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CONTENTS
SECTION I
Basic Techniques of
Experimental Biochemistry
Introduction
Biochemistry is the chemistry of biological sys- in biochemistry. However, students will find that a
tems. Biological systems are complex, potentially review of the basic principles and units used in the
involving a variety of organisms, tissues, cell types, quantitative aspects of experimental biochemistry is
subcellular organelles, and specific types of mole- quite useful. This section is intended to provide
cules. Consequently, biochemists must separate such a review. In addition, it is valuable for students
and simplify these systems to define and interpret to understand the methods often used in experi-
the biochemical process under study. For example, mental biochemistry. Experiments 1 to 4 of this
biochemical studies on tissue slices or whole or- section deal specifically with these techniques: spec-
ganisms are followed by studies on cellular systems. trophotometry, chromatography, radioisotope trac-
Populations of cells are disrupted, separated, and ing, and electrophoresis. Finally, it is imperative
their subcellular organelles are studied. Biological that students understand the intricacies of data
molecules are studied in terms of their specific analysis. The final part of this Introduction dis-
mechanisms of action. By dividing the system un- cusses the principles underlying the basics of sta-
der study and elucidating the action of its compo- tistical analysis that are critical to the ability to de-
nent parts, it is possible to then define the func- termine the precision or error associated with
tion of a particular biological molecule or system quantitative data obtained in biochemical experi-
with respect to the cell, tissue, and/or organism as ments.
a whole.
Biochemical approaches to the simplification
and understanding of biological systems require Requirements for a Student of
two types of background. First, biochemists must Experimental Biochemistry
be thoroughly skilled in the basic principles and
techniques of chemistry, such as stoichiometry, This course is aimed at developing your interest in
photometry, organic chemistry, oxidation and re- and understanding of modern biochemical and
duction, chromatography, and kinetics. Second, molecular biological experimentation. This goal
biochemists must be familiar with the theories and necessitates a careful emphasis on the experimen-
principles of a wide variety of biological and phys- tal design, necessary controls, and successful com-
ical disciplines often used in biochemical studies, pletion of a wide variety of experiments. This goal
such as genetics, radioisotope tracing, bacteriology, will require additional efforts if you are to benefit
and electronics. This need reflects the biochemists’ fully from Experimental Biochemistry. First, you
ready acceptance and use of theories and techniques should familiarize yourself with general back-
from allied areas and disciplines. ground material concerning each experiment.
It is not possible or appropriate for this book to Three elements have been incorporated into the
summarize the many disciplines and principles used text to aid you in this effort: (1) Each experiment
3
4 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
is preceded by a short introduction designed to aid data, such as computer-derived graphs, chro-
you in understanding the various theories and tech- matograms, dried SDS-PAGE gels, and pho-
niques underlying the exercises. (2) The experi- tographs.
ments are divided into sections that deal with a spe- 2. Never record your data on separate sheets of
cific class of biological molecules. The introduction paper. Rather, record all your data directly in
preceding each section will serve as a review to pro- your notebook. You may consider using one
vide you with enough information to understand side of the notebook for raw data and calcula-
the experiments. This material is intended to rein- tions and the other side for results and inter-
force and supplement the knowledge you have pretation.
gained from biochemistry lecture courses and text- 3. All graphs and tables must be clearly and un-
books of general biochemistry, which you should ambiguously labeled. Be particularly careful to
review as needed. (3) Each experiment is followed specify units on the ordinate ( y-axis) and ab-
by a set of exercises and related references that will scissa (x-axis) of every graph.
allow you to further develop your interest and un- 4. The laboratory report for all experiments
derstanding of a particular method, technique, or should include:
topic.
a. a brief statement of purpose (why you are
Second, you must keep in mind that the ability
doing the experiment and what you wish to
to complete the experiments within allocated times
determine);
requires you to be familiar with the protocol of the
b. a brief account of the theory and design of
experiment before the start of the laboratory session.
the experiment, including a summary or
Each of the experiments contains a detailed, class
flow chart of the principal manipulative
tested, step-by-step protocol that will enable you to
steps;
perform, analyze, and interpret the experiments on
c. the raw data;
your own. Your success will depend on your ability
d. all calculations (if analysis requires a single,
to organize and understand the experimental pro-
repetitive calculation, a sample calculation
cedures, making efficient use of your time.
for one of a series is acceptable);
Third, efficient use of Experimental Biochemistry
e. results;
requires that you perform and interpret many cal-
f. conclusions and interpretations (the infor-
culations during the course of the laboratory sessions.
mation that you can derive from the results
Specifically, laboratory work for introductory bio-
of the experiment).
chemistry, unlike many introductory laboratory
courses, frequently requires you to use the results As stated earlier, all the experiments in this text-
of one assay to prepare and perform additional as- book have been class tested by hundreds of students.
says. Thus, you will have to understand fully what The experiments, therefore, show a high rate of
you are doing at each step and why you are doing success. Still, there may be times when your exper-
it. imental results are not particularly useful, or when
Finally, it is imperative that you maintain a com- they yield unexpected results that require an expla-
plete research notebook containing all your data, nation. If this is the case for a particular experiment,
calculations, graphs, tables, results, and conclu- discuss in the results section of your laboratory re-
sions. Your notebook should be so clear and com- port what may have gone wrong. Did you make an
plete that anyone can quickly understand what was improper dilution of one of the reagents? Did you
done and what results were obtained. Your instruc- accidentally omit one of the experimental steps? In
tor may provide additional specific instructions for the conclusion section, discuss what you may have
your laboratory reports; the following suggestions expected to see if the experiment had been suc-
may be helpful: cessful. Your knowledge of the theory underlying
the techniques, along with your understanding of
1. Use a large, bound notebook, preferably one the experimental protocol, should be sufficient to
with gridded pages. Such notebooks permit allow you to determine what type of data you may
the direct construction of data tables and allow have obtained under ideal conditions. By doing this,
you to attach records of primary accessory you are likely to turn what appears to be a failed
SECTION I Introduction 5
experiment into a valuable learning opportunity. It side the laboratory. When working with radioiso-
is never sufficient to say, “the experiment did not topes such as 32P, it is necessary to check your hands
work.” Attempt to understand why a particular ex- and shoes with a Geiger counter before leaving the
periment may not have worked as expected. laboratory.
The laboratory will be equipped with safety
showers, eyewash stations, emergency exits, sharps
Laboratory Safety containers, and fire extinguishers. Take the time to
become familiar with the location of all of these
Experimental Biochemistry employs the use of po- safety components. All “sharps” (razor blades, Pas-
tentially hazardous reagents. Strong acids, strong teur pipettes, broken glass, etc.) should be placed
bases, volatile compounds, flammable compounds, in the labeled “sharps” containers. Your laboratory
mutagenic compounds, corrosive compounds, ra- supervisor will instruct you on the proper use and
dioisotopes, electricity, and sharp objects are the disposal of all hazardous reagents. If you do become
tools of the biochemist. Like any other tool, these injured or have any questions about your health risk
are hazardous only when handled improperly. At during the course of the experiment, immediately
the beginning of each experimental protocol, we notify the laboratory instructor. Most laboratory
draw your attention to potential hazards that may supervisors have had training in dealing with fires
be associated with a particular reagent you are about and exposure to different chemicals. Have fun with
to use. the experiments, be safe, and always leave a clean
Safety goggles/glasses must be worn in the lab- laboratory workbench for the beginning of the next
oratory at all times. The main purpose of eye pro- laboratory session.
tection is to prevent chemical damage to the eye.
Laboratory eye protection should also be shatter-
proof to protect against debris that would be pro- Units of Biochemistry
duced from broken glass in the event of an acci-
dent. Although you may feel confident that you will Biochemistry employs a decade system of units
not be the cause of such an accident, it is impossi- based on the metric system. Thus, biochemists use
ble to ensure that your laboratory partner or neigh- units such as the mole or the liter and various sub-
boring groups will not have accidents. divisions that differ by three orders of magnitude
It is advised that you wear latex or vinyl exam (Table I-1). With knowledge of the molecular
gloves at all times in the laboratory. Even if a par- weight of a particular molecule and equation I-1, a
ticular experiment does not require the use of haz- given mass of a molecule can be converted to units
ardous chemicals, one can never be sure that those of moles:
from a previous experiment have been properly dis-
posed of. If volatile compounds are used, they (I-1)
should be stored under a fume hood at all times. If number of grams of molecule
Number of moles
possible, students should work with these materials molecular weight of molecule
under the fume hood as well. The large amounts of
materials that are often required for a laboratory As indicated in Table I-1, grams may be converted
group may soon fill the room with unpleasant and to milligrams and moles can be converted to mil-
potentially hazardous vapors. This is particularily limoles simply by multiplying each of the appro-
important if the reagent vapors are flammable (see priate values by 103. For example, 0.025 mol of a
Experiment 6) or radioactive (see Experiment 12). molecule is equal to 25 mmol:
Laboratory coats may be worn if desired. It is a
good idea to wear them when working with ra- 103 mmol
0.025 mol 25 mmol
dioisotopes, since very small quantities of a ra- 1 mol
dioactive solution can carry a significant amount of
activity. It is also a good idea to wash your hands Volume and mole values define the concentration
thoroughly with soap before leaving the laboratory terms of molar (M), millimolar (mM), and micro-
to ensure that you do not take any chemicals out- molar (M) as shown in equation I-2:
6 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
1 mole 1 liter
1 millimole (mmol) 103 moles 1 milliliter (ml) 103 liter
1 micromole (mol) 106 moles 1 microliter (l) 106 liter
1 nanomole (nmol) 109 moles 1 nanoliter (nl) 109 liter
1 picomole (pmol) 1012 moles
do you determine the level of precision of a set of In performing an assay, the biochemist aims for
measurements? How many data values or trials of accuracy. An assay method is accurate when the
an experiment must you perform before a mea- chance is high that its result will be quite close to
surement can be deemed precise? If you have a sin- the true value being measured. Since individual as-
gle value in a data set that is not in agreement with say results invariably fluctuate, an accurate assay
other members of the set, how do you determine method must be (1) highly precise (equivalently, re-
whether it is statistically acceptable to ignore the producible), having little variability when repeated,
aberrant value? In the subsections below, each of and (2) nearly unbiased, meaning that almost all of
these issues is addressed. the time the average result from a large number of
repeated assays of the same sample must be very
close to correct. Conversely, an assay method can
Accuracy, Precision, and Bias of a
be poor because it is imprecise, biased, or both. For
Quantitative Measurement
instance, a highly reproducible assay based on a very
When interpreting laboratory data, it is important poorly calibrated instrument may yield almost the
to recognize that individual measurements, such as same, but grossly incorrect result, every time it is
the concentration of a biological molecule observed applied to a given sample. Another assay may be
in an assay, are never entirely accurate. For instance, unbiased but also never close to correct, because its
the serum cholesterol measured by a medical labo- frequently large overestimates are balanced out by
ratory from a blood sample is not the exact average equally large and frequent underestimates.
serum cholesterol in the patient’s blood at the time The above concepts become more precise when
the sample was drawn. There are a number of rea- expressed mathematically. Let the Greek letter
sons for this, the most obvious being that choles- represent the true characteristic of a sample that we
terol may not have been quite uniformly mixed are trying to measure, and suppose the n observa-
throughout the bloodstream. The patient’s blood tions xi , i 1, . . . , n, represent the results of en-
and the sample drawn from it are never totally ho- tirely separate executions of an assay procedure.
mogeneous, the reagents used in the test are never Then (xi ) is the error of the ith assay. If we
totally pure or totally stable if repeatedly used, and square these errors and take their arithmetic mean,
the calibration of the autoanalyzer is never exactly we obtain the mean squared error (1/n)(xi )2
correct or totally stable. Even such small deviations of the group of n repetitions. If we could repeat the
from the ideal execution of the assay may some- assay an extremely large number of times, so that
times noticeably affect the results, and additional n is very large, the average result 苶x (1/n)xi would
undetected errors in execution sometimes produce eventually stabilize at a limiting value X 苶, the “long-
substantial errors. For these reasons, carrying out run” average value of the assay for the given sam-
the same experiment more than once, or even re- ple. The mean squared error would similarly stabi-
peatedly assaying the same sample, is bound to pro- lize at a value, MSE, that can be used as an index
duce somewhat different numerical results each of the assay’s inherent accuracy. In principle, a per-
time. fect assay method has MSE 0 for all samples, but
Now, although the quantity being measured is no such assay exists. The bias of the assay is (X 苶
a property of the particular sample under study, the ) and its square, (X 苶 )2, is a component of the
degree of expected fluctuation from one measure- MSE. The difference MSE Bias2 MSE
ment to another depends most fundamentally on 苶 )2 2 is a measure of inherent variability
(X
the measurement process itself—that is, how the of the assay, known as its variance. While we can
assay is conducted—rather than on the particular never determine the variance of an assay exactly, be-
sample. Since, depending on the circumstances, the cause that would require performing the assay an
amount of fluctuation among attempts to measure impossibly large number of times, we can estimate
the same quantity may be trivial or crucially im- it by
portant, we now consider briefly some basic con-
cepts that help the biochemist deal with variability 1
among measurements.
s2
n1 冱 (xi 苶x)2
8 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
known technically as the sample variance. By taking provement in precision obtained by replicating an
its square root, assay n times is a reduction in the SD by a factor
of [1 (1/兹n 苶)], meaning that two repetitions yield
莦莦
n 1 冱莦莦莦莦
冪莦 (x 苶x)莦
1 2 about a 29% reduction in SD, three repetitions a
s i
42% reduction, and four repetitions a 50% reduc-
tion. However, the reduction obtained by An1 rel-
we obtain a measure of variability in the same units ative to that achieved by An is [1 (兹n 苶/兹n
苶苶苶)],
1
as the individual assay results. This measure of or 18%, for three versus two repetitions, 13% for
fluctuation among repeated assays is known as the four versus three, and 11% for five versus four.
sample standard deviation, abbreviated SD. The Thus, the relative benefit of each additional repe-
mean, x苶, and standard deviation, SD, together tition declines with n, and the comparison of the
represent a compact summary of a group of re- benefit to the cost of an additional repetition gen-
peated assays. For example, if the absorbance val- erally becomes less favorable to additional repeti-
ues of three identically prepared solutions at a tions as n increases. Nevertheless, in principle any
particular wavelength are determined to be 0.50, desired level of precision may be achieved by using
0.44, and 0.32, then their mean value is x苶 0.42 enough repetitions, although the extra repetitions
and their SD is will not change the bias of the assay.
The quantity s2/n, which represents the vari-
冪莦莦
2 2 2
0.08 0.02 0.10
s 兹0 苶.0
苶0苶8
苶4
苶 0.09 ability among arithmetic means (i.e., simple aver-
2
ages) of n repetitions, is known as the standard
error of the mean, and is abbreviated either as SEM
It is common to report such results as x苶
SD, for
or SE. Results of assays involving n repetitions,
example, 0.42
0.09, although this notation can
such as the absorbance results reported earlier as
lead to some unfortunate confusion, as we shall see
x苶
SD 0.42
0.09 are also frequently reported
below.
as 苶x
SE, which in this case is 0.42
(0.09/兹3 苶) 0.42
0.05. Confusion can arise if ei-
Precision of a Replicated Assay
ther this 苶x
SE or the 苶x
SD format is used with-
Intuitively, it seems that one way to improve the ac- out specific indication of whether it is SD or SE
curacy of an assay is to do it more than once and that follows the reported mean. The latter is prefer-
take the average of the repetitions as your result. In able whenever the purpose is to represent the pre-
principle, random overestimation and underesti- cision of the assay’s summary result rather than the
mation by the individual results will cancel one an- variability of the individual measurements that have
other out in the average, leaving a more accurate contributed to it. This is almost always the case with
result than can be obtained from only one mea- chemical analyses, and we recommend the 苶x
SE
surement. This is true if the assay has been prop- notation, supplemented by the number of repli-
erly calibrated, so that its bias is very low. In that cates, n, for general use. Thus, in the example, we
case, the accuracy of the assay depends almost en- would report an absorbance of 0.42
0.05 (SE),
tirely on its precision, which is represented by the from three replications.
SD, with a precise assay having a small SD. Using When faced with a choice between two assays
the SD, we may determine how precision improves you may compare either their SDs, or their stan-
with each additional repetition. Suppose we replace dard errors for any fixed n, to determine which as-
the procedure of a single assay A with standard de- say is most useful. The more precise assay is gen-
viation s by a new procedure, which involves n rep- erally preferred if biases are similar, assuming costs
etitions of A, with only the average result reported. and other practical considerations are comparable
Call this “improved” assay An. Thus, each single re- as well. In such circumstances, an assay with SD
sult of the assay An is an average of n results of A. s 0.09 is much preferable to one with s 0.36;
Though it is beyond the scope of this book to similarly, a triplicate assay procedure with SE
demonstrate, it may be shown that the standard de- 0.02 is greatly preferable to another triplicate pro-
viation of the assay An is just s/兹n 苶. Thus, the im- cedure with SE 0.07.
SECTION I Introduction 9
For an unbiased assay the SE may also often be Outlying Data Values
used to form a range, centered on the reported as-
say result, that has a known probability of contain- Suppose that you perform an identical assay four
ing the true value for the sample being studied. times and obtain the following values: 0.47, 0.53,
This range, known as a confidence interval, sum- 1.53, and 0.45. Within this small data set, the value
marizes the information that the assay provides of 1.53 stands out as apparently different. If all four
about the sample in a manner that incorporates the of these values are included in the reported assay
underlying fuzziness of our knowledge due to ran- result, we report 0.75
0.26 (SE) from four repli-
dom variability in the assay process. For instance, cates. This measurement does not appear particu-
x苶
4.31 SE gives a 95% confidence interval for larly precise, since the error associated with the
the true value estimated by a triplicate assay, and measurement is about 35% of its value. By ignor-
x苶
3.19 SE gives a 95% confidence interval for ing the apparently aberrant value of 1.53, however,
an assay in quadruplicate. For the triplicate ab- you may report 0.48
0.02. It is tempting to as-
sorbance data, we have 0.42
4.31 0.05 sume that the 1.53 must have resulted from a mis-
0.42
0.22, or 0.20 to 0.64. In the long-run, 19 of take, and that the latter result is likely more accu-
20 (95%) of such ranges obtained from triplicate rate and far more precise than the former.
assays using the given method will include the true Unfortunately, in many such instances this is falla-
absorbance of the sample, though we cannot say ex- cious, and deleting the apparently outlying number
actly where within the interval that true value lies. results in a less accurate assay result with misrep-
However, for 1 in 20 assays (5%), the true ab- resentation of its precision. The problem results
sorbance will be outside the interval. For a higher from our intuitive inclination to regard the 1.53 as
confidence such intervals may be widened, while in- probably wrong because it is so deviant from the
tervals obtained using a smaller multiplier will ex- other three values, when an alternative plausible ex-
clude the true concentration more than 5% of the planation is that any of the other three values is
times they are employed. The appropriate multi- somewhat, but not unusually, lower than might be
plier of the SEM depends on both n and the de- expected. When three or four numbers are obtained
sired degree of confidence, here 95%. When the from a situation partially governed by chance, it is
SD of an assay is known to good accuracy (e.g. re- not at all unusual for one of them to depart further
ported by an instrument manufacturer based on from the others than intuition might suggest. When
considerable data on the performance of the in- such numbers are deleted, the resulting report may
strument over the range of likely values) confidence be very misleading.
intervals may be constructed using reported rather Yet there are circumstances in which single
than observed variability. These intervals require gross errors contaminate otherwise valid assays, and
smaller multipliers, and hence will tend to be nar- it is desirable to be able to delete such errors and
rower, than those based only on the observed repli- use the remaining repetitions of the assay. How can
cations for an individual assay. The choice of mul- we tell when to delete such outlying values, and
tiplier is beyond the scope of this book. when it is necessary to retain them and accept the
A consequence of the above ideas is a rule of possibility that our assay is less precise than we had
thumb that to obtain adequate precision with some hoped?
assurance that gross error has been avoided, at rea- The first and best approach should be to exam-
sonable cost, you will often be well served to per- ine the assay procedure that was used to try to find
form three or four trials of a single experiment. The an explanation (e.g., a technical error or even a data
experiments outlined in this textbook rarely call for recording error) for the outlying value. If a sub-
such replication, due to time and financial con- stantial technical error is found, then the outlying
straints of the educational process. Remember, how- value may be discarded, and if possible the assay
ever, that a properly designed experiment should be per- should be run again to replace it. If no such expla-
formed multiple times, and that the data should be nation is found, however, we still may wish to dis-
presented with a well-defined statistical analysis to allow card grossly aberrant values rather than repeat the
the reader to ascertain the precision of the experiment. entire set of n repetitions of the assay. One approach
10 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
is to assume a particular mathematical model that druplicate assays such as the example. Their coun-
describes, in terms of probability, the amounts by terparts for triplicate assays are higher, respectively,
which repetitions of the same assay vary from one 25.5, 127.3, and 1273.3. Therefore, ratios that jus-
another, and then to discard an outlying value only tify discarding data points from a quadruplicate as-
when it seems quite discrepant from what that say may well indicate they should be retained in a
model predicts. The model commonly used is the triplicate assay. Note that many a practicing biochemist
gaussian (or “normal”) probability distribution, uses numbers far lower than any of these, without ap-
which is a reasonable approximation of the behav- preciating that a substantial fraction of good results is
ior of random fluctuations for many assays (though being discarded. Unless true large errors are common,
by no means all). This model suggests the follow- this frequently yields assays that have lower precision
ing procedure: and accuracy than the full data would provide, with far
lower precision and accuracy than is claimed for them.
1. Calculate the mean and SD for all observations
other than the outlying value.
2. Subtract the calculated mean from the out-
Presentation of Experimental
lying value, and divide by the calculated SD.
For the data above, this yields (1.530 Data
0.483)/0.024 43.6.
3. Discard the outlying value if the absolute value There are several options available in the presenta-
of this number is too large. In other words, the tion of experimental data. Undoubtedly the two
outlying value is discarded when it is too far most popular formats are tables and graphs, since
from the mean of the other values, in units of both allow a great deal of material to be presented
their SD. in a concise manner. Considerations for each of
these formats are presented below.
But how many “SD units” is too far? Specifi-
cally, is the ratio of 43.6 large enough to discard the
Data Tables
outlying datum? To answer this question, we must
decide how much good data we are willing to throw Remember that a data table should be designed to
away, each time biasing our result and exaggerating present a set of data as clearly and concisely as pos-
its precision, in order to protect ourselves against sible. All columns and rows within the table should
error resulting from including genuinely erroneous be clearly defined with respect to the identity and
values. Suppose you feel that genuine gross errors units associated with each value. In addition, the
are not unusual, and thus would be willing to throw table should be titled to allow the reader to deter-
away 1 in 20 good results in order to obtain such mine quickly what features of the table are relevant
protection. Then a calculation involving probabil- to the study or experiment. Table I-2 presents ex-
ities indicates that ratios larger than 6.2 justify dis- amples of both a poorly designed and a properly
carding the outlier. However, if you believe that designed data table. Note that the poorly designed
genuine gross errors are rarer, and are willing to table has no title, is very redundant, is cluttered,
throw out only 1% of good results in order to pro- and is presented in a manner that does not allow
tect against it, the required multiple is 14.1. In ei- the reader to easily see differences between (to com-
ther case, the value of 1.53 in the above example pare) trials of the same experiment. The properly
would be discarded. The observed ratio of 43.6 is designed data table, in contrast, features the exper-
slightly below the criterion ratio of 44.7 that should imental values and quickly draws the reader’s at-
be used if you are willing to discard only 1 in 1000 tention to differences between the values.
good data points. Although that policy may well be
too conservative, a biochemist adhering to it would
Graphs
retain the value of 1.53, and report the result of
0.75
0.26 (SE) from four replications. As with data tables, graphs are a good tool for pre-
The numerical criteria given above (for decid- senting a large amount of experimental data in a
ing when the calculated ratio is large enough to concise manner. It is probably a better format to
justify discarding a datum) are specifically for qua- use if you wish to draw the reader’s attention quickly
SECTION I Introduction 11
to differences in experimental data. The two most portant when you are attempting to determine the
commonly used types of graphs in experimental activity of an enzyme solution or trying to deter-
biochemistry are the bar graph and the line graph. mine a specific value for an unknown sample with
Figure I-1 presents two simple sets of enzyme ki- the use of a standard curve. Although it is possible
netic data in the bar graph and the line graph for- to determine a best-fit line through a set of non-
mat. In general, line graphs are preferable to bar ideal data manually with the use of the least squares
graphs for the presentation of data in which the x- formula, the process can be quite time consuming
axis variables are numbers along a continuum, such and more prone to human error than the computer-
as pH, time, wavelength, etc. Line graphs should based method. Experiment with different software
always be designed with the controlled variable as the graphing programs until you find one with which
abscissa (x-axis) and the experimentally observed vari- you are comfortable.
able as the ordinate ( y-axis). For example, if you de-
termined the activity of an enzyme at several dif-
ferent pH values, you should plot units of enzyme To the Instructor
activity on the y-axis versus pH on the x-axis. As
with the data table, the axes of any graph should be The third edition of Experimental Biochemistry is an
clearly labeled with respect to identity and units. introductory biochemistry laboratory textbook tar-
Bar graphs are more frequently used when the con- geted to juniors, seniors, and first-year graduate stu-
trolled variable is not numerical, as in the example dents in biochemistry, chemistry, microbiology, bi-
shown in Figure I-1. ology, and/or all related disciplines. As such, we
Whenever possible, line and bar graphs should assume that students using this book will: (1) have
be constructed with the use of computer graphing completed an introductory lecture and laboratory
programs (CricketGraph, Excel, Lotus, etc.). Aside course in organic chemistry; (2) be thoroughly fa-
from the fact that they produce graphs that are uni- miliar with the mathematics of introductory chem-
form and visually attractive, they have the added ca- istry; and (3) be enrolled in, or have completed, an
pability of fitting non-ideal data to a “best-fit” line introductory biochemistry lecture course. Education
or polynomial equation. This operation of fitting a in biology, bacteriology, and/or physical chemistry,
set of data to a best-fit line becomes extremely im- although helpful, is not essential for this course.
12 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
0.6
are forced to do this waste a great deal of time de-
signing and carrying out experiments that are un-
0.4 successful. Such students may become frustrated,
lose interest in the material, and gain little practi-
0.2 cal experience from the course. To avoid this situ-
ation, this edition of Experimental Biochemistry in-
0 cludes very detailed, step-by-step protocols that will
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time of reaction (min)
guide the students through each of the 25 experi-
ments. This by no means reduces the experiments
to a “cookbook” format; there are many portions
throughout the book that require students to
demonstrate the depth of their knowledge on each
120 Bar graph individual topic. This same format is also valuable
to instructors, limiting the time needed to modify
Enzyme activity (mol/min/mg)
istry, however, makes use of increasingly more so- reagent composition resulting from scaling up the
phisticated procedures and equipment. We would preparation of solutions. If you find that you must
be deficient if we avoided contact with sophisticated make slight variations of the protocol for a partic-
modern techniques such as scintillation counting, ular trial of an experiment due to the performance
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), of a particular set of reagents (volumes, incubation
sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel elec- times, etc.), make the change and bring it to the
trophoresis (SDS-PAGE), agarose gel electro- class’s attention at the beginning of the experiment.
phoresis, and the like. This book must therefore The protocols provided for each experiment are the
represent compromises between teaching require- “ideal” conditions that we have established from
ments and budgetary realities. Where appropriate, years of class testing.
we offer optional methods for particular applica- We are confident that you will enjoy this text-
tions that yield similar experimental results. book and find it to be very valuable in your efforts
We urge instructors to add slight modifications to design and/or update your biochemistry labora-
to the experiments to fit their needs. If you are able tory course.
to find a more inexpensive source for a reagent, we
do not discourage you from using it. If you think
that you can perform a similar experiment with a
REFERENCES
less expensive apparatus or instrument, we encour-
age you to try it. The sources for the commercially
Garret, R. H., and Grisham, C. M. (1995). Biochemistry.
available reagents that we suggest for each experi- Orlando, FL: Saunders.
ment are included simply to aid the instructor in Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
obtaining the materials. We have found, however, (1993). Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York:
that the quality control procedures performed on Worth.
commercially available reagents are more reliable, Lockhart, R. S. (1998). Introduction to Statistics and Data
especially in the case of complex reagents. Analysis. New York: Freeman.
One final point is worth specific attention. We Mathews, C. K., and van Holde, K. E. (1990). Biochem-
strongly encourage that the experiment be per- istry. Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
formed by the instructor and/or teaching assistants Moore, D. S. (1998). The Basic Practice of Statistics. New
York: Freeman.
in its entirety prior to the beginning of the class ex-
Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Free-
periment. Further, we strongly recommend that man.
this “pre-lab” be performed using the exact same Voet, D., and Voet, J. G. (1990). Biochemistry. New
bulk reagents that the class will be using. This York: Wiley.
avoids many of the potential problems of variations Wilson, K., and Walker, J. (1995). Principles and Tech-
in tissue samples, lot-to-lot variation among com- niques of Practical Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York:
mercially available reagents, and variation in Cambridge University Press.
q
EXPERIMENT 1
Photometry
0.4
spectrum is a plot representing the absorbance of a
solution at a number of wavelengths. Why does a 0.3 450
solution of riboflavin appear yellow to the eye? As 370
shown in Figure 1-1, riboflavin absorbs light at 0.2
450 nm, which is in the blue region of visible light.
Because of this, red and yellow light will be trans- 0.1
mitted through the solution and detected by the
eye. Figure 1-1 also shows that riboflavin absorbs 300 400 500
light strongly at 260 and 370 nm. Although this will Wavelength (nm)
not influence the apparent color of the solution
(since these wavelengths lie outside the range of vis- Figure 1-1 Absorption spectrum of riboflavin
ible light), these absorption events in the UV range (22 M in 0.1 M sodium phosphate,
can be detected with a spectrophotometer. pH 7.06, in 1-cm light path).
15
16 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Wavelength
selector
I0 I
Bandwidth Light-
(1 2) detecting
photocell or
Light phototube Meter
source
Slit
Sample tube
or cuvette
Lambert’s law gives rise to the following equa- Beer’s law recognizes the relationship between
tion (see Fig. 1-2): the absorbance of a solution and the concentration
of light absorbing compound(s) in that solution. It
(1-1) states that light absorption is proportional to the
I I0 el number of molecules per unit volume of light-
absorbing compound through which the light
where I0 intensity of the incident light; I in- passes. Beer’s law is based on the observation that
tensity of the transmitted light; l length of light a solution at concentration c and length l absorbs
path (in centimeters); and absorption coeffi- twice as much light as a solution at concentration
cient of the medium. Converting Equation 1-1 to c/2 and length l. In other words, as the concentra-
the logarithmic form, we have: tion of the light-absorbing compound doubles, so
too will the amount of light absorbed over a given
(1-2) pathlength of light.
ln I0/I l Because of the concentration factors and K,
Beer’s law and Lambert’s law can easily be com-
Using logarithms to the base 10, the absorption co- bined to create Equation 1-5. Beer’s law states that
efficient () is converted to a proportionality con- the proportionality constant K is related to the con-
stant (K): centration of the absorbing solute.
(1-3) (1-5)
2.303K εc K
The extinction coefficient ε is constant at a given sorption spectrum can be generated by measuring
wavelength for a given solute that absorbs light. As the absorbance of the compound in solution at a
discussed later, the extinction coefficient may de- variety of wavelengths. Modern spectrophotome-
pend strongly on both the ionic strength and the ters are often equipped with an automatic scanning
pH of the solution in which the solute resides. capability that allows the investigator to produce a
What is the extinction coefficient? This term al- full absorption spectrum easily and rapidly. By com-
lows you to relate the concentration of the light- paring the absorption spectrum of an unknown
absorbing compound and the pathlength of inci- compound with a number of spectra produced from
dent light to the absorbance of a solution. The solutions containing known compounds, insight can
extinction coefficient for a compound in solution is be gained into the identity of the compound(s) in
dependent on both the solvent used and the wave- the unknown solution.
length of light at which the absorbance is measured. Often, it is not necessary to produce a full ab-
Clearly, riboflavin absorbs more light at 260 nm sorption spectrum to identify a compound, partic-
than at 450 nm. This fact will be reflected in the ularly if the molecule absorbs light at unique or un-
extinction coefficients for riboflavin at these two usual wavelengths. For example, the nitrogenous
wavelengths (the extinction coefficient will be bases that comprise nucleic acids are known to ab-
higher at 260 nm than at 450 nm). sorb strongly at 260 nm. The aromatic rings on
Since absorbance values are unitless, the ex- tryptophan and tyrosine (amino acids that are found
tinction coefficient is most often expressed in units in proteins) are known to absorb strongly at
of inverse concentration times inverse pathlength 280 nm. Many different iron-containing (heme)
(i.e., M1 cm1 or mM1 cm1), since ε A/cl. proteins or cytochromes show a distinct absorbance
The molar extinction coefficient for compound X maxima in the visible range from 500 to 600 nm,
is equal to the absorbance of a 1 M solution of that as well as at about 400 nm. The profiles of these
compound in a particular solvent at a particular absorption spectra may even provide information
wavelength in a pathlength of 1 cm. The millimo- about the oxidation state of the heme group in the
lar extinction coefficient for compound X is equal protein (whether it is in the oxidized or reduced
to the absorbance of a 1 mM solution of that com- form).
pound in a particular solvent at a particular wave- You must keep in mind that all absorption spec-
length in a pathlength of 1 cm. Extinction coeffi- tra and extinction coefficients are presented in the
cients are also commonly expressed in units of context of a defined pH and salt concentration (ionic
(mg/ml)1 cm1. The greater the extinction coef- strength). As demonstrated in Figure 1-3, changing
ficient under a particular condition (solvent and one of these conditions may have a dramatic effect
wavelength), the greater the amount of light ab- on the position and height of one or more peaks
sorbed. This idea becomes important when con- within the spectrum. This is particularly true if the
sidering the sensitivity associated with quantifying compound has ionizable groups within or adjacent
a compound by measuring the absorbance of a so- to its chromophoric (light-absorbing) center. Recall
lution at a particular wavelength. For example, since that the ability to absorb light is dependent on the
riboflavin has a greater extinction coefficient at arrangement and energy state of the electrons sur-
260 nm than at 450 nm, an absorbance reading rounding the atoms that make up the molecule. If
taken at 260 nm would be much more useful in at- the local environment of the chromophoric center
tempting to determine the concentration of a di- is altered by changes in pH, ionic strength, or sol-
lute solution of this compound. vent composition, this could potentially have a great
effect on the molecule’s ability to interact with pho-
tons of specific wavelengths, altering the profile of
Qualitative Spectrophotometric Assays
the absorption spectrum.
Because many compounds of biological interest ab-
sorb light in the UV, visible, and/or near-IR wave-
Quantitative Spectrophotometric Assays
lengths, spectrophotometry can be a very useful
technique in identifying unknown compounds. As stated earlier, spectrophotometry can also be
When given a sample of a pure compound, an ab- used to quantitate the amount of a compound in
18 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Adenine Uracil
1.2 1.2
A260
At pH 7.0 = 0.82 = 5.5
A280 0.15
0.8 0.8
Absorbance
Absorbance
0.4 0.4
A260
At pH 7.0 = 1.36 = 7.6
A280 0.18
Figure 1-3 Absorption spectra of 0.1 mM adenine and uracil in a 1 cm cuvette (– – – – –) in 6 N HCl.
(———) pH 7.0. (— — —) pH 13.0.
solution. The Beer–Lambert law (A εcl ) allows changes with concentration. For instance, adeno-
you to relate the absorbance of a solution to the sine is known to form dimers at high concentra-
concentration of a particular solute in that solution tions. Adenosine dimers absorb less light than
using the light pathlength and the extinction coef- adenosine monomers. Because of this, the extinc-
ficient for that solute. The extinction coefficient for tion coefficient for an adenosine solution at high
hundreds of molecules at specified conditions have concentration will be less than that of a dilute
been published. The Beer–Lambert law therefore adenosine solution at a given wavelength.
allows you to predict the absorbance that will re- Is it possible to determine the concentration of
sult from a solution containing a known concen- a single compound in solution with other com-
tration of a solute. Similarly, you can determine the pounds? This is possible if the molecule of interest
concentration of a molecule in solution, provided absorbs light at a wavelength where the other mol-
the extinction coefficient is known. If an extinction ecules present in solution do not absorb light. Sup-
coefficient is not available, a value can be generated pose that you have a mixture of compounds, X, Y,
for a particular condition and wavelength, provided and Z, as well as extinction coefficients for each at
you know the concentration of the compound and a variety of wavelengths. Compound X absorbs
the pathlength of light through the photocell or cu- light at 230, 280, and 460 nm, while Y and Z ab-
vette. Beer’s law predicts that absorbance is directly sorb light at only 230 and 280 nm. An absorbance
proportional to the concentration of the compound. reading at 460 nm will be sufficient to allow you to
Though this is true for most molecules, it is a good calculate the concentration of compound X in the
practice to measure the absorbance of several con- impure solution. Because compound X is the only
centrations of the compound when determining the molecule that absorbs light at this wavelength, you
extinction coefficient. Deviations from Beer’s law can attribute all of the absorbance at 460 nm to
can occur if the chemical nature of the solute compound X and accurately quantify this molecule
EXPERIMENT 1 Photometry 19
Absorbance
Suppose you knew the concentrations of Y and
Z in the mixture of X, Y, and Z above. In this case,
it would be possible to calculate the concentration Test
solution Nonlinear
of compound X with an absorbance reading mea- invalid range
sured at 230 or 280 nm. If you know the extinction
coefficients for Y and Z at these wavelengths, you
could use these and the concentrations of Y and Z
to subtract the absorbance contributions from these
two molecules. The remainder of the absorbance at Amount of reactant
230 or 280 nm, along with the extinction coeffi-
cients for compound X at these wavelengths, could Figure 1-4 Standard curve for a color-forming
then be used to calculate the concentration of X in quantitative reaction. The ab-
the mixture. Note that this type of analysis is pos- sorbance of the test solution can be
sible only if you know that X, Y, and Z are the only used with the standard curve to de-
compounds present in the mixture that absorb light termine the concentration of a com-
at 230 nm or 280 nm. pound in the test solution.
The principles of quantitative spectrophoto-
metric assays that we have discussed involve direct
photometric measurements of light-absorbing
compounds. It is not always the case, however, that orless compound, the absorbance can be used to de-
compounds of biological interest absorb light at a termine the concentration of the compound in so-
unique wavelength. If a molecule does not absorb lution by comparing where the absorbance reading
light, it can often undergo a reaction with other lies in relation to the concentrations of the com-
molecules to produce a compound that does absorb pound used to produce the standard curve.
light (Equation 1-8). Two concepts are very important to keep in
mind when designing a colorimetric assay in which
(1-8) the color forms as the result of a chemical reaction:
Colorless Color proportional the color-forming reagents must be present in excess, and
Excess of the data used to produce the standard curve must show
compound to amount
color-forming 88n a linear relationship between absorbance and concentra-
to be of colorless
reagents tion of the compound (changes in absorbance must be di-
assayed compound
rectly proportional to changes in concentration of the com-
You can quantify the amount of the colored com- pound under study). If the color-forming reagents are
pound (and, therefore, the amount of the colorless not in excess, the amount of colored product
compound) if the extinction coefficient and the re- formed may be limited by these reagents rather than
action stoichiometry are known. It is also possible by the amount of colorless compound being ana-
to quantify the amount of colorless compound in lyzed. In other words, the reaction system will be-
an unknown by preparing a “standard curve.” Here, come saturated at high concentrations of the col-
the color-forming reagents react with a known se- orless compound. The result of this is that the
ries of increasing concentrations of the colorless change in absorbance may no longer be directly
compound, and the absorbance at a defined wave- proportional to the amount of the colorless com-
length is measured against a “blank” containing pound present, but by the amount of the color-
only the color-forming reagents (no colorless com- forming reagents present. These nonlinear data at
pound) (Fig. 1-4). If the same procedure is per- high concentrations of the compound are the greatest
formed on an unknown (test) solution of the col- source of student error in quantitative spectrophotome-
20 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
try. If the absorbance of the unknown solution is found between 495 and 505 nm. From any light source,
to lie outside the linear range of the standard curve, the less intensity is obtained with light of greater pu-
experiment must be performed again on a dilution of the rity. On the other hand, the greater the spectral pu-
original unknown solution. The effect of the dilution rity of monochromatic light, the greater the sensi-
can then be taken into account when determining tivity and resolution of the measurements.
the concentration of the compound in the original Spectrophotometers generate the desired wave-
solution. It is not acceptable to dilute the completed re- length of light by use of a wavelength selector. The
action that formed a colored solution with water or other simplest wavelength selectors are one or more ab-
reagent to force the absorbance value into the linear sorption filters that screen out light above and be-
range of the standard curve. If each of the completed low specific wavelengths. Many of the older col-
colored solutions used to generate the standard orimeters employ such filters because of their
curve were diluted to the same extent, the unknown simplicity and low cost. However, these filters gen-
solution would once again be found to have an ab- erally have broad transmission ranges, and the res-
sorbance value in the nonlinear portion of the stan- olution of absorption spectra is low (i.e., peaks are
dard curve. “smeared” or obscured). Moreover, measurements
can be made only at wavelengths for which filters
Construction and Properties of are available. Most modern spectrophotometers
Spectrophotometers overcome these deficiencies through use of mono-
chrometers containing a prism or diffraction grat-
Photometers, colorimeters, and spectrophotome-
ing. Such monochrometers generate relatively pure
ters employ the basic components indicated in Fig-
light at any wavelength over a wide range.
ure 1-2. Each of these components can have a
A wavelength in the region of maximum ab-
marked effect on the efficiency of any colorimetric
sorption is usually employed in assays of the con-
assay. Accordingly, it is essential to consider each of
centration of colored compounds. This is not ab-
the components in turn.
solutely necessary, however, since Beer’s law may be
Light Source. The light source must be capable of expected to hold true at all wavelengths at which
emitting a steady amount of light of sufficient en- there is appreciable absorption. Thus, when an in-
ergy in the range of wavelengths required for the terfering substance absorbs at the wavelength of
analysis of the sample. Most spectrophotometers maximal absorption of the substance being mea-
employ a constant voltage-regulated tungsten lamp sured, another wavelength at which the compound
for spectral analyses in the range of 340 to 900 nm. of interest absorbs light may be utilized.
More sophisticated spectrophotometers, which also
have the capability for analyses in the UV range, Slit. The intensity of light emitted through any
employ an additional constant voltage-stabilized filter or monochrometer may be too intense or too
H2-deuterium lamp that emits light in the range of weak for a light-sensing device to record. It is there-
200 to 360 nm. fore necessary to be able to adjust the intensity of
the incident light (I0) by placing a pair of baffles in
Wavelength Selector. Spectrophotometry re-
the light path to form a slit. Simple colorimeters
quires assay of absorbance at defined wavelengths.
often have a fixed slit, but more sophisticated spec-
Usually, it is not possible to have light representa-
trophotometers usually have a variable-slit-width
tive of a single wavelength. Therefore, when we
adjustment mechanism.
speak of monochromatic light of, say, 500 nm, we
usually mean a source that has its maximum emis-
sion at this wavelength, with progressively less en- Sample Tubes or Cuvettes. It follows from Lam-
ergy at longer and shorter wavelengths. Thus, a to- bert’s law that if absorbance is to be used to mea-
tally correct description of this light must also sure concentration, the length of the light path tra-
specify a spectral bandwidth (Fig. 1-2), which is the versed by light in the sample container (i.e., a
range of wavelengths represented. For example, sample tube if it is test-tube shaped, or sample cu-
95% of the energy from a 500-nm light source falls vette if rectilinear in shape) must be the same as
EXPERIMENT 1 Photometry 21
that in the blank. Thus, the sample tube or cuvette sion, several secondary electrons are emitted. Each
must have the same internal thickness as the blank. of these, in turn, strikes the second dynode. The
This is generally true for rectilinear cuvettes, but it process is repeated until the original photocurrent
cannot be assumed that all sample tubes are iden- is amplified by as much as 100,000 times. Such pho-
tical in this respect. You should always check the tomultipliers are very sensitive light detectors.
absorbance characteristics of sample tubes and ob-
tain a standardized set for spectrophotometric mea-
surements. Supplies and Reagents
Light-Detecting Phototubes or Photocells. Spec- Colorimeter or spectrophotometer
trophotometers use either a photovoltaic cell or a Sample tubes and cuvettes (or colorimeter tubes for the
vacuum phototube to detect the transmitted light colorimeter)
(I ) in a light system. Photovoltaic cells contain a 5 105 M riboflavin and 5 105 M adenosine or any
photosensitve semiconductor (e.g., selenium) sand- other ribonucleoside
wiched between a transparent metal film and an 1 mg/ml solution of lysozyme
iron plate. Light falling on the surface of the cell Solution of lysozyme at unknown concentration
causes a flow of electrons from the selenium to the 1% (wt/vol) CuSO4 5H2O
iron, thereby generating an electromotive force. If 2% (wt/vol) sodium tartrate
the circuit is closed through an ammeter, the cur- 2% (wt/vol) Na2CO3 in 0.1 N NaOH
rent induced is proportional, within a certain range, Folin–Ciocalteau reagent (2 N)
to the intensity of light transmitted on the selenium
(Fig. 1-5). The cell is limited by low sensitivity (it
does not detect light of very low intensity) and is Protocol
insensitive to wavelengths shorter than 270 nm and
longer than 700 nm.
Examination of an Absorption Spectrum
Vacuum phototubes have two electrodes that
have a maintained potential difference. The cath- This exercise can be performed easily and rapidly
ode (negative electrode) consists of a plate coated using a Beckman DU-64 spectrophotometer or any
with a photosensitive metal. Radiation incident spectrophotometer having a “scanning wavelength”
upon the photosensitive cathode causes an emission capacity. Place a 1-ml sample of 5 105 M ri-
of electrons (the photoelectric effect), which are boflavin in a 1-cm pathlength quartz cuvette. Mea-
collected at the anode (the positive electrode). The sure the absorbance of the sample at wavelengths
resulting photocurrent can be readily amplified and ranging from 220 to 620 nm. If your spectropho-
measured (Fig. 1-5). tometer is equipped with an RS232 outlet, the ab-
Because of differences among photosensitive sorbances at these wavelengths can be relayed to a
cathodes, certain phototubes are more sensitive in printer to obtain the full absorption spectrum. If
certain regions of the light spectrum. Others are the spectrophotometer that you are using is not au-
more sensitive when used in combination with pre- tomatically able to scan a range of wavelengths, the
liminary filters that screen out specific regions of same procedure can be done manually by increas-
the spectrum. Accordingly, certain spectropho- ing the wavelength at 10-nm intervals over this
tometers require an additional filter or a special red- range (220 to 620 nm). Note that each change of wave-
sensitive phototube when they operate in the red length will require you to adjust the slit width or sensi-
or near-IR ranges of the light spectrum. tivity control for the blank to a new 100% transmission
Photomultiplier tubes are a variation of the con- (zero absorbance) setting before you measure the ab-
ventional phototube. Such tubes have several in- sorbance of the riboflavin solution at that wavelength.
termediate electrodes, known as dynodes, in addi- In the range of wavelengths at which the absorbance
tion to the primary photocathode and anode. reading is high, measure the absorbance at 5-nm
Electrons emitted from the cathode strike the first intervals to identify the wavelength of maximum ab-
of these dynodes, whereupon by secondary emis- sorbance. Attempt to produce an absorption spec-
22 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Light Light
Microammeter
+ – Meter
Iron
Selenium
trum by plotting absorbance (vertical axis) versus ficient values as those determined using the 5
wavelength (horizontal axis) as shown in Figure 105 M samples. Is this true for riboflavin and
1-1. If time permits, perform the same exercise us- adenosine?
ing a 5 105 M solution of adenosine. For this
ribonucleoside, it is suggested that you measure the
absorbance of the sample over a range of wave- Photometric Assay of Color Developed by a
lengths from 220 to 320 nm. Chemical Reaction
Once you have obtained an absorption spectrum
for riboflavin and/or adenosine under a given set of
conditions, calculate a molar extinction coefficient Safety Precaution: Avoid skin contact with the
(ε) for riboflavin at 450 nm and for adenosine at Folin–Ciocalteau phenol reagent. Wear gloves
260 nm using the Beer–Lambert equation (A εcl ). and safety goggles at all times.
Remember that the calculation of the extinction co-
efficient requires that you know the exact pathlength
of light through the cuvette and the exact concen- The Folin–Ciocalteau Assay of Protein Concen-
tration of the molecule of interest in the solution. tration. The Folin–Ciocalteau assay is one of the
Most modern spectrophotometers are designed for most sensitive and most commonly used assays to
a rectilinear, 1-cm-pathlength cuvette. Other pho- determine protein concentration (sensitive to about
tometers, however, are designed for a 13 100-mm 10 g/ml protein). This procedure employs two
colorimeter tube (pathlength of 1.3 cm). color-forming reactions to assay protein concen-
If time permits, dilute the riboflavin and adeno- tration photometrically. In the first reaction (a bi-
sine samples twofold and measure the absorbances uret reaction), compounds with two or more pep-
of these samples at the same wavelengths used to tide bonds form a dark blue-purple color in the
calculate the molar extinction coefficients (450 nm presence of alkaline copper salts. In the second re-
for riboflavin and 260 nm for adenosine). If Beer’s action, tryptophan and tyrosine side chains react
law holds true for these compounds, each of these with the Folin solution to produce cuprous ions.
assays should yield the same molar extinction coef- This reaction is most efficient under basic condi-
EXPERIMENT 1 Photometry 23
tions (pH 10.0–10.5). The cuprous ions produced 2. Separately prepare 100 ml of fresh alkaline cop-
in this reaction act to reduce components in the per reagent by mixing together in order:
Folin reagent (sodium tungstate, molybdate, and
1 ml of 1% CuSO4 5H2O
phosphate), yielding an intense blue-green solution
1 ml of 2% sodium tartrate
that absorbs light at 500 nm. Since the combined
98 ml of 2% Na2CO3 in 0.1 N NaOH
levels of tryptophan and tyrosine are generally con-
stant in soluble proteins, the blue-green color of 3. Add 6 ml of this alkaline copper reagent to each
the Folin–Ciocalteau reaction is proportional to of the 10 tubes and mix immediately after the ad-
protein concentration in a complex mixture of pro- dition to avoid precipitation.
teins. Since the number of aromatic residues can vary 4. Incubate the tubes at room temperature for
from protein to protein, one must keep in mind that this 10 min. Add (and immediately mix in) 0.3 ml of
assay may have to be standardized when measuring the Folin–Ciocalteau reagent to each of the 10
concentration of a purified protein. In such cases, it tubes.
may be best to use a protein standard that has the 5. Incubate for 30 min at room temperature and
same relative proportion of aromatic residues as the read the absorbance of all 10 tubes at 500 nm.
protein under study. Use tube 1 (blank) to zero your spectropho-
This assay to determine the concentration of protein tometer.
in a sample should not be used if the sample contains sig- 6. Prepare a standard curve of your results by
nificant concentrations of detergents (SDS, Tween, Tri- plotting A500 versus micrograms of protein for
ton, etc.), sulfhydryl-containing reducing agents (dithio- tubes 2 to 5. Determine whether A500 is pro-
threitol), copper-chelating reagents, carbohydrates portional to the mass of protein from 0 to
(glucosamine and N-acetylglucosamine), glycerol (above 300 g. (Does the plot yield a straight line
10% [vol/vol]), Tris (above 10 mM), tricine, and K through the data points?)
(above 100 mM). All of the compounds listed above have 7. Determine which of tubes 6 to 10 give ab-
been reported to interfere with this assay. If a sample sorbance readings that lie in the linear portion
does contain these compounds, you may use ace- of the standard curve. What mass of protein (in
tone or trichloroacetic acid (see Day 6 protocol for micrograms) is indicated by these positions on
Experiment 8) in precipitating the proteins from the standard curve?
the sample and resuspending them in a more suit- 8. Based on the volume of the unknown protein
able buffer. For a more detailed discussion of the dif- solution present in tubes 6 to 10, calculate the
ferent types of quantitative protein assays available, re- concentration of lysozyme in the unknown so-
fer to the Section II introduction. lution (in milligrams per milliliter).
9. If you have more than two data points for the
1. Prepare a series of tubes containing the fol- unknown solution that lie in the linear portion
lowing: of the standard curve, it is possible to calculate
Volume of
several independent values for the protein con-
Volume of Unknown centration in the unknown solution. These val-
Volume of 1 mg/ml Lysozyme ues can then be averaged and presented along
Tube # Water (ml) Lysozyme (ml) Solution (ml)
with a standard deviation from the mean.
1 1.20 — — 10. If you do not have more than two data points
2 1.15 0.05 — for the unknown solution that lie in the linear
3 1.10 0.10 — portion of the standard curve, the assay can be
4 1.00 0.20 — repeated again, in triplicate, using a volume of
5 0.90 0.30 — the unknown solution known to give a value in
6 — — 1.20 the linear portion of the standard curve.
7 0.70 — 0.50 11. It is also important to realize that there is some
8 1.10 — 0.10 error associated with the data points used to
9 1.15 — 0.05 produce the standard curve. If possible, it
10 1.19 — 0.01 would be best to perform the assays used to
produce the standard curve in triplicate so that
24 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
EXPERIMENT 2
Chromatography
25
26 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Fx ⫽ Fs ⫻ Rf
Magnification of a gel-filtration
Total fluid volume granule indicating its spongelike
in and outside of character
granules = 100 ml
capable of excluding molecules larger than 10,000 Therefore, the 8000-Da molecule will elute later in
Da, then the two molecules will be separated from the development than the 50,000-Da molecule,
one another as they pass through the column. which will elute in the void volume of the column.
While the 8000-Da molecule will be able to enter In the last example, one molecule was excluded
and occupy the pores within the matrix (total vol- from the pores of the matrix while the other was
ume of the column), the 50,000-Da molecule will able to occupy the volume between the pores. Gel-
be excluded from the mobile phase occupying the filtration chromatography can also separate mole-
pores and be forced to occupy only the volume out- cules that are only differentially excluded from the
side of the matrix (void volume of the column). pores of the matrix. Suppose that you pass a solu-
Since the 8000-Da molecule can occupy a larger tion containing molecules of 10,000 Da and 45,000
volume of the column than the 50,000-Da mole- Da through a porous matrix capable of excluding
cule, the migration of the smaller molecule through molecules larger than 60,000 Da. Although both
the column will be retarded relative to the rate of molecules will be able to occupy the volume be-
migration of the mobile phase through the column. tween the pores of the matrix, the mobility of the
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 29
Void volume
Total column volume
Figure 2-4 Gel filtration of excluded, partially included, and fully included proteins. (Partially included,
spherical proteins generally elute in an order directly proportional to the log of their molecu-
lar weights. Gel filtration of a protein of unknown molecular weight along with proteins of
known molecular weights can therefore yield the molecular weight of the “unknown” protein.)
10,000-Da molecule will be retarded more than that rying a surface charge for an inert, charged sta-
of the 45,000-Da molecule relative to the migra- tionary phase or solid support. There are two types
tion or flow rate of the mobile phase. As a result, of ion-exchange chromatography, determined by
the 45,000-Da molecule would elute from the col- the charges present both on the stationary phase
umn before the 10,000-Da molecule. The volume and on the molecules that will be adsorbed to it.
at which both molecules elute would be somewhere Cation exchange refers to a situation in which the
between the void volume and the total volume of stationary phase carries a negative charge. It will
the column (Fig. 2-4). have affinity for molecules in solution that carry a
Gel filtration is usually performed with an iso- net positive surface charge (i.e., cations). The op-
cratic mobile-phase gradient. It is most often used posite is true for anion exchange: the stationary phase
to separate molecules that differ significantly in carries a positive charge that will have affinity for
size. It can also be used as a method to exchange molecules that carry a net negative surface charge
the buffer in which a molecule of interest resides. (i.e., anions).
Suppose that you have purified a 50,000-Da pro- Anion and cation exchange resins can be classi-
tein in a solution containing 50 mM phosphate fied as being either strong or weak. Strong ion ex-
buffer at pH 8.0 containing 0.5 M NaCl. The changers maintain a net charge at extremes of pH
NaCl could easily be removed from the protein while weak ion exchangers are subject to titration
solution by passing it through an appropriate gel- at these extremes (see Table 2-1). The most com-
filtration column with a small pore size using 50- monly used anion-exchange resin is diethyl-
mM phosphate buffer at pH 8.0 as the mobile aminoethyl (DEAE) cellulose. It is a weak ion-
phase. The pore size of the matrix should be small exchange resin that carries a positive charge below
enough to fully exclude the protein but still large pH 8.5 (pKa 10.0). The most common cation ex-
enough to fully include the ions that you wish to change resin in use today is carboxymethyl (CM)
remove. cellulose. It is also a weak ion exchanger that car-
ries a negative charge above pH 4.5 (pKa 4.0).
Ion-Exchange Chromatography. Ion exchange is Since most enzymes display optimal activity and
perhaps the most classic and popular type of chro- stability between pH 4.0 and 9.0, these two ion-
matography used in biochemistry. It relies on the exchange resins will suffice for most protein purifi-
differential electrostatic affinities of molecules car- cation schemes. A variety of ion-exchange resins,
30 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Gel-Filtration Chromatography
Adsorbent MW Fractionation Range (Da)* Matrix Composition Supplier
4 5
Superdex 1 ⫻ 10 to 6 ⫻ 10 Dextran/agarose Pharmacia
Superose 1 ⫻ 103 to 5 ⫻ 106 Agarose Pharmacia
Sephacryl 1 ⫻ 103 to 8 ⫻ 106 Acrylamide Pharmacia
Bio-Gel P 1 ⫻ 102 to 1 ⫻ 106 Acrylamide BIORAD
Sepharose 1 ⫻ 104 to 4 ⫻ 107 Agarose Pharmacia
Sephadex 7 ⫻ 102 to 2.5 ⫻ 105 Dextran Pharmacia
Bio-Beads (SX) 600 to 1400 Styrene divinylbenzene BIORAD
(for organic compounds and other hydrophobic molecules)
*Fractionation range depends on the particle size of the gel.
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
⫹
Mono Q –CH2N (CH3)3 Strong anion Pharmacia
Q Sepharose –N⫹(CH3)3 Strong anion Pharmacia
AG 1 –CH2N⫹(CH3)3 Strong anion BIORAD
AG 2 CH2N⫹(CH3)2C2H4OH Strong anion BIORAD
DEAE-Sepharose –CH2N⫹H(CH3)2 Weak anion Pharmacia
AG 4-X4 –CH2N⫹H(CH3)2 Weak anion BIORAD
Mono S –CH2SO⫺3 Strong cation Pharmacia
AG 50W –SO⫺
3 Strong cation BIORAD
SP Sepharose –SO⫺
3 Strong cation Pharmacia
CM-Sepharose –CH2COO⫺ Weak cation Pharmacia
Bio-Rex 70 –COO⫺ Weak cation BIORAD
each highly resolving, sturdy, and able to maintain a mobile-phase gradient that continuously alters
a high flow rate under pressure are now commer- one of these two parameters. A molecule contain-
cially available (see Table 2-1). ing one or more ionizable groups will be charged
How are molecules adsorbed on ion-exchange (positive or negative) over a given pH range. Sup-
columns eluted? Two options are available: chang- pose that a molecule of interest contains a carboxyl
ing the ionic strength or the pH of the mobile phase group (COO⫺, COOH) with a pKa value of 4.2.
(Fig. 2-5). Unlike with gel-filtration columns, ion- Above pH 4.2, this group will take on a negative
exchange columns are most often developed using charge (COO⫺ form). In order for a molecule con-
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 31
Affinity Chromatography
Adsorbent Functional Group Application Supplier
taining this group to adsorb to a DEAE column, below the pKa value for this group) and would no
you must ensure that the pH of the mobile phase longer have affinity for this anion-exchange resin.
is well above 4.2 (say, pH 6.0). If the pH of the mo- This principle underlies the use of a pH gradient
bile phase is then lowered to 3.0, the molecule in the elution of molecules from an ion-exchange
would no longer be negatively charged (the pH is column: the molecule is adsorbed to the column at
32 O
Resin O CH2 C O
Protein
Carboxymethyl cellulose
(cation exchange)
Na
O O
Na
Resin O CH2 C O Na Resin O CH2 C O
Na
Protein Protein
Elutes Elutes
H Protein
Resin O CH2 CH2 N CH3
CH3
Diethylaminoethyl cellulose
(anion exchange)
Elutes Elutes
Figure 2-5 Elution of proteins from ion-exchange resins by altering pH or ionic strength.
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 33
a pH that gives it a charge opposite that of the resin, ually increasing, the top of the band of molecules
and is eluted by a change in pH that causes it to moving down the column will always experience a
lose its charge or affinity for the resin. Anion- slightly higher salt concentration (lower ␣ value)
exchange columns are usually developed with a than the portion of the band toward the bottom of
decreasing pH gradient, while cation-exchange the column. This, in effect, compacts the bands or
columns are usually developed with an increasing zones of eluting molecules, minimizing zone
pH gradient. spreading and maximizing resolution. By using gra-
Although elution with a pH gradient appears dient elution schemes in ion-exchange chromatog-
theoretically feasible, a number of practical aspects raphy, one can offset the deleterious effects (mainly,
complicate its use in the laboratory. First, as the pH zone spreading) that accompany chromatographic
of the mobile phase is altered, the charges on both procedures that require a large number of plate
the resin and the adsorbed molecules are subject to transfers to achieve separation.
change. This is particularly true if you are using a Choosing an appropriate buffer for ion-
weak ion-exchange resin near the pKa of the sub- exchange chromatography is an important consid-
stituent (charged) group. Second, the adsorbed eration. In general, there is only one rule to keep
molecules contribute significantly to the overall pH in mind: choose a buffer that will provide the maximum
of the mobile phase, particularly in the microenvi- buffering power at a particular pH while contributing
ronment of the resin where the exchange process is as little as possible to the overall ionic strength of the mo-
taking place. Finally, the buffering power con- bile phase. Recall that a buffering species in solution
tributed by the adsorbed molecules as they elute will have its greatest buffering capacity at or very
from the column can turn what appear to be small near its pKa value. Therefore, a buffer with a pKa
changes in the pH dictated by the introduced gra- of 6.5 would be a poor choice for an ion-exchange
dient into large changes in pH that cause the elu- column equilibrated and loaded at pH 8.0. As a gen-
tion of a large number of different molecules from eral rule, it is suggested that the ionic strength of
the column. For example, the decrease in the pH the mobile phase be limited to 5 to 10 mM with a
of 0.5 that is introduced by a gradient may trans- buffer that has a pKa 0 to 0.5 pH units away from
late into a pH decrease of 1.5 in the microenvi- the operating pH of the column. Remember that
ronment of the resin because of the high concen- the charged groups on the ion-exchange resin will
tration of titratable molecules trapped within it as electrostatically attract any molecule or ion carry-
compared with the concentration of buffering ing an opposite charge. Therefore, it is preferable
species in the bulk mobile phase. to use a buffer whose charged form is of the same
Because of the practical aspects just described sign as that on the resin. For example, Tris is a
for pH gradients, ionic strength (salt) gradients are buffer commonly used in conjunction with anion-
most often used for the elution of molecules from exchange resins. Tris can either exist in the proto-
ion-exchange columns. As the concentration of nated form (positively charged) or the unproto-
counter-ions in the mobile phase increases, they be- nated (neutral) form (Cl⫺ is the counter-ion for Tris
gin to compete electrostatically with adsorbed mol- in the protonated form). Since the anion exchange
ecules bound to the charged resin. Suppose that you column is positively charged, the concentration of
have a positively charged molecule bound to CM- negatively charged species in the mobile phase
cellulose resin. As the concentration of positively should be minimized. Since Tris can exist only in
charged ions in the mobile phase increases (through the positively charged or neutral form, the con-
an increasing gradient of KCl or NaCl), the Na centration of Cl⫺ counter-ion is the only species
and K will compete with the positively charged contributing to the effective ionic strength of the
molecules for binding to the resin. Molecules with mobile phase. The same is not true for a mobile
lower ␣ values will elute at a lower salt concentra- phase buffered by, say, phosphate or acetate ions.
tion than molecules with larger ␣ values (in this Here, at least one form of the buffer carries a charge
case, the ␣ value will be dictated by the magnitude opposite that of the anion-exchange resin, poten-
of the positive charge on the molecule). Since the tially affecting the ability of negatively charged
concentration of salt in the mobile phase is contin- molecules in the sample to adsorb to the resin (a
34 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
decrease in the capacity of the column). Any buffer- in a manner that disrupts the hydrophobic interac-
ing ion that carries a negative charge would be bet- tions between the molecule and the adsorbent.
ter to use in conjunction with a cation-exchange Since high ionic strength conditions promote such
column, where the resin also carries a negative interactions, elution can often be induced by sim-
charge. A list of buffers recommended for use in ply lowering the ionic strength of the mobile phase.
anion- and cation-exchange chromatography can be In other cases, it may be necessary to include a com-
found in Table 2-2. ponent in the mobile phase that actively disrupts
the hydrophobic interactions between the protein
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC). and the resin. Organic solvents, non-ionic (nonde-
As many proteins fold into their native, three- naturing) detergents such as Triton X-100, and
dimensional structure, a number of hydrophobic re- polyethylene glycol (PEG) are commonly used. Fi-
gions or “patches” become exposed on their sur- nally, some hydrophobic interactions can also be
faces. The more of these hydrophobic regions weakened by increasing the pH of the mobile phase,
present on the surface, the less water soluble the provided that it is not detrimental to the stability
protein is likely to be. This difference in hy- of the protein of interest.
drophobicity between proteins can be exploited as
a means of purification by a technique termed “hy- Affinity Chromatography. Affinity chromatogra-
drophobic interaction chromatography.” If a sta- phy is perhaps the most rapidly advancing type of
tionary phase contains a large number of aliphatic chromatography in the field of biochemistry. Con-
(multicarbon) chains on it, hydrophobic interac- sidering that the goal of any chromatographic step
tions may allow proteins with different hydropho- is to achieve the highest yield and the highest de-
bic surface character to adsorb to it with variable gree of purity possible, affinity chromatography
strength. The principles that underlie this tech- presents itself as the most promising candidate for
nique are quite similar to those forces at work dur- this purpose. If one considers a biological mole-
ing the process of “salting out” of proteins under cule such as an enzyme, what distinguishes one en-
high ionic strength conditions (see Section II, Ex- zyme from the hundreds that are found in the cell?
periment 8, “Purification of Glutamate–Oxaloac- The answer is in the ligand(s) (substrates, ions, co-
etate Transaminase from Pig Heart”). factors, peptides, etc.) for which the enzyme has
In general, the conditions of the mobile phase affinity. Whereas the other types of chromatogra-
that promote the binding of proteins to hydropho- phy discussed thus far separate biological mole-
bic adsorbents are exactly opposite those that pro- cules based on the more general characteristics of
mote binding of proteins to cation-exchange resins: size, surface charge, and hydrophobicity, affinity
low pH and high ionic strength. Whereas high ionic chromatography attempts to separate individual
strength serves to weaken protein-adsorbent elec- molecules by exploiting characteristics specific to
trostatic interactions in ion-exchange chromatog- them.
raphy, high ionic strength serves to promote hy-
drophobic interactions. High ionic strength is a Substrate Affinity Chromatography. A number of
much more critical parameter than low pH, espe- adsorbents designed to isolate specific classes of bi-
cially since many proteins are subject to denatura- ological molecules are currently in use in the field
tion under mildly acidic conditions. The more of biochemistry. DNA-binding proteins are often
hydrophobic the protein of interest, the less purified with adsorbents containing heparin (a sul-
hydrophobic the aliphatic chain on the adsorbent fonated polysaccharide with high negative charge)
is required for binding. While a very hydrophobic or calf-thymus DNA. Oligosaccharides and glyco-
protein may bind a C4 column under conditions of proteins can be purified with lectin columns. For
high ionic strength, a slightly hydrophobic protein example, concanavalin A (a lectin) is known to have
may require a C8 or C10 resin (more hydrophobic) strong affinity for both mannose and glucose.
for adsorption. Resins derivatized with 5⬘AMP, NAD⫹, or NADP⫹
Elution of proteins from hydrophobic adsor- are often used in place of dye-ligand adsorbents (see
bents can be achieved by altering the mobile phase below) as an alternative in the purification of ki-
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 35
Histidine 6.0
bis-[2-Hydroxyethyl]iminotris[hydroxymethyl]methane (BIS-TRIS) 6.5
1,3-bis[Tris(Hydroxymethyl)methylamine]propane (BIS-TRIS PROPANE) 6.8
Imidazole 7.0
Triethanolamine (TEA) 7.8
Tris[Hydroxymethyl]aminomethane (TRIZMA) 8.1
N-Tris[Hydroxymethyl]methylglycine (TRICINE) 8.1
N,N-bis[2-Hydroxyethyl]glycine (BICINE) 8.3
Diethanolamine 8.9
nases and dehydrogenases. Poly dT columns are of- salts or denaturing agents, addition of organic sol-
ten used to purify messenger RNA from eukaryotic vents, or addition of some type of detergent (see
cells that often end in a poly A tail (A will form hy- below).
drogen bonds with T in DNA). In all instances, the In order to perform affinity chromatography,
molecules of interest are eluted by the addition of you must have a means of covalently attaching the
excess free ligand, change in ionic strength, change desired substrate molecule to the resin. A number
in pH, addition of low concentrations of chaotropic of different techniques can be used to chemically
36 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
NH2
Resin CH2 O C NH R
OH
HO R
Ligand
OH OH
O O
Toluene sulfonyl chloride
NH2 R
Resin NH R HO S CH3
Figure 2-6 Activation of carbohydrate-based resins for covalent attachment of affinity ligands (R).
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 37
Typical dissociation constants for these interactions Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography (IMAC).
range from about 108 to 1010 M. Because the Immobilized metal affinity chromatography is
binding between an antibody and its antigen is so growing in popularity as a means of purifying pro-
strong, eluting the protein from the column with- teins that contain histidine residues on their surface
out denaturing it or the column-bound antibodies (Fig. 2-8). A resin derivatized with a metal ion-
is not a trivial matter. Part of the problem is due to chelating agent is first equilibrated with a buffer
the variety of chemical forces known to play a role containing a metal ion. Salts containing a divalent
in antigen–antibody complexes, such as hydropho- cation are most often used for this (Zn2, Fe3,
bic interactions, electrostatic interactions, and hy- Ni2, Cu2). A protein solution is then passed
drogen bond formation. A mobile-phase gradient through the column and washed extensively with
designed to alter the pH drastically may elute the buffer to remove unbound proteins. Proteins that
protein, but it may also denature it and the anti- bind the column through their exposed histidine
bodies derivatized to the column (a very expensive residues can be eluted by one of three methods: (1)
and time-consuming column to prepare). A mobile- lowering the pH of the mobile phase, causing the
phase gradient of increasing ionic strength may dis- histidine residue to become positively charged and
rupt electrostatic interactions between the protein lose its affinity for the metal ion, (2) addition of a
and the antibody but increase the affinity of the two metal-chelating agent (i.e., EDTA) stronger than
caused by hydrophobic interactions. that on the IMAC resin with which the metal ion
Although the use of immunoaffinity chro- is complexed, or (3) increasing the concentration of
matography may seem problematic, there are sev- a compound in the mobile phase that will compete
eral precautions that can be taken to increase the with the protein for metal binding (i.e., imidazole
odds of successful, nondenaturing elution. First and or histidine). Though sound in theory, certain prac-
foremost, monoclonal antibodies work best for im- tical problems prevent widespread use of this type
munoaffinity chromatography. Remember that a of chromatography. First, since the resin carries a
monoclonal antibody will recognize a specific re- strong negative charge due to the presence of the
gion or epitope on a protein with a defined affin- metal chelator, it is possible that cation exchange
ity (KD). This situation is much more predictable effects may occur if all the sites containing the
and subject to control than that using polyclonal chelator are not complexed (saturated) with the
antibodies, which contain many different antibod- metal ion in the mobile phase. Second, the long
ies that recognize a number of different epitopes spacer arms commonly used in IMAC resins often
with different affinities. During the screening bind a number of proteins nonspecifically through
process for monoclonal antibodies, you could select hydrophobic interactions. This latter problem is
for a clone producing an antibody with an affinity compounded by the fact that IMAC columns are
for the protein that is great enough to allow for pu- often developed under conditions of high ionic
rification but not so great as to present problems strength in an attempt to minimize the potential
during the elution step (KD on the order of 106 ion-exchange effects. Despite these problems,
to 107). Second, you may need to experiment with IMAC has proven to be a powerful tool in the pu-
different mobile phases to try to determine which rification of a number of different proteins.
forces predominate in the specific antigen–anti-
body complex under study (hydrophobic, electro- Partition Chromatography. Unlike the other
static, or hydrogen bonding). Reagents and condi- types of chromatography discussed thus far, this
tions commonly used to elute proteins from type is usually used for analytical (rather than
immunoaffinity columns include introduction of a preparative) applications. In addition, this type of
decreasing pH gradient, low concentrations of de- chromatography is often performed in a thin-layer
naturing agents such as urea or guanidine hy- (rather than a column) format. The stationary phase
drochloride, low concentrations of chaotropic (de- in partition chromatography is usually a glass plate
naturing) salts such as lithium bromide and (rigid) or polyester sheet (flexible) coated with a
potassium thiocyanate, and low concentrations of very thin layer of the desired adsorbent. For most
non-ionic (nondenaturing) detergents such as Tri- applications, the adsorbent is a cellulose, silica,
ton X-100. polyamine, or aluminum oxide–based matrix. In
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 39
CH2 C O Ni2
N O
OH
Solid CH2 C O Ni2 6 ⫻ His Protein
support CH2 CH CH O
CH2 C O Ni2
CH2 C O Fe3
N O
OH Phospho-
Solid CH2 C O Fe3
CH2 CH CH protein
support O
CH2 C O Fe3
some cases, these types of adsorbents can be de- bile phase. Compounds will display different rates
rivatized with DEAE, polyethyleneimine, acetyl, or of migration through the stationary phase depend-
C18 groups. ing on their polarity. More-polar compounds will
In normal-phase partition chromatography, the have more affinity for the polar stationary phase
stationary phase is polar and the mobile phase used than for the nonpolar mobile phase. As a result, the
in development is nonpolar. In reverse-phase par- more-polar compounds will travel less distance
tition chromatography, the stationary phase is non- across the plate than the nonpolar compounds,
polar and the mobile phase used in development is which have a higher affinity for the nonpolar mo-
polar. In thin-layer partition chromatography, the bile phase. The opposite is true for reverse-phase
samples are spotted in a straight line across the bot- partition chromatography: the more polar the com-
tom of the solid support (at the origin). Care must pound, the greater its affinity for the mobile phase,
be taken to avoid widespread diffusion of these sam- the further that compound will travel across the
ples (small aliquots of the total applied sample are plate in a given period of time. The behavior of a
spotted and allowed to dry). After all the applied compound in thin-layer partition chromatography
samples have dried, the plate is placed, origin side is usually described in terms of relative mobility
down, in a chamber containing a small amount of (Rf ):
the mobile-phase solvent on the bottom. It is es-
sential that the origin lies above the level of the Distance traveled by sample (cm)
Rf ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ
mobile-phase solvent in the chamber (see Fig. 6-8) Distance traveled by solvent front (cm)
and that the chamber is saturated with the vapors
of the mobile phase before development is begun. The larger the value of Rf, the more affinity the
The mobile phases used in the development of compound has for a particular mobile phase sol-
thin-layer chromatography plates are usually com- vent.
binations of organic and aqueous solvents. Ethanol, The major advantages of thin-layer partition
t-amyl alcohol, acetonitrile, and methanol are chromatography are cost and versatility. Compared
commonly used organic solvents. Acetic acid is the to column chromatography and HPLC, thin-layer
most commonly used aqueous solvent. In normal- chromatography is very inexpensive to perform.
phase partition chromatography, the polar station- Experimentation with different adsorbents and
ary phase is developed with relatively nonpolar mo- mobile-phase compositions will allow the separa-
40 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
tion of a wide variety of biological molecules. Thin- tition coefficients will have an opportunity to dis-
layer chromatography has been used successfully in play different rates of migration. The number of
analysis of proteins, hormones, amino acids, amino chromatographic plates in a given column volume,
sugars, carbohydrates, nucleotides, antibiotics, fatty then, will be related to the surface area of the ad-
acids, pesticides, and a number of other drugs and sorbent (stationary phase) with which the com-
metabolic intermediates. pounds passing through the column can interact. A
A variation of this same technique uses paper as 5-ml column containing a stationary phase matrix
the stationary phase. Since all commercially avail- with a 200-M pore size will provide less effective
able chromatography paper is composed of a poly- surface area for the compounds to interact with than
saccharide matrix saturated with water or some a 5-ml column containing a stationary-phase ma-
other polar solvent, paper chromatography is most trix with a 5-M pore size. In other words, the 200-
often carried out in the normal-phase format using M-pore-size stationary phase will provide fewer
a nonpolar mobile phase for development. It is even chromatographic plates per unit volume than the
possible to perform reverse-phase paper chro- 5-M-pore-size stationary phase.
matography by saturating the paper with some non- Although stationary phases with small pore sizes
polar solvent (such as liquid paraffin) and develop- provide more chromatographic plates per unit vol-
ing it with a more-polar solvent. The drawback to ume than those with larger pore sizes, smaller-pore-
this technique, however, is that this type of adsor- size matrices provide more resistance to the flow of
bent is not commercially available and must be used the mobile phase passing through it. As a result,
immediately after it is prepared. The techniques of high-pressure mobile-phase delivery systems
thin-layer and paper chromatography are described (pumps) have been developed that are capable of
in greater detail in Experiment 6. driving the mobile phase through small-pore ma-
One final variation of partition chromatography trices at pressures exceeding 7000 psi. Since the
exploits the affinity of different molecules in the gas pressure on the stationary phase increases with the
state for a solid adsorbent. This technique is termed flow rate of the mobile phase, the flow rate that a
“gas chromatography,” and it works particularly particular HPLC column can accommodate will de-
well for the separation of nonpolar compounds. In pend on the strength or rigidity of the matrix. In
this technique, a liquid sample is vaporized and de- general, the pressure on the stationary phase in-
livered to a thin-diameter, heated coil coated with creases as the column diameter decreases and col-
a solid matrix or viscous liquid (grease) possessing umn length increases. Therefore, a 20-mm-by-
a very high boiling point. The vaporized sample is 100-cm column will experience less pressure at a
delivered to the coil using an inert gas, such as ni- flow rate of 1 ml/min than will a 5-mm-by-100-cm
trogen, helium, or argon. Volatile molecules that column. HPLC columns of different dimensions
have affinity for the solid or liquid matrix will be and different matrix composition are now com-
retarded as the mobile-phase gas carries the sam- mercially available that can sustain flow rates as
ple through the coil. A detector linked to the sys- high as 100 ml/min or as low as 0.5 ml/min.
tem at the end of the column will allow you to iden- Another feature of modern HPLC systems that
tify different compounds as they elute from the coil. makes them desirable for both analytical and
preparative applications is the complex mobile-
High-Performance (Pressure) Liquid Chromatog- phase gradients that they are capable of producing.
raphy. Successful chromatography relies on the Many systems come equipped with a pump inte-
ability to maximize the number of chromatographic grator or controller (computer) that allow a num-
plates transfers while maintaining good resolution ber of different mobile-phase solvents to be simul-
(minimizing zone spreading). Therefore, it would taneously mixed and delivered to the stationary
be desirable to minimize the volume of the column phase. Since this process is automated, complex gra-
and still provide a reasonable number of chro- dients used for a particular application are quite re-
matographic plates to allow separation of the mol- producible.
ecule of interest. As stated earlier, a chromato- As with most technologies, HPLC is not with-
graphic plate can be described as the largest area of out some disadvantages. First, and perhaps fore-
the column where two molecules with different par- most, is cost. Modern HPLC systems, along with
EXPERIMENT 2 Chromatography 41
the specialized tubing, fittings, and columns needed creases. Thousands of proteins and other molecules
to operate them, are quite expensive to acquire and of biological interest have been purified using com-
maintain. Second, extreme care must be taken to binations of the different types of chromatography
ensure that both the sample and the mobile-phase described in this chapter. Although no type of chro-
solvents are free of any particulates that could clog matography is without problems, each type can pro-
the column, increase the internal pressure, and vide a great deal of purification when used at the
crush the stationary phase. Third, the mobile-phase correct time under optimal conditions as deter-
solvents must be degassed to prevent the formation mined through thoughtful and carefully performed
of air bubbles in the system. If this occurs, the in- experiments.
tegrity and reproducibility of the applied gradient
will be compromised. Finally, the smaller dimen-
sions of most HPLC columns as compared with Supplies and Reagents
more traditional gravity-driven columns limits the
size of the sample that can be applied. If HPLC 5- to 8-mm (inside diameter) glass tubing, or equivalent
columns are “overloaded,” resolution will decrease chromatography columns
and the number of available chromatographic plates CM-Sephadex (G-50) in 0.1 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0
per unit volume will not be realized. CM-Sephadex (G-50) in 1.0 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0
Chromatography systems that operate with 0.1 M Potassium acetate, pH 6.0
pressurized mobile-phase gradients are undoubt- 1.0 M Potassium acetate, pH 6.0
edly the wave of the future. Solid supports capable Glass wool
of withstanding the pressures associated with Mixture of blue dextran (1 mg/ml), cytochrome c
HPLC have already been developed for many of (2 mg/ml) and DNP-glycine (1 mg/ml)
the types of chromatography discussed in this sec- Tape
tion (normal- and reverse-phase partition, ion ex- Pasteur pipette with dropper bulb
change, gel filtration, etc.). In recent years, the
trend in technology has been toward the develop-
ment of high-capacity, large-pore-size solid sup- Protocol
ports that can operate at high flow rates (low pres-
sure) and still maintain good resolution. Systems
Demonstration of Chromatographic
that operate under this principle are commonly re-
Separation on CM-Sephadex (G-50)
ferred to as fast protein liquid chromatography
(FPLC) systems or low-pressure liquid chromatog- This simple exercise demonstrates the chromato-
raphy (LPLC) systems. graphic separation of the components of a mixture
There is no doubt that the technique of chro- by a procedure that relies on two of the principles
matography (particularly affinity-based) will con- discussed above, namely ion-exchange chromatog-
tinue to make large advances as our understanding raphy and size-exclusion chromatography. The
of the molecular mechanisms governing protein components to be separated (see Table 2-3) differ
folding and enzyme–substrate interactions in- greatly from one another both in their molecular
6. Prepare a description of your results that in- 2. You have an aqueous solution containing:
cludes an explanation for the degree of migra-
tion of each colored component in both alanine (a monoamino, monocarboylic amino acid)
columns. Once the first colored reagent begins fructose (a non-ionic monosaccharide)
to exit from the low-salt column (i.e., the col- glycogen (a non-ionic large polysaccharide)
umn containing 0.1 M potassium acetate buffer, ribose-5-phosphate (an anionic monosaccharide
pH 6.0), replace this elution fluid with the phosphate)
high-salt buffer (i.e., 1.0 M potassium acetate, tRNA (a polyanionic nucleic acid, MW 30,000)
pH 6.0), and observe and explain the results.
Assuming you have a distinctive assay for each
Which colored component is blue dextran,
of these compounds, what procedures would
which is cytochrome c, and which is DNP-
you use to obtain gram quantities of each of
glycine? Explain the order in which they elute
these compounds free of each of the other com-
in terms of their physical properties and the na-
pounds?
ture of the CM-Sephadex G-50 column. Fi-
nally, predict and justify the results that would
have occurred if the same experiment had been
run with a CM-Sephadex column equilibrated
REFERENCES
in and eluted with 0.l M HCl.
Block, R. J., Durrum, E. L., and Zweig, G. (1955) A
7. After the relative movements of all the colored
Manual of Paper Chromatography and Paper Elec-
components have been observed under the var- trophoresis. New York: Academic Press.
ious elution conditions specified, remove the Brenner, M., and Neiderwieser, A. (1967). Thin-Layer
columns from their clamps, take them to a cen- Chromatography (TLC) of Amino Acids. Enzyme
tral container for used CM-Sephadex, and Structure. Methods Enzymol 11:39.
empty the used gel-filtration ion exchanger Fischer, L. (1969). An Introduction to Gel Chromatogra-
into the container by shaking or blowing out phy. New York: American Elsevier.
the resin. (Discard the glass wool plug; do not Jakoby, W. B. (1971). Enzyme Purification and Related
leave it in the CM-Sephadex resin. The resin Techniques. Methods Enzymol 22.
will be “regenerated” by appropriate washings Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
and used again.) (1993). An Introduction to Proteins. In: Principles of
Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
Robyt, J. F., and White, B. J. (1990). Chromatographic
Techniques. In: Biochemical Techniques: Theory and
Exercises Practice. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Scopes, R. K. (1994). Protein Purification: Principles and
1. What is the chemical nature of the chro- Practice. New York: Springer-Verlag.
mophore of each of the three materials sepa- Wilson, K., and Walker, J. (1995). Chromatographic
rated on CM-Sephadex in this experiment; that Techniques. In: Principles and Techniques of Practical
is, what is the light absorbing component that Biochemistry, 4th ed. Hatfield, U.K.: Cambridge
gives it a visible color? Describe the nature of University Press.
the linkage of the chromophore to the rest of
the molecule.
q)
EXPERIMENT 3
Radioisotope Techniques
45
46 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
13
H 3
1H 88n 32He 0.0055 0.015 12.3 years
14 14 14
C 6C 88n 7N 0.05 0.15 5500 years
32 32 32
P 15P 88n 16S 0.70 1.71 14.3 days
35 35 35
S 16S 88n 17Cl 0.0492 0.167 87.1 days
33 33 33
P 15P 88n 16S 0.25 25 days
ⴚ Particle Emission
The process of particle emission occurs in the
biologically important radioisotopes indicated in
Table 3-1. particles are negatively charged parti-
cles of negligible mass (i.e., electronlike particles). 0.05 0.10 0.15
particles are emitted along with antineutrinos Energy (MeV)
during the conversion of neutrons to protons.
Figure 3-1 energy profiles of 3H and 14
C.
Neutron 88n proton antineutrino
60Co
Nuclear Decay Rates
(3-1)
dN
Unstable intermediate N
dt
60Ni (3-2)
冕 冕 dt
N dN t
60 N0 N 0
Figure 3-2 Predominant decay scheme for Co.
which yields:
(3-3)
trum of energies. Third, a ray decay system may N N0et
originate from unstable isotopes that initially emit
particles other than particles (e.g., particles). or in natural logarithms:
Ray emission usually occurs soon after the emis-
sion of the primary particle ( in Fig. 3-2). The (3-4)
emission of the initiating primary or particle N
is often hard to detect, whereas fairly efficient sys- ln t
N0
tems exist to detect rays. Ray spectroscopy is
therefore the best way to detect ray emitting ra- Scientists frequently express Equation 3-4 in
dioisotopes, such as 125I, 59Fe, or 60Co. terms of half-life (t1/2), which is the time required
for one half of the population of unstable atoms to
Other Particles decay. In other words, after one half-life, the rate
of particles emitted has decreased to one half the
A number of other nuclear transformation mecha- rate of the starting population of unstable atoms.
nisms are found in nature. Particle decay, positron Substitution in Equation 3-4 yields Equation 3-5:
emission, and electron capture events are examples
of such nuclear transformations. Techniques have (3-5)
been developed for measuring such decay events.
However, the radioisotopic atoms that yield such 1/2 N0 0.693
ln ln (1/2) t1/2 or t1/2
decay products are used relatively infrequently in N0
biochemistry and biology. If your research requires
analysis of such atoms, you should consult a prac- This equation, in combination with half-lives (see
tical textbook in modern physics or radioisotopic Table 3-1) and Equation 3-4, allows calculation of
techniques. the quantity of unstable atoms that will be present
48 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Counts (plotted on log10 scale)
Number of events
emitting process that is the basis of scintillation 14
C
counting occurs as a result of a radioactive sample
being placed in a “scintillation cocktail” containing
an excitable solvent and one or more fluorescent
compounds, called “fluors.” Emitted particles
contact solvent molecules (S) and transfer some of
their energy to these molecules. This yields an ex-
cited solvent molecule (S*) and a particle con-
Voltage from photomultiplier tube
taining less energy (E):
Figure 3-4 Photomultiplier-tube responses from
(3-6) 3
H and 14C decay events in a scintil-
S 88n S* ( E) lation cocktail.
