.+ .+ tl.-t
(;,I,,
.i.+ti.l t+'+'-'t'

E("kY･
A' -' '{t-tt -
t
'be.'L't,/=,･.:lt･ ..y"" 1 -t BAlr'
k
2
L" t
1 OF
l.)]･ING,XL
'
c'
+" ,l

'u. ""

e.
..ttsL.

re,stltsviij "
s

i tz
)ALi. .AYARAM
{
g,
!rl
N i""
f
- :'AME3ARAM
(-
,

i ! lix i;
f
ib i
.
i
N,-tiL･--,-..,y.r'M'r'"hiA･..vJi"'x.-.2
I.

'
Madras .Xlatlrats .XIvivvpelitan
Cltv
<l'est･19'7SBuv"dur.v) -'-'-tMx'aBvunLlar.v
l 1 i I )Iaclras ursan Ags,]vtneraticn ,u-+,t"+)Iaiii }{ai]"ay Lines

i?:r .i sXF)
Figure 7. Boundaries of the City of Maclras, the Madras Urban
Agglomeration and the MMA.

annum. its economy is not expanding at an equivalent rate and there is growing
pressure on the limited utility services that exist. It is becoming more clithcult
to find wori< except in the informal sector and real incomes are declining. About
one third of the population lives in squatter settlements called slums mostly locaeed
on river margins, low lying areas and public lands normal}y subject to fiooding and
inundation.

2). Development and Land zese Pattern of Madras:

The thirty years between 1941 and 1971 saw tremendous growth in population
and economic activity ln ancl around the city. The population first passed the
million mark around 1943 and then cloublecl itself in a short span of twenty years
to cross, the two million mark. This period also saw intensification of development
ancl the gyowth of new residential and industrial suburl)s, particularly on the west
and south, the trend of which is continuing. The growth of Madras did not take
p}ace in a regulated manner except in a few areas developed through Town planning
186 Environmental Science, Hokkaido Vol. 9, No. 2, 1986

Schemes. The expansion of the city was not however accompanied by the provision
of infrastructure faciilties.
The main reasons for this fast growth can be attributed to the forces of
economic activity realised after the country obtained inclependence. Early Five Year
P]an schemes gave impetus to industria} activity in the public sector and this
broadened the city's function from that of a predominantly administrative and
commercial center. The major developments in the industrial field during ￡he post
independence era have been the establishment of a number of industries, both
private and public. Many of them are located at the outskirts in the north, west
and south vvest directions. The industrial areas with in the city (Figure. 8) are
mainly in the north and west where they are closely tied to residential developments.
Government, quasi-government and private commercial firms are dispersed bu￡ those
which were established earlier are concentxated in the older parts of the city. In

tij

f/
E' geZ.I
tt
e.'a tz..
;'wf'"'''..pti'lillt';'/ttr,kl･Nvl･l-lIl-L,･EI
ll.. /･ti.
iua
i,,iiiilli,ii,ill,,,1,111ii,li:,¥itiilf
nd ;if x.i.1' z ."
t //
v"
,

t"t .-..,; :.'i./!i:.･XgE'ieulTiEi'itl

'pa .x.v T?
1･x ,//
MhidF:hiritii X' 1. ,. 1
Cit,y B,am,Iltr,v l,v"IV7h

OF)i,i}.. .h],ut'c,,l'{/,t'r/,"ii-]]"]
L .ll[iltssEittati,niul Neiv Llii,y LIvvn{lnvy
LYnivr ]l",]it
nntl