Photomultiplier Photomultiplier
tube tube
Sample
Signal Signal
summation summation
Channel 1 Channel 2
discriminator discriminator
Scaler
use of a coincident circuit that employs two pho- profile observed by each channel. This is best il-
tomultiplier tubes. With such coincidence systems, lustrated by the example of a sample containing
both photomultiplier tubes must simultaneously both 3H and 14C (Fig. 3-6). You can adjust the dis-
detect a light flash to yield a count in the scaler. criminator in Channel 1 to detect only events that
Thus, most noise events, which occur in a single produce the energies or voltages between A and B,
phototube independently of the other phototube, and adjust the Channel 2 discriminator to detect
are screened out. However, the coincident circuitry only events between B and C. Such settings dictate
is also potentially detrimental in that it can exclude that Channel 2 will detect 14C independently of any
detection of low-energy emissions. For exam- quantity of 3H present in the sample. Channel 1
ple, certain low-energy emissions may not gen- will detect 3H, but will also detect a significant
erate enough excited solvent molecules to allow number of counts from low-energy 14C decay
photon detection by both photomultiplier tubes events. Counting a 14C standard (i.e., a 14C sample
(e.g., only one photon may be formed). This limi- with a known quantity of radioactivity) in both
tation prevents coincident circuit scintillation coun- Channel 1 and Channel 2 allows you to determine
ters from achieving 100% efficiency (i.e., detection the percentage of the total 14C counts detected in
of all of the particle decay events), and is the Channels 1 and 2. This allows you to correct for
major limitation in the detection of low-energy the “overlap” of 14C counts within the 3H channel
particles such as those from 3H. (Channel 1). Thus, independent channels and ap-
As seen in Figure 3-5, both the analysis side and propriate discriminator settings provide a useful
the coincidence side of the scintillation counter technique for double-label experiments (see Exper-
contain discriminators, which are particularly use- iment 11).
ful in experiments that employ two or more The “gain” voltage applied to the photomulti-
emitting isotopes. Discriminators contain elec- pliers of the phototube–photomultipliers defines
tronic “gates” that limit the portions of an energy the degree of amplification these units provide to
EXPERIMENT 3 Radioisotope Techniques 51
Channel 1
Channel 2 Channel 1 Channel 2
3
H
Number of events
Number of events
14C
3
H 14C
A B C A B C
Energy of – particle or voltage from photomultiplier tube
Figure 3-6 Discriminator settings for simultaneous detection of 3H and 14C in linear amplification (e.g.,
Packard Inst.) at left, and logarithmic amplification (e.g., Beckman), at right.
the voltage pulses from the phototubes. This has a used will determine the photomultiplier gain to be
direct bearing on the desired discriminator settings used.
of the channels. Consider the two gain settings of As this example illustrates, gain voltage and dis-
Figure 3-7. The solid lines in Figure 3-7 represent criminator or channel settings are interrelated. Dif-
an optimal gain voltage on the photomultipliers ferent makes of scintillation counters vary in the
that cause the energy profiles to fall within the pre- control they allow the operator. Many current mod-
set channels. In contrast, use of a gain setting that els have fixed (preset) channels and variable gain
is too high (dotted lines) yields profiles where some voltage, which is adjusted to bring the observed
3
H decay events appear as 14C events, while some counts into the preset channels. Others have highly
high-energy 14C events go unrecorded (i.e., are flexible channels and sophisticated amplification of
above the 14C gate). It is important to remember the energy profiles. Most manufacturers also offer
that no single gate setting is optimal for all count- models with varying numbers of independent chan-
ing conditions; the nature of the scintillation fluid nels and varying counting sequences on these chan-
nels. A clear understanding of the interaction of
amplification of energy profiles and control of dis-
criminators will suffice for all these differences in
makes and models of scintillation counters.
Measurement of radioactive decay can also be
Channel 1 affected by various components present in, or added
Channel 2
to, the scintillation cocktail. These components can
3
H
Number of events
Number of events
(3-9) High level of quencher
cpm
% Counting efficiency 100%
dpm 14C Unquenched
Quenching (%)
Therefore, analysis of quenching in this induced
spectrum in the high-energy range above the
particle range provides an accurate analysis of the
quenching of a spectrum that would occur in
the absence of the internal standard. (The
particle-emitting sample within the sample vial
0 100 does not influence the external standard system be-
A B cause the energy of the particles do not fall in
A C the high-energy Compton range.)
Various scintillation counters analyze the
Figure 3-9 Channels ratio quench correction plot quenching of the induced spectrum of the external
for 14C. Quench correction data may standard differently. Some machines relate decreases
curve slightly up or down depending in the count rate of a selected portion of the induced
on the make and model of counter spectrum with the quenching in any -emitting
used. sample spectrum. Others utilize a channels ratio
analysis of selected channels within the external or
automatically placed next to the sample vial to be induced spectrum. In all instances, the scintillation
analyzed for quenching (Fig. 3-10). Rays from the counter generates an external standard number that
external standard penetrate the sample vial and col- reflects the method of quenching analysis employed
lide with orbital electrons of atoms in molecules on the external or induced spectrum. This external
within the scintillation cocktail. Because of the standard number is directly related to the counting
choice of emitter selected, these collisions result efficiency or quenching observed in a emission
in a spectrum of Compton electrons that possess an system, as indicated in the quench curve of Figure
energy spectrum analogous to, but of higher en- 3-11. Use of the channels ratio method or the au-
ergy than a spectrum. These electrons then in- tomatic external standardization method of quench
teract with the solvent and fluors to produce a col- analysis allows the conversion of counts per minute
lection of light flashes of varied intensity that are data to true disintegrations per minute data. Such
similar to, but higher in energy than that produced disintegrations per minute data are necessary for
from particle interaction with the scintillation conversion of counting data to curies, the basic units
cocktail. Chemical quenching agents will quench of radioactivity.
to sample vial
Quenching (%)
Lead shielding
Preparation of Samples for Liquid Scintillation Count- Aquasol, and the Bio-solve series are sold com-
ing. Quenching in its various forms constitutes mercially for this purpose.
the major concern during sample preparation for Third, difficult samples of materials con-
liquid scintillation counting. The following sections taining 3H or 14C (e.g., tissue slices, etc.) can
discuss some of the problems commonly encoun- be converted to 3H2O or 14CO2 in commer-
tered and also present some remedies to overcome cially available “sample oxidizers.” These units
these problems. burn samples under controlled conditions and
then separate the 3H2O and the 14CO2 for
1. Color quenching can only be eliminated by re- counting in an acceptable scintillation cocktail.
moval of the colors. This requires refining of Sample oxidation also eliminates color-quench-
the sample before counting. If the compound ing problems.
to be counted is colored, little can be done ex- A fourth solution is the “internal standard”
cept to minimize and equalize the quantities of method. In this procedure, a sample is counted
colored material added to the sample vials. that is known to have solubility or point-
2. Incomplete solubility and associated point quenching problems (e.g., aqueous samples, in-
quenching constitute a major problem in scin- soluble materials embedded in paper or cellu-
tillation counting. Efficient scintillation count- lose derivative filters, etc.). A known amount of
ing requires that the sample be fully soluble in isotope (labeled) is added to the sample (i.e., to
the excitable organic solvents of the scintilla- the fluid or dried paper) and the counting
tion fluid. However, biological systems, which process is repeated. Evaluation of the counting
are usually aqueous systems or assays, fre- efficiency of the added isotope (the internal
quently contain water or hydrophilic molecules standard) allows determination of the counting
that will not dissolve in standard toluene-based efficiency of the original sample. (NOTE: Al-
scintillation cocktails. ternatively, the internal standard method may
Several approaches have been used to cir- employ addition of internal standard to one
cumvent these problems. First, scintillation pair of duplicate samples).
cocktails have been developed that will accept 3. Chemical quenching is always a problem in liq-
more water and associated hydrophilic com- uid scintillation counting. Certain compounds
pounds. Bray’s solution (4 g PPO, 0.2 g (e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbons) are notorious
POPOP, 60 g naphthalene, 20 ml ethylene gly- chemical quenchers. Dissolved O2 from the air,
col, 100 ml methanol, and dioxane up to 1 liter), water, even the solubilizers mentioned before,
Kinard solution (xylene, p-dioxane, ethanol chemically quench scintillation counting some-
(553) containing 0.5% PPO, 0.005% - what. Thus, it is unlikely that chemical quench-
NPO, and 6% naphthalene), and ethanol sys- ing can be avoided completely. The best ap-
tems (e.g., 3 parts ethanol, 4 parts 0.8% PPO, proach for minimizing chemical quenching is
0.01% POPOP in toluene) are notable exam- to design experimental protocols that add the
ples. In these examples, PPO denotes 2,5- simplest or most refined assay components to
diphenyloxazole, POPOP denotes 1,4-bis-2-(5- the final scintillation cocktail. Further, when
phenyloxazolyl)-benzene, and -NPO denotes chemical quenchers are added (including wa-
2-(1-naphthyl)-5-phenyloxazole. (POPOP and ter, buffers, etc.) to scintillation vials for count-
-NPO are secondary fluors and can usually be ing, the same amounts should be added to all
omitted with modern scintillation counters.) sample vials to equalize quenching errors.
A second approach has been developed, in
part because of difficulties encountered in dis- Solid Scintillation Counting of Emissions. To
posing of scintillation fluids containing naph- avoid some of the problems associated with liquid
thalene, which is insoluble in water. In this ap- scintillation counting, a method has been developed
proach, solubilizer or detergents are added to for measuring radioactivity by scintillation of
the standard toluene-based scintillation cock- solid samples. Liquid samples containing the ra-
tails. Hyamine hydroxide, NCS, Soluene-100, dioactive material to be counted are placed in small
EXPERIMENT 3 Radioisotope Techniques 55
sample cups coated on the bottom with a solid ma- amplified and processed by the conventional scin-
trix containing yttrium, which acts as the scintil- tillation counter circuitry and then recorded by the
lant. The sample is dried and counted in the same scaler element of the unit. Thus, a liquid scintilla-
instrument as used for liquid scintillation counting tion counter can be converted to a -ray counter
(with some changes in the counting “window” and by substitution of an NaI crystal scintillator count-
coincidence circuit settings). The volume of liquid ing cell into the conventional circuitry.
that can be analyzed is limited to 200 l, and the In contrast to particles, rays are emitted
radioactive material cannot be volatile. Point with distinct or single energy values. Because of this
quenching can still present a problem for samples property, the identity of unknown -emitting ra-
that contain substantial amounts of solid matter. dioisotopes can be determined through analysis of
However, other kinds of quenching are minimized, the energies of emitted particles. More impor-
and use of expensive and toxic liquid scintillation tant, the progress of biological reactions involving
fluid, which is also difficult to dispose of properly, various components labeled with different -ray-
is avoided. Counting efficiencies depend on the emitting radioisotopes can be followed. Thus, dou-
counting equipment used, but can be nearly as high ble- and triple-label experiments are possible with
as with liquid scintillation counting under optimal -emitting radioisotopes if those that emit rays
conditions. of rather different energies are selected, and a ray
scintillation counter equipped with an energy chan-
Solid Scintillation Counting of Emissions. Scintil- nel analyzer is used.
lation counting is also the most efficient method for
detection of rays. Rays are high-energy pho- Cerenkov Counting. particles of very high en-
tons that lack both charge and mass. As such, they ergy (above 0.5 MeV ) pass through aqueous media
are highly penetrating and require dense materials with a velocity greater than the speed of light in
to be absorbed or recorded efficiently. The soluble water. This causes the emission of light, which is
scintillation cocktails employed with particle as- known as the Cerenkov effect. The amount of light
says in scintillation counters are not sufficiently emitted is proportional to the number of radioac-
dense to absorb -ray emissions effectively. Scintil- tive nuclei that emit high energy particles, and
lation counting of rays is usually accomplished by it can be readily detected in the same scintillation
placing the ray source in a solid NaI crystal scin- counters as are used for liquid scintillation count-
tillation cell (Fig. 3-12). The brief light flashes ing. Because Cerenkov counting does not require
emitted by the NaI crystal scintillator are measured any special solvents or fluors, it is not subject to
as counts by phototube–photomultipliers. They are chemical quenching and is an extremely convenient
and inexpensive means of determining the radioac-
tivity of samples of suitable isotopes. Of the iso-
NaI scintillator Sample vial Lead shielding topes commonly used in biochemical research, only
32
P emits particles of sufficiently high energy to
be counted by the Cerenkov method. Not all of the
particles emitted by 32P have energies above 0.5
MeV, of course, so this isotope can be detected with
only about 40% efficiency. This provides little prac-
tical limitation to the use of Cerenkov counting for
32
P, however. Other isotopes occasionally used in
biological research with particles of sufficient
energy for Cerenkov counting include 22Na, 36Cl,
and 42K.
Photomultiplier tube
Wire from photomultiplier tube Autoradiography. In biochemical research, it is
frequently desired to determine the location of one
Figure 3-12 NaI crystal scintillation cell. or more radioactive components after analysis by
56 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
chromatographic or electrophoretic separations. exposure to the film because many of the radioac-
For example, an enzyme reaction may be assayed by tive particles are too weak to escape the chromato-
including a radioactive substrate and separating the graphic or electrophoretic medium (e.g., paper or
reactants and products after a certain reaction time gel), or the wrapping needed to protect the film
by paper or thin-layer chromatography. To deter- from sticking to the gel. 3H can be detected in gels
mine the rate of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction, it by fluorography, where the gel is dehydrated with
is necessary to separate the radioactive product from dimethylsulfoxide, saturated with a fluor, and rehy-
the radioactive substrate and to determine the drated. When the weak particles excite the fluor,
amount of radioactivity in the product. Examples of light is given off that is more effective at darkening
other situations that require the identification of the the photographic film than the original parti-
location of radioactive materials after elec- cle. Weak emitters are infrequently used for au-
trophoretic or chromatographic analysis include the toradiography of chromatograms or electrophero-
separation of radioactive oligonucleotides in DNA grams, but they are valuable for autoradiography of
sequencing, separation of protein–DNA or pro- very thin tissue samples, in which you wish to de-
tein–RNA complexes from unbound radioactive termine the localization of the isotope in a biolog-
DNA or RNA in electrophoretic gel mobility shift ical sample. In this latter application, a very-high-
analysis, and analysis of the protein content of whole energy emitter, such as 32P, is less suitable for
cells by radiolabeling and two-dimensional gel sep- localization of radioactivity with high resolution be-
aration of the very complex mixtures of radioactive cause the high energy decay leaves too long of a
proteins found in such cells. Autoradiography offers trail of darkened silver particles on the film.
a very convenient solution to such problems. The darkness of the spots on photographic film
after exposure to a radioactive substance will be a
Photographic Autoradiography. The most com- function of several variables. The radioactivity of
monly used form of autoradiography involves ex- the material (i.e., the disintegrations per minute
posure of a paper chromatogram or electrophoretic present in the original spot) and the time of expo-
gel to a sheet of photographic film, such as x-ray sure to the photographic film are obviously impor-
film. Radioactive emissions are able to activate sil- tant, because the more radioactive decay events oc-
ver halide granules in photographic film for pho- cur during the exposure of the film, the more grains
toreduction in much the same way as visible light of silver halide will be reduced to elemental silver.
or x-rays do. Thus, after a period of exposure of the In a crude semiquantitative sense, then, you can
film to a sheet of paper or gel containing radioac- conclude that the darker the spots on the autoradi-
tive zones, the film can be developed to reveal a ogram, the more radioactivity was present in the
pattern of dark spots showing the location and position of the spot on the original chromatogram
shape of the radioactive zones. The location of the or electropherogram. Eventually, however, all of the
spots can then be compared to the locations of stan- silver halide near the radioactive material will be re-
dard compounds and used for identification. The duced, and the spot cannot become darker on
most common and most reliable use of autoradiog- longer exposure or exposure to higher amounts of
raphy is qualitative analysis. However, the radioac- radioactivity. In other words, the film may become
tive zones can be cut out of the original gel or pa- saturated in a particular zone that contains a high
per and their radioactivity can be quantitated by level of radioactivity. Under very carefully con-
liquid scintillation counting (although care must be trolled conditions, and within the limits of avoid-
taken to eliminate or correct for point quenching ing overexposure, the intensity (or darkness) of
of the radioactivity by the paper or gel matrix in spots on autoradiograms can be used as a quantita-
which the radioactive material is embedded). tive measure of the amount of radioactive material
The efficiency of various radioactive isotopes in on the original chromatogram or electrophero-
producing autoradiograms is related to the energy gram. This technique requires the use of a densi-
of their decay. Thus, isotopes that emit high- tometer for quantitative determination of the dark-
energy particles cause more darkening of x-ray ness of the spots and careful standardization of the
film per decay event than weak emitters. Very densitometer response using samples of known ra-
weak emitters, such as 3H, may require very long dioactivity separated by the same method.
EXPERIMENT 3 Radioisotope Techniques 57
Autoradiography Using Storage Phosphor Technol- monly used in biochemical research except 3H. Un-
ogy. A powerful new method for detection of ra- like x-ray film, which has a dynamic range of about
dioactive materials on chromatograms or electro- 10, some phosphor screens have a dynamic range
pherograms that also provides a convenient means on the order of 105.
for quantitative determination of the amount of ra-
dioactive material in each location has been pro-
vided by the use of storage phosphor techniques. Safety Precautions for Work with
Instead of using a photographic film to detect the Radioisotopes
radioactive decay events on a chromatogram or
Use of radioisotopes in the laboratory generates po-
electropherogram, this technique uses a screen
tential biological hazards for investigators, and for
coated with a thin layer of an inorganic phosphor
all of society during subsequent radioisotope removal
in which a chemical change is induced by interac-
and disposal. Accordingly, those who work with ra-
tion with a strong or particle. The changed
dioisotopes should follow these safety precautions
phosphor is then detected in a second stage in which
during all applications that employ radioisotopes.
the screen is scanned with a laser beam, which in-
duces the local emission of light only from the al- 1. Do not ingest radioisotopes. Specifically, never
tered phosphor molecules. The emitted light is col- pipette radioactive solutions by mouth. Instead,
lected by a high-resolution photocell system, so that use a Propipette bulb or a micropipetter to
its position and intensity can be stored in digital withdraw and dispense radioactive solutions.
form, for later analysis. Use an appropriate ventilated hood when
An example of storage phosphor technology working with volatile radioactive compounds.
is that used by the PhosphorImager (Molecular 2. Avoid contact of radioisotopes with your skin;
Dynamics). This device uses imaging screens that are wear disposable gloves and long-sleeved wash-
coated with a finely crystalline layer of BaFBr:Eu2. able clothing when possible. Most biochemi-
A radioactive particle from a nearby decay event cally important radioisotopes are metabolites
causes oxidation of the phosphor to BaFBr:Eu3. that are readily incorporated into the body on
This change is stable, so that the screen eventually ingestion or penetration.
acquires a chemical image of the adjacent radioac- 3. Avoid close contact with high-energy radioiso-
tive sheet in which the position and intensity of the topes. The 3H and 14C systems, and even the
32
radioactive zones is recorded on the phosphor P systems presented in this textbook, do not
screen. The chemical image is read by placing the represent excessive radiation hazards. Yet, all
screen in a device in which it is scanned with a fine experiments with radioisotopes present some
beam of laser light (633 nm), which is absorbed only radiation hazard. Those who plan experiments
by the activated phosphor. The absorbed light al- with compounds that emit -ray and high-
lows reduction and phosphorescent decay of the energy particles should recognize this and
BaFBr:Eu2 back to BaFBr:Eu3 with the release use appropriate Plexiglas and lead shielding.
of a photon at 390 nm. 4. Avoid contamination of the laboratory with
h
(laser)
radioisotopes. Work over disposable surfaces
BaFBr:Eu2 BaFBr:Eu3 (e.g., blotter paper) and remove and clean all
BaFBr:Eu2* BaFBr:Eu2 h
“spills” in a thorough manner (consult the labo-
ratory supervisor). Further, do not leave ra-
Thus, the pattern of radioactive decay events is dioisotope solutions in the laboratory; they may
transformed into a pattern of localized light emis- support bacterial or mold growth and eventual
sions, which is collected digitally and can be viewed production of 3H2O or 14CO2, which are volatile.
on a computer screen, printed onto ordinary paper, 5. Wash all lightly contaminated equipment
and, most importantly, analyzed quantitatively. The (glassware, pipettes, hose tubing, etc.) thor-
amount of light released from the phosphor screen oughly to avoid future contamination of your-
is proportional to the number of decay events de- self or your experiments.
tected over a rather broad range. The technology 6. Place all highly contaminated solutions and all
is useful for all of the -emitting isotopes com- disposable items (planchets, used filters, etc.) in
58 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
radioactive waste containers for prompt re- dard in separate 3H and 14C above 3H channels, fol-
moval and disposal as specified by law. lowed by correction for the overlap of 14C counts
7. Survey your hands and all work areas with a in the 3H channel.
Geiger-Müller meter after each use of isotopes
that emit rays or high-energy particles. 1. Using a volumetric dispensing bottle, tip 5 or
After each use of low-energy isotopes, such 10 ml of scintillation fluid into each of two scin-
as 3H, sample your hands and work areas with tillation vials, depending on the size of scintil-
a damp cotton swab and place the swab in a vial lation vials to be used. Label the bottles “A” and
containing an appropriate scintillation fluid to “B” at points on the bottle above the fluid level
screen for possible contamination. Survey the or on the cap. In the same fashion, label the
bottoms of your shoes as well, to prevent bottles with your name for later identification.
“tracking” of radioisotopes around the labora- 2. Add the following:
tory.
Bottle A: 0.1 ml of unknown radioactive toluene so-
8. If significant levels of high-energy emitters
lution (unknown quantities of 3H and 14C)
or emitters are used, you may be required to
Bottle B: 0.1 ml of standard 14C toluene solution
wear a radiation badge to monitor your cumu-
lative exposure. Persons who regularly work 3. Cap each bottle, invert several times to mix,
with 125I should have their throats surveyed and count both bottles for 1 min (no automatic
routinely to monitor possible accumulation of external standardization) in both the 3H chan-
radioiodine in the thyroid gland. nel (channel 1) and the 14C-over-3H channel
(channel 2), which have been designated by
your instructor.
Supplies and Reagents 4. Using the following equations, calculate the to-
tal number of counts per minute of both 3H
Marking pen and 14C in your unknown solution:
3
H toluene, 14C toluene unknowns
14
C toluene standard of known disintegrations per A. Determine the percent of the total 14C cpm
minute per milliliter detected in channel 2 using the following
Volumetric dispensing bottles equation:
Scintillation fluid (0.5% PPO in toluene)
Chloroform %14C cpm in channel 2
Quenched 14C unknown 14
C cpm in channel 2 for bottle B
Scintillation counter total 14C cpm in bottle B
D. Determine the 14C cpm detected in Chan- described above. This may have already been
nel 1 for the unknown using the following done for you by the laboratory instructor (see
equation: Fig. 3-8).
4. Using these three prescribed channel settings,
14
C cpm in channel 1 for unknown count each sample for 1 min in each of the
channel 1 cpm for bottle A channels.
% 14C cpm in channel 1 5. Using the data obtained from samples 1 to 4,
the known number of 14C disintegrations per
E. Determine the total 3H cpm in the un- minute added to each of these samples, and
known using the following equation: considering the counts per minute data ob-
tained from the widest window as a reflection
3
H cpm in unknown (total cpm in channel of overall counting efficiency (the total possi-
1 for bottle A) (14C cpm in channel 1 for ble number of counts per minute that can be
unknown) detected in each sample), construct a channels
ratio quench correction curve similar to that
shown in Figure 3-9.
Determination of a Quench Curve and 6. What do you notice about the relationship be-
Analysis of a Quenched 14C Sample tween the chloroform concentration in the
This experiment demonstrates two methods for sample and the counting efficiency for 14C?
analysis of quenching within samples, namely, the 7. Based on the A n B/A n C ratio of sample 5,
channels ratio method and the automatic external calculate the number of disintegrations per
standardization method. Either or both of the minute and Ci of 14C present in the unknown
methods may be demonstrated with the quench se- quenched 14C sample using the following for-
ries of bottles described in the following protocol, mula:
depending on the capabilities of your particular
scintillation counter. 14 cpm 14C in A n C channel
C dpm
counting efficiency
1. Using a volumetric dispensing bottle, tip 5 or
10 ml of scintillation fluid into each of five scin- 8. What is the maximal 14C counts per minute
tillation vials. Label the vials 1 to 5 on the out- value that you would expect to find for this sam-
side, above the level of the fluid in the vial or ple in the absence of any of the chloroform-
on the cap. Label each vial with your name for quenching agent?
later identification.
2. Add to the vials as indicated below: Proceed with Steps 9 to 13 only if you are using the au-
tomatic external standardization method.
14
C toluene standard Quenched
Sample of known dpm/ml Chloroform 14
C unknown 9. Count each of the samples in the prescribed
14
C-above-3H channel for 1 min in the auto-
1 1.0 ml — —
matic external standardization mode. The ma-
2 1.0 ml 0.1 ml —
chine reports an “external standard number”
3 1.0 ml 0.2 ml —
(often termed an “H” number for many ma-
4 1.0 ml 0.3 ml —
chines) for each of the samples.
5 — — 1.0 ml
10. Using the data obtained from samples 1 to 4,
the known number of 14C disintegrations per
If the channels ratio method is used, proceed with minute added to each of these samples, and
Steps 3 to 8. If the automatic external standard- considering the counts per minute data ob-
ization method is used, proceed with Steps 9 to 13. tained from sample 1 (unquenched sample) as
3. Determine three different but specific gain and a reflection of overall counting efficiency (the
channels settings, each of which will detect all total possible number of counts per minute that
or a portion of the 14C counts in the samples can be detected in each sample), construct a
60 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
channels ratio quench correction curve similar ciently that 1 nCi of colorless 14C-alanine when
to that shown in Figure 3-11. both are counted in identical PPO scintillation
11. What do you notice about the relationship be- cocktails? Explain your answer.
tween the chloroform concentration in the 3. During the course of using automatic external
sample and the counting efficiency for 14C? standardization to prepare a 14C quench curve,
What effect does increased quenching have on you determine that you have mistakenly
the external standard number reported by your counted your series of quenched samples in a
instrument? wide 14C channel instead of a 14C-above-3H
12. Based on the external standard number re- channel. Will your data generate a quench
ported for sample 5, calculate the number of curve with a greater or lesser slope than the
disintegrations per minute and curies of 14C curve you would obtain from counting the same
present in the unknown quenched 14C sample quenched samples in a narrow 14C-above-3H
using the following formula: channel? Explain your answer.
4. Is a quench curve determined for 14C applica-
14 cpm 14C in prescribed window ble for analysis of quenching of 3H com-
C dpm
counting efficiency pounds? Why or why not?
EXPERIMENT 4
Electrophoresis
Theory
() Pole
Basic Principles
Water jacket
Electrophoresis is the process of migration of for cooling
charged molecules through solutions in an applied
electric field. Electrophoresis is often classified ac-
cording to the presence or absence of a solid sup-
porting medium or matrix through which the
charged molecules move in the electrophoretic
system. Solution electrophoresis systems employ
aqueous buffers in the absence of a solid support
medium. Such systems can suffer from sample Sample applied in
intermediate density
mixing due to diffusion of the charged molecules, of sucrose in buffer
with resultant loss of resolution during sample ap-
plication, separation, and removal steps. Thus, so-
lution electrophoresis systems must employ some
means of stabilizing the aqueous solutions in the Soluble gradient of
increasing density
electrophoresis cell. For example, soluble-gradient in buffer
electrophoresis systems use varying densities of a
non-ionic solute (e.g., sucrose or glycerol) to min-
imize diffusional mixing of the materials being
separated during electrophoresis (Fig. 4-1). Even
with these refinements, solution electrophoresis
Dense salt at () pole
systems have only limited application, usually
() Pole
when preparative scale electrophoretic separation
is required.
Most practical applications of electrophoresis in Stopcock for serial
biochemistry employ some form of zonal elec- draining of system
trophoresis, in which the aqueous ionic solution is
carried in a solid support and samples are applied
as spots or bands of material. Paper electrophore-
sis, cellulose acetate strip and cellulose nitrate strip,
and gel electrophoresis are all examples of zonal Figure 4-1 A solution electrophoresis system.
61
62 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
() Pole
() Pole
Buffer-dampened paper or
cellulose strip supported
between two buffer pools Cover
Buffer pools
Paper or cellulose strip electrophoresis Gel electrophoresis
electrophoresis systems (Fig. 4-2). Such systems are ter. However, Ohm’s law (V IR) dictates that
typically employed for analytical, rather than voltage (V ) is a function of current (I ) and resis-
preparative scale, separations. tance (R). The nature of the electrophoresis appa-
All types of electrophoresis are governed by the ratus and buffer composition dictates the resistance
single set of general principles illustrated by Equa- in the system. Therefore, current (e.g., mA) is of-
tion 4-1: ten used to define the voltage requirements of an
electrophoretic separation. The resistance of the
(4-1) system is important because it will determine the
amount of heat generated during electrophoresis.
Mobility of a molecule Since electrophoretic mobility is also a function of
(applied voltage)(net charge on the molecule) temperature, heating of the separation matrix must
(friction of the molecule) be controlled. If significant heating occurs during
electrophoresis, it will be necessary to provide some
The mobility, or rate of migration, of a molecule means of cooling the apparatus so as to maintain a
increases with increased applied voltage and in- constant temperature. The “smiling” pattern often
creased net charge on the molecule. Conversely, the seen on slab gel electrophoresis (see below) is the
mobility of a molecule decreases with increased result of nonuniform heating of the gel.
molecular friction, or resistance to flow through the If the voltage or current applied to an elec-
viscous medium, caused by molecular size and trophoresis system is constant throughout an elec-
shape. Total actual movement of the molecules in- trophoretic separation, the mobilities of the mole-
creases with increased time, since mobility is de- cules being resolved will reflect the other terms of
fined as the rate of migration. Equation 4-1, namely, the net charge and frictional
An understanding of the relationships described characteristics of the molecules in the sample. Con-
in Equation 4-1 is essential for many practical as- sider the paper electrophoretic separation of glu-
pects of experimental biochemistry. Most elec- tamic acid, glutamine, asparagine methyl ester, and
trophoretic systems employ an equal and constant glycinamide at pH 6.0. The charges and molecular
voltage on all of the cross-sectional areas of the pa- weights of these compounds at pH 6.0 are indicated
per strips, gels, or solutions employed in the elec- in Figure 4-3. As seen, the equal-sized amino acids
trophoretic separation. These electric fields are and the asparagine methyl ester separate strictly as
best defined in terms of volts per linear centime- a function of their net charges at pH 6.0, whereas
EXPERIMENT 4 Electrophoresis 63
COO CONH2
() ()
Origin line
Figure 4-3 Paper electrophoretic separation of glutamic acid, glutamine, asparagine, methyl ester, and
glycinamide at pH 6.0. The glycinamide, with a charge of 1 and a molecular weight of 75,
may not necessarily migrate twice the distance migrated by asparagine methyl ester, with the
same charge and 2 times larger size. Specifically, the character of the buffer can influence
the expression of the electrophoretic frictional contribution of small molecules. Higher ionic
strength decreases the frictional contribution.
the glycinamide (which has the same net charge as molecular size becomes the sole determinant of
asparagine methyl ester but has only half its size) electrophoretic mobility. These conditions are ex-
migrates proportionally further toward the () pole ploited for the determination of the molecular
of the system. weight of protein subunits by electrophoresis in
Generally, the principles illustrated in Figure polyacrylamide gels containing sodium dodecyl sul-
4-3 can be used to predict the relative mobility of fate (SDS-PAGE), and in the electrophoretic sepa-
small ionic molecules. These principles are particu- ration of oligonucleotide “ladders” during DNA se-
larly useful for predicting the potential for elec- quencing. Molecular shape is not very significant in
trophoretic separation of small molecules contain- small molecules, in which bonds are free to rotate,
ing weakly acidic or weakly basic groups that carry so size alone defines their friction. However, macro-
average partial charges in the pH ranges associated molecules often have defined shapes with specific
with their titration, as, for example, during the elec- axial ratios (i.e., length to width ratios). As a result,
trophoretic separation of nucleotides or amino acids. both size and shape influence migration. Molecules
The electrophoretic separation of larger macro- with high axial ratios demonstrate lower elec-
molecules follows the general principles of Equa- trophoretic mobility than more spherical molecules
tion 4-1, but other factors influence the resolution that have equal weight and equal charge. In addi-
of macromolecules. The friction experienced by tion, macromolecules may deviate from the elec-
molecules during electrophoretic migration reflects trophoretic principles of Equation 4-1 because of
both molecular size and molecular shape. If the elec- interaction with ions or because of charge-depen-
trophoresis is carried out in a medium that offers dent intermolecular associations.
significant barriers to the movement of macromol-
ecules through it (as is the case with polyacrylamide
Specific Forms of Electrophoresis
and agarose, two very commonly used systems), mol-
Commonly Used in Biochemistry
ecular size may prove to be the most important deter-
minant of mobility. If the charge to mass ratio on the Paper Electrophoresis. Paper electrophoresis is a
macromolecules being separated is approximately commonly used electrophoretic method for analy-
equal (as in several of the cases discussed below), sis and resolution of small molecules. This method
64 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
is not used to resolve macromolecules (e.g., pro- Even if paper drying is prevented, heating will
teins) because the adsorption and surface tension change the current flow and resistance properties
associated with paper electrophoresis usually alter of the system, which will distort the migration of
or denature the macromolecules, causing poor res- molecules.
olution. Because of these difficulties, modern paper elec-
Two different methods are used routinely to ap- trophoresis systems have been designed to com-
ply samples to the electrophoretic paper. In the dry pensate for potential heating problems. Most low-
application procedure, a sample of solutes dissolved voltage systems are portable and can be operated in
in distilled water, or a volatile buffer, is applied as cold rooms or refrigerated chambers. In contrast,
a small spot or thin stripe on a penciled “origin line” most high-voltage systems either employ a cooled
on the paper. Appropriate standards of known com- flat-bed system to dissipate the heat or operate in
pounds are applied at other locations on the origin a cooled bath of inert and nonpolar solvent (e.g.,
line. If you anticipate electrophoretic migration to- Varsol, a petroleum distillate). This solvent absorbs
ward both poles of the system, the origin line should the heat generated by the system without mixing
be in the center of the paper. If you anticipate mi- with the water, buffers, or samples on the paper
gration in only one direction, the origin line should (Fig. 4-4). After electrophoretic resolution of the
be near one end of the paper. After the solvent con- samples on the paper for the time and voltage re-
taining the samples has evaporated, the paper is quired for optimal separation, the current is turned
dampened with the electrophoresis buffer, either by off, the paper is removed and dried, and the pres-
uniform spraying or by dipping and blotting the ence and location of the molecules of interest are
ends of the paper so that wetting of the paper from determined.
both ends meets at the origin line simultaneously.
In the wet application procedure, samples dissolved Capillary Electrophoresis. A new method of ana-
as concentrated solutions in distilled water are ap- lytical electrophoresis that is rapidly finding in-
plied to paper predampened with electrophoresis creasing application in biochemical research is cap-
buffer. The dry application procedure has the ad- illary electrophoresis. As the name suggests, the
vantage of allowing small initial sample spots and material to be analyzed and the electrophoresis
better resolution of similarly mobile compounds. medium (a conducting liquid, usually aqueous) are
However, this method is awkward because the dip- placed in a long, fine-bore capillary tube, typically
ping or spraying requires considerable skill to avoid 50 to 100 cm long and 25 to 100 m inside diam-
spreading the applied samples. The wet application eter. A very small sample (in the nanoliter range) is
procedure is simpler to perform, but usually yields placed at one end of the capillary and subjected to
larger spots and poorer resolution because of sam- electrophoresis under fields up to 20 to 30 kV. The
ple diffusion. analytes are separated by the principles illustrated
After the sample is applied to the dampened in Equation 4-1 and detected as they emerge from
piece of paper, the paper is placed in the elec- the other end of the capillary by any of the meth-
trophoresis chamber so that both ends are in con- ods commonly used in high-performance liquid
tact with reservoirs of the electrophoresis buffer at chromatography (see Experiment 2). Capillary elec-
the electrodes (Fig. 4-4). If the origin line is not in trophoresis offers the advantages of extremely high
the center of the paper, the paper must be posi- resolution, speed, and high sensitivity for the analy-
tioned to allow maximum migration toward the cor- sis of extremely small samples, but is obviously not
rect electrode. After the chamber is covered or useful as a preparative method. It has proven espe-
closed to protect against electric shock, an electric cially useful in the separation of DNA molecules
field is applied to the system. that differ in size by as little as only a single nu-
Application of the electric field and the resul- cleotide. Because of its high resolution, capillary
tant resistance to current flow in the buffered pa- electrophoresis is the basis of separation of polynu-
per generates heat. This is the greatest source of diffi- cleotides in some of the newer designs of DNA se-
culty with paper electrophoresis. Heat dries the paper, quencers. Capillary electrophoresis can also be
which in turn leads to more resistance to current adapted to the separation of uncharged molecules
flow, which causes greater resistance, and so forth. by including charged micelles of a detergent (such
EXPERIMENT 4 Electrophoresis 65
() Pole
Paper held
by center
support
Water-cooled
or refrigerated
top and base
Top closes
() Pole
Wire
electrode
in buffer
() Pole pool
Wire
Paper resting electrode
between buffer
pools Aqueous buffer
below Varsol
Center baffle
between buffer
pools
as SDS) in the aqueous electrophoresis medium. If be altered at will to fit a particular application. This
a mixture of solute molecules that partitition be- is possible because the gel enhances the friction that
tween the aqueous medium and the hydrophobic governs the electrophoretic mobility (see Equation
interior of the micelles is introduced into such a 4-1). Low concentrations of matrix material or a
system, they can be separated by electrophoresis. low degree of cross-linking of the monomers in
Capillary electrophoresis is a highly adaptable polymerized gel systems allow them to be used
method, and the range of its applications and opti- largely as a stabilizing or anticonvection device with
mal methodology are still being explored. relatively low frictional resistance to the migration
of macromolecules. Alternatively, higher concen-
Gel Electrophoresis. In gel electrophoresis, mol- trations of matrix material or a higher degree of
ecules are separated in aqueous buffers supported cross-linking of monomers are used to generate
within a polymeric gel matrix. Gel electrophoresis greater friction, which results in molecular sieving.
systems have several distinct advantages. First, they Molecular sieving is a situation in which viscosity
can accommodate larger samples than most paper and pore size largely define electrophoretic mobil-
electrophoresis systems, and so can be used for ity and migration of solutes. As a result, the mi-
preparative scale electrophoresis of macromole- gration of macromolecules in the system will be
cules. Second, the character of the gel matrix can substantially determined by molecular weight.
66 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Many gel-like agents are used in electrophoretic erating system. Biochemists use either chemical or
systems. Agarose (a polygalactose polymer) gels photochemical free-radical sources to induce the
have proven quite successful, particularly when ap- polymerization process. In the chemical method
plied to very large macromolecules such as nucleic (the most commonly used method), the free radi-
acids, lipoproteins, and others. Polyacrylamide gels cal initiator, ammonium persulfate (APS), is added
are among the most useful and most versatile in gel along with a N,N,N,N-tetramethylethylenedi-
electrophoretic separations because they readily re- amine (TEMED) catalyst. These two components,
solve a wide array of proteins and nucleic acids (see in the presence of the monomer, cross-linker, and
Tables 4-1 and 4-2 for instructions on how to pre- appropriate buffer, generate the free radicals
pare SDS-PAGE gels and polyacrylamide gels for needed to induce polymerization. In the photo-
low molecular weight nucleic acid samples). chemical method (less widely used), ammonium
Polyacrylamide gels are formed as the result of persulfate is replaced by a photosensitive compound
polymerization of acrylamide (monomer) and (e.g., riboflavin) that will generate free radicals
N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide (cross-linker) (Fig. when irradiated with UV light. Many modifications
4-5). The acrylamide monomer and cross-linker are can be made to produce a gel that will be useful for
stable by themselves or mixed in solution, but poly- a particular application. If larger pores are required,
merize readily in the presence of a free-radical gen- you could decrease the amount of monomer and/or
Table 4-1 Recipe for Polyacrylamide Gels with Various Percent Acrylamide Monomer for Use with
SDS-PAGE
Prepare the ammonium persulfate fresh and add last to induce the polymerization process (polymerization of the
resolving gel will take approximately 30 min).
Prepare the ammonium persulfate fresh and add last to induce the polymerization process (polymerization of the
resolving gel will take approximately 30 min).
Dissolve 29.2 g of acrylamide and 0.8 g of N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide in 100 ml of distilled water. Filter through a
0.45-M-pore-size membrane (to remove undissolved particulate matter) and store in a dark bottle at 4°C.
EXPERIMENT 4 Electrophoresis 67
Table 4-2 Recipe for a 15% Polyacrylamide Gel cross-linker in the polymerization solution. If
for Use in Separating Nucleic Acids smaller pores are required, one may increase the
Smaller Than 500 Bases in Length concentration of monomer and/or cross-linker.
The pore size required for a particular elec-
Component Volume or Mass trophoretic separation will depend on the differ-
ence in size of the compounds that you wish to re-
Urea 15 g
solve. For instance, if you wish to resolve two small
40% acrylamide solution 11.3 ml
proteins of 8,000 Da and 6,000 Da, you will require
10 TBE buffer 3.0 ml
a small-pore-size gel for this application (15–20%
Distilled water 4.45 ml
acrylamide). This same percent acrylamide gel
TEMED 30 ml
would not permit the resolution of two larger pro-
10% (wt/vol) ammonium persulfate 200 ml
teins of say 150,000 Da and 130,000 Da. A larger-
Prepare the ammonium persulfate fresh and add last to pore-size gel would be required for this application
induce the polymerization process. This recipe will be (7.5–10% acrylamide). A list of components re-
enough to cast 3 to 4 gels, depending on the size of the quired to produce polyacrylamide gels of varying
plates that you use. The recipe for a 0.5 TBE solution is
percent acrylamide is shown in Table 4-1. A list of
shown in Table 4-5. A 5 concentrated stock can be
prepared and stored at room temperature for a short time the effective separation range of proteins on acryl-
by multiplying all of the masses and volumes of the Tris amide gels made with various percent acrylamide is
base, boric acid, and EDTA components by 5. After several shown in Table 4-3.
days at room temperature, a precipitate may begin to Most important, any methods used to produce
form in the 5 TBE stock. When this occurs, a fresh
polyacrylamide gels must be followed exactly each
solution should be made. This 5 working stock should be
diluted 110 with distilled water to produce a 0.5 time they are cast, since reproducible electro-
running buffer for use with separation of low-molecular- phoretic separations require uniform gel-forming
weight nucleic acids by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. conditions. Current literature contains many elec-
trophoresis procedures and applications for poly-
40% Acrylamide Solution
acrylamide gels. Most of these employ the poly-
Dissolve 76.0 g of acrylamide and 4.0 g of N,N- acrylamide gel in some sort of “slab” format. One
methylene-bis-acrylamide in 200 ml of distilled water. of the most commonly used of these procedures is
Filter through a 0.45-M-pore-size membrane (to remove
discussed below.
undissolved particulate matter) and store in a dark bottle
at 4°C.
C O C O C O C O
CH2 CH NH NH2 NH2 NH
Free radicals
C O CH2 Polymer CH2
TEMED
NH2 NH NH
Acrylamide C O C O
(monomer)
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH
N,N-Methylene- C O C O
bis-acrylamide
(cross-linker) NH NH2
CH2
Table 4-3 The Effective Separation Range of denaturing detergent) binds to all regions of the
Polyacrylamide Gels of Various proteins and disrupts most noncovalent intermo-
Percent Acrylamide Monomer for lecular and intramolecular protein interactions.
Use With SDS-PAGE These two components result in total denaturation
of the proteins in the sample, yielding unfolded,
% Acrylamide in Effective Separation highly anionic (negatively charged) polypeptide
Resolving Gel Range (Da) chains (Fig. 4-6).
7.5 45,000–200,000 The anionic polypeptide chains are then re-
10 20,000–200,000 solved electrophoretically within a polyacrylamide
12 14,000–70,000 gel saturated with SDS and the appropriate current-
15 5,000–70,000 carrying buffer. The excess SDS is included in the
20 5,000–45,000 gel to maintain the denatured state of the proteins
during the electrophoretic separation. The SDS-
coated polypeptides (carrying approximately one
SDS molecule per two amino acids) creates a situ-
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate – Polyacrylamide Gel Elec- ation in which the charge-to-mass ratio of all of the
trophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Sodium dodecyl sulfate proteins in the sample is approximately the same.
(SDS) gel electrophoresis systems are used to de- At this point, the intrinsic charge on the individual
termine the number and size of protein chains or polypeptide chains (that is, in the absence of SDS)
protein subunit chains in a protein preparation. Ini- is insignificant as compared with the negative
tially, the protein preparation is treated with an ex- charge imposed on them by the presence of the
cess of soluble thiol (usually 2-mercaptoethanol) SDS. The friction experienced by the population of
and SDS. Under these conditions, the thiol reduces molecules as they migrate through the polyacryl-
all disulfide bonds (–S–S–) present within and/or amide matrix is now the major factor influencing
between peptide units, while the SDS (an ionic or differences in their mobility. In addition, the fric-
s R–SH
SDS SH SH
s
SH
s SH
s Denatured
Organized native protein
protein with
3-dimensional structure
Denatured
subunits
Proteins with Subunits
SH
SH
2
subunit R–SH
subunit SH
SDS
+
tion experienced by the molecules during the sep- greater charge increases mobility, whereas greater
aration is governed by the pore size of the poly- size leads to greater friction and decreased mobil-
acrylamide matrix: larger polypeptides will experience ity. Glycine carries an average charge of about 0.1
greater friction when passing through a gel of defined per molecule at pH 8.3 (running buffer) and almost
pore size (will migrate more slowly) than smaller no net negative charge at pH 6.8 (stacking gel pH).
polypeptides (which will migrate more rapidly). In sum- In contrast, the SDS-coated proteins in the system
mary, SDS-PAGE allows the separation of proteins carry a high negative charge that is essentially in-
on the basis of size. dependent of the pH of the system. At the low pH
The principles underlying the most commonly in the stacking gel, glycine anions lose negative
used form of SDS-PAGE are best illustrated by a charge and display decreased mobility in the sys-
description of the step-by-step progress of a pro- tem. In contrast, the chloride ions contained in the
tein migrating in the gel. As seen in Figure 4-7 and stacking gel migrate ahead of the proteins because
Table 4-1, SDS-PAGE employs two buffer/poly- of their small size (low friction) and full negative
acrylamide gel compositions in a single slab. These charge. Since the negatively charged proteins in the
are referred to as the “stacking gel” and the “run- system have a larger frictional factor, they migrate
ning (or resolving) gel.” Protein samples are first into the stacking gel at a rate that is slower than that
introduced into wells cast within the stacking gel of the chloride population, but faster than that of
after they are mixed with a viscous sample buffer the virtually uncharged glycine anion population.
(30% glycerol) containing SDS and thiols. After the The resultant scale of anion mobilities in the low
samples have been loaded, voltage is applied to the percentage acrylamide stacking gel (Cl pro-
system (current is carried through the gel, 3–4 teins glycine) causes the proteins to accumu-
V/cm2) between two separated pools of glycine late ahead of the advancing glycine front (Fig. 4-7b)
buffer, pH 8.3 (Table 4-4). and eventually stack into concentrated, narrow
Remember that ion (current) flow must follow bands at the interface between the stacking gel and
the principles dictated in Equation 4-1, namely, the running gel (Fig. 4-7c). Meanwhile, the chloride
Resolving
Resolving gel, proteins
pH 8.8
a b c d
Figure 4-7 Migration of proteins through stacking and resolving gels during SDS-PAGE.
70 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Table 4-4 Recipes for Buffers Used in Agarose Gel Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids and SDS-PAGE
Dissolve 5.4 g of Tris base and 2.75 g of boric acid in 700 ml of distilled water. Add 2 ml of 0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0. Bring
the final volume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. NOTE: A 5 concentrated stock can be prepared and
stored at room temperature for a short time by multiplying all of the masses and volumes of the Tris base, boric acid,
and EDTA components by 10. This 5 concentrated stock will be diluted 110 with distilled water to give a 0.5
working solution.
Dissolve 4.84 g of Tris base in 700 ml of distilled water. Add 1.14 ml of glacial acetic acid and 2 ml of 0.5 M EDTA, pH
8.0. Bring the final volume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. NOTE: A 50 concentrated stock can be
prepared and stored at room temperature for long term by multiplying all of the masses and volumes of the Tris base,
glacial acetic acid, and EDTA components by 50. This 50 concentrated stock will be diluted 150 with distilled water to
give a 1 working solution.
Dissolve 3.02 g of Tris base and 18.8 g of glycine in 700 ml of water. Add 10 ml of 10% (wt/vol) SDS and adjust the pH
of the solution to 8.3 with HCl. Bring the final volume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. NOTE: A 5
concentrated stock can be prepared by multiplying the masses and volumes of all of the components by five. This 5
concentrated stock will be diluted 15 with distilled water to give a 1 working solution described above.
ions in the stacking gel readily migrate into the run- relative mobility. The standard curve produced
ning gel. from this analysis of the polypeptides of known
As the advancing front of anions enters the run- molecular weights can then be used, along with the
ning gel, the high concentration of pH 8.8 buffer relative mobilities of the unknown polypeptides in
and the high concentration of acrylamide (de- the sample, to estimate their molecular weight (see
creased pore size) in the gel triggers two events. Fig. 4-8).
First, the high pH buffer imparts a greater nega-
tive charge to the glycine anions, whose migration
was retarded in the pH 6.8 buffer in the stacking 100 High concentration gel
gel. Because of their small size and increased an- 90
80
ionic character, the glycine ions quickly overtake 70 Intermediate concentration gel
Molecular weight (10-3)
How do you visualize the proteins that have When voltage is applied to the system, the cur-
been separated following SDS-PAGE? Two visual- rent flow will be due largely to migration of the
ization methods are most often used. The choice charged ampholyte species present in the gel. The
between them depends largely on the sensitivity of ampholytes migrate toward either pole in a manner
detection that is required for your application. The consistent with their charge distributions; am-
first method involves saturating the gel with a so- pholytes with lower isoelectric points (e.g., those
lution of acetic acid, methanol, and water contain- that contain more carboxyl groups and have a net
ing Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 dye. As the negative charge) migrate toward the anode, while
methanol and acetic acid in the solution work to ampholytes with higher isoelectric points (e.g.,
“fix” the proteins within the gel matrix, Coomassie those that contain more amine groups and have a
Brilliant Blue binds to the proteins in the gel. The net positive charge) migrate toward the cathode.
interaction between the Coomassie dye and pro- Eventually, each ampholyte in the system will reach
teins has been shown to be primarily through argi- a position in the gel that has a pH equal to its iso-
nine residues, although weak interactions with tryp- electric point. When this occurs, these ampholytes
tophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, histidine, and carry no net charge and will no longer migrate in
lysine are also involved. After the gel is “destained” the gel. The net effect is that, after a sufficient
with the same aqueous acetic acid/methanol solu- period of electrophoresis, the population of am-
tion without the dye (to remove the dye from por- pholytes will act as local “buffers” to establish a sta-
tions of the gel that do not contain protein), the ble pH gradient in the polyacrylamide gel. This pH
proteins on the gel are visible as dark blue “bands” gradient forms the basis for the separation of
on the polyacrylamide gel. When conducted prop- macromolecules that are present in the system (or
erly, this method of detection is sufficiently sensi- are subsequently introduced into the system).
tive to detect a protein band containing as little as Proteins present in the system act like am-
0.1 to 0.5 g of a polypeptide. An alternative stain- pholytes in that they migrate as a function of their
ing method, silver staining, is sensitive to about net charge. As the ampholytes establish a pH gra-
10 ng of protein contained in a single band on the dient in the gel, the proteins in the system also mi-
acrylamide gel. Silver staining begins by saturating grate toward their respective poles until they reach
the gel with a solution of silver nitrate. Next, a re- a pH in the gel at which they too carry no net neg-
ducing agent is added to cause the reduction of Ag ative charge (the pI of the protein). At this point,
ions to metallic silver (Ag), which precipitate on the the attractive forces applied to the protein by the
proteins in the gel and cause the appearance of pro- anode and cathode are equal, and the protein no
tein bands that are black in color. Silver staining is longer migrates in the system. In effect, the differ-
technically more difficult, and therefore is used only ent proteins in the sample are “focused” to partic-
when extreme sensitivity is required. ular portions of the gel where the pH is equal to
their pI values.
Isoelectric Focusing. Isoelectric focusing is an How do you determine when the electro-
electrophoretic technique that separates macro- phoretic separation is complete? As stated above,
molecules on the basis of their isoelectric points (pI, the separation is complete when the ampholytes and
pH values at which they carry no net charge). As proteins reach a pH value in the gel equal to their
with SDS-PAGE, this process can be carried out in pI and no longer migrate. Once the proteins and
a “slab” format. A pH gradient is established in the ampholytes no longer migrate, the current (I ) in
polyacrylamide gel with the aid of ampholytes, the system decreases dramatically. Because isoelec-
which are small (5000 Da) polymers containing tric focusing is performed in the presence of fairly
random distributions of weakly acidic and weakly low concentrations of ampholytes (2–4%), high
basic functional groups (e.g., carboxyls, imidazoles, voltage potential (150 V/cm2) can be applied to the
amines, etc.). A polyacrylamide gel containing these system without the generation of excess amounts of
ampholytes is connected to an electrophoresis ap- heat caused from high currents.
paratus that contains dilute acid solution (H) in Since this method is designed to separate pro-
the anode chamber and a dilute base (OH) solu- teins on the basis of isoelectric point, one must take
tion in the cathode chamber (Fig. 4-9). care not to impose a significant “friction factor” to
72 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Anticonvection agent
(gel system or
sucrose gradient)
Current flow
for short time
Protein banded
at isoelectric
Ampholytes pH value
Protein molecules
Dilute
acid (+) (+)
a b
the macromolecules being separated. In other to be carried out in a preparative (large-scale, non-
words, the pore size of the gel should be large denaturing) format. Although the principles of the
enough that all of the macromolecules in the sys- separation are the same as those described above,
tem can migrate freely to their appropriate iso- preparative isoelectric focusing is carried out us-
electric points. If the pore size of the matrix lim- ing a liquid anticonvection agent rather than a gel
its the rate of migration of the proteins with higher slab.
molecular weights, the separation may turn out to
be influenced more, or as much as, by size as by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis. Agarose gel elec-
isoelectric point. If polyacrylamide gels are used trophoresis is the principal technique used to de-
for this purpose, the concentration of acrylamide termine the size of high-molecular-weight nucleic
in the gel should not exceed 8%. If desired, you acids (DNA and RNA). Agarose is a long polymer
can perform isoelectric focusing using protocols of galactose and 3,6-anhydrogalactose linked via
that employ other “slab” matrix materials, such as (1 n 4) glycosidic bonds. This material is readily
agarose, or in a liquid matrix format that uses a su- isolated from seaweed. Agarose polymers may con-
crose density gradient as the anticonvection agent. tain up to 100 monomeric units, with an average
You should also be aware that ampholytes are com- molecular weight of around 10,000 Da. Agarose
mercially available in a wide array of pH ranges gels are cast by dissolving the white agarose pow-
that may be required for separation of a molecule der in an aqueous buffer containing EDTA and ei-
of interest (e.g., pH 3–5, pH 2–10, pH 7–9, etc.). ther Tris-acetate or Tris-borate as the buffering
In the past, isoelectric focusing has been performed species (TAE or TBE buffer, respectively, see Table
in the “slab” format and employed largely as an an- 4-4). When the sample is heated to just below boil-
alytical technique. More recently, systems have ing, the agarose powder dissolves in the buffer to
been developed that will allow isoelectric focusing form a clear solution. As the solution slowly cools
EXPERIMENT 4 Electrophoresis 73
to room temperature, hydrogen bonding within and dye will migrate at the same rate as a DNA mole-
between the polygalactose units in the solution will cule of about 4000 base pairs.
cause the formation of a rigid gel with a relatively The nucleic acid samples are loaded into the
uniform pore size. The induction of this polymer- wells of the gel, along with a sample of DNA frag-
ization event involves no chemical reaction, unlike ments of known molecular weight (number of base
the polymerization process described above for pairs) in one of the wells. These standards will be
polyacrylamide gels. used following the electrophoretic separation to aid
As with polyacrylamide gels, the pore size of the in the determination of the size of the nucleic acid
gel can be controlled by the percentage of the samples present in the unknown sample (see below).
agarose dissolved in the solution. A high percent Remember that the DNA is negatively charged.
agarose gel (say, 3% wt/wt) will have a smaller pore Because of this, the cathode (negative electrode)
size than a lower (0.8% wt/wt) agarose gel. The should be connected to the side of the apparatus
percent of agarose to be cast in the gel will be de- nearest the wells in the gel, while the anode (posi-
termined by the size of the various molecules to be tive electrode) is connected to the opposite side of
resolved during electrophoresis; the smaller the the apparatus. A voltage of about 4 to 6 V/cm is ap-
molecular weight of the molecules to be resolved, plied to the system (50–70 mA of current), and
the higher percent agarose (smaller pore size) the the electrophoresis is continued until the bro-
gel should contain. A list of the effective separation mophenol blue dye front reaches the end of the gel.
ranges with agarose gels of various percent agarose You will notice that agarose gel electrophoresis, un-
is shown in Table 4-5. like SDS-PAGE, does not employ the use of a stack-
Once the solution is heated to dissolve the ing gel. Since the nucleic acids in the sample have
agarose, the solution is cooled momentarily and a much greater frictional component in the gel than
poured into a slab mold fitted at one end with a they do in the buffer contained in the wells, the nu-
Teflon or plastic comb. After the solution poly- cleic acids focus very quickly at the buffer–gel in-
merizes, the comb is removed to create wells into terface before entering the matrix.
which the desired DNA or RNA samples will be How do you visualize the nucleic acids follow-
applied. The gel is then transferred to an elec- ing the electrophoretic separation? Ethidium bro-
trophoresis chamber and is completely covered with mide is a fluorescent dye that has the ability to in-
the same TAE or TBE buffer that was used to cast tercalate between the stacked bases of nucleic acid
the gel. Next, the nucleic acid sample is mixed with duplexes (i.e., the double helix of DNA). After elec-
a viscous buffer (30% glycerol) containing one or trophoresis, the gel is placed in a solution of TBE
more tracking dyes that will be used to monitor the or TAE buffer containing ethidium bromide, which
progress of the electrophoresis. Bromophenol blue diffuses into the gel and associates with the nucleic
dye will migrate at the same rate as a DNA mole- acids. Following a short destaining period in buffer
cule of about 500 base pairs, while xylene cyanole without ethidium bromide (to remove it from the
areas on the gel that do not contain nucleic acids),
the gel is briefly exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light
Table 4-5 The Effective Separation Range of (256–300 nm), revealing the nucleic acid fragments
Agarose Gels of Various as orange or pink fluorescent bands in the gel. The
Composition for Separation of pattern of fluorescent bands is recorded by pho-
Nucleic Acids tographing the gel in a dark chamber while the gel
is exposed to UV light from below. A filter is in-
Effective Separation cluded to screen out UV light, so that most of the
% Agarose (wt/vol) Range (base pairs)
light that exposes the film is from the fluorescence
0.8 700–9000 of the nucleic acid bands that contain tightly bound
1.0 500–7000 ethidium bromide.
1.2 400–5000 The method of determining the molecular
1.5 200–3000 weight of an unknown nucleic acid sample is ex-
2.0 100–300 actly the same as that described for the determina-
tion of protein molecular weight in SDS-PAGE.
74 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
Glass plates
Gel slab
Spacers
Clamp to secure gel
Upper buffer
reservoir
Upper
electrode
Lower buffer
reservoir
Lower
electrode
Figure 4-10 A typical apparatus for vertical slab SDS-PAGE. (From Wilson, K., and Walker, J. (1994)
Principles and Techniques of Practical Biochemistry, 4th ed. Cambridge, UK. Cambridge
University Press, Fig. 9-1. Reprinted with permission.)
Mix the solution gently and proceed immedi- 7. Remove the bottom spacer from between the
ately to Steps 5 and 6. plates, and place the polymerized gel in the
5. Pour the stacking gel into the space above the plates in which it was formed into the elec-
running gel. trophoresis apparatus.
6. Immediately insert the comb to create sample 8. Add running buffer to the chambers at the bot-
wells in the stacking gel before it polymerizes. tom and top of the gel. Gently remove the
Be sure that the comb is clean and free of for- comb from between the plates. Be sure that no
eign material and that no air bubbles form bubbles interfere with uniform contact of the
around the comb. If bubbles do form, tilt the liquid in the running buffer with the gel at the
gel slightly and tap the glass near the area of bottom or at the top. The wells in the stacking
the bubble to dislodge it and allow it to rise to portion of the gel should be uniformly filled
the top. Be sure that you fill the stacking gel with buffer with no bubbles or gel debris in
slightly over the top of the small plate, as the them. If bubbles need to be removed, use a sy-
stacking gel will shrink slightly during poly- ringe and buffer to gently force them out. Also,
merization. Allow the gel to polymerize for at be sure that there is no leaking between the two
least 30 min at room temperature. buffer chambers. Remember that the current
76 SECTION I Basic Techniques of Experimental Biochemistry
will take the path of least resistance, and it will with destaining solution for 1 hour, replacing
not pass through the gel unless the two buffer it with fresh destaining solution every 15 min.
chambers are separated. Destaining proceeds more rapidly if the gel is
9. Prepare the standard and unknown protein gently agitated in the solution continuously
samples for analysis by mixing 10 l of each during destaining. Destaining is complete
with 5 l of 4X sample buffer in microcen- when the proteins appear as blue bands on a
trifuge tubes, mixing gently, and heating at transparent gel background.
100°C for 5 min in a boiling water bath. This 17. The gel can now be photographed or placed
step is to ensure that all of the proteins in the between two sheets of cellophane (using water
sample are completely denatured. Remove the to make the gel easier to slide around, then gen-
samples from the water bath and allow them to tly squeezing out the excess water, but leaving
cool to room temperature. no bubbles) and dried under a vacuum on a
10. Load the samples onto the gel with a syringe, commercial gel drier to keep a permanent
taking care to place the needle so that the dense record of the electropherogram.
blue solution settles gently in a layer at the bot-
tom of the sample wells, displacing the running
buffer upward as it is added. Be careful not to Data Analysis
tear or distort the soft stacking gel as you add
the samples. Several students can share a gel; 1. For each protein band in the lanes in which
for example, if a 10-well gel is used, eight stu- standards and the unknown sample were ana-
dents can analyze their unknowns and two sam- lyzed, measure the distance from the bottom of
ples of standards can be analyzed, one in a cen- the well (in mm) to the center of the band. Also
ter well and one in a well at the edge of the gel. measure the distance from the bottom of the
11. Connect the electrodes of the apparatus to the well to center of the dye front (in millimeters)
power source. The anode ( pole) must be at in the same lane.
the bottom of the apparatus. (Can you explain 2. Calculate the Rf value for each protein band ac-
why?) cording to:
12. Apply a constant 200-V field to the apparatus,
and continue the electrophoresis until the bro- distance migrated by the protein band (mm)
Rf
mophenol blue tracking dye reaches the very distance migrated by the dye front (mm)
bottom of the gel. Bromophenol blue is a small
anionic dye, which will migrate faster than any 3. Use the Rf values for the protein standards to
protein during electrophoresis. prepare a standard curve that plots the log of
13. Turn off the power supply, and disconnect the the molecular weight of each standard protein
electrodes from it. on the ordinate versus the Rf value for that pro-
14. Gently remove the gel from the apparatus. Us- tein on the abscissa. Do all of the values fall on
ing a spatula or razor blade, separate the two a straight line? Can you predict what the curve
plates by gently prying up one corner of a sin- would look like for proteins that are much
gle plate. The gel should adhere to one of the larger and much smaller than the standards you
plates. Using the same spatula or razor blade, used?
separate the soft stacking gel from the more 4. From the Rf value(s) of the protein band(s) in
rigid running gel. Discard the stacking gel in your unknown sample, determine the molecu-
the specified container (polyacrylamide is toxic lar weights of these proteins by interpolation
and should be properly disposed of ). on your standard curve. How many bands did
15. Gently transfer the running gel to a pan filled you observe in your unknown? What was/were
with approximately 50 ml of Coomassie Blue the molecular weight(s)? If there was more than
staining solution and allow it to soak in the so- one band in your unknown, what can you say
lution for 1 hour. from the intensity of Coomassie staining of the
16. Pour off the staining solution (save it, because bands about the relative abundance of the pro-
it can be reused many times), and replace it teins in the sample?
EXPERIMENT 4 Electrophoresis 77
SECTION II
Introduction
Most of the astonishing variety of structural fea- so as to introduce specific amino acid substitutions
tures and biochemical activities of cells is a conse- into it, has become a powerful and very widely used
quence of an equally extraordinary variety in the tool for the investigation of structure–function re-
structures of the proteins in those cells. In some lationships in proteins. Whether major or minor,
cases the relation between the structure and func- such differences in structure are the consequences
tion of a protein is fairly obvious. For example, the of differences in the total number and chemical na-
major structural proteins of hair and collagen fi- ture of amino acids in a protein, the primary se-
brils, keratin and tropocollagen, have high molec- quence of these amino acids, and the manner in
ular weights and regularly repeated amino acid se- which the polypeptide chain is folded in space. To
quences that endow them with the ability to form understand the way biological function is conferred
long, regularly structured strands. These proteins on proteins it is necessary to study the chemistry of
are quite different in size and amino acid composi- amino acids and proteins, as well as the methods
tion from lower-molecular-weight, soluble pro- for elucidating the higher levels of structure.
teins, such as enzymes and hormones, for which
the relationship between protein structure and
biochemical function is far less obvious. Another Amino Acids: Identification and
example is provided by integral membrane or Quantitative Determination
transmembrane proteins, which usually contain
predictable sequences of amino acids that fold into The individual amino acids of a protein can be lib-
helices with hydrophobic surfaces that adapt these erated by hydrolyzing the peptide (amide) bonds
regions of the protein to stable residence in the hy- (–CO–NH–) that link them. The usual procedure
drophobic interior of the membrane. The varia- is to dissolve the peptide or protein in 6 N HCl and
tions in chemical structure among other proteins heat the solution in a sealed, evacuated tube at
are small or subtle; yet these small differences may 100°C for 8 to 72 hr (or for shorter times at higher
be associated with major differences in physiologi- temperatures). All amide linkages (including the
cal function. For example, hemoglobin S differs side chain amides of glutamine and asparagine) are
from hemoglobin A by only a single amino acid cleaved under these conditions. Certain amino acids
residue, yet the behavior of these two proteins in are entirely (tryptophan) or partially (serine, thre-
red blood cells is very different. Many other cases onine, tyrosine, cysteine) destroyed, so that special
are known in which replacement of a single amino precautions are required for the quantitative deter-
acid residue by mutation radically alters the bio- mination of these amino acids.
logical function of a protein. In fact, the technique The amino acids in a protein hydrolysate can
of in vitro mutagenesis, the process of engineering be conveniently separated for qualitative analysis
known changes into the DNA encoding a protein by paper or thin-layer chromatography or by elec-
81
82 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
trophoresis. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of of this equation leads to a further understanding of
amino acid mixtures can be achieved with much pKa. When the concentration of the unprotonated
greater convenience and accuracy using automated form equals that of the protonated form, the ratio
ion-exchange chromatography. A common means of their concentrations equals 1, and log10 1 0.
of detecting amino acids is by determination of their Hence, pKa can be defined as the pH at which the con-
reaction with ninhydrin (triketohydrindene hy- centrations of unprotonated and protonated forms of a
drate). Ninhydrin decarboxylates amino acids particular ionizable species are equal. The pKa also
producing an intensely colored blue-purple prod- equals the pH at which the ionizable group is at its
uct, CO2, water, and aldehydes derived from the best buffering capacity; that is, the pH at which the
carbon skeleton of the amino acid (see Fig. 6-9, Ex- solution resists changes in pH most effectively. The
periment 6). Ninhydrin yields a similar blue- pKa value of the weak acid or base in a buffering
purple product on reaction with primary amines or system is therefore an important consideration in
ammonia. The reagent also reacts with imino acids choosing a buffer of a given pH. For example, if you
such as proline to yield a yellow product. Under wanted to prepare a buffer at pH 7.0, you might
controlled conditions the color development is choose inorganic phosphate (pKa2 6.8). pKa val-
quantitative. Amino acids also react with fluo- ues are derived with unit activity concentrations (ap-
rescamine or with orthophthalaldehyde and mer- proximately 1.0 M) of components. The pKa values
captoethanol to yield fluorescent products that pro- of many biochemically important ionic compounds
vide a more sensitive means of analyzing amino acid shift slightly on dilution to more physiological con-
mixtures. centrations. Biochemists therefore use the symbol
Another widely used method for qualitative and pKa to designate pKa values in dilute ionic systems.
quantitative analysis of amino acid mixtures is high- Consider applying the Henderson–Hasselbalch
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (see equation to the titration of glycine with acid and
Experiments 2 and 6). The mixture of amino acids is base. Glycine has two ionizable groups: a carboxyl
first subjected to reaction with phenylisothiocyanate group and an amino group, with pKa values of 2.4
(PITC) to convert them to the phenylthiocarbamyl– and 9.6, respectively. In water at pH 6.0, glycine ex-
amino acid derivatives, which are then subjected to ists as a dipolar ion, or zwitterion, in which the car-
chromatographic separation. The derivativatization boxyl group is unprotonated (–COO) and the
of the amino acids serves two purposes: it attaches a amino group is protonated to give the substituted
UV-absorbing “tag,” which makes their quantitative ammonium ion (–NH 3 ). (Verify this, using the
determination easy, and it converts them to a more Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, pH 6.0, and the
hydrophobic form, which is necessary for good sep- respective pKa values.) Addition of acid to the so-
aration on the reverse-phase system commonly used lution lowers the pH rapidly at first and then more
with this technique. This method of amino acid slowly as the buffering action of the carboxyl group
analysis will be used in Experiment 6. is exerted (see Fig. II-1). At pH 2.4 the pKa is
reached and half of the acid has been consumed;
the carboxyl group is half ionized and effectively
Amino Acids: Ionic Properties
buffers the solution. Further addition of acid results
in titration of the remainder of the carboxylate ions
All amino acids contain ionizable groups that act as
in the solution (e.g., at pH 1.4 only 1 carboxyl in
weak acids or bases, giving off or taking on protons
11 is ionized). Titration of the protonated -amino
when the pH is altered. As is true of all similar ion-
group with base follows a similar curve into the al-
izations, these ionizations follow the Henderson–
kaline region. The concentration of the protonated
Hasselbalch equation:
and unprotonated species of each ion at any pH can
(II-1) be calculated from the Henderson–Hasselbalch
[unprotonated form (base)] equation. The intersection between the titration of
pH pKa log10
[protonated form (acid)] the carboxyl group and the titration of the amino
group defines the pH at which glycine has no net
The pKa is the negative log10 of the acid dissocia- charge, and is called the “isoelectric point” (pI, Fig.
tion constant of the ionizable group. Examination II-1). Experiment 5 provides the student with an
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 83
14 Protein Structure
12 pKa = 9.6
2
The elements of protein structure are divided into
10 four classes: primary, secondary, tertiary, and qua-
ternary. Primary structure refers to the linear se-
8 quence of amino acids linked by amide bonds along
pH
6
protein chains. These polymer chains vary in length
pKa = 2.4 pI
1 from a few amino acid residues (oligopeptides) to
4 molecules containing 2000 or more amino acids.
Most proteins are from 100 to 500 amino acid
2 residues in length. One or more of each of 20 nat-
0 ural amino acids may be present in each protein
1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 molecule. In some cases the amino acids undergo
Acid Alkali posttranslational chemical modification, which in-
troduces still more variety into protein structure.
Equivalents Both secondary and tertiary structure refer to
the arrangement of the polypeptide chain in a three-
Figure II-1 Titration curve of glycine.
dimensional structure. Secondary structure generally
describes the arrangement of neighboring amino
acids into more or less regular patterns that are held
together by hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) be-
opportunity to develop a further understanding of tween the carbonyl oxygens and the amide hydro-
the acid–base properties of amino acids as these are gens (CPOZH–N) of the peptide backbone. Sev-
studied by titration. eral such regular patterns have been discovered by
Most amino acids contain carboxyl and amino x-ray crystallographic analysis of many proteins.
groups having pKa values similar to those of glycine. The two patterns of secondary structure that occur
In addition to these groups, many amino acids con- most frequently are the -helix and the -pleated
tain other ionizable groups, which introduce other sheet (or simply -strands) (Fig. II-2). Certain fi-
“steps” or pKa values into their titration curves. It brous proteins may consist almost entirely of one
is largely these side chain groups—those not linked of these secondary structural elements. In contrast,
in peptide bonds to adjacent amino acids—that H-bonded secondary structures account only for a
account for the ionic properties of proteins. Table portion of the peptide chain folding in globular pro-
II-1 lists the ionizable groups of proteins and amino teins (such as most enzymes) and tend to occur in
acids, the nature of their ionizations, and their ap- shorter segments connected by bends or turns to
proximate pKa values. Notice that the pKa values fold them into a compact structure.
for groups on proteins are given as ranges rather The complete pattern of folding of the polypep-
than as single values. This is because the ionization tide chain of a protein, whether regular or irregu-
of various groups on proteins is often modified by lar, is called the “tertiary structure.” The tertiary
the presence of other groups on the protein. This structure of any protein is the sum of many forces
is evident from a comparison between the typical and structural elements, many of which are the re-
pKa values for the -amino and -carboxyl groups sult of interactions between the side chain groups
of a free amino acid, 2.3 and 9.5, respectively, and of amino acids in the protein. Some of these inter-
the corresponding values for these groups when actions are described below.
they occur at the ends of a peptide, even a peptide
as small as a dipeptide, which are about 3.5 and 8.5.
The close proximity of the charged –COO and Disulfide Bonds. The sulfhydryl groups of the
–NH3 groups in an amino acid affects the ioniza- amino acid cysteine often (but not always) form
tion of the other group by electrostatic attraction partners in intrachain or interchain disulfide bonds,
and repulsion. These effects are largely lost when and they thus serve to fix a protein molecule into a
these groups are farther apart in peptides. three-dimensional structure. While such bonds are,
84 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
sec-Ammonium NH
2 H NH 10.2–10.8 10.6
(proline)
Ammonium ONH
3 uv H ONH2 9.4–10.6 10.5
(
, lysine)
Phenolic
hydroxyl OH H O 9.8–10.4 10.1
(tyrosine)
H
N N
Imidazolium H 5.6–7.0 6.0
(histidine)
N N
H H
Guanidinium NH C NH2 H NH C NH2 11.6–12.6 12.5
(arginine)
NH2 NH
Sulfhydryl OSH uv H OS 9.4–10.8 10.4
(cysteine)
of course, part of the primary covalent linkages of the highly organized “icelike” structure that must
the protein molecule, it is more useful to think of be formed around them. Hence, such hydrophobic
them as contributing to the chain folding. residues are frequently found clustered inside the
protein molecule, where there are weak van der
Hydrogen Bonds. Hydrogen atoms that are at-
Waals associations among them and they are
tached to the electronegative atoms oxygen or
“removed” from energetically unfavorable contact
nitrogen (e.g., tyrosine-OH, glutamine, and as-
with water molecules. The net energy gained from
paragine amides) frequently interact by H-bonding
such “oil drop” arrangements contributes substan-
with other electronegative atoms (usually oxygen,
tially to overall protein folding. Similarly, amino
as in carboxyl oxygen). This noncovalent bonding
acids with highly polar or charged side chain
can stabilize the interactions of amino acid side
residues tend to be exposed to the solvent, where
chains with other side chains or with the carboxyls
their interaction with water molecules is energeti-
and amides of the protein backbone.
cally favorable.
Ionic Attractions and Repulsions. Attractions and
Proline Residues. Since proline is an imino acid,
repulsions occur between ionized functional groups.
unlike the other amino acids, it does not fit into a
Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions. Al- regularly organized helical or pleated sheet struc-
though proteins are generally soluble in water or ture. Hence, proline residues are likely to be found
dilute salt solutions, they contain many amino acids in disorganized regions within the polypeptide
with aliphatic or aromatic side-chain residues that chain or in “bends” associated with a change in the
have low solubility in water, apparently because of overall direction of the peptide chain.
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 85
N
O
C
R
O
H N
O
C H R
C
N H
O R O
H
C
N H
C O
R H
C
N
H O H
C R
C
H N C
C R H C
H C
C
H C
N O
H N
R O O
C C C H
N
H O C
R O H O
C N H
N C
H
O H H C
C R
O
H N
O C R
H
C
H
N O
C
R
C
H O
Figure II-2 Major elements of secondary structure of proteins. Left, the -helix; right, representation of
the antiparallel pleated sheet structures for polypeptides. (After Pauling, L., and R. B. Corey
(1951). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 37:729).
Many of these features are evident in the three- perhaps most, have an additional level of structural
dimensional structures of ribonuclease and myo- organization—quaternary structure. Quaternary
globin shown in Figure II-3. To understand the structure refers to the organization of identical or
common and distinguishing features of the sec- different polypeptide chains into noncovalently
ondary and tertiary structure of various proteins as linked aggregates containing a fixed number of
determined by x-ray crystallographic analysis, the polypeptide subunits in a single functional protein.
student should study several examples in standard Thus, many proteins have been found to consist of
textbooks of biochemistry. 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, or other numbers of polypeptide
Some proteins can be fully described by primary, chains, usually bound in regular arrangements.
secondary, and tertiary structure, but many others, Some examples are shown in Figure II-4.
86 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
20 Å 20 Å
Figure II-3 Ribbon diagrams showing the three-dimensional structures of ribonuclease A (left) and myo-
globin (right). Helical segments are presented as coiled ribbons, -strands as smoothly curv-
ing ribbons, and regions of irregular structure as thin tubes. The four disulfide bonds of ri-
bonuclease are shown as ball and stick models as are the atoms of the heme A prosthetic
group and the side chains of two histidine residues that ligate to the heme in myoglobin.
(From Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Freeman, Figures 2-45 and 2-43.
Reprinted with permission.)
R
C C
140 Å R
R C
R
45 Å
C
R
45 Å
R
a C
Figure II-4 Examples of the quaternary structure of proteins. (a) A drawing of glutamine synthetase of E.
coli showing the orientation of the 12 identical subunits of the enzyme. (b) A drawing of as-
partate transcarbamylase of E. coli showing the proposed orientation of the 6 catalytic sub-
units (labeled C, each MW 33,000), and 6 regulatory subunits (labeled R, each MW
17,000), of the enzyme. (c) A drawing of the pyruvate dehydrogenese complex of E. coli
showing the proposed orientation of the various proteins in the multienzyme complex.
amino acid sequence of a protein from the DNA formation at the level of atomic resolution, and
sequence of the gene that specifies it. In fact, com- several thousand structures of proteins have now
puter programs have been developed to do this (see been determined using these techniques. The
Experiment 25). standard repository for such structural informa-
The determination of the secondary and ter- tion is the Brookhaven Protein Data Base
tiary structure—that is, the details of the three- (http://www.pdb.bnl.gov/ ). These structures pro-
dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain of a vide a rich source of information about the nature
protein at high resolution—relies on one of two of protein architecture and the relationship be-
powerful techniques: x-ray diffraction analysis of tween protein structure and biological function. A
protein crystals and multidimensional high-field detailed description of these methods is beyond
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. the scope of this book, but a few general comments
Both methods provide very detailed structural in- should be made. X-ray diffraction requires that
88 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
you be able to prepare suitable crystals of the pure turing conditions. Usually a small, integral (most
protein. The method is applicable to both large commonly an even number) of subunits comprise
and small proteins. Structures of very large pro- the native species. That is, the molecular weight of
tein aggregates, e.g., the yeast proteasome, have native species is a simple multiple of the molecular
been determined by x-ray diffraction. NMR spec- weight(s) of the subunits. Hence, techniques for de-
troscopy does not require that the protein be in termining the molecular weights of macromole-
crystalline form; analysis is conducted on concen- cules are central to determining quaternary struc-
trated solutions of the protein, so the method is ture.
especially valuable for proteins that are difficult to
crystallize. At present, structure determination by
NMR is limited to proteins with molecular Determination of Subunit Molecular Weight
weights lower than about 30,000; this limit may
The determination of the primary structure (i.e.,
be raised in the future by advances in the tech-
the complete amino acid sequence) of a protein au-
nology.
tomatically allows the calculation of the molecular
At a much lower level of resolution, it is possi-
weight of the polypeptide from the sum of the
ble to estimate the -helical and -strand content
residue weights of the amino acids. This is normally
of proteins by measuring their circular dichroic
done by the same computer programs that facili-
spectra. Such determinations give a general idea of
tate the determination of the amino acid sequence
the secondary structural features of a protein, but
from the sequence of the gene (see Experiment 25).
do not determine which segments of the primary
This is probably the most common way of deter-
structure possess which secondary structures. This
mining subunit molecular weights in contemporary
can be predicted by computer analysis of the pri-
biochemistry.
mary sequence, however, since analysis of many
If small amounts of a purified protein are avail-
protein structures determined from crystallography
able, but the amino acid sequence is not known, two
and the study of synthetic polypeptides has given a
methods are generally available for determination
good indication of the propensity of a given se-
of its subunit molecular weight.
quence of amino acids to fold into -helices or -
strands (see Experiment 25). You should be aware
that the predictions of such analyses have been Electrophoresis in Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS).
found by subsequent structure determination to be (See also, Experiment 4.) Heating a protein at
correct only about 70% of the time. Although cir- 100°C in an SDS-containing solution (usually in the
cular dichroism may be a crude tool for determin- presence of thiols to reduce any disulfide bonds)
ing secondary structures of proteins, it is quite valu- will completely dissociate and denature all polypep-
able for studying changes in the structures of tide chains from one another. The polypeptide
proteins, particularly their unfolding and refolding, chains bind a large quantity of SDS (about one SDS
as occurs during protein denaturation (see below). molecule per two amino acid residues), thereby
gaining a strongly net negative charge. The bind-
ing of so much SDS gives all of the proteins ap-
Determination of Molecular proximately the same (negative) charge to mass ra-
Weights and Quaternary tio, regardless of what this ratio might be for the
Structures of Proteins native proteins at a given pH. Thus, the rate at
which such SDS-polypeptide complexes migrate
The quaternary structure of a protein can be largely during electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gels is in
determined by careful molecular weight determi- most instances determined by viscous resistance to
nation of the native protein, followed by dissocia- their flow in the gel (i.e., by their frictional coeffi-
tion of the protein into its constituent polypeptide cients), rather than by net charge. This phenome-
chains with denaturing agents. If nonidentical sub- non generates an empirical relation between mole-
units are found, they must be separated from each cular weight and electrophoretic mobility: the
other. Then the molecular weight of the isolated logarithm of the molecular weight is proportional
subunits must be determined, usually under dena- to the relative mobility. Standards of known molec-
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 89
ular weight are used to calibrate the results. Obvi- however, if the protein in question has a shape that
ously, only molecular weights of constituent is significantly different from that of the standards
polypeptide chains, not native aggregates, can be used or if the protein subunits participate in a rapid
determined with this method. Proteins that bind equilibrium between states of aggregation contain-
abnormal amounts of SDS, proteins with very un- ing different numbers of subunits.
usual amino acid compositions, glycoproteins, and
intrinsic membrane proteins often fail to migrate
Direct Determination of Quaternary Structure.
as expected on SDS–polyacrylamide gel elec-
None of the above methods is capable of revealing
trophoresis.
the precise geometric arrangements of subunits in
a native protein. Two methods have proven useful
Mass Spectrometry. Advances in the technology for this purpose: x-ray crystallographic analysis and
of mass spectrometry have made it possible to de- electron microscopy of the protein molecules using
termine the molecular weights of polypeptides of negative staining. The examples of quaternary
the sizes commonly found in proteins. This has re- structure shown in Figure II-4 were determined by
sulted primarily from the development of novel these techniques.
techniques for obtaining molecular ions of these
large, nonvolatile molecules. Two such techniques
are electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix- Protein Denaturation
assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI).
When these methods for obtaining molecular ions Proteins in their natural form are called “native pro-
of proteins are combined with improvements in teins.” Any significant change in the structure of a
technology for resolution and mass determination protein from its native state is called “denatura-
of such ions, it has become feasible to determine tion.” Denaturation results from changes in the sec-
molecular weights of protein subunits to within ondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of pro-
0.01% of their value, which is more precise than teins. Generally, denaturation is to be avoided,
any method other than determination of the com- because you wish to study a protein in as close to
plete primary structure. In fact, mass spectrometry its native state as possible. Occasionally, however,
is now frequently used to check for errors in the you may wish to denature proteins deliberately. For
determination of the sequence of proteins from example, proteins are often quickly denatured to
DNA sequencing. stop an enzyme reaction when determining the
rates of enzyme reactions. Proteins are also often
deliberately denatured so that the detailed nature
Determination of Native Molecular Weight of the unfolding and refolding of their polypeptide
chains can be studied. Denaturation of proteins
Gel-Filtration or Size-Exclusion Chromatography.
usually leads to greatly decreased solubility, so it can
Protein molecules will diffuse into the pores of
be a useful way to separate them from other classes
appropriately chosen gel-filtration beads (e.g.,
of biological molecules during purification. The
Sephadex or Bio-Gel). The molecules partition be-
following are a few agents and techniques com-
tween the solvent outside and inside of the gel beads
monly used to denature proteins.
according to their ease of diffusion, which is related
to their molecular weight (see Experiment 2). For
most globular proteins of generally similar shapes, Chaotropic Agents. Compounds such as urea and
a linear relationship between the logarithm of the guanidine hydrochloride usually cause denaturation
molecular weight and the elution volume will be when present in high concentrations (4 to 8 M).
observed, within certain molecular weight limits. The chemical basis of this disruption of protein
Hence, comparison of the elution volume of a pro- structure is not completely understood. Urea and
tein to the elution volume of standards of known guanidine are thought to form competing hydro-
molecular weights on the same gel column will pro- gen bonds with the amino acid residues of the pep-
vide a reasonably good estimate of the molecular tide chain, thereby disrupting the internal hydro-
weight of the protein. The method is unreliable, gen bonding that stabilizes the native structure.
90 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
These agents also alter the solvent properties of wa- precipitation. Proteins commonly are treated with
ter so that hydrophobic interactions in the protein these acids to stop enzymatic reactions and to con-
are weakened. They probably act by a combination centrate protein samples prior to SDS-PAGE
of these effects. Urea- or guanidine-induced de- analysis (see Experiment 8).
naturation is frequently partially or completely re-
versed when the concentration of the competitive Oxidation or Reduction of Sulfhydryl Groups.
hydrogen bonding agent in the protein solution is Many, but not all, proteins are sensitive to alter-
lowered by dialysis or dilution. ations in the oxidation–reduction potential of their
environment. The effect is caused in part by oxi-
Detergents. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and dation of sulfhydryl groups or reduction of disul-
other ionic detergents are extremely effective pro- fide bonds. Not all proteins are equally sensitive to
tein denaturants. Such agents usually have a highly such alterations, but when they are, it is critical to
polar end and a hydrophobic end. SDS has been be aware of their sensitivity. The purification or as-
shown to bind tightly to polypeptides, probably by say of some proteins can be accomplished only by
hydrophobic interactions, and to convert them into providing reducing conditions (reduced glu-
rodlike structures that have a strong negative tathione, free cysteine, dithiothreitol, or mercap-
charge. Associations between polypeptide chains toethanol) in all buffer solutions.
(quaternary structure) are also disrupted by deter-
gents. Enzymatic Action. Proteinases (also called pro-
teases) present in crude or unpurified protein
preparations often catalyze the breakdown of pro-
Heat. Heat denatures most dissolved proteins teins by hydrolyzing the peptide bonds. Since these
when the temperature reaches higher than about enzymes act more slowly at low temperatures, crude
50°C. Harsh heat treatment alters the secondary protein solutions are frequently kept cold (0 to 2°C)
and tertiary structures of proteins. Heat denatura- during the early stages of purification. In some cases
tion usually results in eventual protein precipitation it is also necessary to add inhibitors of proteinases,
as a result of destruction of the secondary structure such as p-methylphenylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF).
and formation of random aggregates. Some pro-
teins have been found to be heat-stable, especially
when ligands are bound to them (i.e., many en-
zymes are protected against heat by their sub- Protein Purification
strates). This property can be exploited during pu-
rification (see Experiment 8). There is no single or simple way to purify all pro-
teins. Procedures and conditions used in the pu-
Acid or Alkali. Proteins are amphoteric polyelec- rification of one protein may result in the denatu-
trolytes; thus, changes in pH would be expected to ration of another. Further, slight chemical
affect the existence of salt bridges, which reinforce modifications in a protein may greatly alter its
the tertiary structure of proteins. Further, when lo- structure and thus affect its behavior during purifi-
calized areas of a protein acquire a large net posi- cation. Nevertheless, there are certain fundamental
tive or negative charge, the ionizable groups repel principles of protein purification on which most
each other and thus place the molecule under con- fractionation procedures are based. In all cases, the
formational strain. For example, denaturation of the experimenter takes advantage of small differences
proteolytic enzyme, pepsin, occurs at alkaline pH in the physical and/or chemical properties of the
values. This may be attributed to internal strain many proteins in a crude mixture to bring about
arising from mutual repulsions of the ionized car- separation of the proteins from one another. Since
boxyls of aspartic and glutamic acids. Moderate the precise nature of these differences is not usu-
concentrations of certain acids (for example, ally known in advance, the development of a pu-
trichloroacetic, phosphotungstic, or perchloric rification procedure necessarily involves consider-
acid) usually produce complete denaturation and able trial and error. A procedure leading to a
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 91
homogeneous protein from a natural source usually material of opposite charge (e.g., addition of a ba-
requires the sequential application of a number of sic protein such as protamine for nucleic acid re-
the following techniques. moval) results in the coprecipitation of the added
and unwanted material (e.g., as a protamine–
Overexpression of the Recombinant Protein. nucleic acid complex).
Advances in molecular biology have provided an ex-
tremely powerful means of purifying proteins by Solubility Properties. The solubility of most pro-
overexpressing the genes encoding them from re- teins in aqueous solutions can be attributed to the
combinant plasmids in suitable host cells grown in hydrophilic interaction between the polar mole-
culture. Instead of having to isolate a protein from cules of water and the ionized groups of the pro-
the cell or tissue in which it normally resides, of- tein molecules. Reagents that change the dielectric
ten as a tiny fraction of the total protein, genomic constant or the ionic strength of an aqueous solu-
DNA or cDNA specifying the protein is spliced tion therefore would be expected to influence the
into appropriately designed plasmids, called “over- solubility of proteins. The addition of ethanol, ace-
expression vectors,” which can be induced to direct tone, or certain salts (such as ammonium sulfate),
the synthesis of very large amounts of the protein usually at low temperatures to avoid denaturation,
(see Section V). It is not unusual for such recom- frequently results in precipitation of proteins. Such
binant proteins to be made at levels from 10 to 50% agents are thought to act by effectively removing
of the total cell protein on induction. This greatly water molecules that normally solvate the surface
simplifies the task of purifying the protein: instead of proteins and favor their solubility. As the water
of having to devise a procedure for a 1000- to molecules are removed, nonspecific protein–
100,000-fold enrichment of the protein, as is typi- protein interactions become dominant over pro-
cal for isolation of a protein from its natural source, tein–water interactions and protein molecules ag-
purification of a recombinant protein by 2- to 10- gregate and form insoluble precipitates. Of these
fold yields essentially pure protein. precipitating agents, fractionation with ammonium
Although the use of recombinant genes for pro- sulfate is by far the most commonly used. Use of
tein production is often very successful, problems organic solvents is less generally useful, because
can arise. Some genes or cDNAs are not expressed many proteins are denatured by them. Step-by-step
well in the commonly used vector/host systems. application of such techniques to heterogeneous
Occasionally, the overproduced proteins do not fold protein solutions often results in fractionation (pu-
properly and aggregate into insoluble inclusion rification) because of the differing degrees of solu-
bodies in which the recombinant protein is dena- bility among the proteins in the solution.
tured. Posttranslational modifications, such as The precipitations noted above usually result
phosphorylation or glycosylation, that occur in the when the attractive forces among protein molecules
native cells and are important for the function of exceed those between the protein molecules and
the protein may not occur in the recombinant ex- water. Proteins are polyelectrolytes with different
pression system. numbers and types of ionizable groups; the net
charge on any given protein molecule and hence its
Heat Denaturation. Because all proteins are not attraction to another protein molecule are functions
equally stable when heated in aqueous solution, of the pH and ionic strength of the medium. There-
fractionation can often be achieved by controlled fore, any treatment designed to separate proteins
heating. As noted above, the presence of a substrate, by making use of relative solubility must take into
a product, or an inhibitor often stabilizes a protein consideration the pH of the medium. Often, alter-
against heat denaturation. ation of only pH under a set of conditions is suffi-
cient to effect an “isoelectric” precipitation. Choos-
Protein – Nucleic Acid Complexes. During pro- ing the correct conditions of pH, ionic strength, or
tein purification it occasionally becomes necessary dielectric constant to carry out a fractionation is
to remove basic proteins or contaminating nucleic somewhat arbitrary and is usually determined em-
acids. The controlled addition of sparingly soluble pirically.
92 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
Adsorptive Properties. Under certain conditions zyme. The molecule that binds to the protein is co-
of pH and low ionic strength, certain proteins will valently attached to an insoluble support, such as
be adsorbed by various substances. Calcium phos- agarose. This insoluble material can then be used
phate gel and alumina C gel, for example, are fre- to adsorb the appropriate protein selectively from
quently used to adsorb specific proteins from het- other proteins that do not bind to the molecule at-
erogeneous mixtures. The adsorbed proteins can tached to the support material. Some remarkably
frequently be released from the insoluble support effective purifications have been accomplished by
either by altering the pH or increasing the ionic use of this useful technique. A much more detailed
strength. Thus, purification can be obtained by re- discussion of the technique of affinity chromatog-
moving either the extraneous unwanted proteins or raphy is presented in Experiment 2. An alternative
the desired protein with the gel. approach to isolation of proteins by affinity chro-
matography is to use genetic engineering to add se-
Chromatographic Separation. Chromatographic quences coding for extra amino acids or even an en-
separation of protein mixtures has become one of tire protein to the gene encoding the protein you
the most effective and widely used means of puri- wish to isolate; the extra polypeptide is chosen to
fying individual proteins. A more detailed discus- provide a chemical “tag” that binds tightly and
sion of the principles of chromatography and their specifically to an affinity adsorbent. The desired
application to the separation of protein mixtures is protein with its covalently attached tag can then be
presented in Experiment 2 and is also illustrated in easily isolated from all the other proteins in the cells
Experiments 8 and 10. in which the recombinant protein was produced.
Proteins, as polyelectrolytes, can be separated by The protein is then released from the adsorbent by
ion-exchange chromatography in much the same dissociating the tag from the adsorbent. This ap-
way as smaller molecules. Because of the size, ease proach is illustrated in Experiment 10.
of denaturation, and complex charge distribution of
protein molecules, certain special techniques are re- Electrophoretic Separation. The net charge on a
quired. The most generally useful ion-exchange ma- particular protein varies with the pH of the medium
terials for proteins are derivatives of cellulose, dex- in which it is dissolved. Accordingly, application of
tran, agarose, and polyacrylamide (e.g., Sephadex, an electric field to a buffered, heterogeneous pro-
Sepharose, BioGel, etc.). The most commonly used tein solution often results in their differential mi-
anion exchangers are substituted with diethyl- gration in free solution or in heterogeneous systems
aminoethyl (DEAE) or quaternary ammonium ethyl with an inert supporting material, such as a poly-
(QAE) groups; useful cation exchangers are substi- acrylamide gel. Because of the difficulty of “scaling
tuted with carboxymethyl (CM), phosphoryl (P), or up” electrophoretic procedures, they are more com-
sulfoethyl (SE) groups. Excellent separation of pro- monly used for analytical applications than for the
tein mixtures can often be brought about by step- preparative scale purification of proteins. The use
by-step or gradient elution of the sample from a col- of electrophoresis is discussed in more detail in Ex-
umn of exchange material in which the ionic periment 4.
strength of the eluting buffer is increased, the pH
altered, or both. Criteria of Protein Purity. There are no tests for
Chromatographic separation of proteins on the protein purity, only for impurities. Crystallinity, the
basis of molecular size (or, more precisely, ease of absence of contaminating enzymes, and homoge-
diffusion) is readily accomplished by size-exclusion neous behavior in centrifugal fields (ultracentrifu-
chromatography on dextran, agarose, or polyacryl- gation), in electric fields (electrophoresis), in ion-
amide beads. exchange chromatography, and in immunological
reactions may all be consistent with purity, but they
Affinity Chromatography. Affinity chromatogra- do not prove it. We attempt to prove inhomo-
phy is a very useful new technique that takes ad- geneity with as many tests as are available. Practi-
vantage of the natural affinity of a protein such as cally, if a protein preparation behaves as a single en-
an enzyme for specific molecules, for instance, the tity in careful studies using these criteria, it may be
substrate or a very effective inhibitor of that en- assumed to have a high degree of purity.
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 93
OOC N OOC N N COO
Cu1 Cu1
OOC N OOC N N COO
1
BCA BCA–Cu complex
of protein that is quite constant from protein to Unfortunately, other compounds present in nat-
protein and relatively free from interference from ural materials also exhibit absorbance at 280 nm.
other cellular components, commonly used salts, Specifically, nucleic acids, which have maximal ab-
etc. This assay uses commercially available reagents sorbance at 260 nm, exhibit extensive absorbance at
and is about four times as sensitive as the Folin– 280 nm. Corrections can be made for nucleic acid
Ciocolteu assay. absorbance at 280 nm if the ratio of absorbance at
280/260 nm is known. Pure proteins have a 280
Spectrophotometric Assay. The tyrosine and nm/260 nm ratio of approximately 1.75 (variations
tryptophan residues of proteins exhibit an ultravi- are due to differences in number and type of aro-
olet absorbance at approximately 275 nm and matic amino acids present), whereas nucleic acids
280 nm, respectively. Because the combined con- have a 280 nm/260 nm ratio of 0.5. Intermediate
tent of these amino acids is roughly constant in ratios corresponding to various mixtures of protein
many proteins, the concentration of protein (in the and nucleic acid can be used to compute the con-
absence of other ultraviolet-absorbing materials) is centration of each.
generally proportional to the absorbance at 280 nm.
(Note that because individual proteins can vary sub- Dry Weight. Most of the above methods are suit-
stantially in their content of tryptophan and tyro- able for comparisons, such as following the in-
sine, the absorption spectra of pure proteins and creasing specific activity of an enzyme during pu-
their absorbance at 280 nm may vary widely.) Many rification. However, for careful chemical work with
protein solutions, especially solutions containing a pure protein, in which the mass must be known
mixtures of many proteins, at 1 mg of protein per accurately, it is generally necessary to measure di-
milliliter exhibit an absorbance at 280 nm of about rectly the dry weight of a salt-free sample of the
0.8 when viewed through a 1-cm light path. Thus, protein. This is done after drying a sample of pro-
the concentration of most proteins can rapidly be tein, which has been extensively dialyzed against
assayed by measurement of the absorbance at distilled water or a volatile buffer (e.g., ammonium
280 nm, if they are free of other materials that ab- carbonate) to constant weight in a vacuum at 50 to
sorb light at 280 nm. Such assays are advantageous 100°C over a drying agent. This mass can then be
because they are rapid and allow full recovery of related to one of the more convenient assays, such
the protein for subsequent analyses. as the absorbance of the protein at 280 nm.
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 95
(II-2)
F° RT lnKeq
Kinetic Analysis of Enzyme Activity
where
F° is
F at standard states (one molar) of Unlike most uncatalyzed reactions, the first ob-
reactants and products, R gas constant, and T served rate or initial velocity (v0) of enzyme-
absolute temperature. It follows that the equilib- catalyzed reactions increases with increasing sub-
Non–enzyme-catalyzed reaction
+
Energy level
F1+ (Activation energy
of reactants for enzymatic reaction)
Progress of reaction
(II-5)
Vmax [S]
v0
vmax KM [S]
2
In this expression, Vmax and v0 are velocities as de-
fined earlier, [S] is the substrate concentration, and
KM is a new constant, the Michaelis constant, equal
to k2 k3/k1 where the k values are the specific rate
KM constants of Equation II-4.
If we rearrange the Michaelis–Menten equation
Substrate concentration [S]
to Equation II-6,
Figure II-8 The relationship of substrate concen-
(II-6)
tration and initial velocity in enzy-
matic reactions. KM [S] (Vmax/v0 1)
(II-4) (II-7)
k1 k3 [E] [S]
E S uv ES uv EP KM KS k2 /k1
k2 k4 [ES]
Thus, the reaction proceeds by means of an oblig- The reciprocal of KS is the affinity constant of en-
ate intermediate enzyme–substrate complex (ES). zyme for the substrate. That is, the greater the
When all of the enzyme is in the ES state (i.e., the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate, the smaller
system is saturated with substrate), the observed the KS. It is not correct to consider KS and KM to be
rate of reaction is maximal and the reaction is at equivalent without additional evidence, but this as-
Vmax. sumption is a common error.
Michaelis and Menten, and later Briggs and Although KM may be determined using data
Haldane, used the scheme shown in Equation II-4 similar to that presented in Figure II-8, it is more
to derive a mathematical expression that describes accurate and convenient to use one of the linear
the relation between initial velocity and substrate forms of the Michaelis–Menten equation to deter-
concentration. (Consult a biochemistry textbook mine KM. Lineweaver and Burk first pointed out
for the step-by-step derivation of this relationship, that equation II-8 can be obtained by inversion of
because it is important to be aware of the assump- the Michaelis–Menten equation:
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 97
KM
Kinetics of Inhibition of Enzymes
Slope =
Vmax (1+
[I]
KI )
Many substances interact with enzymes to lower [I] = Inhibitor
1
their activity; that is, to inhibit them. Valuable in- concentration
v0
formation about the mechanism of action of the in-
hibitor can frequently be obtained through a kinetic [I] = 0
analysis of its effects. To illustrate, let us consider a
1 KM
case of competitive inhibition, in which an inhibitor Vmax Slope =
molecule, I, combines only with the free enzyme, E, Vmax
but cannot combine with the enzyme to which the
substrate is attached, ES. Such a competitive in-
hibitor often has a chemical structure similar to the
substrate, but is not acted on by the enzyme. For ex- 1
ample, malonate ( OOCCH2COO ) is a compet- 1 1 [S]
itive inhibitor of succinate ( OOCCH2CH2COO ) – –
dehydrogenase. If we use the same approach that was
KM
(
KM 1 +
[I]
KI )
used in deriving the Michaelis–Menten equation to-
gether with the additional equilibrium that defines Figure II-10 Lineweaver–Burk plot: competitive
a new constant, an inhibitor constant, KI, inhibition.
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 99
fitting the data to the appropriate equation using a In uncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor com-
computer program. bines only with the ES form of the enzyme. This
Biochemists observe other kinds of enzyme in- pattern of inhibition is not seen frequently except
hibition. Noncompetitive inhibition consists of cases in studies of inhibition by the products of enzyme
in which an inhibitor combines with either the E reactions. If you define an inhibitor constant
or the ES form of the enzyme. This requires defi-
nition of two new inhibitor constants: (II-18)
[ES][I]
(II-16) KI
[ESI]
[E] [I] [ES] [I]
KIe and KIs
[EI] [ESI] and derive a rate expression for uncompetitive in-
hibition, its inverted form is
Derivation of a rate expression in a manner similar
to that used to derive the Michaelis–Menten equa-
(II-19)
tion, and subsequent inversion of this rate expres-
1 KM 1 1
sion yields Equation II-17. (1 [I] / KI)
v0 Vmax [S] Vmax
(II-7)
as illustrated in Figure II-12. Note that these three
1 KM 1 1 kinetic patterns of inhibition can be distinguished
(1 [I] / KIs) (1 [I] / KIe)
v0 Vmax [S] Vmax most easily by obtaining initial velocity data as a
function of substrate and inhibitor concentration
In some instances, KIe KIs; that is, the extent of and plotting the results in double-reciprocal form
combination of inhibitor with the E and ES forms (Figures II-10 to II-12). The pattern will differ in
of the enzyme are identical. The left panel of Fig- the effects of the inhibitor on the slopes and inter-
ure II-11 illustrates a plot of such data. In other cepts of these plots (see Table II-2).
cases of noncompetitive inhibition, KIe is different It is important to recognize that the three pat-
(usually larger) than KIs as illustrated in the right terns of inhibition just described are observed in
panel of Figure II-11. many different situations (e.g., product inhibition)
KM KM
Slopes =
Vmax [
1+
[I]
KI ] Slopes =
Vmax [
1+
[I]
KIs ]
[I] = 2 [I] = 2
1 1
v0 [I] = 1 v0 [I] = 1
1
Vmax [1+
[I]
KI ] [I] = 0
1
Vmax [ 1+
[I]
KIe ] [I] = 0
–KM 1 1
Vmax Vmax
1 1
[S] [S]
冢 冣
1
Type of Inhibition Slope at 0
v0
1/Absolute temperature (T)
Competitive increases no change
Noncompetitive increases increases Figure II-13 Relation of enzyme activity to tem-
Uncompetitive no change increases perature. This is a typical Arrhenius
plot.
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 101
cated guesses as to functional groups in enzymes tional to [ET]. Careful measurement of v0 values,
that are involved in enzyme activity by determin- therefore, allows an estimation of the enzyme con-
ing pKa values associated with changes in enzyme centration. Formally, v0 is expressed as the initial
activity and comparing them to values for known rate of change in concentration of substrate or
protein groups (Table II-1). product per unit time (e.g., millimolar per minute),
but if you always use the same reaction volume for
Cofactors. Many enzymes require relatively the assay, it is satisfactory to express v0 simply as
loosely bound organic cofactors (coenzymes) or the amount of substrate used or product formed per
metal ions for activity. A biochemist must be alert unit of time (e.g., micromole per minute). This con-
for indications of such a requirement during pu- vention is used in Experiments 7, 8, and 9.
rification of an enzyme, because it may be neces- The simplest procedure for obtaining v0 is to
sary to add such cofactors to the assay solution to use such high concentrations of substrate that a
obtain enzyme activity. The interactions of coen- negligible loss occurs during the reaction: [S] al-
zyme with enzyme can be analyzed by kinetic and ways [S0]. In such cases the velocity after 5 min,
spectral techniques. Similar techniques are used to or even 30 min, may be the same as the initial ve-
evaluate interactions with metal ions. locity. Eventually, the substrate will become limit-
ing or inhibitory concentrations of products will be
Allosteric Effectors. Many enzymes are subject to formed. If a low [S] is used (i.e., [S] KM), the ve-
metabolic regulation through interaction with locity will continually decrease as substrate con-
metabolites that often act at allosteric sites, which centration decreases, and it may be difficult to es-
are distinct from the active site. The kinetic be- timate v0.
havior of such enzymes is often more complex than An accurate determination of v0 requires that an
the behavior we have discussed above, and such appropriate amount of enzyme be used. You can use
complex kinetics may serve as an indication that you so little enzyme that the velocity cannot be accu-
are dealing with an allosteric enzyme. Further dis- rately determined (see Assay 1, Figure II-14). Sim-
cussion of this subject is found in Experiments 9 ilarly, use of too much enzyme makes it difficult to
and 15. determine an extremely high velocity in the time
required to make the assay measurements (see As-
says 3 and 4, Figure II-14).
Enzyme Assay
During the isolation of an enzyme from any source,
you must determine the amount of enzyme present
in the preparations. You usually accomplish this in- True initial rate (Assay 3)
directly, by measuring the catalytic activity of the
Moles of substrate consumed,
enzyme under some fixed conditions of pH, tem- False initial rate (Assay 3)
or moles of product formed
Equilibrium
ward.
y2
sa
As (Fixed-time assay
y3
Assay 1
(In this formulation, S0 equals the initial substrate
concentration and ET equals the total enzyme, E Time (min)
ES). Because k3 and KM are fundamental constants
of the system and S0 is known from the assay con- Figure II-14 Time course of enzyme-catalyzed
ditions, the initial velocity v0 is directly propor- reactions.
102 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
Vo
the appropriate amount of enzyme in either kinetic
or fixed-time assays to obtain an optimum velocity
like that of Assay 2 in Figure II-14. This may be
empirically determined by a dilution experiment in
two stages. At first, constant volumes of serial 10-
fold dilutions of enzyme are assayed to find the
range of dilution in which the calculated activity is
maximal and constant (see Figure II-15). Enzyme concentration
Such “range finding” may frequently straddle
the optimal enzyme concentration for assay. Thus, Figure II-16 Relationship of enzyme activity to
a second series of enzyme dilutions is assayed to enzyme concentration.
pinpoint the enzyme concentration over a narrower
range. Usually four to five dilutions over a 10- to
20-fold concentration range are adequate.
The prime test of the validity of v0 assays is a Assay Procedure during Enzyme
graphical test to establish that the rates observed Purification
are a linear function of enzyme concentration, as il-
lustrated in Figure II-16. This test should be ap- Because enzyme (protein) purification involves the
plied to all assays in which reaction rates are used selective removal of other proteins, it is necessary
to measure enzyme concentrations. This procedure to assess the amount of enzymatic activity relative
is especially important when fixed-time assays are to the amount of protein present. A measure of en-
used (see Figure II-14). zymatic activity per milligram of protein is usually
employed to indicate the degree of purity of the en-
zyme in the various fractions obtained during pu-
Enzyme activity of undiluted solution (units/ml)
rification.
This quantity, the specific activity, is calculated
from a measure of enzymatic activity or units, usu-
Effective range
ally expressed in terms of micromole of product
formed per minute, and a protein determination, as
in Equation II-22.
(II-22)
Figure II-15 Effect of enzyme dilution on appar- The efficiency of an enzyme purification is also
ent assay. assessed by determining how much of the enzyme
SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology 103
activity is recovered from each purification step. cedures are so selective, and various, less ideal frac-
This requires that you calculate the total activity in tionation steps are combined. Of course, if enrich-
each fraction. ment is great, a lower yield may be allowed in a par-
ticular step. Table II-3 shows a convenient and usual
Total activity (specific activity) way to present the results obtained during a purifi-
(total mg protein in preparation) cation procedure. Because protein concentration
and enzyme activity are usually determined as mil-
or ligram per milliliter and units per milliliter, re-
spectively, it is also always necessary to record the
(II-23) volume of each enzyme fraction. Experiment 8 pro-
vides the student with experience in the application
Total activity (activity per milliliter)
(volume of the preparation in milliliter) of these concepts to the purification of an enzyme.
Dixon, M., and Webb, E. C. (1964). Enzymes, 2nd ed. Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N. J., Farr, A. L., and
New York: Academic Press. Randall, R. J. (1951). Protein Measurement with
Gordon, J. A., and Jencks, W. P. (1963). The Relation- the Folin Phenol Reagent. J Biol Chem 193:265.
ship of Structure to the Effectiveness of Denaturing Moore, S., and Stein, W. H. (1963). Chromatographic
Agents for Proteins. Biochemistry 2:47. Determination of Amino Acids by Use of Auto-
Groll, M., L. Ditzel, Löwe, J., Stock, D., Bochtler, M., matic Recording Equipment. Methods Enzymol
Bartunik, H. D., and Huber, R. (1997). Structure of 6:819.
20S Proteasome from Yeast at 2.4 Å Resolution. Reynolds, J. A., and Tanford. C. (1970). The Gross
Nature 386: 463. Conformation of Protein-Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate
Haschemeyer, R. H. (1970). Electron Microscopy of Complexes. J Biol Chem 245:5161.
Enzymes. Adv Enzymol 33:71. Scopes, R. K. (1994). Protein Purification: Principles and
Hirs, C. H. W., Stein, W. H., and Moore, S. (1954). Practice. New York: Springer-Verlag.
The Amino Acid Composition of Ribonuclease. J Segel, I. H. (1975). Enzyme Kinetics. New York: Wiley.
Biol Chem 211:941. Smith, P. K., Krohn, R. I., Hermanson, G. T., Mallia,
Hunkapillar, M. W., Hewick, R. M., Dreyer, W. J., and A. K., Gartner, F. H., Provenzano, M. D., Fuji-
Hood, L. E. (1983). High-Sensitivity Sequencing moto, E. K., Goeke, N. M., Olson, B. J., and
with a Gas-Phase Sequenator. Methods Enzymol Klenk, D. C. (1985). Measurement of Protein
91:399. Using Bicinchoninic Acid. Anal Biochem 150:76.
Layne, E. (1957). Spectrophotometric and Turbidomet- Woody, R. W. (1995). Circular Dichroism. Methods
ric Methods for Measuring Proteins. Methods Enzy- Enzymol 246:34.
mol 3:447.
q
EXPERIMENT 5
105
106 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
milligram) in 20 ml of H2O and titrate this sam- Table 5-2 Amounts of Acid Required to
ple with 2 N NaOH in the same manner as for Titrate Sample and Water Blank in
the acid titration until the pH of the solutions Solution
reaches 12.0. As before, record the volume of
NaOH delivered and the pH after each addi- Volume (ml) of Acid (2 N HCl)
tion.
Water plus Water
7. Titrate a 20 ml water blank with 2 N NaOH pH Sample Blank Difference
to pH 12.0 in a manner similar to the first wa-
ter blank (see step 5). 3.5 0.103 0.003 0.100
3.0 0.335 0.020 0.315
2.5 0.667 0.032 0.635
Data Analysis 2.2 1.063 0.063 1.000
2.0 1.425 0.200 1.225
To determine the true titration curve of any sub-
stance, you must measure how much acid or base
is consumed in titrating the solvent (water) to each
pH and then subtract this amount from the total
amount of acid or base consumed in reaching that of acid required to attain each pH, determin-
pH when titrating the sample (amino acid water). ing a value for as many points as needed to de-
The following example with the acid side of the fine the titration curve. Then, subtract the vol-
titration of an amino acid illustrates the method for ume of acid required to bring the water blank
correcting for such acid or base dilution that you to any pH from the volume of acid required to
should use in correcting your data. bring the sample to the same pH. This differ-
1. For both the sample and the water blank, plot ence represents the amount of acid consumed
the volume of acid added versus the pH reached in the titration of the sample only.
(see the example in Fig. 5-3). 3. Using the data from your table, plot the pH
2. From the graph (or from the original data), pre- versus the number of equivalents of acid needed
pare a table like Table 5-2, listing the amount to titrate the amino acid sample to any pH (see
the example in Fig. 5-4).
5
6
4 5
3 4
pH
pK´a
pH
Sample in H2O 3
2
2
1 H2O blank
1
0
1 2 3
0
Milliliters 2 N HCI 4 2 0
Milliequivalents of acid
Figure 5-3 Uncorrected titration curves of water
blank and sample. Figure 5-4 Corrected titration curve of sample.
EXPERIMENT 5 Acid–Base Properties of Amino Acids 109
4. Use the same method to correct for titration of 7.39 mEq of acid and base in the titration range
the water blank with NaOH. Prepare a com- pH 0.8 to 12.0. What is the name of the amino
plete, corrected NaOH titration curve for the acid?
unknown that you titrated. 4. Give an example of a polypeptide that is not a
5. Combine the corrected acid and base titration polyelectrolyte.
curves into a single titration curve for the un- 5. Calculate the isoelectric point for the follow-
known sample for the entire pH range from 1 ing polyfunctional amino acids: (a) histidine, (b)
to 12. If your unknown was a simple amino acid lysine, and (c) aspartic acid. (See Table 5-1.)
with no ionizable side chains, this figure will 6. A useful method to assay many hydrolytic en-
look like Figure II-1 in the Introduction to Sec- zymes is to follow enzymatic activity by deter-
tion II.The number of equivalents of acid or mining production or uptake of hydrogen ions
base consumed in passing through one full in- during the reaction. For example, consider a
flection of a curve (in the zone of a single ion- protease that catalyzes cleavage of internal pep-
ization, as in Fig. 5-4) represents the quantity tide bonds in a protein:
of acid required to titrate one ionizable group
in the quantity of amino acid you have assayed. O R1 O R2 O
Using this relationship and noting the number protease
–C–NH–CH–C–NH–CH–C–NH–
of full inflections of your curve, calculate the H2O
molecular weight for your unknown. The end O R1 R2 O
point of the titration should be recognizable as
–C–NH–CH–COOH H2N–CH–C–NH–
the point at which the pH rises (or falls) sharply
with addition of titrant. This point is usually
most accurately determined from the titration a. Assume the enzyme is fully active at pH 8.8,
of the amino acid with base. that the pKa of an -carboxyl group in a pep-
6. Compare the molecular weights obtained from tide is 3.5, and that the pKa of an -amino
the titration of each ionizable group. How well group in a peptide is 8.5. How will the ac-
do they agree? tion of this protease on a protein affect the
7. Using the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, pH of an unbuffered reaction mixture (start-
calculate the pKa value for each ionizable group ing at pH 8.8)? Explain your answer.
titrated. b. The protease reaction is run in a pH-stat, a
8. What is the identity of your unknown? Justify device that maintains a constant pH in a re-
your conclusion by comparing the observed action mixture by continuous, automatic ad-
molecular weight and pKa values to those for dition of acid or base. The instrument has
all amino acids that might have been your un- a recorder that plots the volume of acid or
known (Table 5-1). If your unknown was not base added versus time of reaction. If the re-
an amino acid, what can you suggest about its action in (a) is run in a pH-stat maintained
chemical nature? How could you confirm your at pH 8.8, calculate the millimoles of titrant
identification of your unknown? that must be added per millimole equivalent
of peptide bonds hydrolyzed by the enzyme.
Exercises
REFERENCES
1. How do the true titration curves of aspartic acid
Christensen, H. N. (1963). pH and Dissociation.
and lysine differ from that of glycine? Explain
Philadelphia: Saunders.
your answer. Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
2. Is the true titration curve of leucyl valine the (1993). Amino Acids and Peptides. In: Principles of
same as that of glycine? Explain your answer. Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
3. The quantity 432 mg of a monoamino mono- Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Free-
carboxylic amino acid is observed to consume man, pp. 17–23, 42–43.
vw
EXPERIMENT 6
111
112 R H R
O2N F H2N C COO O2N N C COO HF
H H
NO2 NO2
FDNB Amino acid DNP-Amino acid
H H H
2 O2N F H2N C COO O2N N C COO 2HF
CH2 CH2
NO2 NO2
CH2 CH2
FDNB
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
NH2 NH
Lysine NO2
NO2
-DNP-Lysine
H H H
2 O2N F H2N C COO O2N N C COO 2HF
CH2 CH2
NO2 NO2
FDNB
O O
Tyrosine NO2
NO2
O-DNP-Tyrosine
H H H
2 O2N F H2N C COO O2N N C COO 2HF
CH2 CH2
NO2 H NO2
C N C N
FDNB C H C H
C N C N
H H
Histidine O2N
NO2
Imidazole-DNP-histidine
Figure 6-1 Reaction of amino acids with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB). DNP dinitrophenyl;
HF hydrofluoric acid
EXPERIMENT 6 Sequence Determination of a Dipeptide 113
Cl H N C COO
Dansyl chloride H
(Dimethylaminonaphthalene
sulfonyl chloride) Dansyl-amino acid
(fluorescence-sensitive detection)
NO2 NO2
FDNB 2,4-Dinitrophenol
H H O H H H H O H H
O2N N C C N C COOH O2N N C C N C COO
H CH3 H CH3
NO2 NO2
DNP-glycyl alanine at pH 1.0 DNP-glycyl alanine at pH 9.0
(will extract into ether phase) (will remain in the aqueous phase)
Hydrolysis of peptide
(6 N HCI, 110C)
H H H
O2N N C COOH H3N C COOH
H CH3
NO2
Alanine
DNP-glycine (will remain in the aqueous phase)
(will extract into ether phase)
Figure 6-4 Partitioning of an acid hydrolyzed DNP-dipeptide between the aqueous and ether phases is
pH-dependent.
114 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
residue from the peptide without cleaving the other dantoin (PTH-amino acid), which can be identified
peptide bonds (Fig. 6-5). This derivative of the N- by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chro-
terminal amino acid (the anilinothiazolinone deriv- matography (HPLC). This procedure is then
ative) can be converted to a stable phenylthiohy- repeated to determine the identity of the next N-
terminal amino acid in the peptide. This technique
has been automated for step-by-step sequence de-
termination of peptides and proteins. As many as
R1 O R2 O 60 to 100 amino acids can be identified by this tech-
nique under ideal conditions. The first step in the
N C S NH2 CH C N CH C reaction of an amino acid or peptide with PITC is
H the formation of the phenylthiocarbamyl (PTC) de-
Phenylisothiocyanate rivative. As in the case of reaction of amino acids
slightly alkaline pH
with FDNB, this reaction takes place at unproto-
(7.0–10.0) nated -amino groups (as well as at the ε-amino
group on lysine) under alkaline conditions. In this
exercise, you will prepare PTC derivatives of the
R1 O R2 O
amino acids released by the hydrolysis of the un-
H CH C N CH C known dipeptide and identify them by reverse-
H N phase HPLC and spectrophotometry. The PTC
H
N C S
moiety on the amino acids serves two purposes in
this experiment: first, it provides a method of de-
tection (absorbs light at 254 nm). Second, it adds a
PTC-peptide
(phenylthiocarbamyl)
hydrophobic component to all of the amino acids
that will make them much easier to separate by
reverse-phase HPLC partition chromatography
anhydrous
acid (see Experiment 2).
In this three-period experiment, milligram
amounts of an unknown dipeptide will be examined
R1 by the procedures that we have just discussed. In
CH R2 O Figure 6-6, a flow diagram of the experiment is pro-
H N vided to aid your understanding of the various
C O NH
3 CH C
N C steps.
S
4. “Activate” a silica-gel thin-layer chromatogra- 9. When all of the spots have dried, place the
phy (TLC) plate by heating for 5 min in a TLC plate (sample side toward the bottom)
100°C oven. This procedure drives off excess in a TLC tank containing 1 cm of the
moisture from the plate so that the TLC sep- mobile-phase solvent [chloroform:t-amyl
aration is more reproducible. alcohol:glacial acetic acid (70:30:3)] (see Fig.
5. Make a small scratch on the edge of the TLC 6-8). Remember to make a map or drawing of the
plate (short axis) about 2 cm from the bottom. TLC plate in your notebook so that you will re-
This will indicate the position of the origin member which spot corresponds to which sample.
where the samples will be spotted (do not mark 10. Allow the mobile phase to migrate across (up)
the plate with pencil and avoid touching the the plate until the solvent front is about 1 cm
face of the plate with your fingers). Refer to from the top of the plate (2 hr).
Fig. 6-8 for proper setup of thin-layer chro- 11. Remove the plate from the tank and mark the
matography experiment. position of the solvent front with a pencil. Af-
6. Carefully spot 5 l of the DNP-amino acid ter the plate has dried, circle the position of all
standards (provided by the instructor) along the of the spots on the plate with a pencil. Also,
origin of the plate. To prevent diffusion of the draw a line across the bottom of the plate in
sample, it is a good idea to spot 1 l of the sam- pencil to mark the position of the origin.
ple, allow it to dry, spot another 1- l aliquot, 12. For each spot on the plate, calculate a relative
allow it to dry, and so forth. mobility value (Rf ):
7. Dissolve the dried DNP-amino acid (N-
terminal) in 100 l of acetone. distance traveled by sample (cm)
Rf =
8. Using the same technique as described in step distance traveled by solvent front (cm)
6, carefully spot a 5- l aliquot of your sample
along the same origin as the DNP-amino acid If the sample spot showed some diffusion dur-
standards. If you did not recover a sufficient ing development, use the center of the spot in
amount of the sample in the last ether extrac- determining the Rf value. Also, if the solvent
tion, you may also want to spot a 10- l sample front migrated unevenly across the plate, mea-
next to this. The sample spot should be yellow sure the distance traveled by the sample (cm)
enough in color that you will be able to iden- relative to the distance traveled by the solvent
tify it once the plate is developed. front (cm) in each lane.
Solvent front
TLC plate
Paper
Origin line
Solvent front
Solvent
Solvent
Ascending Ascending
thin-layer paper
chromatography chromatography
13. From the Rf value of your unknown sample dipeptide. Save the remainder of this sample for
compared to the Rf values of the DNP-amino use on Day 3.
acid standards, what is the identity of the N- 6. When all of the spots have dried, roll the pa-
terminal amino acid in your unknown dipep- per into the form of a cylinder so that the spot-
tide? Discuss any uncertainty that may be in- ted samples face inward toward the bottom of
volved in your identification, as well as how the paper (see Fig. 6-8). Staple the paper in
these uncertainties may be eliminated through three places (top, middle, and bottom) avoiding
modifications in the experiment. any overlap of the paper on the edges.
7. Place the paper (origin side down) in a large jar
Paper Chromatography of (10 in. in height with a 5.5-in. diameter) con-
Acid-Hydrolyzed Dipeptide taining 2 cm of mobile-phase solvent on the
bottom (butanol:acetic acid:water [60:15:25]).
1. Recover the 4-ml vial containing your acid hy-
8. Cap the jar and allow the mobile phase to mi-
drolyzed dipeptide (colorless sample).
grate through (up) the paper until it reaches 1
2. Obtain an 8.5 in. by 8.5 in. piece of 3 MM
in. from the top (4–6 hr). Remove the paper
Whatman filter paper from the instructor and
from the jar, mark the position of the solvent
draw a straight line across the bottom using a
front with a pencil, and allow the paper to dry
soft lead pencil about 1.5 in. from the edge of
in a fume hood.
the paper. This line will designate the origin
where your samples will be spotted.
3. On both edges of the paper perpendicular to the Day 3: Analysis of the Paper
origin, draw two straight lines from the top to Chromatogram and Preparation and
the bottom that intersect the origin 1 in. from Analysis of PTC-Amino Acids
either edge of the paper. All of the samples will
be spotted on the origin between these two lines.
Analysis of Paper Chromatogram
4. Spot 3 l of each of the amino acid standards
along the origin. As with the thin-layer chro- 1. Spray the paper chromatogram lightly with
matography plate, spot each sample 1 l at a ninhydrin reagent and heat for 5 min in a
time. Indicate the identity of each sample spot 100°C oven. The amino acids will appear as
below the origin using a soft lead pencil. blue or purple spots (except proline, which will
5. Next to these standards, spot a 1- l and a 3- l appear yellow). Figure 6-9 shows the reaction
sample of your unknown acid hydrolyzed that amino acids undergo with ninhydrin.
O
R
OH
2 H3N C COO
OH
H
O
Ninhydrin Amino acid
O O
O
N 3 H2O H CO2 R C H
O O
Blue-purple in color
2. Circle the position of all spots with a pencil and 12,000 g to pellet any undissolved material.
note the color, which may give some clue as to Transfer the top 0.7 ml of the clarified sample
the identity of the amino acid. to a fresh microcentrifuge tube. This sample
3. Calculate the Rf values of the amino acids in will be analyzed by reverse phase HPLC as de-
your unknown sample as well those of the scribed below.
amino acid standards, using the same procedure
and equation as that used on Day 2.
4. Based on the Rf values and colors of the spots HPLC Analysis of PTC-Amino Acids
present in your unknown sample compared to
1. Fill HPLC Buffer Reservoir A with PicoTag
those produced by the amino acid standards,
Eluant A and Buffer Reservoir B with 60%
what two amino acids are present in your un-
(vol/vol) acetonitrile in HPLC grade water.
known dipeptide? Can you now determine the
2. Equilibrate the C18 reverse-phase HPLC col-
sequence of your unknown dipeptide based on
umn with a solvent composition of 98% Buffer
these results and those from Day 2? As before,
A and 2% Buffer B (flow rate at 1 ml/min).
discuss any uncertainty that may be involved in
3. Inject 100 l of the PTC-amino acid sample
your identification, as well as how these un-
and apply the following mobile-phase gradient
certainties may be eliminated through modifi-
during development (mark the time of injec-
cations in the experiment.
tion, or T 0, on the chart recorder):
distance from injection point (T 0) to the middle of the elution peak (cm)
RT
0.5 cm/min
120 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
Table 6-1 Retention Times of PTC-Amino Acids tive). If this is done, Resevoir B must contain
on a C18 Reverse-Phase HPLC 84% (vol/vol) acetonitrile in HPLC-grade wa-
Column at a Flow Rate of 1 ml/min ter. This change in mobile-phase composition
will require the flow rate to be 2 ml/min (for
Amino Acid RT (min) good resolution), with the following gradient:
PTC-aspartic acid 7.0 Time (min) % Buffer A % Buffer B
PTC-glutamic acid 7.4
0 94 6
PTC-serine 8.4
0.1 93 7
PTC-glycine 9.4
2 91 9
PTC-histidine 10.4
8.5 89 11
PTC-arginine 12.4
9 78 22
PTC-threonine 12.4
11 77 23
PTC-alanine 13.4
15 76 24
PTC-proline 14.0
17 74 26
PTC-tyrosine 22.0
18.6 64 36
PTC-valine 23.0
20.5 64 36
PTC-methionine 24.0
21.5 0 100
PTC-cysteine 25.6
22.5 0 100
PTC-isoleucine 26.4
PTC-leucine 26.6
PTC-phenylalanine 28.6 The retention times for each of the PTC-amino acids
PTC-lysine 30.4 described above ( Table 6-1) will not apply to a chro-
matography experiment done with this mobile-phase
system. If this alternative gradient is used, these val-
ues will have to be determined independently.
7. Based on these results, what two amino acids
are present in your unknown dipeptide? As
shown in Table 6-1, it may be difficult to re- Exercises
solve some PTC-amino acids (PTC-arginine
and PTC-threonine). Still, this mobile-phase 1. Draw the chemical structures of PTC-valine
gradient will resolve the majority of the PTC- and PTH-valine. With what biochemical tech-
amino acid derivatives. How might the condi- nique is the formation of PTH-amino acid de-
tions of this experiment be changed to resolve rivatives associated?
molecules such as PTC-arginine and PTC- 2. The five dipeptides listed below were treated
threonine? as follows: (a) The dipeptide was reacted ex-
NOTE: Several amino acids will be modified or haustively with FDNB. (b) The reaction was
destroyed during the harsh acid hydrolysis step: then acidified and extracted with ether. (c) The
ether phase from this extraction was dried
Tryptophan is destroyed.
down, resuspended in 0.5 ml of 6 N HCl, and
Glutamine is converted to glutamate.
heated at 110°C for 12 hr. (d) 1 ml of water
Asparagine is converted to aspartate.
and 2 ml of ether were then added to the sam-
Cysteine is oxidized to cysteic acid.
ple. For each of the dipeptides listed below, list
Because of this, we suggest that you perform the peptide-derived compounds that you would
the experiment with dipeptides that do not con- expect to find in the final ether phase and the
tain these amino acids. final aqueous phase following the series of four
treatments described above.
NOTE: In addition to the HPLC mobile-phase
system described above, you can replace Pico- Alanyl-asparagine Valyl-arginine
Tag Eluant A with 140 mM KOAc, pH 5.3 Glutamyl-lysine Arginyl-valine
(sodium acetate is not an acceptable alterna- N-acetyl-alanyl-tryptophan
EXPERIMENT 6 Sequence Determination of a Dipeptide 121
3. A peptide (Compound A) was acid hydrolyzed Konigsberg, W. (1972). Subtractive Edman Degrada-
and found to contain equimolar amounts of tion. Enzyme Structure, Part B. Methods Enzymol
Arg, Val, Tyr, Glu, Lys, Ala, and Gly. 25:326.
Laursen, R. A. (1972). Automatic Solid-Phase Edman
a. Exhaustive treatment of Compound A with Degradation. Enzyme Structure, Part B. Methods
trypsin yields the following compounds: Enzymol 25:344.
Arg, Ala-Lys, a peptide (Compound B) con- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
taining Glu, Gly, Tyr, Val. Treatment of (1993). An Introduction to Proteins. In: Principles of
compound B with chymotrypsin yields Val- Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
Tyr and Glu-Gly. Schroeder, W.A. (1972). Degradation of Peptides. En-
zyme Structure, Part B. Methods Enzymol 25:298.
b. Short-term treatment of Compound A with
Stryer, L. (1995). Exploring Proteins. In: Biochemistry,
carboxypeptidase yields free Gly as the first
4th ed. New York: Freeman.
detectable amino acid. Tarr, G. E. (1985). Microcharacterization of Polypeptides:
c. N-terminal analysis of Compound A with A Practical Manual (Manual Edman Sequencing
FDNB yields DNP-alanine in the ether System). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
phase. Wilson, K., and Walker, J. (1995). Chromatographic
Techniques. In: Principles and Techniques of Practical
What is the sequence of the dipeptide?
Biochemistry, 4th ed. Hatfield, UK: Cambridge
4. With what groups on amino acids can FDNB University Press.
react? Why could an amino acid that is not N-
terminal, but still reacts with FDNB on its side
chain, fail to be extracted into the ether phase
at low pH conditions?
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENT 7
H OH H OH H OH H OH
Lactose Galactose Glucose
(D-Galactopyranosyl (, 1 4) D-glucopyranose)
CH2OH
O
HO O CH2
H
O
OH H H OH
H H H
OH H
H OH HO H
H OH
Allolactose
(D-Galactopyranosyl (, 1 6) D-glucopyranose)
123
124 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
CAP
PI lacI Plac operator lacZ lacY lacA
site
lacI
CAP
When lactose is present
cAMP
CAP
PI lacI Plac operator lacZ lacY lacA
site
mRNA When lacI binds the inducer, it loses its affinity for
the operator and dissociates. RNA polymerase is
now free to transcribe lacZ, lacY, and lacA. If
glucose is not present, the CAP–cAMP complex
Inducer will form and bind the CAP site. This CAP–cAMP
lacI complex bound at the CAP site enhances
(allolactose or IPTG)
transcription of the operon.
CAP
CAP
PI lacI Plac operator lacZ lacY lacA
site
mRNA
RNA polymerase binds the DNA and initiates tran- Transcription of the lac operon can be induced
scription of lacZ, lacY, and lacA. As we shall see, the (turned on) in the presence of lactose and repressed
operator sequence adjacent to the promoter is an in the absence of lactose when the components re-
important regulatory sequence that will participate quired for its metabolism are not needed. This reg-
in the control of the expression of the lac operon. ulatory system ensures that the cell will not waste
EXPERIMENT 7 Study of the Properties of -Galactosidase 125
NH2 NH2
N N N N
O O O Adenylate
N N cyclase N N
⫺
O P O P O P O O CH2 O ⫹ PPi
⫺O ⫺O ⫺O
H H O H
H H O⫺ H H
OH OH P O OH
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) O
Adenosine-3⬘, 5⬘-cyclic monophosphate
(cAMP)
Figure 7-4 Reaction catalyzed by adenylate cyclase. The activity of adenylate cyclase is decreased when
glucose is present in the growth medium.
126 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
NO2
CH2OH CH2OH
NO2
O O
HO O HO OH
H  -Galactosidase H ⫺
⫹ O
OH H OH H
H H H H
O -Nitrophenol (ONP)
H OH H OH (Absorbs light at 420 nm
in alkaline conditions)
O -Nitrophenyl-, D-galactopyranoside Galactose
(ONPG)
present. The ability of glucose to prevent expres- concept of catabolite repression. Before you begin
sion of the lac operon even in the presence of its the experiment, review the section on enzymology
inducer is an example of catabolite repression. Since in the Introduction to Section II.
glucose and gluconate are the preferred carbon
sources for E. coli, these compounds are very ef-
fective catabolite repressors of the lac operon.
Supplies and Reagents
Other carbon sources, such as glycerol, acetate, and
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7
succinate, are less effective catabolite repressors.
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 6.4
Since catabolite repression is due to the effect of
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 6.8
high glucose levels on adenylate cyclase activity, the
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2
effect of catabolite repression can be overcome (re-
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 8.0
versed) in vivo through the addition of cAMP to
-galactosidase solution (10 units/milliliter in 0.08 M
the growth medium.
sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7, supplemented
You will use o-nitrophenyl-,D-galactopyra- with 1 mg/milliliter bovine serum albumin)
noside (ONPG), rather than lactose, as the sub- o-nitrophenyl-,D-galactopyranoside solutions (2.5 mM
strate for the -galactosidase assays performed in and 10 mM)
this experiment. -galactosidase will hydrolyze the 13 ⫻ 100 mm glass test tubes
ONPG substrate to produce two products, one of 16 ⫻ 125 mm glass test tubes with caps (sterile)
which absorbs light at 420 nm under alkaline con- 1.5-ml plastic microcentrifuge tubes
ditions (Fig. 7-5). By monitoring the change in A420 P-20, P-200, P-1000 Pipetmen with disposable tips
of a solution containing -galactosidase and ice
ONPG, you will be able to continuously measure the methyl-,D-galactopyranoside (MGP) solution (750
change in concentration of the product (o-nitro- mM)
phenol, ONP) over time. methyl-,D-thiogalactoside (MTG) solution (150 mM)
In this four-period experiment, you will study isopropylthiogalactoside (IPTG) solution (200 mM)—
and characterize the kinetics of -galactosidase at filter-sterilized
varying pH and temperature as well as in the pres- cAMP solution (100 mM)—filter sterilized
ence of two different inhibitors of the enzyme. In 1 M Na2CO3
these exercises, you will determine the KM and Vmax 0.1% (wt/vol) sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution
for the enzyme with respect to its ONPG substrate, chloroform
as well as the inhibition constant (K I) for the two YT broth (1% wt/vol bactotryptone, 0.5% wt/vol yeast
inhibitors. In addition, the temperature studies will extract, 0.5% wt/vol NaCl)
allow you to calculate the activation energy for the 20% (wt/vol) glucose solution—filter sterilized
-galactosidase catalyzed reaction. Finally, you will spectrophotometer to read absorbance at 280 nm, 420
utilize a number of different E. coli strains in an in nm, 600 nm, and 550 nm
vivo -galactosidase assay to demonstrate the intri- heating blocks or temperature-controlled water baths
cate regulatory system of the lac operon and the colorimeter tubes and quartz cuvettes
EXPERIMENT 7 Study of the Properties of -Galactosidase 127
where 1.25/ A420max is a conversion factor re- tion that showed good linear kinetics over a
lating the number of micromoles of ONPG hy- 5-min period (where ⌬ A420 /⌬time produced
drolyzed to the change in absorbance at a straight line over 5 min). Use a dilution of
420 nm, and Vp is the total volume (in milli- the enzyme that gives a change in absorbance
liters) of -galactosidase solution present in at 420 nm of about 0.1 per min. Prepare 9 ml
each reaction. Taking the volumes of the stock of a dilute -galactosidase solution by mak-
-galactosidase solution (undiluted) used in ing the appropriate dilution of the -galac-
each reaction into consideration, what is the ac- tosidase stock solution in sodium phosphate
tivity of -galactosidase in the stock solution of buffer, pH 7.7. This dilute -galactosidase so-
the enzyme? NOTE: You should be able to cal- lution will be used in both of the assays de-
culate several activity values for the stock - scribed below. Keep this solution on ice and add
galactosidase solution using the reactions in to the tubes below at room temperature when you
tubes 2 to 6. These values should be averaged are ready to perform the assay.
and presented along with a deviation from the 2. Set up the following reactions in six 13-by-100
mean. mm glass test tubes:
11. Obtain two 1.5-ml plastic microcentrifuge
tubes. To one, add 0.5 ml of distilled water and Volume of Phosphate Volume of
Tube Buffer, pH 7.7 (ml) 2.5 mM ONPG (ml)
0.5 ml of the stock -galactosidase solution. To
the other, add 0.8 ml of distilled water and 1 4.00 0.50
0.2 ml of the stock -galactosidase solution. 2 4.00 0.50
Cap each tube and invert several times to mix. 3 4.20 0.30
12. Read the absorbance of both solutions in a 4 4.30 0.20
quartz cuvette at 280 nm using water as a blank 5 4.35 0.15
to zero your spectrophotometer. Record the 6 4.40 0.10
A280 value of both solutions in your notebook.
13. Based on these values, estimate the total pro-
tein concentration (in milligrams per milliliter) 3. Add 0.5 ml of sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7,
of the stock -galactosidase solution using to tube 1 (blank) and mix by gently swirling.
Beer’s law (A ⫽ εcl ). Assume an extinction co- Blank your spectrophotometer to read zero ab-
efficient of 0.8 (mg/ml)⫺1 cm⫺1. This extinction sorbance at 420 nm against this solution.
coefficient is based on the average value of aromatic 4. Add 0.5 ml of the dilute -galactosidase solu-
amino acids found in most proteins. tion to tube 2. Mix gently with a Vortex mixer
14. Calculate the specific activity of the stock - for 5 sec and place the solution in your spec-
galactosidase solution (micromoles of ONPG trophotometer. Exactly 30 sec after the addi-
hydrolyzed per minute per milligram of pro- tion of the substrate, record the A420 of the so-
tein) using the following equation: lution in your notebook. Continue to record
the A420 value at 30-sec intervals for 5 min.
activity 5. Follow the exact same procedure as described
Specific activity ⫽ ᎏᎏ
[protein] (mg/ml) in step 3 for tubes 3 to 6. Record the A420 at
30-sec intervals for at least 5 min for each re-
action.
Day 2: Determination of KM and Vmax and 6. Prepare a plot of A420 versus time for the data
the Effect of Inhibitors on -Galactosidase obtained from the reactions in tubes 2 to 6. Plot
Activity the data from all five reactions on a single graph
for comparison.
7. Calculate the slope of each line. If your enzyme
Determination of K M and Vmax
dilution prepared in step 1 was correct, the
1. From the data obtained on Day 1, determine ⌬ A420 per minute for each reaction should be
a dilution of the stock -galactosidase solu- linear for at least 5 min.
EXPERIMENT 7 Study of the Properties of -Galactosidase 129
8. Use the following equation to determine the record the A420 of the solution in your note-
initial velocity of each -galactosidase reaction book. Continue to record the A420 value at 30-
(micromoles of ONPG hydrolyzed per minute): sec intervals for 5 min.
4. Follow the exact same procedure as described
Initial velocity (V0) ⫽ (⌬A420/⌬time)(1.25/⌬A420max) in step 3 for tubes 3 to 6. Record the A420 at
30-sec intervals for at least 5 min for each re-
Note how the slope of each line (initial veloc- action.
ity) changes with decreasing ONPG concen- 5. Add 0.5 ml of sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7,
tration. to tube 7 (blank) and mix by gently swirling. Zero
9. Prepare a plot of 1/V0 versus 1/[ONPG] (a your spectrophotometer at 420 nm against this
Lineweaver–Burk plot) using the data obtained solution.
from tubes 2 to 6. Do the data points “fit” to 6. Add 0.5 ml of dilute -galactosidase solution to
a straight line? From the x-intercept of this tube 8. Swirl gently for 5 sec and place the so-
graph, can you determine the KM (mM) for - lution in your spectrophotometer. Exactly 30
galactosidase with respect to ONPG? From the sec after the addition of the substrate, record
y-intercept of this graph, can you determine the the A420 of the solution in your notebook. Con-
Vmax for the -galactosidase solution (micro- tinue to record the A420 value at 30-sec inter-
moles of ONPG hydrolyzed per minute)? vals for 5 min.
7. Follow the exact same procedure as described
in step 6 for tubes 9 to 12. Record the A420 at
Effect of Inhibitors on -Galactosidase Activity 30-sec intervals for at least 5 min for each re-
1. Set up the following reactions in twelve 13-by- action.
100-mm glass test tubes: 8. Prepare two plots of A420 versus time: one plot
should include data obtained from the reactions
Volume of in tubes 2 to 6, the other should include data
Phosphate Volume Volume Volume of
Buffer, of MGP of MTG 2.5 mM
obtained from the reactions in tubes 8 to 12.
Tube pH 7.7 (ml) (ml) (ml) ONPG (ml) Plot the data from reactions containing the same
inhibitor on a single graph for comparison.
1 3.9 0.1 — 0.50
9. Use the following equation to determine the
2 3.9 0.1 — 0.50
initial velocity of each these -galactosidase
3 4.1 0.1 — 0.30
reactions (micromoles of ONPG hydrolyzed
4 4.2 0.1 — 0.20
per minute):
5 4.25 0.1 — 0.15
6 4.30 0.1 — 0.10
Initial velocity (V0) ⫽ (⌬ A420/⌬time)(1.25/⌬A420max)
7 3.9 — 0.1 0.50
8 3.9 — 0.1 0.50
10. Prepare a plot of 1/V0 versus 1/[ONPG] (a
9 4.1 — 0.1 0.30
Lineweaver–Burk plot) using the data obtained
10 4.2 — 0.1 0.20
from tubes 2 to 6. Compare the x-intercept and
11 4.25 — 0.1 0.15
y-intercept of this graph with those obtained in
12 4.3 — 0.1 0.10
the absence of inhibitor (to determine KM and
Vmax). Are they the same? What type of inhi-
2. Add 0.5 ml of sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7, bition does methyl-,D-galactopyranoside dis-
to tube 1 (blank) and mix by gently swirling. play toward -galactosidase? Can you calculate
Blank your spectrophotometer to read zero ab- an inhibition constant (KI) for this inhibitor (re-
sorbance at 420 nm against this solution. member that the methyl-,D-galactopyra-
3. Add 0.5 ml of the dilute -galactosidase solu- noside stock solution was at a concentration of
tion to tube 2. Swirl gently for 5 sec and place 750 mM)?
the solution in your spectrophotometer. Ex- 11. Prepare a plot of 1/V0 versus 1/[ONPG] (a
actly 30 sec after the addition of the substrate, Lineweaver–Burk plot) using the data obtained
130 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
from tubes 8 to 12. Compare the x-intercept Buffer Buffer Buffer Buffer Buffer -gal -gal
Tube 1 2 3 4 5 1 2
and y-intercept of this graph with those ob-
tained in the absence of inhibitor (to determine 1 4.0 — — — — — —
KM and Vmax). Are they the same? What type 2 3.9 — — — — 0.1 —
of inhibition does methyl-,D-thiogalactoside 3 3.9 — — — — — 0.1
display toward -galactosidase? Can you 4 — 3.9 — — — 0.1 —
calculate an inhibition constant (KI) for this 5 — 3.9 — — — — 0.1
inhibitor (remember that the methyl-,D- 6 — — 3.9 — — 0.1 —
thiogalactoside stock solution was at a concen- 7 — — 3.9 — — — 0.1
tration of 150 mM)? 8 — — — 3.9 — 0.1 —
12. Based on the KI values for methyl-,D-galacto- 9 — — — 3.9 — — 0.1
pyranoside and methyl-,D-thiogalactoside, 10 — — — — 3.9 0.1 —
which compound is the more potent inhibitor 11 — — — — 3.9 — 0.1
of -galactosidase? 12 — — — — 4.0 — —
13. Based on the type(s) of inhibition displayed by 13 — — — 3.5 — — —
these two inhibitors, can you determine the site
on the -galactosidase enzyme with which
these two compounds interact? Explain. Would 4. To tube 1 (blank), add 0.5 ml of 2.5 mM ONPG
you expect to be able to reverse the effects of and 0.5 ml 1 M Na2CO3, mix, and use the so-
these inhibitors by changing the concentration lution to zero your spectrophotometer at
of ONPG used in these assays? Explain. 420 nm.
5. Add 0.5 ml of 2.5 mM ONPG to tube 2, mix
gently with a Vortex mixer for 5 sec, and incu-
Day 3: Effect of pH and Temperature bate at room temperature for 4 min.
on -Galactosidase Activity 6. After the 4 min incubation, stop the reaction by
adding (and mixing in) 0.5 ml of 1 M Na2CO3.
The addition of this weak base will raise the pH of
Effect of pH on -Galactosidase Activity
the reaction enough to completely stop the reaction.
1. Prepare two different dilutions of the stock - 7. Perform steps 5 and 6 on tubes 3 to 7. Record
galactosidase solution: the first dilution should the final A420 of all these solutions in your note-
be the same as that done for the experiments book.
on Day 2 (one that gave a linear change in ab- 8. To tube 12 (blank), add 0.5 ml of 2.5 mM
sorbance at 420 nm per minute of about 0.1). ONPG and 0.5 ml of 1 M Na2CO3, mix, and
Designate this solution “-gal 1.” The second use the solution to zero your spectrophotome-
solution should be twice as dilute as the first ter at 420 nm.
solution. Designate this solution “-gal 2.” 9. Add 0.5 ml of 2.5 mM ONPG to tube 8, mix
You will need a total of 1.0 ml of each dilute - gently with a Vortex mixer for 5 sec, and incu-
galactosidase solution for the assays described bate at room temperature for 4 min.
below. 10. After the 4-min incubation, stop the reaction by
2. Obtain 10 ml of sodium phosphate buffers adding (and mixing in) 0.5 ml of 1 M Na2CO3.
ranging in pH from 6.4 to 8.0: 11. Perform steps 9 and 10 on tubes 9 to 11. Record
the final A420 of all these solutions in your note-
Buffer 1 ⫽ pH 6.4
book.
Buffer 2 ⫽ pH 6.8
12. To tube 13, add 0.5 ml of the undiluted -
Buffer 3 ⫽ pH 7.2
galactosidase stock solution. Add 0.5 ml of
Buffer 4 ⫽ pH 7.7
2.5 mM ONPG, mix gently with a Vortex
Buffer 5 ⫽ pH 8.0
mixer for 5 sec, and incubate at room temper-
3. Set up the following reactions in thirteen 13- ature for 10 min, or until the ⌬ A420 /⌬time is
by-100-mm glass test tubes. All volumes are equal to zero (indicates that the reaction is
given in milliliters: complete).
EXPERIMENT 7 Study of the Properties of -Galactosidase 131
will produce linear kinetics over 4 min. If -gal 3. Grow these cultures at 37°C with shaking to
1 and -gal 2 both displayed linear kinetics over late log phase (A600 1.0). This will take ap-
4 min at a particular temperature, then the ini- proximately 3 to 4 hr.
tial velocity of the solution containing -gal 1 4. Set up the following inoculations in 12 sterile
will be twice that of the solution containing - (16 ⫻ 125 mm) glass test tubes:
gal 2.
YT Broth 200 mM 100 mM 20% Glucose
8. Construct a plot of log V0 versus 1/absolute Tube (ml) IPTG (ml) cAMP (ml) (ml)
temperature (°K). Determine the slope of the
line through the linear portion of this curve. 1 5.0 — — 0.05
From this slope, determine the Arrhenius acti- 2 5.0 0.05 — 0.05
vation energy (Ea) for the reaction catalyzed by 3 5.0 0.05 0.05 0.05
-galactosidase using the following equation: 4 5.0 — — 0.05
5 5.0 0.05 — 0.05
Ea 6 5.0 0.05 0.05 0.05
Slope ⫽ ⫺ ᎏᎏ 7 5.0 — — 0.05
2.3R
8 5.0 0.05 — 0.05
where R is the gas constant (1.98 cal/deg.-mol). 9 5.0 0.05 0.05 0.05
9. What do you notice about the activity of the 10 5.0 — — 0.05
enzyme at higher temperatures? Explain what 11 5.0 0.05 — 0.05
you think is happening to the enzyme at higher 12 5.0 0.05 0.05 0.05
temperatures.
5. Using sterile technique (consult the instructor),
add 100 l of late-log-phase strain EM1 cul-
Day 4: Catabolite Repression and
ture to tubes 1 to 3. Add 100 l of late-log-
Regulation of the lac Operon in Vivo
phase strain EM1327 culture to tubes 4 to 6.
We suggest that steps 1 through 3 be performed by the Add 100 l of late-log-phase strain EM1328
instructor prior to the beginning of the experiment. culture to tubes 7 to 9. Add 100 l of late-log-
phase strain EM1329 culture to tubes 10 to 12.
1. The night before the experiment, grow 5-ml
6. Grow all of the cultures with shaking at 37°C
overnight cultures of each of the following E.
for 2.5 to 3.0 hr.
coli strains in YT broth with shaking at 37°C.
7. Set up 12 16 ⫻ 125 mm glass test tubes (one
EM1: E. coli K-12 ( lacI⫹,cya⫹,crp⫹,thi⫺) for each culture) containing the following:
EM1327: E. coli K-12 ( lacI⫹,cya⫹,⌬crp,thi⫺) 3.75 ml of sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7
EM1328: E. coli K-12 ( lacI⫹,⌬cya,crp⫹,thi⫺) 50 l of chloroform
EM1329: E. coli K-12 (⌬lacI,cya⫹,crp⫹,thi⫺) 50 l of 0.1% (wt/vol) sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)
Recall that the lacI, crp, and cya genes encode solution
the LacI repressor protein, the catabolite gene Number the tubes 1 to 12. The reaction for
activator protein, and adenylate cyclase, re- each numbered culture will be done in the cor-
spectively. responding numbered reaction tube.
2. The next morning (3–4 hr before the exper- 8. Add 0.25 ml of each culture to the corre-
iment), dilute the cultures 1:10 to 1:200 in 50 sponding reaction tube. Mix vigorously in a Vor-
ml of fresh YT broth. We have found that these tex mixer for 5 sec. The chloroform and SDS
strains display different growth rates. It is very im- will disrupt the integrity of (solubilize) the cell
portant that you perform growth trials beforehand membrane, allowing the ONPG substrate to
to determine the correct dilution for each strain to come into contact with the -galactosidase
ensure that the cultures will grow to the same op- present in the cell.
tical density prior to the beginning of the experi- 9. Add 0.5 ml of 10 mM ONPG to each reaction
ment. tube. Mix and incubate at room temperature
EXPERIMENT 7 Study of the Properties of -Galactosidase 133
produce a strain with the same level of expres- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
sion of the lac operon as the lacI⫺ strain in the (1993). Regulation of Gene Expression. In Principles
presence of IPTG and/or cAMP? of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
6. Explain how the activity of adenylate cyclase Miller, J. H. (1972). Experiments in Molecular Genetics.
Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor
affects expression of the lac operon. Describe
Laboratories.
situations (growth conditions) when the activ-
Perlman, R., Chen, B., DeCrombrugghe, B., Emmer,
ity of adenylate cyclase would be high and when M., Gottesman, M., Varmus, H., and Pastan, I.
it would be low. (1970). The regulation of lac Operon transcription
7. Explain how a mutation in the lacY gene could by cyclic adenosine-3⬘,5⬘-monophosphate. Cold
affect the regulation of the lac operon. Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 35:419.
8. Why was it necessary to calculate a new con- Stryer, L. (1995). Enzymes: Basic Concepts and Kinet-
version factor relating the ⌬A420 to the num- ics. In: Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
ber of micromoles of ONPG hydrolyzed for Zubay, G., Schwartz, D., and Beckwith, J. (1970) The
the kinetics experiments done on Day 3, de- mechanism of activation of catabolite-sensitive
spite the fact that the concentration of ONPG genes. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 35:433.
stock solution was the same as that on Day 1
and Day 2?
REFERENCES
EXPERIMENT 8
Purification of Glutamate–Oxaloacetate
Transaminase from Pig Heart
COO H
H C O COO
H3N C COO
Glutamate–oxaloacetate
H3N C COO CH2 transaminase C O CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
COO COO COO COO
Aspartate -Ketoglutarate Oxaloacetate Glutamate
135
136 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
glutamate (or alanine) and the corresponding - tamate and the pyridoxal form of the enzyme that
keto acid of the amino acid substrate are produced. is able to accept another aspartate molecule. The
The specificity of each transaminase is determined mechanism of the reaction catalyzed by GOT is
by the amino acid it recognizes as a substrate. The outlined in Figure 8-3.
transaminase enzymes provide an early and critical How do you measure GOT activity? The ox-
step in amino acid catabolism, funneling amino aloacetate produced by the enzyme can exist in ei-
groups from different amino acids into the pro- ther the keto or the enol form. At basic pHs favored
duction of glutamate. The glutamate that is formed by GOT (pH 8.3), the keto–enol equilibrium is dis-
from these transaminase reactions has several fates: placed in favor of the enol form (Fig. 8-4). The enol
it can be converted to a neurotransmitter (-amino form of oxaloacetate absorbs light at 256 nm, pro-
butyric acid, GABA), it can be used in the produc- viding a direct means of measuring GOT activity
tion of glutathione, it can be deamidated to pro- (the ⌬ A256/⌬time is directly proportional to the
duce NH 4 for the urea cycle, it can be converted change in concentration of oxaloacetate over time).
to glutamine (a method of NH 4 assimilation in In this experiment, you will use a different method
prokaryotes), or it can act as the precursor in the to measure GOT activity. You will quantify the rate
biosynthesis of other amino acids. of production of oxaloacetate (catalyzed by GOT)
All of the transaminase enzymes rely on a com- through the use of a coupled enzyme assay. In the
mon coenzyme, pyridoxal phosphate (PLP, Fig. presence of malic dehydrogenase (MDH), oxaloac-
8-2). The PLP coenzyme is linked to the enzyme etate and NADH will be converted to malate and
through the formation of a Schiff base between the NAD⫹ (Fig. 8-5). Since NADH absorbs light at 340
ε-amino group of a lysine residue at the active site nm, you can continuously measure the rate of oxi-
and the aldehyde carbon of PLP. The pyridoxal dation of NADH to NAD⫹ by following the de-
form of GOT is heat-stable, a property that can be crease in absorbance at 340 nm over time. As long
exploited in its purification. As aspartate enters the as the components of the coupled assay (MDH and
active site, the PLP will form a new Schiff base with NADH) are not rate-limiting, the ⌬ A340 /⌬time
the -amino group forming an aldimine interme- will be directly proportional to the change in con-
diate. Addition of a water molecule will cleave the centration of oxaloacetate over time, providing an
bond, producing oxaloacetate (the corresponding accurate measure of GOT activity. Since inexpen-
-keto acid of aspartate) and pyridoxamine phos- sive spectrophotometers are not designed to give
phate. This reaction will be reversed as -ketoglu- accurate absorbance readings in the short UV range
tarate enters the active site and removes the amino of light, 340 nm is a much more convenient wave-
group from pyridoxamine phosphate, forming glu- length to use in the GOT assay.
Enzyme
NH2 Enzyme
Enzyme with free -amino group ⫹
NH
⫹ H2O Schiff base
CH O
O
HO CH2 O P O⫺
C H O
⫺O
HO CH2 O P O⫺ H3C N⫹
⫺O H
H3C N⫹
Pyridoxal form of enzyme
H
Pyridoxal phosphate
NH3
HO CH2 O P O HO CH2 O P O
O O
GOT Lys NH CH CH2
O O
HO CH2 O P O HO CH2 O P O
H3C N H3C N
O O
H H
H3C N H3C N
H H
GOT Lys NH3 GOT Lys NH3 GOT Lys NH3
Pyridoxal form of GOT Pyridoxamine phosphate
(bound to GOT)
COO
COO H
H C O COO
H3N C COO
Glutamate–oxaloacetate
H3N C COO CH2 transaminase C O CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
COO COO COO COO
Aspartate -Ketoglutarate Oxaloacetate Glutamate
NADH
(absorbs at 340nm)
Malic
dehydrogenase (MDH)
NAD
COO
H C OH
CH2
COO
Malate
O
H H
C NH2
N
O O
COO H H
H H
C O Glutamate
OH OH dehydrogenase
CH2 NH4
O P O
CH2 NH2
O N
COO N
O P O
-Ketoglutarate
N N
O O
H H
H H
OH OH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
(reduced form)
H O
C NH2
N
O O
H H H
H H
H3N C COO
OH OH
CH2 H2O
O P O
CH2 NH2
O N
COO N
O P O
Glutamate
N N
O O
H H
H H
OH OH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
(oxidized form)
values for each fraction following each purification step: aloacetate per minute per milliliter of enzyme), and the
The total volume of each fraction (in milliliters), the protein concentration in each fraction (in milligrams per
GOT activity in each fraction (in micromoles of ox- milliliter).
140 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
5. Determine the activity of GOT (micromoles of tial velocity of the reaction is linear over 4 min
oxaloacetate produced per minute per milliliter (⌬ A340 /⌬time yields a straight line). If the ki-
of enzyme) using the following equation: netics are not linear over 4 min, dilute the en-
zyme twofold in 0.1 M potassium phosphate
⌬A340 1 buffer, pH 7.5, and repeat the assay. Prepare a
Activity ⫽ ᎏ ⭈ ᎏᎏᎏ ⭈ (3 ml) ⭈
⌬time 6.22 mM⫺1cm⫺1 plot of A340 versus time and calculate the ab-
fold dilution solute value of the slope of the line.
ᎏᎏᎏ
0.1 ml of enzyme 5. Determine the activity of GDH (micromoles
of NADH oxidized per minute per milliliter of
where (⌬ A340 /⌬time) is the absolute value of enzyme) using the following equation:
the slope of the line produced from a plot of
A340 versus time, 6.22 mM⫺1cm⫺1 is the mil- ⌬A340 1
Activity ⫽ ᎏ ⭈ ᎏᎏᎏ ⭈ (3 ml) ⭈
limolar extinction coefficient for NADH at ⌬time 6.22 mM⫺1cm⫺1
340 nm, 3 ml is the total reaction volume, fold fold dilution
ᎏᎏᎏ
dilution is the extent to which the GOT sam- 0.1 ml of enzyme
ple was diluted prior to the assay, and 0.1 ml of
enzyme is the volume of the dilute enzyme so- where (⌬ A340 /⌬time) is the absolute value of
lution used in the assay. the slope of the line produced from a plot of
A340 versus time, 6.22 mM⫺1cm⫺1 is the mil-
limolar extinction coefficient for NADH at
340 nm, 3 ml is the total reaction volume, fold
GDH Activity Assay
dilution is the extent to which the GOT sam-
The following procedure will be used for all GDH ple was diluted prior to the assay, and 0.1 ml of
activity assays performed in the experiment. It is es- enzyme is the volume of the dilute enzyme so-
sential that GDH activity be assayed for and sub- lution used in the assay.
tracted from the apparent GOT activity until you
are sure that the GOT and GDH have been sepa-
rated by one of the purification steps. Once this has
Folin–Ciocalteau Assay
occurred, you are no longer required to assay for
GDH activity. The following procedure will be used for all pro-
tein assays performed in this experiment. Because
1. Add the following, in order, to a 13 ⫻ 100 mm of day-to-day variation in the assay, you must pre-
glass test tube: pare a standard curve each day that you perform
the Folin–Ciocalteau assay.
Reagent Volume (ml)
2. Prepare 100 ml of fresh alkaline copper reagent bottle. Although you will only be assaying a small
by mixing, in order: portion of the crude pig heart homogenate for GOT
activity (see step 5 below), the total volume of this
98 ml of 2% Na2CO3 in 0.1 M NaOH
sample should be used in the calculations for the pu-
1 ml of 1% CuSO4 ⭈ 5H2O
rification table at the end of the experiment.
1 ml of 2% sodium tartrate
5. Remove 5 ml of the homogenate, place it in a
Add (and immediately mix in) 6 ml of this clean 30-ml plastic centrifuge tube, and cen-
reagent to each tube and incubate at room tem- trifuge at 8000 ⫻ g for 10 min. The supernatant
perature for 10 min. is Fraction I (FR-I). Store it on ice. The pellet
3. Add (and immediately mix in) 0.3 ml of Folin– produced in this step may be discarded.
Ciocalteau reagent to each tube and incubate 6. Prepare a water bath in a large beaker by heat-
at room temperature for 30 min. ing over a Bunsen burner. Submerge the 250-
4. Blank your spectrophotometer to read zero ab- ml centrifuge bottle (containing 70 ml of pig
sorbance at 500 nm against the solution in tube heart homogenate) into the water bath and
1 (blank). bring the temperature of the homogenate to
5. Read and record the A500 of the solutions in 60°C. Place the clean thermometer directly into the
tubes 2 to 8. homogenate (not the water bath) to monitor its tem-
6. Prepare a standard curve using the data from perature.
tubes 2 to 6 by plotting A500 versus milligrams 7. Add 15 ml of 0.04 M ␣-ketoglutarate to the
of protein. Use the standard curve to determine homogenate to convert the GOT to the heat-
the concentration of protein in the GOT sam- stable pyridoxal form.
ple (tubes 7 and 8). If the A500 of tubes 7 and 8. Increase the temperature of the homogenate to
8 lies outside the range of the standard curve, 72°C and incubate it for exactly 20 min. Do not
dilute the GOT sample an additional twofold exceed 75°C or incubate for longer than 20 min. If
and repeat the assay. the time of the incubation is too long or the tem-
perature is too high, the GOT will denature.
9. Remove the homogenate from the water bath
and chill on ice for 20 min.
Protocol 10. Filter the heat-treated homogenate through
cheesecloth into a clean 250-ml plastic cen-
Day 1: Preparation of Pig Heart trifuge bottle. The solid material contains the
Homogenate and Heat Denaturation denatured proteins and cell debris that precip-
itated out of solution at high temperature. The
We suggest that steps 1 to 3 be performed by the in-
supernatant contains GOT, small molecules,
structor prior to the beginning of the experiment.
and other heat-stable proteins.
1. In the cold room (4°C), trim the fresh pig 11. Clarify the supernatant fraction further by cen-
hearts free of fat and auricles. Mince small por- trifugation at 8000 ⫻ g for 10 min. The super-
tions of the heart tissue with a meat grinder. natant is Fraction II (FR-II). Record its exact
This minced heart tissue can be frozen at volume and store it on ice. The pellet produced
⫺20°C for up to 4 weeks. in this step (cell debris and denatured proteins)
2. Add 300 ml of ice cold 0.5 M potassium malate may be discarded.
buffer (pH 6.0) containing 5 mM EDTA to 12. Perform GOT and GDH assays on FR-I and
each 200 ml portion of minced tissue. FR-II using the following suggested dilutions
3. Homogenize in a blender until no large tissue in 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.5):
portions are present (about 1 min). Store the
1:160 for FR-I
homogenate on ice until the beginning of the
1:80 for FR-II
experiment.
4. Obtain 75 ml (record the exact volume in your Calculate the GOT activity present in each
notebook) of pig heart homogenate from the in- fraction (micromoles of oxaloacetate produced
structor and place in a 250-ml plastic centrifuge per minute per milliliter of enzyme).
EXPERIMENT 8 Purification of Glutamate – Oxaloacetate Transaminase from Pig Heart 143
13. Place 0.5 ml of FR-I and FR-II in separate 1.5 suggested dilutions in 0.1 M potassium phos-
ml microcentrifuge tubes labeled with your phate buffer (pH 7.5):
name. Return these to the instructor, who will
Tube Dilution
store them at 20°C for SDS-PAGE analysis
on the last day of the experiment. 1 1:20
14. Store the remainder of FR-I and FR-II on ice 2 Undiluted
at 4°C for use on Day 2. 3 1:20
4 1:50
5 1:10
Day 2: Development of an Ammonium 6 1:40
where mass of protein is the concentration (in fraction and store AS-I on ice at 4°C for use
milligrams per milliliter) of protein in the sam- on Day 4.
ple (determined from the standard curve) times 5. Determine what volume of SAS you will need
the total volume of the sample (1 ml). to add to the remainder of the supernatant from
10. Determine the highest percent ammonium sul- the first cut to precipitate more than 80% of
fate saturation that gave less than 20% GOT the total GOT in solution. Use the same for-
recovered. This will be a good percent ammo- mula shown in step 1, but remember that S1%
nium sulfate saturation to use for the first cut is now greater than zero and that the volume of
on Day 3 (when the bulk of the GOT is still FR-II has changed.
soluble). Next, determine the lowest percent 6. Slowly (one drop at a time with gentle mixing
ammonium sulfate saturation that gave more in between) add the correct volume of SAS so-
than 80% GOT recovered. This will be a good lution to the supernatant fraction from the first
percent ammonium sulfate saturation to use for salt cut. Incubate on ice for 25 min.
the second cut on Day 3 (when the bulk of the 7. Centrifuge the sample at 8000 ⫻ g for 20 min.
GOT will precipitate out of solution). This in- Decant the supernatant into a clean, 250-ml
formation will be critical for the experiment per- plastic centrifuge bottle. This is AS-III. Store
formed on Day 3, so these calculations must be com- AS-III on ice at 4°C for use on Day 4 and
pleted prior to the beginning of the next experiment. record its volume.
8. Redissolve the precipitated protein pellet pro-
duced in step 7 in 3 ml of 0.03 M sodium ac-
etate (pH 5.0). This is AS-II. Store this frac-
Day 3: Ammonium Sulfate Fractionation of
tion on ice and record its exact volume.
FR-II (Bulk Preparation)
9. Perform GOT assays (and GDH assays, if nec-
1. Based on your results from the ammonium sul- essary) on AS-I, AS-II, and AS-III using the fol-
fate precipitation trials performed on Day 2, lowing suggested dilutions in 0.1 M potassium
determine what volume of SAS you will need phosphate buffer (pH 7.5):
to add to the remainder of FR-II to precipitate
1:100 for AS-I
less than 20% of the total GOT in solution us-
1:200 for AS-II
ing the following formula:
1:10 for AS-III
(and the pH) will be low enough to allow GOT Day 5: Carboxymethylcellulose
to bind the carboxymethylcellulose column. It Chromatography
is also necessary to remove the residual ammo-
1. Open the outlet valve on the CMC column and
nium sulfate so that the NH 4 will not inter-
allow the level of the buffer to fall even with
fere with the Folin–Ciocalteau assay performed
that of the resin bed (but not below it). Dur-
on AS-II.
ing this time, adjust the flow rate to 1 ml/min.
2. Gently load all but 0.1 ml of AS-IId on the top
of the bed and allow it to flow into the resin.
Day 4: Folin–Ciocalteau Assay on Fractions Carefully layer (without disturbing the resin
and Preparation of Carboxymethylcellulose bed) the top of the resin bed with 20 ml of 0.03
Column M sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.0). Immediately
begin collecting 2 ml fractions as they elute
1. Remove the dialysis bag containing AS-II and
from the column. When this is complete, close
centrifuge at 8000 ⫻ g for 10 min. Remove and
the outlet valve at the bottom of the column.
save the supernatant on ice. This is ammonium
3. Perform a quick GOT assay on every other
sulfate fraction II dialyzed (AS-IId). Remove
fraction to ensure that the GOT adsorbed to
0.5 ml and place in a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge
the column. These rapid assays do not require
tube labeled with your name. Return this to the
any sample dilution. Simply add 0.1 ml of every
instructor, who will store it at ⫺20°C for SDS-
other fraction to a GOT assay tube and deter-
PAGE analysis at the end of the experiment.
mine whether you see any significant decrease
2. Perform Folin–Ciocalteau assays on AS-I,
in A340 after 2 min.
AS-II, and AS-IId using the following sug-
4. Elute GOT from the CMC column by passing
gested dilutions in water:
40 ml of 0.08 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.0)
1:20 for AS-I through the column. Immediately begin col-
1:10 for AS-II lecting 2-ml fractions as they elute.
1:10 for AS-IId 5. Perform rapid GOT assays on every other frac-
tion (see step 3) as well as absorbance readings
Calculate the concentration of protein in (mil-
at 280 nm for each fraction.
ligrams per milliliter) present in each fraction.
6. Prepare an elution profile by plotting relative
3. Obtain a 10-ml aliquot of carboxymethylcellu-
GOT activity (⌬ A340 /2 min) versus fraction
lose (CMC) resin saturated with 0.03 M sodium
number. Combine the three fractions that show
acetate (pH 5.0). Close the outlet valve at the
the highest relative GOT activity.
bottom of the column. Slowly pour the slurry
7. Accurately assay the precolumn sample and
into the chromatography column containing a
pooled eluted samples for GOT activity using
small plug of glass wool at the bottom (consult
the following suggested dilutions in 0.1 M
the instructor). Allow the resin bed to settle
potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.5):
with each small addition of the slurry. When
the resin has settled to half of the column 1:100 for pre-column fraction
height (5 ml), open the output valve and ad- 1:20 for pooled eluted fraction
just the flow rate to 1 ml/min. Equilibrate the
column in 0.03 M sodium acetate (pH 5.0) by Calculate the GOT activity present in each
passing three column volumes (30 ml) of this fraction (micromoles of oxaloacetate produced
buffer through the column. Leave about 10 ml per minute per milliliter of enzyme).
of buffer above the resin bed and close the out- 8. Perform a Folin–Ciocalteau assay on the
let valve at the bottom of the column. pooled eluted fraction. No dilutions are needed
4. Label the column with your name and store it at this point, since the total protein concentra-
at 4°C for use on Day 5. tion is likely to be low. Calculate the concen-
5. Store the AS-IId fraction on ice at 4°C for use tration of protein (in milligrams per milliliter)
on Day 5. present.
146 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
9. Label the pooled eluted fraction with your 15. Discuss the overall effectiveness of this GOT
name and return it to the instructor, who will purification protocol in terms of fold purifica-
store it at 20°C for SDS-PAGE analysis on tion and percent yield. Suggest possible modi-
Day 6. fications in the experiment that might improve
10. Prepare a purification table for GOT: the percent yield or fold purification. Describe
Fraction I
(crude homogenate)
Fraction II
(heat-treated)
AS-II
(predialysis)
AS-IId
(postdialysis)
Pooled CMC
fraction
The total GOT activity of a fraction can be cal- specifically what the changes would be and how
culated by multiplying the GOT activity of the the new procedure would be performed (buffer
fraction (micromoles of oxaloacetate produced composition, etc.).
per minute per milliliter of enzyme) by the to-
tal fraction volume.
Day 6: SDS-PAGE Analysis (See the Section
The specific activity of GOT of a fraction
II Introduction and Experiment 4)
can be calculated by dividing the GOT activ-
ity of the fraction by the protein concentration 1. Determine the concentration of protein in the
(in milligrams per milliliter) for that fraction. FR-I, FR-II, AS-IId, and pooled CMC frac-
The percent yield for each fraction can be tions from the Folin–Ciocalteau assays per-
calculated by dividing the total GOT activity formed throughout the experiment. Remember
in a fraction by the total GOT activity in frac- that 0.5 ml of each of these fractions was saved
tion I (crude homogenate) and multiplying the for SDS-PAGE analysis.
value by 100. 2. For fractions that had a protein concentration
The fold purification for each fraction can greater than 1 mg/ml, determine how much
be calculated by dividing the specific activity of each one would have to be diluted with water
GOT in a fraction by the specific activity of to bring the final concentration to 1 mg/ml.
GOT in fraction I (crude homogenate). For example, if FR-I were at a concentration
11. What is the overall fold purification of GOT of 10 mg/ml, it could be diluted 10-fold with
in your experiment? water to bring it to 1 mg/ml.
12. What is the percent yield of GOT following 3. For fractions that had a protein concentration
this purification procedure? less than 1 mg/ml, determine what volume of
13. Which step in the purification procedure af- that fraction would contain 10 g of protein.
forded the greatest increase in the purity of For example, if AS-IId is at a concentration of
GOT? 0.1 mg/ml, 100 l of AS-IId contains 10 g of
14. Which step in the purification procedure af- protein. Add the appropriate volume of these
forded the least increase in the purity of GOT? fractions to a microcentrifuge tube and add
EXPERIMENT 8 Purification of Glutamate – Oxaloacetate Transaminase from Pig Heart 147
water to bring the final volume of each of these 9. Calculate the Rf values of the molecular weight
samples to 0.2 ml. Add 0.2 ml of 20% trichlor- protein standards using the following formula:
oacetic acid to each of the samples, mix, and
incubate on ice for 10 min. Centrifuge the sam- distance traveled by protein band (cm)
Rf
ples at 4°C for 5 min and remove the super- distance traveled by dye front (cm)
natant (there should be a precipitated protein
pellet at the bottom of the tube). Wash the pro- 10. Prepare a standard curve by plotting the log of
tein pellet with 100 l of acetone, centrifuge molecular weight versus Rf for each of the six
for 1 min at 4°C, and remove the supernatant. protein molecular weight standards (see Fig.
Allow the precipitated protein pellet to air dry 4-8). Based on the Rf value of the protein
and resuspend it in 10 l of water. band(s) in the lane containing the pooled CMC
4. Prepare the following samples for SDS-PAGE: fraction, what is the molecular weight of the
protein(s) present at the end of the purifica-
Volume of Sample Volume 4 SDS
Tube at 1 mg/ml Sample Buffer tion? Can you identify GOT (GOT is a
90,000-Da homodimer composed of two iden-
1 10 l (FR-I) 5 l tical subunits)? Are there any other proteins
2 10 l (FR-II) 5 l that copurified with GOT? What are their
3 10 l (AS-IId) 5 l molecular weight(s)? Has the intensity of the
4 10 l (pooled CMC fraction) 5 l protein band corresponding to GOT changed
5 10 l (protein molecular 5 l during the course of the purification? Explain
weight standard)
what this means.
EXPERIMENT 9
149
150 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
Inhibition
Various reactions
that consume
carbamyl phosphate
COO O n
CH2 tio
O ibi
HO P Inh
CH
O
NH2 COO
Aspartate
Figure 9-1 Sites of feedback inhibition in carbamyl phosphate metabolism of E. coli. Note that aspartate
trascarbamylase is the first enzyme on the unique pathway to pyrimidine compounds.
would be predicted from simple steady-state kinet- The source of the enzyme to be used in these
ics (see Fig. II-8). Rather, the aspartate saturation studies is a mutant strain of E. coli, strain EK1104,
curve is sigmoid (S-shaped). You can rationalize the in which the gene encoding ATCase (pyrB) has been
results by suggesting that aspartate binds to more deleted and has a defect in another enzyme of
than one site on the enzyme and that once aspar- pyrimidine biosynthesis, orotidylic decarboxylase
tate is bound to one of these sites, it binds more (encoded by the pyrF gene) (see Nowlan and
readily to a subsequent site. This is called coopera- Kantrowitz, 1985). The pyrB gene is supplied to the
tive binding. Such binding is similar to the interac- organism in many copies per cell on the pEK2 plas-
tions between aspartate and CTP binding, except mid. However, because of the “leaky” defect in the
that in this case interactions between aspartate sites orotidylate decarboxylase gene, the strain makes
are positive rather than negative. Simple enzyme pyrimidine nucleotides very slowly. Thus, the pool
kinetics generally assume single ligand sites or the of UTP, which is the repressing metabolite for the
absence of interactions between multiple sites. pyrBI that encodes ATCase, is very low, and the
However, you must consider both positive and neg- biosynthesis of ATCase is markedly derepressed.
ative interactions between substrate and allosteric These observations underscore the fact that control
sites in order to understand many regulatory en- of ATCase activity occurs in E. coli cells both by re-
zymes. Biochemists are now trying to learn the pre- pression of enzyme synthesis and by inhibition of
cise physical nature of such site–site interactions. enzyme activity.