lll- 2 as
Figure8. City Land Use.
 I{.'.nviromnental Hazards of Fl.oocling 187
'
the C. B.D which is the core aye of the city, most of the whole sale trade, spe-
cialised retail tracle and l)anl<ing and financial institutions are }ocated. It is here
the commercial activity is intense. Shopping facilities of }ocal importance have
developed along almost all major roads.
The rural areas surrounding the city generally remain agriculture in use. The
present structure of the city approximates to a semi circle with extensions in five
main dixections, the north, north-west, west, south- west and south. Early in the
development of the city, the area surrounding the Harbour had become the com-
mercial cellter of the city. Naturally all communication lines led to this centre
and these in turn were linl<ed with each other producing a ring aRd radial pattern
of development. The ring and radial type of development has created greeR wedges,
the edges of which in some cases touch the city. The main communication routes
outside the city are linked with industrial establishments and shopping, l)ut the
development is diffused.
Madras is the only urban agglomeration with over two million population in
South India. The gross density of population over the entire city is of the order
of 20900 persons per sq. km.
3). Topqgraplry of Madras:
C['he site of Madxas city and its environs is very flat, the contours ranging
from 2.0 to 10.0 metres above M.S.L. There are three rivers running through
the Madras Metropolitan Area from west to east. All the rive]rs run in a radial
direction in the north, ceRtral and southern sector., All three rivers are non per-

..,,..it.stza-/ /x .sigf,/. 1es kN

･kf/-i`g"'.;f.illi',,i.i,i,},',`.ti'･k' 'i'//,ii91ii[lllii. ge･･-f･ -･･･

iv･w
., s.).p-
t'{"' '
.t t.tt:}.t;ttt.
buVVVTL
,,... :.-af,
-gn '･sllli
YS,･.1･･li･,il[il･i･11illliii･t,.

$.
.....--./r/JJ･''l,･ '" ;.
' 'L'2v l-`
'/1/.ll.t},l.}(..)lltli
,i`:.ii:, X,¥.1Ic'l//･k;l･:'},?,I･¥･fril,,,
ewVBII ...2.14tt Bay
of
-' 'l zatk･,i,$.l,l/ptiulliil'l'i'l,i"ii' Btht)kTtl]
t/ z/'qN.,..<?fZ.,

V, d", ,t su 'vee
,..---'-･h
･･+ y
.rtSiJ ort /ya"."･' ea'",//
y-' 7 ,' ('l"uiil)nt'ISm{/,aR
7,g
i.t,f. t･x,..
-'i'"'//le. ./g. ,,,
･ rzk.trA
.,"A'},i,," fSlj A
f llltl'sqi.;x.`lacrs,s
c"-di
lli .i 61i., Q't:s K
f, g/1･'29
,, "'
t tt /t
ElsEas ,,.

't't'-'
i+'l'l'l.i ?
'iv .s.g'ib

(;"y i+dmd"t+i"iRail"'aN
]'lt'nm{lav)' l}ve-l!)7S ].ill(i
'
NalienalIEk'Iiways

Ll/=/ 1{) ,2{-Ias

Figure 9. 'ropography showing Stream.s and Waterbodies.

188 Environmental Science, Hokl<aido VoL 9, No. 2, 1986

ennial, but have a substantial flow during ￡he monsoon. There is another artificial
canal running in the North-South direction, originally used for navigational purposes.
Figure. 9 shows the rivers, lakes and canals existing in the Metropolitan area. All
these water courses basically serve as dralnage courses during rainy seasons, and
have obstruction at the mouths by sand bars.

4). Rai7ijf}ill i7i Madras:

The climate of Madras is a `tropical maritime monsoon type'. The intensity
of rainfall, particularly during the North-East Monsoon can result in serious inunda-
tioR. The South-East Monsoon is between June and September and does not
bring such precipitation. During the North East Monsoon period "Every year...
cyclonic storms of varying intensity, some very severe cross the coast. The cyclone
which hit the coast in 1977 generated a tidal wave about 6 M hlgh which travelled
several 1<ilometres inland. The storms and cyclones mainly originate in the Bay
of Bengal and are experienced more severely during the period of Octobey to
December of an year. The mean annual rainfall is 120 cms. During the monsoon
period the maximum rainfall experienced is 66cm over a period of one month

11 -/
,,T'

is

'g ll
fikl.,.Ii.
g
r[
t
n.-.r'-""