Some of the kinetic properties of ATCase de-
scribed above will be examined in this experiment. Supplies and Reagents
The assay to be used is a fixed-time, colorimetric
procedure. Carbamyl aspartate accumulated in the E. coli strain EK1104 bearing plasmid pEK2
first step of the procedure is assayed in a second Materials for growth medium and culturing bacteria (see
step (Fig. 9-3). Appendix)
EXPERIMENT 9 Kinetic and Regulatory Properties of Aspartate Transcarbamylase 151
C
N
C N
C
N
C
N
Catalytic
site
N
CTP and ATP
20Å site
Figure 9-2 Three-dimensional structure of E. coli aspartate transcarbamylase. Half of the native c6r6
molecule (see Fig. II-4) is shown. The catalytic (c) submit, which binds the substrates aspar-
tate and carbamyl phosphate is shown in light shading. The regulatory (r) subunit, which
binds the allosteric effectors CTP and ATP, is shown in dark shading. From Kantrowitz, E.R.,
et al. (1980). E. coli Aspartate Transcarbamylase. Part II: Structure and Allosteric Interactions.
Trends Biochem Sci 5:150; and Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Freeman,
Figure 10-5, p. 240. Reprinted by permission.
ATCase
Step 1: Aspartate Carbamyl phosphate Carbamyl aspartate Pi
CH3
COO Yellow
C NOH product
O CH
C O CH3 of undetermined
O N
Step 2: NH2C NH CH COO N structure
CH3
Carbamyl aspartate
Diacetylmonoxime Antipyrine
comparing two sets of experimental conditions, 8. After the incubation in the dark, place the tubes
you should assay the sets at the same time with the in a 60°C water bath exposed to room light,
same enzyme dilution. but not direct sunlight, for 70 to 75 min. Cool
the tubes in cold water, and read the absorbance
1. Add the following to each of a series of assay
of each at 466 nm versus the blank containing
tubes: 0.5 ml 0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer,
all reagents except carbamyl aspartate. Read the
pH 7.0, varying amounts of 0.125 M aspartate
tubes promptly, because the color will slowly
(0.2 ml when range finding), 0.10 ml of an ap-
fade.
propriate enzyme dilution (kept cold), and wa-
9. Range finding. (If time is limited, this portion
ter to a final total volume of 0.90 ml.
of the experiment should be performed in ad-
2. Prepare a blank tube from which enzyme is
vance by an assistant.) In order to conduct the
omitted.
subsequent experiments under conditions that
3. Incubate the tubes at 30°C for about 5 min to
will yield valid assays, it is necessary to deter-
bring the contents to 30°C. At timed intervals
mine the amount of enzyme that will give a re-
(30 sec is convenient) add 100 l of 0.036 M
sponse proportional to the enzyme activity and
carbamyl phosphate to initiate the reaction and
within the range of the carbamyl aspartate color
mix.
test. This corresponds to an amount of enzyme
4. Allow the reaction to proceed at 30°C for
that forms about 0.05 to 0.10 mol of carbamyl
30 min. Then terminate each reaction at the
aspartate when 100 l of a suitable dilution is
same timed intervals as used in initiating the
assayed under standard assay conditions. Be-
reactions by adding 1 ml 2% perchloric acid.
cause the activity of your extract will depend
5. Set the tubes on ice until all are ready for the
on a number of variables, you must assay 25-,
color test. (If necessary, remove any precipitate
50-, 75-, and 100-l samples of a series of di-
by centrifuging the cold tubes for 5 min in the
lutions of the extract in 0.08 M sodium phos-
clinical centrifuge, followed by decanting.) De-
phate buffer, pH 7.0, to determine the appro-
velop the color in these tubes at the same time
priate enzyme level for use in the subsequent
as the series of carbamyl aspartate standards de-
experiments. Suggested dilutions are: 1 to
scribed in the next step.
5,000, 1 to 8,000, and 1 to 10,000.
6. Prepare a series of carbamyl aspartate standards
containing 0 (blank), 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250,
and 375 l of 1.0 mM carbamyl aspartate and
water to a final volume of 2 ml. Dependence of ATCase Activity on
7. Immediately before use, prepare the color Aspartate Concentration in the Absence
reagent by mixing well two parts of antipyrine- and Presence of Allosteric Effectors
H2SO4 reagent with one part of diacetyl-
1. Prepare a series of tubes that contain 0.5 ml
monoxime reagent.
0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer in each and
10, 20, 40, 60, 100, 150, and 200 l of 0.125
M aspartate. To each add 0.1 ml of an enzyme
Warning: Sulfuric acid can burn clothing and dilution shown to yield about 0.1 mol of car-
skin. Wear protective gloves. bamyl aspartate under standard assay condi-
tions above and shown to respond linearly to
enzyme concentration (i.e., 50 l gives half as
Prepare the amount of color reagent you need—3 ml much product as 100 l). Add water sufficient
to be added to each tube containing 2 ml of carbamyl to bring each to a volume of 0.9 ml. This is
aspartate standard or enzyme assay mixture after Series A. Use Table 9-1 to assist in preparation
addition of perchloric acid. Add 3 ml to each assay of the tubes.
and standard tube and mix thoroughly. Cap the 2. Prepare two other series of tubes identical to
tubes with marbles or parafilm, cover them with the first series except that one series (Series B)
aluminum foil, and store in a dark place at room also contains 50 l 10 mM CTP, and the other
temperature until the next lab period (15–48 hr is series (Series C) contains 50 l 40 mM ATP.
satisfactory). Tables 9-2 and 9-3 describe these series.
154 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table 9-2 Series B: Activity of ATCase as a Function of Aspartate Concentration, with CTP Added
(All Volumes in l)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.125 M Asparate 100 010 020 040 060 100 150 200
Water 150 230 240 210 190 150 100 050
0.08 M Na-Pi buffer, pH 7 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Enzyme — 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
10 mM CTP 050 050 050 050 050 050 050 050
Table 9-3 Series C: Activity of ATCase as a Function of Asparate Concentration, with ATP Added (All
Volumes in l)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.125 M Aspartate 100 010 020 040 060 100 150 200
Water 150 240 230 210 190 150 100 050
0.08 M Na-Pi buffer, pH 7 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Enzyme — 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 mM ATP 050 050 050 050 050 050 050 050
3. Conduct the assays for Series A, B, and C, ini- liter of diluted enzyme. Plot the rate of car-
tiating each reaction with 100 l 0.036 M car- bamyl aspartate formation as a function of as-
bamyl phosphate, terminating after 30 min of partate concentration. Do the results obey
reaction with 1 ml of 2% perchloric acid, and Michaelis–Menten kinetics? What is the effect
developing the color by adding 3.0 ml of freshly of adding CTP? Of adding ATP?
prepared color reagent as described above. In- 5. Prepare a Lineweaver–Burk plot of the data.
clude a series of carbamyl aspartate standards Can you determine an accurate KM value for
also as described above. aspartate? Prepare Hill plots of the data and
4. Using your carbamyl aspartate standard curve, calculate Hill coefficients (nH) for each exper-
convert your A466 readings to micromoles of imental series. (The Hill plot is a plot of log
carbamyl aspartate formed per hour per milli- (v/Vmax) versus log aspartate concentration,
EXPERIMENT 9 Kinetic and Regulatory Properties of Aspartate Transcarbamylase 155
where v is the reaction velocity at any aspartate 2. Incubate the tubes at 30°C for 15 min. Then
concentration and Vmax is the maximal velocity initiate the reactions with 100 l of 0.036 M
at saturating aspartate concentration (obtained carbamyl phosphate. After 30 min of reaction,
by extrapolation on the Lineweaver–Burk terminate each reaction (in the order they were
plot). The slope of this plot is the Hill coeffi- initiated) with 1 ml 2% perchloric acid, and de-
cient, nH, and is a measure of the “sigmoidic- velop the color in the assay tubes (along with
ity” of a velocity versus substrate concentration a set of carbamyl asparate standards) by adding
curve.) 3.0 ml of freshly prepared color reagent as de-
scribed above.
3. Analyze the data as in steps 4 and 5 above.
Desensitization of the Allosteric Site of
What is the effect of 50 M mercuribenzoate
ATCase with Mercuribenzoate
on the activity of ATCase and on its sensitivity
1. Prepare two series of tubes similar to those de- to allosteric inhibition by CTP?
scribed above. Series D should contain no nu-
cleotides, and Series E should contain 50 l of
10 mM CTP in each tube. Each tube should Exercises
also contain 10 l of 5 mM p-mercuribenzoate.
You do not need to prepare a series containing 1. Describe the current view of the molecular ar-
ATP. The amount of enzyme added to each chitecture of E. coli aspartate transcarbamylase.
tube should be the same as that used in the pre- What techniques were used in arriving at this
vious series. Follow Tables 9-4 and 9-5. view?
Table 9-4 Series D: Activity of ATCase as a Function of Aspartate Concentration, after Treatment
with Mercuribenzoate (All Volumes in l)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.125 M Asparate 100 010 020 040 060 100 150 200
Water 290 280 270 250 230 190 140 090
0.08 M Na-Pi buffer, pH 7 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Enzyme — 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
5 mM Mercuribenzoate 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 010
Table 9-5 Series E: Activity of ATCase as a Function of Asparate Concentration, with CTP Added
after Treatment with Mercuribenzoate (All Volumes in l)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.125 M Aspartate 100 010 020 040 060 100 150 200
Water 240 230 220 200 180 140 090 040
0.08 M Na-Pi buffer, pH 7 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Enzyme — 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
10 mM CTP 050 050 050 050 050 050 050 050
5 mM Mercuribenzoate 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 010
156 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
EXPERIMENT 10
Affinity Purification of
Glutathione-S-Transferase
157
158 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
COO O O
H3N CH CH2 CH2 C NH CH C NH CH2 COO
CH2
SH
COO O O
H3N CH CH2 CH2 C NH CH C NH CH2 COO
CH2
S
S
COO O CH2 O
H3N CH CH2 CH2 C NH CH C NH CH2 COO
Figure 10-1 The structure and forms of glutathione (␥-glutamyl cysteinyl glycine).
CTG GTT CCG CGT GGA TCC CCG GGA ATT CAT
GAC CAA GGC GCA CCT AGG GGC CCT TAA GTA
Bam HI
Sma I
Eco RI
e
eras
ransf
-t
ne-S
h io
at
ut
l
G
bla
tac
P
pGEX - 2T
~5000 bp
la c
I
ori
Figure 10-2 The pGEX-2T plasmid. Multiple-cloning site allows genes of interest to be inserted in frame
with the GST coding sequence to express the gene as a GST fusion protein that is easily pu-
rified with affinity chromatography. The GST tag can be removed after purification by treat-
ment with thrombin.
through some sort of nonspecific electrostatic or hy- this vector in the same reading frame as the GST
drophobic interactions, the addition of free glu- gene, a fusion protein will be expressed as a hybrid
tathione will only cause the elution of the GST. including the GST domain and the protein encoded
Notice that the pGEX-2T plasmid contains a by the gene of interest. This protein “tagged” with
multiple cloning site immediately 3 to the GST the GST domain may then be purified using the
coding sequence. If a gene of interest is cloned into same procedure described in this experiment. In
160 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
= Glutathione-S-transferase
= Reduced glutathione
10. Centrifuge the tube for 30 sec and collect the tom of the tube gently several times until the
supernatant. Label the supernatant, “unbound resin is fully resuspended.
fraction.” Store this fraction on ice. 14. Incubate the tube for 10 min at room temper-
11. Add 0.5 ml of PBS buffer to the resin and in- ature, inverting the tube frequently to keep the
vert the tube several times to completely re- resin suspended in the buffer.
suspend the resin in the buffer. Centrifuge for 15. Centrifuge the tube for 30 sec to collect the
30 sec to collect the resin; discard the super- resin. Save the supernatant and label it, “eluted
natant. fraction.” Store this fraction on ice.
12. Repeat step 11 four more times. 16. Prepare duplicate samples for SDS-PAGE and
13. Add 0.1 ml of 50 mM Tris/10 mM reduced glu- Western blot analysis (prepare in four tubes
tathione (pH 8.0) to the resin and flick the bot- marked A to D):
162 SECTION II Proteins and Enzymology
Sample A: 4 l of crude cell lysate 11 l of 6. You have isolated a protein of interest tagged
water 5 l of 4 SDS sample buffer with the GST domain. At this point, the fusion
Sample B: 4 l of “unbound fraction” 11 l of wa- protein is bound to the glutathione Sepharose
ter 5 l of 4 SDS sample buffer 4B resin and the unbound proteins have been
Sample C: 15 l of “eluted fraction” 5 l of 4 washed away. Describe, in detail, two different
SDS sample buffer techniques that you could use to isolate the pro-
Sample D: 5 l of purified GST (prepared by the tein without the affinity tag using only throm-
instructor) 10 l of water 5 l of 4 SDS bin, glutathione Sepharose 4B, and reduced
sample buffer glutathione.
Proceed with SDS-PAGE (Experiment 18,
Day 1).
REFERENCES
SECTION III
Introduction
165
166 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
arranged about the central carbon atom (which is in CH2OH for keto sugars) is always drawn at the top.
the plane of the paper) as at the corners of a tetra-
hedron, the H and OH group must project in front C O
of the plane of the paper. The drawings at the bot-
tom should make the arrangement of atoms clear. The name of the sugar is determined by the
Although the arrangements of atoms in the D and L arrangement of all the asymmetric centers; the fam-
forms of glyceraldehyde were originally arbitrarily ily (D or L) is determined by the penultimate car-
assigned by Emil Fischer, we now know from x-ray bon only. (Note that D and L have no other mean-
crystallographic analysis that the actual arrangement ing; they do not describe the direction of rotation
of atoms in these structures is the same as was orig- of polarized light of solutions of the sugar.) D and
L isomers of the same sugar (enantiomorphs or enan-
inally assigned. You must always remember the
three-dimensional meaning of the two-dimensional tiomers) are mirror images. Isomers that are not mir-
Fischer projection, especially when considering ror images, but differ in configuration about one or
structures drawn in other arrangements. more carbon atom are called diastereoisomers. Two
If you have access to ball-and-stick models used disastereoisomers differing in configuration about
for instruction in organic chemistry, use them to only one carbon atom are called epimers. Students
construct models corresponding to the drawings in should test their understanding of these concepts
Figure III-1 and determine the consequences of by stating how various pairs of the sugars in Figure
drawing flat projections of the structure in arrange- III-2 are related.
ments other than the Fischer convention. In this A further point should be made about the three-
way, you will see why it is essential to use a gener- dimensional meaning of the Fischer projection of
ally accepted convention for drawing asymmetric sugars with more than three carbon atoms. The car-
structures in two dimensions. bon atoms are arranged in a line (oxidized end up,
When the carbohydrate molecule contains ad- as before) such that all H and OH groups project
ditional CHOH groups, the number of possible iso- to the front and the C–C bonds curve back. You
mers increases (it will be equal to 2n, where n is the view the groups as they would project onto a plane
number of asymmetric carbon atoms). By conven- curved toward you. The carbon chain is curved con-
tion, all such sugars are considered to be members tinuously in a single direction rather than staggered.
of two families, the D family and the L family. Mem- This concept is illustrated in Figure III-3.
bers of the D family have the same arrangement at
the next to last carbon atom (the penultimate car- Monosaccharides Form Rings as a Consequence
bon, the first asymmetric center from the bottom) of Internal Hemiacetal or Hemiketal Formation.
as does D-glyceraldehyde. Likewise, the L sugars There is yet another level of isomerism of sugars,
have the configuration of L-glyceraldehyde about because aldehydes (and ketones) form freely re-
the penultimate carbon. As before, the most oxi- versible adducts with alcohols (hemiacetals and
dized end of the sugar (–CHO for aldo sugars and hemiketals) in aqueous solutions. In the presence of
H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH
HO C H H C OH HO C H HO C H
H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH
H C OH HO C H H C OH HO C H
Figure III-2 Which pairs of sugars are enantiomers? Diastereoisomers? Epimers? The stereochemistry of
the penultimate carbon (boldface) determines whether the sugar belongs to the D family or
the L family.
SECTION III Introduction 167
O reversible OH OR⬙
equilibrium HO R⬙
R C H HO R⬘ R C OR⬘ R C OR⬘
H2O
H H acid
H2O
hydrolysis
Hemiacetal Acetal
HO R⬘
a
O
C H HO C H H C OH
H C OH H C OH H C OH
HO C H HO C H O HO C H O
H C OH H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C O H C
Figure III-4 (a) Hemiacetal and acetal formation and acetyl hydrolysis. (b) Internal hemiacetal formation
with the OH on carbon 5 of hexoses yields two six-membered rings.
168 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
H C OH HO C H HO C H
H C OH H C OH HO C H
O
HO C H HO C H H C OH
O O
H C OH H C OH HO C H
H C H C C H
Figure III-5 - and -anomers of D- and L-glucose in Fischer projection. The anomeric carbons are shown
in boldface.
1. Place the carbonyl carbon on the right and a furanose (five-member) or pyranose (six-
draw a potential five- or six-member ring clock- member) ring with the ring O in the upper
wise (Fig. III-6). This rotation places hydrox- right-hand corner of the pyranose or at the top
yls that lie to the right on the Fischer projec- of a furanose (Fig. III-7). Ring closure will re-
tion down in Haworth representation; hydroxyls quire a rotation of the carbon that bears the ring
to the left will project up. (This is like placing O so that remaining carbons of the “tail” are
the Fischer projection on its side.) drawn opposite to the original direction (step
2. Draw the hemiacetal or hemiketal form of the 1) of the OH group involved in ring closure.
sugar by making ring closure with the appro- 3. Establish the orientation of the asymmetric
priate hydroxyl added to the carbonyl to form carbon created by hemiacetal or hemiketal for-
mation. By definition, an -anomeric OH is on
H O H the same side of the Fischer projection as the
C CH2OH
H C “Tail” (CH2OH) drawn up
H
H C OH OH CH2OH because ring closure OH
C OH H C
O would have been down
HO C H O H
HO C C H
H C OH (H, OH)
OH H
H OH HO
H C OH Orientation
unassigned
H OH
CH2OH as yet
D-Glucose D-Glucopyranose
(partial structure)
CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
C O H
O
HO C H C H OH C CH2OH (OH, CH2OH)
H OH
H C OH OH C C O H
Orientation
H C OH OH H OH H unassigned
as yet
CH2OH
D-Fructofuranose
D-Fructose (partial structure)
Figure III-6 Converting Fischer to Haworth Figure III-7 Converting Fischer to Haworth
projection—step 1. projection—step 2.
SECTION III Introduction 169
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
O
H H O OH HO C H
H
H O OH O H
OH H H OH
HO OH H CH2OH OH H OH H
H H OH
H OH OH H
-D-Glucopyranose -D-Fructofuranose H OH H OH
H C OH -D-Glucofuranose
Figure III-8 Representation of and anomers CH2OH
of D sugars in Haworth projection.
-D-Galactofuranose
(partial struture)
-D-Glucofuranose
CH2OH
OH H
CH2OH HO C H
O rotate
(H, OH?) C H
OH
H OH
H O H
OH H H rotate and OH H
H O HO
H OH
C
complete H OH
CH2OH structure
H OH H OH
-D-Glucofuranose now make -D-Glucofuranose
(partial structure) OH assignment with
carbon 6 down
CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
O H C OH O O
H OH H H
H H H
C C H
OH H OH H OH H
HO H HO OH
HO C C
H OH H OH H OH
-D-Glucopyranose D-Aldehydoglucose -D-Glucopyranose
CH2OH CH2OH
HO C H HO C H
O OH O H
OH H OH H
H H H OH
H OH H OH
-D-Glucofuranose -D-Glucofuranose
C 41
H
H
2O
H
O
C
H
HO
H
HO OH OH
H H
CH2OH
Bulky groups are
O
H OH equatorial
H
OH H
OH H
OH
CH2OH
H OH H
-D-Glucopyranose H O
OH
in Haworth projection
H C41
H
H
OH
OH
Bulky groups are axial
Like pyranose rings, furanose rings are not ac- (a 2-ketohexose), are especially important because
tually planar as shown in Haworth projections, but of their central roles in metabolism, as are the pen-
exist in two conformations, called envelope (E) and toses, D-ribose and 2-deoxyribose, and the trioses,
twist (T): In the envelope conformation, four mem- D-glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.
bers of the ring lie in a plane with the fifth mem- The rich variety of carbohydrate structures
ber bent above or below the plane. Only three made possible by the presence of multiple chiral
members of the ring lie in a plane in the twist con- centers is further expanded in biology by the in-
formation; the other two members are twisted troduction of a number of modifications to the ba-
above and below the plane of the ring (see Fig. sic Cx(H2O)y structure. These include formation of
III-14). The differences in stability between con- amino (usually 2-amino) sugars and N-acetylation
formations in furanose rings are not as great as in of the amino group, oxidation of the terminal car-
pyranose rings. bon atom to a COOH group (yielding uronic acids),
The use of conformational analysis is essential and attachment of O-linked sulfate groups. Reduc-
to a rational approach to carbohydrate chemistry, tion of CHOH centers to CH2 is also important,
but for simply representing carbohydrate structures because it leads to deoxysugars; the formation of 2-
most biochemists continue to use the Haworth for- deoxyribose, the constituent sugar of DNA, from
mulae. ribose, the constituent sugar of RNA, is the most
obvious example.
Biologically Important Monosaccharides. A very In addition to the monosaccharides listed above,
large number of monosaccharides have been found the most commonly occurring monosaccharides in
in biological systems, but a relatively smaller num- nature are mannose, galactose, glucosamine and N-
ber of monosaccharides is found very frequently in acetylglucosamine, galactosamine and N-acetylgalac-
virtually all kinds of cells. Most biochemists find it tosamine, sialic acid (see Fig. III-41), glucuronic acid,
convenient to memorize the structures of this and fucose (a 6-deoxyhexose). Most of these mono-
smaller group. Consult a standard biochemistry saccharides are found as components of oligosaccha-
textbook for the structures of the following mono- rides attached to proteins or lipids and polysaccha-
saccharides. The hexoses, D-glucose and D-fructose ride polymers, which will be discussed next.
172 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
H
3
O
H
OH 1
5
H OH
HOCH2 2
4 OH
O H
HOCH2 H
T23
H H
3 2
H OH Others can be drawn, but T2 or T3
are probably favored for most
OH OH furanosides.
-D-Ribofuranose
in Haworth H
projection 3 5
HO 5 CH2OH
CH2OH
4 H 4
O
O
H H H
2 1
2 1 OH
H H
H 3 OH
OH OH OH
3
E E3
1 2
Similaryl E , E1, E and E2 can all
be drawn; ribofuranosides are
3
probably E .
covalently attached to proteins or lipids. Polysaccha- thought of as “energy” storage materials. The
rides, which are enormously abundant in nature, mechanisms by which these reserves are mobilized
contain many monosaccharide units and may have by plants and animals are explored in Experiments
molecular weights in the millions. Polysaccharides 12 and 15, respectively. A second important role
may contain only a single type of monosaccharide for polysaccharides is the formation of structural
unit (homopolysaccharides, such as starch, glyco- polymers for cell walls. Cellulose, a polymer of
gen, cellulose, chitin) or several different monosac- glucose units in (1 n 4) linkages, is a major
charide types (heteropolysaccharides). constituent of plant cell walls. Chitin, a polymer
The monosaccharide units of oligosaccharides of (1 n 4)-linked N-acetylglucosamine units, is
and polysaccharides may be linked in a variety of abundant in cell walls of yeasts and fungi, and in
isomeric arrangements. That is, glycosidic bonds the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans. A more
may be formed by condensations between - or - complex class of carbohydrate-containing poly-
OHs at the anomeric carbon of one sugar and al- mers are the peptidoglycans (muramylpeptides) and
coholic hydroxyl groups at carbon 2, 3, 4, or 6 of a teichoic acids of bacterial cell walls, which contain
second sugar (e.g., l n 2, 1 n 3, 1 n 4, and l n 6 peptides or phosphate residues, respectively, linked
for a hexopyranose). Furthermore, the polymer may in polysaccharide structures.
be branched so that two sugars have glycosidic link- As noted above, oligosaccharides are usually
ages to different alcoholic hydroxyls of a third unit found linked to noncarbohydrate molecules, espe-
(e.g., at a “branch point” in glycogen, one glucose cially proteins and lipids. Glycoproteins, in which
residue is condensed with the C-4 hydroxyl of the oligo- or polysaccharide chains are linked to
branching residue and a second glucose is con- polypeptide chains by N-glycosidic linkages to the
densed with the C-6 hydroxyl of the same residue). amide nitrogen of asparagine, or by O-glycosidic
Each glycosidic (acetal or ketal) linkage employs the linkage to the side chain OH of serine or threo-
reducing carbon (anomeric carbon) of one monosac- nine, are particularly abundant in blood and on cell
charide. Thus, all oligo- and polysaccharides have surfaces. It is difficult to exaggerate the biological
only a single reducing end (analogous to the C- importance of the oligosaccharide components of
terminal of a peptide). The only exceptions to this these proteins. They affect the folding and stabil-
generalization are oligosaccharides, such as sucrose ity of the proteins. They are important in cell–cell
and trehalose, in which a sugar unit is linked by gly- recognition, modulation of immunological and in-
cosidic linkage to the anomeric hydroxyl of another flammatory responses, the invasion of host cells by
sugar. Such a sugar has no aldehyde or ketone in pathogenic microorganisms, the biology and diag-
hemiacetal linkage and is consequently a nonreduc- nosis of tumors, and a host of other phenomena.
ing sugar. A linear polysaccharide also has only a sin- Modification of proteins with oligosaccharides gov-
gle nonreducing end (analogous to the N-terminal erns their compartmentation into specific mem-
of a peptide), but a branched polymer has one ad- branes or organelles within cells and their excretion
ditional nonreducing end for each branch point. from cells. Because these phenomena are highly
These elements of linkage isomerism, which are not sensitive to the precise structures of the oligosac-
found in proteins or nucleic acids, complicate the charides involved, it is crucial to develop methods
determination of the structure of polysaccharides, for determining and modifying their complex struc-
as will be discussed in following paragraphs. tures. Characterization of the carbohydrate portion
of a glycoprotein requires careful cleavage of the
Biological Functions of Oligosaccharides and intact polysaccharide from the protein by digestion
Polysaccharides. Polysaccharides serve two im- with proteolytic enzymes or glycosidases (or by
portant biological roles. Glycogen and starch are mild alkaline degradation in the case of O-glyco-
polymers of glucose units linked in (1 n 4) link- sides linked to serine) prior to structure determi-
ages that serve as carbohydrate reserves for ani- nation. Two enzymes frequently used for release
mals, bacteria, and plants. Because these polymers of oligosaccharides from glycoproteins are endo-
are readily converted to intermediates for pathways -N-acetylglucosaminidase H and peptide-N 4-(N-
that yield metabolic energy, they can also be acetyl--D-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase.
174 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
H OH H OH H OH H OH
-Methyl-D-lactoside D-Galactose D-Glucose
( form written) ( form written)
resist hydrolysis more strongly than corresponding not proceed in a strictly stoichiometric fashion.
neutral sugars. Only a few monosaccharides un- However, if the conditions (temperature, alkali con-
dergo degradative reactions under these mild acid centration, oxidant concentration, and especially time)
conditions. Glycosidic linkages are generally stable are carefully controlled, oxidation of monosaccha-
under mild alkaline conditions. rides by various oxidizing agents (e.g., Cu2 or
Fe(CN)63) can be used for quantitative analysis of
Quantitative Determination of Monosaccharides sugar solutions. This is the basis of such methods
by Reactions of Their Aldehyde or Ketone Func- as Nelson’s and the Park and Johnson determina-
tions: “Reducing Sugars.” The quantitative de- tions, as well as many others not widely used to-
termination of monosaccharides is often based on day. The nonstoichiometric aspects of these oxida-
the reactivity of the hemiacetal (potential aldehyde tions show up as differences in the “reducing
or ketone) of the free sugar. (NOTE: This group is power” of sugars with very similar structures,
not present when the carbonyl is in acetal linkage.) which after a fixed time reduce different amounts
The hemiacetal or “reducing group” is very reac- of Cu2 under identical conditions. Hence, differ-
tive with dilute alkali (e.g., 0.035 N NaOH or sat- ent standard curves are obtained for different sug-
urated aqueous Ca(OH)2), where the carbohydrate ars. When you analyze an unknown sugar, you can
undergoes isomerization at room temperature. expect substantial uncertainty in the analytical re-
This interconversion, which probably involves an sult. Any saccharide that has a reducing end re-
enolic intermediate (see Fig. III-17), is referred to duces Cu2, Fe(CN)63, O2, and like substances.
as the Lobry de Bruyn–Alberda van Eckenstein re- Per unit weight, however, monosaccharides con-
arrangement. Clearly, if the identity of individual tain more reducing ends than polysaccharides. By
sugars is important, you should avoid alkaline con- measuring increases in reducing equivalents you
ditions during polysaccharide analysis. In the can follow the cleavage of a polysaccharide to
course of migration of double bonds in alkali, monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.
monosaccharides become very susceptible to oxi-
dation by O2 or by other electron acceptors (hence, Quantitative Determination of Monosaccharides
the term reducing sugar for a free monosaccharide). by Conversion to Furfurals. As described above,
Such oxidations are very complex and usually do polysaccharides are cleaved in mild acid to mono-
saccharides, which are generally stable to acid.
Strong mineral acids (4–6 N at 100°C, lower tem-
H H peratures with more concentrated acids) not only
H O cleave glycosidic bonds but cause dehydration of
C C OH H C OH monosaccharides to yield furfurals and, subse-
H C OH C OH C O quently, levulinic acid (Fig. III-18). Once again, the
dehydration reaction is not stoichiometric, and dif-
R R R ferent yields of furfurals and other products are ob-
tained from very similar carbohydrates under iden-
D-Glucose Common enol D-Fructose
tical conditions. Further, the yield of products is
strongly dependent on the nature and strength of
acid, temperature, and other variables. It is impor-
tant to bear these complexities in mind when using
H O one of many methods that utilize furfural forma-
C tion for quantitative analysis of carbohydrates. The
HO C H furfurals formed by acid dehydration from carbo-
hydrates react in acid with any one of a variety of
R phenols (phenol, orcinol, carbazole, anthrone, etc.)
D-Mannose or aromatic amines to give highly conjugated, col-
ored products. The amount of color formation is a
Figure III-17 Alkaline interconversion of glucose, function of the amount and nature of the carbo-
mannose, and fructose. hyrate being analyzed. Because the rate of furfural
176 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
H O H O
C C
H C OH –3H2O C O
C H
H C OH Acid CH O
O
H C OH CH Furfural
CH2OH CH
D-Ribose
H O H O
C C
H C OH C COOH
–3H2O 2H2O
HO C H CH CH2
Acid O
H C OH CH CH2 HCOOH
H C OH C C O
CH2OH CH2OH CH3
D-Glucose 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Levulinic acid
formation is so dependent on the nature of the car- shared by the borohydride reduction–acetylation
bohydrate and the reaction conditions, careful stan- procedure. The volatile derivatives are identified
dardization is required. and quantitated from the position and size of the
elution peak on the gas chromatogram. They may
Chromatographic Analysis of Carbohydrate Mix- also be analyzed by mass spectrometry when con-
tures. Much effort has been devoted in recent firmation of identity is needed.
years to devising methods for analyzing carbohy- A second method of analyzing unknown carbo-
drate mixtures quantitatively and qualitatively in a hydrate mixtures is ion-exchange chromatography
single process (as is done for amino acid analysis). of the monosaccharides as their borate complexes.
Four methods that offer most promise of this goal This method takes advantage of the fact that in al-
are described here. kaline solution, boric acid forms complexes with
Gas–liquid chromatography of trimethyl-silyl vicinal hydroxyl groups (Fig. III-20). The number
(TMS) or acetyl derivatives of monosaccharides, of and stability of the complexes that form on any
their methyl glycosides, or of their corresponding given monosaccharide are a function of the struc-
alditols (monosaccharides that have their carbonyl ture and conformation of the carbohydrate, espe-
function reduced to the corresponding alcohol) is cially the spatial orientations of adjacent hydroxyls.
the most widely used. Some sample reactions illus- Thus, the net negative charge of the borate com-
trating the formation of these derivatives are shown plexes of various carbohydrates is different. This al-
in Figure III-19. An advantage of methanolysis is lows for their separation on anion-exchange resins
that it simultaneously cleaves the glycosidic bonds and subsequent analysis by the colorimetric meth-
of a polysaccharide and forms the methyl glycoside ods already described.
derivatives. However, it suffers from the disadvan- High-pH anion-exchange chromatography
tage that a single monosaccharide may give as many (HPAEC) of monosaccharides and oligosaccharides
as four glycosidic derivatives (- and -pyranosides has been more recently developed as a useful ana-
and - and -furanosides), a disadvantage not lytical tool. At sufficiently alkaline pH (12 to 14)
SECTION III Introduction 177
METHANOLYSIS-TMS PROCEDURE O
(TMS)2N—CCF3
CH2OH CH2OH or CH2OTMS
anhydrous TMS—Cl
O O
O
H CH3OH H H H H
H 100 C, 3 hours H (CH3)3SiSi(CH3)3 H
OH H OH H OTMS
HCl H
O O
OH OCH3 TMSO OCH3
H OH H OH H OTMS
TMS derivative
of -Methyl-D-Glucose
the anomeric hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide Determination of Sequence and Linkage Iso-
loses its proton, and the carbohydrate acquires a merism of Polysaccharides. Structural character-
negative charge. The acidity of the anomeric hy- ization of polysaccharides is similar to protein char-
droxyl groups is a sensitive function of the struc- acterization in that it is frequently necessary to
ture of the monosaccharide from which it is formed, degrade polysaccharides into more easily charac-
so many mono- and oligosaccharides can be re- terized subunits (oligosaccharides). This approach
solved by gradient elution from an anion-exchange is, in fact, quite powerful, because very many poly-
column (see Experiment 2). When this chromato- saccharides are constructed of repeating or alter-
graphic separation is combined with pulsed amper- nating oligosaccharide sequences rather than a very
ometric detection, it provides a very sensitive long unique sequence. Fragmentation can be car-
method for analysis of the separated carbohydrates ried out by partial acid hydrolysis or by use of spe-
without derivatization or other chemical reactions. cific glycosidases. Enzymes are especially useful be-
A fourth method, analysis of sugar alcohols af- cause they are usually specific with respect to the
ter reduction by [3H]-NaBH4 and separation by pa- monosaccharide units (e.g., glucosamine vs. glu-
per chromatography, is described in detail in Ex- curonic acid), position of the bond (e.g., 1 n 4 vs.
periment 11. 1 n 6), and anomeric configuration ( vs. ) of the
C OH C O
H3BO3 B O 2H2O H
C OH C O
residues cleaved. Hence, cleavage yields structural reducing terminus was identified by mild oxidation
information about the nature of the linkage be- with hypoiodite, which converts the reducing ter-
tween the fragments, as well as releasing smaller minus to the corresponding sugar acid.)
fragments that can be analyzed further. In recent Recent advances in techniques for the determi-
years, the availability of highly purified recombi- nation of the structures of oligosaccharides by high-
nant endoglycosidases with well-characterized resolution mass spectroscopy make it likely that the
specificity for their sites of cleavage has provided a classic chemical techniques discussed above may be
very valuable set of tools for analyzing oligosac- largely replaced by mass spectroscopy. When suffi-
charide structure by enzymatic digestion. In addi- cient quantities of an oligosaccharide of unknown
tion to the high specificity of such enzymes, they structure are available, nuclear magnetic resonance
offer the advantage of cleavage under very mild (NMR) spectroscopy provides another valuable tool
conditions, eliminating the undesired side reactions for structure analysis.
that accompany chemical degradation. Two methods are generally used to determine
Determination of the structure of oligosaccha- the anomeric configuration of glycosidic linkages:
rides usually requires characterization of end cleavage by enzymes of known specificity and NMR
groups, especially the reducing terminus. The most spectroscopy. In the latter method, the chemical
common means to determine reducing termini is shift of the anomeric hydrogen and the coupling of
reduction by [3H]-NaBH4 followed by total hy- proton spins (spin – spin coupling) between the
drolysis of the oligosaccharide. Only the reducing anomeric hydrogen and the hydrogen on an adja-
terminal is converted to the corresponding sugar al- cent carbon allow the identification of configura-
cohol, which can be identified by paper or gas chro- tion.
matography (see Experiment 11). The nonreducing
termini are more difficult to identify, but are often
Chemistry of Biological Phosphate
revealed by methylation. Exhaustive methylation of
Compounds
oligosaccharides or polysaccharides (conversion of
all hydroxyl groups to the corresponding methyl The chemistry of phosphate esters and anhydrides
ethers), followed by hydrolysis and identification of is so central to biochemistry that the subject might
the constituent methyl sugars by chromatographic also be logically discussed in the sections on nucleic
methods is a general means of determining struc- acids, lipids and membranes, or intermediary me-
ture. Only those OH groups on anomeric carbons tabolism. However, because of the importance of
and the OH groups that participate in glycosidic sugar phosphates and their derivatives in Experi-
linkages will not be methylated (see Fig. III-21). ment 12, the subject is presented in this section.
(Note that in the example shown in Fig. III-21, the The background is important to more than Exper-
Figure III-21 Characterization of maltose by mild oxidation followed by exhaustive methylation and acetal
hydrolysis.
SECTION III Introduction 179
O O
H2O pKa1 1.9
R OH HO P OH R O P OH
OH OH H2PO4
O
HPO42
O HO P O CH2
O
HO P O CH2 O H OH H H
H pKa3 12.4
OH H H OH H
H OH OH OH
PO43
OH OH H OH
-Ribose-5-phosphate -Glucose-6-phosphate Figure III-26 Ionization of phosphoric acid as a
function of pH.
Figure III-23 Examples of biologically important
phosphomonoesters.
phosphoric acid and the “primary” and “secondary”
ionizations of phosphate esters. The ionization of
O O phosphodiesters accounts for the very acidic prop-
R O P O R R O P O R erties of nucleic acids. Knowledge of the ionization
of phosphate compounds and the consequent de-
OH O R pendence of net charge on pH are essential to the
A phosphodiester A phosphotriester use of ion-exchange chromatography and elec-
trophoresis for the separation of these compounds
Figure III-24 (see Experiments 4 and 12).
180 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
O CH2OH
O
R O P OH H H
H O O
OH OH H
(pKa 0.8–2.1) OH O P O P O ribose uracil
O H OH OH OH
R O P O Uridine diphosphoglucose
(UDPG)
OH
(pKa 5.9–6.8) O
O HO P O CH2 O H
O O
R O P O OH H H
H O P O P OH
O
OH OH OH OH
O Phosphoribosylpyrophosphate
(PRPP)
R O P O R
Figure III-28 An example of a phosphoacetal, Figure III-30 Acid anhydride bonds in pyrophos-
glucose-1-phosphate. phate and ATP.
SECTION III Introduction 181
O O O NH O
CH3 C O P OH HO C CH N C N P OH
OH CH3 H OH
Acetyl phosphate Phosphocreatine
O
H O O
C CH CH2 C CH O
R C C O P O ribose adenine
NH N N P OH
NH
3 OH C
Aminoacyl-AMP
OH
H
Figure III-31 Two biochemically important com- 3-Phosphohistidine
pounds that contain mixed anhy- (in protein linkage)
dride bonds.
Figure III-34 Examples of biologically important
phosphoramidates.
acids with elimination of water results in formation
of mixed anhydrides, which are important as inter-
mediates in biochemical reactions (Fig. III-31). alyze this posttranslational modification are called
The chemical properties of an enol phosphate es- protein kinases. They typically transfer the terminal
ter are quite different from simple phosphate esters. (
) phosphate group of ATP to a substrate protein
The only important example is the glycolytic in- or to a residue on their own polypeptide chain (au-
termediate, phosphoenolpyruvic acid (Fig. III-32). tophosphorylating kinases) to yield phosphoserine,
A final group of biologically important phos- phosphothreonine, phosphotyrosine, phosphohisti-
phate compounds is the phosphoramidates, which dine, or phosphoaspartate residues. Phosphoryla-
are characterized by the structure shown in Figure tion usually results in dramatic changes in the func-
III-33. Phosphocreatine, an important energy stor- tional properties of the target proteins, which are
age compound in muscle, and phosphohistidine, an often enzymes, receptors, or transcription factors.
intermediate in several enzyme reactions, are two Removal of phosphoryl groups may be catalyzed by
examples (Fig. III-34). separate phosphoprotein phosphatases or may be cat-
alyzed by the target proteins themselves. The com-
Phosphorylation of Proteins. Phosphorylation of bined action of protein kinases and phosphoprotein
proteins is a central element in a large number of phosphatases renders protein phosphorylation
biological regulatory processes. Enzymes that cat- highly reversible and susceptible to exquisitely sen-
sitive regulation. Hundreds of examples are now
known in which such processes play important roles
O
in metabolic regulation and cell biology. An exam-
C OH O ple is studied in Experiment 15.
C O P OH
Hydrolysis of Phosphate Compounds. From the
CH2 OH
point of view of the biochemist, the most impor-
tant single reaction undergone by phosphate com-
Figure III-32 Phosphoenolpyruvic acid.
pounds found in biological systems is hydrolysis. An
understanding of hydrolysis of phosphates is perti-
O H nent to the degradation and identification of com-
pounds containing such bonds. It also provides an
R O P N R
insight into the biological function of such mole-
OH cules.
Although all of the compounds described here
Figure III-33 A phosphoramidate. undergo hydrolysis with the release of inorganic
182 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
phosphate during treatment with strong acid or al- boring OH group participates in the hydrolysis of
kali at elevated temperatures, they differ markedly such compounds with intermediate formation of a
in their rates of hydrolysis under milder conditions, cyclic diester. The resultant phosphomonoester is
especially in dilute acid (0.l–l N, 20–100°C). These then generally very resistant to alkaline hydrolysis.
differences are often exploited for analysis or spe- The susceptibility of different types of phos-
cific degradation (see Experiment 12). Table III-1 phoprotein linkages to chemical cleavage is often
lists some examples from each class and compares used to diagnose the nature of the attachment of
their relative lability to acid hydrolysis. The com- phosphate to the protein in a case in which this is
pounds vary widely in their stability in mild acid. A unknown. For example, O-phosphorylserine and
useful generalization, based on the behavior of typ- O-phosphorylthreonine are very stable to acid, but
ical phosphate compounds in 1 N HCl at 100°C are very rapidly hydrolyzed at alkaline pH. The re-
for 7 min is that most phosphomonoesters and di- verse is true for most phosphoramidates (phos-
esters of alkyl alcohols are stable (no hydrolysis in phorylhistidine, phosphoryllysine, phosphorylargi-
7 min at 100°C), whereas (with a few exceptions) nine), which are extremely acid-labile, but relatively
members of the other classes are completely hy- stable to base. Acyl phosphates (phosphorylaspar-
drolyzed under these conditions. This principle tate, phosphorylglutamate), as noted above, are
serves as the basis for the assays of Experiment 12. quite labile to both acid and base. Finally, O-phos-
Most of the compounds under discussion are phoryltyrosine is extremely stable in alkaline. The
quite labile in acid, but with two important excep- phosphate of O-phosphoryltyrosine is not removed
tions they are resistant to mild alkaline hydrolysis by hydrolysis in 5 N KOH at 155°C for 30 min,
(0.1–1 N base, 25°C). One exception is the mixed conditions that hydryolyze all the other types of
anhydrides of phosphate and carboxylic acids, such phosphorylamino acid linkages.
as acetyl phosphate. They are very susceptible to The free energies of hydrolysis (phosphate group
alkaline cleavage or cleavage by nucleophiles such transfer potential) of the compounds in the classes
as hydroxylamine. The other relatively alkali-labile we have been discussing are important to their roles
phosphate compounds are phosphodiesters, in as phosphate donors and acceptors, and as carriers
which the phosphate is attached to one of two vic- of chemical energy in metabolism. Table III-2 lists
inal hydroxyl groups (as in RNA or derivatives of some of these free energies under standard condi-
phosphatidic acid). In these instances, the neigh- tions (pH 7, 25°C, 1 M reactants and products). A
Table III-1 Rates of Hydrolysis of Phosphate Compounds in Dilute Acid (100°C, 1 N acid)
Percent of Reaction
Hydrolysis Reaction t1/2 (time in minutes) in 7 min
H2O
3-Phosphoglyceric acid glyceric acid Pi 2140 000
H2O
Glucose-6-phosphate glucose Pi 1300 000
H2O
Fructose-1-phosphate fructose Pi 0002.8 070
H2O
Glucose-1-phosphate glucose Pi 00 01.05 100
H2O
Phosphoenolpyruate pyruvate Pi 0008.3 040
H2O
ATP ADP Pi 0008 (0.1 N acid) 100
H2O
Acetylphosphate acetate Pi 0 011 (0.5 N acid, 40°) 100
H2O
Phosphocreatine creatine Pi 0004 (0.5 N acid, 25°) 100
H2O
UDPG UDP glucose 0020 (0.1 N acid) 100
H2O
PRPP ribose-5-P PPi 0010 (pH 4, 65°) 100
SECTION III Introduction 183
Table III-2 Free Energy of Hydrolysis of readily soluble in water. This is generally the case,
Phosphate Compounds at pH 7, but there exists a rather heterogeneous class of bi-
25°C. (Most of these free energy ological molecules that are soluble in nonpolar
values are strongly dependent on solvents, such as benzene, ether, chloroform, or
pH and Mg2+ concentration.) slightly more polar solvents, such as methanol or
acetone. This class is called lipids. It is perhaps most
⌬F° of Hydrolysis useful to consider the lipids by their functions. A
(Phosphate Transfer major function of the triglycerides (fats and oils) is
Reaction Potential) kcal/mol
storage and transport of metabolic energy. Waxes,
H2O
Phosphoenolpyruvate 14.8 hydrocarbons, and fatty alcohols, the most nonpo-
pyruvate Pi lar lipids, function primarily in forming protective
Creatine phosphate
H2O
10.5 surfaces of plant and animal tissues, although waxes
creatine Pi are used in place of triglycerides as energy storage
H2O forms in some aquatic animals. The most impor-
Acetylphosphate acetate Pi 10.1
tant lipids are those that serve as structural com-
H2O
PRPP ribose-5-P PPi 8.2 ponents of biological membranes. All of the mem-
H2O bers of this group (phospholipids, glycolipids,
ATP ADP Pi 7.3
sphingolipids, and sterols—the latter two are usu-
H2O
UDPG UDP glucose 7.0 ally absent from bacterial membranes) are amphi-
H2 O pathic. That is, they possess a nonpolar tail, often
Glucose-1-P glucose Pi 5.0
containing long-chain fatty acyl groups, and a po-
H2 O
Glucose-6-P glucose Pi 3.3 lar head group. Considerable attention will be paid
H2O in this section to these lipids and their role in mem-
Fructose-1-P fructose Pi 3.1
brane structure and function. Finally, there is a
H2O
3-Phosphoglycerate 3.1 large group of lipids of relatively low molecular
glycerate Pi weight (steroids, terpenes, prostaglandins, and
quinones) that have diverse and very important
functions as hormones, vitamins, and photopig-
ments, as well as other more specialized roles. As
compound with a higher free energy of hydrolysis important as this group is, it will not be further dis-
can spontaneously transfer its phosphate group to cussed in this section. We will focus on lipids that
the conjugate acceptor of any phosphate compound are important in energy metabolism and membrane
with a lower free energy of hydrolysis under stan- formation.
dard conditions and in the presence of an appropri-
ate catalyst (enzyme). In this way, a table of group
transfer potentials is analogous to a table of redox Structure and Classification of Lipids
potentials; it can be used to predict the direction of
many reactions and to analyze the bioenergetics of Triacylglycerols and Related Simple Lipids. Tri-
metabolic sequences. There is a general coincidence acylglycerols (triglycerides)—that is, glycerylesters of
between the acid lability of these compounds and fatty acids (e.g., triolein and -palmitoyl-,-
their free energies of hydrolysis, but you should not diolein [Fig. III-35])—are by far the most abundant
be deceived. There is no predictable relationship be- lipids in higher plants and animals. These lipids ac-
tween the free energy change of a reaction and the cumulate in fatty depots and seeds as a storage form
rate at which that reaction will proceed. of food energy. Natural fats generally contain a va-
riety of fatty acids, and are best represented as
“mixed” fats, as in the case of 1-palmitoyl-2,3-
Lipids diolein in Fig. III-35. Diglycerides and monoglyc-
erides exist in various tissues, usually in small
Because the universal liquid milieu of living systems amounts. Diglycerides play an important role in the
is water, you might expect that the chemical com- biosynthesis of some of the more complex lipids and
ponents of cells would be polar substances that are in signal transduction in eukaryotic cells.
184 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
CH2O oleyl than their esters. The most abundant sterol is cho-
lesterol, which is found in the membranes of most
CH2O oleyl
animal cells (Fig. III-36). When cholesterol occurs
CH2O oleyl in the esterified forms, it usually is combined with
Tri-o -oleylglycerol
common fatty acids, such as palmitic, oleic, or
(triolein) linoleic acids. Plant sterols are occasionally esteri-
O fied with acids, such as acetic and cinnamic acids,
or are incorporated into glycosides (saponins). Cho-
Oleyl CH3(CH2)7 CH CH (CH2)7 C lesterol is the precursor to many important steroid
hormones that regulate metabolism and reproduc-
1 (or ) tion. Well-known examples include cortisol, aldos-
CH2O O palmityl terone, progesterone, testosterone, and estradiol
(see Fig. III-36), but there are many others.
oleyl O C H 2 (or )
3 (or ) CH2 O oleyl Glycerophosphatides. These lipids are mainly
1-o -palmityl-2,3-di-o -oleyl-L-glycerol
acyl derivatives of -glycerophosphoric acid and of-
(1-palmityl-2,3-diolein) ten are called “phospholipids.” The simplest glyc-
O erophosphatides are the phosphatidic acids, which
contain -glycerophosphoric acid esterified with
Palmityl CH3(CH2)14 C two fatty acids (Fig. III-37). Small quantities of
phosphatidic acids have been isolated from a wide
Figure III-35 Structures of two triglycerides. variety of plant and animal tissues. It is doubtful
that these compounds exist in large amounts in tis-
Sterols and Sterol Esters. The sterols are hy- sues, because more complex glycerophosphatides
droxylated derivatives of the cyclopentanoperhy- are readily hydrolyzed by enzymes that are widely
drophenanthrene (steroid) nucleus (Fig. III-36). All distributed in such tissues, yielding phosphatidic
sterols are capable of forming esters with fatty acids, acids. Phosphatidic acid is a crucial intermediate in
but in general, the free sterols are more abundant the biosynthesis of phospholipids.
CH2OH
C O
Side chain
CH3 CH3 OH
HO
CH3 CH3
HO O
Typical sterol Cortisol
OH
CH3 CH3
CH3
HO HO
Cholesterol Estradiol
O
O CH2 O C R
R C O CH O
CH2 O P O R
O
CH3
In phosphatidyl 3ⴕ-o -aminoacylglycerol
(lipamino acid)
In phosphatidyl ethanolamine
O
R CH2 CH2 NH
3
R CH2 CH CH2 O C CH NH
3
In phosphatidyl serine
OH R
O
R CH2 CH C
In cardiolipin
O
NH
3 H O
OH OH OH O O
R H H C O C R1
H H
H HO O
H OH
CH2O C R2
OH H
Figure III-38 Structures of various glycerophosphatides. The generic structure is shown at the top of the
figure, and the classes differ in the structure of the R group as shown.
186 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
O
Isolation, Separation, and Analysis of Lipids
CH2 O P O R
Solvent Extraction. The first step in the prepara-
O
tion of a lipid is extraction from the tissue. Since
lipids are defined by their solubility in organic sol-
Figure III-39 Structure of plasmalogens.
vents (see above), whereas proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates and most of the low-molecular-
the position. The R phosphomonoester group weight metabolites of the cell are generally water-
may be either choline or ethanolamine, although soluble, the isolation of lipids is, in principle, quite
ethanolamine usually predominates. In the struc- simple. Extraction of a biological sample with an
ture of a plasmalogen shown in Figure III-39, R is organic solvent that is immiscible with water, fol-
an aliphatic chain and R is choline or ethanol- lowed by separation of the phases should yield the
amine. lipid components in the organic phase. The vari-
ous classes of lipids can then be separated by the
Sphingolipids. The sphingolipids contain C18 hy- chromatographic techniques described below. Al-
droxyamino alcohols. Four such long-chain hy- though such procedures are subject to the poten-
droxyamino alcohols have been isolated from nat- tial complications listed below, they are satisfactory
ural lipids. Sphingosine and dihydrosphingosine are if you wish to analyze the “free” lipids in a cell type
typical of animal tissues. or tissue—that is, lipids that are not tightly associ-
For simplicity we will concentrate on sphingo- ated with proteins or oligosaccharides. The extrac-
sine, which is rarely seen in the free form, and its tion procedures can be modified by inclusion of de-
derivatives found in animal tissues. Sphingosine is tergents or high concentrations of inorganic salts
formed biosynthetically from palmitoyl coenzyme to disrupt noncovalent, but strong associations be-
A and serine (Fig. III-40). Attachment of a fatty acid tween lipids and proteins so that the lipids can be
to the amino group of sphingosine in amide link- extracted and analyzed. Lipids that are covalently at-
age yields the ceramides (Fig. III-40). The most tached to proteins or carbohydrates are not neces-
abundant sphingolipids are structures consisting of sarily extracted by such procedures, however, and
ceramides linked to a phosphate ester, as in the case specialized methods of separation must be devel-
of sphingomyelin or in glycosidic linkage to one or oped for each case.
more carbohydrate residues to form cerebrosides or In many cases, biological function is dependent
gangliosides (Fig. III-40). The linkage of the ce- on specific associations between proteins and lipids,
ramide to other residues always involves the termi- as in the case of serum lipoproteins and many in-
nal hydroxyl group of sphingosine. The fatty acid tegral membrane proteins, such as the enzymes of
components of the sphingolipids are usually satu- the electron transport chain, proteins involved in
rated with an unusually high proportion of long- transmembrane signaling, or proteins involved in
chain C24 acids such as lignoceric (n-tetracosanoic) the transport of ions and metabolites. Characteri-
and cerebronic (-hydroxylignoceric) acid. The zation of such proteins in their native state requires
carbohydrate component of brain cerebrosides is their isolation in complexes with lipids. Purification
galactose. Glucose is present in small amounts in procedures in such cases often require modifica-
spleen cerebrosides. Spleen also contains a disac- tions of the usual methods used for isolation of pro-
charide derivative made up of both glucose and teins (see the Introductory Chapter to Section II).
galactose (ceramide lactoside). Such modifications might include use of nonionic
The gangliosides, a more complicated group of detergents, differential centrifugal sedimentation,
ceramide oligosaccharides, contain (in addition to and chromatographic separations using lipophilic
galactose and glucose) both N-acetylgalactosamine materials. Harsh extraction of the lipid components
SECTION III Introduction 187
COO
CH3 (CH2)14 COO H
3N C H
CH2OH
CO2
CH3(CH2)12CH CH CH CH CH2
OH NH2 OH
Sphingosine
RCOO
H H
CH3(CH2)12CH CH C C CH2OH
OH NH
C O
R
A ceramide
O
CH3
Ceramide O Hexose Ceramide O P O CH2 CH2 N CH3
A cerebroside O CH3
Sphingomyelin
Ceramide O Glucose
Galactose
Hexosamine
from such complexes using organic solvents would 1. Lipid mixtures have remarkable ability to carry
allow their separation for analysis, but usually re- nonlipid materials into organic solvents, partly
sults in loss of biological activity and denaturation by way of ionic interactions. Thus, hexane ex-
of the protein components. tracts of blood serum contain urea, sodium
Even in the case of extraction of “free” lipids by chloride, and amino acids, and hexane extracts
organic solvents, the experimenter must be aware of soybeans contain the sugars raffinose and
of a number of potential problems. stachyose.
188 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
such molecules against a concentration gradient microscopy gives a visual indication of the size and
(active transport). Furthermore, the membrane is appearance of an isolated membrane preparation and
often the site of intense metabolic activity, particu- reveals contamination by organelles and other mate-
larly electron transport, oxidative and degradative rial. If the membrane fraction in question is known
reactions, biosynthesis of cell-surface components, to contain a specific chemical component or enzymic
and transformations of metabolic energy. Mem- activity (such as Na,K-ATPase or 5-nucleotidase
branes are also important sites of cell-cell and for animal plasma membranes, or succinic dehydro-
organelle-cell interactions, such as hormone-cell genase for mitochondrial membranes), assay for such
interactions, contact inhibition, neurotransmitter is a valuable criterion of membrane homogeneity.
action, recognition by the immune system and so Other criteria for identity of membranes include the
on. In addition to being a physical barrier, the mem- presence of specific antigens, the phospholipid:pro-
brane is also a site of intense biochemical activity. tein ratio, and the specific protein composition re-
Most of these activities require both protein and vealed by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel
lipid components of the membrane, as well as vary- electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
ing degrees of structural integrity of the membrane
or cell. To obtain a chemical and physical under-
Composition of Membranes
standing of membrane phenomena, it is necessary
to isolate membranes and study their composition The primary constituents of membranes are lipid
and structural arrangements. Ideally, you would re- and protein; carbohydrate residues are found in rel-
construct the phenomena of interest in isolated atively small amounts attached to members of both
membranes or reconstituted systems made from major classes. Any organism has fairly constant
membrane components. In some cases, this is dif- membrane composition, but membranes vary
ficult to carry out. An example of the study of bio- widely from organism to organism and among var-
chemical functions in isolated membrane fractions ious kinds of cells. For example, membranes vary
is the characterization of electron transport per- from 18% protein, 79% lipid, and 3% other com-
formed in Experiment 14. pounds in the myelin sheath, to 75% protein and
25% lipid in the cell membrane of gram-positive
bacteria. A “typical” figure would be about 60%
Isolation
protein and 40% lipid.
One of the major problems encountered when iso- The lipid composition of membranes can vary
lating membranes is that they usually do not occur in the same manner. Major components of prokary-
in sharply defined molecular sizes, so that differen- otic membrane lipids are phospholipids and gly-
tial centrifugation, while valuable, does not usually colipids; eukaryotic membrane lipids typically con-
yield homogeneous preparations. Isopycnic density tain these two classes and, in addition, sterols such
gradient centrifugation, which takes advantage of as cholesterol, and sphingolipids. Table III-3 gives
the generally low density of membranes or mem- the lipid content of some membranes from various
brane-rich organelles, is therefore an invaluable ad- sources. Table III-3 does not list some of the un-
junct to membrane isolation. When the membrane usual and less abundant lipids found in membranes,
of a specific organelle is under study, it is usually such as lipamino acids, glycolipids, and phos-
desirable to isolate the organelle before separating phatides containing unusual fatty acid residues.
the membrane. Contamination of plasma mem- The protein composition of a membrane is dif-
branes with cellular organelles and organelle mem- ficult to define precisely because proteins are bound
branes is a serious problem in membrane isolation. to the membrane with highly varying degrees of
The mammalian erythrocyte (red blood cell) is an avidity. Some proteins can be removed from a mem-
especially useful source of homogeneous plasma brane by fairly mild treatments, such as washing
membranes because these cells have no other or- with water or salt solutions. Such proteins are usu-
ganelles (see Experiment 13). ally referred to as peripheral membrane proteins. In
It is essential to have a set of criteria for assess- such cases, however, it may be difficult to say with
ing the purity of isolated membrane fractions. Two certainty whether the protein in question is really a
methods are most useful. Phase-contrast or electron “membrane protein” or merely happens to associ-
SECTION III Introduction 191
Animal Bacteria
Lipids
(given in percent Bacillus
of total lipid) Myelin Erythrocyte Mitochondria Microsome E. coli megaterium
Cholesterol 25 25 5 6 0 0
Phosphatides
Phosphatidylethanolamine 14 20 28 17 100 45
Phosphatidylserine 7 11 0 0 0 0
Phosphatidylcholine 11 23 48 64 0 0
Phosphatidylinositol 0 2 8 11 0 0
Phosphatidylglycerol 0 0 1 2 0 45
Cardiolipin 0 0 11 0 0 0
Sphingolipids
Sphingomyelin 6 18 0 0 0 0
Ceramide 1 0 0 0 0 0
Cerebrosides 25 0 0 0 0 0
Others 11 1 0 0 0 10
Source: Modified from Wold, F. (1971). Macromolecules: Structure and Function. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
ate with the membrane during isolation. Complete activity into the structural arrangement of lipids and
release of protein from membrane preparations re- proteins in membranes, the forces involved in form-
quires use of agents that disrupt the associations be- ing such structures, and the relation between mem-
tween lipids and proteins. Such procedures release brane structure and function. Our current view of
integral membrane proteins that are deeply embedded membrane structure is based primarily on physical
in the membrane or have one or more transmem- studies of natural membranes and of synthetic lipid
brane segments. Disruption of such protein associ- monomolecular and bimolecular layers. Amphi-
ations with membranes requires agents rarely used pathic molecules, particularly phospholipids, have a
in purifying soluble proteins, such as organic sol- strong tendency to self-associate and to form lay-
vents, chaotropic agents, and detergents. Many ered structures when they are dispersed into aque-
membrane proteins are soluble in such agents and ous medium. (Amphipathic molecules are mole-
may require them (or phospholipids) for activity. cules in which both highly polar, hydrophilic
Fractionation of membrane proteins follows con- elements and nonpolar, hydrophobic elements are
ventional procedures (see Section II introduction), joined in the same molecule.) Monomolecular lay-
except that inclusion of detergents is frequently nec- ers (monolayers) of amphipathic molecules tend to
essary. Analytical electrophoresis of membranes on form at air–water interfaces. Bilayers form across
polyacrylamide gels containing sodium dodecyl sul- an opening between two water-containing cham-
fate has proven to be a powerful tool. As we have bers. When a phospholipid is dispersed into water
discussed, many enzymes have been found to be as- by ultrasonic oscillation, the lipids spontaneously
sociated with membranes. Glycoproteins are par- form bilayered aggregates such as micelles and
ticularly abundant in animal-cell membranes, al- water-containing vesicles called “liposomes.” These
though they also occur in bacterial membranes. self-assembling systems provide models for study-
ing the interactions of amphipathic lipids (phos-
phatidylcholine is a commonly used lipid) in aque-
Structure
ous environments. Such bilayers are thought to be
The appreciation of the many important biological models for the simplest or most primitive mem-
functions of membranes has led to intense research brane structures (see Fig. III-43). The bilayer is
192 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
Air
CH3
CH2—CH2—+N—CH3
O CH3
—
O—P—O–
Polar head group Monolayer at water
(phosphate and surface, polar head
O
associated group of groups associate
CH2—CH—CH2 a glycerophosphatide) with polar water
O O
— C—O
— into n
C—O
p e rse solutio
i s
D eo u s
CH2 CH2
aqu
CH2 CH2
Intr Spherical micelle,
CH2 CH2 env oduce nonpolar tails
CH2 CH2 n baff ironm lipid associate away from
les e in
. Th nt be to aq polar water
CH2 CH2 en twe ue
pul e o
Symbol for such l ba n 2 d us
CH2 CH2 amphipathic lipid ffle ivid
sa i
molecules par ng
CH2 CH2 t.
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 Nonpolar tails
formed by
CH2 CH2 Synthetic
fatty acid chains
CH2 CH2 bilayer or
model membrane
CH3 CH2
CH2
Movable baffle
CH3
Figure III-43 Formation of micelles and monolayers by amphipathic lipid molecules in aqueous solution.
formed by hydrophobic interactions that lead to as- membrane. Flip-flop of phospholipids, or other
sociation of the nonpolar tails of the lipid molecule charged molecules, across the bilayer is unfavor-
and interaction of the polar heads with water. Pro- able because of the energy required to move a
teins are believed to associate with lipids in mem- charged or polar molecule through the hydro-
branes by hydrophobic interactions as well as in- phobic interior of the membrane. There is also
teractions with polar head groups, such as hydrogen abundant evidence that membranes are asymmet-
bonds and electrostatic attractions. Synthetic lipid ric; that is, they have “inside” and “outside” sur-
bilayer systems possess many of the physical prop- faces with different proteins and lipids found on
erties of natural membranes. each side.
The basic tenets of the fluid mosaic model of The relationship between the physical structure
membrane structure shown in Figure III-44 are of membranes and their biological function is not
widely accepted. The phospholipid bilayer is the yet well defined. Clearly, the interposition of a non-
basic structural feature of the membrane, and pro- polar layer between the spaces separated by a mem-
teins or multiprotein complexes are viewed as is- brane prevents translocation of polar biological
land embedded in a sea made up by the lipid bi- molecules, as a cell envelope must. Furthermore,
layer. Membranes are fluid in the sense that lipids the positioning of specific proteins at the surface of
and proteins can diffuse freely in the plane of the the membrane allows many specific “recognition”
SECTION III Introduction 193
sites to be presented to other cells, hormones, and ular architecture of these organelles at higher res-
metabolites inside and outside the cell. olutions, including NMR, electron paramagnetic
Studies have suggested that membrane proteins resonance, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Other
do not always undergo free diffusion in the mem- methods for obtaining images of membranes and
brane, and that they may be anchored by proteins membrane components are x-ray crystallography of
of the cytoskelton, by the extracellular matrix or in membrane proteins, Fourier analysis of electron
other ways. Also, membranes are not uniform in microscopic images, and atomic force microscopy.
their distribution of components, even on one side Methods for isolating native membrane compo-
of the bilayer. They contain many specialized re- nents in the functional state have also become much
gions or domains, such as clathrin-coated pits, more effective. Important phenomena at the cell
synapses in nerve cells, microvillae, and focal con- surface involve not only the cell membrane, but cell
tacts. The lipid and protein composition of the do- walls, capsular materials, and enzyme activities lo-
mains are distinct and have been associated with cated outside the membranes of gram-negative bac-
specialized biological functions of the membrane. teria (periplasmic proteins).
The use of artificial lipid membranes and iso-
lated membrane fragments and vesicles has been of
great value in the study of membrane function, par- REFERENCES
ticularly transport and membrane-bound enzyme
reactions. Current research in this area uses so- Barker, R. (1971). Organic Chemistry of Biological Com-
phisticated techniques for determining the molec- pounds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
194 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
Casey, P. J., and Buss, J. E. (eds.) (1995). Lipid Modifi- Lennarz, W. J., and Hart, G. W. (eds.) (1994). Guide
cation of Proteins. Methods Enzymol, 250. to Techniques in Glycobiology. Methods Enzymol,
Cummings, R. D., Merkle, R. A., and Stults, N. L. 230.
(1989). Separation and Analysis of Glycoprotein Kobata, A. (1992). Structures and Functions of the Sugar
Oligosaccharides. Methods Cell Biol 32:141. Chains of Glycoproteins. Eur J Biochem 209:483.
Fukuda, M., and Kobata, A. (1994). Glycobiology, A Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. chapters 11 and
Practical Approach. New York: Oxford University 18. W. H. New York: Freeman.
Press. Vance, D. E., and Vance, J. E. (eds.) (1985). Biochem-
Gennis, R. B. (1989). Biomembranes: Molecular Structure istry of Lipids and Membranes. Menlo Park, CA:
and Function. New York: Springer Verlag. Benjamin/Cummings.
Hardy, M. R., and Townsend, R. R. (1994). High-pH Varki, A. (1993). Biological Roles of Oligosaccharides:
Anion-Exchange Chromatography of Glycoprotein- All of the Theories Are Correct. Glycobiology 3:97.
Derived Carbohydrates. Methods Enzymol 230:208. Wold, F., and Moldave, K. (1984). Posttranslational
Hounsell, E. F. (ed.) (1998). Glycoanalysis Protocols. To- Modifications, Part B Methods Enzymol, 107:3–23;
towa, NJ: Humana Press. 23–26.
,A
EXPERIMENT 11
Microanalysis of Carbohydrate
Mixtures by Isotopic, Enzymatic,
and Colorimetric Methods
195
196 O H OH
3
C H C H
H C OH H C OH
3
4 HO C H NaB[ H]4 4 HO C H NaH2BO3
3
H C OH [ H] sodium borohydride H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-Glucose D-Glucitol
O H OH
3
C H C H
H C OH H C OH
4 NaB[3H]4 4 NaH2BO3
H C OH 3
H C OH
[ H] sodium borohydride
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-Ribose D-Ribitol
O H OH
3
C H C H
H C NH2 H C NH2
4 HO C H NaB[3H]4 4 HO C H NaH2BO3
3
H C OH [ H] sodium borohydride H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-Glucosamine D-Glucosaminitol
It is very important to perform this reaction uncapped 1. Whether the reduction reaction with NaB3H4
in a fume hood to prevent the room from filling with went to completion.
tritium gas. The mixture of tritiated sugar alcohols 2. How much of the total reaction mixture was
is then separated by paper chromatography on thin transferred to the chromatogram.
strips. These strips are divided into half-inch seg- 3. Which of the 3H-containing peaks on the chro-
ments and analyzed by liquid scintillation counting. matogram corresponds to glucitol, the product
The total counts per minute of 3H in each sugar al- of the reduction of glucose.
cohol peak can then be used to calculate the amount
of each carbohydrate present in the sample. If the reduction reaction was complete, there will
In addition to the tritium isotope present in the be a single 14C peak superimposed on the 3H-
sodium borohydride, the carbohydrate sample that glucitol peak. If the reduction was incomplete, there
you are given will also contain a small amount of will be an additional 14C peak that corresponds to
high specific activity 14C-glucose, which will serve unreduced 14C-glucose. The 14C-glucose internal
as an internal control or an internal standard for the control will also indicate what percent of the total
reaction. Inclusion of 14C-glucose in the reaction reaction was analyzed on the chromatogram. If
will allow you to verify three important parameters: the reaction contained 1 Ci of 14C-glucose, and
EXPERIMENT 11 Microanalysis of Carbohydrate Mixtures by Isotopic, Enzymatic, and Colorimetric Methods 197
0.25 Ci total are present on the chromatogram, ent in the sample (it will add identifiable counts to
then you know that only 25% of the sample was the reaction while contributing negligible mass).
analyzed. Finally, the 14C-glucose internal control
will allow you to identify the glucitol peak. Since
Elson–Morgan Determination
D-glucose is the only carbohydrate in the unknown
of Hexosamines
sample that is labeled with 14C, the glucitol peak
will be the only sugar alcohol peak that contains The most specific and frequently used assay to quan-
this isotope. It will be important to identify the glu- tify 2-deoxy-2-amino sugars employs the condensa-
citol peak, since the migration of all of the other tion of the carbohydrate with 2,4-pentanedione in ba-
sugar alcohols will be measured relative to glucitol sic solution. The product (a pyrrole derivative) is then
(an Rglucitol value will be calculated for each sugar reacted with p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde to form
alcohol). By using high specific activity 14C-glucose a chromogen that has a maximum absorbance at
as the internal control component, one can follow 530 nm (Fig. 11-2). Although both 6-deoxy-6-amino
the fate of D-glucose in the reaction without sig- and 3-deoxy-3-amino sugars can also be analyzed
nificantly affecting the total mass of glucose pres- using the Elson–Morgan reaction, the chromogens
O
O H
C CH3
C
H C NH2 O O N CH3
heat
HO C H CH3 C CH2 C CH3 H
H C OH
H C OH 2,4-pentanedione
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
D-Glucosamine
Glucosamine adduct
H
(pyrrole derivative)
H3C CH3 O
H3C
N
H C H
H3C
4-Dimethylaminobenzaldehyde
O
C CH3
H
N CH3
H
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
Chromogen (A530)
H O O
H H
C NH2 C NH2
O H O
N N
O O O O
C C O
H H H H
H C OH H H H C OH H H
HO C H OH OH HO C H OH OH
⌯
H C OH Glucose-6-phosphate H C OH
O P O O P O
NH2 dehydrogenase NH2
2. Obtain a 0.5-ml microcentrifuge tube con- carbohydrate sample is radioactive. Wear gloves and
taining 5 l of 14C-glucose. The reduction reac- safety goggles at all times when handling the sam-
tion will be done in this tube, so label it with your ple. Be sure that all radioactive waste is disposed of
name. properly.
3. Add 5 l of your unknown carbohydrate solu- 8. Apply a 2-l aliquot of the sample on the ori-
tion to this tube and mix thoroughly. gin and allow the sample to dry. Repeat this
4. Bring this reaction tube to the instructor, who procedure until a total of 8 l of the sample has
will add 5 l of NaB3H4. Mix all components been applied. Successive 2-l aliquots should
thoroughly. be spotted on top of one another to give a sin-
5. Incubate the reaction in a 50°C oven for gle, 8-l sample at the origin.
30 min. During this incubation, you may pro- 9. Using a soft lead pencil, label the strip at the
ceed with the “Enzymatic Determination of end opposite the origin with your name.
Glucose,” below. 10. Place the strip at the top of the descending chro-
6. In the fume hood, add 10 l of 0.75 N H2SO4 to matography tank so that the origin is just above
the reaction. Mix thoroughly and allow the re- the level of the mobile phase (Fig. 11-4). The
action to stand for 30 min uncapped in the fume mobile phase for this experiment is ethyl ac-
hood to remove all 3H2 gas. etate:acetic acid:formic acid:water (18314).
7. Obtain a strip of Whatman 3 MM chromatog- Allow the chromatogram to develop for 18 to
raphy paper (1 in. by 22 in). Draw a line with 20 hr.
a soft lead pencil about 7 cm from one end of 11. When the development is complete, remove
the strip. This line will mark the origin where the strip from the chromatography tank and al-
the sample will be spotted. Keep in mind that the low it to air dry in the fume hood.
Supporting rods
Solvent front
Paper
Equilibration solvent
in chamber
Enzymatic Determination of Glucose 2. Set up eight 4-ml glass vials containing the fol-
lowing:
1. Dilute your unknown carbohydrate sample
120 with distilled water to give a total of 40 l Volume of Volume
of dilute carbohydrate solution. This diluted 0.5 mol/ml of Dilute
Glucosamine Carbohydrate Volume of
sample will be used in the following assay.
Vial Standard (l) Solution (l) Water (l)
2. Set up the following reactions in two 1.5-ml
microcentrifuge tubes: 1 — — 500
2 050 — 450
Volume of Volume of Diluted 3 100 — 400
Glucose Carbohydrate Volume of
4 150 — 350
Tube Reagent (ml) Solution (l) Water (l)
5 250 — 250
1 1.0 — 20 6 — 050 450
2 1.0 20 — 7 — 150 350
8 — 250 250
determine the number of micromoles of glu- g. Calculate the Rglucitol values for the other 3H
cosamine present in these vials. sugar alcohol peaks on the chromatogram:
12. Taking into account the dilution of the original
unknown carbohydrate sample and the volume Rglucitol
distance from 3H peak to the origin (cm)
of this diluted sample present in vials 6 to 8, de-
termine the concentration of glucosamine in the distance from glucitol peak to the origin (cm)
original unknown carbohydrate solution. Ex- Using this mobile phase for development,
press the concentration in units of micromoles Rglucitol values for the various compounds
per milliliter and milligrams per milliliter. are typically:
Ribitol 1.4
Analysis of Paper Chromatogram Glucose 0.85
Glucosaminitol 0.3
1. Using a soft lead pencil, mark off half-inch
segments on the chromatography strip, start- Which sugar alcohols can you identify on
ing from the origin and extending to the end your chromatogram? Was the reduction re-
of the strip. As before, remember that the chro- action with sodium borohydride complete?
matogram is radioactive. Wear gloves and safety Explain.
glasses at all times. h. Determine the true number of 3H cpm and
2. Cut along each line with a scissors and place 14
C cpm in the glucitol peak:
the half-inch segments into scintillation vials
3
labeled 1 to 30 (with 1 corresponding to the H cpm (channel 1 cpm) (channel 1/
segment nearest the origin). Be sure that the channel 2 ratio) (channel 2 cpm)
segments are placed in the vials in the correct 14
C cpm (channel 2 cpm) (channel 1/
order so that you will be able to identify each channel 2 ratio) (channel 2 cpm)
peak by its Rglucitol value.
3. Fill each scintillation vial with enough scintil- The channel 1/channel 2 ratio is a value that
lation fluid to completely cover each paper seg- will be provided by the instructor. It is a cor-
ment. rection factor that takes into account the fact
4. Place the vials (in order) into a scintillation that some 14C counts per minute were
counter rack and count each vial in the 3H counted in channel 1. The instructor deter-
channel (channel 1) and the 14C over 3H chan- mined this ratio by scintillation counting of
nel (channel 2). Consult the instructor for the a sample containing a known number of 14C
proper scintillation counter channel settings. disintegrations per minute in channel 1 and
5. Data analysis channel 2 under conditions identical to your
experiment. Refer to Section I, Experiment 3
a. Identify the segment that has the lowest cpm
for further discussion of the channel ratio method
value for channel 1 (3H, background counts
of quantifying radioactivity.
per minute for channel 1).
b. Subtract this value from all other channel 1 i. Calculate the number of micromoles of glu-
cpm values for the segments. cose, ribose, and glucosamine in your car-
c. Identify the segment that has the lowest cpm bohydrate sample:
value for channel 2 (14C, background cpm
Micromoles of sugar
for channel 2).
(3H cpm in peak)(mol sugar/3H cpm)
d. Subtract this value from all other channel 2
fraction recovered
cpm values for the segments.
e. Prepare a plot of 14C counts per minute ver- where
sus segment number and a plot of 3H counts
per minute versus segment number. Fraction recovered
f. Identify the glucitol peak, which is (are) the total 14C cpm in glucitol peak
segment(s) with 14C and 3H cpm. total 14C cpm in the reaction
EXPERIMENT 11 Microanalysis of Carbohydrate Mixtures by Isotopic, Enzymatic, and Colorimetric Methods 203
EXPERIMENT 12
Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic
Formation from Starch and
Chemical Characterization
205
206 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
phosphorylase
other sugar phosphate esters (such as glucose-6- total phosphate is greater than 1, the results may
phosphate) ordinarily require longer heating times indicate the presence of phosphate-containing con-
or more concentrated acid for complete hydroly- taminants. Second, it is necessary to distinguish be-
sis. The inorganic phosphate released by acid hy- tween the known isomers of glucose phosphate.
drolysis is measured by the colorimetric method of This step is particularly pertinent in this experi-
Fiske and Subbarow, which is specific for inorganic ment because we know that glucose-1-phosphate
phosphate; that is, inorganic phosphate can be an- may be converted to glucose-6-phosphate by the
alyzed with no interference from organic phos- enzyme phosphoglucomutase, another enzyme
phate compounds such as phosphate esters or phos- present in the crude potato extracts used for syn-
phoacetals that may also be present in the solution. thesis of glucose-1-phosphate from starch.
Hence, the increase in inorganic phosphate after The characterization of glucose-1-phosphate is
7-min hydrolysis of a sample (compared to an un- based on the relative stability of various sugar phos-
hydrolyzed sample) is a measure of the phospho- phates in acid solution. Because sugar phosphoac-
acetal content of the sample. Stability of various etals are nonreducing sugars, they release equal
other biologically important phosphate compounds amounts of reducing sugar and phosphate on 7-min
to acid hydrolysis has been discussed in the Sec- hydrolysis in 1 N acid at 100°C. In contrast, glu-
tion III introduction. The color developed in the cose-6-phosphate and other phosphate esters re-
Fiske – Subbarow reaction is dependent on the for- quire more concentrated acid or more prolonged
mation of a phosphomolybdic acid complex, which heating for complete hydrolysis. Therefore, it is
forms an intense blue color when reduced by a mix- possible to characterize glucose-1-phosphate by
ture of bisulfite and p-methylaminophenol. (Note qualitative (chromatographic) and quantitative
that a variant of this assay is used in Experiment analysis of materials present before and after 7-min
13.) hydrolysis. It is also possible to estimate the purity
It is necessary to establish both the identity and of the product by careful evaluation of the results.
purity of the newly isolated glucose-1-phosphate. Chromatographic characterization of sugar
In this experiment, the first step consists of show- phosphates can be achieved by two different meth-
ing that the product presumed to be glucose-1- ods. First, you can usually detect the sugar portion
phosphate is, in fact, composed of equal quantities of sugar phosphates by using sugar-specific
of glucose and phosphate. If the ratio of glucose to reagents, such as the aniline–acid–oxalate spray
EXPERIMENT 12 Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic Formation from Starch and Chemical Characterization 207
to 100 ml of vigorously boiling H2O, and stir temperature in your desk. During the incuba-
continuously with a glass rod until the solution tion period (24–48 hr), the reaction mixture
is nearly clear. The solution may be cloudy, but will turn red and then dark blue or purple be-
should not be milky. Further heating may be cause of the action of tyrosinases present in the
required to dissolve the starch, but avoid pro- crude extract that catalyze melanin formation
longed heating. Add 100 ml of cold H2O, stir- from proteins. These colored materials will be
ring continuously, to help cool the solution to removed during later procedures.
room temperature. Do not add the enzyme until 6. Prepare the IR-45 column for use on Day 3 as
the solution has cooled to room temperature because follows: Prepare a column about 4 cm in di-
high temperatures inactivate the enzyme. Step ameter and 20 to 30 cm long using a rubber
2 can be conducted while the solution is cool- stopper, screw clamp, and glass wool plug (Fig.
ing. 12-2). Before assembling the column, rinse all
2. Prepare a 500-ml filter flask to receive the parts thoroughly with distilled H2O. Insert the
potato extract by pouring 250 ml of H2O into rubber stopper tightly at the bottom, and tape
it and marking the position of the top of the the edges to prevent leaks. Fill the column
fluid in the filtration reservoir with a felt-tipped about one-third full with H2O, and insert the
pen. Pour out the H2O. Suspend about 100 mg glass wool plug, pushing it gently down to the
of phenylmercuric nitrate in a few milliliters rubber stopper at the bottom. Mix 250 ml of
of H2O and pour it into the filter flask.
Phenylmercuric nitrate is added to inhibit
other enzymes and to prevent bacterial growth
during the incubation of potato phosphorylase
with starch.
3. When the starch solution prepared in step 1
has cooled, add the solution (250 ml) to 250 ml
of 0.8 M phosphate buffer in a 1-liter Erlen-
meyer flask.
4. Cut a fresh, medium-sized potato (precooled
for 24 hr at l to 5°C; you need not peel the
potato, but it should be washed to remove dirt
and dust) into half-inch cubes. Blend 150 g of
these cubes, added over a 30-sec period, with
150 ml of H2O for 2 min in a blender. Then
quickly pour the resultant slurry onto a Buch-
ner funnel lined with two to four layers of
cheesecloth, and filter with vacuum, collecting
the filtrate in the filter flask you prepared in
step 2. Wash the crude pulp with 50 ml of H2O
to ensure thorough enzyme extraction; that is,
add the water to the pulp, stir the mixture, and
pass the mixture through the filter as before.
Failure to complete these operations within 2 min
of blending may result in loss of enzyme activity.
Adjust the extract to a volume of 250 ml with
H2O.
5. Immediately add the 250 ml of enzyme solution
(potato filtrate) to 500 ml of the solution of
starch plus phosphate buffer prepared in step
3. Record the total volume, and store the solu-
tion in a stoppered Erlenmeyer flask at room Figure 12-2 Anion-exchange column.
EXPERIMENT 12 Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic Formation from Starch and Chemical Characterization 209
H2O with 250 ml of moist IR-45 (OH) (pre- 4. Collect the filtrate and record its volume. Re-
pared by the instructor), and pour the resultant move duplicate 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5 ml sam-
slurry into the column so that there are no air ples of the filtered solution for the inorganic
pockets in the settled resin. For best results, phosphate and 7-min phosphate assays de-
pour the slurry of resin completely into the col- scribed in steps 5 through 9. Place these du-
umn before allowing the resin to settle. Then, plicate samples in small, labeled glass test tubes.
wash the resin with H2O until the effluent is NOTE: Most laboratory detergents contain
about pH 9 or lower (use a pH meter). Drain large amounts of phosphate, which may con-
or pipette off the excess fluid until the fluid sur- taminate your glassware. All tubes used in
face just covers the top of the resin bed. Cover phosphate analyses should be thoroughly
the surface of the resin with a layer of glass cleaned with a sodium dodecyl sulfate deter-
wool and cover the top of the column with gent that does not contain phosphate and
Parafilm. The column can stand at room tem- rinsed with deionized water.
perature until use on Day 3, but be sure that it 5. Assay for inorganic phosphate and glucose-1-
does not leak. phosphate:
In the Fiske–Subbarow colorimetric
method for the determination of phosphate, the
Day 2: Precipitation of Pi, Cation Exchange
color yield is directly proportional to the amount of
with Dowex 50, and Initial Glucose-1-
inorganic phosphate only when the sample analyzed
Phosphate Assays
contains between 0.1 and 1.0 mol of phosphate.
1. After 24 to 48 hr of incubation, stop the enzy- The efficiency of the enzymatic formation of
matic reaction by rapidly heating the potato ex- glucose-1-phosphate on Day 1 will vary some-
tract/starch solution to 95°C and then slowly what depending on the sources of the enzyme
cooling it to room temperature over a 30-min and the starch, as well as the length of the in-
period or longer. If possible, come to the labora- cubation period. Accordingly, the sample sizes
tory 4 to 6 hr before the usual laboratory period to suggested may not lie within the range in which
carry out the heating, so that the solution will slowly the assay is valid. In this event, use the results
cool before the next step. Rapid cooling of this so- you obtained to decide on several different
lution (e.g., in an ice bath) may cause the resid- sample sizes to analyze until you find at least
ual starch to form a gel and should be avoided. one that falls within the accurate range of the
2. Remove the coagulated protein by centrifuging assay. For example, if the suggested sample
the fluid in large (300 ml) bottles at room tem- sizes gave too little color for accurate mea-
perature for 15 min at 4000 g. Decant the surement, use larger sample sizes in the next
supernatant fluid into a large beaker. analysis. In this experiment, as in all isolation
3. Remove the excess inorganic phosphate from procedures, you must obtain an accurate mea-
the solution by dissolving 0.2 mol of magne- surement of the amount of the desired com-
sium acetate (44 g of Mg(OAc)2 ⭈ 4 H2O) in the pound in each fraction. Therefore, you will
solution and adjusting the pH to 8.5 with 14% need to determine and use appropriate aliquot
NH4OH (use pH paper first, then a pH meter; ranges for analysis before proceeding to the
about 25 to 30 ml of 14% NH4OH will be re- next steps in the experiment. Further, you must
quired, but avoid adding excess NH4OH). Cool keep accurate records of aliquot sizes and pro-
the solution in a salted ice bath for 10 min, and tocols in order to evaluate your data correctly.
remove the precipitated magnesium ammo- 6. Carry out the 7-min hydrolysis on one of the
nium phosphate by suction filtration. Use set of duplicate samples of the magnesium am-
Whatman No. 1 filter paper covered with a thin monium phosphate supernatant fluid from step
layer of Celite filter aid. If filtration is very slow, 4 by adding an equal volume of 2 N HCl to
use more than one Buchner funnel or change each and heating at 100°C for 7 min. That is,
the filter as frequently as needed. Filter the so- set up tubes 1 through 4, which contain 0.05, 0.1,
lution a second time using two layers of What- 0.2, and 0.5 ml of the supernatant fluid, re-
man No. 1 filter paper. spectively. Add 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5 ml 2 N
210 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
HCl, respectively, to tubes 1 through 4. Place fluid from step 4. How do the different deter-
the tubes in a boiling water bath for exactly minations agree? Which determinations are
7 min. Remove the tubes, cool them in cold most reliable? Why?
water, and add 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5 ml of 2 N In subsequent phosphate analyses on Days 3
NaOH, respectively, to tubes 1 through 4. It is and 4, you should prepare a fresh standard curve
important that the solutions be nearly neutral; according to step 8 along with the samples be-
use pH paper to check them. Bring the volume ing analyzed for that day’s experimental work.
in each tube to 3 ml by adding 2.85, 2.7, 2.4, 10. If the phosphate assay reveals that an excess of
and 1.5 ml of H2O, respectively, to tubes 1 inorganic phosphate is still present in the in-
through 4. cubation filtrate (i.e., if an intense blue color
7. Prepare the other (unhydrolyzed) set of dupli- forms in the unhydrolyzed 0.1 ml sample), add
cate samples of the magnesium ammonium 1 g of Mg(OAc)2 ⭈ 4 H2O, adjust to pH 8.5 with
phosphate supernatant fluid from step 4 by 14% ammonia, cool the solution, and filter it
bringing their volumes to 3.0 ml with H2O. again. Then repeat the phosphate assays. (Step
That is, set up tubes 5 through 8, which contain 10 is not usually necessary.)
0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5 ml of the supernatant 11. Calculate the number of micromoles of Pi and
fluid, respectively. Add 2.95, 2.9, 2.8, and 2.5 ml 7-min phosphate in the entire volume of fil-
of H2O, respectively to tubes 5 through 8. tered solution. If the inorganic phosphate (in
8. Prepare a phosphate standard curve and blank the unhydrolyzed sample) in the filtrate is less
as follows. Set up tubes 9 through 15, which con- than 15% of the phosphate found after 7-min
tain 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 ml of the hydrolysis, you may proceed with the rest of
1 mM (1 mol/ml) inorganic phosphate stan- the experiment. (NOTE: When students are
dard, respectively. Add 3.0, 2.9, 2.8., 2.6, 2.4, working in pairs, some instructors prefer to
2.2, and 2.0 ml of H2O, respectively, to tubes have one student proceed directly with steps 12
9 through 15. through 14 while the other student conducts
9. Add, in order, 1 ml of acid molybdate reagent, the assays of steps 5 through 9. This assumes
1 ml of reducing reagent (3% NaHSO3, l% p- that the magnesium ammonium phosphate pre-
methylaminophenol), and 5 ml of H2O to all cipitation effectively removes most of the in-
of tubes 1 through 15. Mix all of the solutions organic phosphate from your preparation, as
by inverting the tubes, and allow the color to occurs in most (but not all) cases. Consult your
develop for 20 min before reading the ab- instructor.)
sorbance at 660 nm using the solution in tube 9 12. Decolorize the solution of glucose-1-phos-
as the blank. Calculate the quantity of inorganic phate (separated from excess inorganic phos-
phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate in each phate) by stirring 2 g of charcoal into the so-
sample and in the entire reaction mixture as fol- lution and then removing the charcoal by
lows. Prepare a standard curve that plots ab- vacuum filtration using filter aid. This proce-
sorbance at 660 nm versus number of micro- dure should yield a clear or yellowish solution
moles of Pi based on the data obtained from containing glucose-1-phosphate, unreacted
tubes 10 through 15. From the absorbance at starch, and many salts that were present either
660 nm of your hydrolyzed and unhydrolyzed in the original potato extract or in the reagents
samples, determine the number of micromoles added during the course of the experiment.
of Pi and the concentration of glucose-1-phos- 13. Remove the cations by treatment with Dowex
phate in your original sample. Remember that 50 in the following manner: Add 350 ml of
the number of micromoles of glucose-1-phosphate in moist Dowex 50 in the H⫹ form (prepared by
the sample is equal to the total Pi found in the 7- the instructor) to the decolorized solution and
min hydrolyzed sample minus the number of mi- stir gently for 5 min before separating by vac-
cromoles of Pi found in the unhydrolyzed sample of uum filtration. Do not use filter aid when remov-
the same volume. You have made these determi- ing the Dowex; use only Whatman filter paper.
nations in four different volumes of the mag- 14. Determine the pH of the filtrate produced in
nesium ammonium phosphate supernatant step 13. If the pH of the filtrate is not acidic
EXPERIMENT 12 Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic Formation from Starch and Chemical Characterization 211
(pH 1 to 3), add 100 ml of moist Dowex 50 in 2. Collect the entire effluent in one fraction, de-
the H form, then stir and filter the solution termine its volume, and assay duplicate 0.5-ml
as before. Repeat this procedure until the pH samples for inorganic phosphate and 7-min
of the solution is between 1 and 3. Record the phosphate as described for tubes 4 and 8 under
volume of the resultant solution, and remove steps 5 to 9 of Day 2.
duplicate 0.05-, 0.1-, 0.2-, and 0.5-ml samples. 3. If appreciable 7-min phosphate appears (30%
Place these samples in four small, phosphate- of total glucose-1-phosphate present in the
free, labeled glass test tubes. Dowex 50 filtrate), and if time permits, add an
15. Assay the samples from the Dowex supernatant additional 50 g of IR-45 resin to the column,
solution for inorganic phosphate and 7-min and pass the effluent through the column again.
phosphate exactly as described under steps 5 to 4. After the original solution has passed into the
9. If necessary, the remaining solution from column and the effluent has been satisfactorily
step 14 may now be stored at 0 to 5°C for sev- freed of the 7-min phosphate (i.e., glucose-1-
eral days. There may be small losses of glucose- phosphate should have bound to the column),
1-phosphate during storage in acidic solution, wash the column with deionized H2O until the
but these are minimized at 0 to 5°C. Alterna- effluent no longer gives a positive test for starch
tively, if time is sufficient, proceed directly to (i.e., a blue color forms on mixing a drop of ef-
the protocol for Day 3. fluent with a drop of 0.01 M I2 in 0.01 M KI).
16. At the end of the period return the Dowex to About 500 ml of water will be required to re-
the container provided by your instructor. move all of the starch from the column.
( NOTE: Do not allow the Dowex to become mixed 5. To elute the glucose-1-phosphate from the
with the Amberlite resin used in Day 3.) resin, pass 5% KOH (Remember: KOH is caustic
and can cause painful skin burns) through the col-
umn, adjusting the flow rate to 20 ml/min. Col-
Day 3: Isolation of Glucose-1-Phosphate by lect separate, successive 100 ml fractions in clean
Anion Exchange 250 ml Erlenmyer flasks. Continue collecting
fractions for about 500 ml after the pH of the
The next step in the purification procedure is the
effluent becomes markedly alkaline (pH 11 to
column chromatography of the Dowex 50 filtrate on
13) as observed with pH paper. (The usual to-
Amberlite IR-45 in the OH form. This involves
tal volume of all fractions equals 700800 ml.)
removing the anions in the acidic solution from all
6. Test 0.1-ml samples from each 100-ml fraction
other contaminating materials. Thus, when the
for 7-min phosphate as described for tube 2 un-
acidic filtrate (pH 1 to 3) contacts the IR-45 in OH
der steps 5 to 9 of Day 2. Some fractions may
form, the glucose-1-phosphate (G-1-P1) is elec-
require smaller samples to fall within the lin-
trostatically adsorbed on the resin, whereas un-ion-
ear range of the standard curve, but 0.1-ml
ized materials in the solution (such as acetic acid
samples will serve to find the “peak” for glu-
from Mg(OAc)2 and unreacted starch) pass through
cose-1-phosphate. It is not necessary to repeat
the column. When the resin is eluted with strong al-
analyses for samples that give too much color to fall
kali (5% KOH), the adhering anions, including glu-
on the standard curve.
cose-1-phosphate, are displaced by the excess OH
7. Combine the fractions containing 80 to 90%
ions and are obtained in the eluate from the column.
of the recovered glucose-1-phosphate, and ad-
1. To cause adsorption of the glucose-1-phosphate just the solution to pH 8 (or higher) by adding
by the IR-45, gently pour the acidic solution a few drops of 5% KOH, if necessary. Do not
treated with Dowex 50 (steps 13 and 14 of the add KOH if the pH is already above 8. Determine
protocol for Day 2) onto the column, avoiding the volume of the combined KOH effluent
the introduction of air bubbles into the resin bed. (glucose-1-phosphate “peak”) fractions. Save
Open the screw clamp and adjust the flow rate duplicate 0.05-, 0.1-, 0.2-, and 0.5-ml samples
to about 15 ml/min. Pass the entire solution for inorganic phosphate and 7-min phosphate
through the IR-45 resin without permitting air analysis in clean, phosphate-free, labeled small
to enter the column. glass test tubes.
212 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
8. Add 3 volumes of absolute methanol to the phorylase reaction had reached equilibrium.
combined fractions, and leave them at 0 to 5°C The quantity of starch is altered only slightly
for at least 12 hr for crystallization of the during the incubation; therefore, the starch
dipotassium glucose-1-phosphate dihydrate. In concentrations in the numerator and denom-
this temperature range, this compound will re- inator are roughly equivalent and cancel out.
main stable indefinitely. Use the following equilibrium constant for
9. Collect the crystals by centrifugation, after your calculation:
pouring off the bulk of the clear supernatant
fluid. A clinical centrifuge or refrigerated lab-
glucose-1-phosphate
oratory centrifuge at low speed may be used. Keq ⫽ ⫽ 0.088
inorganic phosphate
Wash the crystals with 5 ml of absolute ethanol
and centrifuge again. Then dry the crystals in
a tared container in a vacuum desiccator over Remember that the initial concentration of in-
P2O5 at 5°C. Weigh the crystals to determine organic phosphate (0.8 M ⫻ 250 ml/750 ml ⫽
the final yield of glucose-1-phosphate and save 0.267 M) has been decreased at equilibrium by
them for analysis on Day 4 of this experiment. the amount of glucose-1-phosphate formed.
It will save much time on Day 4 if you return to Compare your yield (glucose-1-phosphate
the laboratory and carry out step 9 on the day pre- found in the MgNH4PO4 supernatant fluid)
ceding the experiments of Day 4. with the theoretical yield expected. Suggest
reasons for any discrepancy between your re-
sults and the theoretical value calculated from
Report of Results for Days 1 through 3
the phosphorylase equilibrium constant.
1. Prepare a flow sheet of the steps in the isolation
procedure, indicating the purpose of each step.
Day 4: Chemical Characterization of the
2. Prepare a table (see Table 12-1) showing the
Isolated Glucose-1-Phosphate
percentage of the glucose-1-phosphate recov-
ered at each step in the procedure. Account for You should begin this day’s experiments by prepar-
any poor recoveries. ing tubes 1 through 6 and Tubes 1⬘ through 5⬘ as
3. Prepare a graph of the elution pattern of the described in steps 1 through 6 below. Then you
glucose-1-phosphate from IR-45, plotting mi- should prepare the chromatograms and start their
cromoles of glucose-1-phosphate/100 ml as the development (steps 7 and 8). Next you should per-
ordinate and the milliters of effluent as the ab- form the phosphate and reducing sugar analyses as
scissa. described in steps 12 and 13. Finally, spray the de-
4. Calculate the maximal yield of glucose-1- veloped chromatograms to detect the separated
phosphate that would be expected if the phos- products (steps 9 through 11).
mol Total
Vol of of 7-min mol of 7-min Percent
Step Solution Phosphate/ml Phosphate Recovered
*Assume that the crystals are dipotassium glucose-1-phosphate dihydrate (MW ⫽ 372).
EXPERIMENT 12 Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic Formation from Starch and Chemical Characterization 213
1. You will evaluate your sample of isolated heating with Mg(NO3)2. Cool the tubes, neu-
glucose-1-phosphate for purity by determin- tralize with 1 ml of 1 N NaOH, and analyze
ing the following quantities (tubes with prime for inorganic phosphate as with the other tubes
values are duplicates). Instructions for prepar- (step 13).
ing these tubes follow the list below. 6. Add 2 ml of H2O to tubes 1, 1
, 3, and 3
and
save them for the assay of unhydrolyzed prod-
a. Reducing sugar equivalents before 7-min
uct (steps 12 and 13).
hydrolysis (tubes 1 and 1
)
7. Prepare two identical chromatograms using
b. Reducing sugar equivalents after 7-min hy-
Whatman No. 1 paper squares, 20 cm on a side,
drolysis (tubes 2 and 2
)
which carry the following spots, 5 to 7 mm in
c. Inorganic phosphate present before 7-min
diameter, spotted at 1-in. intervals on a line
hydrolysis (tubes 3 and 3
)
drawn lightly with a pencil 1 in. from the bot-
d. Inorganic phosphate present after 7-min hy-
tom of the paper:
drolysis (tubes 4 and 4
)
e. Phosphate present after total hydrolysis 20 l of the hydrolyzed material (from tube 6)
(tubes 5 and 5
) 10 l of 1% glucose-1-phosphate standard
f. Chromatographic characterization after 7- 10 l of 1% glucose-6-phosphate standard
min hydrolysis (tube 6) 20 l of the isolated, suspected glucose-1-phosphate
(from step 2)
2. Weigh out a 20- to 40-mg sample of your iso- 10 l of 1% glucose standard
lated glucose-1-phosphate with an analytical 20 l of 1% inorganic phosphate standard
balance, determining the weight of the sample
to the nearest milligram, and dissolve the sam- Keep the spots small by spotting about 3 l at
ple in 10 ml of H2O. Place 0.1-ml samples of a time and allowing drying of the spots between
this solution in each of 10 small glass tubes, applications.
which should be numbered tubes 1, 1
, 2, 2
, 3, 8. Develop each chromatogram in ascending fash-
3
, 4, 4
, 5, and 5
. Save the remaining solution ion (see Fig. 6-8, Experiment 6), using freshly
for chromatographic characterization (step 7, mixed solvent, which consists of 80 ml absolute
below). methanol, 15 ml 88% formic acid, and 5 ml
3. To another tube (tube 6), add 0.1 ml of a sep- H2O. (If time permits, you can improve the
arately prepared 10 mg/ml solution of your iso- separation by suspending the chromatogram in
lated glucose-1-phosphate and add 0.1 ml 2 N the chromatography jar with a fine wire for 2 hr
HCl. before allowing the paper to dip into the sol-
4. Add 1.0 ml of 1 N HCl to tubes 2, 2
, 4, and vent.) Since the chromatography requires about
4
. Heat them for 7 min in a boiling water bath; 3 hr for development, you should carry out steps 12
then cool them at once in a beaker of cold wa- and 13 during this time and complete Steps 9
ter. Finally, neutralize the contents by adding through 11 afterward.
1 ml of 1 N NaOH to each of the tubes. At the 9. When the chromatograms have developed, dry
same time as tubes 2, 2
, 4, and 4
are heated, them, and spray one of them with aniline–acid–
heat tube 6 at 100°C, but do not add additional oxalate spray to detect sugars. Spray the chro-
HCl or NaOH to this tube. Cool tube 6 with matogram with the reagent until it is fully
the other tubes and save the contents for chro- dampened, but avoid excessive application of
matographic analysis (step 7 below). the spray, as this may cause diffusion of the
5. Add 1 drop of 10% Mg(NO3)2 in ethanol to spots on the paper. Heat the paper at 100 to
tubes 5 and 5
. Cautiously evaporate the fluid 105°C for 5 to 15 min to develop the colored
to dryness over a flame until brown fumes dis- spots. Note that this spray reagent requires re-
appear and only a white ash remains in the ducing sugars to develop color. Explain how it
tubes. Cool these two tubes, then add 1.0 ml can be used to detect glucose-1-phosphate,
1 N HCl to each and heat them in a boiling which is not a reducing sugar.
water bath for 15 min to hydrolyze any py- 10. Subject the other dried chromatogram to one
rophosphates that may have formed during the of the following phosphate-detection proce-
214 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
dures. Either the modified Hanes–Ischerwood that 100- and 200-l samples from tubes 1 and
procedure or the iron-sulfosalicylic acid com- 2 should be assayed, and equivalent volumes of
plex method may be used to detect organic H2O should be added to the analysis of the glu-
phosphate compounds on chromatograms. cose standard. In calculating the amount of glu-
cose determined, remember that the final vol-
a. Modified Hanes–Ischerwood Spray Procedure.
ume in the assay will be 1.1 or 1.2 ml.) Analyze
Spray the chromatogram lightly with freshly
tubes 1 and 1⬘ (untreated) and tubes 2 and 2⬘
prepared modified Hanes–Isherwood reagent
(hydrolyzed 7 min) for their reducing sugar
(25 ml 4% (NH4)6Mo7O24 ⭈ 4 H2O, 10 ml 1
content as follows: Prepare a blank sample con-
N HCl, 5 ml 70% perchloric acid, 60 ml
taining 2 ml of H2O and standards containing
H2O). Dry the paper in a 100°C oven for a
0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mol of glucose in
few minutes, but do not allow the paper to
2-ml final volume (i.e., 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and
darken. The paper will become fragile, so
0.8 ml of a 1.0 mM glucose standard plus 1.9,
handle it very carefully. Irradiate the paper
1.8, 1.6, 1.4, and 1.2 ml of H2O, respectively).
with a UV lamp held at a distance of 10 cm
Mix 0.5 ml of Nelson’s reagent B with 12.5 ml
for 1 to 10 min. Phosphate-containing com-
of Nelson’s reagent A. Add 1 ml of the com-
pounds will appear as blue spots on a light
bined reagent to each tube (i.e., the blank, the
background.
five standards, and tubes 1, 1⬘, 2, and 2⬘). Place
the tubes simultaneously in a vigorously boil-
ing water bath (500-ml beaker or larger), and
UV will damage eyes: wear glasses and avoid di-
heat for exactly 20 min. Remove the tubes si-
rect irradiation.
multaneously and place them in a beaker of
cold water to cool. When the tubes are cool
b. Iron–Sulfosalicylic Acid Detection of Phosphates. (25°C), add 1 ml of arsenomolybdate reagent
Dip the chromatogram paper containing to each and shake well occasionally during a
more than 0.05 mol phosphate per spot in 5 min period to dissolve the precipitated Cu2O
a bath of acidic FeCl3 in acetone and im- and to reduce the arsenomolybdate. Dilute the
mediately hang it up in a fume hood to dry. contents of each tube to a final volume of 10
When dry, dip the paper in 1.25% sulfosal- ml with H2O. Read the absorbance of all of the
icylic acid in acetone and again immediately solutions at 540 nm. Calculate the number of
hang it up in a fume hood to dry. Organic micromoles of glucose-reducing equivalents in
phosphates and inorganic phosphate appear tubes 1, 1⬘, 2, and 2⬘ from your glucose stan-
on the dry chromatogram as white spots in dard curve.
a red-brown field. 13. Determination of Inorganic Phosphate. Using the
11. Determine the Rf values for the various stan- modified Fiske–Subbarow method as described
dard and experimental spots on both chro- above, assay the following for inorganic phos-
matograms and record them in a table. What phate: tubes 3 and 3⬘ (no hydrolysis), tubes 4
conclusions can you draw from your observa- and 4⬘ (7-min hydrolysis), tubes 5 and 5⬘ (total
tions? hydrolysis), five standards (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and
12. Nelson’s Test for Equivalents of Reducing Sugar. 0.9 ml of 1.0 mM standard phosphate plus 1.9,
(NOTE: A simple and specific alternative 1.7, 1.5, 1.3, and 1.1 ml H2O, respectively), and
method to assay the glucose present in tubes 1, a 2.0-ml H2O blank. Add 1 ml of acid molyb-
1⬘, 2, and 2⬘ is the enzymatic assay for glucose date reagent and 1 ml of reducing reagent to
described in Experiment 11. This assay is spe- all of the tubes, and bring the final volume of
cific for glucose (i.e., will not detect glucose-6- each tube to 10 ml with H2O. Allow them to
phosphate or other reducing sugars) and is op- stand for 20 min, then read the absorbance of
timal in the range from 0.01 to 0.10 mol of each solution at 660 nm against the blank. De-
glucose. If you choose this option, follow the termine the number of micromoles of inor-
steps in the section on “Enzymatic Determi- ganic phosphate in tubes 3, 3⬘, 4, 4⬘, 5, and 5⬘
nation of Glucose” in Experiment 11, except from your standard curve.
EXPERIMENT 12 Glucose-1-Phosphate: Enzymatic Formation from Starch and Chemical Characterization 215
Report of Results for Day 4 3. Determine the extent of hydration of your iso-
lated compound by performing the following
1. Prepare a table similar to Table 12-2. From the
operations:
weight of isolated glucose-1-phosphate dis-
solved in H2O for analysis, calculate the theo- a. Calculate the percentage of 7-min phospho-
retical values for micromoles per milliliter re- rus (not phosphate) in your sample (e.g., mi-
ducing equivalents and inorganic phosphate in crograms of phosphorus per 100-g sam-
each sample, assuming a molecular weight of ple), assuming that the sample is pure.
372 and 100% purity. Then, determine the ob- b. Calculate the expected percentage of 7-min
served values from your analyses in steps 12 phosphorus from dipotassium glucose-1-
and 13. In all cases, report the values as mi- phosphate (no water of hydration).
cromoles per milliliter of the original glucose- c. Calculate the expected percentage of 7-min
1-phosphate solution analyzed. phosphorus from dipotassium glucose-1-
2. From the analysis of tubes 3 and 3⬘ in step 13, phosphate dihydrate.
determine how many micromoles per milli- d. Compare your value for the percentage of
liter of inorganic phosphate contaminate your phosphorus (a) with the two theoretical val-
sample. How many micromoles per milliliter ues (b and c), and decide which formula best
of glucose-6-phosphate contaminate your fits your data. Comment on the reliability
sample? (You have two independent determina- of your conclusion.
tions of this value. What are they? Hint: One
4. Weigh and label the remaining glucose-1-
determination uses the determinations with
phosphate, and turn it in to the instructor.
tubes 1 and 1⬘ in step 12, and the other re-
quires you to compare the determinations in
tubes 4 and 4⬘ to those of tubes 5 and 5⬘ in Exercises
step 13.) What do you assume in using these
values as assays for glucose-6-phosphate? Do 1. Consider the following set of data for inorganic
the two determinations agree? If not, suggest phosphate determinations on unhydrolyzed
possible reasons why not. (Note that if you and 7-min hydrolyzed aliquots taken from a
used the enzymatic determination of glucose, 700-ml volume of the MgNH4PO4 supernatant
you have only a single determination of glu- obtained in this experiment.
cose-6-phosphate. Explain why.) Do your
chromatographic results agree with the con- Absorbance at 660 nm
EXPERIMENT 13
217
218 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
gives the erythrocyte its distinctive and unusual bi- hormones, affects membrane fluidity, and consti-
concave (disklike) shape. tutes a major component of bile salts. In this ex-
The majority of this matrix is composed of a pro- periment, you will quantify the amount of choles-
tein called spectrin, a heterodimeric protein con- terol (a sterol) using a coupled enzymatic assay
taining a 220-kDa ␣ subunit and a similar but slightly containing cholesterol esterase, cholesterol oxidase,
larger  subunit. The highly repetitive amino acid peroxidase, and a chromophore that absorbs light
sequences of both the ␣ and  subunits give them a at 500 nm in the oxidized form (see Fig. 13-2).
filamentous three-dimensional structure. As the ␣ Phospholipids, a second class of lipids, are
and  subunits of spectrin associate with one an- the major components of the lipid bilayer of
other, they form the flexible monomeric units that biological membranes. In this experiment, you
are used to create the membrane skeleton. will separate and identify phosphatidylcholine,
Two additional peripheral membrane proteins phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and
anchor the spectrin filaments to the cytoplasmic phosphatidylinositol using thin-layer chromatogra-
side of the erythrocyte membrane. One of these phy. Cholesterol and sphingomyelin (a sphingolipid)
polypeptides, the 210-kDa ankyrin protein, binds will also be identified in this part of the experiment.
both a single spectrin molecule and the chloride– In addition, you will quantify the amount of total
bicarbonate anion-exchange protein discussed pre- phospholipid present in the erythrocyte membrane
viously. The second of these polypeptides, actin, is using a colorimetric assay that produces a reduced
capable of binding several molecules of spectrin. phosphomolybdate complex that absorbs light at
Since actin is able to associate with more than a sin- 660 nm (see Fig. 13-3). Note the relationship be-
gle spectrin monomer, it acts as a branch point for tween the phosphate assay and the Folin–Ciocalteau
the spectrin protein as the membrane skeleton or protein assay (Experiment 1). What is the reducing
matrix is assembled (see Fig. 13-1). In this experi- agent in each case? What is the limiting reagent in
ment, you will determine the concentration of to- each assay? A flow diagram for this three-period ex-
tal protein in the erythrocyte membrane through periment is presented in Figure 13-4 to help guide
the use of the Folin–Ciocalteau assay. you through the experiment.
Lipids account for about 40% of the total mass
of the typical mammalian cell membrane. One class Supplies and Reagents
of lipids, the sterols, acts as the precursor to steroid
Pig blood (if you do not have access to blood from this
source, out of date whole human blood from a
Chloride–bicarbonate Outside blood bank can also be used)
exchange proteins Isotonic phosphate buffer (310 mM sodium phosphate)
Hypotonic phosphate buffer (20 mM sodium phosphate)
250-ml plastic centrifuge bottles
30- to 50-ml plastic centrifuge tubes with screw caps
P-20, P-200, and P-1000 Pipetmen with disposable tips
Plasma
15-ml plastic conical tubes with screw caps
membrane
Microcentrifuge tubes
Ankyrin
Heparin sulfate
Spectrin Pasteur pipettes
Reagents for Folin–Ciocalteau protein assay:
Junctional complex 2% sodium tartrate solution
(actin) 1% CuSO4 ⭈ 5 H2O solution
Inside 2% Na2CO3 in 0.1 N NaOH
Folin–Ciocalteau Reagent (2 N)
Lysozyme solution (1 mg/ml) in water
Figure 13-1 The membrane skeleton of erythro- 4-ml glass vials with Teflon-lined screw caps
cytes. Chloroform
EXPERIMENT 13 Isolation and Characterization of Erythrocyte Membranes 219
CH3
CH3 cholesterol
H2O
esterase
O
O
C
R
Cholesterol ester
CH3
O
CH3
R C OH
HO
Cholesterol Fatty acid
CH3
CH3 cholesterol
O2
oxidase
HO
Cholesterol
CH3
CH3
H2O2
O
Cholest-4-ene-3-one
OH
CH3 CH3
N O peroxidase
N O
2 H2O2 N N HSO3 4 H2O
p -Hydroxybenzenesulfonate
O
Quinoneimine dye A500
O
O H2C O C R O H2C OH
Perchloric acid
R C O CH O 2 R C OH PO42 HC OH X
(160⬚C)
H2C O P O X Fatty acids H2C OH Head group
Glycerol
O
Phospholipid
Erythrocytes (5 ml)
Lipids
Figure 13-4 Flow diagram for erythrocyte membrane isolation and characterization.
portion of the pig blood can be centrifuged at 4°C for several days. DO NOT FREEZE THE
400 g for 10 min to obtain the plasma (no CELLS AT THIS POINT. Each 30 ml suspen-
phosphate buffer added). sion of erythrocytes (obtained from 180 ml of whole
2. Add 32 ml of isotonic phosphate buffer to a blood) will be enough material for six groups of stu-
number of 250-ml plastic centrifuge bottles. dents to perform the experiment. We always collect
Add 180 ml of whole pig blood to each bottle, extra blood (3 liters total) in case problems arise in
cap, and invert several times to mix. the preparation of the erythrocytes.
3. Centrifuge at 1000 g for 10 min. Using a 7. Add 5 ml of the erythrocyte suspension to 25 ml
Pasteur pipette, carefully remove the plasma of hypotonic phosphate buffer in a 50-ml plastic
and “buffy coat” from the pelleted red blood centrifuge tube. Cap the tube and invert several
cells. times to mix (do not use a Vortex mixer).
4. Gently resuspend the erythrocyte pellet from 8. Centrifuge at 20,000 g for 40 min. The
each bottle in 120 ml of isotonic phosphate membrane pellet at the bottom of the tube will
buffer. Centrifuge at 1000 g for 10 min and be dark red in color and loosely packed. Care-
again remove the supernatant. fully remove the supernatant (hemoglobin, cy-
5. Repeat step 4 one more time. toplasmic contaminants) with a Pasteur pipette.
6. Resuspend the red blood cell pellet from each 9. Gently resuspend the membrane pellet in the
centrifuge bottle in isotonic buffer to a final centrifuge tube in 25 ml of hypotonic phos-
volume of 30 ml. If these erythrocytes are pre- phate buffer. Mix well by inversion and cen-
pared in advance, they can be stored on ice at trifuge at 20,000 g for 20 min. Carefully
222 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
remove and discard the supernatant above the transfer any of the denatured protein layer (white
membrane pellet with a Pasteur pipette. precipitate) to these glass vials.
10. Repeat step 9 two more times. Note the change 7. Evaporate the combined chloroform phase
in color of both the membrane pellet and the containing the erythrocyte membrane lipids to
supernatant with each wash. dryness by passing a stream of N2 over the top
11. After the last wash step, remove as much of the of the vial in a fume hood (see Experiment 6,
supernatant as possible and gently agitate the “Sequence Determination of a Dipeptide” Fig.
tube to resuspend the loosely packed, milky- 6-7).
looking membrane pellet in the residual buffer 8. When the lipids have been dried completely,
at the bottom of the tube. At this point, you weigh the vial again and determine the mass of
should have 2 to 4 ml of concentrated mem- lipid that you have extracted from the erythro-
brane solution. Transfer this solution to a 15- cyte membrane. Record the mass of lipids in your
ml plastic conical tube with a screw cap. Label notebook.
the tube with your name and record the exact 9. Based on the mass of lipid present in 1.6 ml of
volume of the membrane solution in your note- the membrane solution, determine the number
book. This membrane solution can be stored of milligrams of lipid present in the entire ery-
at 4°C. throcyte membrane solution (determined in
step 11 of “Isolation of Erythrocyte Mem-
branes”).
Lipid Extraction
10. Resuspend your dried lipids in 1 ml of chloro-
1. Transfer 0.8 ml of the membrane suspension form. Cap the vial tightly (chloroform is very
into two separate 15-ml plastic conical tubes volatile), label it with your name, and store it
with screw caps. Avoid polystyrene and any other at room temperature.
types of plastics that are not compatible with this sol-
vent. Add 3 ml of chloroform:methanol (12)
to each tube. Cap and swirl each tube vigor- Day 2: Thin-Layer Chromatography of
ously with a Vortex mixer for 30 sec. Lipids, Quantitative Cholesterol Assay,
2. Add 1 ml of chloroform to each tube, cap the Folin–Ciocalteau Assay, and Preparation
tube, and swirl vigorously for 30 sec. for Phosphate Assay
3. Add 1 ml of water to each tube, cap the tube,
and swirl vigorously for 30 sec.
Thin-Layer Chromatography of Lipids
4. Separate the methanol:water phase (top) from
the chloroform phase (bottom) in each tube by 1. Obtain a silica-gel thin-layer chromatography
centrifugation at low speed (500 g, 5 min) plate that has been activated in a 100°C oven
in a tabletop centrifuge. You will see a small for 5 to 10 min. On either side of the plate,
disk of white precipitate (denatured protein) at make a small scratch in the silica matrix about
the interface between these two phases. If this 2 cm from the bottom of the plate. This will
disk extends down too far into the chloroform mark the position of the origin, along which
layer (more than halfway into the chloroform the samples will be spotted. Do not mark on
phase), add 0.1 ml of 0.1 M HCl, mix, and re- the plate with pencil.
peat the last low-speed centrifugation step. 2. Remove 0.3 ml of your extracted lipids in chlo-
5. Remove as much of the upper methanol:water roform prepared on Day 1 and place in a 1.5-
phase as possible with a Pasteur pipette and dis- ml microcentrifuge tube. Dry the sample un-
card. der a stream of N2 and resuspend the lipids in
6. With a clean Pasteur pipette, carefully punc- 40 l of chloroform.
ture through the denatured protein disk and re- 3. Using your P-20 Pipetman or a thin capillary
move the chloroform layer at the bottom of tube, apply a total of 10 l of this lipid solu-
each tube. Transfer the chloroform layer from tion on the origin. Keep the area of application
both tubes to a single, preweighed 4-ml glass vial small by repeated spotting and drying of 2-l
with a Teflon-lined screw cap. Take care not to aliquots. Try to keep each sample spot as con-
EXPERIMENT 13 Isolation and Characterization of Erythrocyte Membranes 223
centrated as possible. This will give you a much 9. Measure the Rf values of the lipid standards:
less diffuse lipid sample following develop-
Distance traveled by sample spot (cm)
ment, which will make the identification of the Rf ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ
Distance traveled by solvent front (cm)
different phospholipids much easier.
4. Using the same technique, spot 10 l of each Based on the Rf values of the lipids present in
of the lipid standard solutions in chloroform your sample, what lipids appear to be present
(phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, in the erythrocyte membrane? Based on the
phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinosi- size and intensity of the spots present in your
tol, cholesterol, and sphingomyelin) on differ- sample compared to those of the lipid stan-
ent positions along the origin. Spot an addi- dards, which lipid(s) are most abundant in the
tional 20 l of your extracted lipid sample using pig erythrocyte membrane?
the same technique (in case the concentration
of lipid in your prepared sample is low). Quantitative Cholesterol Assay
5. When all the spots have dried, place the plate
(origin side toward the bottom) in an ascend- 1. Set up the reactions described in the table be-
ing chromatography tank containing 1 cm of low in 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes: The ex-
mobile-phase solvent on the bottom of the tracted lipids that are currently dissolved in chloro-
chamber. The mobile phase for this experiment form cannot be used directly in this assay, since the
is chloroform:methanol:acetic acid:water chloroform will denature the enzymes that will even-
(251541). Be sure that the mobile phase is tually produce a colored product (see Fig. 13-1). To
in contact with the plate, but that the origin prepare the lipids in your sample for this assay, add
along which your samples are spotted lies above the indicated volume of lipids in CHCl3 to tubes 4
the level of the mobile phase (See Fig. 6-8). and 5, dry them under a stream of N2, and resus-
While your thin-layer chromatography plate is de- pend each sample in 10 l of isopropanol. The stan-
veloping, you may complete the quantitative choles- dard cholesterol solutions (tubes 1–3) can be used di-
terol assay and the Folin–Ciocalteau protein assay. rectly in this assay by adding the indicated volumes
6. Allow the mobile phase to travel through (up) to the appropriate tubes. (See chart below.)
the stationary phase until the solvent front is 2. Incubate the tubes at room temperature for
about 1 in. from the top of the plate (1.5– 15 min.
2.0 hr). Remove the plate from the tank, mark 3. Read the absorbance of the solution in each
the position of the solvent front with a pencil, tube at 500 nm within 30 min of the comple-
and allow the plate to air dry in the fume hood tion of the 15-min incubation. Use the
for about 5 min. solution in the blank tube to zero your
7. Place the plate in a sealed chamber saturated spectrophotometer at 500 nm. Record the ab-
with I2 vapor and incubate for 5 min. The I2 will sorbance values in your notebook.
react with unsaturated carbon bonds present in the 4. Prepare a standard curve by plotting A500 ver-
lipids and produce yellow spots on the plate. sus milligrams of cholesterol for tubes 1 to 3.
8. Remove the plate from the I2 chamber and cir- 5. Based on the absorbance readings of tubes 4
cle the position of the spots with a pencil (the and 5 at 500 nm, determine the mass of cho-
yellow spots will disappear in about 1 hr). lesterol (in milligrams) present in these tubes.
Water 100 l 90 l 90 l 90 l 90 l 90 l
1 mg/ml cholesterol std. — 10 l — — — —
2 mg/ml cholesterol std. — — 10 l — — —
4 mg/ml cholesterol std. — — — 10 l — —
Lipids (in CHCl3) — — — — 20 l 100 l
Cholesterol reagent 1.00 ml 1.00 ml 1.00 ml 1.00 ml 1.00 ml 1.00 ml
224 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
6. Based on the volume of lipid sample (in 6. Read the absorbance of the solution in each
CHCl3) present in tubes 4 and 5, determine tube at 500 nm. Record the absorbance values in
the concentration of cholesterol present in your notebook. Use the solution in tube 1 (blank)
your lipid sample in units of milligrams per to zero your spectrophotometer at 500 nm.
milliliter. 7. Prepare a standard curve by plotting A500 ver-
7. Using the molecular weight of cholesterol sus milligrams of protein for tubes 2 to 6.
(386.7), calculate the concentration of choles- 8. Determine which of tubes 7 to 9 gave an A500
terol in your entire membrane sample in units that lies in the linear portion of the standard
of micromoles per milliliter. curve. What mass of protein (in milligrams) is
indicated by its position on the standard curve?
9. Based on the volume of the membrane solution
Folin–Ciocalteau Assay to Determine present in tubes 7 to 9 (remember the dilution
Membrane Protein Concentration at the beginning of the assay), calculate the con-
centration of protein present in the membrane
1. Dilute your membrane solution prepared on Day
solution in units of milligrams per milliliter.
1 (not the extracted lipid solution) by adding
10. Based on the total volume of the entire mem-
0.2 ml of the membrane solution to 0.8 ml of
brane solution isolated on Day 1, how many
hypotonic phosphate buffer. This diluted ery-
milligrams of protein are present in the total
throcyte membrane solution will be used in the
membrane fraction?
Folin–Ciocalteau assay described below.
11. Using the total mass of lipid in the membrane
2. Set up the following reactions in 16 125-mm
solution (calculated at the end of Day 1), what
glass test tubes:
is the mass ratio of protein to lipid in the ery-
throcyte membrane?
Volume of Volume of Volume of
Hypotonic 1 mg/ml Lysozyme Diluted Membrane
Tube Buffer (ml) Solution (l) Solution (l)
Preparation for Phosphate Assay
1 1.20 — —
2 1.18 20 — The glass vials used in this part of the experiment should
3 1.15 50 — be cleaned with a 0.5% solution of sodium dodecyl sul-
4 1.10 100 — fate (SDS), since many commercially available deter-
5 1.00 200 — gents contain a significant concentration of phosphate.
6 0.90 300 — 1. Transfer 20 l, 50 l, and 100 l of your ex-
7 1.15 — 50 tracted lipid sample in CHCl3 to three 4-ml
8 1.10 — 100 glass vials with Teflon-lined screw caps. Trans-
9 0.90 — 300 fer 0.30 ml of a 1 mol/ml phosphate standard
solution to a fourth 4-ml glass vial.
2. Dry each of the samples under a stream of N2
3. Separately prepare 100 ml of fresh alkaline cop- in the fume hood.
per reagent by mixing, in order, 1 ml of 1% 3. Add 0.5 ml of 70% perchloric acid to each vial
CuSO4 5H2O and 1 ml of 2% sodium tartrate and resuspend each of the dried lipid samples
into 98 ml of 2% Na2CO3 in 1 N NaOH. with gentle agitation.
4. Add 6 ml of this alkaline copper reagent to 4. Cap the vials tightly with a Teflon-lined screw
each of the nine tubes and mix immediately cap and incubate in a 160°C oven or heat block
after each addition to avoid precipitation. In- overnight (12 hr). After cooling to room tem-
cubate the tubes at room temperature for perature, these solutions will be used on
10 min. Day 3. The 1 mol/ml phosphate solution in per-
5. Add (and immediately mix in) 0.3 ml of Folin– chloric acid does not have to be heated overnight.
Ciocalteau reagent to each of the nine tubes. This standard solution can simply be stored at room
Incubate for 30 min at room temperature. temperature for use on Day 3.
EXPERIMENT 13 Isolation and Characterization of Erythrocyte Membranes 225
Bennett, V. (1985). The Membrane Skeleton of Human Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
Erythrocytes and Its Implications for More Com- Vol. 3.) New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co.
plex Cells. Annu Rev Biochem 54:273. Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
Dittmer, J. C., and Wells, M. A. (1969). Quantitative (1993). Lipids. In: Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed.
and Qualitative Analysis of Lipids and Lipid Com- New York: Worth.
ponents. Methods Enzymol 14:482. Op den Kamp, J. A. F. (1979). Lipid Asymmetry in
Garrett, R. H., and Grisham, C. M. (1995). Lipids and Membranes. Annu Rev Biochem 48:47.
Membranes. In: Biochemistry. Orlando, FL: Saunders. Skipski, V. P., and Barclay, M. (1969). Thin-Layer
Gurr, M. I., and Harwood, J. L. (1990). Lipid Biochem- Chromatography of Lipids. Methods Enzymol
istry. An Introduction, 4th ed. London: Chapman & 14:530.
Hall. Stryer, L. (1995). Membrane Structure and Dynamics.
Kates, M. (1986). Techniques of Lipidology: Isolation, In: Biochemistry, 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
Analysis, and Identification, 2nd ed. (Laboratory
. v
EXPERIMENT 14
Electron Transport
Here AH2 represents the reduced substrate, A is the This final reaction accounts for most of the known
oxidized (dehydrogenated) substrate, B is the oxi- oxygen consumption by aerobic organisms. The
dized carrier and BH2 is the reduced carrier. That is, cascade of redox reactions that couples the oxida-
the oxidation of the substrate A is coupled with the tion of organic substrates to reduction of molecu-
reduction of electron carrier B (Equation 14-3). lar oxygen in biological systems is called electron
transport, and is often presented schematically as
(14-3) shown in Figure 14-1. When substrates are oxidized
AH2 B 88n A BH2 by such a system, the rate and extent of substrate
oxidation is directly dependent on, and can be mea-
Several electron carriers are found in nature; the sured by, the decrease in concentration of molecu-
most important examples include pyridine nu- lar oxygen, as will be done in this experiment.
227
228 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
2H 2H 1
AH2 B CH2 D Fe2 Fe3 Fe2 –O
2 2
The general features of electron transport are order of the steps in electron transport and the rates
similar throughout nature. The processes take place of individual steps in the electron transport chain.
in highly structured environments within the cell This has been a particularly useful approach in an-
membranes of bacteria and within specialized sub- alyzing the cytochrome components of the chain.
cellular particles—the mitochondria—of higher Small differences in the heme structures of differ-
plants and animals. The electron carrier molecules ent cytochromes, together with major differences
are also similar throughout nature: the diphospho- in their protein components, create characteristic
pyridine nucleotide NAD, proteins that contain spectral differences among them. These spectral
flavin (FMN and/or FAD) and iron–sulfur (Fe-S) differences, as observed in the visible spectra of re-
clusters, quinones that are soluble in the lipid com- duced cytochromes, originally served as the primary
ponent of membranes, and several heme-contain- tool of cytochrome classification (see Table 14-1).
ing proteins called cytochromes. Each of these elec- Functional assays also serve to classify cytochromes.
tron-carrying molecules has a characteristic optical For example, the protein conformation of most cy-
absorption spectrum that differs between the oxi- tochromes buries the cytochrome’s heme within the
dized and reduced states of the component. You protein and makes it inaccessible to molecular oxy-
have seen the absorption spectra of reduced and ox- gen. Those cytochromes therefore cannot react
idized NAD in Experiment 8 and the spectrum of with O2 or its analogs (CO, CN, and azide). In
oxidized riboflavin, the chromophore of FAD, in contrast, the cytochromes of the terminal oxidase
Experiment 1. Several cytochromes are involved in contain a heme iron that is accessible to O2 and its
the electron transport scheme. These cytochromes analogs. Thus, cytochrome a3 of Table 14-1, for ex-
all possess an iron-containing heme, which is Fe- ample, forms a spectrally distinct complex with CO,
protoporphyrin IX in the case of the various mem- CN, and azide, whereas the other cytochromes in
bers of the cytochrome b family (Fig. 14-2). The Table 14-1 do not.
heme is covalently linked to the protein via addi- The components of the electron transport chain
tion of cysteinyl residues to the vinyl groups of Fe- are organized into a series of very complex, highly
protoporphyrin IX in the cytochromes of the c class ordered integral-membrane–multiprotein com-
(Fig. 14-2). Further modifications of the heme lead plexes. It is essential that the electron-transport ap-
to heme a, which is found in cytochromes of the a paratus be integrated into an enclosed membrane
class (Fig. 14-2). In all of the cytochromes, electron system that enables the large negative free energy
transfer reactions involve the reversible oxidation of the oxidation steps to be captured in the form of
and reduction of the heme Fe between the Fe2 and an electrochemical gradient. That is, the electron-
Fe3 states. In their reduced forms cytochromes transport components are arranged so that the pro-
demonstrate a characteristic three-peak heme ab- tons which are released during oxidation of the hy-
sorption spectrum with ␣, , and ␥ (or Soret) bands drogen-carrying electron carriers (see, for example,
similar to those shown in Figure 14-3. Equation 14-4) are released on the outside of the
Biochemists use the changes in the ultraviolet- membrane, creating a gradient of protons. The re-
visible absorption spectra of the individual compo- verse flow of these protons to the interior of the
nents of the electron transport chain to follow the membrane-enclosed cell or organelle discharges the
EXPERIMENT 14 Electron Transport 229
CH2
CH3 CH
HC CH
N
H3C CH3
N Fe N
OOC CH2 CH2 CH CH2
N
HC CH
CH2 CH3
CH2
Heme
COO (Fe-protoporphyrin IX)
CH3
CH3 CH S CH2
P
r
HC CH o
N t
H3C CH3 e
N Fe N i
n
OOC CH2 CH2 CH S CH2
N
HC CH
CH3
CH2 CH3
CH2
Heme covalently linked
COO to cytochrome c
CH3
(CH2 CH2 CH CH2)3 H
CH3 CH2
H C OH
O HC CH
N
C CH3
H N Fe N
OOC CH2 CH2 CH CH2
N
HC CH
CH2 CH3
CH2
COO Heme a
Figure 14-2 Structures of the heme prosthetic groups of the cytochromes. In all cytochromes the heme
Fe undergoes reversible oxidation and reduction between Fe2 and Fe3.
230 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
a 605 —
452 —
a3 600 590
445 432
b 564 —
530 —
431 —
c 550 —
520 —
415 —
EXPERIMENT 14 Electron Transport 231
DPIP
Methylene blue O2
Oxidized
substrates NADH
NAD+–
ubiquinone Inhibition by
reductase CN–, azide, and
Reduced NAD+ CO
substrates Ascorbate Dehydroascorbate
Inhibition by
amytal and
O2
rotenone
Cytochrome c Cytochrome
Ubiquinone Cytochrome c
reductase oxidase
Inhibition by
2H2O
malonate
Inhibition by
Succinate antimycin A
Succinate-
ubiquinone
reductase
Fumarate
Methylene blue O2
DPIP
The sum of a large number of studies with in- electron-transport system in mammalian mito-
tact mitochondria, submitochondrial membrane chondria shown in Figure 14-4. You should use this
fractions, and purified electron-transport–multien- scheme to aid in your interpretation of your results
zyme complexes has led to the somewhat simpli- from this experiment. Note that different substrates
fied scheme for the functional organization of the are oxidized by different components of the system
Number of
Complex Mass (kDa) Subunits Prosthetic Groups
SOURCE: Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry, 4th ed. p. 534 (Table 21-2), New York: Freeman.
Reprinted by permission.
232 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
O
CH3O CH3 H e
CH3
Flavin-H2 CH3O OH
CH2 CH C CH2 H
O IO CH3O CH3
CH3
OH CH3O CH2 CH C CH2 H
Flavin CH3O CH3 O IO
CH3
H e
CH3O CH2 CH C CH2 H
OH IO
and thus feed their reducing equivalents into the use of such specific inhibitors is an important part
chain at different points. Most citric-acid-cycle of this experiment.
components are oxidized by soluble dehydroge- For less sophisticated studies, preparations of
nases of the mitochondria matrix with the con- electron-transport components in mitochondrial
comitant reduction of NAD to NADH. NADH membranes are useful. Keilin–Hartree heart parti-
is then oxidized by the NADH–ubiquinone reduc- cles, a preparation of mitochondrial fragments and
tase. Succinate, on the other hand, is oxidized by a damaged mitochondria used in this experiment,
membrane-bound succinate dehydrogenase com- provide a useful submitochondrial system for the as-
plex (a flavoprotein containing iron–sulfur centers), say of many general properties of electron trans-
which reduces ubiquinone without involvement of port. These particles have lost most of the citric-
pyridine nucleotides. Ascorbate (vitamin C) is not acid-cycle enzymes, which are soluble in the
a normal substrate of the electron-transport chain; mitochondrial matrix and are washed away from the
it readily reduces cytochrome c, but not the elec- membrane fragments during purification. Keilin–
tron carriers upstream (such as flavoproteins, Hartree particles are also not capable of oxidative
ubiquinone, or cytochrome c reductase), so it can phosphorylation, because the integrity of an en-
be used to study the properties of the portion of closed membrane system has been lost. However,
the electron-transport chain from cytochrome c to the membrane fragments still contain functional
O2. As noted below, artificial electron-accepting succinate–ubiquinone reductase, ubiquinone, cy-
dyes can accept electrons from the flavin-contain- tochrome c reductase, cytochrome c, and cyto-
ing components of the electron transport chain (see chrome c oxidase complexes. Thus, these particles
Fig. 14-4) and can thus be used to study the por- will catalyze oxidation of succinate and normal elec-
tions of the chain upstream from the flavins. Fi- tron transport to oxygen. In this experiment, some
nally, various inhibitors have been shown to block properties of the electron-transport chain from suc-
the electron-transport chain at specific points; use cinate to O2 will be characterized using Keilin–
of such inhibitors played an important role in de- Hartree particles from pig heart mitochondria.
veloping the scheme shown in Figure 14-4. For ex- Two methods will be used to assay electron
ample, malonate is a structural analog of succinate transport catalyzed by these Keilin–Hartree parti-
and competitively inhibits succinate dehydroge- cles. In most of the experiments, an oxygen elec-
nase. CN, azide ions, and CO, as noted above, trode will be used to measure the rate of oxygen
bind specifically to the heme a3 of the terminal cy- consumption. Oxygen electrodes are described in
tochrome c oxidase. The antibiotic antimycin A the next paragraph. A spectrophotometric assay of
specifically inhibits cytochrome c reductase. The electron transport will also be used. This assay re-
EXPERIMENT 14 Electron Transport 233
places O2 with an organic dye that acts as the ter- color, can be used to assay biological oxidation re-
minal electron acceptor. Some reducible dyes, such actions (Fig. 14-6).
as methylene blue, are “autoxidizable.” That is, they Commercially available electrodes that measure
are reduced as the result of accepting electrons from O2 in aqueous systems are called oxygen electrodes,
a reduced electron transport component and they, dissolved oxygen meters, or oxygen polarographs
in turn, pass on electrons by reducing O2 to H2O. (although few of these systems involve true oxygen
Such autoxidizable dyes therefore provide a shunt, polarography; i.e., a dropping Hg electrode under
or second means of electron transfer to oxygen, but controlled diffusion conditions). All of the systems
they are not reduced in a stoichiometric manner. are based on an oxygen detector called an oxygen
Because of this, they are of little use in aerobic spec- electrode similar to that illustrated in Figure 14-7.
trophotometric assays (Fig. 14-6). In contrast, a dye Oxygen electrode units contain two chambers—a
that is not autoxidizable, such as 2,6-dichlorophe- sample chamber and an electrode chamber—sepa-
nol-indophenol (DPIP), will accept electrons from rated by a synthetic membrane. The electrode
a biological electron transport system but will not chamber is filled with an electrolyte system that
pass these electrons on to O2. Thus, the reduction minimizes artifacts at the electrode surfaces. The
of DPIP, which is accompanied by a loss of visible membrane is placed over the electrode chamber,
CH3 N S N CH3
CH3 (reduced) CH3 H
Colorless
Nonautoxidizable DPIP
Cl
Electron XH2
O N O
donor
Cl (oxidized) No reaction
Blue with O2
Cl
X H
O N O
Cl (reduced)
Colorless
Cathode tip
exposed at end
of glass core
O-ring to
hold membrane
Injection port
Anode
Adjustable
support
ring
Sample Stirring bar
chamber
5. Suspend the precipitate in an equal volume of using the sample injection syringe containing a
0.25 M potassium phosphate and 1 mM EDTA flexible end of tubing, carefully fill the sample
(pH 7.4). The final volume should be about chamber with 2.9 ml (or more, no remaining
70 ml from 200 g of heart. Disperse any lumps air bubbles) of air-saturated water. (Saturate the
of precipitate by shaking gently in a flask or by water with air by squirting a water sample re-
gentle homogenization in a hand-operated peatedly into a beaker.) Third, set the sample
glass homogenizer. Store this preparation at l chamber and O2 electrode over a magnetic stir-
to 4°C until used. (It is stable for about 1 week, rer, turn on the stirrer, and adjust to a slow
although some losses in activity may be ob- (100 rpm) stirring rate. Last, set the O2-
served by the end of a week.) electrode system to “air” or “air-saturated
H2O” and adjust the 100% adjust control of
the O2-electrode system so that the recorder
Calibration of the Oxygen Electrode
registers 85 units, at which full deflection
1. Slowly remove your O2 electrode from the equals 100 units. This may require a minute or
sample chamber and check to see that the mem- two to reach a stable reading. Since the sample
brane is intact and that the electrolyte solution chamber contains 3 ml, and air-saturated H2O
within the electrode is free of gas bubbles. If contains 28.3 l/ml of O2, this setting cali-
necessary, remove the membrane holder, refill brates the recorder so that each unit or division
the electrode with electrolyte so a bulging pool on the strip chart equals 1 l of O2.
of electrolyte is left, and then slip on and re- 5. These steps will give you a fully adjusted and
seal a membrane over the electrode so that no calibrated system. To proceed directly with the
air bubbles are trapped inside. Finally, slowly O2 measurements in this experiment, return
place the O2-electrode into the sample holder the O2-electrode system to the amplifier zero
so that the electrode contacts the desired quan- state, turn off the magnetic stirrer, replace the
tity of fluid to be assayed (3 ml). Leave the air-saturated water sample with a magnetically
sample chamber empty. stirred (100 rpm) experimental sample from
2. Turn on the O2-electrode system and allow one of the series tables as described below, re-
the circuitry to warm up or stabilize for 5 min. assemble the system (no air bubbles!) and make
Check the operation of the recorder during appropriate readings with the O2-electrode sys-
this interval. Then set the recorder on “pen” tem at the “air” or “air saturated H2O” state.
and set the zero point adjustment control of At the conclusion of your O2 measurements,
the recorder to achieve a zero setting on the turn off the O2-electrode system, the recorder,
recorder during zero output from the O2- and the magnetic stirrer. Empty the sample
electrode system. This usually requires that chamber and rinse all components gently with
you disconnect the O2-electrode system from distilled water. Repeat this brief calibration
the recorder or switch a zero output control procedure before performing an experiment in
on the O2-electrode system. a following lab period.
3. Set the O2-electrode system to “amplifier
zero,” and adjust the amplifier zero control un-
til the recorder registers zero. This establishes
Characterization of Electron Transport
the reading that occurs in the absence of O2.
using Keilin–Hartree Particles and the
You can confirm this setting by later using an
Oxygen Electrode
O2-free water solution, such as water that has
been boiled vigorously and cooled or sparged The following tables describe four series of assays.
with an inert gas. Series I and II characterize the substrate specificity
4. Establish the other end of the recorder scale by of Keilin–Hartree particles, whereas Series III and
carrying out the following steps in order. First, IV employ the autoxidizable dye, methylene blue,
open the sample chamber of the O2 electrode and various inhibitors to characterize the electron-
and place a small stirring bar into the sample transport system in these particles. It may be prac-
chamber of the O2-electrode system. Second, tical to divide the class into groups that will only
EXPERIMENT 14 Electron Transport 237
perform one or two of the series of experiments and will introduce bubbles into the O2-electrode sample
for the groups to share their results to obtain a full chamber.
data set. Consult your instructor about the distri- 5. After recording base-line O2 levels for 2 min,
bution of the assays among the class members. lower the flexible tip of the injection syringe
into the sample chamber, inject the substrate
1. Prepare separate tubes containing all of the (no air bubbles, let any excess fluid overflow
“sample chamber” components of the desired out of the system), and withdraw the syringe.
assays of Series I through IV except for the ad- Continue recording data over 2 to 4 min; that
dition of KCN solution where it is called for in Se- is, as long as a linear reaction occurs. Then,
ries III and IV. Add the components to the tubes turn off the system, disassemble the O2
in the order in which they are listed in the ta- electrode, and rinse out the sample chamber
bles. Prevent plugging of micropipette tips and injection syringe with distilled H2O prior
used to transfer the heart particle suspension to further assays or storage.
by cutting about 2 mm off the tips. 6. If the total volume of the main vessel compo-
2. Using an injection syringe tipped with a flexi- nents of an assay does not equal or exceed
ble tubing end, load the “sample chamber” con- 2.9 ml—that is, if the substrate volume exceeds
tents of an individual assay tube into the sam- 100 l—you cannot establish a good base-line
ple chamber of a 2.9-ml calibrated oxygen reading before adding substrate because air
electrode. When the assay tube contents in- bubbles in the sample chamber will distort the
clude KCN, add it as the last component just base-line values. In such instances, transfer the
before mixing them and adding them to the sample chamber components into the O2-
sample chamber with the injection syringe. electrode sample chamber, but do not turn on
the recorder or the magnetic stirrer—do not
attempt to establish a base-line value. Instead,
KCN releases dangerous HCN at the pH of the load the injection syringe with just the desired
system and must be added just before starting volume of substrate (no air bubbles), and inject
the system. Do not pipette by mouth! Use a
propipetter.
the substrate into the bottom of the O2-
electrode sample chamber. Immediately turn
on the magnetic stirrer and recorder. With the
Set the oxygen electrode control to “air” or O2-electrode set on “air” or “air saturated
“air-saturated H2O” and turn on the recorder. H2O,” begin to monitor the reaction with the
3. Two areas to which you should pay particular recorder. Continue readings for 2 to 4 min, or
attention are sample volume and potential in- for as long as a linear reaction occurs. Then,
terfering air bubbles. Most of the assays involve turn off the system, disassemble the O2 elec-
initiating the reaction by addition of only 50 or trode, and rinse out the sample chamber and
100 l of substrate. Thus, the contents of the injection syringe with distilled H2O prior to
sample chamber in these assays essentially fills further assays or storage.
the O2-electrode sample chamber before the 7. Using the linear assay range from each assay
substrate is added. This allows you to establish studied, calculate a rate of O2 consumption in
a base value of O2 concentration in the main units of microliters of O2 consumed per
vessel contents before adding potential sub- minute. Explain your results for each tube in
strate. Therefore, if the assay is initiated by ad- all four series in terms of our current knowl-
dition of 100 l or less of substrate, turn on the edge of electron transport (see Fig. 14-4). Es-
magnetic stirrer and the recorder and record timate a KM for succinate from the data of Se-
base-line value readings for 2 min. ries I, tubes 1 through 3. (If you do not
4. During this interval, load an injection syringe remember how to do this, see Experiment 7.)
with the substrate to be used in initiating the Which tubes represent controls for other
reaction, withdrawing the syringe barrel just tubes? Are the sites of entry of the various elec-
enough to take up the desired volume of sub- tron donors and the modes of action of the in-
strate. Avoid excess air in the syringe because this hibitors depicted in Figure 14-4 consistent with
238 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
your findings? Discuss possible reasons for any before adding the heart particle preparation to tube
unexpected results. 5—not before.
2. Add the heart-particle suspension to tube 1 (the
blank) and to tube 2. Mix the contents of each
Spectrophotometric Assay of Electron
of these two tubes, and read the optical density
Transport
of tube 2 against the blank (tube 1) at 600 nm
1. Prepare a series of tubes containing the com- at 30-sec intervals for 2 min to check for oxi-
ponents outlined in Series V below, but without dation of any endogenous substrate.
the specified amounts of heart particles and succi- 3. Add the succinate to tube 2. Mix the contents,
nate. Add the components in the order listed in and read the optical density at 600 nm against
the table. Add the KCN carefully to tube 5 just the blank at 30-sec intervals for 5 min.
Sample chamber
Sample chamber
H2O 950 650 400 700 400
0.3 M K-phosphate, pH 7.4 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
0.6 mM cytochrome c — 300 300 — 300
Heart-particle suspension 500 500 500* 500 500
0.5 M succinate 50 50 — — —
0.1 M ascorbate† — — 300 300 300
*For tube 3 use heart particles that have been heated at 100°C for 10 min.
†198 mg sodium ascorbate/10 ml or 175 mg ascorbic acid plus 1 ml 1 N NaOH made up to 10 ml with H2O. Prepare immediately before
use.
EXPERIMENT 14 Electron Transport 239
Sample chamber
H2O 950 650 350 650 850 500 550
0.3 M K-phosphate, pH 7.4 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
0.5 M malonate — — — — 100 100 100
10 mM methylene blue — — 300 300 — — 300
Heart-particle suspension 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.1 M KCN — 300 300 — — — —
Sample chamber
H2O 920 920 890 370 370 70
0.3 M K-phosphate, pH 7.4 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
0.6 mM cytochrome c — — — 300 300 300
10 mM methylene blue — — 30 — — —
Antimycin A in 95% ethanol (180 g/ml) — 30 30 — 30 —
95% Ethanol 30 — — 30 — 30
Heart-particle suspension 500 500 500 500 500 500
0.1 M KCN — — — — — 300
*198 mg sodium ascorbate/10 ml or 175 mg ascorbic acid plus 1 ml 1 N NaOH made up to 10 ml with H2O. Prepare immediately before
use.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with each of the remain- results for each reaction in terms of our cur-
ing 4 tubes (tubes 3, 4, 5, and 6), one at a time, rent knowledge of electron transport, the site
reading the absorbance at 600 nm of each so- in the electron transport chain at which reduc-
lution against the tube 1 blank. ing equivalents are “shunted” to the DPIP dye,
5. Prepare a plot of the decrease in absorbance at and the proposed sites of action of the in-
600 nm versus time in minutes for the results hibitors used (see Fig. 14-4).
obtained from tubes 2 through 6. Explain the
240 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
ogy of Coupling Electron Transfer Reactions to Xia, D. et al. (1997). Crystal Structure of the Cyto-
Transmembrane Proton Translocation. Annu Rev chrome bc1 Complex from Bovine Heart Mito-
Biochem 63:675. chondria. Science 277:60.
Tsukihara, T. et al. (1995). Structures of Metal Sites of Yoshikawa, S. et al. (1998). Redox-Coupled Crystal
Oxidized Bovine Heart Cytochrome c Oxidase at Structural Changes in Bovine Heart Cytochrome c
2.8 Å. Science 269:1069. Oxidase. Science 280:1723.
:)
EXPERIMENT 15
243
244 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
Table 15-1 Established Forms of Covalent Modification in the Regulation of Enzyme Activity
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H H
H H
...................
OH H O OH H O
HO
H OH H OH
Glycogen (n glucose subunits)
O
O P O Glycogen phosphorylase
OH
H OH H OH H OH O
the b form, each made up of a dimer of identical experiment, it is not the only form of covalent mod-
94.5-kDa subunits. Glycogen phosphorylase b is the ification that has been adopted by cells as a means
less active form of the enzyme. Glycogen phos- of regulating enzyme activity. Table 15-1 lists a
phorylase a is the active form of the enzyme that number of other types of covalent modifications
has covalently bound phosphoryl groups on the that have been confirmed in a number of different
Ser-14 side chain of each subunit. The phosphoryl biological systems and pathways.
group transfer from ATP to phosphorylase b to pro-
duce phosphorylase a is catalyzed by an enzyme Supplies and Reagents
called glycogen phosphorylase kinase.
Like glycogen phosphorylase, phosphorylase ki- P-20, P-200, and P-1000 Pipetmen with sterile tips
nase is also subject to covalent modification (regu- 1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes
lation) by phosphorylation. In response to hor- Stock solution of 1 M Tris, pH 8.0
mones that signal an increase in physical activity, Stock solution of 1 M glycerophosphate, pH 8.0
adenylate cyclase is activated to produce an increase Stock solution of 60 mM Mg acetate, pH 7.3
in the intracellular cAMP concentration. In turn, a Concentrated enzyme storage buffer:
cAMP-dependent protein kinase is activated to 50 mM Tris, pH 8.0
cause an increase in the level of phosphorylated 50 mM glycerophosphate, pH 8.0
glycogen phosphorylase kinase. This activated 40% vol/vol glycerol
(phosphorylated) kinase will convert phosphorylase 2 mM EDTA, pH 8.0
b to phosphorylase a, causing an increase in the rate 0.1% -mercaptoethanol
of glycogen breakdown to glucose-1-phosphate for
the production of ATP. Similar types of phospho- Reaction buffer:
rylation cascades have been shown to be critical in 50 mM Tris, pH 8.0
many signal transduction pathways. 50 mM glycerophosphate, pH 8.0
In addition to being activated by phosphoryla-
2 mM ATP solution (2 mM ATP prepared in 60 mM Mg
tion, glycogen phosphorylase b is also subject to al- acetate, pH 7.3)
losteric activation by AMP. As physical activity in- Glycogen phosphorylase b stock solution (Sigma catalog
creases, so too does the intracellular AMPATP #P-6635):
ratio. This increase in AMP concentration will al-
low immediate activation of glycogen phosphory- Dissolve lyophilized enzyme to 1000 units/ml in
concentrated enzyme storage buffer. Divide into
lase b prior to its hormonally mediated conversion
20-l aliquots and store at 20°C.
to phosphorylase a by cAMP-dependent protein ki-
nase and glycogen phosphorylase kinase. This dual Glycogen phosphorylase kinase stock solution (Sigma
regulation of glycogen phosphorylase ensures that catalog #P-2014):
active muscle cells will have an adequate supply of Dissolve lyophilized enzyme to 2,500 units/ml in
glucose for the production of ATP. A schematic di- concentrated enzyme storage buffer. Divide into
agram of the signal transduction process just de- 20-l aliquots and store at 20°C.
scribed is presented in Figure 15-2. 4X SDS/EDTA buffer:
In this laboratory exercise, you will study the ef-
fects of phosphorylation and allosteric regulation on 0.25 M Tris, pH 7.0
the activity of glycogen phosphorylase. In the first 30% vol/vol glycerol
experiment, you will phosphorylate glycogen phos- 10% vol/vol -mercaptoethanol
phorylase b in vitro using -[32P]ATP and glycogen 8% wt/vol sodium dodecyl sulfate
phosphorylase kinase. In the second experiment, you 250 mM EDTA
will study the effect of phosphorylation on glycogen 0.01% Bromophenol blue (tracking dye)
phosphorylase activity, as well as the effect of AMP ␥-[32P]ATP (4000 Ci/mmol)—ICN Biochemicals, cata-
on glycogen phosphorylase b activity with the use of log #35001X. Dilute this solution 1:80 for use in the
a coupled enzymatic (kinetic) assay (Fig. 15-3). in vitro phosphorylation assay
Although phosphorylation is the type of cova- Prestained high-molecular-weight protein markers (Gibco
lent modification that will be investigated in this BRL cat no. 26041-020)
246 O O
–
O P O H2C CH2 O P O O–
Covalent O– O–
modification Ser 14 Ser 14
2H2O 2ADP
Glycogen phosphorylase a
Glycogen phosphorylase (more active) Glycogen phosphorylase
phosphatase kinase
HOH2C CH2OH
Ser 14 Ser 14
2Pi 2ATP
( ) 2AMP 2AMP ( )
Glycogen phosphorylase b
(less active)
Allosteric
regulation Ser 14 Ser 14
AMP AMP
Glycogen phosphorylase b
(more active)
In liver
(glucagon binds to receptor)
O O
HO OH –O P O O P O–
Ser 14 Ser 14 2ATP 2ADP –
O Ser 14 Ser 14 O –
Pi
Pi
Glycogen Glycogen Glucose-1-phosphate
glycogen phosphorylase
(n glucose subunits) (n-1 glucose subunits)
O
CH2OH O P O CH2
O O
H H O H H
H O
OH H phosphoglucomutase OH H
HO O P O HO OH
H OH O H OH
Glucose-1-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate
H O O
H H
C NH2 C NH2
O CH2 O N O CH2 O N
O P O H H O P O H H
H H H H
O NH2 O NH2
OH OH OH OH
O P O N O P O N
N N
O CH2 O CH2
O N N O N N
H H H H
H HO H HO
HO O P O OH O P O
O O
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phoshate (NADP -oxidized form) phoshate (NADPH-reduced form)
(absorbs light at 340 nm)
Glucose-6-phosphate 6-Phosphogluconate
Figure 15-3 Coupled enzyme assay to determine glycogen phosphorylase activity. As long as the activity
of phosphoglucomutase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase are not rate-limiting, the
⌬A340 /⌬t is directly proportional to the ⌬[glucose-1-phosphate]/⌬time.
248 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
Reagents and supplies for SDS-PAGE (see Experiment 4) 0.1% (wt/vol) -D-glucose-1,6-diphosphate solution
Glass or plastic plates for casting SDS–polyacrylamide (prepare in deionized water)
gel with a 10-well comb Phosphoglucomutase solution (10 units/ml)—Sigma cat-
Plastic wrap alog #P-3397
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
Prepare in deionized water immediately before use
Film cassette
Kodak X-omat film Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase solution (10 units/
Dark room ml)—Sigma catalog #G-6378
Film developer or Kodak developing solutions Prepare in deionized water immediately before use
1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes
Glycogen phosphorylase a enzyme solution (2 units/
Glass test tubes (13 100 mm)
ml)—Sigma catalog #P-1261
10-ml Pipette with bulb
Spectrophotometer to read absorbance at 340 nm Dilute a 1000-units/ml stock in concentrated enzyme
30 mM cysteine, pH 7.0 (prepare using L-cysteine hy- storage buffer 1:500 in 40 mM glycerophosphate
drochloride, monohydrate, and pH to 7.0 using solution
sodium bicarbonate) Glycogen phosphorylase b control solution (2 units/ml)
80 mM cysteine, pH 6.8 (prepare using L-cysteine hy-
drochloride, monohydrate, and pH to 6.8 using Dilute enzyme stock 1:500 in 40 mM glycerophos-
sodium bicarbonate) phate solution
250 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.7 Glycogen phosphorylase b control solution (2 units/ml)
250 mM glycerophosphate (prepare in 250 mM Tris, with AMP
pH 7.7)
Dilute enzyme stock 1:500 in 40 mM glycerophos-
40 mM glycerophosphate (prepare in 80 mM cysteine, phate solution containing 60 mM AMP
pH 6.8 and adjust pH to 6.8 with 1 M HCl or 1 M
NaOH if necessary) Remember to keep all enzyme solutions on ice.
Glycogen phosphorylase b solution (100 units/ml)
Dilute enzyme stock solution (see Day 1 reagents) Protocol
1:10 in 30 mM cysteine, pH 7.0
30 mM ATP solution (prepare in deionized water and pH
to 7.7 with 1 M NaOH) Caution: This experiment requires the use of
Glycogen phosphorylase kinase solution significant amounts of 32P-ATP. Wear gloves and
safety goggles at all times during the experi-
Dilute enzyme stock solution (see Day 1 reagents) ment. Plexiglas shields should be used to screen
1:125 in 30 mM cysteine, pH 7.0 students from excessive exposure to the ra-
dioisotope. Consult the instructor for proper
100 mM Mg acetate solution (prepare in deionized wa- handling and disposal of radioactive waste.
ter with Mg acetate tetrahydrate and adjust pH to
7.7 with 1 M NaOH)
500 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 6.8 Day 1: In Vitro Phosphorylation of
4% (wt/vol) glycogen solution (Sigma catalog #G-8876) Glycogen Phosphorylase b
300 mM MgCl2 1. Prepare an 250-units/ml phosphorylase ki-
100 mM EDTA, pH 8.0 nase solution by diluting the stock enzyme 1:10
6.5 mM -nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate with reaction buffer.
solution (-NADP)
2. Set up the following reactions in three 1.5-ml
Prepare in deionized water immediately before use microcentrifuge tubes:
1 — 10 l 34 l
2 10 l — 34 l
3 10 l 10 l 24 l
EXPERIMENT 15 Study of the Phosphoryl Group Transfer Cascade Governing Glucose Metabolism: 249
Allosteric and Covalent Regulation of Enzyme Activity
3. To tubes 1 and 2, add 6 l of an ATP solution piece of Whatman 3 MM filter paper, avoiding
that contains 20 l of 2 mM ATP in 60 mM any wrinkles in the gel.
Mg acetate, pH 7.3 and 4 l of ␥-[32P]ATP 8. Enclose the gel in a piece of plastic wrap and
(provided by the instructor). Pipette up and place it in a film cassette. Using a felt-tipped
down rapidly several times to mix. After exactly pen, mark the film in a manner that will allow
10 min, remove a 10-l aliquot from each tube you to determine position of gel on the film af-
and add it to 10 l of 4X SDS/EDTA buffer ter it is developed. Expose the gel to a piece of
to stop the reaction. Kodak X-omat film for 18 hr at 70°C. By
4. To tube 3, add 6 l of the same ATP solution exposing the film at low temperature, radioac-
described above and pipette up and down tive scattering will be minimized, giving you
rapidly several times to mix. At exactly 5 min well-defined radioactive protein bands on the
and 10 min, remove a 10-l aliquot and add it autoradiogram.
to 10 l of 4X SDS/EDTA buffer to stop the 9. Develop the film the next morning. Align the
reaction. Separate 5-min and 10-min samples autoradiogram with the gel and mark the po-
should now have been taken from tube 3. sitions of the wells and the prestained protein
5. Load each 20-l sample in the following order molecular weight standards on the film.
on a 12% SDS –PAGE gel (prepared by the in- 10. Prepare a plot of log molecular weight versus
structor). Two groups will share one SDS – distance migrated on the gel using the molec-
PAGE gel. Obtain the prestained protein mo- ular weight protein standards. Are there any ra-
lecular weight standards from the instructor. diolabeled protein bands present on the au-
toradiogram? What is the molecular weight of
Tube 1—10 min
this protein? What is the identity of this pro-
Tube 2—10 min
tein? Support your answer in terms of what you
Tube 3—5 min
know about the molecular weight of the pro-
Tube 3—10 min
teins present in the assay. Are the radiolabeled
Standards
protein bands of the same intensity on the au-
Standards
toradiogram? Describe and discuss your results
Tube 1—10 min
in terms of the kinetics of the kinase present in
Tube 2—10 min
this assay.
Tube 3—5 min
11. Would you expect to see any radiolabeled bands
Tube 3—10 min
present in the lanes containing samples from
6. Connect the negative electrode (cathode) to reaction tubes 1 and 2? Why or why not?
the upper buffer chamber and the positive
electrode (anode) to the lower buffer cham-
Day 2: In Vitro Assay for Phosphorylase
ber. The SDS bound to the proteins will give
Kinase and Glycogen Phosphorylase
them a negative charge, causing them to mi-
Activity
grate toward the positive electrode. Apply 200
V (constant voltage) and continue the elec- 1. Set up the reactions shown in the table on the
trophoresis until the bromophenol blue dye next page in 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes.
front has migrated off the bottom of the gel. The stock glycogen phosphorylase and the
The unreacted 32P-ATP present in the samples stock glycogen phosphorylase kinase solutions
will migrate off the gel with the dye front. At this should be diluted to the proper concentrations
point, the solution in lower buffer chamber is ra- with 30 mM cysteine buffer, pH 7.0.
dioactive. Wear gloves and safety goggles at all To start the phosphorylase kinase assay, add
times. 25 l of 30 mM ATP solution to each tube and
7. When the electrophoresis is complete, turn off pipette rapidly up and down several times to
the power supply and disconnect the elec- mix. All three reactions can be run simultane-
trodes. Remove from the unit the glass plates, ously, staggering the start of each reaction by
which contain the gel. Carefully separate the about 30 sec. At exactly 5 min and 10 min, re-
plates (the gel will adhere to one of the two move 100 l from each reaction and stop it by
plates) and carefully transfer the gel to a small adding it to 1.9 ml of 40 mM glycerophosphate,
250 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
1 122.5 l 62.5 l 25 l — 15 l
2 37.5 l 62.5 l 25 l 100 l —
3 22.5 l 62.5 l 25 l 100 l 15 l
pH 6.8 in a 13-by-100-mm test tube. Each of 6. Perform the same procedure using tubes B to
these “stop” tubes (six of them) should be set up in G by adding 100 l of your different phos-
advance of starting the reaction and each tube should phorylase kinase assay reactions to these tubes.
be labeled with the reaction tube number and the Be sure that you know which phosphorylase kinase
time (e.g., tube 1—5 min). These stopped, 2.0- reaction corresponds to which test tube (e.g., tube B
ml reactions will be used in the glycogen phos- is phosphorylase kinase reaction 1—5 min, tube C
phorylase a assay described below. Place all of is phosphorylase kinase reaction 1—10 min, etc.).
these tubes on ice until you are ready to proceed with Measure and record the A340 of each reaction
the next assay. at 30-sec intervals for at least 5 min, or until
3. Prepare a reaction cocktail containing the fol- each reaction achieves a linear change in A340
lowing stock components (this quantity will be versus time.
sufficient for at least four groups): 7. Perform the same procedure using tube H by
adding 100 l of the 2-units/ml phosphory-
Stock Solution Volume (ml) lase a solution (this is a positive control for
Deionized water 099.5 the glycogen phosphorylase a assay). Measure
500 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 6.8 15.00 and record the A340 of the reaction at 30-sec
4% (wt/vol) glycogen 07.50 intervals for at least 5 min, or until the reac-
300 mM MgCl2 00.67 tion achieves a linear change in A340 versus
100 mM EDTA 00.15 time.
6.5 mM -NADP 010.0 8. Perform the same procedure using tube I by
0.1% (wt/vol) glucose-1,6-diphosphate 00.50 adding 100 l of the 2-units/ml phosphorylase
b solution (this is a negative control for the
glycogen phosphorylase a assay). Measure and
4. Dispense 2.7-ml of this reaction cocktail in 10 record the A340 of the reaction at 30-sec inter-
small glass test tubes (13 100 mm), labeled A vals for at least 5 min, or until the reaction
through J. To each of the 10 test tubes, add achieves a linear change in A340 versus time.
100 l of the 10-units/ml glucose-6-phosphate 9. Perform the same procedure using tube J by
dehydrogenase solution and 100 l of the 10- adding 100 l of the 2-units/ml phosphorylase
units/ml phosphoglucomutase solution. The b solution in 60 mM AMP. This assay is de-
total volume in each test tube after this step will signed to show allosteric activation of glycogen
be 2.9 ml. Refer to Table 15-2 to aid you in set- phosphorylase b by AMP. Measure and record
ting up the rest of the assay tubes. the A340 of the reaction at 30-sec intervals for
5. To tube A, add 100 l of water and shake the at least 5 min, or until the reaction achieves a
test tube gently for about 10 sec to mix. At 1- linear change in A340 versus time.
min intervals, measure and record the A340 of 10. Construct a plot of A340 versus time for each
the sample. Continue taking absorbance read- of the 10 glycogen phosphorylase reactions (A–
ings until the reaction achieves a linear change J). Determine the slope of the line for each plot
in A340 versus time (at least 5 min). This is a (⌬ A340/min). It may be helpful to construct
negative control reaction that contains no four plots for tubes B–J: one graph will con-
glycogen phosphorylase or glycogen phospho- tain the data for tubes B and C, another will
rylase kinase. contain the data for tubes D and E, another will
EXPERIMENT 15 Study of the Phosphoryl Group Transfer Cascade Governing Glucose Metabolism: 251
Allosteric and Covalent Regulation of Enzyme Activity
A B C D E F G H I J
Reaction cocktail 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
Glucose-6-phosphate
Dehydrogenase (10 units/ml) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Phosphoglucomutase (10 units/ml) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
H2O 0.1 — — — — — — — — —
Volume from step 2 (ml) — 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 — — —
Phosphorylase a (2 units/ml) — — — — — — — 0.1 — —
Phosphorylase b (2 units/ml) — — — — — — — — 0.1 —
Phosphorylase b
(2 units/ml in 60 mM AMP) — — — — — — — — — 0.1
contain the data for tubes F and G, and a fourth gen phosphorylase). The blank for the reac-
will contain the data for tubes H to J. tions in tubes D and F is tube B (5-min time
11. The goal of the analysis is to determine the point, no glycogen phosphorylase b). The blank
concentration (units per milliliter) of phospho- for the reactions in tubes E and G is tube C
rylase kinase used in these reactions as well as (10-min time point, no glycogen phosphorylase
the concentration of glycogen phosphorylase a b); 20 ⫽ dilution factor (how much the glyco-
(units per milliliter) present in each of the re- gen phosphorylase enzyme solution being
actions after 5 min and 10 min. One unit of tested was diluted before being assayed); 3 ml ⫽
phosphorylase kinase is defined as the amount total volume of glycogen phosphorylase assay;
of the enzyme that will convert 1 mol of phos- 6.22 mM⫺1 cm⫺1 ⫽ millimolar extinction co-
phorylase b to phosphorylase a per min. One efficient for -NADPH at 340 nm; l ⫽ path-
unit of phosphorylase a is defined as the amount length through the spectrophotometer (1.3 cm
of the enzyme that will produce 1 mol of glu- for benchtop spectrophotometers); and 0.1 ml
cose-1-phosphate from glycogen per minute. enzyme ⫽ volume of the phosphorylase kinase
12. Determine the glycogen phosphorylase activ- assay or enzyme solution used in the glycogen
ity present in tubes D to J using the following phosphorylase assay.
equation:
NOTE: No dilution factor (20) is required for the
calculation of glycogen phosphorylase activity in
units/ml enzyme ⫽
(⌬A340/min test ⫺ ⌬ A340/min blank)(20)(3 ml)
tubes H to J, since the enzyme stock solution was
added directly to the assay. Otherwise, the same for-
(6.22 mM⫺1 cm⫺1)(l)(0.1 ml enzyme)
mula can be used for tubes H to J.
where test ⫽ tubes other than A to C whose ac- 13. Determine the concentration of glycogen
tivity is being tested; blank ⫽ the blank for the phosphorylase kinase present in reaction tube
reactions in tubes H to J is tube A (no glyco- 3 (from step 2) using the following equation:
Units/ml enzyme ⫽ (units glycogen phosphorylase test/ml) ⫺ (units glycogen phosphorylase blank/ml)(20)
ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ
(time)(0.015 ml)
252 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
where test ⫽ the 5-min and 10-min time points 4. What must be true about the concentrations
for phosphorylase kinase reaction 3 (tubes F of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and
and G, respectively); blank ⫽ the 5-min and phosphoglucomutase used in the glycogen
10-min time points for phosphorylase kinase phosphorylase assay for the change in A340 to
reaction 2 (no glycogen phosphorylase kinase; be directly proportional to the change in con-
tubes D and E, respectively); 20 ⫽ dilution fac- centration of glucose-1-phosphate? Explain.
tor (how much the glycogen phosphorylase en- 5. You have obtained a liver cell line that is mu-
zyme solution being tested was diluted before tant in glycogen metabolism. The mutation is
being assayed); time ⫽ number of minutes (5 such that glycogen phosphorylase activity is al-
or 10) of the phosphorylase kinase assay; and ways high (glycogen phosphorylase activity is
0.015 ml ⫽ Volume (ml) of phosphorylase ki- no longer regulated). This phenotype could be
nase used in reactions 1 and 3. the result of a mutation in a number of differ-
14. After you have completed these calculations, ent genes involved in glycogen metabolism. For
you will have obtained two values for the con- each of the enzymes listed below, state whether
centration of glycogen phosphorylase kinase the phenotype of this cell line is consistent with
present in this assay, one based on the 5-min the activity of the enzyme being constitutively
time point and one based on the 10-min time high or constitutively low. Support your answer
point. From these data, determine the average using your knowledge of the control of glyco-
value of glycogen phosphorylase kinase present gen phosphorylase activity.
in this assay (units/ml of enzyme).
a. Adenylate cyclase
15. Compare the glycogen phosphorylase activity
b. Glycogen phosphorylase kinase
between the reactions in tubes I and J. What ef-
c. Glycogen phosphorylase phosphatase
fect does AMP have on the activity of glycogen
d. cAMP-dependent protein kinase
phosphorylase b? Can you estimate how much
the activity of the enzyme is increased or de-
creased in the presence of this allosteric effector?
REFERENCES
16. Compare the glycogen phosphorylase activity
between the reactions in tubes H and I. What
Antoniw, J. F., Nimmo, H. G., Yeaman, S. J., and Co-
effect does phosphorylation of Ser 14 have on hen, P. (1977). Comparison of the Substrate Speci-
the activity of glycogen phosphorylase b? Can ficities of Protein Phosphatases Involved in the
you estimate how much the activity of the en- Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism in Rabbit
zyme is increased or decreased with this type Skeletal Muscle. Biochem J 162:423.
of covalent modification? Cohen, P. (1983). Phosphorylase Kinase from Rabbit
Skeletal Muscle. Methods Enzymol. 99:243.
Garrett R. H. and Grisham, C. M. (1995). Gluconeo-
Exercises genesis, Glycogen Metabolism, and the Pentose
Phosphate Pathway. In: Biochemistry. Orlando, FL:
1. What do you think is the advantage of having Saunders.
Hemmings, B. A., and Cohen, P. (1983). Glycogen
an enzyme such as glycogen phosphorylase b
Synthase Kinase-3 from Rabbit Skeletal Muscle.
controlled both by an allosteric effector and by Methods Enzymol. 99:337.
covalent modification? Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
2. Would you expect the glycogen phosphorylase (1993). Glycolysis and Catabolism of Hexoses. In:
assay data from phosphorylase kinase reaction Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
3 to be any different if the concentration of the Sigma Quality Control Test Procedure (EC 2.7.1.38).
kinase used in this reaction was increased by a St. Louis: Sigma Chemical Co.
factor of 5? Explain. Stryer, L. (1995). Glycogen Metabolism. In: Biochem-
3. Would you expect the glycogen phosphorylase istry, 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
assay data from phosphorylase kinase reaction Voet, D. and Voet, J. G. (1990). Glycogen Metabolism.
3 to be any different if the concentration of In: Biochemistry. New York: Wiley.
ATP used in this reaction was increased by a
factor of 10? Explain.
?O
EXPERIMENT 16
253
254 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
blood glucose level (hypoglycemia) is usually asso- The assay used to quantify lactate in the blood
ciated with cases of insulin overdose, an underac- allows you to relate the production of a colored dye
tive endocrine system, and some forms of liver dis- (chromophore) to the level of lactate in the sample.
ease. In general, blood glucose levels are useful in This chromophore will absorb light at 540 nm,
assessing the overall integrity of carbohydrate me- allowing its concentration to be measured spec-
tabolism in an individual. trophotometrically (Fig. 16-1).
The assay used in the quantitation of blood glu-
cose is one that you have become familiar with from
Urea Nitrogen
an earlier experiment. It is a coupled assay that re-
lates the reduction of NAD (⌬A340) to the con- One of the major products of amino acid metabo-
centration of glucose in the sample (see Experiment lism is ammonia (NH3), a molecule known to be
11, Figure 11-3). highly toxic to higher organisms. In the liver, am-
monia and carbon dioxide are used to produce a
water-soluble form of nitrogen, urea, via the urea
Lactate
cycle. The liver passes this urea to the blood, which
Lactate is formed from the degradation of carbohy- carries it to the kidneys to be filtered out and ex-
drates via glycolysis. During times of oxygen limita- creted in the urine. Since one function of the kid-
tion, cells will turn toward anaerobic metabolism. In ney is to collect and excrete urea, increases in the
this process, lactate dehydrogenase will convert concentration of this compound in the blood are an
pyruvate to lactate, with the concomitant oxidation indicator of poor kidney function. Since urea is
of NADH to NAD. This, in turn, will lead to an formed in the liver, low blood urea nitrogen is of-
increase in the concentration of blood lactate. Since ten the consequence of impaired liver function due
lactate is metabolized by the liver to produce glucose to disease or as the result of infection (hepatitis).
via the gluconeogenesis cycle, high blood lactate lev- The assay used to quantify blood urea nitrogen
els are usually found in individuals with poor liver relies on coupling the production of ammonia and
function. The liver acts as the target organ for many carbon dioxide from urea to the transamination of
drugs and toxins; therefore, the assay is also useful -ketoglutarate to glutamate and the subsequent
in diagnosing a person’s exposure to these agents. oxidation of NADH (A340) (Fig. 16-2).
OH O
lactate oxidase
H3C C COO⫺ H3C C COO⫺ H2O2
H Pyruvate
Lactate
CH3
S horseradish peroxidase
H2O2 N
N N NH2 CH3
3-Methyl-2-Benzothiazolinone
hydrazone S
CH3
N N N N
CH3
CH3
Indamine dye
(broad absorption maximum at 590 nm)
O
Urease
H2N C NH2 H2O 2 NH3 CO2
Urea
O
H H
C NH2
N
O O
H H COO⫺
H
C O
OH OH
NH3 CH2
⫺
O P O
NH2 CH2 glutamate
O N ⫺
dehydrogenase
N COO
⫺
O P O
-Ketoglutarate
N N
O O
H O
H H
H H C NH2
OH OH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide N
O O
(NADH—reduced form; has A340)
COO⫺ H H
H H
H C NH3
OH OH
CH2 H2O
⫺
O P O
CH2 NH2
O N
COO⫺ N
⫺
O P O
Glutamate
N N
O O
H H
H H
OH OH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD —oxidized form)
converted to creatine and ATP. Surprisingly, in- blotting (see Section IV). It is now possible to pro-
creased levels of this enzyme in the blood have been duce and screen for monoclonal antibodies that rec-
found to be associated with a number of serious yet ognize the M subunit or B subunit exclusively.
seemingly unrelated conditions including heart The assay used to quantify blood concentrations
attacks, alcoholism, muscular dystrophy, stroke, of this enzyme is nearly identical to that used in the
epilepsy, and other neurological and endocrine dis- assay described for determining blood glucose con-
orders. In general, elevated serum CK levels are as- centrations (Fig. 16-3). Whereas the ATP in the lat-
sociated with conditions leading to tissue damage ter assay is supplied in excess, the ATP in the cre-
and cell death (necrosis). atine kinase assay is provided by the action of the
Creatine kinase functions as a dimer. The dimer enzyme (creatine kinase) in the presence of ADP
can consist of combinations of two different sub- and creatine phosphate. In both assays, you are
units, M and B. Different cell types produce or ex- measuring the change in absorbance of the sample
press the MM, MB, or BB forms of CK. Although at 340 nm. Since glucose is the limiting reagent in
the amino acid composition of the M and B sub- the glucose assay, the A340 will be directly propor-
unit differ, all three dimeric forms can catalyze the tional to the glucose concentration. In the case of
reaction described above. Different forms of an en- the assay for creatine kinase, glucose is in excess,
zyme that catalyze the same reaction (such as the and the rate of change in absorbance at 340 nm will
MM, MB, and BB forms of CK) are referred to as be limited by the ATP that is being produced by
isoenzymes. the activity of creatine kinase. This demonstrates
It has been determined that different tissues an important feature common to all coupled assay
produce or express different CK isoenzymes. Skele- systems: for the assay to be valid, the molecule or en-
tal muscle cells express the CK-MM isoenzyme al- zyme under study must be the limiting reagent in the
most exclusively, while brain cells and cells of the assay.
gastrointestinal tract express the CK-BB isoenzyme
almost exclusively. Cardiac muscle cells, however,
express an approximate 13 ratio of the CK-MB
and CK-MM isoenzymes, respectively. If you had
Supplies and Reagents
a means of determining which isoenzyme is present
Plasma or serum from pig
at elevated levels in the serum, you might be able
P-20, P-200, and P-1000 Pipetmen with sterile tips
to determine what type of tissue the enzyme orig-
5-ml and 10-ml pipettes
inated from.