'
Iy･
R
`･i j,L
1 I I
'
j' l ;--tittigil li

bj
ti-41t--il-'
I 'i
't , ,
""'I'
,v '

s I 1
K 6 ' '

li
l
l
il
i1 il･

/l
:u ,rf
gi),,7
l
/

J'-' t'

i u i
] x4-4-iiL}Vlil
x?"Va-I
"k･"'
'."h
f
i 1
l
2
'1 it l
i[II[V]? 'Il'

t<
I

･1
li

I
a
,6[[l[Il

- 'x,
IIi
i
1 g
t

s i' li' ' ik s//

l

-V
t f
w.-
k.
t'

x MX "
'X--.
r
r
･-
v
t. ..y.
-H,A. rdJ
{-
///t
L,-N.""'.v-l i'
]
I,:-[lIAj:'I"F.C;Til]D Area

-.-.- (.]ii.v Boundar.v pre-197S

s'
]vi 2. 4Zll}}.･
Figure 10. Area affected by Floods in the City 1976.
 Environrnental ffazards of Flooding 189
only.

5). biundatio7i in Madras:

The periods of heavy rain cause local floods for several days even after the
rain has ceased. Stagnation in certain low lying areas lasts for several months.
Drainage of this storm water is made more dicacult for a number of reasons:
a. Large areas of open fields which used to absorb water have been progressively
built up.
b. The rivers and chanRels draining in to the sea do not possess adequate capacity.
They have become constricted over tlme by silting and by having their margins
encroached upon by developmeRt (mainly squatter settlements).
c. A number of iryigation tanks which formerly also acted as flood moderators
have been taken over fox urban development.
d. The upkeep of styeams and the construction of proper drainage channels leading
to the streams have not kept pace with the growth of urban area.
The floods particularly those in i976 which were of unprecedentecl severity
causing damage running into crores of rupees and inflicting gyeat human sufferiRg
to the poorer section ef the community. This has re-emphasised the seriousness
of the flood hazard aRd the urgent need to implernent a programme to prevent
physical damage and suffering resu}ting from floocls. Figure. 10 and Figure. 11

x,
.[･i;'`;v･ ･X

IIHMIiAFI:l'{CTIID Area

-.m.- Stn±e Boi.uulnvy

lt,/pt. "ll ,? ioe{N

Figttre 11. Flooded Areas arouncl the City November 1976.

190 Environmental Science, Hol<kaido VoL 9, No. 2, 1986

show the areas which were inundated during the November 1976 floods. Reccur-
ring damage to property particularly of slum dwellers is usually great. In the
recent 1978 and 1985 rains more than 70000 families had to be shiftecl and provided
with temporary shelter and food, costing the Government millions of rupees.