13 100-mm glass test tubes
One common method of determining the iden-
Heparin sulfate solution (1000 units/ml)
tity of the three isoenzymes makes use of the dif-
0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0
ference in charge between the two subunits that
B/L spectrophotometer tubes or cuvettes
comprise the dimeric protein. While the M subunit
Spectrophotometer to read absorbance at 340 nm and
carries a slightly positive charge at neutral to
540 nm
slightly alkaline pH, the B subunit carries a large
Glucose assay reagent* consisting of:
negative charge. When subjected to an electric field
(electrophoresis, see Experiment 4), the CK-BB 50 mM Tris, pH 7.5
isoenzyme will migrate rapidly toward the anode 1.5 mM NAD
(positive electrode), while the CK-MM isoenzyme 1.0 mM ATP
will display a slow migration toward the cathode 1.0 units/ml hexokinase
(negative electrode). The CK-MB isoenzyme, car- 1.0 units/ml glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
rying less of a net negative charge than the CK-BB 5 mM MgCl2
isoenzyme, will migrate toward the anode at a
D-Glucose standard solutions in water: 3.00 mM,
slower rate. 11.10 mM, and 16.65 mM
Another method of determining the identity of Lactate assay reagent* consisting of:
the various CK isoenzymes that is gaining wide-
spread popularity involves immunochemical tech- 50 mM Tris, pH 7.2
niques such as immunoprecipitation and Western 0.5 units/ml lactate oxidase
O⫺
NH2 ⫺
NH2
O P O NH2
N N
N N
NH H2N C
O O
O O O
creatine kinase
N N C N N N CH3
⫺ O H2N ⫺ O
O P O P O O P O P O P O
H H N CH3 H H CH2
⫺O ⫺O ⫺O ⫺O ⫺O
H H CH2 H H COO⫺
OH OH OH OH Creatine
COO⫺
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Phosphocreatine
O H
O H
NH2 NH2 C
C
N N H C OH
N H C OH N
O O O O O HO C H
hexokinase
N N HO C H N N
⫺ O ⫺ O
O P O P O P O O P O P O H C OH
H C OH
⫺O ⫺O ⫺O
H H ⫺O ⫺O
H H H C OH O
H H H C OH H H
OH OH OH OH H C O P O⫺
EXPERIMENT 16
CH2OH
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) H ⫺O
D-Glucose
D-Glucose-6-phosphate
O O
N N
O O O O
O H O O⫺
C H H H H C
H H H H
H C OH H C OH
OH OH glucose-6-phosphate OH OH
HO C H dehyrogenase HO C H
⫺ ⫺
O P O O P O
H C OH NH2 NH2 H C OH
O N O N
H C OH O N N H C OH O
⫺ ⫺
⫺
O P O O P O
H C O P O N N H C O P O⫺
O N O N
O O
H ⫺O H ⫺O
H H H H
D-Glucose-6-phosphate H H O H H O 6-Phosphogluconate
OH O P O⫺ OH O P O⫺
O⫺ O⫺
Experiments in Clinical Biochemistry and Metabolism
5. Use the following equation to determine the 2.0 mM to 6.0 mM. How does the concen-
concentration of lactate in your plasma sample: tration of urea nitrogen in the pig serum sam-
ple compare to that expected in human serum?
[Lactate] (mM)
A540 plasma sample (L2)
⫽ ᎏᎏᎏᎏ ⫻ 4.44 mM Blood Creatine Kinase Assay
A540 lactate standard (L3)
This assay is different from that of the glucose, lac-
NOTE: The normal or expected concentration tate, and urea nitrogen assays in that you are at-
of blood lactate in an adult human is 0.3 mM tempting to measure the activity of an enzyme
to 1.3 mM. The assay is reported to be accu- rather than the concentration of a molecule. Re-
rate for plasma samples containing as much as member that in an enzymatic activity assay, it is criti-
13.0 mM lactate. How does the concentra- cal that the time between absorbance readings be recorded
tion of lactate in the pig serum sample com- exactly.
pare to that expected in human serum?
1. Add 2.5 ml of creatine kinase reagent to two 13-
by-100-mm test tubes labeled CK1 and CK2.
Blood Urea Nitrogen Assay 2. Dilute your plasma sample 15 in distilled wa-
ter. This dilute plasma sample will be used in
1. Add 2.0 ml of urea nitrogen reagent to five 13- the assay described below.
by-100-mm test tubes labeled U1 through U5. 3. Add 100 l of distilled water to CK1 and 100 l
2. Add 20 l of the following to each of these of the dilute plasma sample to CK2. Shake gen-
tubes and shake gently to mix: tly to mix and allow the reaction to incubate at
U1 Water room temperature for 5 min.
U2 Plasma sample 4. Blank your spectrophotometer at 340 nm
U3 Urea standard (3.57 mM) against a water reference. Record the ab-
U4 Urea standard (8.92 mM) sorbance of CK1 and CK2 at exactly 5 min and
U5 Urea standard (10.71 mM) 10 min.
U6 Urea standard (35.70 mM) 5. Determine the ⌬A340 of your plasma sample
(CK2) and the blank (CK1) by subtracting the
3. Incubate the tubes at room temperature for 5 A340 for the 5-min reading from the A340 for
min. It is not critical that the incubation time the 10-min reading for each of these tubes.
be exact. Rather, it is important that the reac- 6. To determine the concentration of creatine ki-
tion be allowed to run to completion (no nase in your plasma sample (units/liter), use the
change in A340). When the reaction is com- following equation:
plete, add 1 ml of water to each of the five tubes
before taking a final A340 reading. [Creatine kinase] (units/liter)
4. Blank your spectrophotometer at 340 nm ([⌬A340 CK2 ⫺ ⌬A340 CK1] per 5 min)(2.6)(1000)
against a water reference. Record the absor- ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ
(5 min)(6.22 mM⫺1 cm⫺1)(l)(0.02)
bance of all of your samples, U1 through U6.
5. Subtract the absorbance value of U1 (blank) where 2.6 ⫽ total volume of reaction (ml); 5
from the rest of the samples. Construct a stan- min ⫽ total reaction time; 1000 ⫽ conversion
dard curve by plotting the absolute value of A340 factor to convert micromoles per milliliter to
versus micromoles of urea nitrogen for your four micromoles per liter; 6.22 mM⫺1 cm⫺1 ⫽ mil-
urea standard solutions (U3, U4, U5, and U6). limolar extinction coefficient for NADPH at
6. Based on the A340 of your plasma sample and 340 nm; l ⫽ pathlength of spectrophotometer
the volume of the plasma sample used in the as- (1.3 cm for benchtop colorimeters); and 0.02 ⫽
say, determine the concentration of urea nitro- volume of plasma sample used in the assay (in
gen in your plasma sample. milliliters), taking into account the dilution.
NOTE: The normal or expected concentration NOTE: The normal or expected concentration
of blood urea nitrogen in an adult human is of blood creatine kinase in an adult human is
260 SECTION III Biomolecules and Biological Systems
10 to 50 units/liter. One unit of creatine ki- formed in this experiment, while it was less im-
nase is defined as the amount of the enzyme portant in the blood urea nitrogen, glucose, and
that will produce 1 mol of ATP from phos- lactate assays?
phocreatine and ADP per minute under these
reaction conditions. How does the activity of
creatine kinase in the pig serum sample com- REFERENCES
pare to that expected in human serum?
Barhan, D., and Trinder, P. (1972). An Improved Color
Reagent for the Determination of Blood Glucose
Exercises by the Oxidase System. Analyst 97:142.
Bondar, R. J. L., and Mead, D. C. (1974). Evaluation
of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase from Leu-
1. You are presented with two individuals: one of
conostoc mesenteroides in the Hexokinase Method for
whom completed a marathon earlier that day
Determining Glucose in Serum. Clin Chem 20::586.
and one who has been watching television all Gotchman, N., and Schmitz, J. M. (1972). Application
afternoon. What test would you use to deter- of a New Peroxide Indicator Reaction to the Spe-
mine which individual had completed a cific, Automated Determination of Glucose with
marathon? Describe in your answer for what Glucose Oxidase. Clin Chem 18:943.
molecule you would assay, the relevant features Hess, J. W., Murdock, K. J., and Natho, G. J. W.
of the test, and how the results for each indi- (1968). Creatine Phosphokinase—A Spectrophoto-
vidual would be different. metric Method with Improved Sensitivity. Am J
2. The assays for serum glucose and creatine ki- Clin Pathol 50:89.
nase were similar in many respects. List the Kaplan, A., Szabo, L. L., and Opheim, K. E. (1988).
Clinical Chemistry: Interpretation and Techniques, 3rd
chemical reactions that were common to both
ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
assays. Also, describe how these two similar as-
Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
say systems could be used to quantify these two (1993). Bioenergetics and Metabolism. In: Principles
very different biomolecules. of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
3. Two of the molecules that were assayed for in Martinek, R. G. (1969). Review of Methods for Deter-
pig serum are often used to assess overall liver mining Urea Nitrogen in Biological Fluids. J Am
function. Name these two molecules. Using Med Technol 31:678.
your knowledge of the gluconeogenesis path- Rosalki, S. B. (1967). An Improved Procedure for
way and the urea cycle, explain how increased Serum Creatine Phosphokinase Determination. J
or decreased levels of these two molecules Lab Clin Med 69:696.
could be used to assess the overall function of Sigma Chemical Co., Procedure No. 16-UV (1997).
Sigma Chemical Co., Procedure No. 735 (1997).
the liver.
Sigma Chemical Co., Procedure No. 66-UV (1997).
4. Why do you think that serum creatine kinase
Sigma Chemical Co., Procedure No. 45-UV (1997).
levels might be elevated in patients with seem- Stryer, L. (1995). Metabolic Energy. In: Biochemistry,
ingly unrelated conditions such as alcoholism 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
and epilepsy? Trinder, P. (1969). Determination of Glucose in Blood
5. Why was it necessary to know the exact incu- Using Glucose Oxidase with an Alternative Oxygen
bation times for the creatine kinase assays per- Acceptor. Ann Clin Biochem 6:24.
zq
SECTION IV
Immunochemistry
Introduction
Antibodies, or immunoglobulins (Ig), are proteins pro- antigen. In other words, a single antibody can bind
duced by cells of the immune system that allow the two molecules of the antigen.
body to resist viral and bacterial infection, as well Once the epitope of a single molecule of anti-
as cells that have undergone malignant transforma- gen is bound by an antibody molecule, other anti-
tion. Antibodies act by binding with high specificity bodies that bind the same epitope are unable to bind
to foreign molecules, called antigens. The cells that (Fig. IV-2). Antibodies that bind to different epi-
produce and secrete antibodies are called B cells. topes on the same antigen may still be able to bind.
An individual B cell can differentiate to produce a These properties underlie the basis of competition
single type of antibody that will recognize a single and capture assays, as developed by many diagnos-
epitope (region) on a single antigen molecule. Be- tic testing laboratories. Such assays are frequently
cause of their high degree of specificity and often used to determine the amount of a specific antigen
high affinities for antigens (KD 106 to 1010 M), that is present in clinical samples (e.g., shed tumor-
antibodies have proven to be powerful tools for bio- associated antigens that might be diagnostic for a
chemical studies that require detection and/or particular type of cancer).
quantitation of a specific antigen.
The structural characteristics common to all
immunoglobulins is shown in Figure IV-1. An an- Types of Antibodies
tibody is comprised of two identical heavy chain
and two identical light chain subunits that are The process of stem-cell differentiation into a
linked by several disulfide bonds. Both the heavy mature, antibody-secreting B cell is complex. The
and the light chains possess a constant region at their first part of this process, which takes place in the
C-termini and a variable region at their N-termini. bone marrow, occurs before the B-cell precursor
Depending on the type of antibody (see below), is exposed to any potential antigens, and is there-
one or more N-linked carbohydrates may be found fore termed antigen independent differentiation. As
at different positions along the heavy chains. It is the B-cell precursor migrates to the lymph and
the N-termini of the heavy and light chains that are continues to mature, it eventually reaches a stage
variable in amino acid sequence. Together, these vari- in its differentiation at which further development
able ( V ) regions form a binding site that interacts with will be guided by a particular antigen that it hap-
the antigen and thereby determines the specificity of the pens to encounter (antigen-dependent differentia-
antibody (see Fig. IV-1). Because each “arm” of the tion). The terminal step in differentiation will
immunoglobulin is made up of identical heavy and give rise to a plasma B cell that secretes a single
light chain subunits, a single antibody molecule has immunoglobulin. The secreted immunoglobulin
the ability to bind the identical epitope or antigenic is classified as one of the five isotypes described
determinant on two individual molecules of the below.
263
264 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Antigen-binding sites
V
V
V
C
C
C
C
Light chain
"Hinge"
region
V = variable regions
C = constant regions
= disulfide bridges
Immunoglobulin M (IgM) cular bound fluid, and is the major component re-
quired for activation of the complement system.
Immunoglobulin M is the first antibody isotype to
IgM antibodies typically have low intrinsic binding
be expressed on the surface of an immature B-cell
affinities (i.e., at a single antigen-binding site) but
precursor as the cell leaves the bone marrow and
high avidities (i.e., multiple sites on the IgM bind
enters the lymph to undergo antigen-dependent
very well to multivalent ligands).
differentiation. Unlike IgG (see Fig. IV-1), IgM has
no hinge region between the heavy- and light-chain
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
junction, and it is heavily glycosylated on the most
C-terminal regions of the heavy chain. Immature B Although the role of IgD in the immune system has
cells that recognize self-antigens on tissue surfaces not yet been fully elucidated, it appears to be in-
with their membrane-bound IgM will quickly un- volved in determining if a particular B-cell precur-
dergo programmed cell death (apoptosis), prevent- sor will continue to develop and differentiate.
ing the onset of various autoimmune diseases. B While an immature B cell expresses only IgM on
cells that do continue to differentiate into IgM- the cell surface, a mature B cell expresses both IgM
secreting cells (those that do not recognize surface and IgD on the cell surface. A B cell that recog-
self-antigens) will produce a pentameric form of the nizes any soluble self-antigen with its surface IgM or
antibody (5 immunoglobulins with 10 identical IgD will quickly halt production of IgM and in-
antigen binding sites, Fig. IV-3). This pentameric crease expression of surface IgD. This high con-
form of IgM resides almost exclusively in the vas- centration of surface IgD will place the B cell in a
SECTION IV Introduction 265
Antigen Antigen
IgG1
IgG1
IgG2
IgG2
Antigen
IgG1
Figure IV-2 Interaction of an antibody with an antigen. (a) One molecule of antibody can bind the same
epitope or region on two individual molecules of the antigen. (b) Once a single epitope of an
antigen is bound by a single molecule of the antibody (IgG1), another molecule of the same
antibody will not be able to bind the same molecule of antigen. A different antibody (IgG2)
may still be able to bind the same molecule of antigen at a different site or epitope.
state of anergy, in which it will no longer be allowed self-antigens with their surface IgD prevents the
to develop into a fully mature, antibody-secreting onset of various autoimmune diseases. Structurally,
B cell. As is the case with surface IgM, selection IgD is similar to IgG (see Fig. IV-1), but it contains
against B-cell precursors that recognize soluble a number of N-linked carbohydrate groups near the
266 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
junction between the variable and constant regions
of the heavy chain. Immunoglobulin G is the most abundant isotype
found in the blood. Unlike the pentameric form of
IgM, which provides protection due largely to its
Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
ability to activate the complement system, IgG of-
Immunoglobulin A is the isotype responsible for fers protection through opsonization of the invading
conferring protective immunity to the mucousal pathogen or agent. After IgG binds the antigen, it
membranes that line the intestinal, respiratory, and can induce macrophages, neutrophils, and other
urogenital tracts. IgA acts by neutralizing foreign phagocytes to engulf and destroy it. This process
bacteria and viruses that enter the body via these occurs after the macrophage or other cell binds the
pathways. Possessing a high affinity (and avidity) for antigen–antibody complex through IgG receptors
surface antigens on these types of pathogens, IgA (Fc receptors) on their cell surface. IgG is the ma-
binds them and prevents their attachment to, and jor immunoglobulin isotype induced with the re-
subsequent infection of, the epithelial cells that line peated introduction of a foreign antigen into the
these tissues. Unlike IgD and IgM, IgA functions bloodstream (hyperimmunization), and generally
mainly as a dimer in these areas of the body, although exhibits the highest intrinsic binding affinities for
very low levels of the monomeric form of IgA may be antigens. Thus, IgG is the most common isotype
found in vascular bound fluids. The structure of the used in biochemical studies (see below).
IgA isoform most closely resembles that of the IgD
isoform, containing a heavily glycosylated stretch of
amino acids at the junction between the variable and Polyclonal and Monoclonal
constant regions of the heavy-chain peptides. Antibodies
An immunogen is defined as an agent that can elicit
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
an immune response. An antigen is defined as any
The immunoglobulin E isotype is associated with molecule that a particular antibody has affinity for,
mast cells of the skin, mucosal membranes, and ves- or recognizes. While it is possible to raise antibod-
sels that line connective tissue. IgE appears to play ies against virtually any protein, hormone, or chem-
SECTION IV Introduction 267
ical, not all potential antigens are themselves im- Second, some of the IgM-bound antigen will be en-
munogenic. There are two methods that can be em- gulfed by the B cell, degraded, and presented again
ployed to elicit an immune response to an inher- on the surface of the B cell as small peptides bound
ently nonimmunogenic compound in an attempt to by the major histocompatibilty complex class II (MHC
raise antibodies that will recognize it. II). Eventually, this MHC II complex is bound by
The first method involves the use of an adju- T helper cells that secrete interleukins-4, 5, and 6.
vant, an immunostimulant that will increase the im- The net effect of T-helper-cell binding and inter-
munogenicity of other compounds that are mixed leukin secretion is that the B cell will undergo rapid
with it. If a protein is mixed with heat-killed my- differentiation and proliferation. Third, follicular
cobacteria in an oil/water emulsion (Freund’s adju- dendritic cells in the lymph nodes will bind the B cell
vant) and injected into a host animal, the host’s im- and stimulate its growth and development via a sep-
mune system will mount a response to the protein arate phosphorylation cascade. Remember that each
in the mixture and produce antibodies that will have B cell produces a single antibody that recognizes a single
affinity for it. By delivering the protein antigen in epitope on the antigen with a defined affinity. A popu-
an oil emulsion, the protein is slowly released into lation of antibodies derived from many different B
the bloodstream so that it can be engulfed by cells will therefore recognize different epitopes on
macrophages and recognized by mature B cells ex- the antigen with different affinities and with po-
pressing surface IgM and IgD. The components tentially different attractive forces (electrostatic,
present in the mycobacteria are also crucial in that hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, etc.).
they stimulate macrophages and proliferation of
other immune system cell types that will eventually
Polyclonal Antibodies
be required for B cell activation. Another adjuvant
containing aluminum hydroxide and heat-killed Polyclonal antibodies are a population of different
Bordetella pertussis (the pathogenic bacteria that immunoglobulins derived from different B cells
causes whooping cough) is becoming more fre- that recognize an antigen. As such, they frequently
quently used because of its ability to enhance the bind to different epitopes on the antigen with dif-
immune response to immunogenic antigens. ferent affinities. The process of raising polyclonal
The second method involves chemically conju- antibodies against an antigen of interest is relatively
gating a small molecule (hapten) to an immunogenic simple (Fig. IV-4). The antigen–adjuvant mixture
protein carrier. This procedure is often used to raise is first injected into the bloodstream of the host an-
antibodies against small organic molecules such as imal. About 7 days after this primary injection, the
nitrophenols, antibiotics, and hormones, which are concentration of serum IgG that is able to recog-
normally not able to elicit an immune response on nize the antigen will begin to rise. About 13 to 17
their own. Although this method will lead to the days following the primary immunization, the
production of antibodies that recognize both the serum level of IgG that recognizes the antigen of
protein carrier and the hapten–carrier conjugate, a interest will be at a maximum. The host organism
subpopulation of antibodies will also be able to rec- will then begin to “clear” the antigen from its sys-
ognize only the hapten. tem, causing the concentration of antigen-specific
As the antigen of interest is injected into the serum IgG to decrease back to pre-immunization
bloodstream of the host animal, it will encounter B levels.
cells expressing both surface IgD and IgM. Three If the same host animal is again immunized
events will take place that will ultimately lead to the with the antigen (a “booster” injection), the im-
activation and proliferation of B cells that recog- mune response mounted against it will be both
nize the injected antigen. First, the surface IgM on greater in magnitude and more rapid than the re-
the B cell will become cross-linked as it binds the sponse seen following the primary immunization.
antigen, triggering a phosphorylation cascade that Approximately 4 days after the secondary immu-
will release intracellular Ca2, activate Ca2-de- nization, the serum levels of antigen-specific IgG
pendent kinases, and eventually lead to the activa- will be at a maximum (as compared to 13 to 17 days
tion (phosphorylation) of various transcription fac- following the primary immunization). In addition
tors that promote cell division (proliferation). to being more rapid, the response to the secondary
268 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Y
ent. The immunization process merely attempts
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y Y
Y
B B
B B
B
B
B
B
Polyethylene glycol
Hybridoma
B (B cell fused with
myeloma cell)
B Unfused B cell
Limiting dilution
Microtiter plate
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y
containing HAT
Y
Y
B B
media
Figure IV-5 Production of a hybridoma cell line that produces a monoclonal antibody against an antigen
of interest.
270 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
sultant hybridoma cells in culture (mortal B cells performed properly, it is possible to isolate a hy-
fused with immortal myeloma cells), the mixture is bridoma that produces an antibody that fits any se-
added to a medium that contains hypoxanthine- lective criterion.
aminopterin-thymidine (HAT). Aminopterin is an
antifolate that blocks de novo purine nucleotide
biosynthesis, making cells dependent on hypoxan- Purification of Antibodies
thine and thymidine for growth. B cells normally
express an enzyme called hypoxanthine guanosine A hybridoma cell line will secrete a monoclonal an-
phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT), which allows tibody into the culture medium in relatively pure
cells to take up hypoxanthine. The myeloma fusion form. Because of this, monoclonal antibodies re-
partner does not express this enzyme. A cell that quire less purification than polyclonal antibodies. A
does not express HGPRT, therefore, will not be serum sample containing polyclonal antibodies
able to grow in the presence of HAT. Thus, any B contains both antigen-specific and nonspecific im-
cell that has fused with a myeloma cell (a hy- munoglobulins, as well as multiple other serum pro-
bridoma) will be immortal, will produce HGPRT teins. For example, a large percentage of the serum
derived from the B cell, and will be able to grow in (80–90%) is comprised of albumin. Unlike the
the HAT-containing medium. Myeloma cells that serum immunoglobulins, serum albumin is soluble
did not fuse with a B cell will not express HGPRT in a solution at 50% ammonium sulfate saturation.
and will die in HAT medium. Although unfused B Thus, if a serum sample is slowly brought to 50%
cells do express HGPRT, their lifespan in culture saturation with ammonium sulfate, the im-
is sufficiently short that they too will be unable to munoglobulins will selectively precipitate out of so-
grow effectively in the HAT-containing medium. In lution, leaving the albumin in the supernatant. This
effect, only hybrid cells that are immortal and which very simple procedure, completed in less than an
express HGPRT will grow effectively. hour, can increase the purity of a polyclonal anti-
Once a collection of hybridoma cells has been body solution by an order of magnitude (see Ex-
isolated, a long screening and cloning process lies periment 17).
ahead. After identification of cultures that contain If you wish to separate the antibodies in a poly-
the desired antibody (the hybridoma cell will se- clonal antibody solution that recognize the antigen
crete antibody into the growth medium), limiting of interest from those that do not, the specificity of
dilutions of the hybridoma population are made in the antigen–antibody interaction must be exploited.
HAT media in a 96-well microtiter plate. This lim- Because all IgGs possess the same general structure,
iting dilution is performed in an effort to obtain differing only in amino acid composition within the
one hybridoma cell per well. These hybridomas are variable region, you cannot effectively isolate spe-
allowed to grow, and the medium is again analyzed cific IgGs within the population by differences in
for the presence of antibody that binds to the anti- size, shape, and surface charge on which general
gen of interest. After one or several positive clones techniques in protein purification are based (see in-
are identified, an additional round of limiting dilu- troduction to Experiment 2). The one and perhaps
tion and screening is performed. Each hybridoma only property that will distinguish one IgG from
clone represents a single, immortalized B cell that will another is the specificity of the antigen with which
produce a single (monoclonal) antibody. A number of it is able to interact.
different selective criteria may be employed during If you are able to chemically conjugate the anti-
the screening and cloning process. For instance, gen of interest to an inert support or matrix, the
you may wish to clone a hybridoma that produces antigen will “capture” antibodies in the polyclonal
an antibody with a defined affinity (KD 108, solution that recognize it as it passes through the
106, etc.). You may wish to raise an antibody that matrix (Fig. IV-6). After extensive washing, a pop-
recognizes a particular epitope on the antigen of in- ulation of immunoglobulins that recognize epitopes
terest. You may wish to raise an antibody that binds on the antigen will remain bound to the antigen on
the antigen with a certain type of prevailing attrac- the matrix. To isolate the antigen-specific antibod-
tive force (e.g., electrostatic as opposed to hy- ies, you have to experiment with different mobile-
drophobic). If the screening process is designed and phase compositions (alter pH, ionic strength, de-
SECTION IV Introduction 271
Y Antibodies that have affinity for the antibody. Typical elution procedures involve
Y
low pH buffers (0.1 M glycine, pH 2.0) or 5 M
Y
the antigen will be retained by
the column. Antibodies that
Y Y Y
MgCl2. Fortunately, IgG molecules are quite sta-
Y
Y
Y do not have affinity for
Y
the antigen will wash through. ble, and can often withstand the relatively harsh
conditions that are often required to elute them
from affinity columns. Although this type of im-
munoaffinity chromatography may be difficult to
optimize, it has been used successfully in the pu-
rification of antigen-specific antibodies from poly-
clonal antibody solutions. Many of the secondary
antibody reagents that are commercially available
Y
(e.g., used in Experiments 17 and 18) have been pu-
Y
Y rified in this manner.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y membrane not already bound with protein.
Y
Y
Y
Western blot format. In general, radiolabeled anti- sites and the epitopes on the antigen that they rec-
bodies alleviate the need for enzyme-conjugated ognize differ among members of the population. If
secondary antibodies in both the ELISA and the the antigen and antibody are mixed together in cor-
Western blot. The major disadvantage to using 125I- rect proportions, the different polyclonal antibod-
labeled antibodies is the hazard associated with this ies can bind to different regions on a number of dif-
isotope (125I is volatile in its unconjugated form and ferent antigen molecules to create a large complex
emits very high-energy rays). (Fig. IV-8a). These large protein aggregates are of-
ten insoluble, precipitating out of solution. If a fixed
amount of either the antigen or antibody is incu-
Immunoprecipitation
bated with increasing concentrations of the other
As discussed earlier, a single IgG antibody has two component, you will be able to determine an opti-
identical antigen-binding sites or “arms.” In the mal antigen:antibody ratio for use in future im-
case of polyclonal antibodies, the antigen-binding munoprecipitation experiments.
a
Aggregate Pure antigen
IgG heavy chain
(~50kDa)
SDS-PAGE
b
Aggregate Pure antigen
IgG heavy chain
SDS-PAGE
Protein that
interacts strongly
with the antigen
Figure IV-8 Use of immunoprecipitation to purify antigens and antigen associated proteins.
274 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Remove supernatant
Components in solution not bound Resuspend matrix in elution buffer that will
or recognized by the antibody weaken the affinity of protein A
for the immunoglobulin
has affinity for most immunoglobulins (not just termine the subcellular localization of an antigen of
those that recognize the antigen of interest), it is of interest with high resolution.
little use in purifying antigen-specific antibodies
from a polyclonal antibody solution. Immobilized
Flow Cytometry
Protein A is used, however, to purify immunoglob-
ulins from serum samples. In addition to the technique of fluorescence mi-
croscopy, fluorescently labeled antibodies are cur-
rently used in flow cytometry. This technique allows
Immunofluorescence Microscopy and
the identification and isolation of individual cells in
Immunohistochemistry
a complex mixture according to the antigens they ex-
These two techniques are used to identify the loca- press on their surface. For example, among a diverse
tion of a particular antigen within a cell or tissue. population of cells, some may express an antigen, X,
In addition to covalent coupling of antibodies to on their surface. After incubating the cells with a
enzymes for Western blots and ELISAs, antibodies fluorescently labeled anti-X antibody, the cells are
can also be conjugated to fluorescent dyes. After a tis- passed in a narrow tubing through a laser beam. As
sue section or cell has been isolated, ruptured, and the laser hits the surface of a single cell, it will ex-
fixed to a coverslip, it can be labeled with a fluo- cite the fluorescently labeled antibody bound to
rescently “tagged” antibody that is specific for a antigen X on the surface of the cells that express it.
particular antigen believed to reside in it. As the Each time a fluorescently “tagged” cell passes
sample is subjected to incident light, the antibod- through the laser, a sensitive photomultiplier tube
ies bound to the antigen of interest will emit light (PMT) will detect and count that event (Fig. IV-10).
in the visible spectrum and be detectable with a flu- More than 100,000 cells can be passed through the
orescence microscope. Because there are a number laser beam in less than a minute. Cells that do not
of different dyes available that excite at different express antigen X on their surface will not fluoresce
wavelengths and emit light of different colors (although they will scatter the incident light to some
within the visible range of wavelengths, a number extent) and will not be detected by the PMT. This
of different fluorescent antibodies can be applied approach can determine the exact number or per-
to a single cell or tissue section simultaneously. centage of cells in a diverse population that express
The results of this type of experiment can provide antigen X on their surface. In addition, the PMT
insight into the cellular location of numerous pro- can distinguish between differences in fluorescent
teins and small molecules, providing the investiga- intensity from one cell to another, providing insight
tor with an understanding of the in vivo environ- into variations in the level of expression of antigen
ment of the molecule under study. X from cell to cell. For example, if cell 1 is five times
The technique of immunohistochemistry is very greater in fluorescent intensity than cell 2 as it passes
similar to fluorescence microscopy. This technique through the laser, then the concentration of antigen
differs only in the method of detection or localiza- X on the surface of cell 1 is five times greater than
tion of the antibody and can be performed with a that on cell 2.
conventional light microscope. As with the ELISA A flow cytometer may be equipped with more
and Western blot, the antibody used in this exper- than one PMT, each capable of detecting fluo-
iment is covalently conjugated to an enzyme, such rescence of a particular wavelength. Thus, a cell
as horseradish peroxidase. This enzyme is then in- population can be incubated with more than one
cubated with a substrate that is converted to an in- antibody, provided that the fluorescent dyes con-
soluble colored product that will precipitate or de- jugated to them emit light of different wave-
posit at the site of enzyme activity. The distribution lengths. This “double label” experiment will al-
and location of the colored product is readily de- low you to distinguish cells expressing both
tected with an ordinary light microscope. antigens from those expressing either of the two
Another related technique utilizes antibodies antigens individually.
that are conjugated to large, electron-dense atoms, A fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) is a flow
such as gold. When used in conjunction with elec- cytometer capable of isolating individual cells
tron microscopy, these probes can be used to de- within a diverse population that are expressing a
276 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
antibody 1
Cells are not Cells labeled
labeled only with antibody 2
PM
T1
PMT 3 PMT 2
surface antigen of interest. The detection mecha- lated by this technique can be propagated in cul-
nism of the FACS is identical to that of the con- ture and utilized in future studies.
ventional flow cytometer. The difference lies in the
computer-generated feedback system of the FACS
that is absent in the flow cytometer. As the PMT Advantages and Disadvantages
of the FACS identifies a fluorescent cell, the in- of Polyclonal and Monoclonal
strument divides the population into a fine mist that Antibodies
carries a single cell per droplet. Each fluorescent
droplet is charged by the PMT and passed through Both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies have
an electrode that carries a charge opposite that of the proven to be very effective in a number of differ-
droplet. Any cell that expresses antigen X (fluores- ent biological applications, but there are distinct ad-
cently labeled) can thereby be separated from the vantages and disadvantages to employing each type
remaining cell population as the mist passes across of antibody for a particular study. First, polyclonal
the charged plate (Fig. IV-11). Cell populations iso- antibodies are generally more stable than mono-
SECTION IV Introduction 277
Laser
PM
T
clonal antibodies. While monoclonal antibodies centration of antigen-specific serum IgG. If an im-
may begin to denature after several weeks of stor- pure antigen is used for immunization, the relative
age at 80°C, polyclonal antibody serum can often concentration of serum antibodies that recognize
be stored at 4°C for years before any significant loss the impurities in the antigen mixture will be in-
of titer is observed. While polyclonal antibodies are creased along with the relative concentration of
more stable, they differ from monoclonal antibod- antigen-specific antibodies. In contrast, mono-
ies in that their supply is limited. Once the host an- clonal antibodies can often be raised with the in-
imal dies, the source of a particular preparation of jection of lower concentrations of impure antigen.
polyclonal antibody is gone. While the immuniza- Since the thousands of hybridomas produced will
tion process can be repeated on another host ani- be screened for antigen-specific antibody produc-
mal, a different polyclonal antibody will be pro- tion, the B cells that differentiated to produce an-
duced that requires its own quality control and tibodies that recognize antigens other than the one
testing. In contrast, monoclonal antibodies are pro- of interest will eventually be eliminated during the
duced from a single immortalized B cell. The cell cloning process. In effect, you must find the few
line can be stored indefinitely (as a frozen culture hybridomas that are producing the antibodies of in-
stock) and grown whenever more of the antibody terest among the thousands that are screened.
is needed. Since polyclonal antibodies recognize a variety
Polyclonal antibody production requires the use of epitopes on the antigen, they generally work well
of relatively large quantities of pure antigen for im- in the technique of immunoprecipitation (see be-
munization. Remember that the goal of polyclonal low). Many polyclonal antibody preparations have
antibody production is to increase the relative con- also proven to be effective in the techniques of
278 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Western blotting and ELISA. The main concern study of biochemistry, natural and recombinant an-
with the use of polyclonal antibodies for these lat- tibody technology promises to be of great use in
ter techniques is the potential for cross-reactivity the treatment and prevention of numerous diseases.
of some of the antibodies with proteins other than
the antigen of interest. The problem of cross-reac-
tivity is easier to control in Western blotting than REFERENCES
in ELISAs, since a Western blot (see Experiment
18) will identify the molecular weight of any cross- Alzari, P. M., Lanscombe, M., and Poljak, R. J. (1988).
reacting protein and allow you to evaluate which of Three-Dimensional Structure of Antibodies. Annu
the signals may be due to nonspecific interactions. Rev Immunol 6:555.
Because an ELISA analyzes the extent of interac- Burkhardt, A. L., Brunswick, M., Bolen, J. B., and
tion between all of the antibodies in a solution with Mond, J. J. (1991). Anti-immunoglobulin Stimula-
tion of B Lymphocytes Activates src-Related Pro-
all of the potential antigens present in the mi-
tein-Tyrosine Kinases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
crotiter plate (see Experiment 17), it is more diffi- 88:7410.
cult to determine which of the potentially numer- Chapus, R. M., and Koshland, M. E. (1974). Mecha-
ous interactions are specific for the antigen of nisms of IgM Polymerization. Proc Natl Acad Sci
interest. USA 71:657.
Since monoclonal antibodies recognize a par- Harlow, E., and Lane, D. (1988). Antibodies, A Labora-
ticular epitope on the antigen, they tend to be less tory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring
cross-reactive than polyclonal antibodies in West- Harbor Laboratory Press.
ern blotting and ELISAs. Also, because the inter- Janeway, C. A., Rosen, F. S., Merler, E., and Alper,
action takes place with a defined affinity (dissocia- C. A. (1969). The Gamma Globulins, 2nd ed.
tion constant), monoclonal antibodies are Boston: Little, Brown.
Janeway, C. A., Jr., and Travers, P. (1996). Immunobiol-
frequently preferred in the technique of im-
ogy: The Immune System in Health and Disease, 2nd
munoaffinity chromatography (see Introduction to ed. New York: Garland.
Experiment 2). The wide variety of antigen–anti- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
body interactions that are present in a polyclonal (1993). An Introduction to Proteins. In: Principles of
antibody preparation makes it difficult to define a Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
mobile-phase buffer that will promote the elution Natvig, J. B., and Kunkel, H. G. (1973). Human Im-
of the antigen of interest in good yield from an im- munoglobulin: Classes, Subclasses, Genetic Vari-
munoaffinity column prepared with polyclonal an- ants, and Idiotypes. Adv Immunol 16:1.
tibodies. Nemazee, D., and Burki, K. (1989). Clonal Deletion of
Regardless of the type of antibody you decide B Lymphocytes in a Transgenic Mouse Bearing
to produce, it is likely that you will be able to de- Anti-MHC Class I Antibody Genes. Nature
337:562.
velop effective applications for their use in the study
Paul, W. E. (1993). Fundamental Immunology, 3rd ed.
of a particular biochemical process or pathway. A New York: Raven Press.
survey of scientific literature indicates that at least Stryer, L. (1995). Exploring Proteins. In: Biochemistry,
25% of all published research articles in the disci- 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
pline of biochemistry utilize antibodies and im- Tedder, T. F., Zhou, L. J., and Engel, P. (1994). The
munochemistry in one form or another. In addition CD19/CD21 Signal Transduction Complex of B
to providing scientists with a powerful tool in the Lymphocytes. Immunol Today 15:437.
f(
EXPERIMENT 17
279
280 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
amount of the non-ionic detergent, Tween 20, and colored product. The reaction is stopped with the
NaCl to disrupt any weak ionic or hydrophobic in- addition of 4 N H2SO4, which will also convert the
teractions that may be involved in these nonspecific blue-colored product to a form that absorbs light
interactions. A second antibody specific for the anti- at 450 nm (yellow in color, Fig. 17-1). The inten-
-galactosidase antibody is then added (secondary sity of the yellow color in each well (A450) will be
antibody) to allow it to bind the primary antibody. proportional to the amount of primary antibody
As with the Western blot experiment, the secondary that has bound to the antigen at the bottom of the
antibody is covalently conjugated to the enzyme well. The ELISA procedure just described is de-
horseradish peroxidase (HRP). This enzyme will picted in Figure 17-2.
eventually take part in a color-producing reaction Once the titer of the mouse-anti--galactosi-
that will allow you to determine the titer of the pri- dase monoclonal antibody has been determined, a
mary antibody. Remember that you will be using competitive ELISA can be performed to determine
two different anti--galactosidase primary antibod- the concentration of the antigen in an unknown so-
ies in this experiment. For assays performed using lution. The only variation in the competitive ELISA
rabbit polyclonal antibodies, HRP-goat-antirabbit from that of the standard ELISA is that the primary
IgG must be used as the secondary antibody. For antibody incubation will be performed in the pres-
assays performed using the mouse monoclonal anti- ence of soluble -galactosidase (antigen that is not
body as the primary antibody, HRP-goat-antimouse adsorbed to the bottom of the well). The theory un-
IgG must be used as the secondary antibody. derlying the competitive ELISA is shown in Figure
After a series of wash steps to remove any sec- 17-3. If the primary antibody-binding step is per-
ondary antibody bound nonspecifically to proteins formed in the presence of soluble antigen, the sol-
on the bottom of the well other than the primary uble antigen will compete with the plate-bound anti-
antibody, a mixture of 3,3⬘,5,5⬘-tetramethylbenzi- gen for antibody binding. The more soluble antigen
dene (TMB) and hydrogen peroxide is added. The that is present during the primary antibody incu-
HRP enzyme conjugated to the secondary antibody bation, the less antibody will bind to the antigen on
will use these substrates to produce a soluble, blue- the plate. The lower the concentration of antibody
ⴙⴢ
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
horseradish peroxidase
H2N NH2 H2N NH2
(H2O2)
H
CH3 CH3
H2N NH2
CH3 CH3
Di-imine product
(absorbs light at 450 nm and
appears yellow)
Primary
antibody
TMB + H2O2
HRP HRP
conjugated
secondary antibody
Incubate with primary antibody
Primary antibody and allow it to bind the antigen
Blue bound to the bottom of the well.
product Wash away unbound antibody.
bound to the plate, the lower the A450 value that undetected. If the antibody concentration is too
each well will display at the end of the assay. As the low, addition of any soluble -galactosidase will pre-
concentration of soluble antigen decreases, more vent binding of the antibody to antigen on the plate,
antibody will be free to bind the antigen on the and the A450 values will never increase above the
plate, increasing the A450 value for each well. background value. As with Western blotting, the
It is important that the competitive ELISA ex- ideal dilutions of the primary and secondary anti-
periment be performed at a primary antibody con- bodies must often be determined empirically (opti-
centration (dilution) that is most sensitive to changes mized) for each experimental situation.
in the concentration of soluble -galactosidase. Horseradish peroxidase is one of several en-
This dilution can be determined from a plot of A450 zymes that are commonly used for the detection of
versus the log of the inverse dilution of the primary antigens in the ELISA. Like HRP-conjugated an-
antibody as described in the experimental protocol tibodies, secondary antibodies conjugated with
(inverse dilution is the same as the degree to which these other enzymes are commercially available. A
the sample was diluted; for example, if the sample list of ELISA detection enzymes, the substrates that
was diluted 1:1000, the inverse dilution is 1000). If they use, and the wavelengths of detection for the
the primary antibody concentration is too high, soluble colored products that they produce is pre-
there will be enough antibody to bind both the sol- sented in Table 17-1.
uble and plate-bound antigen, and changes in the Still another variation of the ELISA exploits the
concentration of soluble -galactosidase may go strong interaction between biotin and streptavidin,
282 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
No competition. Use an
antibody dilution that
gives a half–maximum
A450 in the ELISA Decreasing competition with soluble antigen
A450
++++ – ++ +++
% inhibition
0 100 50 25
Figure 17-3 The competitive ELISA. If soluble antigen is included during the primary antibody incubation,
the soluble antigen will compete for antibody binding with the plate-bound antigen.
one of the strongest noncovalent interactions found tibody is used as the primary antibody in an ELISA,
in nature (KD ⫽ 10⫺15 M). Many commercially it is detected with the use of streptavidin that has
available reagents allow investigators to cross-link been conjugated to one of the enzymes listed in
(conjugate) biotin to antibodies. If a biotinylated an- Table 17-1. For more information on biotin, strep-
Wavelength
Enzyme Substrate for Detection (nm)
3,3⬘,5,5⬘-Tetramethyl- 450
benzidene (TMB)
-Galactosidase o-Nitrophenyl-,D- 405
galactopyranoside (ONPG)
EXPERIMENT 17 Partial Purification of a Polyclonal Antibody, Determination of Titer, 283
and Quantitation of an Antigen Using the ELISA
tavidin, and their use in immunochemical assays, see Immulon-2 96 well flat-bottomed microtiter plate (Fisher
Figure 18-4 and the introduction to Experiment 18. product #1424561)
96-Well microplate spectrophotometer
-galactosidase solution (unknown concentration) in 1X
Supplies and Reagents PBS
4 N H2SO4
P-20, P-200, P-1000 Pipetmen with disposable tips
Pasteur pipettes
Parafilm Protocol
Saturated ammonium sulfate solution
1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes Day 1: Partial Purification of Antibodies
10⫻ Phosphate-buffered saline (10X PBS, pH 7.3): This (IgG) from Normal Rabbit Serum and Anti-
solution should be diluted 1:10 with distilled water to -Galactosidase Rabbit Serum
produce the 1X PBS (working solution) described in the
protocol. 1. Obtain a 0.2-ml sample of normal or pre-
immune rabbit serum (NS) and anti--
2.56 g/liter NaH2PO4 ⭈ H2O
galactosidase rabbit serum (immune serum,
22.48 g/liter Na2HPO4 ⭈ 7H2O
IS) from the instructor.
87.6 g/liter NaCl
2. Transfer 0.1 ml of each sample to two separate
Rabbit serum (normal or pre-immune rabbit serum and 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes labeled NS and
anti--galactosidase serum)* IS.
Spectrophotometer to read absorbances at 280 nm 3. Slowly add 0.1 ml of saturated ammonium sul-
Cuvettes for spectrophotometer fate solution to each tube, cap, and invert the
Polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20, Sigma tubes several times to mix (do not use a Vortex
Catalog #P-5927) mixer).
-Galactosidase solutions (40 g/ml and 10 g/ml) in 1X 4. Incubate the tubes for 15 min on ice. Cen-
PBS (Sigma product #G-6008) trifuge the samples at 4°C for 10 min in the
Blocking solution (1X PBS containing 1.0% wt/vol microcentrifuge.
bovine serum albumin (BSA) and 0.05% vol/vol 5. Remove the supernatant from the precipitated
polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20))
IgG pellet in each tube and discard. The serum
Wash solution (1X PBS containing 0.05% vol/vol Tween
consists of 80 to 90% albumin, which is solu-
20)
ble at 50% ammonium sulfate saturation. The
Mouse-anti--galactosidase monoclonal antibody ( J1)
(Sigma Product #G-8021)*
IgG is insoluble at 50% ammonium sulfate sat-
Secondary antibodies: uration and will precipitate.
6. Resuspend the protein (IgG) pellet in 0.1 ml of
Goat-antirabbit IgG (HRP conjugated) (Kirkegaard 1X PBS, pH 7.3, and repeat steps 3 to 5.
& Perry product #074–1506) 7. Resuspend the protein pellet in 1.0 ml of PBS,
Goat-antimouse IgG (HRP conjugated) (Kirkegaard pH 7.3. Make the following dilutions of the NS
& Perry product #074–1802) and IS samples in 1X PBS as follows:
Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) substrate (3,3⬘5,5⬘- Volume of Volume of
tetramethylbenzidene and H2O2) (Kirkegaard & Sample PBS (ml) Sample (ml)
Perry product #50–7600)
NS (untreated) 0.990 0.010
IS (untreated) 0.990 0.010
NS [(NH4)2SO4 purified] 0.667 0.333
*The dilutions of the anti--galactosidase antibodies described in this
experiment are approximate. The titers of particular antibody samples IS [(NH4)2SO4 purified] 0.667 0.333
(even if they are from commercial sources) may vary significantly. Be-
cause of this, we strongly recommend that the instructor test different
dilutions of the primary antibodies that are to be used in the experi- 8. Read the absorbance of each 1.0-ml solution at
ment beforehand (using this same general protocol) to optimize the 280 nm, using 1X PBS to zero your spec-
results. We find that there is less variability with the secondary anti-
body dilutions than with the primary antibody dilutions from semester trophotometer. Estimate the total protein con-
to semester. centration in each sample using Beer’s law
284 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Samples (Day 2) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Immune rabbit
No dilution
serum stock B No 1° Ab 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
of stock
(untreated)
Normal rabbit
serum stock No dilution
C No 1° Ab 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
(ammonium- of stock
sulfate –purified)
Immune rabbit
serum stock No dilution
D No 1° Ab 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
(ammonium- of stock
sulfate –purified)
JI monoclonal No dilution
E No 1° Ab 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
(mouse stock) of stock
40 g/ml Blank
No dilution
-galactosidase F No 1° or 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
of stock
standard 2° Ab
-galactosidase
No dilution
at unknown G No 1° Ab 1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32 1:64 1:128 1:256 1:512 1:1024
of stock
concentrations
samples (dilute antibody across each row). Rows F to H will be used to determine the con-
Figure 17-4 96-Well microtiter plate ELISA. Rows A to E will be used to determine the titer of antibody
centration of soluble -galactosidase in an unknown solution (dilute antigen across each row).
Use goat-antirabbit IgG secondary antibody for rows A to D. Use goat-antimouse IgG secondary antibody for rows E to H.
285
286 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
12. Incubate the primary antibody solutions at stop the reaction. NOTE: It is important that
room temperature for 30 min. During the in- the wells within a particular row be incubated
cubation, the anti--galactosidase antibodies in with the substrate for the same period of time.
the various samples will bind to the antigen on It is not necessary to have the incubation time
the bottom of the wells. be the same between each row. For instance, the
13. Invert and shake the plate to remove the pri- wells in row A may require a 5-min incubation
mary antibody solutions from rows A through time before color development, while the wells
E. Fill each well completely with wash buffer. in row E may require only a 2-min incubation
Discard the wash buffer as before and repeat for color development. Before you begin to
the wash step three more times. Remove the stop the reactions in a particular row, the in-
last traces of wash buffer from the wells after tensity of blue color in wells 2 and 3 of that
the final wash by inverting the plate and tap- row should appear to be about equal. If the re-
ping the plate extensively on a piece of paper actions in a particular row are stopped too
towel. quickly, the determination of the titer will be
14. Dilute the HRP conjugated secondary anti- difficult (see step 24 and Fig. 17-5).
bodies as follows in blocking buffer: 21. Stop the reaction in each well by adding 100
l of 4 N H2SO4. The solution will immedi-
Secondary Antibody Dilution
ately change from a blue to yellow color. It is
HRP-goat-anti-rabbit IgG 1:9000 (2.5 ml total) important that the reactions are stopped in the same
HRP-goat-anti-mouse IgG 1:10,000 (0.8 ml total) order in which the TMB substrate was added to
start the reaction. For instance, if row A was started
1A to 12A, then row A should be stopped 1A to
15. Add 50 l of the HRP-goat-antirabbit IgG an- 12A.
tibody to all of the wells in rows A to D except 22. Using well 1A as a blank to zero the instrument
well 1A. Add 50 l of blocking buffer to well at 450 nm (no primary or secondary antibody),
1A to prevent it from drying out. read the A450 of the wells in rows A to E in the
16. Add 50 l of the HRP-goat-antimouse IgG an-
tibody to all of the wells in row E.
17. Incubate the secondary antibody solutions at
room temperature for 30 min. During this in- Plate-bound antigen is saturated
cubation, the secondary antibody will bind the with antibody at low dilutions
primary antibody bound to the antigen at the 1.0
bottom of the wells.
18. Remove the secondary antibody solutions from
rows A to E and wash each well four times with
wash buffer as described in step 13. Be sure to
remove all of the wash buffer from these wells Half-maximum A450
A450
microplate spectrophotometer. Consult the in- 28. Compare the titers of the untreated NS and
structor for information on how to operate the IS samples with those of their corresponding
microplate spectrophotometer. ammonium-sulfate–treated samples. Has the
23. Subtract the A450 value of well 1C from all of titer of NS or IS changed at all following
the other A450 values in rows A and C. Sub- treatment with ammounium sulfate? Explain.
tract the A450 value of well 1B from all of the 29. Using the total protein concentrations (in mil-
other A450 values in row B. Subtract the A450 ligrams per milliliter) for each primary anti-
value of well 1D from all of the other A450 val- body sample determined on Day 1, calculate
ues in row D. Subtract the A450 value of well the “specific activity” of the four rabbit serum
1E from all the other A450 values in row E. samples using the following equation:
These corrected absorbance values will be used
to produce the graphs described below. This is “Specific activity” (titer ⭈ ml/mg)
done to account for the fact that the secondary an- titer of antibody sample
⫽
tibodies may have bound nonspecifically to other pro- total protein concentration (mg/ml)
teins on the bottom of the wells besides the differ-
ent IgG samples (background). The value in well (Note that this differs from the traditional defini-
1 for each row represents the background A450 value tion of specific activity as used in the discussion of
produced from the secondary antibody bound non- enzymes.)
specifically to the bottom of the well (no primary Is this value the same for the untreated
antibody present). NS and IS samples and their corresponding
24. Prepare a plot of A450 versus the log of the in- ammonium-sulfate–treated samples? Explain
verse antibody dilution (a 1:10 dilution ⫽ 1, a your results.
1:100 dilution ⫽ 2, etc.). Plot the data from all
30. Determine the titer of the J1 monoclonal an-
five primary antibody samples on a single graph
tibody. The half maximum A450 value should
for comparison. If the assay was successful, each
be somewhere between 0.5 and 0.6 if the reac-
antibody solution should produce a sigmoidal
tions in the wells were stopped at the appro-
curve in this type of plot (see Fig. 17-5). The
priate time. This information will be used on
various primary antibody stock solutions were di-
Day 3 in the competitive ELISA assay to de-
luted prior to performing twofold serial dilutions
termine the concentration of -galactosidase in
across each row (see step 4). Keep this in mind when
an unknown solution.
you construct your graph.
25. Identify the position on each curve where the
A450 value is exactly half of the maximum A450
Day 3: Determination of the Concentration
value for each primary antibody sample. From
of -Galactosidase in an Unknown Solution
these points on the graph, determine the titer
of each antibody sample: For purposes of this ex- 1. Follow steps 1 to 3 from the protocol described
periment, the titer will be defined as the inverse of for Day 2 (blocking steps) for all of the wells
the dilution of the antibody that yields a half-max- in rows F to H (see Fig. 17-4).
imum A450 value in the ELISA. For example, an 2. Prepare 1 ml of a J1 monoclonal antibody so-
antibody that displayed a half maximum A450 lution in blocking buffer that is twice as con-
value at a 1:1000 dilution has a titer of 1000. centrated as the dilution that yielded a half
26. Remove the parafilm from rows F to H. Add maximum A450 value in the ELISA performed
50 l of the 10 g/ml -galactosidase solution on Day 2 (A450 0.5 to 0.6). For example, if
in 1⫻ PBS to all the wells in rows F and G, as a 110,000 dilution yielded a half-maximum
well as wells 1H through 4H. Cover the plate A450 value on Day 2, prepare a solution that
loosely with plastic wrap and store it at 4°C for is diluted 1:5000 in blocking buffer. Because
use on Day 3. you will be adding an equal volume of soluble -
27. Compare the titer of the untreated NS and IS galactosidase to the wells during the primary an-
samples. Which is larger? Explain your obser- tibody incubation, you will need a primary anti-
vation. body dilution that is half that used on Day 2. This
288 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
will bring the working dilution of the J1 mono- wells in rows F and G, as well as wells 1H to
clonal antibody in the well to its titer value, where 4H. Note the time at which you add the substrate
it will be most sensitive to changes in the concen- to the first well. It is critical for the success of this
tration of soluble -galactosidase. experiment that the total reaction time be the same
3. Fill all the wells in rows F and G with 37.5 l for all wells in the competitive ELISA. Allow the
of blocking buffer except wells 1F, 2F, 1G, and blue color to develop until you begin to see any
2G. Also, add 37.5 l of blocking buffer to wells blue color in wells 2F or 3F (2–4 min). Stop
2H, 3H, and 4H. Add 75 l of blocking buffer the reactions by adding 100 l of 4 N H2SO4.
to wells 1F, 1G, and 1H. Again, it is very important that the reaction time
4. Add 37.5 l of the 40 g/ml -galactosidase so- for all of the wells is the same in this experiment.
lution in PBS to wells 2F and 3F. Remove 12. Using well 1F as a blank to zero the instrument
37.5 l from well 3F and add it to well 4F. at 450 nm (no primary or secondary antibody),
Pipette up and down several times to mix. read the A450 of all of the wells in rows F to H
5. Remove 37.5 l from well 4F and add it to well in the microplate spectrophotometer.
5F. Pipette up and down several times to mix. 13. Determine the average A450 value of wells 1G
Continue the twofold serial dilution of the and 1H and subtract this value from all of the
40 g/ml -galactosidase solution across row other A450 values in rows F to H.
F until you reach 12F. Remove 37.5 l from 14. Prepare a plot of percent inhibition versus the
well 12F and discard. log of the inverse of the dilution of the 40 g/ml
6. Add 37.5 l of the -galactosidase solution at an and unknown -galactosidase solutions. Use
unknown concentration to wells 2G and 3G. Per- the following formula to determine the percent
form twofold serial dilutions of this unknown inhibition for each well in rows F and G:
-galactosidase solution across row G from 4G
to 12G. Remove 37.5 l from well 12G and % inhibition
discard. (A450 of J1) (A450 of J1 -gal)
⫽
A450 of J1 ⫻ 100
7. Add 37.5 l of the J1 monoclonal antibody so-
lution prepared in step 2 to all the wells in rows
F and G except for 1F and 1G. Also, add 37.5 l where A450 of J1 is the average absorbance
of the J1 monoclonal antibody solution pre- value of wells 2H, 3H, and 4H and A450 of J1
pared in step 2 to wells 2H, 3H, and 4H. Wells -gal are the values of each individual well in
2H, 3H, and 4H contain no soluble -galactosidase. rows F and G. Plot the data for rows F and G
The A450 values of these wells will be important in on the same graph for comparison. NOTE: A
the calculations performed at the end of the assay. percent inhibition value can be calculated for
8. Incubate the primary antibody for 30 min at each well in rows F and G.
room temperature. Remove the primary anti- 15. Identify the dilution of each -galactosidase so-
body solution from the wells and wash the wells lution (40 g/ml solution and the unknown so-
four times with wash buffer as described in the lution) that gave 50% inhibition. If the unknown
protocol for Day 2. solution showed 50% inhibition at a larger di-
9. Add 50 l of the HRP-conjugated goat-anti- lution than the 40 g/ml -galactosidase solu-
mouse IgG antibody to all of the wells in rows tion, then the unknown solution is more con-
F and G except for 1F (using the same dilution centrated than 40 g/ml. If the unknown
of the secondary antibody as used on Day 2). solution showed 50% inhibition at a lower dilu-
Also, add 50 l of the secondary antibody so- tion than the 40 g/ml -galactosidase solution,
lution to wells 1H to 4H. then the unknown solution is less concentrated
10. Incubate the secondary antibody for 30 min at than 40 g/ml. Based on the dilution required
room temperature. Wash the wells four times for the unknown solution to show 50% inhibi-
with wash buffer as described in the protocol tion compared to the 40 g/ml solution (0.25
for Day 2. times, 0.5 times, 2 times, 4 times, etc.), deter-
11. Add 100 l of a 1:1 mixture of 3,3⬘,5,5⬘-tetra- mine the concentration of -galactosidase in the
methylbenzidene (TMB) and H2O2 to all of the unknown solution. For instance, if the 40 g/ml
EXPERIMENT 17 Partial Purification of a Polyclonal Antibody, Determination of Titer, 289
and Quantitation of an Antigen Using the ELISA
-galactosidase solution showed 50% inhibition you to do this, as well as the predicted results
at a 18 dilution (well 5F), and the unknown - of the experiment.
galactosidase solution showed 50% inhibition at 4. Why is it a good idea to test the serum of an
a 116 dilution (well 6G), then the unknown so- animal for the presence of antibodies against a
lution is twice as concentrated as the 40 g/ml protein of interest before the animal is injected
solution (80 g/ml -galactosidase). with the antigen?
5. The production of polyclonal antibodies usu-
ally requires a relatively large amount of a pure
Exercises protein, whereas the production of monoclonal
antibodies may require smaller amounts of an
1. Explain why it was necessary to incubate the impure protein. Explain this in terms of the
TMB and H2O2 with the HRP-conjugated sec- method of production of these two types of an-
ondary antibody for the same time in each well tibodies.
in the competitive ELISA performed on Day
3. Why was the incubation time between rows
less of a consideration in the ELISA experiment REFERENCES
performed on Day 2 (to determine the titer of
each antibody sample)? Harlow, E., and Lane, D. (1988). Antibodies, a Labora-
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of us- tory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring
ing the ELISA to determine the concentration Harbor Laboratory.
of an antigen in an unknown solution as op- Kaplan, A., Szabo, L. L., and Opheim, K. E. (1988).
posed to performing Western blots (see Ex- Immunochemical Techniques. In: Clinical Chemistry:
Interpretation and Techniques. Philadelphia: Lea &
periment 18).
Febiger.
3. You have obtained several monoclonal anti- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
bodies that all recognize Protein X. You would (1993). An Introduction to Proteins. In: Principles of
like to determine whether any of these anti- Biochemistry. New York: Worth.
bodies recognize Protein X only in the native Mathews, C. K., and van Holde, K. E. (1990). Tools of
form as opposed to the denatured form. De- Biochemistry. In: Biochemistry. Redwood City, CA:
scribe an ELISA experiment that would allow Benjamin/Cummings.
k(
EXPERIMENT 18
291
292 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
Blocking agent
Protein
Membrane
1. Sample preparation 4. Nonspecific binding of unoccupied sites
Primary antibody
HRP-coupled
secondary antibody
Addition of
chemiluminescent
substrate and
exposure to film
Developed
Membrane film
extent of nonspecific binding of the antibody to sides the protein of interest) that formed during the
other proteins on the membrane (“noise”). incubation. The membrane is then incubated with a
After the membrane has been incubated with the secondary antibody that will recognize and bind to
primary antibody (diluted in blocking buffer), the the primary antibody. The anti-GST antibody (pri-
membrane is washed in blocking buffer containing mary) used in this experiment was raised in a mouse.
polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20). The secondary antibody used in this experiment is an
This non-ionic (nondenaturing) detergent will dis- antimouse IgG antibody that was raised in a goat
rupt hydrophobic interactions between the primary (goat-antimouse IgG). This secondary antibody is
antibody and other proteins on the membrane (be- conjugated to an enzyme called horseradish peroxi-
EXPERIMENT 18 Western Blot to Identify an Antigen 293
dase (HRP), the critical component necessary for the Before the introduction of chemiluminescence to
light-producing (luminescent) chemical reaction. As the technique of Western blotting, the secondary an-
with the primary antibody, the dilution of the sec- tibodies were localized on the membrane with the
ondary antibody must be determined empirically for use of compounds and chemical reactions that
each experimental situation to optimize the results. formed colored precipitates on the membrane. For in-
The PVDF membrane is again washed with stance, if the membrane used in this experiment were
blocking buffer containing Tween 20 to remove any treated with a solution of 3,3-diaminobenzidene
secondary antibody that has bound nonspecifically tetrahydrochloride dihydrate (Fig. 18-3) and H2O2,
to proteins on the membrane other than the mouse a brown precipitate would form at the site of action
IgG. At this point, the PVDF membrane is ready of the HRP conjugated to the secondary antibody.
to be treated with the SuperSignal reagents. One If the secondary antibody used in this experiment
of these reagents contains hydrogen peroxide, were conjugated to alkaline phosphatase rather than
which will convert the HRP to its oxidized form. HRP, the membrane could be treated with a solu-
The second reagent contains a component called tion containing 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phos-
luminol. As HRP converts luminol from the reduced phate and nitroblue tetrazolium chloride (Fig. 18-3)
form to the oxidized form (Fig. 18-2), 428-nm light to form a blue precipitate at the site of alkaline phos-
is given off. If the PVDF membrane is exposed to phatase action on the membrane. A list of enzymes
photographic film during the course of this reac- used for detection of antigens in Western blotting,
tion, a dark spot will appear on the film where the their substrates, and the color of the insoluble prod-
primary and secondary antibodies are localized. If ucts that they produce is shown in Table 18-1. Al-
care is taken to optimize the system under study, a though these latter methods are still in wide use to-
single protein of interest can be identified among day, they are less sensitive than the chemiluminescent
thousands of others. technique demonstrated in this experiment. For lab-
NH
NH
NH2 O
Luminol
Oxidized form
of HRP
O
H2O2 N2 h(428 nm)
O
NH2 O
HRP
Goat antimouse IgG Ab (HRP coupled)
Mouse-anti-Gst Ab
GST
Photographic film
(on membrane)
Figure 18-2 Reaction of luminol and H2O2 to produce light in the presence of horseradish peroxidase.
294 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
NH2 NH2
3,3-Diaminobenzidene tetrahydrochloride
O
Cl
Br O P ONa
ONa N Cl Cl N
N N N N N
N N
H
O O
5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate NO2
CH3 CH3
NO2
Nitroblue tetrazolium chloride
Figure 18-3 Other commonly used substrates that form colored precipitates on the membrane when
acted on by enzymes conjugated to secondary antibodies.
oratories that do not have access to darkrooms Why has the “two-antibody” (primary and sec-
and/or developing solutions, we offer an alternative ondary) technique become so popular for use in im-
protocol that uses a precipitating HRP substrate for munochemistry experiments such as the Western
the detection of GST at the end of the experiment. blot? Enzyme-conjugated antibodies that recognize
3,3-Diaminobenzidene
tetrahydrochloride (DAB) Brown
(carcinogenic)
Glucose oxidase Phenazine methosulfate with
nitroblue tetrazolium chloride Black/purple
-Galactosidase 5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-
,D-galactopyranoside (X-Gal) Blue
EXPERIMENT 18 Western Blot to Identify an Antigen 295
species-specific IgG are commercially available and available that allow investigators to cross-link (con-
relatively inexpensive. For instance, an HRP-conju- jugate) antibodies with biotin. Antibodies can be
gated goat-antirabbit IgG antibody will recognize conjugated to biotin through a number of different
any antibody that has been raised against any anti- reactive groups on the protein, including primary
gen, so long as the latter antibody has been raised amine groups (lysines), sulfhydryl groups (produced
in a rabbit. It is far more cost effective for biotech- after reduction of the antibody to break disulfide
nology companies to develop and conjugate sec- bonds), carboxyl groups (glutamate and aspartate),
ondary antibodies that recognize antibodies obtained carbohydrate groups (after oxidation of cis-diols to
from a limited number of hosts than it is for them reactive aldehyde groups), etc. As is the case with
to develop and conjugate primary antibodies that the enzyme-conjugated secondary antibodies de-
recognize the seemingly unlimited number of anti- scribed above, horseradish peroxidase and alkaline-
gens that are currently under study. Still, you should phosphatase–conjugated streptavidin are also com-
realize that it is possible to conjugate a particular mercially available. When the enzyme-conjugated
primary antibody of interest to an enzyme and alle- streptavidin is incubated with a membrane contain-
viate the need for a secondary antibody in Western ing a biotinylated antibody bound to the antigen of
blotting and in the ELISA (see Experiment 17). interest, this antigen can be localized to a particu-
Yet another variation of the Western blot ex- lar portion of the membrane with the use of lumi-
ploits the strong interaction between biotin and nol or any other of the substrates described in Table
streptavidin. Biotin is a 244-Da vitamin found in all 18-1 (Fig. 18-5).
cells (Fig. 18-4). Streptavidin is a 75-kDa, tetrameric
protein isolated from Streptomyces avidinii. Each
streptavidin monomer is capable of binding a single Supplies and Reagents
molecule of biotin. The dissociation constant of the
streptavidin/biotin complex is on the order of 1015 Reagents and apparatus for SDS – PAGE (See Exper-
M, one of the strongest noncovalent interactions iment 4)
found in nature. Many reagents are commercially P-20 Pipetman with disposable tips
H H
N N
O
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 C OH
S
Free Biotin
H H
N N
O O C
Blocking agent
Antigen
Membrane
1. Sample preparation 4. Nonspecific binding of unoccupied sites
= biotin
Streptavidin
HRP
Addition of
chemiluminescent
substrate and
exposure to film
Developed
film
Membrane
Figure 18-5 Use of streptavidin–enzyme conjugates and biotinylated antibodies in the detection of anti-
gens on Western blots.
Prestained high molecular-weight protein standard Transfer buffer (48 mM Tris, 39 mM glycine, 20%
(Gibco BRL, Catalog #26041-020) methanol, 0.004% SDS, pH 9.2)
Coomassie Blue staining solution (40% methanol, 10% Immobilon-P PVDF membrane, 0.45- m pore size (Mil-
glacial acetic acid, 0.25% wt/vol Coomassie Bril- lipore, Catalog #IPVH 000 10)
liant Blue R-250) Whatman 3 MM filter paper
Destaining solution (40% methanol, 10% glacial acetic Tris/NaCl/powdered milk solution (20 mM Tris – HCl,
acid) pH 8, 14.62 g/liter NaCl, 86.22 g/liter nonfat pow-
Methanol dered milk)
EXPERIMENT 18 Western Blot to Identify an Antigen 297
the membrane so that the current applied to the 18. Calculate the Rf values of the molecular weight
transfer unit (see below) be forced through the gel protein standards using the following equation:
rather than around it. If the top and bottom layers
of filter paper on either side of the gel come in con- distance traveled by protein band (cm)
Rf
tact with one another, the current will take the path distance traveled by dye front (cm)
of least resistance and flow around rather than
through the gel. The result of this is that the pro- Prepare a standard curve by plotting log mol-
teins will not transfer to the PVDF membrane, and ecular weight vs. Rf.
the subsequent Western blot will not be successful. 19. What is the molecular weight of the protein(s)
12. Place the methanol-treated PVDF membrane in the eluted fraction? Do you believe that the
and the four pieces of Whatman 3 MM filter purification of GST was successful? Explain.
paper in a small pan containing transfer buffer
and incubate for 5 to 10 min.
Day 2: Western Blot
13. Assemble the blot as described below. Make
sure that all components are stacked directly on 1. Drain the 100 ml of blocking buffer solution
top of one another, with no overhanging edges from the pan containing the PVDF membrane.
and no air bubbles in between the layers: Rinse the membrane with a small amount of
distilled water to remove the last traces of
ANODE ()
blocking buffer.
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
2. Add 20 ml of fresh blocking buffer to the
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
PVDF membrane, along with 2.5 l of the
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
mouse–anti-GST monoclonal antibody (a
PVDF membrane
1:8000 dilution of the antibody). Swirl the pan
Gel
continuously and gently for 45 min at room
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
temperature.
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
3. Pour out the antibody solution and rinse the
Whatman 3 MM filter paper
PVDF membrane with a small amount of dis-
CATHODE ()
tilled water.
14. Connect the electrodes and apply 15 V (con- 4. Add 100 ml of fresh blocking buffer contain-
stant voltage) to the unit for 45 min. ing 0.05% Tween 20 (wash buffer) and incu-
15. Disconnect the power supply from the transfer bate at room temperature for 10 min with con-
unit, disassemble the layers, and cut a notch on tinuous gentle swirling. Pour out the wash
the PVDF membrane to mark the position of solution and repeat step 4 two more times.
lane 6. Stain the gel following the transfer with 5. Add 20 ml of fresh blocking buffer to the PVDF
Coomassie Blue as described in step 8. This is membrane. Add 5 l of a 1:10 dilution (in wa-
done to ensure that the proteins on the gel were ter) of the goat-antimouse IgG (HRP-conju-
transferred to the PVDF membrane. gated). The final dilution of this antibody is
16. Place the PVDF membrane in a small pan con- 1:40,000. Cover the pan with aluminum foil and
taining 100 ml of Tris/NaCl/powdered milk so- incubate at room temperature for 45 min with
lution (blocking buffer). Incubate at 4°C continuous gentle swirling. NOTE: If you will be
overnight with gentle shaking. Recall that this developing the Western blot with a colorimetric sub-
step is performed to block any portion of the strate (see below), the final dilution of the HRP-goat-
membrane that does not already contain protein. antimouse IgG should be between 1:5000 and
17. After each half of the gel has been incubated 1:20,000. This results from the fact that the 4-
with the Coomassie Blue staining solution for chloro-1-naphthol substrate is much less sensitive
1 hr, they may be destained with destain solu- than the chemiluminescent substrate (i.e., you will
tion by incubating for 1 hr at room tempera- need more HRP at the site of the antigen to obtain
ture. The destain solution should be changed a dark precipitate). Consult the instructor for infor-
four times during the course of the 1-hr incu- mation concerning the final dilution of the secondary
bation. antibody if the colorimetric detection option is chosen.
EXPERIMENT 18 Western Blot to Identify an Antigen 299
6. Pour out the antibody solution and rinse the will be enough reagent for 50 groups to per-
PVDF membrane with a small amount of dis- form the experiment.
tilled water. 2. Add 1 ml of the 3 mg/ml CN solution prepared
7. Add 100 ml of wash buffer and incubate at in step 1 to 10 ml of Tris-buffered saline, pH
room temperature for 10 min with continuous 7.4.
gentle swirling. Pour out the wash solution and 3. Immediately before use, add 100 l of a 3%
repeat step 7 two more times. If you will be us- (vol/vol) hydrogen peroxide solution to the 10
ing colorimetric detection with a precipitating HRP ml of CN/H2O2 reagent prepared in step 2,
substrate, proceed to the section entitled “Colori- and pour the entire solution over the side of
metric Detection of HRP.” the membrane containing your protein.
8. Mix 5 ml of each of the two SuperSignal 4. Incubate the membrane with the CN/H2O2
reagents (peroxide solution and luminol/en- reagent for approximately 30 min at room tem-
hancer solution) and add them to the top of the perature. Monitor the membrane visually dur-
PVDF membrane (the side containing the pro- ing this incubation for the appearance of blue
teins). Incubate at room temperature for 5 min. or purple protein band(s). If the membrane
9. Remove the PVDF membrane from the pan, does not contain a large amount of GST and/or
allow the excess SuperSignal substrate to drip HRP-conjugated goat-antimouse secondary
from the membrane, and wrap the membrane antibody, an incubation time longer than 30
in plastic wrap. min may be required.
10. Expose the PVDF membrane (protein side up) 5. When you are satisfied with the color devel-
to a piece of film for 1 to 5 min. Mark the film opment on your Western blot, rinse the mem-
with a notch corresponding to the notch made brane gently several times with distilled wa-
next to lane 6 on the SDS gel to aid in orien- ter to stop the reaction. NOTE: The blue color
tation. Remove the film from the cassette and will begin to fade several days after development.
develop. The time of the exposure will depend on To obtain a permanent record of the experiment,
how quickly the blot is exposed to film after the we advise that you take a picture or prepare a pho-
chemiluminescence reaction has been performed. tocopy of the membrane after it has been allowed
The longer the time between these two events, the to dry.
longer the exposure time will be needed to visualize
the bands.
11. Using the notch made on the film, align it with Exercises
the notch on the PVDF membrane. Based on
the position of the prestained molecular weight 1. Where does the term “Western” blot come
protein standards present on the PVDF mem- from?
brane, determine the molecular weight of the 2. You are performing a Western blot on a puri-
protein band(s) present on the film. Do you be- fied sample of protein X. You know that pro-
lieve that it is GST? Explain. Are there any tein X is composed of three subunits, one of 50
other protein bands besides GST that are pres- kDa, one of 30 kDa, and one of 15 kDa. You
ent on the film (in the crude cell lysate and un- have two monoclonal antibody samples raised
bound fraction lanes)? If so, explain what this against native protein that you will use as the
means. Propose how you could alter the con- primary antibodies in two separate experi-
ditions of the experiment to prevent these other ments. Describe what you could expect to see
protein bands from cross-reacting with the an- in two different Western blots performed with
tibodies used in the Western blot. these two antibodies. Explain your answer.
3. Describe how monoclonal and polyclonal anti-
bodies are made.
Colorimetric Detection of HRP
4. Why do you think that it is more cost effec-
1. Dissolve 150 mg of 4-chloro-1-napthol (CN) tive for companies to sell enzyme-conjugated
in 50 ml of ethanol. The stock solution can be antibodies that recognize antibodies from a
prepared in advance and stored at 20°C. This number of animals rather than to sell enzyme-
300 SECTION IV Immunochemistry
conjugated antibodies that recognize the anti- Hines, K. (1995). Immunoperoxidase Assay Systems: Visu-
gens themselves (why is the two-antibody sys- alization of Immunoblots with SuperSignal ® CL-HRP
tem commonly used rather than a primary an- Substrate System. Rockford, IL: Pierce Chemical.
tibody that is already enzyme conjugated)? Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
(1993). An Introduction to Proteins. In: Principles of
5. Describe how a chemiluminescent Western
Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
blot could be used to quantify the amount of
Stryer, L. (1995). Exploring Proteins. In: Biochemistry,
an antigen in an unknown sample. 4th ed. New York: Freeman.
6. How would a Western blot be affected if the Thorpe, G. H. G., and Kricka, L. J. (1986). Enhanced
blocking step were omitted? How would a Chemiluminescence Reactions Catalyzed by Horse-
Western blot be affected if the blocking step radish Peroxidase. Methods Enzymol 133:331.
were carried out, but the wash steps following Voet, D., and Voet, J. G. (1990). Techniques of Protein
incubation with the primary and secondary an- Purification. In: Biochemistry. New York: Wiley.
tibodies were omitted? Weir, D. M. (1986). Handbook of Experimental Immunol-
ogy. London: Oxford University Press.
REFERENCES
Nucleic Acids
Introduction
303
304 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
NH2 NH2
N N N N
O O
O N N O N N
CH2 CH2
H H H H
H H H H
O OH O H
O O
O P O P
O2 N O2 N
NH NH
O O
O N N NH2 O N N NH2
CH2 CH2
H H H H
A nucleotide: any H H H H
combination of a base,
a sugar, and a phosphate O OH O H
NH2 NH2
O P O P
O2 N O2 N
O O
O N O O N O
A nucleoside: any CH2 CH2
combination of a base H H H H
and a sugar H H H H
O OH O O H O
O P O P CH3
O2 NH O2 N
Another nucleotide (this O O
nucleotide has a 59 N O N O
CH2 O CH2 O
phosphate, whereas the
nucleotide above has a H H H H
39 phosphate) H H H H
O OH O H
O P O P
O2 O2
O O
or
A A G C U DNA, unlike RNA, contains
2-deoxy-D-ribose and thymine
G in place of uracil.
or
C
U
bonds with uracil and guanine hydrogen bonds with bitals of the stacked planar base pairs add to the sta-
cytosine in RNA and in DNA:RNA duplexes. It bility of the polynucleotide (Figs. V-3, and V-4).
should be noted, however, that noncanonical base Most DNAs contain extensive secondary
pairing (e.g., GPU) is also commonly found in structure, existing as large double-stranded he-
stretches of RNA. The overlapping p electron or- lixes containing two separate, hydrogen-bonded
SECTION V Introduction 305
Supporting sugar–
phosphate backbone
Planar H-bonded
base pairs
H Overlapping
CH3 O H N N orbitals
N H N N
N N
O
Thymine:Adenine Orbitals
H
N O H N
N N H N
N N
N H O
H
Guanine:Cytosine
complementary sequences. These separate pri- acteristics of DNA: extensive viscosity in solution,
mary strands exist together in opposite or an- the potential to rupture or “shear” on agitation,
tiparallel orientation (one strand running 59 to 39 ease of fiber formation for x-ray analysis, and so
and the other running 39 to 59), while being sta- forth. Double-stranded DNA will denature or
bilized by intramolecular base stacking and by in- “melt” (uncoil to form single strands) when sub-
termolecular hydrogen-bonded base pairing. This jected to high temperatures, strong bases, and de-
yields the long, fibrous “double helix” character- naturants such as urea and formamide. Secondary
istic of most DNAs (Fig. V-4). This lengthy struc- structure also plays a role in the function of var-
ture contributes to the pronounced physical char- ious RNAs. Hydrogen-bonding and base pairing,
306 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
o
o
o Sugar–phosphate
o backbones
o
o
o
o
o
o o
o o o A
P o
Y
CH2
o P H-bonded base A Unpaired “free”
o oo Cm
oo P o pairing and bases in
o
H
H CH2
N
CH2
N
CH2 o N o U intramolecular
o
o o o o Gm loop
H NN
P
o oo P o
N
CH2 H
o
o
N
N
N
o oo o o CH2
N
H
P
o
Anticodon arm of tRNAphe (Yeast)
N
CH2 P
o o
N
o o
o CH2 o o o
N
H N
o P o N o
o CH2
N
o oo o
N HN
H
N
P
o oo
N
o
N
CH2
where present in RNA, are generally intramolec- stacking, and interactions with divalent cations. As
ular and generate helical hairpin loops within a is the case for secondary structure, tertiary struc-
primary nucleotide sequence (see Fig. V-4). Thus, tural elements are often critical to the function of
precipitated RNAs are more amorphous than fi- a particular RNA molecule, which may include ac-
brous. Accordingly, most RNAs do not markedly tivating or “charging” amino acids for translation,
increase solution viscosity and can be difficult to proper ribosome function, or messenger RNA
crystallize for subsequent x-ray analysis. splicing (see below).
Certain RNAs also possess substantial amounts
of tertiary structure. Tertiary structure in RNA
refers to the folding of secondary structural ele- Cellular Localization and
ments, such as double helical regions or hairpin Roles of Nucleic Acids
stem-loops, into discrete three-dimensional struc-
tures. Forces involved in stabilizing such interac- DNA contains the basic genetic information of all
tions are diverse, involving hydrogen-bonding, base living cells. As such, cellular DNA is located at the
SECTION V Introduction 307
Prokaryotic ribosome
50S subunit
MW = 1.8 3 106 ( Contains 1 molecule 23S RNA,
1 molecule 5S RNA, and 34 proteins )
30S subunit
MW = 1 3 106 ( Contains 1 molecule 16S RNA,
and 20–21 proteins )
70S overall
Eukaryotic ribosome
60S subunit
MW = 2.5 3 106 (
Contains 1 molecule 28S RNA, 1 molecule
5S RNA, 5.8S RNA, and approx. 50 proteins )
40S subunit
MW = 1.5 3 106 ( Contains 1 molecule 18S RNA
and 33 proteins )
80S overall
Messenger RNAs constitute approximately of the cell. Eukaryotic cells have developed specific
10% of the total cellular RNA. This mRNA can be mechanisms to control the stability of individual
either monocistronic (governing the synthesis of a mRNAs as a means of regulating gene expression.
single polypeptide) or polycistronic (governing the Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) participate in transla-
synthesis of two or more polypeptide chains). Since tion by transferring free amino acids into the grow-
the ribosomes bind the mRNA and initiate trans- ing peptide chain. Unlike mRNAs, tRNAs are uni-
lation at defined positions (the ribosome-binding form in size (25 to 30 kDa) and constitute
sites), translation may begin from more than one site approximately 20% of the total cellular RNA. Nor-
on a single molecule of mRNA. As suggested above, mal cells will have a variety of different tRNAs, one
mRNAs can be quite variable in size. mRNAs are or more that will recognize each of the 20 amino
also quite variable in their stability. While some acids and deliver them to the growing polypeptide
mRNAs may have a half-life of several hours, oth- chain at the appropriate time. Although there are
ers may have a half-life on the order of minutes. In only 20 amino acids, the degeneracy of the genetic
general, prokaryotic mRNA is nearly one hundred code dictates that a single cell must contain at least
times less stable than the average eukaryotic mRNA 32 different tRNAs with the capability of recog-
in terms of half-life. This difference in mRNA sta- nizing different codons (three-base sequence) on
bility may be a function of the faster growth rate of the mRNA.
prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells (the One final class of eukaryotic RNA that deserves
typical prokaryotic cell can divide every 20 min, mention are the small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). As
while the typical eukaryotic cell divides once every their name suggests, this class of RNA is found in
30 hr). The ribonuclease activity of both types of the nucleus and participates in the splicing of in-
cells ensures that the composition and concentra- trons from certain types of eukaryotic mRNAs. Five
tion of the total mRNA “pool” within the cell will snRNAs (U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6) take part in
be constantly changing to meet the changing needs these splicing reactions when combined with a
SECTION V Introduction 309
number of nuclear proteins. Together, the snRNAs phodiester bonds in RNAs and yields intermediate
and the proteins form a functional splicing unit re- cyclic-29,39-phosphonucleosides that hydrolyze
ferred to as small nuclear ribonuclear proteins to nucleoside-29-phosphates and nucleoside-39-
(snRNPs or “snurps”). Although the snRNAs are phosphates on further (12–18 hr) incubation (Fig.
very important in eukaryotic RNA processing, their V-7). The phosphodiester bonds of DNA are sta-
small size (between 100 and 200 nucleotides) con- ble under these conditions because they lack the ad-
tributes a very small percentage to the total cellu- jacent 29 hydroxyl group on D-ribose required to
lar RNA. The role of snRNAs and the mechanism form the cyclic-29,39-phosphonucleoside interme-
of intron splicing are currently a topic of intensive diates.
research. In addition to snRNAs, a number of other
small nuclear and cytoplasmic RNAs have been dis-
covered and shown to serve a variety of biochemi- Action of Acid
cal functions. Very mild acid, or dilute acid at or below room tem-
perature, has little effect on nucleic acids. Indeed,
dilute acids (e.g., trichloroacetic, HClO4, HCl) at 0
Chemical Properties to 25°C are routinely used to precipitate (isolate)
of Nucleic Acids nucleic acids and other polar macromolecules.
Somewhat stronger acidic conditions (prolonged ex-
posure to dilute acid or dilute acid at increased tem-
Action of Alkali
perature or acid strength) cause depurination, i.e.,
The N-glycoside linkages of DNA and RNA are acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of purine N-glycosides.
stable in mildly alkaline conditions. However, the Thus, 15 min of treatment with 1 N HCl at 100°C
phosphodiester linkages of DNA and RNA demon- removes most of the purines from DNA and RNA.
strate markedly different chemical properties in Much harsher acidic conditions (several hours at
mild alkali. For example, 0.3 M KOH (37°C) 100°C or more concentrated acid) are required to
rapidly (,1 hr) catalyzes the cleavage of all phos- remove pyrimidine N-glycosides. Some limited
CH2OH O Base
O
H H
CH2 Base H H
O
H H O OH
H H
O P O2
O OH CH2OH O Base O2
O P O2 Nucleoside-39-phosphates
2 H H
O
OH H H H2O
1
O P O2 O P O2
O O2
Nucleoside-29-phosphates
Physical Properties
of Nucleic Acids 0
strongly absorb ultraviolet (UV) light. This UV ab- pH 7.0 280/260 = 0.94
sorption arises from the nitrogenous bases, each of
which possesses its own unique absorption spec-
trum (Fig. V-8). The sum of these individual ni- 0
trogenous base spectra generates the overall UV
spectrum of DNA and RNA. Several features of
Uridine
these spectra deserve further comment. First, the 1.0 1M
pH 7.0 E1cm 260 = 9900
nucleoside spectra are a function of pH. This prop- pH 7.0 280/260 = 0.39
erty reflects the titration of specific functional
groups within the nitrogenous bases. Such pH-de-
pendent spectral shifts provide an additional tool
0
for characterizing unknown solutions containing
these nucleosides. Second, the ratios of the ab-
Thymidine (with
sorption at two different wavelengths (e.g., 1.0 deoxyribose)
A280 /A260) at any pH provide criteria for identifi- pH 7.0 E1M
1cm260 = 8700
cation of individual nitrogenous bases or nucleo- pH 7.0 280/260 = 0.74
sides, and for the estimation of the relative pro-
portions of individual nucleosides in an
oligonucleotide. Third, a nucleic acid spectrum is 0
220 260 300
the sum of the individual nitrogenous base spectra Nanometers
present in the nucleic acid. Such summation yields
a spectrum with a lmax of 260 nm. It follows, then, Figure V-8 UV spectral characteristics of nucleo-
that the absorption of a solution containing a nu- sides. (——) 5 pH 7.0, (— — —) 5
cleic acid is proportional to the nucleic acid con- pH 1.0, and (- - -) 5 pH 13.0.
centration. In general, a 1-mg/ml solution of
single-stranded DNA (lacking any degree of sec-
ondary structure) has an A260 of 25 at neutral pH a 1-mg/ml solution of these types of nucleic acids
in a 1-cm light path (ε260 5 25 (mg/ml)21 cm21). has an A260 of 20 at neutral pH in a 1-cm light path.
Extensive secondary structure, as found in native It follows, then, that the disruption of secondary
tRNA, rRNA, and DNA, reduces the UV absorp- structure within DNA, rRNA, and tRNA increases
tion of the stacked, hydrogen bonded bases so that the A260 of a solution containing these molecules.
Absorbance of a 1-mg/ml solution in a 1-cm cuvette SECTION V Introduction 311
20 20
10 10
Figure V-9 UV characteristics, right, of single-stranded RNA and, left, of DNA. (———) 5 pH 7.0,
(— — —) 5 pH 1.0, (– – –) 5 pH 13.0. The denaturation of double-stranded DNA at pH 1
and 13 causes an increase in UV absorbance, an illustration of the hyperchronic effect.
This increase in the absorption spectrum following cleotides and nucleosides in chromatographic and
denaturation (destruction of secondary structure) is electrophoretic systems (see Experiments 2 and 4).
termed the “hyperchromic effect” (Fig. V-9). Con-
versely, the decrease in the absorption spectrum on
Hybridization
renaturation of these types of nucleic acids (restora-
tion of secondary structure) is termed the Secondary structure in nucleic acids can be dis-
“hypochromic effect.” These effects are observed in rupted by extremes of pH or by increasing the tem-
Experiment 19. perature of the nucleic acids residing in a solution
of low ionic strength. Disruption of double-
stranded nucleic acids, which contain stacked bases
Acid–Base Titration of Nitrogenous
and hydrogen-bonded base pairs (e.g., DNA),
Bases, Nucleotides, Nucleosides, and
yields separate, single-stranded, complementary
Nucleic Acids
strands of polynucleotides. At favorable tempera-
The nitrogenous bases and phosphates of nucleic tures, pHs, and ionic strength conditions, these sin-
acids contain groups that titrate in aqueous media gle-stranded molecules will reassociate with them-
(Table V-1). Thus, nucleic acids have titration selves or hybridize with other polynucleotides
curves and act as buffers in solution and in biolog- containing a complementary sequence. Biochemists
ical extracts. Extremes of acid or alkali will intro- make great use of this phenomenon. Specifically, if
duce charges on nitrogenous bases and yield struc- hybridization is allowed to take place in the pres-
tures that no longer participate in base stacking and ence of an isotopically labeled, single-stranded DNA
hydrogen bonding. Extremes of acid or alkali de- molecule with a known sequence, then a fragment
stroy (denature) secondary structure in nucleic of DNA containing the complementary sequence
acids. Using Table V-1 and the Henderson–Has- can be identified in a complex DNA sample. This
selbach equation, you can calculate the net charge process of carrying out DNA:DNA hybridization
on any nucleoside or nucleotide at any pH. These on a solid support (Fig. V-10) was developed by Ed-
charges, and their effect on the overall polarity of ward Southern. Because of this, the technique is
the molecule, serve as the basis for resolution of nu- called Southern blotting. The technique has proven
312 Table V-1 Titration Properties of Nitrogenous Bases and Phosphates of Nucleic Acids and Their
Subunits
Phosphodiesters of
CH2 O CH2 O
internucleotide
linkages of RNA
and DNA
O O
pKa1 5 1.5
O P OH O P O2
6 H1
O O
CH2 O CH2 O
Phosphomonoesters O O O
of nucleotides or pKa1 5 0.9
2
pKa2 5 6.0
terminal phosphates R O P OH R O P O R O P O2
6 H1 6 H1
OH OH O2
Adenine in adenosine, 1
NH3 NH2 NH2
adenylic acids, AMP, etc.,
H
and RNA and DNA N N 1N N pKa1 5 3.6 N N
1
6H
N N N N N N
R
R R
Guanine in guanosine, O H O O
guanylic acids, GMP, etc., H H
and RNA and DNA N N1 pKa1 5 2.3 N N pKa2 5 9.2
2
N N
N 6 H1 N 6 H1 N
H2N N H2N N H2N N
R R R
Cytosine in cytidine, NH2 NH2
cytidylic acids, GMP, etc., H
and RNA and DNA 1N pKa1 5 4.3 N
6 H1
O N O N
R R
Uracil in uridine,
O O O2
uridylic acids, UMP, etc.,
H
and RNA N pKa1 5 9.2
2
N N
1
6H
O N O N O N
R R R
Thymine in thymidine, O O O2
thymidylic acids, TMP, etc., H CH3 CH3 CH3
2
and DNA N pKa1 5 9.8 N N
6 H1
O N O N O N
R R R
SECTION V Introduction 313
Southern blotting
Molecular weight
size standards Sample
Restriction Agarose-gel
endonuclease electrophoresis
Hybridization
Expose
to film
Film
Northern blotting
Molecular weight
size standards Sample
Agarose-gel
Isolate RNA electrophoresis
Cell
Incubate with
single-stranded,
radiolabeled RNA or
Expose DNA molecule (probe)
to film ( )
Hybridization
to be a very powerful tool in molecular biology. You covery of plasmids has revolutionized the study of
can identify a DNA fragment of interest in any biochemistry. Although the recombinant plasmids
complex mixture of nucleic acids (such as from a used in modern molecular biology have been engi-
chromosomal digest), and attempt to isolate and neered for a number of different applications, there
clone it. Southern blotting can also be used to iden- are several features that are common to most plas-
tify the position of various restriction endonucle- mids (Fig. V-11).
ase cleavage sites within the nucleotide sequence of Recall that DNA replication initiates at a spe-
interest, a technique that has been put to good use cific DNA sequence termed the origin of replication.
in forensic biochemistry and genetic screening for It is the specificity of this sequence on a plasmid
mutations associated with various diseases and con- that will determine the host organism in which a
ditions (see Experiment 24, Fig. 24-5). particular plasmid will be able to be propagated
A similar technique, in which RNA is bound to (replicated). An Escherichia coli plasmid contains an
a solid support and hydridized to an isotopically la- E. coli origin of replication, a Bacillus subtilis plas-
beled single-stranded RNA or DNA molecule, is mid contains a B. subtilis origin of replication, and
called Northern blotting (Fig. V-10). As with the so forth. Some recombinant plasmids contain the
technique of Southern blotting, Northern blotting origin of replication for more than one organism.
can be used to determine if an RNA molecule with These “shuttle” plasmids can therefore be propa-
a particular sequence is present in a complex mix- gated in more than one organism. Specific ele-
ture of nucleic acids. You can imagine how this tech- ments within the origin of replication will deter-
nique may be useful in studies involving the regu- mine the frequency of replication of the plasmid
lation of gene expression: the mRNA transcribed residing in the host cell. “Low-copy” plasmids have
from a particular gene can be identified and quan- origins of replication that are under the same strin-
tified at any time during the growth cycle, and gent control as the chromosome, which is ulti-
changes in the level of transcription of particular mately regulated by the cell cycle. Hence, one or
genes can be monitored as specific alterations are two molecules of a “low-copy” plasmid will be
made to the growth media. With this technique, it present in an individual host cell. “High-copy”
has been possible to study the effects of specific bi- plasmids contain a less stringent or “relaxed” ori-
ological componds (nutrients, drugs) on gene ex- gin of replication. Since a high-copy plasmid is not
pression, as well as the roles of various protein and under the same replication control as the chromo-
nucleic acid structural elements that control the some during cell division, hundreds of molecules
process of transcription. Hybridization is also a crit- of a high copy plasmid can be present in a single
ical element in the powerful technique known as cell.
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), described in All recombinant plasmids contain a genetic el-
detail in Experiment 24. ement that provides a means of selecting for those
cells that harbor it. Most commonly, the plasmid
will contain a gene coding for an enzyme that will
Plasmids and Other allow the cell to metabolize or inactivate a specific
Cloning Vectors antibiotic. For instance, the b-lactamase gene (bla)
on many E. coli plasmids will allow the cell to
cleave the lactam ring structure common to the
Plasmids
family of b-lactam antibiotics, thereby inactivat-
Plasmids are naturally occurring, extrachromoso- ing them. A list of antibiotics, their mode of ac-
mal, circular DNA elements that endow the host tion, and the genes involved in their inactivation
organism with potentially advantageous capabili- are listed in Table V-2. Antibiotic resistance genes
ties. Genes carried on these plasmids may confer are not the only genetic selection markers that can
resistance to specific antibiotics, allow the cell to be present in plasmids. Genes encoding enzymes
metabolize harmful organic compounds, and/or al- involved in essential biosynthetic pathways can
low the cell to ward off infection by bacteriophage. also provide a means of selection, provided that
Some plasmids also carry genes involved in bacte- the host strain into which the plasmid is intro-
rial conjugation (mating) and virulence. The dis- duced contains a null mutation (inactivation) of
SECTION V Introduction 315
Selectable genetic
marker that allows the
determination of which
host cells took up the
plasmid following
transformation
Figure V-11 Features found on many popular plasmids used for different molecular biology applications.
that same gene on the chromosome. This idea of lated, it can be introduced into and faithfully prop-
selection for transformed cells is discussed later in agated (cloned) by the host organism.
this section. This process of inserting genes into plasmids is
Recombinant plasmids have been engineered to the cornerstone of molecular biology. Once a gene
“accept” fragments of foreign DNA. Most plasmids of interest has been separated from the chromo-
contain a multiple cloning site (MCS) into which some and inserted into a plasmid, the gene can be
foreign DNA can be inserted. The MCS is a short subjected to a number of different manipulations
segment of DNA on the plasmid that contains a that provide insight into its biological function. In
number of unique restriction enzyme recognition biochemical studies, it is often necessary to express
sequences found nowhere else on the plasmid. The the gene carried on the plasmid, isolate the protein
plasmid and the DNA insert can be digested with that it encodes, and study its function. To aid in this
one or more of these restriction endonucleases and process, many recombinant plasmids have been en-
ligated together to produce a new recombinant gineered to include powerful promoter sequences
plasmid that carries the DNA insert of interest (Fig. 59 to the MCS. Genes cloned into the MCS down-
V-12). Once this recombinant plasmid has been iso- stream (39) to the promoter can be expressed at high
316 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Table V-2 Some Commonly Used Antibiotics, Their Modes of Action, and
Their Inactivation by Resistant Host Cells
levels in the host cell, and the proteins that they en- The information obtained from the analysis of these
code can be purified. Often, you would like to con- mutant genes can provide a great deal of insight
trol the expression of genes cloned into plasmids. into the various domains, structure, and function of
This becomes critical if the high level expression of the proteins that they encode.
a particular gene product is found to be lethal to
the host cell. Many of the promoter elements that
Bacteriophage l
flank the MCS, therefore, are able to be induced
through the addition of a small molecule or some Although plasmids are the most popular cloning
other change in the condition of the growth vectors used in modern molecular biology, they are
medium. In this way, the host strain can be grown generally limited to use with DNA inserts less than
in culture, and the gene of interest can be expressed 10 kb in size. If the DNA fragment of interest is
at any particular time during the growth cycle. A between 10 kb and 20 kb, you may wish to use a vi-
list of inducible promoters found in recombinant ral cloning vector. One commonly used viral DNA
plasmids and their means of induction are listed in vector that can be propagated in E. coli is the dou-
Table V-3. ble-stranded, linear chromosome of bacteriophage
Expression of a gene of interest is by no means l. This bacteriophage chromosome, about 48 kb in
the only manipulation that can be carried out once size, encodes a number of proteins required for
the gene of interest has been inserted into a plas- replication of the viral chromosome, head and tail
mid. Current techniques in molecular biology al- assembly of the phage particle, and lysis of the host
low you to make virtually an unlimited number of cell. The genes that encode these proteins are
mutations in the gene-carrying recombinant plas- known to lie on either end of the linear chromo-
mid: 1 specific base pair can be changed, 2 specific some, and constitute about 65% of the total phage
base pairs can be changed, 50 base pairs can be genome. The remaining 35% of the bacteriophage
deleted, 20 base pairs can be added, and so forth. genome contains nonessential genes that can be
317
Plasmid
Digest plasmid within the multiple
cloning site with restriction endonuclease
Ligate
Clone 2
Table V-3 Some Inducible Promoters Found in introduced into E. coli, DNA ligase will convert it
Commercially Available Vectors to a closed, circular form by joining together the
cohesive ends (12 bases in length) at either end of
Promoter* Inducer the molecule (Fig. V-14). The region at which these
two complementary strands are joined is the cos site.
lac Isopropylthiogalactoside (IPTG) Following replication and packaging of this now
tac Isopropylthiogalactoside (IPTG) circular chromosome into the phage head, the chro-
l Increased temperature (42°C) mosome is again cleaved at the cos site to produce
BAD Arabinose the linear form of the chromosome that will be used
MMTV Dexamethasone to infect the next host cell. By placing the cos site
(mouse mammary
tumor virus)
from bacteriophage l into a plasmid, the phage will
GAL1 Galactose
be able to package and process the vector in vitro,
AOX1 Methanol
provided that the DNA fragment inserted in the mul-
MT CuSO4
tiple cloning site is 40 to 50 kb in size. After the cos-
(metallothionein) mid is cleaved (linearized) and introduced into the
DHSP Muristerone A E. coli host, it will be closed or circularized to re-
form the cos site. Unlike the viral DNA vector, this
*Lower-case letters denote prokaryotic origin, upper-case letters circular DNA molecule contains none of the phage
denote eukaryotic origin.
genes required for replication, packaging, or cell ly-
sis. Therefore, the cosmid will continue to be repli-
cated from the bacterial origin of replication, just
excised and replaced with any foreign DNA frag- as with a plasmid. As stated earlier, the in vitro pack-
ment that is 10 to 20 kb in size (Fig. V-13). Once aging system requires that the total size of the DNA
the DNA fragment of interest has been inserted into molecule containing the cos site falls within a spec-
the bacteriophage l chromosome, the chimeric ified range. Therefore, DNA fragments smaller
chromosome can be packaged in vitro into phage than 40 kb and larger than 50 kb cannot be cloned
particles that will deliver the DNA into the E. coli with cosmid vectors.
host. Since the chimeric genome still contains the
genes required for replication, phage assembly, and
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
cell lysis, the DNA fragment that is inserted into
the chromosome will be replicated (cloned), pack- This type of DNA cloning vector, designed to ac-
aged, and used to infect neighboring E. coli cells. cept DNA fragments up to several hundred kilo-
The plaque produced when cells infected with the bases in size, contains the three elements that will
recombinant phage are plated on a lawn of unin- allow propagation in yeast: an origin of replica-
fected E. coli cells contains progeny (clones) of a sin- tion—the autonomously replicating sequence—a cen-
gle phage. Since bacteriophage l is able to package tromere, and a telomere at either end of the lin-
only DNA between 40 and 50 kb into the phage ear DNA molecule. The centromere is the region
head, DNA inserts smaller than 10 kb and larger on the chromosome that will attach to the spindle
than 20 kb in size cannot be cloned using this vec- during mitosis. The telomeres are the small (100-
tor. Other E. coli bacteriophages, such as the single- base-pair) repetitive sequences found at the end of
stranded M13 phage, have smaller chromosomes linear eukaryotic chromosomes that are crucial in
that can accept DNA fragments smaller than 10 kb the DNA replication process.
in size.
Bacteriophage l chromosome
Nonessential genes
Chromosomal DNA
Genes involved in replication,
packaging, and cell lysis
Restriction
e s endonuclease
en Restriction
lg
ntia endonuclease
s se
ne
No
Ligate
s
gi A Recombinant (chimeric) chromosome
gin DN
ck
a
s ert
pa in e
ro l if siz
n vit s sfu b in
I e 0k
cc
su 10–2
is
Plaques containing
progeny (clones) of
Infect E. coli a single recombinant
and plate on a lawn bacteriophage
of uninfected cells
that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester that the phage is invading is able to destroy the phage
backbone in both strands of a double-stranded DNA chromosome before the genes carried on it are ex-
molecule at a highly specific sequence. The enzyme pressed, the phage will be unable to replicate and
was termed a restriction endonuclease. Currently, over lyse the host cell. In a sense, you might consider re-
700 restriction endonucleases have been isolated striction endonucleases to be a crude immune sys-
from a variety of different prokaryotic organisms. tem for organisms that produce them.
Why would an organism produce enzymes that How does the cell prevent these same restric-
cleave DNA molecules? It is thought that restriction tion endonucleases from destroying its own chro-
endonucleases act as a defense mechanism to block mosomal and plasmid DNA? It has been deter-
or restrict infection by bacteriophage. If the host cell mined that restriction endonucleases are one
320 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
cos site
Selectable
genetic
marker
Chromosomal DNA
Multiple
cloning Digest with restriction
Cosmid site endonuclease
cos site
Selectable
genetic
marker
Ligate
cos site
is
ing
a ckag tD
NA
i t rop i nser Selectable genetic marker
In v li f
sfu gh
u c ces enou
s rg e
a
is l
component of a two-component system collectively to the type III endonucleases, the hydrolysis of the
referred to as the restriction-modification system. The phosphodiester backbone does not require the pres-
restriction endonuclease component will recognize ence of ATP or S-adenosylmethionine. All of the
a specific base-pair sequence in the DNA and cat- restriction endonucleases discussed above are sim-
alyze the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester back- ilar in that they utilize a divalent cation as a cofac-
bone in both strands of the DNA duplex. The sec- tor, most commonly Mg21 or Mn21.
ond component of this system, the DNA methylase, Because type II restriction endonucleases cleave
catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from S- the DNA at a specified position within (rather than
adenosylmethionine to a specific adenine or cyto- adjacent to) a defined recognition sequence, they are
sine base within the same DNA sequence recog- the enzymes of choice in most practical applications
nized by the endonuclease (Fig. V-15). Once the in molecular biology. Some commercially available
recognition sequence has been methylated, the type II restriction endonucleases, their recognition
DNA is resistant to the action of the restriction en- sequences, and their cleavage sites are listed in Table
donuclease. As the bacterial chromosome is repli- V-4. Note that some of these enzymes make stag-
cated, the DNA methylase methylates the appro- gered cuts across the often palindromic recognition
priate sequences and protects the DNA from sequence, producing 59 single-stranded DNA over-
hydrolysis. Since the invading phage DNA is not hangs, while others cleave straight across the DNA
protected by methylation, it will be destroyed by duplex, producing blunt-ended DNA fragments.
bacterial restriction endonucleases and exonucle- In addition to the very useful type II restriction
ases (see below) before it can cause damage. endonucleases discussed above, a number of other
There are three types of restriction-modifica- commercially available enzymes can be utilized in
tion systems. Type I and type III systems consist of various applications in molecular biology (Table
a single, multisubunit enzyme that conducts both V-5). Exonucleases have been discovered that hy-
the endonuclease and methylase activities. In an drolyze DNA and/or RNA from either the 39 or 59
ATP-dependent mechanism, type I restriction en- terminus. Some of these enzymes act on single-
donucleases scan the DNA, bind to a specific recog- stranded nucleic acids, others on both strands of the
nition sequence, and cleave both strands of the DNA duplex. The majority of these modifying en-
DNA duplex at a site 1 to 10 kb from the recogni- zymes are used to remove nucleic acids from cell
tion sequence. Type III restriction endonucleases extracts during the early phases of protein purifi-
do not require ATP and usually cleave both strands cation. Other applications include the preparation
of the DNA duplex within 100 base pairs of the of single-stranded DNA templates for sequence
recognition sequence. For reasons that are not en- analysis, preparation of blunt-ended DNA frag-
tirely clear, S-adenosylmethionine is required for ments for cloning, DNA footprinting (see Experi-
the activity of both the type I and type III en- ment 22), removal of phosphoryl groups from the
donucleases, despite the fact that it is not consumed 59 terminus of cleaved vector DNA to improve
during the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester back- cloning efficiency, and radiolabeling of the 59 hy-
bone. While the type III DNA methylases modify droxyl group of chemically synthesized oligonu-
(methylate) a single strand of the DNA duplex cleotides for DNA sequencing and Southern blot-
within the recognition sequence, type I DNA ting.
methylases methylate both strands of the duplex
within the recognition sequence.
Type II restriction-modification systems differ Ligation of DNA Fragments
from their type I and type III counterparts in that
the endonuclease and DNA methylase activities are The ability of a cell to join (ligate) DNA fragments
conducted by two separate enzymes (not a single is essential for its survival. This reaction is per-
multisubunit complex). The restriction endonucle- formed by an enzyme called DNA ligase. Recall that
ase cleaves both strands of the DNA duplex within DNA ligase plays a critical role in DNA replica-
a defined recognition sequence, while the compan- tion, linking together the Okazaki fragments syn-
ion DNA methylase methylates a specific base thesized by DNA polymerase on the lagging strand
within the same recognition sequence. In contrast of the replication fork. DNA ligase is also a key
322 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
NH2 HN CH3
N N N N
N N N N
NH2
Ribose
Adenine N
CH3 N 6
N -methyladenine
1
S CH2 O N N
CH2 H H
H H
CH2
1 OH OH
H3N CH
COO2
NH2
S-adenosylmethionine
N N
S CH2 O N N
CH2 H H
H H
CH2
1 OH OH
H3N CH
COO2
S-adenosylhomocysteine
CCCGGG CCCGGG
DNA methylase
NH2 HN CH3
H H
N N
O N H O N H
Cytosine N 4-methylcytosine
Figure V-15 The DNA methylase component of the restriction modification system methylates a specific
cytosine or adenine residue, making it incapable of being acted on by the companion restric-
tion endonuclease.
SECTION V Introduction 323
Table V-4 Some Commercially Available Type II Table V-5 Some Commercially Available
Restriction Endonucleases Modifying Enzymes
OH OH
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
NH2
N N
O O O
DNA 1
Lys NH2 P O CH2 O N N 1 2
O P O P O2
ligase
2O H H 2O 2O
H H
Pyrophosphate
O 2
O OH OH
P
O HO
O2
Adenylation
NH
2
N
N
N
N
O DNA
CH
2
H H 1 Lys NH2
O ligase
O H
O P
O H OH
P O2 OH
O HO
O2
NH2
N N
O
2
O P O CH2 O N N
1
2O H H
H H
Strands linked via a OH OH
phosphodiester bond
Adenosine monophospate (AMP)
1
O CH2 O N
H H
2
H H NH2
O P O O
DNA OH OH DNA 1 N
Lys NH2 1 O Lys NH2 P O2 N
ligase ligase
2 NH2
O P O O CH2 O N N
N N
H H
H H
O CH2 O N N
OH OH
H H
H H 1
OH OH O
1
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD ) C NH2
O 2
O
P 1
O HO
O O CH2 O N
2
2
O P O H H
H H
O2
Adenylation OH OH
N H2 Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN)
N
N
N
N
O DNA
CH
2
H H 1 Lys NH2
O ligase
O H
O P
O H OH
P 2
O OH
O HO
O2
NH2
N N
O
2
O P O CH2 O N N
1
2O H H
H H
Strands linked via a OH OH
phosphodiester bond
Adenosine monophospate (AMP)
Figure V-16 (continued) The reaction catalyzed by DNA ligase (E. coli).
326 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
DNA strand. At the expense of one molecule of ability to take up extracellular DNA) can be induced
ATP, two DNA strands are joined via a phosphodi- as the bacteria are starved for particular nutrients.
ester bond. Although eukaryotic and T4 phage If the bacteria are exposed to a recombinant vector
DNA ligase use ATP as the adenyl group donor in after induction of the competence system, the host
this reaction, E. coli DNA ligase utilizes NAD1 (Fig. cell will take up the DNA and become transformed
V-16). (eukaryotic cells that have taken up a recombinant
Since the type II restriction endonucleases pro- vector are referred to as being transfected ). It is be-
duce DNA fragments with 59 phosphoryl groups lieved that the competence system has evolved in
and 39 hydroxyl groups, DNA fragments isolated certain bacterial species as a means of obtaining po-
after digestion can be easily joined together in vitro tentially advantageous genes from other organisms
in the presence of T4 DNA ligase and ATP. Since during times of environmental stress. Transforma-
many of these same restriction endonucleases cleave tion by this process is illustrated in Experiment 20.
the DNA at staggered positions within a specific Other commonly used prokaryotic and eukary-
recognition sequence, single-stranded DNA over- otic host cells do not posess a genetically controlled
hangs are present on the ends of these fragments. competence system. Despite this fact, these types
As long as there is complementarity between these of cells can become competent after a series of
single-stranded DNA overhangs on two DNA frag- chemical and/or physical treatments. For instance,
ments, DNA ligase will be able to connect them. If if E. coli cells are first treated with a solution of
the vector DNA and the insert DNA are both di- CaCl2 or RbCl2 (see Table V-6) and heat shocked
gested with the same restriction endonuclease, this in the presence of a recombinant vector, a certain
will be the case (Fig. V-17). You may even be able population or percentage of the cells (,106 per mg
to join two DNA fragments produced from diges- of DNA) will become transformed. The hypotonic
tion with two different restriction endonucleases, cation solution used in these procedures is believed
provided that both enzymes produce complemen- to swell the outer membrane, allow expulsion of
tary (compatible) single-stranded DNA overhangs. periplasmic proteins into the surrounding solution,
Although the reaction usually requires higher con- and allow the negatively charged DNA to bind to
centrations of DNA ligase and longer incubation the membrane. On heat shock, transient pores are
times, the enzyme can even join together blunt- created in the membrane, which allows the DNA
ended (no single stranded overhangs) DNA frag- to enter the cell. Although the host cells are near
ments produced from digestion with some type II death following this heat shock treatment, many of
restriction endonucleases. them will soon recover and faithfully propagate the
introduced vector. Transformation of yeast cells in-
volves a similar protocol utilizing lithium acetate,
Transformation of Host Cells polyethylene glycol (PEG), and heat shock (see
Table V-6). Although the detailed mechanism of
Once the desired recombinant vector has been yeast-cell transformation is different from that of
constructed in vitro, it is then necessary to intro- E. coli cells described above, the method is com-
duce the vector into the appropriate host cell. If a monly used to produce stable yeast transformants.
viral cloning vector such as bacteriophage l is used, Nearly any type of cell (prokaryotic or eukary-
this process becomes trivial. After the recombinant otic) can be transformed by the technique of elec-
bacteriophage chromosome containing the gene of troporation. Protoplasts are first prepared by enzy-
interest is packaged in vitro into an infectious matic or chemical disruption of the host-cell
phage particle, the genetic material packaged in the membrane polysaccharides. Next, the recombinant
phage head will be delivered into the host cell via vector is introduced to the protoplast suspension
the normal, phage-directed, transfection mecha- residing in a very low ionic strength buffer (or dis-
nism. tilled water). This DNA–protoplast suspension is
Some bacterial species, such as Bacillus subtilis, then subjected to one or several 250-V pulses de-
have a genetically specified system that will allow livered from a cathode and anode placed directly
them to take up extracellular DNA. Expression of into the solution. This applied voltage gradient will
the genes that make up this competence system (the cause a certain population of the cells (,1010 per
SECTION V Introduction 327
∗∃7&& ∗ ∗∃7&7 ∃
∗ &&7∃∗ ∃ 7&7∃∗
∗∃7&&
∗
∗ 7∃∗
&&
Ligate Ligate
& 7
& & The single-
∗∗ ∗∃
&& ∃ 7
&& ∃ 7
stranded DNA
7∃
7∃
∃ ∗ 7∃∗∗
∗ ∗ ∃∗∗
∗∗
∗∗
overhangs
7&
&&
∃7&&
∃7&&
produced by BglII
7
microgram of DNA) to take up the vector. It is ex- vantage is the nearly 10,000-fold increase in trans-
tremely important when using this technique to remove formation efficiency (number of transformed cells
all of the salt from the solution. If this is not done, the produced per microgram of vector DNA) compared
solution will arc (a spark will appear), heat, and kill to the traditional E. coli transformation method de-
all of the host cells. Even with a very-low-ionic- scribed earlier.
strength solution, a mortality rate of up to 80% is Evidence indicates that transformation effi-
not uncommon with electroporation. Its major ad- ciency can be improved with yeast transformation
328 Table V-6 Preparation of E. coli and Yeast Competent Cells
and electroporation if a defined concentration of will allow a powerful selection for transformed cells.
single-stranded carrier DNA is included in the host- Selection can also be made with the use of various
cell suspension during transformation. This carrier nutritional genetic markers. Suppose that a popula-
DNA is usually from a nonhomologous source (such tion of yeast cells with a null mutation (deletion) of
as salmon sperm) to ensure that the genetic integrity the leu2 gene on the chromosome is transformed
of the host genome is maintained. Carrier DNA with a vector carrying the leu2 gene. The leu2 gene
containing homologous gene sequences may have encodes b-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase. This
the potential to recombine with sequences on the enzyme oxidizes b-isopropylmalate to a-ketoiso-
host cell genome and alter the genotype of the host caproate, the last intermediate in the leucine
cell. For reasons that are not entirely understood, biosynthetic pathway. Because of the null mutation in
a larger percentage of host cells will take up the de- the leu2 gene, this strain will not be able to grow in me-
sired vector in the presence of this carrier DNA. dia that does not contain leucine. If the yeast cells are
Finally, a new transformation technique has transformed with a vector carrying the leu2 gene
been developed that literally “fires” or “shoots” the and plated on media that does not contain leucine,
vector DNA into the desired host cell. This “gene only the cells that took up the vector will be able
gun” technique works particularly well on plant to synthesize leucine and form colonies on the plate.
cells, which contain a rather tough and imperme- Obviously, this same vector could not be selected
able cell wall. The technique involves coating mi- for in a yeast strain that did not contain a deletion
croscopic heavy metal particles (such as tungsten or of the leu2 gene on the chromosome. Similar se-
gold) with vector DNA and projecting them at high lection techniques have been devised for different
speed toward the host cell. These particles actually types of host cells that contain chromosomal dele-
pierce the cell wall and physically carry the DNA tions of genes involved in the biosynthesis of histi-
into the cell. Another advantage of this technique dine, methionine, tryptophan, lysine, isoleucine,
is that different cell types can be transformed in situ, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine. The only re-
or directly in the tissue where that cell type is nor- quirement for selection is that the vector must endow the
mally found. By doing this, you can determine the host cell with a phenotype that will allow you to distin-
effect of the gene in the developing organ or tissue. guish it from those cells that did not take up the vector.
Although it is essential that one be able to select
for cells that took up the vector following trans-
Selection and Screening formation, it is also desireable to screen for cells that
for Transformed Cells harbor the desired recombinant vector. Suppose, for
instance, that you have isolated a gene of interest
Once a recombinant DNA vector has been intro- by cleaving the parent DNA with BamHI (see Fig.
duced into the appropriate host cell, it is then time V-18). You digest the pBR322 plasmid with the
to select for those cells that received the vector. In same restriction endonuclease, mix it with the gene-
general, you do this by growing the transformed carrying DNA fragment, and perform an in vitro
cell population in conditions under which only ligation reaction. The ligation mixture is used to
those that received the plasmid will be able to sur- transform E. coli cells, which are then plated on rich
vive. For instance, suppose that an E. coli strain is media containing ampicillin. As can be seen in Fig-
transformed with a plasmid carrying the bla ( b- ure V-18, two plasmids (or more) may result from
lactamase) gene and plated on rich media con- this procedure: the pBR322 plasmid may re-ligate
taining ampicillin. Since E. coli does not carry the without the gene of interest, or the gene of inter-
bla gene on the chromosome, only those cells that est may ligate into pBR322 at the BamHI site. Since
took up the plasmid will express b-lactamase, me- both plasmids will give rise to ampicillin resistant
tabolize (inactivate) the antibiotic, and form colonies, how would you go about determining
colonies on the plate. This type of drug selection which of these colonies harbor the pBR322 plasmid
is feasible for any cell type provided that the se- containing the gene of interest?
lectable marker (gene) is not normally expressed The pBR322 plasmid carries genes that confer
by the host cell. resistance to both ampicillin and tetracycline. The
Antibiotic resistance genes are not the only ge- BamHI site lies within the tetracycline resistance
netic markers that can be carried on a vector that gene. If the gene of interest has been inserted into
330 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
AmpR
BamHI
site
pBR322
(4361 bp)
TetR
Chromosomal DNA
TetR
Ligate
AmpR
ori TetR
Cells that grow on ampicillin took Cells that do not grow on this plate
up either of two plasmids. have an insertion in the tetracycline
resistance gene.
Figure V-18 Insertional inactivation of the tetracycline resistance gene following cloning in pBR322.
ampR 5 ampicillin-resistant; tetR 5 tetracycline-resistant; ori 5 origin of plasmid replication
SECTION V Introduction 331
the plasmid at the BamHI site, the tetracycline re- Chu, G., Hayakawa, H., and Berg, P. (1987). Electro-
sistance gene will be disrupted (insertional inactiva- poration for the Efficient Transfection of Mam-
tion), and cells harboring the plasmid will be unable malian Cells with DNA. Nucleic Acids Res 15:1311.
to grow in the presence of tetracycline. Therefore, Collins, J., and Hohn, B. (1978). Cosmids: A Type of
if ampicillin-resistant colonies are replica plated on Plasmid Gene-Cloning Vector That Is Packageable
in Vitro in Bacteriophage l Heads. Proc Natl Acad
a tetracycline containing plate and do not grow,
Sci 75:4242.
then they contain the pBR322 plasmid with an in-
Dagert, M., and Ehrlich, S. D. (1979). Prolonged Incu-
sertion (most likely of the gene of interest) at the bation in Calcium Chloride Improves the Compe-
BamHI site. Replica plating is the process of lifting tence of Escherichia coli Cells. Gene 6:23.
individual colonies from one plate and transferring Davidson, J. N. (1972). The Biochemistry of Nucleic Acids,
them to the exact same position on a new plate. For 7th ed. New York: Academic Press.
a plate that contains a large number of colonies, this Davies, J., and Smith, D. I. (1978). Plasmid Deter-
can be performed by placing a sterilized felt patch mined Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents. Annu
across the surface of the plate and pressing firmly Rev Microbiol 32:469.
to allow the felt to come into contact with the bac- Doerfler, W. (1983). DNA Methylation and Gene Ac-
teria. This felt patch can then be placed over the tivity. Annu Rev Biochem 52:93.
surface of a fresh plate and pressed firmly to obtain Dugaiczyk, A., Boyer, H. W., and Goodman, H. M.
an exact replica of the original plate. (1975). Ligation of EcoRI Endonuclease-Generated
Fragments into Linear and Circular Structures. J
A similar type of insertional inactivation screen-
Mol Biol 96:171.
ing process for recombinant vectors is described in Friedberg, E. C. (1985). DNA Repair. New York: Free-
the introduction to Experiment 21. Many modern man.
E. coli cloning vectors contain multiple cloning sites Gerard, G. F. (1983). Reverse Transcriptase. In: Jacob,
within the lacZ a-peptide coding sequence. The S. T., ed. Enzymes of Nucleic Acid Synthesis and Modi-
LacZ a-peptide consists of the first 150 amino acids fication: Volume I. DNA Enzymes. Boca Raton, FL:
of b-galactosidase. It is known that the LacZ a- CRC Press.
peptide can be removed (cleaved) from the enzyme Hohn, B. (1979). In Vitro Packaging of l and Cosmid
and added back to the C-terminal domain of b- DNA. Methods Enzymol 68:299.
galactosidase to produce the fully active enzyme. If Hung, M. C., and Wensink, P. C. (1984). Different Re-
this plasmid is introduced into an E. coli strain in striction Enzyme-Generated Sticky DNA Ends Can
which the chromosomal copy of the lacZ gene has Be Joined in Vitro. Nucleic Acids Res 12:1863.
Ish-Horowicz, D., and Burke, J. F. (1981). Rapid and
the region of the a-peptide deleted, the host strain
Efficient Cosmid Cloning. Nucleic Acids Res 9:2989.
will be complemented (restored) for b-galactosidase
Kornberg, T., and Kornberg, A. (1974). Bacterial DNA
activity. If this same plasmid has a gene inserted in Polymerases: In: Boyer, P. D., ed. The Enzymes,
the multiple cloning site within the lacZ a-peptide 3rd ed. Vol. 10, pp. 119–144. New York: Academic
sequence, the lacZ a-peptide reading frame will be Press.
disrupted, and the host cell will not display any b- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
galactosidase activity. Any cell that is not comple- (1993). Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids. In: Princi-
mented for b-galactosidase activity (contains a plas- ples of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
mid with an insertion at the multiple cloning site) Mathews, C. K., and van Holde, K. E. (1990). Nucleic
will give rise to white colonies on an IPTG/ Xgal Acids. In: Biochemistry. Redwood City, CA:
plate, while cells that received the unmodified plas- Benjamin/Cummings.
mid will give rise to blue colonies. This screening McClelland, M., and Nelson, M. (1987). The Effect of
Site-Specific DNA Methylation on Restriction En-
process involving a complementation is described in
donucleases and DNA Modification Methyltrans-
greater detail in Experiment 21.
ferases—A Review. Gene 74:291.
Messing, J. (1983). New M13 Vectors for Cloning.
Methods Enzymol 101:20.
REFERENCES Minton, N. P., Chambers, S. P., Prior, S. E., Cole, S.
T., and Garnier, T. (1988). Copy Number and Mo-
Balbas, P., et al. (1986). Plasmid Vector pBR322 and Its bilization Properties pf pUC Plasmids. Bethesda Res
Special-Purpose Derivatives—A Review. Gene 50:3. Lab Focus 10(3):56.
332 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Oishi, M., and Cosloy, S. D. (1972). The Genetic and Sykes, R. B., and Mathews, M. (1976). The Beta-
Biochemical Basis of the Transformability of Es- Lactamases of Gram-Negative Bacteria and Their
cherichia coli K12. Biochem Biophys Res Comm Role in Resistance to Beta-Lactam Antibiotics.
49:1568. J Antimicrob Chemother 2:115.
Patterson, T. A., and Dean, M. (1987). Preparation of Ullmann, A., Jacob, F., and Monod, J. (1967). Charac-
High Titer Lambda Phage Lysates. Nucleic Acids Res terization by in Vitro Complementation of a Pep-
15:6298. tide Corresponding to an Operator-Proximal Seg-
Roberts, R. J. (1988). Restriction Enzymes and Their ment of the b-Galactosidase Structural Gene of
Isoschizomers. Nucleic Acids Res (suppl) 16:r271. Escherichia coli. J Mol Biol 24:339.
Saenger, W. (1984). Principles of Nucleic Acid Structure. Watson, J. D., Hopkins, N. H., Roberts, J. W., Steitz,
New York: Springer-Verlag. J. A., and Weiner, A. M. (1987). Molecular Biology of
Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F., and Maniatis, T. (1989). the Gene, 4th ed. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin /Cum-
Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed. mings.
Plainview, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Press.
Stoker, N. G., Fairweather, N. F., and Spratt, B. G.
(1982). Versatile Low-Copy-Number Plasmid Vec-
tors for Cloning in Escherichia coli. Gene 18:335.
N(
EXPERIMENT 19
333
334 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Luria broth (see Appendix) 4. Suspend the cell paste in an equal volume of
37°C Incubator-shaker cold (1 to 4°C) sterile saline solution. Complete
Fermenter the cell-washing procedure by harvesting the
Centrifuges, continuous and laboratory B. subtilis cells (10 min, 20,000 g, 1 to 3°C)
Sterile saline solution (8.5 g NaCl/liter) with a high-speed centrifuge.
0.15 M NaCl, 0.l M Na2EDTA 5. Decant the supernatant fluid from the cell pel-
Lysozyme solution, 10 mg/ml let after centrifugation and store the washed
25% (wt/vol) SDS solution cells in Parafilm or waxed-paper-wrapped lots
5.0 M NaClO4 at ⫺20°C until use (2-g lots are convenient).
Chloroform–isoamyl alcohol (24:1, vol/vol) The expected yield is 35 to 45 g of cells per 10
95% Ethanol liters.
Dilute (1/10X) saline-citrate (0.015 M NaCl, 0.0015 M
Na3-citrate)
Standard (1X) saline-citrate (0.15 M NaCl, 0.015 M Na3- Isolation of Bacterial DNA
citrate) 1. Suspend 2 g of bacterial cell paste in 25 ml of
Concentrated (10X) saline-citrate (1.5 M NaCl, 0.15 M 0.15 M NaCl, 0.1 M Na2EDTA solution. The
Na3-citrate) bacterial paste is most easily suspended by first
3.0 M Sodium acetate, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.0 adding a small amount of the NaCl–EDTA so-
Isopropanol lution, making a slurry, and then slowly adding
Chloroform the rest of the NaCl–EDTA solution. After
Spectrophotometer and quartz cuvettes suspension, add 1 ml of a 10-mg/ml lysozyme
solution and incubate the suspension at 37°C
for 30 min, gently agitating occasionally.
Protocol 2. After the 30-min incubation, complete the ly-
sis of the bacteria by adding 2 ml of a 25% SDS
Growth of Wild-Type Bacillus subtilis for solution and heating this preparation for 10
DNA Isolation min in a 60°C water bath. Cool the solution to
room temperature in a bath of tap water.
This portion of the experiment may be performed 3. Add 7.5 ml of 5.0 M NaClO4 to the 25 ml of
by an instructor in advance. lysed bacteria cells and mix gently. Then add
1. Inoculate (sterile technique) 100 ml of sterile 32.5 ml of CHCl3 –isoamyl alcohol (24:1) (i.e.,
Luria broth (200- to 400-ml flask) with a sam- a volume equal to the volume of lysed cell
ple of wild-type Bacillus subtilis obtained from preparation containing 1.0 M perchlorate).
a stock culture slant. Incubate this solution on Slowly shake the solution (30–60 oscillations
a shaker at 37°C for 15 to 24 hr (until the cul- per minute, by hand or on a low-speed shaker)
ture is densely turbid and is entering the sta- in a tightly stoppered flask for 30 min at room
tionary phase of growth). temperature.
2. Transfer the starter culture (sterile technique) 4. Transfer the suspension to a 250-ml polypropy-
into a fermenter containing 10 to 12 liters of lene centrifuge bottle, and separate the result-
sterile Luria broth and continue the bacterial ing emulsion by centrifuging for 5 min at
growth at 37°C while stirring (400 rpm) and 10,000 g at room temperature.
aerating at 1 liter of air per liter of fluid per 5. During the centrifugation step, remove any
minute. Monitor the growth periodically by de- residual enzymes from a glass rod by heating
termining the turbidity of the culture (ab- one end of the rod in a flame and allowing the
sorbance at 660 nm) during the 3- to 5-hr sterile end to air cool in a thoroughly washed
growth until this culture just enters the sta- 250-ml beaker.
tionary phase of growth. 6. After the centrifugation step, carefully pipette
3. Stop the growth by cutting off both air and ag- the clear aqueous phase (top layer) away from
itation. Use a continuous centrifuge (e.g., the coagulated protein emulsion at the inter-
Sharples) to harvest the cells as quickly as pos- face between the aqueous and organic phases
sible. of the centrifuged solution. Do not attempt to
EXPERIMENT 19 Isolation of Bacterial DNA 335
remove all of the aqueous phase; rather, avoid 10. Wash the sample (by submersion and brief
contaminating the aqueous phase with mater- swirling of the DNA on the rod) in test tubes
ial from the other layers. Place the aqueous containing, in order, 10 ml of 70% ethanol
phase, which contains the extracted nucleic (made by adding 2.6 ml H2O to 7.4 ml of 95%
acids, in the 250-ml beaker. Dispose of the ethanol), and then 10 ml of 95% ethanol.
CHCl3-containing waste in the special container 11. If you plan to isolate the DNA only for use in
provided by your instructor. the genetic transformation outlined in Experi-
7. Gently stir the nucleic acid solution with the ment 20, or if a day or longer will elapse be-
sterilized rod while slowly and gently adding 2 fore you will characterize the DNA as described
volumes (about 60 ml) of 95% ethanol. Pour below, store the DNA in a stoppered tube (2°C)
the ethanol gently down the side of the beaker so as a spool submerged on the rod in 95%
that it is layered over the viscous aqueous phase. ethanol. Dissolve the DNA as described in step
Continue to stir this preparation gently with the 1 of the following section when you are ready
sterilized glass rod so that the ethanol is very to use it.
gradually mixed throughout the entire aqueous
phase. Avoid stirring vigorously, which would
Characterization of DNA
shear the DNA strands and make the DNA
more difficult to isolate. The DNA will form 1. Remove the rod and the spooled DNA from
a white fibrous film at the water–ethanol in- the 95% ethanol, blot away all obvious resid-
terface, and you should be able to spool all of ual fluid with a clean piece of filter paper, and
the gelatinous, threadlike, DNA-rich precipi- then dissolve the DNA by stirring the glass rod,
tate onto the glass rod. Continue gentle stir- with its spooled DNA, in a test tube contain-
ring until the aqueous and ethanol phases are ing 10 ml of dilute (1/10X) saline-citrate (ster-
completely mixed and no more DNA precipi- ile solution if the DNA is to be used in Experiment
tate can be collected on the glass rod. Drain off 20). This solution can be stored at 2°C.
excess fluid from the spooled crude DNA by press-
ing the rod against the walls of the beaker until no
Spectral Characterization of DNA
further fluid can be squeezed from the spooled
preparation. 2. Dilute a 0.5 ml sample of the DNA solution
8. Dissolve the crude DNA by stirring the glass with 4.5 ml of standard (1X) saline-citrate and
rod with its spool of material in 9 ml of dilute determine the absorbance of this diluted sam-
(1/10X) saline-citrate in a test tube. Difficulty ple at 260 nm against a dilute saline-citrate
in dissolving the sample indicates failure to re- blank containing no DNA. If the absorbance at
move sufficient alcohol from the sample dur- 260 nm is greater than 1.0, dilute the sample
ing step 7. If such difficulty is encountered, with a precisely known volume of standard (1X)
continue working the sample within the solu- saline-citrate until you obtain an absorbance of
tion until you obtain as uniform a suspension between 0.5 and 1.0.
as possible. 3. Determine the absorbance of this solution at 5-
9. To the DNA solution add 1 ml of 3.0 M sodium nm intervals between 240 and 300 nm, so as to
acetate, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.0 solution and obtain an absorption spectrum for the isolated
transfer the preparation to a 100-ml beaker. DNA. (Remember that quartz cuvettes must be
Gently swirl the sample while slowly dripping used in this wavelength range.) Blank the spec-
in 6.0 ml of isopropanol. If fibrous DNA is trophotometer to read zero absorbance with 1X
readily apparent, collect the DNA threads by saline-citrate at each wavelength. (If equipment
stirring and spooling with a sterilized glass rod for the automated collection of this absorbance
as described in step 7. If a gel-like preparation spectrum is available, follow the instructions
develops, add an extra 1.0 ml of isopropanol for that instrument.) Include this absorption
and stir to spool the DNA onto the sterilized spectrum in your report.
glass rod. Remove excess fluid from the spooled 4. Calculate the A260A280 ratio for your sample,
DNA by pressing the sample against the walls and compare it with the value expected for pure
of the beaker. DNA (2.0).
336 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
5. Assuming that a 1-mg/ml solution of native sults from the preceding section to decide how
DNA has an absorbance at 260 nm of 20 and much you need to dilute the stock DNA solu-
that all of your absorbance at 260 nm is due to tion. Determine the absorbance at 260 nm of
native DNA, calculate the concentration (in this dilute solution at room temperature (about
milligrams per milliliter) of the DNA in your 20°C).
undiluted DNA solution and the total yield (in 4. Transfer 1.0 ml of the same dilute DNA solu-
micrograms or milligrams) of DNA you ob- tion into each of six microcentrifuge tubes and
tained. cap them tightly. Incubate one tube at each of
6. Assuming 100% recovery of the cellular DNA the following temperatures for 20 min: 50°C,
and assuming the wet bacterial cell paste was 65°C, 75°C, and 85°C. In addition, incubate
80% water, calculate the percent of the dry two of the tubes at 100°C (i.e., a boiling water
weight in the bacterial cells that is DNA. How bath).
do your results agree with the DNA content of 5. After 20 min of incubating the tubes at the
a typical bacterium, which is about 3% of the indicated temperatures, quickly cool all of
cell’s dry weight? If your results do not agree them by placing them in an ice-water bath and
with this value, discuss possible reasons for the gently agitating them. Allow one of the tubes
discrepancy. heated at 100°C to cool slowly to room tempera-
ture by placing it in a rack at your bench (30 to
40 min will be required).
Melting of DNA —The “Hyperchromic Effect” 6. As quickly as possible after they have cooled,
1. If your laboratory is equipped with a spec- determine the absorbance at 260 nm of the so-
trophotometer with a thermoprogrammer de- lution in each tube. For a blank, use a sample
signed for determination of melting curves of of dilute saline-citrate (1/10X ) that contains no
nucleic acid samples (Gilford, Beckman Instru- DNA.
ments), determine a melting curve of a sample 7. During heating, the double-stranded structure
of your DNA dissolved in the required volume of DNA “melts”; that is, the strands separate.
(usually 1 ml or less) of standard (1X) saline- The nucleotide bases in the separated strands
citrate so as to give an initial absorbance of are no longer stacked in a regular fashion,
about 1 at 260 nm. Use the results from the which results in an increase in their absorbance
preceding section to decide how much you of UV light. This is called the hyperchromic ef-
need to dilute the stock DNA solution. Follow fect or hyperchromicity. When melted DNA is
the instructions provided by the instrument’s quickly cooled in solutions with very low salt
manufacturer in programming the rate of tem- concentrations, the strands are very slow to
perature increase, protecting the sample against reassociate into their original base-paired,
evaporation, etc. double-stranded form. Thus, you can estimate
2. If your laboratory does not have access to a the degree of melting at each temperature even
spectrophotometer with a thermoprogrammer, though you are measuring the absorbance at
use the “quick cool” method described in steps 260 nm at room temperature. The DNA sam-
3 through 6 below to obtain a melting curve ple that was heated to 100°C and slowly cooled
for your DNA. This method does not observe to room temperature, on the other hand, is ex-
a true equilibrium between native and dena- pected to form normal double-stranded DNA
tured (“melted”) DNA and is appreciably less again (reanneal) and to exhibit little hyper-
accurate than the method described in step 1, chromic effect. Do your data support this ex-
but it will suffice to illustrate the principles un- pectation?
derlying the thermal separation of DNA 8. Prepare a plot of the absorbance at 260 nm at
strands. each temperature for the unheated sample and
3. Using your stock DNA solution from step 11, each of the rapidly cooled samples. Estimate
prepare 10 ml of a diluted DNA solution in the the melting temperature (Tm) for your DNA.
dilute saline-citrate (1/10X) that has a final ab- (Tm is the temperature at which the DNA sam-
sorbance at 260 nm of about 0.5. Use the re- ple is half melted. Assume that the DNA is
EXPERIMENT 19 Isolation of Bacterial DNA 337
completely melted at 100°C. Calculate the hy- 3. Examine the procedure described in Experi-
perchromic effect for your DNA as the percent ment 21 for the isolation of plasmid DNA from
increase in absorbance at 260 nm on complete bacteria. It is very different from the procedure
melting. Calculate the percent guanine plus cy- used to isolate chromosomal DNA in this ex-
tosine (% GC) base pairs in your DNA using periment. Could it be used to isolate chromo-
the following formula somal DNA from bacteria? Why or why not?
Explain why such different procedures are used
% GC ⫽ 2.44 (Tm ⫺ 81.5°C ⫺ 16.6 log10[Na]) for isolating these two types of DNA.
4. What other physical and chemical treatments
For dilute (1/10X) saline-citrate, this becomes besides heating would be expected to allow you
% GC ⫽ 2.44 (Tm ⫺ 53.9°C ). B. subtilis DNA to demonstrate the hyperchromicity of single-
is known to contain about 43% GC. How does stranded DNA? Explain how these treatments
this agree with your results? Discuss the results bring about strand separation.
of this experiment. 5. Most naturally occurring RNA molecules are
singled-, not double-stranded duplexes, yet
RNA also shows a hyperchromic effect on
Exercises melting. Explain.
6. The equation used for calculating % GC bases
1. The DNA of cells containing nuclei (eukary- pairs in this experiment predicts that increas-
otic cells) is tightly associated with proteins ing % GC and increasing Na concentration
called histones, most of which are rather basic increases the Tm of DNA. Explain the physical
proteins (i.e., they have high isoelectric points). basis for these effects.
Considering the basic character of most his-
tones and the amino acids that contribute to
this basic character, what enzymes would prob- REFERENCES
ably be most effective in disrupting histones
from eukaryotic cellular DNA? Would you ex- Mandel, M., and Marmur, J. (1968). Use of ultraviolet
pect the procedure used in this experiment for absorbance-temperature profiles for determining
the isolation of bacterial DNA to be useful for the guanine plus cytosine content of DNA. Methods
the isolation of DNA from eukaryotic cells? Enzymol 12B:195.
2. This isolation of bacterial DNA utilizes Marmur, J. (1961). A procedure for the isolation of
desoxyribonucleic acid from microorganisms. J Mol
reagents in the neutral pH range. What effects,
Biol 3:208.
if any, would you expect extremes in acid or al- Puglisi, J. D., and Tinoco, I. (1989). Absorbance melt-
kali to have on the fibrous character of the ing curves of RNA. Methods Enzymol 180:304.
DNA isolated in this procedure? Why?
D
w
EXPERIMENT 20
339
340 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
should appear on the plates containing trypto- directly for transformation. However, it is usu-
phan, and no colonies should be found on the ally much more convenient to store the cells as
plates lacking tryptophan. frozen cell cultures and to thaw and use them
4. After removing samples for plating to confirm when needed. Frozen competent cells are pre-
the Trp phenotype, use the remaining culture pared as follows:
to inoculate 100 ml of SPI medium in a 500- Centrifuge the cell culture in a high-speed
ml flask. Incubate the culture at 37°C overnight centrifuge (10 min, 20,000 g, 1 to 4°C) us-
with shaking. The solution should be turbid in ing sterilized centrifuge bottles. Working asep-
the morning. tically and quickly, decant all but about 1/10 of
5. Transfer 5 to 10 ml of this culture to 100 ml of the original volume (about 50 ml) of the SPII
fresh SPI medium in a 500-ml sidearm flask so growth medium. Resuspend (sterile glass rod)
that the final cell suspension has an absorbance the cell pellet in the remaining growth medium.
at 500 nm of about 0.1 when viewed against an Add 5 ml of sterile glycerol and mix thoroughly.
SPI medium blank. (NOTE: If you do not use The resultant cell suspension should have an
a Klett colorimeter and a sidearm flask, remove absorbance at 660 nm of roughly 0.5 (i.e., 108
1-ml samples for absorbance readings in a spec- cells per milliliter). Store these cells in 0.6-ml
trophotometer. Use sterile technique for all aliquots in sterile 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes
samplings. Do not return samples from the cu- at 70°C until use in the transformation ex-
vettes to the cell suspension.) Incubate this cul- periments below. This procedure yields suffi-
ture with shaking at 37°C. cient cells for about 80 pairs of students.
6. Follow the growth of the cells in the culture by
taking readings from the sidearm with a Klett
colorimeter or using the sampling technique Transformation
described in step 5. Plot the absorbance as a
The following procedures require sterile technique; that is,
function of time of growth on semilog paper.
use of sterilized glassware, pipettes, Petri plates, and other
7. When the turbidity of the culture (cell growth)
equipment. Do not use equipment that has lost a cover-
stops increasing exponentially (usually 4 to 5 hr
ing cap and consequently has been exposed to the air for
after inoculation), transfer 50 ml of the culture
long periods. If you are unfamiliar with sterile techniques
to a 2-liter flask containing 450 ml of fresh SPII
for transferring bacterial cultures, consult your instructor
medium, which is the same as SPI medium ex-
for details of the techniques required in this experiment.
cept that it contains 0.5 mM CaCl2 and 2.5 mM
MgCl2. Incubate this culture with shaking at 1. Start by carrying out the special treatments of
37°C for 90 min. DNA required for tubes 4 and 6 in Table 20-1.
8. Cells from the culture in step 7 should have de- 2. If frozen competent cells are to be used, thaw
veloped maximal competence and can be used the entire 0.6-ml sample by incubation for
Table 20-1 Protocol for Transformation of Competent B. subtilis Cells with DNA
Tube Number
5 min at 40 to 45°C. Add 6 l of sterile 0.1 M water bath, but alternatively in a 37°C incuba-
EGTA, pH 7.9, and mix gently. Use these cells tor with occasional gentle hand agitation. Dur-
for step 3. ing the 2-hr incubation, set up and familiarize
3. Using sterile technique, pipette the following yourself with the details of the following dilu-
ingredients into six empty sterile test tubes in tion and plating operations.
the order shown in Table 20-1. Note that tubes You will determine the number of cells in
4 and 6 require special treatment of the DNA each bacterial suspension by use of the agar
before initiating the incubations. Label the plating method. In this method, you spread a
tubes clearly with their numbers and your ini- small sample of known volume (or a known di-
tials. lution of such a sample) over the surface of a
4. Cover the tubes with caps and incubate them sterile Petri plate containing an agar-stabilized
for 2 hr at 37°C, preferably in a slowly shaking growth medium (Fig. 20-1). The sample dif-
Sterile
pipette
Bacterial
solution or
a dilution
of same
Incubate
Bent glass rod inverted
in 95% Ethanol plate at 37°C
Flame away
95% Ethanol
fuses into the growth medium, embedding sin- (NOTE: Once you obtain a specified bacterial
gle bacterial cells in the agar. On incubation, dilution, conserve pipettes by using the same
the bacterial cells take up nutrients and divide. pipette both for plating and for subsequent di-
Each original bacterial cell capable of growth lutions.) Use the technique illustrated in Fig-
on the growth medium eventually yields a vis- ure 20-1 to plate the samples and spread them
ible colony of cells growing in the same spot on evenly over the agar surface.
the agar where the original single bacterial cell 6. Determine the number of transformed (Trp) cells
was embedded. Thus, the number of colonies in each of the six assay tubes by plating a 0.1-
obtained from the sample placed on the plate ml sample from each tube on labeled plates
equals the number of viable cells originally containing minimal medium agar (without
present in the sample. This assumes that all of tryptophan).
the cells can grow on the growth medium pro- 7. The Trp colonies obtained from tubes 2 and
vided in the Petri plate. If the growth medium 3 may be too numerous to count. For this rea-
is altered such that only cells of a certain phe- son you must confirm the number of trans-
notype can grow on the plate, the number of formed (Trp) cells in tubes 2 and 3 by trans-
colonies will reflect only the cells of that sub- ferring a 0.1-ml sample from each of these
population. tubes into separate marked tubes containing
Analysis of the transformation performed in 9.9 ml of sterile saline. Mix these solutions
this experiment requires agar plating to deter- thoroughly and plate a 0.1-ml sample of the
mine the number of transformed cells (Trp 100-fold diluted samples on separate marked
cells) in each of the six tubes of the experiment. plates containing minimal medium agar. Save
The Petri plates used in this determination ob- the diluted culture samples for later use.
viously do not contain tryptophan in the 8. Determine the total number of cells ( Trp plus
growth medium. In a separate experiment, you Trp) in tubes 1 and 2 by preparing a 100-fold
will determine the total number of cells (Trp dilution of tube 1 by adding 0.1 ml of culture
plus Trp cells) in the transformation mixture from tube 1 to 9.9 ml of sterile saline. The same
by plating a diluted sample of known volume dilution was already performed for tube 2 in
and known dilution on a Petri plate in which step 5. Take a 0.1-ml sample from the dilutions
the agar growth medium does contain trypto- of tubes 1 and 2 and transfer each to separate
phan. The number of transformants (Trp) marked tubes containing 9.9 ml of sterile saline.
cells divided by the total number of cells (Trp Plate a 0.1-ml aliquot of each of these latter
plus Trp) is the efficiency of that transforma- 10,000-fold dilutions on minimal medium plus
tion experiment. tryptophan agar plates. Finally, transfer sepa-
The number of transformed cells in each rate 0.1-ml samples of both 10,000-fold diluted
tube will be small compared with the total samples to marked tubes containing 0.9 ml of
number of cells (perhaps 0.1 to 1%). You can sterile saline, mix the contents, and plate sep-
therefore determine the number of trans- arate 0.1 ml samples of these 100,000-fold di-
formed cells in each tube by plating a 0.1-ml lutions on minimal medium plus tryptophan
sample (or a limited dilution of a 0.1-ml sam- agar plates. Two dilutions of the cultures in
ple) on minimal medium agar (i.e., growth tubes 1 and 2 are prepared in case the number
medium containing sugars and salts but lack- of colonies on the plate containing the 10,000-
ing tryptophan). In contrast, analysis of the to- fold dilution are too numerous to count. In this
tal number of cells in each tube requires ex- case, the 100,000-fold dilution of the same cul-
tensive dilution of the contents of each tube ture should produce a number of colonies that
before plating on minimal medium agar plates you can count readily.
supplemented with tryptophan. 9. Immediately after placing each 0.1-ml sample
5. After the 2-hr incubation at 37°C, use sterile of culture on a Petri plate, spread the sample
technique to perform the following steps for uniformly over the surface of the plate with a
dilution and plating, labeling all tubes and sterile bent glass rod (see Fig. 20-1). Be sure that
plates with the dilutions and medium used. you sterilize the glass rod between spreadings
344 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
of each sample by dipping it in ethanol and 2. A student performing this experiment detects
flaming it. 2 107 total viable cells (Trp plus Trp) per
10. Allow all the plated samples to diffuse into the milliliter in tube 1 of this experiment, yet the
agar for 5 to 10 min. Then, invert each Petri student cannot detect a significant number of
plate (agar side up), write your name or initials viable cells in tube 2 of this experiment. Sug-
on each, combine the plates in stacks held by gest an explanation for this result.
masking tape, and incubate all plates for 48 to 3. Assume that indoleglycerolphosphate syn-
72 hr at 37°C. Count the colonies on each thetase, an enzyme essential for tryptophan
plate. biosynthesis in B. subtilis, has a molecular
11. Use the dilution factors and the number of weight of 50,000, that amino acids in proteins
colonies detected on each plate to determine have an average molecular weight of 100, and
the number of Trp cells per milliliter of undi- that nucleotides in nucleic acids have an aver-
luted growth medium in each of the six trans- age molecular weight of 333. Calculate the min-
formation tubes. How do the results obtained imal molecular weight of a transforming frag-
for tubes 2 and 3 with the 100-fold diluted sam- ment of double-stranded DNA that could carry
ples agree with those obtained when 0.1 ml of the complete genetic information necessary for
undiluted cells was plated? Explain your find- synthesis of indoleglycerolphosphate syn-
ings. thetase.
12. Use the dilution factors and colony counts to
determine the total number of viable cells
(Trp plus Trp) present per milliliter of undi- REFERENCES
luted culture in tubes 1 and 2. Assuming that
all of the Trp cells are transformants and as- Anagnostopoulos, C., and Spizizen, J. (1961). Require-
suming that the total number of viable cells in ments for transformation in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacte-
tubes 2 through 6 is the same, calculate the ef- riol 81:741.
ficiency of transformation in tubes 2 to 6. In- Dubnau, D. (1993). Genetic exchange and homologous
terpret all your results in terms of the contents recombination. In: Sonenshein, A. L., Hoch, J. A.,
of each tube and your knowledge of the process and Losick, R., eds. Bacillus subtilis and Other Gram
of transformation. Which tubes served as con- Positive Bacteria: Biochemistry, Physiology and Molecu-
trols for the experiment? Explain. lar Genetics. Washington, DC: American Society for
Microbiology, pp. 555.
Mahler, I. (1968). Procedures for Bacillus subtilis trans-
formation. Methods Enzymol 12B:846.
Exercises Sadaie, Y., and Kada, T. (1983). Formation of compe-
tent Bacillus subtilis cells. J Bacteriol 153:813.
1. What biological advantage do bacteria derive Wilson, G. A., and Bott, K. F. (1968). Nutritional fac-
from having the capacity to develop natural tors influencing the development of competence in
competence? Suggest why competence devel- the Bacillus subtilis transformation system. J Bacteriol
ops optimally in nutrient-limited cultures. 95:1439.
EXPERIMENT 21
345
346 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
ac
ac
kanR gene )
Z'
I
translational
start codon
ATG
or i
kanR gene
promoter
or i
pUC4K pUC19
Pst I (1657)
la c z '
a m pR a m pR
EcoRI Sac I KpnI SmaI BamHI XbaI Sal I Pst I Sph I HindIII
XmaI AccI
HincII
pUC19 with EcoRI, BamHI, and SalI. Following gene will ligate into pUC19 in a specific orienta-
digestion, the DNA fragments resulting from tion (see Fig. 21-2). If both the kanR gene and
these reactions (Fig. 21-2) will be mixed together pUC19 were digested with EcoRI only, this would
and precipitated with ethanol. Next, T4 DNA lig- not be the case (see Fig. 21-3).
ase and ATP will be added, and the ligation reac- Also note that the XhoI digest on pUC4K cleaves
tion will be allowed to proceed overnight. As off the promoter and start codon (ATG) for the kanR
shown in Fig. 21-2, the 59 single-stranded DNA gene, rendering it incapable of being transcribed or
overhang produced in the XhoI digest on pUC4K translated by the host cell (see Fig. 21-1). However,
will be compatible with the 59 single-stranded the XhoI/SalI ligation of the kanR gene into pUC19
DNA overhang produced in the SalI digest on will put it into the same reading frame as the LacZa
pUC19. Although DNA ligase will be able to join peptide sequence. What will be produced is a
these two fragments together, the resulting se- lacZ/kanR gene fusion protein that will confer kanR
quence will no longer be recognized by XhoI or to the host cell and that is inducible in the presence
SalI. The 59 single-stranded DNA overhangs pro- of IPTG. This differs from the case in pUC4K,
duced in the EcoRI digests on pUC4K and pUC19 where the kanR gene is constitutively expressed un-
will also be compatible, and will be joined by DNA der the control of a different promoter.
ligase to regenerate the EcoRI site. This type of di- Since the ligation reaction is performed in the
rectional, or forced, cloning ensures that the kanR presence of a number of different DNA fragments
EcoRI BamHI SalI 347
pUC4K pUC19
a m pR a m pR
Digest with XhoI and EcoRI Digest with SalI, EcoRI, and BamHI
GA
T
DNA strands.
C
G
C G CTG
C T A AT
D
A
AG
se
G
1
AT
P
pUC19
lac promoter
lacI
Figure 21-2 DNA fragments produced from pUC4K and pUC19 following restriction enzyme digestion.
348 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
kanR
C
G
TA T
C T AT
A
G
GA
C
AA AAG
TT
TT
C
lacZ'
lacZ'
kanR
TC
oter
G
T
prom c
AA
la
C
TT
AA
A
TA
pR
am
CT
G
A A T T C lacZ'
pUC19 digested
G
kanR
C
T
G
AT
A
GA
TA
G A TA A
pR
CT
CT
am
AT
TC
G
lacZ'
lacZ'
oter
prom c
la
pR
am
Figure 21-3 Two recombinant pUC19/4K plasmids are possible if both plasmids are digested with a sin-
gle enzyme. The two resulting plasmids differ in the orientation of the kanR gene in pUC19.
The arrow (→) indicates the direction of transcription of the kanR gene.
with compatible single-stranded DNA overhangs, ate back into pUC19. The possibility of reforming
the desired pUC19/4K recombinant plasmid is by either of the two parent plasmids is minimized, how-
no means the only plasmid that could be produced ever, because both events would require a success-
during the ligation reaction. For instance, it is pos- ful three-point ligation (see Fig. 21-4). The two-
sible that the EcoRI/XhoI fragment carrying the kanR point ligation that is required to produce the desired
gene from pUC4K will ligate back into pUC4K. It pUC19/4K plasmid is statistically much more likely
is also possible that the EcoRI/SalI fragment will lig- to occur.
EXPERIMENT 2I Constructing and Characterizing a Recombinant DNA Plasmid 349
G G AT C C
kanR
G C C TA G G
C C
T
T
G
G
T
AA
AA
TA
C
A
AG
AG
TT G
A
TA
C
TC
CT
C
TCG
CT
G
G AC
GAGCT
G
pUC4K pUC19
C
G
C
TT
A
G TA
AA
T
pR pR
am am
kanR
C
T
G
C
T
AA
G
A
AG
TA
TC
CT
CT
G
GAC
G
pUC19/4K
pR
am
Figure 21-4 On a statistical basis, the two-point ligation required to form the recombinant pUC19/4K
plasmid is much more likely than the three-point ligations required to form pUC19 or
pUC4K.
How do you distinguish between cells carrying The host cell used in this experiment is Epicurian
the pUC19 plasmid and the pUC19/4K recombi- coli XL1-Blue. This strain contains a deletion on
nant plasmid? Recall that pUC19 carries the gene the chromosome of the first 450 base pairs of its
for ampR, while pUC19/4K carries the genes for lacZ coding sequence (the LacZa peptide). The
ampR and kanR. Any colony that will grow in the pUC19 plasmid will be able to restore b-galac-
presence of ampicillin but not kanamycin most tosidase activity in the host strain, since this plas-
likely harbors pUC19. In addition to the antibi- mid contains an uninterrupted LacZa peptide cod-
otic selection just described, pUC19 will also con- ing sequence (the strain will be complemented for
fer another unique phenotype to the host cell that b-galactosidase activity). The LacZa peptide ex-
will distinguish it from those carrying pUC19/4K. pressed from the pUC19 plasmid will be able to
350 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
noncovalently interact with the C-terminal frag- of selection that will be used in this experiment are
ment of LacZ produced by the host cell, creating outlined in Table 21-1.
a functional b-galactosidase enzyme. This tech-
nique of selection is therefore referred to as a-com-
plementation. If cells containing pUC19 are placed Supplies and Reagents
on an agar plate containing IPTG and 5-bromo-
4-chloro-3-indolyl-b,D-galactopyranoside (Xgal), pUC19 (0.25 mg/ml)—Pharmacia catalog #27–4951-01
LacZa peptide expression will be induced, and the pUC4K (0.5 mg/ml)—Pharmacia catalog #27–4958-01
Xgal substrate will be converted to a blue-colored Distilled water (sterile)
precipitate. Blue colonies on an IPTG/Xgal plate PstI (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL catalog
will therefore be indicative of the presence of an #15215-023
intact LacZa peptide sequence in the plasmid EcoRI (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL cata-
(pUC19). Since pUC19/4K will have the kanR log #15202-021
gene inserted into the LacZa peptide sequence, it XhoI (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL catalog
will not be able to complement the host strain for #15231-020
b-galactosidase activity, and it will produce white SalI (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL catalog
colonies on an IPTG/Xgal plate. #15217-029
How do you distinguish between cells carrying BamHI (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL cat-
the pUC4K plasmid and the pUC19/4K recombi- alog #15201-031
nant plasmid? This is not as easy as the situation HindIII (10 units/ml) with 10X buffer—Gibco BRL cat-
alog #15207-020
described above, since both plasmids contain an in-
Water baths at 37°C, 15°C, and 42°C
sertion in the LacZa peptide sequence. Both plas-
Phenol (Tris-saturated)
mids will confer kanR and ampR to the host strain
Chloroform
and both will produce white colonies in the pres-
Isoamyl alcohol
ence of IPTG and Xgal. Still, there is one differ-
3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2)
ence between these two plasmids that you will be
Absolute ethanol
able to exploit during the selection process. Recall
Dry ice/ethanol bath (270°C)
that the kanR gene is constitutively expressed from
Microcentrifuge
the pUC4K plasmid, while the kanR gene is under
1.5-ml plastic microcentrifuge tubes
the control of the lac promoter in the pUC19/4K
70% vol/vol ethanol in distilled water
recombinant plasmid. Therefore, any white colony
Vacuum microcentrifuge (Speed-Vac)
that grows well on a plate containing only
P-20, P-200, and P-1000 Pipetmen with disposable tips
kanamycin (no IPTG) most likely carries pUC4K.
(sterile)
In contrast, any colony that grows well on a
T4 DNA ligase (1 unit/ml) with 5X buffer—Gibco BRL
kanamycin plate containing IPTG, but poorly on a catalog #15224-025
plate containing only kanamycin, most likely car- Epicurian coli XL1-Blue competent cells—Stratagene,
ries pUC19/4K. The basis for the different types catalog #200130
Yeast-tryptone (YT) broth (1% Bactotryptone, 0.5%
yeast extract, 0.5% NaCl)
100 mM IPTG solution in sterile distilled water (filter-
Table 21-1 Basis of Selection for Clones sterilized)
Carrying the Desired pUC19/4K Ampicillin (100 mg/ml) prepared in sterile distilled wa-
Recombinant Plasmid ter—Sigma catalog #A-9518
Kanamycin (100 mg/ml) prepared in sterile distilled wa-
KanR Color on ter—Sigma catalog #K-4000
IPTG- IPTG/Xgal Agar
Plasmid KanR? AmpR? Inducible? Plate
Culture shaker with test tube racks at 37°C
pUC19 No Yes — Blue Petri plates (disposable, plastic)
pUC4K Yes Yes No White Sterile glass rod (for spreading bacteria over the plate)
pUC19/4K Yes Yes Yes White Sterile toothpicks
37°C incubator
EXPERIMENT 2I Constructing and Characterizing a Recombinant DNA Plasmid 351
Large (16 3 125 mm) glass test tubes (sterile) 2. Incubate both reactions at 37°C for 1.5 hr.
1-kb DNA ladder size standard—Gibco BRL catalog 3. Transfer both reactions to a single tube and add
#15615-016 160 ml of sterile distilled water.
Ethidium bromide solution in 0.5X TBE buffer (0.5 4. Add 200 ml of Tris-saturated phenol;chloro-
mg/ml)—Toxic! form;isoamyl alcohol (25;24;1). Mix vigor-
Polaroid camera with film and a 256-nm light box ously in a Vortex mixer for 1 min and centrifuge
GTE lysis buffer (25 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 50 mM glucose, for 3 min to separate the aqueous and organic
10 mM EDTA, 10 mg/ml lysozyme) phases. This step is done to denature and re-
Fresh solution of 0.2 N NaOH and 1% SDS in distilled move the restriction endonucleases from the
water DNA solution.
Potassium acetate solution (60 ml of 5 M potassium ac- 5. Remove the aqueous (upper) phase and place it
etate, 11.5 ml of glacial acetic acid, 28.5 ml of dis-
in a clean microcentrifuge tube. Repeat step 4
tilled water)
(extraction of aqueous phase) with 200 ml of
RNaseA (10 mg/ml in water)—Boil this solution for 10 min
chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24;1). This step is
to inactivate any DNase
done to remove all traces of phenol from the
6X DNA loading buffer (0.25% wt/vol bromophenol
blue, 0.25% wt/vol xylene cyanole, 30% wt/vol solution, which may denature the T4 DNA lig-
glycerol in distilled water) ase during the ligation reaction. Dispose of the
Agarose (electrophoresis grade) organic phase from this extraction in a waste
5X TBE buffer (54 g/liter Trizma base, 27.5 g/liter boric beaker designated by the instructor.
acid, 20 ml/liter of 0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0) 6. Transfer the upper (aqueous) phase to a fresh
Agarose-gel electrophoresis apparatus with casting box microcentrifuge tube. Do not transfer any of the
and 10-well comb organic phase during this process. Dispose of the
5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-b,D-galactopyranoside (Xgal), organic phase from this extraction in a waste
40 mg/ml solution in dimethylformamide—Toxic! beaker designated by the instructor.
(Sigma catalog #B-4252) 7. Add 10 ml of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) to
the aqueous phase, as well as 800 ml of absolute
ethanol. Cap and invert the tube several times
to mix. Submerge the closed tube in a dry
Protocol ice/ethanol bath (270°C) for 10 min. This is
done to precipitate plasmid DNA.
8. Centrifuge the sample at 4°C in a microcen-
Day 1: Restriction Endonuclease Digestion
trifuge for 30 min. Carefully remove the su-
of pUC19 and pUC4K, Ethanol
pernatant from the precipitated DNA pellet.
Precipitation of DNA Fragments, and DNA
Depending on how pure the DNA is, this pellet may
Ligation
be translucent and difficult to see. It may help you
1. Set up the following reactions in two labeled to place the outside hinge of the microcentrifuge tube
1.5-ml sterile microcentrifuge tubes: toward the outside of the rotor during the centrifu-
gation so that you will know where the DNA pel-
Digestion of pUC19 Digestion of pUC4K
let is at the bottom of the tube. You may also find
14 ml of distilled 14 ml of distilled the use of Pellet Paint to be helpful during this pro-
water (sterile) water (sterile) cedure. This product, sold by Novagen (catalog
2 ml of 10X React 2 ml of 10X React #69049-3), is a pink chromophore that will bind
Buffer 2 Buffer 2
the DNA and give the pellet a color that will be
1 ml of pUC19 2 ml of pUC4K
easier to identify at this point.
(0.25 mg/ml) (0.50 mg/ml)
9. Add 1 ml of ice cold 70% ethanol to the DNA
1 ml of EcoRI 1 ml of EcoRI
(10 units/ml) (10 units/ml) pellet, centrifuge at 4°C for 5 min, and care-
1 ml of BamHI 1 ml of XhoI fully remove the supernatant from the precip-
(10 units/ml) (10 units/ml) itated DNA pellet. This step is done to remove
1 ml of SalI the salt that was added to the DNA to aid in
(10 units/ml) the precipitation. This salt, if not removed, could
interfere with the DNA ligation reaction.
352 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
10. Allow the DNA pellet to air dry (,10 min) or 1-ng/ml solution of untreated pUC19. To
dry it down briefly (,2 min) in the vacuum mi- tube 3, add 5 ml of the 1X ligation buffer (no
crocentrifuge. DNA). To tube 4, add 5 ml of unligated DNA
11. Resuspend the DNA pellet in 20 ml of sterile sample left over from Day 1 (see Table 21-2
distilled water. Store the DNA on ice until and step 13 of the Day 1 protocol).
ready to proceed with the ligation reaction. 8. Incubate the cells with these samples on ice for
12. Carefully mix the following together in a ster- 15 min, swirling gently every 2 min. Quickly
ile, 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tube: remove the tubes from the ice and place them
in a 42°C water bath. Incubate the tubes at
15 ml of DNA sample (from step 11) 42°C for exactly 45 sec. Quickly remove the
4 ml of T4 DNA ligase buffer (250 mM Tris, pH 7.6, tubes from the water bath and incubate them
50 mM MgCl2, 5 mM ATP, 5 mM dithiothre-
again on ice for 2 min. On heat shock, the com-
itol, 25% wt/vol polyethylene glycol-8000)
petent E. coli cells will take up the intact plas-
1 ml of T4 DNA ligase (1 unit/ml)
mid DNA produced during the ligation reac-
13. Incubate the reaction at room temperature for tion. The competent cells are very compromised at
1 hr and then at 15°C overnight. Store the re- this point, and they will die if the incubation is not
action at 4°C for use on Day 2. Also, store the performed at exactly 42°C for exactly 45 sec. The
remainder of your DNA sample from step 11 incubation on ice will prevent the cells from dying
(5 ml) at 4°C for use on Day 2. after the heat shock.
9. Add 1 ml of YT broth (use sterile technique)
and 30 ml of sterile 100 mM IPTG solution to
Day 2: Transformation of E. coli Host Cells
each tube. Incubate the cells at 37°C with gen-
1. Add 30 ml of sterile distilled water to your 20- tle shaking for 1 hr. During this time, the cells
ml ligation reaction. Add 2.5 ml of 3 M sodium will recover from the heat shock and begin to
acetate (pH 5.2) and 200 ml of absolute ethanol. express genes (such as kanR in the pUC19/4K
Cap the tube and invert several times to mix. plasmid) under the control of the lac promoter.
Submerge the capped tube in a dry ice/ethanol 10. Obtain five agar plates containing IPTG (40
bath (270°C) for 10 min. mg/ml), Xgal (40 mg/ml), and ampicillin (100
2. Centrifuge the sample at 4°C for 30 min. Re- mg/ml). Obtain two agar plates containing
move the supernatant from the precipitated IPTG (40 mg/ml), Xgal (40 mg/ml), and
DNA pellet and add 1 ml of ice cold 70% kanamycin (50 mg/ml).
ethanol. Centrifuge the sample again at 4°C for 11. Remove 100- and 200-ml aliquots from cul-
5 min. Remove the supernatant from the pre- ture tube 1 and place on two separate
cipitated DNA pellet. IPTG/Xgal/amp plates (see Table 21-3). Plate
3. Air dry the DNA pellet as before or dry briefly the same volumes of cells from culture tube
in the vacuum microcentrifuge. 1 on the two separate IPTG/Xgal/kan plates.
4. Resuspend the dried DNA pellet in 5 ml of ster-
ile distilled water.
5. Obtain a microcentrifuge tube from the in-
Table 21-2 Procedure for E. coli
structor containing 160 ml of freshly thawed Transformation
Epicurian coli XL1-Blue competent cells (with
b-mercaptoethanol added as per the manufac- Volume of
turer’s instructions). Keep these cells on ice at all E. coli
times! XL1-Blue
Tube DNA Sample Volume (ml) cells (ml)
6. Add 40 ml of these cells to four prechilled (on
ice) round-bottomed, 15-ml polypropylene 1 Ligation mixture 5 40
culture tubes. Again, keep the cells on ice at all 2 pUC19 (untreated) 5 40
times and label the tubes 1 to 4. 3 Ligation buffer (no DNA) 5 40
7. To tube 1, add 5 ml of the ligation mixture 4 Unligated DNA 5 40
prepared in step 4. To tube 2, add 5 ml of a
EXPERIMENT 2I Constructing and Characterizing a Recombinant DNA Plasmid 353
Table 21-3 Procedure for Plating and 2. Analyze the two IPTG/Xgal/kan plates con-
Selection of Transformed Bacteria taining the transformation mixture from tube 1 to
find four colonies that are white in color. Obtain
Transformation Volume to Be Components in two fresh agar plates: one containing
Tube Plated (ml) Agar Plate kanamycin and one containing kanamycin and
IPTG. On the bottom surface of each plate,
1 100 IPTG/Xgal/amp
use a marker to divide the plate into four quad-
1 100 IPTG/Xgal/kan
rants, labeled 1 to 4.
1 200 IPTG/Xgal/amp
3. Using a sterile toothpick, stab into the middle
1 200 IPTG/Xgal/kan
of a white colony that is present on this
2 200 IPTG/Xgal/amp
IPTG/Xgal/kan plate. Remove the toothpick
3 200 IPTG/Xgal/amp
and stab the end that came into contact with
4 200 IPTG/Xgal/amp
the bacteria first on quadrant 1 of the kan plate
and then into quadrant 1 of the IPTG/kan plate.
Finally, drop the toothpick (bacteria end down)
into tube 1 containing ampicillin supplemented
12. Remove 200 ml from culture tube 2 and place on YT broth. Repeat step 3 for each of the other
an IPTG/Xgal/amp plate. Remove 200 ml from quadrants on the two plates, picking a new
culture tube 3 and place on an IPTG/Xgal/amp white colony on the IPTG/Xgal/kan plate each
plate. Remove 200 ml from culture tube 4 and time.
place on an IPTG/Xgal/amp plate. Be sure that 4. Incubate the cultures at 37°C with shaking
you label each plate so that you know what antibiotic overnight. These strains will be used on Day 3
the plate contains and what transformation mixture to isolate plasmid DNA. Place the two replica
was placed on each plate. plates produced in step 3, agar side up, in the
13. Using sterile technique (to be demonstrated by 37°C incubator overnight.
the instructor), use a sterile bent glass rod to 5. Count the number of colonies from transfor-
spread the bacteria evenly over the surface of mation culture tube 1 present on the two
each plate. Allow the surface of the plates to IPTG/Xgal/kan plates. How many of these
dry for 5 min, invert the plates (agar side up), colonies are blue and how many are white? Ex-
and place them in the 37°C incubator plain these results in terms of what you know
overnight. The colonies that appear on these about the properties of each of the plasmids
plates will be grown in culture the next day, and that these bacterial colonies may contain.
plasmid DNA will be isolated from them on 6. Count the number of colonies from transfor-
Day 3. The plates must be incubated at 37°C mation culture tube 1 present on the two
for at least 24 hr. After this incubation, the IPTG/Xgal/amp plates. How many of these
plates may be stored at 4°C for several days. We colonies are blue and how many are white? Ex-
have found that the blue color will develop much plain these results in terms of what you know
better in colonies that contain a plasmid with an in- about the properties of each of the plasmids
tact LacZa peptide sequence if this is done. Incu- that these bacterial colonies may contain.
bating the plates at 4°C will make it much easier 7. Count the number of colonies present on the
to distinguish between blue and white colonies when IPTG/Xgal/amp plate containing bacteria
the plates are counted (see below). from transformation culture tube 2. Why was
this control experiment performed? What
color are these colonies? Explain. Describe
Off day: Growth of Transformed Cells
what a low number of colonies on this plate
1. Remove your seven agar plates from the 37°C would indicate, as well as possible causes for
incubator. Obtain four large glass culture tubes this result.
from the instructor that each contain 3 ml of 8. Count the number of colonies present on the
sterile YT broth supplemented with 100 mg/ml IPTG/Xgal/amp plate containing bacteria
ampicillin. Label the tubes 1 to 4. from transformation culture tube 3. Why was
354 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
previous day. Remember that our method of se- (see step 2). At this point you should have eight
lecting between cells carrying the pUC4K and samples for agarose-gel analysis.
pUC19/4K plasmids is that the kanR gene on 5. Prepare a 1% TBE agarose gel by adding 0.5 g
pUC19/4K is IPTG-inducible, while the kanR gene of electrophoresis-grade agarose to a 250-ml
is expressed constitutively in cells carrying the Erlenmeyer flask containing 50 ml of 0.5X
pUC4K plasmid. The lac promoter is known to TBE buffer (dilute the 5X TBE buffer stock
be somewhat “leaky,” showing some expression 1:10 with distilled water to prepare the 0.5X
of genes under its control (such as the kanR working solution). Preweigh the flask before heat-
gene) even in the absence of IPTG. Therefore, ing and record this value.
you may find that cells carrying pUC19/4K 6. Microwave the flask for 2 to 3 min, or until
may show some growth on the kan plate with- the agarose has been fully dissolved (no small
out IPTG. Ideally, you will want to analyze pieces of undissolved agarose remain). Place
colonies (clones) that grew well only on the kan the flask on the balance and add distilled wa-
plate with IPTG. If you only have colonies that ter to the flask until its mass is the same as that
grew equally well on both the kan plate and the before the flask was heated. Water will evapo-
IPTG/kan plate, choose any two of the four rate from the flask as it is heated. This water
plasmids for analysis. must be replaced to ensure that a 1% agarose
2. Resuspend the two plasmid DNA sample pel- solution is maintained. Depending on the
lets in 32 ml of sterile distilled water. amount of water that has evaporated, the 1%
3. Set up the following reactions for each of the two agarose gel prepared in step 5 may now be
plasmid samples in 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes: greater than 1%.
The RNAseA is at a concentration of 7. Allow the solution to cool for 5 min, swirling
10 mg/ml, and is added to completely digest the flask gently every so often to prevent the
all of the RNA remaining in the sample. If this gel from hardening. When the outside of the
is not done, a large RNA “spot” will be pres- flask is cool enough to touch, pour the solution
ent on the gel following ethidium bromide into an agarose-gel cast fitted with a 10-well
staining, which will prevent you from seeing comb at one end (consult the instructor). Al-
low molecular weight DNA fragments on the low the gel to set (,40 min). Remove the comb,
gel. and place the gel in an agarose-gel elec-
4. After a 1-hr incubation at 37°C, add 3 ml of 6X trophoresis chamber. Add 0.5X TBE buffer to
DNA sample buffer to each of the reaction the chamber until it completely covers the gel and
tubes, as well as to the 8 ml of undigested plas- fills the wells.
mid remaining from each of the two samples 8. Load the samples prepared in step 4 as follows:
EXPERIMENT 22
In Vitro Transcription
from a Plasmid Carrying a T7
RNA Polymerase–Specific Promoter
359
360 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Movement of RNA
polymerase ATP
GTP
UTP
CTP
Figure 22-1 Schematic diagram of the process of transcription. RNA polymerase will read the template
DNA strand 3 to 5 and produce a transcript in the 5 to 3 direction that is identical to the
sequence of the coding DNA strand, with uracil (U) in place of thymine (T). A radiolabeled
transcript can be produced by including an -[32P] nucleotide, which will become part of the
product, or by including a ␥ -[ 32P] nucleoside triphosphate that is known to be the first
nucleotide in the transcript.
Where does RNA polymerase begin the process sequence and spacing of these two elements are crit-
of transcription on the DNA template? The DNA ical for allowing the bacterial RNA polymerase to
element on which RNA polymerase binds and ini- bind the DNA template and initiate transcription.
tiates transcription is termed the promoter. The sim- Promoters for eukaryotic RNA polymerases are
plest promoters are those recognized by viral RNA quite variable. Still, there are some recurring ele-
polymerases. Usually, these are a contiguous se- ments found about 25, 40, and 100 base pairs to the
quence of 15 to 30 base pairs that direct the viral 5 side of the transcriptional start site. These se-
RNA polymerase to the transcriptional start site quences, as well as others that are often thousands
(Fig. 22-2). The viral promoter sequences possess a of base pairs from the transcriptional start site, are
5 to 3 polarity, allowing you to determine which believed to be the binding sites for transcription fac-
of the two DNA strands will act as the template for tors (proteins) that regulate the activity of the eu-
transcription. Bacterial promoters consist of two dif- karyotic RNA polymerases. A list of different RNA
ferent but conserved DNA sequences. One of these polymerases, and the promoter sequences that they
elements is located about 10 base pairs on the 5 side recognize, are listed in Table 22-1.
of the transcriptional start site, while the other ele- Where does transcription of a DNA template
ment is located about 35 base pairs to the 5 side of end? The process of transcription termination is
the transcriptional start site. Although these two el- best understood in bacteria. Rho-independent ter-
ements consist of as little as six base pairs each, the minators are characterized by a self-complementary
EXPERIMENT 22 In Vitro Transcription from a Plasmid Carrying a T7 RNA Polymerase – Specific Promoter 361
Figure 22-2 Promoters specify where RNA polymerase will bind the DNA and initiate transcription. The
polarity of the promoter sequence will specify the coding and template strands of the DNA.
DNA sequence located roughly 20 bases on the 5 a particular sequence of bases in the DNA, then that
side of the termination site. The RNA produced on stretch of bases will be protected from chemicals
transcription of this region is able to form a hair- and nucleases that cleave DNA. A single strand of
pin structure that causes the RNA polymerase to DNA in a double helix is first labeled with a ra-
“stall” and eventually dissociate from the DNA dioactive group at either the 3 or 5 end. The DNA
template. A stretch of uridyl nucleotides at the 3 duplex is then incubated with the RNA polymerase
end of the RNA hairpin is part of the rho-inde- and treated with a chemical or DNase enzyme that
pendent terminator sequence that is also believed produces a number of different-sized DNA frag-
to help destabilize the enzyme–DNA complex. A ments. The DNA duplex is then denatured, and the
rho-dependent terminator also contains a self-com- DNA fragments are resolved by polyacrylamide-gel
plementary sequence capable of forming a hairpin electrophoresis. Any region of the DNA duplex pro-
structure. In an unknown mechanism, the rho pro- tected by the polymerase during the DNase treat-
tein hydrolyzes ATP and destabilizes the RNA ment will be absent on the autoradiogram of the gel,
polymerase–DNA complex as it stalls at compared to the same radiolabeled DNA duplex not
the hairpin, eventually leading to the termination protected by the polymerase. The “footprint” left
of transcription. on the DNA by the polymerase provides insight into
How were the promoter sites for the various what sequences and what regions of the DNA are
RNA polymerases determined? If the enzyme binds bound by the RNA polymerase (Fig. 22-3).