5. Envlronmexxtal Hazards of Flooding aRd Urban Planning

Issues in Madras:
(1). Flooding and washing away of the temporary shelters are the common features
wherein the Economically weaker section (EWS) of the society is uprooted from
their localities temporarily forcing the local Govt to provide them shelter and food.
Siezable number of EWS people who migrated from the rural areas normally try
to settle down along the river margins and low lying areas closer to work centres
as the land belongs to Govt. Besides relief operations, the Govt is saddled with
the burden of planning for the economic upliftment of the people as well as arrest
migration by creating better economic opportunities at the regional level.
(2). Poer sanitary conditions previaling in the slum areas are aggravated during
the monsoon period exposing the llWS people to greater health hazards. Consider-
ing the gravity ef the situation the Govt created an exclusive departrnent for the
improvement and clearance of slum areas. Under different programmes and with
the aid of International development organisations, many slum areas have been
improved, however many slums along the river margins and low lying areas continue
to be exposed to the dangers of fiooding and inundation.
(3). The city of Madras has separate sewerage and storm water facilities. However
the non availability of sllch facilities in the low lying areas and along the river
margins, make the people let the waste and sullage in to the city water courses
running along the densely developed areas of the city. Plugging all such unau-
thorised inlets and planning for a comprehensive waste water collection and disposal
system along these areas has posed great many physical and economic problems
to the authorities concerned.
(4). The city of Madras was bestowed with many lakes and ponds to act as
natural fiood moderators. However with the onset of rapid urban growth most
of the lakes were fi11ed up and developed. The non availability of flood moderators
coupled with increased runoff due to denser developments has increased the potential
for frequent flooding and inundation in many low lying areas. The city planning
challenge has been one that of finding alternate locations for development purposes
which could form an integral part of the city.
(5). Madras city is supplied with treated drinking water drawn from a net work
of Iakes which in turn depend on monsoon. The city has an intermittent supply
at a maximum rate of 90 lpcd which is far below an acceptable standard of an
urban area. To augment the water needs people draw water from wells. Gradual
depletion of lakes, steady pavement of surfaces in developing areas have greatly
increased the risk of less ground vKrater recharge resulting in steady lowering down
of the ground water table. Lowering of the ground water table often resulted in
 Ilnvironmental Hazards of Flooding 191
building settlement and crack formation due to soil settlement.
(6). Besides modern sewage treatment plants, three layge sewage farms are used
for the purpose of sewage treatment. The collected sewage is spread ovex large
extent of land which is used for cultivation of cattle feed is fiooded during rainy
seasons. Since the city has grown to a Iarger extent very often the sewage mixed
water finds its way in to the living area, not only causing health nuisance, l)ut
also po}lutes the ground water sources. This pxoblem has not only created the
need for abandoning of the sewage farms, but also construction of new treatment
plants with improved, co}lectioR and disposal system.
(7). The Madras urban area ls aat with hardly five metres above the MSL aBd has
two heavy monsoon seasons bringing in a host of environmental problems. Besides
planning for adequate drainage systeiiii, construction of drainage channels with
adequate fall to be effective is another major planning and eBgineering challenge.
(8). The three major rivers which serve as drainage channels discharge the fioodlng
water in to the sea at cli'fferent locations. At the mouth of these rivers, formation
of sand bars due to high tides is another major impedence for the smooth flow
of drainage water. During cyclonic seasons the high tides at sea not only impedes
the inflow, more often causes bacl< flow ixtal<ing the situation worse.
(9). Flooding and inundation cause enormous damage to the road surface during
the rainy season. Observations have revealed that traflic accidents durlng the xaiBy
season is very high due to very bad road conditions and the annual maintenance
cost of eroads has also been running in to millions.
(10). Given the topography and the c]imatical conditions o'f Madras the problem
of fiooding and inundation needs deeper investigation interms of thelr hydrauiics
and characteriseics. A Governmental Hydrological research institute established in
Madras has been studying the problems only to a limited extent. A comprehensive
model study may lead to clarification of many problems 1)efore investment decisions
are tal<en.
(ll). The Master plan for Madi'as stipulates a wide range of regulations to curb
developments along flood plains and inundation prone areas. Any developments
Iikely to be located closer to flood prone areas are carefully scrutinised before
permitting such activities. However more o'ften unauthorised low level activities
spring up in such areas, because of low land price.
(12). ILacl< of concrete plans and programmes for the low lying areas to deve}op
them as recreational centexs or for any other ventures is another handicap in
deterring such unauthorised developments.
(13). Construction of main and feeder drains have been done in many parts of the
city vnder different schemes. However lack of comprehensive system of drainage
schemes with adequate arrangements for the remova.1 of sandbars at the mouth
of the rivers have not been forthcoming and the problems continue to persist.

6. Future Efforts and Policy Needs:

In any urban situation where new land must be found for expansion, there
192 Environmental Science, Hokkaido Vol. 9, No. 2, 1986

are bound to be constxaints and opportunities and Sapporo and Madras are no
exceptions. Without planning control of any kind, market forces are likely to
determine a pattern of `clesirable' land use based on such factors as convenience,
iocation in relation to services, jobs or in the case of industry, in relation to tran-
sportation terminals, materials or a pool of labour. Thus many of the criteria
which may be forma}ly studied by planners are used (perhaps even sub-consciously)
by individuals or compEinies wishing to locate a home or a business. Therefore it
is absolutely vital to recognise that an effective flood control programme has four
elements.

a. Land use control of fiood prone areas. '

b. Land use management (particularly soil conservation) in the catchment area
c. Flood protection measures, and
d. Urban development thrust.
The Environmental hazards arising out of flooding and innundation in both
the cities reveal that the problems are basically manifestations of rapid growth of
cities and lack of timely action to combat the situation. Though both the cities
face almost similar problems, in view of the socio-economic conditions of the city
and peculiarity of the terrain conditions, the following are the suggestions relating
to the future effoxts and policy needs.

7. Relating to Salut)oro's situation: -

(i). Redensificatlon of low density areas of the existing city for an optlmum utiliza-
tion of the facilities already created without foregoing the overall living environment
by revising or redrafting the Zonal or land use plans to be more functional aRd
effective.

(2). Plan for increased accessibility to public transport systems and reduce the
dependance on private transport, thereby reducing wide roads construction and
mamtenance cost.
(3). Plan for exclusive drainage system atleast in elevated areas of the city to
avoid choking of the sewerage system in the low lying areas.
(4). Develop low lying or fiood prone areas for recreational purposes during lean
seasons and as flood moderators during rainy seasoRs.
(5). Undertake a comprehensive hydrological study for the Toyohira and Ishikari
river basins in view of the future developmental needs and investment decisions.

8. Relatiiig to Math'as's sitor,ation: -

(1>. Study and develop appropriate plans to remove all the unauthorised coRstruc-
tions and slums from the river rr)argins and low lying areas and resettle them at
locations which are easily accessible to employment centers.
(2). Improve the public transport system to be more efficient and suflicient to
provide for better accessiblity.
(3>. Construct adequate number of sewage treatment plants and plug all the unau-
thorised drainage inlets in the river courses.
 Environmental Hazard$ of Flooding 193
(4). Develop a plan for improvement of all water courses for xecreational or water
transport purposes.
(5). Allocate adequate fuRds towards carrylng out the various identified civil works
on a systematic basis.

References
1. An E'conomie Profile of the 'Urban poor; Slum clwellers of Maclras- (1980). A C(msultancy
Report by Operation Research Group (,[ndia).
2. Etsuo Yamarnura and Seiichi Kagaya (1980): Immigration of Farmers of Sapporo, the
Capital of IKokkaido. A stucly on migration and I)evelopment in Hokkaido. The
UNFDAINUPRII International Seminar on Planned Popu]ation I)istribution for Develop-
ment- Hokkaido Experienee, 76-86.
3. Structure Plan for Madras Metropolitan Area (198Q): Volume .I & 1,1, A Consultancy
Report by Alan 'l"urner Associates, London.
4. Seiichi Kagaya (1983): Studies on Corroboration of Analytical Methods for land use Control
{n Flood Esthnated Areas- I)octoral 'l'hesis.
5. Seiichi Kagaya (l986): A Case Stucly on the Residents Response to the Flood Hazards and
Flood Control }L(easures in the Inundated Areas of Sapporo ()ity- 'IEnvironmental Science,
I"Iokkaicle V 9 (1), 43-56.
6. Seiichi Kagaya and E"tsuo Yainamura (1983): A Study on St,rtictural Method for 'Physical
ancl I'Hblic Conflicts in a River Basin- World {1.Jniversity Congress.
7. 'l,"hirumurthy, A. M. (1982): I.nland Water Transport for Madras Metropolitan Area.
8. Thirumurthy, A. M. (1983): Land Pollution in Madras Metropolitan Area.
(,Receiwed 31. ,J)ily IS)86)