Table 22-1 RNA Polymerases and the Promoters That They Recognize
*Promoter sequence recognition by bacterial RNA polymerase is governed by its sigma subunits. The sequence shown is recognized by
RNA polymerase with the major subunit found in rapidly growing, well-nourished cells. Other sequences are recognized under other physio-
logical conditions that lead to formation or activation of alternate sigma subunits.
†The promoter sequences for eukaryotic RNA polymerases I, II, and III are numerous and, in some cases, not well defined. The promoter
sequence shown is the consensus sequence recognized by RNA polymerase II.
362 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
5' 3'
3' 5'
5' 5'
5' 5'
5' 5'
5' 5'
5' 5'
5' 5'
Size
standards
Separate both samples,
along with a radiolabeled
nucleic acid size standard,
Region of DNA (promoter) on a high-percentage
protected from digestion by polyacrylamide gel and
bound RNA polymerase expose to film. The
(RNA polymerase leaves radioactive bands present
its “footprint” on the DNA) on the gel will indicate the
region on the DNA that
was protected by the
polymerase.
Figure 22-3 DNA “footprinting” to identify the promoter region bound by RNA polymerase.
EXPERIMENT 22 In Vitro Transcription from a Plasmid Carrying a T7 RNA Polymerase – Specific Promoter 363
In this experiment, you will carry out an in vitro the termination of the transcription reaction will
transcription reaction from a plasmid (pSP72, Fig. not rely on the presence of any transcriptional ter-
22-4) containing a T7 RNA polymerase specific minator sequence (rho-dependent or -independent)
promoter. A 32P-labeled nucleoside triphosphate on the plasmid. The exact molecular weight or size
(labeled at the position) will be included in the of the various transcripts (the exact number of nu-
reaction to produce a radioactive RNA molecule. cleotides that they contain) will be verified by poly-
The size and sequence of the various transcripts that acrylamide-gel electrophoresis at the end of the ex-
you will produce can be predicted by the restric- periment.
tion enzymes that the plasmid will be digested with Although this may appear to be a simple exper-
prior to the beginning of the transcription reaction. iment, the same techniques may be modified to an-
Since the plasmid template for the transcription re- alyze the effects of different mutations in the RNA
action will be digested, you will be preparing “run- polymerase and/or promoter sequence on the
off ” transcripts from the T7 promoter. As a result, process of transcription. Suppose that you wanted
ampR
pSP72
(2462 bp)
MCS
SP6 transcription
start site Sal I
XhoI PvuII Hind III SphI PstI AccI XbaI
SP6 promoter
5' AT T A G G T G A C A C T AT A G A A C T C G A G C A G C T G A A G C T T G C AT G C C T G C A G G T C G A C T C T A G A
3' T A AT C C A C T G T G AT AT C T T G A G C T C G T C G A C T T C G A A C G T A C G G A C G T C C A G C T G A G AT C T
G G AT C C C C G G G T A C C G A G C T C G A AT T C AT C G AT G AT AT C A G AT C T G C C G G T C T
C C T A G G G G C C C AT G G C T C G A G C T T A A G T A G C T A C T AT A G T C T A G A C G G C C A G A
C C C T AT A G T G A G T C G T AT T A 3'
G G G AT AT C A C T C A G C AT A AT 5'
T7 promoter
T7 transcription
start site
Mix all the components thoroughly (do not use 5. Add 1 ml of ice cold 70% ethanol to each tube,
a Vortex mixer) and incubate in a 37°C water centrifuge for 5 min at 4°C, and carefully re-
bath for 1.5 hr. move the supernatant from the precipitated
2. To remove the restriction endonucleases from DNA pellet. This wash is done to remove the
the reaction, add 80 l of phenol:chloroform salts that were added to the DNA solution to
(1:1) to each tube and mix with a Vortex mixer aid in its precipitation, which may affect the ac-
for 1 min. Centrifuge the samples at room tem- tivity of the T7 RNA polymerase.
perature for 1 min, remove the aqueous phase 6. Dry the DNA pellets in each of the three tubes
(top layer) from each tube, and place these in in the vacuum microcentrifuge (5 min), or al-
three fresh microcentrifuge tubes. Add 80 l of low the pellets to air dry for about 20 min.
chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1) to each of 7. Resuspend the DNA pellet in each of these
the three aqueous samples, cap, and mix with a three tubes with 8 l of TE buffer. Label the
Vortex mixer for 1 min. Centrifuge the samples tubes with your name and either H (HindIII),
at room temperature for 1 min and transfer the E (EcoRI), or B (BamHI), depending on which
three aqueous phases (top layers) to three fresh restriction enzyme was used to treat each of the
microcentrifuge tubes. This last extraction is plasmid samples.
done to remove all traces of phenol from the 8. Add 1 l of 10X transcription mix and 1 l of
solution. It is critical that all of the phenol and T7 RNA polymerase to each of the three re-
chloroform be removed from the aqueous phases in action tubes. Mix thoroughly but do not use a
this final extraction, since they may denature the Vortex mixer. Remember that the transcription
RNA polymerase during the transcription reaction. mix is radioactive. Wear safety goggles and gloves
Dispose of the organic phases produced in when working with radioisotopes. Anything that
these extractions in a waste container desig- touches the solution at this point will be radioactive.
nated by the instructor. Be careful with disposal of radioactive pipette tips,
3. Add 10 l of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) to microcentrifuge tubes, etc. Your lab instructor will
the aqueous phase in each of the three tubes, provide you with radioactive waste storage contain-
along with 200 l of absolute ethanol. Cap the ers. Flash spin the samples to the bottom of the
tubes and invert them several times to mix. tubes for 1 sec and incubate all three reactions
4. Incubate the tubes in a dry ice/ethanol bath at 37°C for 1 hr.
(⫺70°C) for 10 min to precipitate the plasmid 9. After the 1-hr incubation, store the three reac-
DNA. Pellet the precipitated DNA by cen- tion tubes at ⫺20°C for use on Day 2.
trifugation for 30 min at 4°C. Place the micro-
centrifuge tubes in the rotor with the cap hinge fac-
ing the outside during this step. The DNA pellet
Day 2: Polyacrylamide-Gel Electrophoresis
will be translucent and very difficult to see, but you
of RNA Transcripts
will know that the pellet will be on the same side of
the tube as the cap hinge. Carefully remove the 1. Obtain a 10-well, 15% polyacrylamide gel con-
supernatant from the DNA pellet. You may also taining 7 M urea from the instructor. Place the
find the use of Pellet Paint to be helpful dur- gel in the electrophoresis apparatus.
ing this procedure. This product, sold by No- 2. Add 0.5X TBE buffer to the upper and lower
vagen (catalog #69049-3), is a pink chro- buffer chambers. Remove the comb from the
mophore that will bind the DNA and give the gel. Connect the negative electrode (cathode)
pellet a color that will be easier to identify. to the top buffer chamber and the positive
366 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
electrode (anode) to the lower buffer chamber. 7. Expose the gel to film overnight (18 hr) at
The RNA that is to be loaded on this gel is ⫺70°C. Before closing the cassette, use a felt-
negatively charged and will migrate through tipped marking pen to mark the position on the
the gel toward the positive electrode. Apply film that corresponds to the notch made on the
200 V (constant voltage) to the gel for 20 min corner of the gel. Exposing the film at low tem-
before the samples are loaded. This pretreatment peratures will reduce the radioactive scattering
of the gel will remove ions left over from the and produce more defined RNA bands on the
polymerization reaction that may affect the autoradiogram. Develop the film the following
migration of the RNA on the gel. day.
3. Add 5 l of loading buffer to each of the three 8. Align the autoradiogram with the gel and mark
samples prepared on Day 1 that have been the position of the wells on the film. Identify the
thawed at room temperature. Remember that RNA size marker bands on the autoradiogram
these samples are radioactive. Wear safety goggles (three of them in one lane). The instructor will
and gloves at all times, and be careful in the dis- provide you with the information that you need
posal of radioactive waste. Also, add 5 l of load- to determine the number of nucleotides that
ing buffer to a 10-l sample of RNA size mark- each standard RNA marker contains.
ers that have been prepared by the instructor. 9. Prepare a plot of number of nucleotides versus
The urea present in the loading buffer and in distance migrated (in centimeters) for each
the gel works to disrupt any hydrogen bonding RNA size standard band on the autoradiogram.
(intramolecular or intermolecular) within the Using this standard curve, and the distances mi-
RNA molecules that may cause them to run at grated by each of the transcripts produced in
an apparent higher or lower molecular weight the three reactions (the other three lanes on the
than they really are. gel), determine the molecular weight and the
4. Turn off the power supply to the gel and wash number of nucleotides present in the tran-
the wells out thoroughly with 0.5X TBE buffer scription reactions containing pSP72 digested
to remove any precipitated urea and unpoly- with EcoRI, BamHI, and HindIII.
merized acrylamide that may be clogging the 10. Using the map of the pSP72 plasmid, deter-
wells. Load the three samples in three consec- mine the exact sequence of the transcript that
utive wells on the gel. Next to your three sam- you would expect following run-off transcrip-
ples, load the RNA size standard sample. Since tion from the T7 promoter using the pSP72
you will be using only 4 of the 10 wells, another plasmid digested with the three different re-
group can skip a lane and load their four samples. striction enzymes (assume that the plasmid was
Be sure that you know which of the four samples digested to completion with each restriction
are in which lane. enzyme). Do the sizes of the RNA molecules
5. Reconnect the power supply and apply 200 V present in the three sample lanes on the au-
(constant voltage). Continue the electrophore- toradiogram agree well with your predicted re-
sis until the bromophenol blue (dark blue) dye sults? Explain your answer.
just migrates off of the bottom of the gel into 11. Is there more than one radiolabeled RNA frag-
the lower buffer chamber. Any unincorporated ment present in each of the three sample lanes?
radiolabeled nucleotide that was present in the sam- If so, determine whether they are lower or
ples will run off of the bottom of the gel with the higher in molecular weight than that of the pre-
dye. Remember that the buffer in the lower cham- dicted RNA molecule. What may have oc-
ber is now radioactive. curred to produce these RNA fragments of un-
6. Turn off the power supply and remove the expected size?
plates containing the gel. Separate the plates to 12. Look at the autoradiogram and compare the in-
expose the gel and put a notch in one corner tensities (the dark color) of each of the RNA
of the gel with a razor blade to allow you to molecules in the three sample lanes. Are all
orient the gel. Place the gel on a sheet of transcripts of equal radioactive intensity? Why
Whatman 3 MM filter paper. Wrap the gel in or why not? Based on the predicted sequence
plastic wrap and place it in the film cassette. of your transcripts (determined in step 10),
EXPERIMENT 22 In Vitro Transcription from a Plasmid Carrying a T7 RNA Polymerase – Specific Promoter 367
which of the three transcripts should be the that are unable to carry out transcription from
most and the least radioactive? Be as quantita- the T7 promoter. You are not sure if these mu-
tive as you can in answering this question. tations affect the ability of the enzyme to rec-
ognize the promoter or if they render the en-
zyme unable to perform the polymerization
Exercises reaction. Design a set of experiments that
would allow you to distinguish between these
1. Determine the exact sequence of the transcripts two possibilities.
that you would expect to be produced if the 5. Often, phage genomes contain genes under the
same templates used in this experiment (pSP72 control of both viral and bacterial promoters.
digested with BamHI, EcoRI, and HindIII) were One gene that is commonly under the control
subjected to an in vitro transcription reaction of the bacterial promoter is that which encodes
using the SP6 RNA polymerase rather than the the phage RNA polymerase. In terms of the life
T7 RNA polymerase. cycle of a phage, why has the phage evolved to
2. In this experiment, you used -[32P]ATP as the have genes under the control of both types of
radiolabeled nucleotide. Would your results promoters? What will ultimately determine
have been any different if you had used ␥- what species of bacteria a certain phage will be
[32P]GTP as the radiolabeled nucleotide? Ex- able to infect? (Why can a particular phage in-
plain your answer in terms of the mechanism fect one species of bacteria but not another?)
of the reaction catalyzed by RNA polymerase.
Could you have used another ␥-labeled nu-
cleotide and still obtained a radiolabeled RNA REFERENCES
transcript? Explain your answer.
3. You digest 10 l of the pSP72 plasmid (0.1 Chamberlin, M., McGrath, J., and Waskell, L. (1970).
mg/ml) to completion with BamHI. This di- New RNA Polymerase Form Escherichia coli In-
gested plasmid is used as a template for in vitro fected with Bacteriophage T7. Nature 228:227.
transcription reactions (50 l total reaction vol- Chamberlin, M., and Ryan, T. (1982). Bacteriophage
ume) using -[32P]CTP (1 Ci/mol) and SP6 DNA-Dependent RNA Polymerases. In: Boyer,
P.D., ed. The Enzymes, Vol. 15: Nucleic Acids,
RNA polymerase. After the transcription reac-
Part B, p. 87. Academic Press, New York.
tion is complete, you isolate the RNA transcript Dunn, J. J., and Studier, F. W. (1983). The Complete
from the unincorporated nucleotides and de- Nucleotide Sequence of Bacteriophage T7 DNA
termine that 1 l of the 50-l reaction contains and the Locations of T7 Genetic Elements. J Mol
20,000 dpm of 32P. Calculate the number of mi- Biol 135:917.
crograms of RNA produced in this reaction. Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D.L., and Cox, M. M.
What specific activity of ␥-[32P]GTP would (1993). RNA Metabolism. In: Principles of Biochem-
you have had to use in this reaction to obtain istry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
the same mass of RNA transcript containing Rosa, M. D. (1979). Four T7 RNA Polymerase Pro-
the same amount of radioactivity (the same spe- moters Contain an Identical 23 Base Pair Sequence.
cific activity of the RNA transcript)? Cell 16:815.
Stahl, S., and Zinn, K. (1981). Nucleotide Sequence
4. You are conducting a study of the mechanism
of the Cloned Gene for Bacteriophage T7 RNA
of action of T7 RNA polymerase. You have pu- Polymerase. J Mol Biol 148:481.
rified a total of 10 point mutants in the enzyme
(0
EXPERIMENT 23
369
370 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
5-ACCA-3) that will form a covalent (ester) bond codon loop sequence capable of interacting with the
with the appropriate amino acid and deliver it to AUG start codon, and is charged with an unusual
the site of translation. The sequence of the accep- amino acid called N-formylmethionine (fMet, Fig.
tor stem, which is made up of the 5 and 3 ends of 23-4). The fMet-tRNA is brought to the P site
the tRNA, is important in the recognition of a given through its association with a GTP binding protein
tRNA by the correct “charging enzyme.” called initiation factor 2 (IF-2, Fig. 23-3).
The enzymes that link the amino acids to the To complete the initiation process, the 50S ri-
3 ends of the various tRNAs are called aminoacyl bosomal subunit binds to the 30S–mRNA complex,
tRNA synthetases. There is at least one aminoacyl with the subsequent hydrolysis of GTP and the re-
tRNA synthetase that can recognize each of the 20 lease of IF-2 and IF-3 from the 70S ribosomal com-
amino acids. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic plex (Fig. 23-3). At this point, the aminoacyl site (A
code (more than one codon that specifies a partic- site) of the ribosome is ready to accept the incom-
ular amino acid), a single aminoacyl tRNA syn- ing aminoacyl tRNA specified by the codon that
thetase may be able to charge a number of differ- occupies this site.
ent tRNAs with the same amino acid. For example,
phenylalanine is specified by the codons UUU and
Step 3: Elongation
UUC. The aminoacyl tRNA synthetase specific for
phenylalanine will therefore be able to charge a As with initiation, elongation is a multistep process.
tRNA with AAA or AAG in the anticodon loop with In the first step, another GTP-binding protein,
this amino acid. The mechanism by which an amino elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu), delivers the next
acid is linked to the 3 end of the tRNA is shown aminoacyl tRNA to the A site on the ribosome. As
in Figure 23-2. The process is energetically costly, this occurs, EF-Tu hydrolyzes GTP and leaves the
requiring the hydrolysis of two high-energy phos- ribosome (Fig. 23-5).
phate bonds. Next, fMet-tRNA will deliver the carboxyl ter-
minus of fMet to the amino terminus of the amino
acid linked to the tRNA at the A site (a peptidyl
Step 2: Initiation
transfer reaction), with the subsequent formation of
Translation in prokaryotes begins with the forma- a peptide bond between the two amino acids. At
tion of the ribosome complex at a defined position this point, the tRNA at the A site is covalently
on the mRNA, termed the Shine–Delgarno se- linked to a dipeptide (Fig. 23-5).
quence, or the ribosome binding site (RBS). In To remove the now uncharged fMet-tRNA
prokaryotic mRNA, this is a relatively small (4–7 from the P site, the ribosomal complex will shift to-
nucleotides) region rich in purine nucleotides lo- ward the 3 end of the mRNA by three bases, po-
cated less than 10 nucleotides to the 5 side of sitioning a new codon in the A site and ejecting the
the translational start site (Fig. 23-3). This Shine– “spent” fMet-tRNA. At this point, the dipeptide
Delgarno sequence is complementary to the 16S bound by the tRNA that formerly occupied the A
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) associated with the 30S site now occupies the P site. This final step in trans-
ribosomal subunit, and directs it to bind the mRNA lation elongation is fueled by the hydrolysis of an-
at that position. The 30S ribosomal subunit will not other GTP molecule by a translocase enzyme called
bind this region on the mRNA without the aid elongation factor G (EF-G, Fig. 23-5).
of an associated protein called initiation factor 3 The process of elongation will continue in the
(IF-3). The 30S ribosomal subunit will bind the 5 to 3 direction down the mRNA. Each time the
mRNA in such a manner that the peptidyl ( P) site of ribosome shifts position by three bases to accept an-
the complex is occupied by a specialized codon with other aminoacyl tRNA, the growing peptide chain
the sequence, AUG. It is at this AUG “start” codon will increase in length by one amino acid. Because
where translation will eventually begin. the carboxyl group of the peptide linked to the
The next step of the initiation process in tRNA at the P site always forms a covalent bond
prokaryotes involves the delivery of a specialized with the amino group of the amino acid on the
aminoacyl tRNA to the P site of the 30S ribosomal tRNA at the A site, peptides are always synthesized
subunit. This specialized tRNA has a UAC anti- from the amino terminus to the carboxyl terminus.
NH2 NH2
H O O O O N N H O O N N
H3N C C O O P O P O P O CH2 O N N H 3N C C O P O CH2 O N N
R O O O H H R O H H
H H H H
Amino acid
OH OH O O OH OH
Adenosine-5-triphospate 5-Aminoacyladenylate
O P O P O
e
tas
ha O O
sp
pho
Pyro
O NH2
2O P O O N N
O O P O CH2 O N N
O H H
H H
OH OH
tRNA
NH2
N
O H
O
NH2
H
O C C NH3
O N N
CH2 H R
O O P O CH2 O N N
O P O O H H
H H
O
OH OH
Adenosine-5-monophosphate
Aminoacyl tRNA
371
372 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Shine–Delgarno sequence
5' A U G 3'
mRNA Start codon
P A
A U G
P A
fMet
GTP
+ 50S Ribosome + IF-2
fMet tRNA
GDP
IF-3 + IF-2 + Pi
50S Ribosome
fMet
U A C
5' A U G 3'
P A
30S Ribosome
Step 4: Termination drolyze the ester bond linking the peptide chain to
the tRNA at the P site. Following this event, the
Unlike translational initiation, elongation, and
50S and 30S ribosomal subunits will dissociate from
aminoacyl tRNA synthesis, translational termina-
the mRNA (Fig. 23-6).
tion is a spontaneous process that does not require
the input of energy (GTP hydrolysis). There are
three codons on the mRNA that will trigger the
Eukaryotic Translation
end of translation when they appear at the A site
on the ribosome: UAA, UGA, and UAG. As the ri- One major difference between the prokaryotic and
bosome encounters these codons, one of two re- eukaryotic translational machinery is the composi-
lease factor proteins will bind at the A site and hy- tion of the two ribosomal subunits. Unlike the small
EXPERIMENT 23 In Vitro Translation: mRNA, tRNA, and Ribosomes 373
AA1
AA1 AA2 AA2
Peptidyl
5' 1 2 3 3' 1 2 3
P A transfer P A
AA3
AA1
fMet tRNA AA2
5' 1 2 3 3'
P A
AA125
AA124
AA125
125 UAA
P A
Release
factor
+
H 3N AA1
AA124
AA125 COO–
3'
P A
50S Ribosome Release
+ A + +
mRN 30S ribosome factor
5'
system, a 7-methyl-guanosine “cap” is added to the proteins (eIF3 and eIF4C) bind to the 40S ribosomal
5 end of the mRNA (Fig. 23-7). It is this 5 cap subunit and prepare it to bind to the mRNA. Next,
that facilitates the binding of the 40S ribosomal a cap-binding protein (CBPI) binds the 7-methyl-
subunit to the mRNA (see below). guanosine cap at the 5 end of the mRNA, along
Eukaryotic translation initiation is far more with three other initiation factor proteins (eIF4A,
complicated than the prokaryotic system described eIF4B, and eIF4F). In an ATP-requiring process,
earlier. To begin the process, two initiation factor this protein complex “scans” the mRNA until the
EXPERIMENT 23 In Vitro Translation: mRNA, tRNA, and Ribosomes 375
CBPI
eIF4A eIF4B eIF4F P A
3'
mRNA 40S ribosome eIF3
eIF4C
5' Cap
ATP
ADP + Pi
eIF4A
5' 3'
eIF4B
eIF4F P A
CBPI
40S ribosome eIF3
eIF4C
Met
eIF5
eIF2
GTP
Met
60S ribosome
60S
ribosome
Met
5' 3'
P A
40S ribosome
often carried out at low Mg2 concentrations. If the low the soluble 3H-Phe in the reaction to pass
Mg2 concentration is raised to the range from 8 through. When this filter is dried and subjected to scin-
to 12 mM, the ribosome will initiate transcription tillation counting, the amount of 3H present (in counts
at random positions throughout the mRNA. Thus, per minute) will be directly proportional to the amount
by conducting your in vitro translation reactions of 3H-poly-Phe produced in the reaction (Fig. 23-9).
under high Mg2 concentrations, the ribosomes There are four variables in the general in vitro
will efficiently translate the poly(U) mRNA into a translation protocol that you will investigate. First,
poly-Phe peptide in the absence of any formal trans- you will vary the Mg2 concentration to study its
lational start site. effect on the fidelity of translation initiation. Sec-
The 3H-poly-Phe peptides produced in these ond, you will investigate the specificity of the 3H-
experiments will be isolated by exploiting their abil- Phe-tRNA and the mRNA codon with which it is
ity to precipitate in a solution containing 5% able to interact. Third, you will study the effects of
trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Strong acids such as different ribonuclease enzymes on the various RNA
TCA are effective in inducing the precipitation of components present in the reaction (see below). Fi-
all ionic macromolecules. Thus, the proteins, tRNA, nally, you will investigate the ability of the ribo-
and mRNA present in the translation reactions will some to carry out translation in the presence of
all become insoluble on the addition of 5% TCA. three different inhibitors with different modes of
Remember that there are three individual pools of action (see below).
3
H-Phe present in this ongoing translation reac- The two RNase enzymes that will be used in
tion: the free 3H-Phe, the 3H-Phe covalently linked this experiment are RNase A and RNase T1. RNase
to the tRNA, and the 3H-Phe that has been incor- A is a heat-stable nuclease that will hydrolyze the
porated into the growing peptide. The free 3H-Phe phosphodiester bonds linking the pyrimidine bases
will remain soluble in 5% TCA due to its small size, (U or C) in the molecule. RNase A will cleave both
and therefore will not be present in the precipitate. the mRNA and the tRNA present in the reaction.
The 3H-Phe covalently linked to the 3 end of the RNase T1 differs from RNase A in that it is a base-
tRNA, however, will be insoluble in 5% TCA and specific nuclease. RNase T1 will cleave the phos-
will be present in the precipitate (Fig. 23-9). If this phodiester bonds on the 3 side of guanine. Because
3
H aminoacyl tRNA pool is not removed from the pre- of its specificity, RNase T1 will act only on the tRNA
cipitate, you will overestimate the amount of 3H-Phe present in the reaction (the poly(U) mRNA does
that was incorporated into the peptide when the reac- not contain guanine).
tions are subjected to scintillation counting. The three antibiotic inhibitors of translation that
How can you remove the 3H-Phe tRNA from will be used in this experiment are chlorampheni-
the precipitate to obtain an accurate measure of col, cycloheximide, and puromycin (Fig. 23-10).
the amount of 3H-poly-Phe peptide produced? Chloramphenicol is specific for prokaryotic ribosomes,
There is one difference in the properties of these blocking the transfer of the peptide on the tRNA at
two molecules that you can exploit. Unlike the pep- the P site to the amino acid linked to the tRNA at
tide bonds linking the 3H-Phe monomers in the the A site (the peptidyl transfer reaction). Since the
peptide, the ester bond linking the 3H-Phe to the source of the ribosomes used in this experiment is
3 end of the tRNA is labile in 5% TCA at 90°C. wheat germ (eukaryotic), we would predict that
Therefore, if the precipitate is heated at 90°C for chloramphenicol would not have a great effect on
10 min, all of the 3H-Phe associated with the tRNA translation. The mechanism of cycloheximide-
will be hydrolyzed and converted to soluble (free) mediated inhibition is the same as that described
3
H-Phe that will diffuse back into the bulk solu- above for chloramphenicol, except for the fact that
tion. At this point, the only 3H-Phe present in the so- it is specific for the 80S eukaryotic ribosome.
lution will be that which incorporated into the peptide Puromycin is a more broad translational inhibitor,
(Fig. 23-9). effective on both eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribo-
To quantify the relative amount of 3H-poly-Phe somes. It acts as a substrate analog of aminoacyl
produced from one reaction to the next, the pre- tRNA. When it binds at the A site of the ribosome,
cipitate will be filtered through a 0.45-m mem- it induces premature termination of translation (Fig.
brane that will trap the insoluble material and al- 23-10).
378 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Soluble Soluble
3 3H-poly-Phe
2 3H-Phe-tRNA
2 tRNA
3 3H-poly-Phe Insoluble 3H-poly-Phe
Insoluble
3
Insoluble material
(3H-poly-Phe) is
trapped by filter
To vacuum
3H-Phe
CH3 O O
O
Cl
CH C NH CH CH2 OH CH CH2 N
Cl
CH OH OH
CH3 O
Cycloheximide
NO2
Chloramphenicol
P site A site
peptidyl-tRNA puromycin
CH2 OCH3
..
H2N C H
NH2
C O
R C H
O
C O NH OH
H H
O OH H H
H H
H H CH O 2
CH O 2 OH N N
O N N N N
P N N CH3 CH3
NH2 AA
NH
R C H CH2 OCH3
O C N C H
H
C O
5 3
P A
O
mRNA
NHOH
Structure H H
of peptidyl- H H
Peptidyl puromycin puromycin CH O
2
transferase
OH N N
N N
CH3 CH3
Immediately fill the now empty tube 1 with 5% to mix. Place tube 7 back on ice and return the
TCA and pour the contents on the filter. Re- reaction tube to the 30°C water bath.
peat this wash procedure on tube 1 a total of 16. After a total of 45 min of incubation at 30°C,
five times to harvest all of the precipitated ma- remove a 50-l aliquot of the reaction and add
terial and transfer it to the filter. it to tube 8. Cap tube 8 and invert several times
8. Apply one last aliquot (5 ml) of 5% TCA to to mix. Place tube 8 back on ice and return the
the filter and allow the filter to dry under vac- reaction tube to the 30°C water bath.
uum for 20 sec (allow all of the solvent to flow 17. After a total of 60 min of incubation at 30°C,
through the filter and continue to apply the remove a 50-l aliquot of the reaction and add
vacuum for an additional 20 sec). This final it to tube 9. Cap tube 9 and invert several times
wash step is done to remove any trace amounts to mix. Place tube 9 back on ice and return the
of soluble 3H-Phe that may be bound to the reaction tube to the 30°C water bath.
filter or to the precipitate adsorbed to the fil- 18. Perform steps 4 to 9 (heating at 90°C and fil-
ter. tration steps) on each of the reaction timepoints
9. Place the filter in a scintillation vial and place in tubes 6 to 9. At the end of the procedure, you
the vial (uncapped) in a 100°C oven for exactly will have a total of nine scintillation vials (labeled
10 min. This heat treatment will dehydrate the 1 to 9), each containing a dried filter coressponding
filter and cause it to curl up in the vial. Avoid to the appropriately numbered reaction or reaction
excessive heating, which will cause the filter to timepoint tube.
turn yellow and possibly quench the 3H par- 19. Add 5 or 10 ml of scintillation fluid to each of
ticles in the sample as they are being counted the nine scintillation vials and place them in a
(color quenching, see introduction to Experi- scintillation counter rack marked with your
ment 3). name.
10. Perform steps 6 to 9 on the contents of each of 20. Place the rack in the scintillation counter and
tubes 2 to 5. You will require a clean, unused fil- count each vial for 2 min in the 3H channel
ter for each of the remaining four reaction tubes. (consult the instructor) to obtain a 3H cpm
When you are finished, you will have five scintil- value for each filter.
lation vials (labeled 1 to 5), each corresponding to 21. Subtract the counts per minute (cpm) value for
the appropriately numbered reaction tube. vial 1 (time zero, reaction control) from all
of the other cpm values obtained for vials 2 to
9. This is done to account for the fact that some
Reaction Time Course
soluble 3H may not have been removed from the
11. Obtain four fresh 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes. insoluble material (precipitate) during the filtra-
Label these tubes 6 to 9, add 750 l of 5% TCA tion step.
to each, and place all four of the tubes on ice. 22. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
12. Obtain a fifth fresh microcentrifuge tube and present in vial 2 compared to that in vial 3. Ex-
add the following: 10 l of reaction buffer; 10 plain your results in terms of the components
l of salt solution I; 50 l of 1 mg/ml Poly(U); that were present in these two reactions.
100 l of S-30 fraction; and 30 l of distilled 23. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
water. present in vial 2 compared to that in vial 4. Ex-
13. Add 50 l of 3H-Phe solution to this tube, and plain your results in terms of the components
pipette up and down rapidly several times to that were present in these two reactions, as well
mix. Incubate this tube in a 30°C water bath. as your knowledge of the dependence of trans-
14. After a total of 15 min of incubation at 30°C, lational initiation on Mg2 concentration.
remove a 50-l aliquot of the reaction and add 24. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
it to tube 6. Cap tube 6 and invert several times present in vial 2 compared to that in vial 5. Ex-
to mix. Place tube 6 back on ice and return the plain your results in terms of the components
reaction tube to the 30°C water bath. that were present in these two reactions, as well
15. After a total of 30 min of incubation at 30°C, as your knowledge of the genetic code.
remove a 50-l aliquot of the reaction and add 25. Using the cpm data obtained from tubes 6 to
it to tube 7. Cap tube 7 and invert several times 9, prepare a plot of 3H-poly-Phe cpm versus
382 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
reaction time (15, 30, 45, and 60 min). Are 5. Place tubes 10 to 16 (but not 17, which should be
the kinetics of this in vitro translation reac- kept on ice) in a 90°C water bath for 10 min.
tion linear over 60 min (does this plot yield a 6. After the 10-min incubation, remove tubes 10
straight line through the data points)? If not, to 16 from the 90°C water bath and allow them
for what length of time is this reaction linear to cool at room temperature.
with time? 7. Perform steps 6 to 9 from the Day 1 protocol
26. Determine the slope of the line through the lin- (filtration and TCA wash steps) on the contents
ear portion of the curve, and calculate an ini- of tubes 10 to 17. When you are finished, you
tial velocity (v0) for the reaction in units of cpm should have eight scintillation vials (labeled 10 to
of 3H incorporated per min. 17) corresponding to each of the appropriately num-
bered reaction tubes.
8. Add 5 or 10 ml of scintillation fluid to each of
Day 2: Effect of Nucleases and Inhibitors
the nine scintillation vials and place them in a
on Translation
scintillation counter rack marked with your
1. Obtain eight fresh 1.5-ml microcentrifuge name.
tubes and label them 10 to 17. Set up the fol- 9. Place the rack in the scintillation counter and
lowing reactions in these tubes: count each vial for 2 min in the 3H channel
Volumes (l)
Component 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Reaction buffer 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Salt solution I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 mg/ml Poly(U) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
0.5 mg/ml RNase A — — 2 — — — — —
0.5 mg/ml RNase T1 — — — 2 — — — —
0.5 mM chloramphenicol — — — — 6 — — —
0.5 mM cycloheximide — — — — — 6 — —
0.1 mM puromycin — — — — — — 6 —
S-30 Fraction 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Distilled water 6 6 4 4 — — — 6
2. Add 10 l of 3H-Phe solution to tube 10 and (consult the instructor) to obtain a 3H cpm
pipette up and down rapidly several times to value for each filter.
mix. Immediately add 750 l of 5% TCA to stop 10. Subtract the cpm value for vial 10 (time zero
the reaction. Place tube 10 on ice for later reaction control) from all the other cpm values
analysis. This reaction will serve as a time zero obtained for vials 11 to 17. This is done to ac-
blank for the remaining reactions that will in- count for the fact that some soluble 3H may not
dicate the amount of 3H-Phe in the reaction have been removed from the insoluble material
that will unavoidably contaminate the precipi- (precipitate) during the filtration step.
tated proteins. 11. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
3. Add 10 l of 3H-Phe solution to each of tubes present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 12.
11 to 17. Pipette up and down rapidly several Explain your results in terms of the compo-
times to mix. Incubate all seven tubes in a 30°C nents that were present in these two reactions,
water bath for 30 min. and your knowledge of the mechanism of ac-
4. After the 30-min incubation, add 750 l of 5% tion of RNase A.
TCA to each of tubes 11 to 17. Cap the tubes 12. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
and invert several times to mix. present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 13.
EXPERIMENT 23 In Vitro Translation: mRNA, tRNA, and Ribosomes 383
Explain your results in terms of the compo- (see Experiment 22) in an orientation that
nents that were present in these two reactions, places it under the control of the T7 promoter.
and your knowledge of the mechanism of ac- In addition, you have a monoclonal antibody
tion of RNase T1. that has been raised against protein X. Describe
13. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe an experiment that you could perform, involv-
present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 14. ing both in vitro translation and one of the im-
Explain your results in terms of the compo- munochemical techniques described in Section
nents that were present in these two reactions, IV, that would allow you to determine quickly
and your knowledge of the mechanism of ac- whether protein X interacts with protein Y. As-
tion of chloramphenicol. sume that you also have a number of radiola-
14. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe beled amino acids at your disposal.
present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 15. 3. Why is the fidelity of translation initiation in
Explain your results in terms of the compo- vitro dependent on the concentration of Mg2?
nents that were present in these two reactions, To answer this, you must think about the in-
and your knowledge of the mechanism of ac- teraction between the mRNA and the 30S ri-
tion of cycloheximide. bosomal subunit.
15. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe 4. Using your knowledge of the multiple steps in-
present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 16. volved in translation that require an input of
Explain your results in terms of the compo- energy, how many total molecules of GTP must
nents that were present in these two reactions, be hydrolyzed to produce a peptide that is 10
and your knowledge of the mechanism of ac- amino acids in length?
tion of puromycin.
16. Compare the relative level of 3H-poly-Phe
present in vial 11 compared to that in vial 17.
Explain your results in terms how these two re- REFERENCES
actions were treated following the addition of
5% TCA. Conway, T. W., and Lipmann, F. (1964). Characteriza-
tion of Ribosome-linked GTPase in E. coli Extracts.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 52:1462.
Gualerzi, C. O., and Pon, C. L. (1990). Initiation of
Exercises mRNA Translation in Prokaryotes. Biochemistry
29:5881.
1. For each of the synthetic mRNAs described be- Laemmli, U. K. (1970). Cleavage of Structural Proteins
low, predict all the possible peptides that would during the Assembly of the Head of Bacteriophage
be produced in an in vitro translation reaction T4. Nature 227:680.
performed under conditions of high Mg2 con- Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., and Cox, M. M.
centration: (1993). Protein Metabolism. In: Principles of Bio-
chemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth.
a. Poly(G) Moldave, K. (1985). Eukaryotic Protein Synthesis.
b. Poly(A) Annu Rev Biochem 54:1109.
c. Poly(UC) Prescott, L. M., Harley, J. P., and Klein, D. A. (1993).
d. Poly(UAC) Synthesis of Nucleic Acids and Proteins. In: Micro-
biology, 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
2. You have purified protein X. You believe that Roberts, P. E., and Paterson, B. M. (1973). Efficient
it may interact with (bind) protein Y. You have Translation of TMV-RNA and Globin 9S RNA in
not purified protein Y, but you have the gene a Cell-Free System from Commercial Wheat
that encodes it cloned into the pSP72 plasmid Germ. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 70:2330.
EXPERIMENT 24
385
386 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
Step 1: Denaturation
The solution is heated to denature the double-stranded
template DNA.
5' 3'
3' 5'
5' 3'
3' 5' primer 1
primer 2 5' 3'
3' 5'
Step 3: Polymerization
In the presence of dNTPs, MgCl2, and the appropriate buffer,
Taq polymerase will polymerize two new DNA strands that are
identical to the template strands.
5' 3'
5'
5'
3' 5'
The cycle is repeated numerous times to achieve exponential amplification of the DNA sequence
located between the two primers.
Figure 24-1 The basic principle underlying the technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
pR
am
pBluescript II S/K
lacZ
(2961 base pairs)
Pri m e
MC
KpnI (657)
r2
S
(17
SacI (759)
30
co
–1
E1
l
70
) ori
gin
7
Prime
r 1 (1
88
–2
11
)
pR
am
pBluescript II K/S
lacZ
MC
r2
SacI (657)
S
(17
KpnI (759)
30
co
–1
E1
l
70
) ori
gin
7
of different applications. One popular application easy cloning into a desired vector following PCR
for PCR is its use in the introduction of specific mu- (Fig. 24-4a). In addition to introducing restriction
tations in the product DNA that is amplified from recognition sequences, PCR can be used to add
the template DNA. For example, suppose you (Fig. 24-4b) or delete (Fig. 24-4c) small sequences
wanted to produce a PCR product that had from a gene of interest. Provided that the DNA
restriction-enzyme recognition sequences at either primers are long enough to allow for sufficient base
end. If these recognition sequences are present in pairing on either side of the desired mutation,
the single-stranded DNA primers, the target DNA nearly any sequence can be added to, or deleted
will be amplified to include these sites to allow for from, a gene of interest. PCR can also be used to
388 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
pBluescript II (S/K)
1 &7∃∃∃77∗7∃∃∗&∗77∃∃7∃7777∗77∃∃∃∃77&∗&∗77∃∃∃77777∗77∃∃∃7&∃∗&7&∃777777∃∃&&∃∃7∃∗∗&&∗∃∃∃7&∗∗&∃∃∃∃7&&&77∃7∃∃∃7&∃∃∃∃∗∃∃7∃∗∃&&∗∃
∗∃777∃∃&∃77&∗&∃∃77∃7∃∗&∃&∃∃7777∗&∗&∗&∃∃777∃∃∃∃∃&∃∃777∃∗7∃&∃∗7∃∃∃∃∃∃77∗∗77∃7&&∗∗&777∃∗&&∗7777∃∗∗∗∃∃7∃777∃∗7777&77∃7&7∗∗&7 120
5´ primer 1 3´
121 ∗∃7∃∗∗∗77∗∃∗7∗77∗77&&∃∗777∗∗∃∃&∃∃∗∃∗7&&∃&7∃77∃∃∃∗∃∃&∗7∗∗∃&7&&∃∃&∗7&∃∃∃∗∗∗&∗∃∃∃∃∃&&∗7&7∃7&∃∗∗∗&∗∃7∗∗&&&∃&7∃&∗7∗∃∃&&∃7&∃&&
&7∃7&&∗∃∃&7&∃&∃∃&∃∃∗∗7&∃∃∃&&77∗77&7&∃∗∗7∗∃7∃∃777&77∗&∃&&7∗∃∗∗77∗&∃∗777&&&∗&77777∗∗&∃∗∃7∃∗7&&&∗&7∃&&∗∗∗7∗∃7∗&∃&77∗∗7∃∗7∗∗ 240
241 &7∃∃7&∃∃∗777777∗∗∗∗7&∗∃∗∗7∗&&∗7∃∃∃∗&∃&7∃∃∃7&∗∗∃∃&&&7∃∃∃∗∗∗∃∗&&&&&∗∃777∃∗∃∗&77∗∃&∗∗∗∗∃∃∃∗&&∗∗&∗∃∃&∗7∗∗&∗∃∗∃∃∃∗∗∃∃∗∗∗∃∃∗∃∃
∗∃77∃∗77&∃∃∃∃∃∃&&&&∃∗&7&&∃&∗∗&∃777&∗7∗∃777∃∗&&77∗∗∗∃777&&&7&∗∗∗∗∗&7∃∃∃7&7&∗∃∃&7∗&&&&777&∗∗&&∗&77∗&∃&&∗&7&777&&77&&&77&77 360
361 ∃∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗∃∗&∗∗∗&∗&7∃∗∗∗&∗&7∗∗&∃∃∗7∗7∃∗&∗∗7&∃&∗&7∗&∗&∗7∃∃&&∃&&∃&∃&&&∗&&∗&∗&77∃∃7∗&∗&&∗&7∃&∃∗∗∗&∗&∗7&&&∃77&∗&&∃77&∃∗∗&7∗&∗
7&∃&777&&7&∗&&&∗&∗∃7&&&∗&∗∃&&∗77&∃&∃7&∗&&∃∗7∗&∗∃&∗&∗&∃77∗∗7&&7&7∗∗∗&∗∗&∗&∗∃∃77∃&∗&∗∗&∗∃7∗7&&&∗&∗&∃∗∗∗7∃∃∗&∗∗7∃∃&7&&∗∃&∗& 480
481 &∃∃&7∗77∗∗∗∃∃∗∗∗&∗∃7&∗∗7∗&∗∗∗&&7&77&∗&7∃77∃&∗&&∃∗&7∗∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗∗∗∗∃7∗7∗&7∗&∃∃∗∗&∗∃77∃∃∗77∗∗∗7∃∃&∗&&∃∗∗∗7777&&&∃∗7&∃&∗∃&∗77∗
∗77∗∃&∃∃&&&77&&&∗&7∃∗&&∃&∗&&&∗∗∃∗∃∃∗&∗∃7∃∃7∗&∗∃7&∗∃&&∗&777&&&&&7∃&∃&∗7&∗77&&∗&7∃∃77&∃∃&&&∃77∗&∗∗<&&&∃∃∃∃∗∗∗7&∃∗7∗&7∗&∃∃& 600
Kpn I
601 7∃∃∃∃&∗∃&∗∗&&∃∗7∗∃∗&∗&∗&∗7∃∃7∃&∗∃&7&∃&7∃7∃∗∗∗&∗∃∃77∗∗∗7∃&&∗∗∗&&&&&&&7&∗∃∗∗7&∗∃&∗∗7∃7&∗∃7∃∃∗&77∗∃7∃7&∗∃∃77&&7∗&∃∗&&&∗∗∗∗∗
∃7777∗&7∗&&∗∗7&∃&7&∗&∗∗&∗&∃77∃7∗&7∗∃∗7∗∃7∃7&&∗&77∃∃&&&∃7∗∗&&&∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∃∗&7&&∃∗&7∗&&∃7∃∗&7∃77&∗∃∃&7∃7∃∗&77∃∃∗∗∃&∗7&∗∗∗&&&&& 720
Sac I/Sst I
721 ∃7&&∃&7∃∗77&7∃∗∃∗&∗∗&&∗&&∃&&∗&∗∗7∗∗∃∗&7&&∃∗&7777∗77&&&777∃∗7∗∃∗∗∗77∃∃77∗&∗&∗&77∗∗&∗7∃∃7&∃7∗∗7&∃7∃∗&7∗777&&7∗7∗7∗∃∃∃77∗77
7∃∗∗7∗∃7&∃∃∗∃7&7&∗&&∗∗&∗∗7∗∗&∗&&∃&&7&∗∃∗∗7&∗∃∃∃∃&∃∃∗∗∗∃∃∃7&∃&7&&&∃∃77∃∃&∗&∗&∗∃∃&&∗&∃77∃∗7∃&&∃∗7∃7&∗∃&∃∃∃∗∗∃&∃&∃&777∃∃&∃∃ 840
841 ∃7&&∗&7&∃&∃∃77&&∃&∃&∃∃&∃7∃&∗∃∗&&∗∗∃∃∗&∃7∃∃∃∗7∗7∃∃∃∗&&7∗∗∗∗7∗&&7∃∃7∗∃∗7∗∃∗&7∃∃&7&∃&∃77∃∃77∗&∗77∗&∗&7&∃&7∗&&&∗&777&&∃∗7&∗∗
7∃∗∗&∗∃∗7∗77∃∃∗∗7∗7∗77∗7∃7∗&7&∗∗&&77&∗7∃777&∃&∃777&∗∗∃&&&&∃&∗∗∃77∃&7&∃&7&∗∃77∗∃∗7∗7∃∃77∃∃∗&∗∃∃&∗∗∗∃∗7∗∃&∗∗∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗7&∃∗&& 960
961 ∗∃∃∃&&7∗7&∗7∗&&∃∗&7∗&∃77∃∃7∗∃∃7&∗∗&&∃∃&∗&∗&∗∗∗∗∃∗∃∗∗&∗∗777∗&∗7∃77∗∗∗&∗&7&77&&∗&77&&7&∗&7&∃&7∗∃&7&∗&7∗&∗&7&∗∗7&∗77&∗∗&7∗&
&777∗∗∃&∃∗&∃&∗∗7&∗∃&∗7∃∃77∃&77∃∗&&∗∗77∗&∗&∗&&&&7&7&&∗&&∃∃∃&∗&∃7∃∃&&&∗&∗∃∗∃∃∗∗&∗∃∃∗∗∃∗&∗∃&7∗∃&7∗∃∗&∗∃&∗&∗∃∗&&∃∗&∃∃∗∃∃∗∃&∗ 1080
1081 ∗∗&∗∃∗&∗∗7∃7∗∃∗&7&∃&7&∃∃∃∗∗&∗∗7∃∃7∃&∗∗77∃7&&∃&∃∗∃∃7&∃∗∗∗∗∃7∃∃&∗&∃∗∗∃∃∃∗∃∃&∃7∗7∗∃∗&∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∃∗&∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∃∗∗∃∃&&∗7∃∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∗
&&∗&7&∗&&∃7∃&7&∗∃∗7∗∃∗777&&∗&&∃77∃7∗&&∃∃7∃∗∗7∗7&77∃∗7&&&&7∃77∗&∗7&&777&77∗7∃&∃&7&∗7777&&∗∗7&∗7777&&∗∗7&&77∗∗&∃77777&&∗∗∃ 1200
1201 &∗77∗&7∗∗&∗77777&&∃7∃∗∗&7&&∗&&&&&&7∗∃&∗∃∗&∃7&∃&∃∃∃∃∃7&∗∃&∗&7&∃∃∗7&∃∗∃∗∗7∗∗&∗∃∃∃&&&∗∃&∃∗∗∃&7∃7∃∃∃∗∃7∃&&∃∗∗&∗777&&&&&7∗∗∃∃
∗&∃∃&∗∃&&∗&∃∃∃∃∃∗∗7∃7&&∗∃∗∗&∗∗∗∗∗∗∃&7∗&7&∗7∃∗7∗77777∃∗&7∗&∗∃∗77&∃∗7&7&&∃&&∗&777∗∗∗&7∗7&&7∗∃7∃777&7∃7∗∗7&&∗&∃∃∃∗∗∗∗∗∃&&77 1320
1321 ∗&7&&&7&∗7∗&∗&7&7&&7∗77&&∗∃&&&7∗&&∗&77∃&&∗∗∃7∃&&7∗7&&∗&&777&7&&&77&∗∗∗∃∃∗&∗7∗∗&∗&777&7&∃7∃∗&7&∃&∗&7∗7∃∗∗7∃7&7&∃∗77&∗∗7∗7
&∗∃∗∗∗∃∗&∃&∗&∗∃∗∃∗∗∃&∃∃∗∗&7∗∗∗∃&∗∗&∗∃∃7∗∗&&7∃7∗∗∃&∃∗∗&∗∗∃∃∃∗∃∗∗∗∃∃∗&&&77&∗&∃&&∗&∗∃∃∃∗∃∗7∃7&∗∃∗7∗&∗∃&∃7&&∃7∃∗∃∗7&∃∃∗&&∃&∃ 1440
1441 ∃∗∗7&∗77&∗&7&&∃∃∗&7∗∗∗&7∗7∗7∗&∃&∗∃∃&&&&&&∗77&∃∗&&&∗∃&&∗&7∗&∗&&77∃7&&∗∗7∃∃&7∃7&∗7&77∗∃∗7&&∃∃&&&∗∗7∃∃∗∃&∃&∗∃&77∃7&∗&&∃&7∗∗
7&&∃∗&∃∃∗&∗∃∗∗77&∗∃&&&∗∃&∃&∃&∗7∗&77∗∗∗∗∗∗&∃∃∗7&∗∗∗&7∗∗&∗∃&∗&∗∗∃∃7∃∗∗&&∃77∗∃7∃∗&∃∗∃∃&7&∃∗∗77∗∗∗&&∃77&7∗7∗&7∗∃∃7∃∗&∗∗7∗∃&& 1560
1561 &∃∗&∃∗&&∃&7∗∗7∃∃&∃∗∗∃77∃∗&∃∗∃∗&∗∃∗∗7∃7∗7∃∗∗&∗∗7∗&7∃&∃∗∃∗77&77∗∃∃∗7∗∗7∗∗&&7∃∃&7∃&∗∗&7∃&∃&7∃∗∃∃∗∗∃&∃∗7∃777∗∗7∃7&7∗&∗&7&7∗&
∗7&∗7&∗∗7∗∃&&∃77∗7&&7∃∃7&∗7&7&∗&7&&∃7∃&∃7&&∗&&∃&∗∃7∗7&7&∃∃∗∃∃&77&∃&&∃&&∗∗∃77∗∃7∗&&∗∃7∗7∗∃7&77&&7∗7&∃7∃∃∃&&∃7∃∗∃&∗&∗∃∗∃&∗ 1680
1681 7∗∃∃∗&&∃∗77∃&&77&∗∗∃∃∃∃∃∗∃∗77∗∗7∃∗&7&77∗∃7&&∗∗&∃∃∃&∃∃∃&&∃&&∗&7∗∗7∃∗&∗∗7∗∗7777777&777∗&∃∃∗&∃∗&∃∗∃77∃&∗&∗&∃∗∃∃∃∃∃∃∃∗∗∃7&7&
∃&77&∗∗7&∃∃7∗∗∃∃∗&&77777&7&∃∃&&∃7&∗∃∗∃∃&7∃∗∗&&∗777∗777∗∗7∗∗&∗∃&&∃7&∗&&∃&&∃∃∃∃∃∃∃∗∃∃∃&∗77&∗7&∗7&7∃∃7∗&∗&∗7&7777777&&7∃∗∃∗ 1800
3´ primer 2 5´
1801 ∃∃∗∃∃∗∃7&&777∗∃7&7777&7∃&∗∗∗∗7&7∗∃&∗&7&∃∗7∗∗∃∃&∗∗∃∃∃∃&7&∃&∗77∃∃∗∗∗∃7777&∗&∃7∗∃∗∃77∃7&∃∃∃∃∃∗∗∃7&77&∃&&7∃∗∃7&&7777∃∃∃77∃∃∃
77&77&7∃∗∗∃∃∃&7∃∗∃∃∃∃∗∃7∗&&&&∃∗∃&7∗&∗∃∗7&∃&&77∗&&7777∗∃∗7∗&∃∃77&&&7∃∃∃∃∗&∗7∃&7&7∃∃7∃∗77777&&7∃∗∃∃∗7∗∗∃7&7∃∗∗∃∃∃∃777∃∃777 1920
Figure 24-3 Annealing of primers to pBluescript plasmids. Note that only the portion of the plasmids
between base pairs 1 and 1920 is shown.
change a single base pair in the gene of interest gene and “walk” down the chromosome to obtain
(Fig. 24-4d ). Studies of protein mutants produced new sequence information and identify new open
by these methods have proven useful in studies of reading frames (genes). It is even possible to obtain
protein–protein interaction, protein function, and mRNA from a cell and use PCR to reverse transcribe
protein structure. The thing to keep in mind when the message to obtain the cDNA for a number of
designing mutagenic primers is that any base pair different genes (RT-PCR).
changes, deletions, or additions present in sequence of Since polymerase chain reaction can be used to
the primer, in contrast to that of the DNA template, amplify a specific DNA fragment in the presence
will be present in the amplified DNA product. of countless other sequences, it has proven to be a
Mutation analysis is one of many applications of powerful tool in a number of different fields of
the technique of PCR. Variations on the basic tech- study. One area that has benefited tremendously
nique described in this experiment will allow you from this technique is the field of forensic science.
to obtain the sequence of a DNA fragment from as Any biological sample recovered from a crime scene
little as 50 fmol of sample (PCR cycle sequencing). that contains DNA (a single hair, a drop of blood,
Once a gene has been cloned and localized to a par- skin cell, saliva, etc.) can be subjected to PCR.
ticular region on a chromosome, PCR can be used Primers complementary to repetitive DNA se-
to amplify DNA fragments on either side of the quences found throughout the human genome are
EXPERIMENT 24 Amplification of a DNA Fragment Using Polymerase Chain Reaction 389
pBluescript II (S/K)
1 &7∃∃∃77∗7∃∃∗&∗77∃∃7∃7777∗77∃∃∃∃77&∗&∗77∃∃∃77777∗77∃∃∃7&∃∗&7&∃777777∃∃&&∃∃7∃∗∗&&∗∃∃∃7&∗∗&∃∃∃∃7&&&77∃7∃∃∃7&∃∃∃∃∗∃∃7∃∗∃&&∗∃
∗∃777∃∃&∃77&∗&∃∃77∃7∃∗&∃&∃∃7777∗&∗&∗&∃∃777∃∃∃∃∃&∃∃777∃∗7∃&∃∗7∃∃∃∃∃∃77∗∗77∃7&&∗∗&777∃∗&&∗7777∃∗∗∗∃∃7∃777∃∗7777&77∃7&7∗∗&7 120
5´ primer 1 3´
121 ∗∃7∃∗∗∗77∗∃∗7∗77∗77&&∃∗777∗∗∃∃&∃∃∗∃∗7&&∃&7∃77∃∃∃∗∃∃&∗7∗∗∃&7&&∃∃&∗7&∃∃∃∗∗∗&∗∃∃∃∃∃&&∗7&7∃7&∃∗∗∗&∗∃7∗∗&&&∃&7∃&∗7∗∃∃&&∃7&∃&&
&7∃7&&∗∃∃&7&∃&∃∃&∃∃∗∗7&∃∃∃&&77∗77&7&∃∗∗7∗∃7∃∃777&77∗&∃&&7∗∃∗∗77∗&∃∗777&&&∗&77777∗∗&∃∗∃7∃∗7&&&∗&7∃&&∗∗∗7∗∃7∗&∃&77∗∗7∃∗7∗∗ 240
241 &7∃∃7&∃∃∗777777∗∗∗∗7&∗∃∗∗7∗&&∗7∃∃∃∗&∃&7∃∃∃7&∗∗∃∃&&&7∃∃∃∗∗∗∃∗&&&&&∗∃777∃∗∃∗&77∗∃&∗∗∗∗∃∃∃∗&&∗∗&∗∃∃&∗7∗∗&∗∃∗∃∃∃∗∗∃∃∗∗∗∃∃∗∃∃
∗∃77∃∗77&∃∃∃∃∃∃&&&&∃∗&7&&∃&∗∗&∃777&∗7∗∃777∃∗&&77∗∗∗∃777&&&7&∗∗∗∗∗&7∃∃∃7&7&∗∃∃&7∗&&&&777&∗∗&&∗&77∗&∃&&∗&7&777&&77&&&77&77 360
361 ∃∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗∃∗&∗∗∗&∗&7∃∗∗∗&∗&7∗∗&∃∃∗7∗7∃∗&∗∗7&∃&∗&7∗&∗&∗7∃∃&&∃&&∃&∃&&&∗&&∗&∗&77∃∃7∗&∗&&∗&7∃&∃∗∗∗&∗&∗7&&&∃77&∗&&∃77&∃∗∗&7∗&∗
7&∃&777&&7&∗&&&∗&∗∃7&&&∗&∗∃&&∗77&∃&∃7&∗&&∃∗7∗&∗∃&∗&∗&∃77∗∗7&&7&7∗∗∗&∗∗&∗&∗∃∃77∃&∗&∗∗&∗∃7∗7&&&∗&∗&∃∗∗∗7∃∃∗&∗∗7∃∃&7&&∗∃&∗& 480
481 &∃∃&7∗77∗∗∗∃∃∗∗∗&∗∃7&∗∗7∗&∗∗∗&&7&77&∗&7∃77∃&∗&&∃∗&7∗∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗∗∗∗∃7∗7∗&7∗&∃∃∗∗&∗∃77∃∃∗77∗∗∗7∃∃&∗&&∃∗∗∗7777&&&∃∗7&∃&∗∃&∗77∗
∗77∗∃&∃∃&&&77&&&∗&7∃∗&&∃&∗&&&∗∗∃∗∃∃∗&∗∃7∃∃7∗&∗∃7&∗∃&&∗&777&&&&&7∃&∃&∗7&∗77&&∗&7∃∃77&∃∃&&&∃77∗&∗∗<&&&∃∃∃∃∗∗∗7&∃∗7∗&7∗&∃∃& 600
Kpn I
601 7∃∃∃∃&∗∃&∗∗&&∃∗7∗∃∗&∗&∗&∗7∃∃7∃&∗∃&7&∃&7∃7∃∗∗∗&∗∃∃77∗∗∗7∃&&∗∗∗&&&&&&&7&∗∃∗∗7&∗∃&∗∗7∃7&∗∃7∃∃∗&77∗∃7∃7&∗∃∃77&&7∗&∃∗&&&∗∗∗∗∗
∃7777∗&7∗&&∗∗7&∃&7&∗&∗∗&∗&∃77∃7∗&7∗∃∗7∗∃7∃7&&∗&77∃∃&&&∃7∗∗&&&∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∃∗&7&&∃∗&7∗&&∃7∃∗&7∃77&∗∃∃&7∃7∃∗&77∃∃∗∗∃&∗7&∗∗∗&&&&& 720
Sac I/Sst I
721 ∃7&&∃&7∃∗77&7∃∗∃∗&∗∗&&∗&&∃&&∗&∗∗7∗∗∃∗&7&&∃∗&7777∗77&&&777∃∗7∗∃∗∗∗77∃∃77∗&∗&∗&77∗∗&∗7∃∃7&∃7∗∗7&∃7∃∗&7∗777&&7∗7∗7∗∃∃∃77∗77
7∃∗∗7∗∃7&∃∃∗∃7&7&∗&&∗∗&∗∗7∗∗&∗&&∃&&7&∗∃∗∗7&∗∃∃∃∃&∃∃∗∗∗∃∃∃7&∃&7&&&∃∃77∃∃&∗&∗&∗∃∃&&∗&∃77∃∗7∃&&∃∗7∃7&∗∃&∃∃∃∗∗∃&∃&∃&777∃∃&∃∃ 840
841 ∃7&&∗&7&∃&∃∃77&&∃&∃&∃∃&∃7∃&∗∃∗&&∗∗∃∃∗&∃7∃∃∃∗7∗7∃∃∃∗&&7∗∗∗∗7∗&&7∃∃7∗∃∗7∗∃∗&7∃∃&7&∃&∃77∃∃77∗&∗77∗&∗&7&∃&7∗&&&∗&777&&∃∗7&∗∗
7∃∗∗&∗∃∗7∗77∃∃∗∗7∗7∗77∗7∃7∗&7&∗∗&&77&∗7∃777&∃&∃777&∗∗∃&&&&∃&∗∗∃77∃&7&∃&7&∗∃77∗∃∗7∗7∃∃77∃∃∗&∗∃∃&∗∗∗∃∗7∗∃&∗∗∗&∗∃∃∃∗∗7&∃∗&& 960
961 ∗∃∃∃&&7∗7&∗7∗&&∃∗&7∗&∃77∃∃7∗∃∃7&∗∗&&∃∃&∗&∗&∗∗∗∗∃∗∃∗∗&∗∗777∗&∗7∃77∗∗∗&∗&7&77&&∗&77&&7&∗&7&∃&7∗∃&7&∗&7∗&∗&7&∗∗7&∗77&∗∗&7∗&
&777∗∗∃&∃∗&∃&∗∗7&∗∃&∗7∃∃77∃&77∃∗&&∗∗77∗&∗&∗&&&&7&7&&∗&&∃∃∃&∗&∃7∃∃&&&∗&∗∃∗∃∃∗∗&∗∃∃∗∗∃∗&∗∃&7∗∃&7∗∃∗&∗∃&∗&∗∃∗&&∃∗&∃∃∗∃∃∗∃&∗ 1080
1081 ∗∗&∗∃∗&∗∗7∃7∗∃∗&7&∃&7&∃∃∃∗∗&∗∗7∃∃7∃&∗∗77∃7&&∃&∃∗∃∃7&∃∗∗∗∗∃7∃∃&∗&∃∗∗∃∃∃∗∃∃&∃7∗7∗∃∗&∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∃∗&∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∃∗∗∃∃&&∗7∃∃∃∃∃∗∗&&∗
&&∗&7&∗&&∃7∃&7&∗∃∗7∗∃∗777&&∗&&∃77∃7∗&&∃∃7∃∗∗7∗7&77∃∗7&&&&7∃77∗&∗7&&777&77∗7∃&∃&7&∗7777&&∗∗7&∗7777&&∗∗7&&77∗∗&∃77777&&∗∗∃ 1200
1201 &∗77∗&7∗∗&∗77777&&∃7∃∗∗&7&&∗&&&&&&7∗∃&∗∃∗&∃7&∃&∃∃∃∃∃7&∗∃&∗&7&∃∃∗7&∃∗∃∗∗7∗∗&∗∃∃∃&&&∗∃&∃∗∗∃&7∃7∃∃∃∗∃7∃&&∃∗∗&∗777&&&&&7∗∗∃∃
∗&∃∃&∗∃&&∗&∃∃∃∃∃∗∗7∃7&&∗∃∗∗&∗∗∗∗∗∗∃&7∗&7&∗7∃∗7∗77777∃∗&7∗&∗∃∗77&∃∗7&7&&∃&&∗&777∗∗∗&7∗7&&7∗∃7∃777&7∃7∗∗7&&∗&∃∃∃∗∗∗∗∗∃&&77 1320
1321 ∗&7&&&7&∗7∗&∗&7&7&&7∗77&&∗∃&&&7∗&&∗&77∃&&∗∗∃7∃&&7∗7&&∗&&777&7&&&77&∗∗∗∃∃∗&∗7∗∗&∗&777&7&∃7∃∗&7&∃&∗&7∗7∃∗∗7∃7&7&∃∗77&∗∗7∗7
&∗∃∗∗∗∃∗&∃&∗&∗∃∗∃∗∗∃&∃∃∗∗&7∗∗∗∃&∗∗&∗∃∃7∗∗&&7∃7∗∗∃&∃∗∗&∗∗∃∃∃∗∃∗∗∗∃∃∗&&&77&∗&∃&&∗&∗∃∃∃∗∃∗7∃7&∗∃∗7∗&∗∃&∃7&&∃7∃∗∃∗7&∃∃∗&&∃&∃ 1440
1441 ∃∗∗7&∗77&∗&7&&∃∃∗&7∗∗∗&7∗7∗7∗&∃&∗∃∃&&&&&&∗77&∃∗&&&∗∃&&∗&7∗&∗&&77∃7&&∗∗7∃∃&7∃7&∗7&77∗∃∗7&&∃∃&&&∗∗7∃∃∗∃&∃&∗∃&77∃7&∗&&∃&7∗∗
7&&∃∗&∃∃∗&∗∃∗∗77&∗∃&&&∗∃&∃&∃&∗7∗&77∗∗∗∗∗∗&∃∃∗7&∗∗∗&7∗∗&∗∃&∗&∗∗∃∃7∃∗∗&&∃77∗∃7∃∗&∃∗∃∃&7&∃∗∗77∗∗∗&&∃77&7∗7∗&7∗∃∃7∃∗&∗∗7∗∃&& 1560
1561 &∃∗&∃∗&&∃&7∗∗7∃∃&∃∗∗∃77∃∗&∃∗∃∗&∗∃∗∗7∃7∗7∃∗∗&∗∗7∗&7∃&∃∗∃∗77&77∗∃∃∗7∗∗7∗∗&&7∃∃&7∃&∗∗&7∃&∃&7∃∗∃∃∗∗∃&∃∗7∃777∗∗7∃7&7∗&∗&7&7∗&
∗7&∗7&∗∗7∗∃&&∃77∗7&&7∃∃7&∗7&7&∗&7&&∃7∃&∃7&&∗&&∃&∗∃7∗7&7&∃∃∗∃∃&77&∃&&∃&&∗∗∃77∗∃7∗&&∗∃7∗7∗∃7&77&&7∗7&∃7∃∃∃&&∃7∃∗∃&∗&∗∃∗∃&∗ 1680
1681 7∗∃∃∗&&∃∗77∃&&77&∗∗∃∃∃∃∃∗∃∗77∗∗7∃∗&7&77∗∃7&&∗∗&∃∃∃&∃∃∃&&∃&&∗&7∗∗7∃∗&∗∗7∗∗7777777&777∗&∃∃∗&∃∗&∃∗∃77∃&∗&∗&∃∗∃∃∃∃∃∃∃∗∗∃7&7&
∃&77&∗∗7&∃∃7∗∗∃∃∗&&77777&7&∃∃&&∃7&∗∃∗∃∃&7∃∗∗&&∗777∗777∗∗7∗∗&∗∃&&∃7&∗&&∃&&∃∃∃∃∃∃∃∗∃∃∃&∗77&∗7&∗7&7∃∃7∗&∗&∗7&7777777&&7∃∗∃∗ 1800
3´ primer 2 5´
1801 ∃∃∗∃∃∗∃7&&777∗∃7&7777&7∃&∗∗∗∗7&7∗∃&∗&7&∃∗7∗∗∃∃&∗∗∃∃∃∃&7&∃&∗77∃∃∗∗∗∃7777&∗&∃7∗∃∗∃77∃7&∃∃∃∃∃∗∗∃7&77&∃&&7∃∗∃7&&7777∃∃∃77∃∃∃
77&77&7∃∗∗∃∃∃&7∃∗∃∃∃∃∗∃7∗&&&&∃∗∃&7∗&∗∃∗7&∃&&77∗&&7777∗∃∗7∗&∃∃77&&&7∃∃∃∃∗&∗7∃&7&7∃∃7∃∗77777&&7∃∗∃∃∗7∗∗∃7&7∃∗∗∃∃∃∃777∃∃777 1920
used to produce a set of amplified DNA products. analyses can provide a basis for a detailed study on
If these PCR fragments are subjected to Southern the process of evolution. Considering the enor-
blotting (see introduction to Section V) after being mous impact that the technique of PCR has had
digested with a number of different restriction en- over a wide range of fields in the past 10 years, it
zymes, the size and pattern of restriction fragments is not surprising that the Nobel Prize was awarded
produced provide a DNA “fingerprint” (Fig. 24-5). for this discovery.
Traditionally, forensic science has relied only on
blood chemistry and restriction mapping of whole
chromosomal DNA, which often require larger bi-
ological samples and are less discriminating. Supplies and Reagents
Polymerase chain reaction has also proven to
be useful in the fields of archaeology and evolu- 0.5-ml thin-walled PCR tubes
tion. Ancient biological samples recovered from P-20, P-200, and P-1000 Pipetmen with sterile dispos-
digs and expeditions can be subjected to PCR to able tips
gain insight into the genetic composition of ex- 1.5-ml plastic microcentrifuge tubes
tinct species, including some of our earliest an- pBluescript II (S/K) plasmid in TE buffer (1 mg/ml)—
cestors. The information obtained from these Stratagene catalog #212205
390 5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
500 base pairs
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
500 bases
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
3'–GTGCCGATTGCT EcoRI recognition
TA
5'–
GA
CA
1 AG
GG
G–
site
Polymerization
3
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
500 base pairs
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG C
TT
AAG
5'–
GA
CA
1 GG
G–
5'
AG
CT
T 3'
CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC
500 base pairs
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
a
Figure 24-4 (a) Using PCR to introduce restriction sites on either end of the amplified DNA product. The
amplified DNA in subsequent cycles will include the EcoRI site and HindIII site at either end
for easy cloning into a desired vector. (b) Using PCR to add base pairs within a DNA frag-
ment of interest. The amplified DNA in subsequent cycles will include the five additional
base pairs specified by the mutagenic primer. (c) Using PCR to delete base pairs within a
DNA fragment of interest. The amplified DNA in subsequent cycles will be missing the five
base pairs not present in the mutagenic primer. (d ) Using PCR to change a single base pair
in the template DNA. The amplified DNA in subsequent cycles will include the single-base-
pair change encoded by the mutagenic primer.
pBluescript II (K/S) plasmid in TE buffer (1 mg/ml)— 10X Taq Polymerase buffer (supplied with enzyme)—
Stratagene catalog #212207 Gibco BRL
Sterile distilled water PCR thermocycler
TE buffer (10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA) Agarose (electrophoresis grade)
12.5 mM MgCl2 in distilled water 5X TBE buffer (54 g/liter Tris base, 27.5 g/liter boric
Deoxyribonucleotide (dNTP) solution —1.25 mM each acid, 20 ml/liter of 0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0)
of dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP in water 6X agarose gel DNA sample buffer (0.25% (wt/vol)
Primer 1—10 mM in distilled water (59-AAAGGGC- bromophenol blue, 0.25% (wt/vol) xylene cyanole,
GAAAAACCGTCTATCAG-39) 30% (wt/vol) glycerol in water)
Primer 2—10 mM in distilled water (59-TTTGCCG- 1 kb-DNA ladder size marker—Gibco BRL catalog
GATCAAGAGCTACCAAC-39) #15615-016
Taq polymerase (1 unit/ml)—Gibco BRL catalog #18038- Casting box and apparatus for agarose-gel electrophore-
042 sis
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3' 391
500 base pairs
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
500 bases
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
3'– GTGCCGATTG 5'
Mutagenic primer
G 1
GG
GG
5' CTTAAACCGTC″3'
500 bases
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
500 bases
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
500 bases
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
3'– GTGCCGATTG 5'
Mutagenic primer
1
5' CTTGTC 3'
500 bases
3' GAACAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
TC
Polymerization results in the
TG
following product DNA strands.
T
500 bases
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
1
<500 bases
5' CTTGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
500 bases
5' CTTAAACCGTC CACGGCTAAC 3'
3'– GTGCCGATTG 5'
Mutagenic primer 1
C
5' CTTA ACCGTC″3'
500 bases
3' GAATTTGGCAG GTGCCGATTG 5'
MgCl2 68 ml 12.5 mM
Day 1: Standard PCR Amplification Reaction dNTPs 68 ml 1.25 mM
(of each dNTP)
1. Obtain four thin-walled PCR tubes containing
Primer 1 42.5 ml 10 mM
the following:
Primer 2 42.5 ml 10 mM
Volume of Concentration Taq buffer 42.5 ml 10X
pBluescript II of Vol. of Sterile water 110.5 ml —
Tube DNA pBluescript II Water
Taq polymerase 8.5 ml 1 unit /ml
A — — 10 ml
B 10 ml 1 fg/ml —
C 10 ml 1 pg/ml — 3. Add 90 ml of this Master Mix to each of the
D 10 ml 1 ng/ml — four PCR reaction tubes prepared in step 1 (A–
D) and mix thoroughly.
EXPERIMENT 24 Amplification of a DNA Fragment Using Polymerase Chain Reaction 393
Digest product
DNA with restriction
endonucleases and
separate by agarose-gel
electrophoresis.
Do the same with DNA
from a subject.
Size DNA from DNA from Size DNA from DNA from
standards Sample Subject 1 Subject 2 standards Sample Subject 1 Subject 2
Film—radiolabeled DNA
fragment will hybridize
with complementary
sequences in the sample
DNA. The number of
repetitive sequences in
the chromosomal DNA
and the position of
restriction sites will not
be exactly the same in
two individuals.
Southern blot
1) Transfer to
nitrocellulose
2) Probe with a
radiolabeled DNA
fragment
3) Expose to film
4. Overlay each sample in tubes A to D with 40 ml peatedly heated and cooled during the reaction. If
of mineral oil. Some thermocyclers are equipped this were not done, the solution would begin to con-
with heated lids that make the mineral oil unnec- dense on the walls of the tube and possibly alter the
essary. The mineral oil will keep the reaction vol- concentrations of the different components in the
ume at the bottom of the tube as the solution is re- reaction.
394 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
5. Label the four tubes with your name and place 3. Add 6 ml of 6X DNA sample buffer to each of
them in the thermocycler set to room temper- these two reactions following the 1-hr incuba-
ature. tion. Label these tubes 7 (KpnI digest) and 8
6. Perform 30 PCR cycles using the following pa- (SstI digest).
rameters: 4. Set up six additional samples for agarose-gel
a. Ramp from room temperature to 94°C in electrophoresis, each containing the following:
50 sec and hold at 94°C for 1 min (denatu-
ration). Volume of DNA Volume of 6X DNA
Tube Sample (Undigested) Sample Buffer
b. Ramp down to 55°C in 40 sec and hold at
55°C for 1 min (primer annealing). 1 5 ml (PCR reaction A) 1 ml
c. Ramp up to 72°C in 10 sec and hold at 72°C 2 5 ml (PCR reaction B) 1 ml
for 2 min (polymerization). 3 20 ml (PCR reaction B) 4 ml
d. Ramp from 72 to 94°C in 15 sec (denatura- 4 5 ml (PCR reaction C) 1 ml
tion). 5 5 ml (PCR reaction D) 1 ml
6 5 ml of 0.2 mg/ml 1 ml
The 30-cycle program will take approximately 1-kb DNA ladder
2.5 hr. After completion of the 30 cycles, a
“soak file” should be included to hold the sam-
ples at 4°C until they are ready to be removed. 5. Prepare a 10-well, 1% TBE agarose gel by
7. Remove the samples from the thermocycler adding 0.5 g of agarose to 50 ml of 0.5X TBE
and store them at 220°C for use on Day 2. buffer in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask (the 0.5X
TBE buffer is prepared by diluting the 5X TBE
Day 2: Restriction-Enzyme Analysis of buffer stock 1:10 with distilled water). Weigh
Amplified DNA Product the flask and record its mass. Microwave the
flask until all of the agarose is completely dis-
1. Place the samples obtained at the end of Day solved (,2 min). Weigh the flask again and add
1 at room temperature and allow them to thaw. distilled water until the flask reaches its
Remove the mineral oil from the four PCR re- preweighed mass. This is done to account for
actions by poking the tip of the P-200 Pipet- the fact that some water is lost to evaporation
man down through the mineral oil to the bot- during the heating process. If this water is not
tom of each tube. Draw up the bottom added back to the flask, the gel may not actu-
(aqueous) phase into the tip up to the level of ally be 1% agarose.
the mineral oil. Remove the tip from the tube 6. Allow the flask to cool at room temperature
and wipe the mineral oil off of the outside of (swirling occasionally) for ,5 min. Pour the so-
the tip using laboratory tissue paper. Expel each lution into a gel cast fitted with a 10-well comb
aqueous PCR reaction (A–D) into a new, ster- at one end. Allow the agarose to set (,40 min).
ile 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tube. 7. Carefully remove the comb, remove the gel
2. Prepare a sample of the PCR reaction in tube from the cast, and place it in the agarose-gel
D for restriction digest in two separate 1.5-ml electrophoresis unit. Add 0.5X TBE buffer to
microcentrifuge tubes as follows: the chamber until the buffer covers the top of
KpnI Digest SstI Digest the gel and fills all of the wells.
8. Load the DNA samples in order (1–8) into sep-
5 ml of PCR reaction 5 ml of PCR reaction arate wells of the gel. Connect the negative
from tube D from tube D
electrode (cathode) to the well side of the unit
16.5 ml of sterile water 16.5 ml of sterile water
and the positive electrode (anode) to the other
2.5 ml of 10X KpnI buffer 2.5 ml of 10X SstI buffer
side of the unit (the side opposite the wells in
1 ml of KpnI (10 units/ml) 1 ml of SstI (10 units/ml)
the gel). Remember that the DNA is negatively
charged and will migrate toward the positive
Incubate both reactions at 37°C for 1 hr. electrode.
EXPERIMENT 24 Amplification of a DNA Fragment Using Polymerase Chain Reaction 395
9. Apply 50 mA (constant current) and continue actions B to D, estimate the total amount of
the electrophoresis until the bromophenol blue product produced in each PCR reaction. Hint:
(dark blue) tracking dye has migrated about the 1636 bp DNA band in the 1-kb DNA ladder
three-fourths of the way to the end of the gel. lane contains approximately 100 ng of DNA.
10. Turn off the power supply, disconnect the elec- Therefore, if the PCR product band is of the same
trodes, and place the gel in a solution of 0.5X intensity as this marker, then the PCR product band
TBE containing 0.5 mg/ml ethidium bromide. also contains about 100 ng of DNA.
Wear gloves at all times when handling ethidium 16. Based on the size of the DNA fragments pro-
bromide. Incubate the gel at room temperature duced from the KpnI and SstI digests, deter-
for 20 min. During this time, the ethidium bro- mine whether you amplified a portion of the
mide will enter the gel and intercalate between pBluescript II (S/K) plasmid or the pBluescript
the base pairs in the DNA. The DNA will ap- II (K/S) plasmid. Justify your answer in terms
pear as pink or orange bands on the gel when of what size DNA fragments were produced in
exposed to ultraviolet light, as the ethidium each digest.
bromide–DNA complex fluoresces. 17. Determine whether there were any “unex-
11. Destain the gel by placing it in a solution of pected” DNA bands in the lanes containing
0.5X TBE buffer without ethidium bromide. samples of PCR reactions B to D. If there were,
Incubate at room temperature for 10 min. This explain what you think may have caused these,
is done to remove any ethidium bromide from as well as how you might alter the conditions
areas of the gel that do not contain DNA. of the PCR reaction to eliminate them.
12. Place the gel in a light box fitted with a cam- 18. Determine the number of molecules (N0) of the
era, appropriate filter, and a 254-nm light 2961-base-pair pBluescript II plasmid that were
source. Take a photograph of your gel for later present in each of PCR reactions B to D. Based
analysis. on your estimation of the mass of DNA prod-
13. Prepare a plot of number of base pairs versus uct present in each of these PCR reactions
distance traveled (in centimeters) for as many (step 15) and the molecular weight of the prod-
DNA fragments present in the 1-kb DNA lad- uct (320 Da/nucleotide, or 640 Da per base
der lane as possible. If the 1-kb DNA ladder pair), calculate the number of molecules of
size standards resolved well, you should be able DNA product (N) that were produced in each
to differentiate accurately between the relative PCR reaction. From these two pieces of infor-
mobilities of the 0.5-, 1.0-, 1.6-, 2.0-, and 3.0- mation, estimate the amplification efficiency
kb fragments for use in preparing the standard (E) for each PCR reaction using the following
curve (do not try to calculate the relative mobilities equation:
of the higher-molecular-weight DNA size standard
fragments if they did not resolve well [see Exper- N 5 N0 (1 1 E)n
iment 21, Day 4, step 16]). Also, refer to Fig-
ure 21-5 for the sizes of the DNA fragments where n 5 the number of amplification cycles
present in the 1-kb DNA ladder. (30). The amplification efficiency (E) can have
14. Using the standard curve prepared in step 13, a value of between 0 and 1.0. Zero represents
calculate the number of base pairs present in no amplification and 1.0 represents 100% am-
all of the other sample lanes on the gel. What plification efficiency. Which of the three PCR
is the size of the DNA fragment produced in reactions (B, C, or D) showed the highest and
PCR reactions A to D? Is there any DNA pres- the lowest amplification efficiency? Explain
ent in the lane containing a sample of PCR re- why you think the amplification efficiency
action A? Explain. Which of the PCR reactions might vary with respect to template DNA con-
(B, C, or D) produced the most and the least centration.
amount of product? Explain. 19. Calculate the mass of DNA product that would
15. Based on the intensities of the DNA bands pres- be present in PCR reaction tubes B to D if the
ent in the lanes containing samples of PCR re- amplification efficiency were 100% (E 5 1.0).
396 SECTION V Nucleic Acids
SECTION VI
Information Science
Introduction
In the past several decades, research scientists have The Biology Workbench is a site that has been
cloned and sequenced hundreds of thousands of developed by the Computational Biology Group
genes from a variety of organisms. More recently, at the National Center for Supercomputing Ap-
the scientific community has undertaken the mas- plications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois.
sive project of sequencing entire genomes from a Pedro’s BioMolecular Research Tools is a similar
selected set of model organisms (including humans) directory maintained by a group at Iowa State.
that are most often used in studies of biochemistry, Both of these sites serve as search engines for a
molecular biology, and genetics. The overwhelm- number of general and specialized DNA and pro-
ing amount of DNA and protein sequence infor- tein databases, some of which are described below.
mation generated by these projects necessitated the Many of these databases are directly accessible
development of biological databases that could or- through the Biology Workbench. A more recent
ganize, store, and make the information accessible directory site has been developed by Christopher
to research scientists around the world. There has M. Smith of the San Diego Supercomputer Cen-
also been a striking increase in the numbers of high- ter. The CMS Molecular Biology Resources site
resolution structures of biological macromolecules (http://www.sdsc.edu/ResTools/cmshp.html) lists
determined by x-ray diffraction studies or by nu- nearly 2000 biological Web sites. Unlike the other
clear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. two directories, this one lists sites according to the
This rich database of important biological infor- desired application. For instance, if you wish to
mation must also be made readily available to the analyze the coding region(s) within a fragment of
research community. This need has led to the DNA, it will list sites that will aid you. If you wish
growth of a new area of research commonly re- to perform a phylogenetic analysis on a set of re-
ferred to as information science or bioinformatics. In a lated genes, it will list sites that will aid you.
cooperative effort, research scientists and computer
scientists have established a large number of bio-
GenBank
logical databases, most of which are accessible via
the World Wide Web. GenBank is the National Institutes of Health se-
How do you find the different biological data- quence database. It is the oldest, largest, and most
bases on the Internet? In an effort to publicize the complete general database. Together, GenBank
numerous sites that are being maintained, several and the EMBL database (see below) comprise the
Internet sites have been created to act as directo- International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collabo-
ries. Two of these database directories that we have ration. Newly discovered genes must be submitted
found to be quite useful are the Biology Workbench to either GenBank or EMBL before they can be
(http://biology.ncsa.uiuc.edu) and Pedro’s BioMolec- published in a research journal. Gene sequences
ular Research Tools (http://www1.iastate.edu/pe- can be located on GenBank either by submitting
dro/research_tools.html). the name of the gene or the GenBank accession
399
400 SECTION VI Information Science
number that is assigned to the gene. Often, a cular Biology Laboratory, which specializes in the
search performed on the basis of the gene name area of bioinformatics. Since EMBL is constantly
will identify several homologs of the gene that exchanging information with GenBank, it too is
have been identified in different organisms. Gen- quite large and current. The EMBL database has
Bank is most easily accessed from an Internet site numerous specialized databases that draw informa-
maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology tion from it (see Table VI-1).
Information (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/).
ExPASy and ISREC
European Molecular Biology
ExPASy is a database maintained by the Swiss Insti-
Laboratory (EMBL)
tute of Bioinformatics (SIB) that is dedicated to the
The EMBL database is maintained by the Hinxton organization of protein sequences. ISREC is a sim-
Outstation (Great Britain) of the European Mole- ilar database maintained by the Bioinformatics Group
Table VI-1 An Incomplete Listing of Biological Databases and Other Useful Sites on the World Wide
Web
at the Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research. Specialized Biological Databases
As shown in Table VI-1, a number of specialized
databases draw information from these two data- As science has become increasingly specialized over
bases. the past two decades, so too has the area of bioin-
formatics. There are numerous specialized data-
bases that deal with different aspects of biology.
SwissProt
Some of these specialize in the area of proteins,
SwissProt is a computational biology database spe- while others specialize in the area of DNA. In gen-
cializing in protein sequence analysis maintained by eral, these sites differ in two respects: the general
the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in database(s) from which they draw information, and
Zurich, Switzerland. Like the other general data- the parameters that they require the user to define
bases described above, a number of more special- to conduct the search. For instance, the AA Analy-
ized biological databases draw information from sis database searches the more general SwissProt
this source. database to identify or group proteins on the basis
402 SECTION VI Information Science
scription of any restriction endonuclease can be ob- stringency of eight different criteria to which the
tained with this application simply by “clicking” on search will adhere (primer length, number of bases
the enzyme of interest. MAPDRAW will display the in the primers capable of forming inter- or in-
amino acid sequence of the double-stranded DNA tramolecular hydrogen bonds with neighboring
in all six potential open reading frames (three for bases, etc.). As the sets of primer pairs are selected,
the top strand, and three for the bottom strand). they are presented along with thermodynamic and
This feature enhances the researcher’s ability to statistical data that you may find useful. In addition
identify the correct reading frame within a large to altering the parameters for primer selection,
DNA sequence. PRIMERSELECT also allows you to alter various
conditions for the proposed PCR reaction, includ-
ing primer concentration and ionic strength.
MEGALIGN
The MEGALIGN application is a comprehensive
PROTEAN
tool for establishing relationships between different
DNA and protein sequences. If multiple sequences The PROTEAN application provides a great deal
are to be compared, the Clustal and the Jotun Hein of general information about protein sequences, en-
algorithms are at your disposal. If only two se- tered manually or imported into the program from
quences are to be compared, the Wilbur–Lipman, a database. A single report provides the protein’s
Martinez–Needleman–Wunsch, and Dotplot algo- molecular weight, amino acid composition, extinc-
rithms can be applied. The results of these align- tion coefficient, isoelectric point, and theoretical
ments can be viewed or displayed in a variety of for- titration curve. The application also provides a
mats with MEGALIGN. First, the alignment can large number of different secondary structure pre-
be displayed as a consensus sequence that the “ma- dictions for the protein. The Garnier–Robson and
jority” (a parameter that can be defined by the op- Chou–Fasman algorithms predict alpha helices, beta
erator) of the sequences in the alignment contain. sheets, and turn regions based on the linear amino
Second, you may wish to view the alignment in a acid sequence of the protein. The algorithm of Kyte
tabular format showing the percent similarity and and Doolittle identifies hydrophobic stretches of
the percent divergence among the sequences in the amino acids, indicating possible transmembrane re-
set. Finally, you have the option of viewing the gions in the protein. An antigenic index of the pro-
alignment in the form of a phylogenetic tree, indi- tein calculated by the Jameson–Wolf method indi-
cating how closely related two sequences are. You cates possible antigenic peptides that could be used
can also examine DNA or protein sequences that to raise antibodies specific for that protein. The
may have evolved from a common ancestor. Emini algorithm predicts amino acid residues that
are likely to reside on the surface of the native pro-
tein, and so forth.
PRIMERSELECT
Two Lasergene applications that are not ex-
The PRIMERSELECT module is an extremely plored in Experiment 25 are SEQMAN II and
valuable tool for designing oligonucleotides for GENEQUEST. SEQMAN II is capable of align-
molecular biology applications, including poly- ing over 64,000 individual DNA sequences into a
merase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, single, continuous sequence (a contig). Since it is
and Southern blotting. The application assists in capable of accepting information generated in
identifying suitable regions within a DNA template EDITSEQ or derived from selected automated
sequence to which an oligonucleotide with a com- DNA sequencers, it is suited to both large- and
plementary sequence will hybridize with a high de- small-scale sequencing projects. GENEQUEST is
gree of specificity. The PRIMERSELECT appli- designed to greatly simplify the identification of
cation searches for primer pairs on the template specific genetic elements within a DNA sequence,
based on the PCR product length, the upper primer such as open reading frames, transcription start
range, the lower primer range, or combinations of sites, transcription stop sites, translation start sites,
the three. In addition to these parameters, you can translation stop sites, binding sites for transcrip-
restrict the search for primers by increasing the tion factors, and so forth.
404 SECTION VI Information Science
EXPERIMENT 25
This computer exercise is designed to introduce you 1. Using the Biology Workbench (http://biol-
to the wealth of DNA and protein sequence infor- ogy.ncsa.uiuc.edu) or the GENEMAN applica-
mation available on the World Wide Web. Using tion of Lasergene, search GenBank for a gene
the Biology Workbench and Lasergene software of interest (enter the name of the gene or pro-
(DNASTAR, Madison, WI), you will search Gen- tein for the query).
Bank for a particular sequence of interest and study 2. What are some of the “fields” that you can use
it in depth. We use glutathione-S-transferase, MAP to restrict your search of the GenBank data-
kinase, EcoRI, and CheY for this exercise. We en- base? How many entries did you obtain in your
courage you to experiment with different genes for search? Explain why you may have obtained
this exercise, perhaps one that is of interest to you several entries in response to your search, as
in your own research. The only requirement is that well as what they represent.
you must use a gene that encodes a protein for 3. Select one of these entries and save it as a Se-
which the atomic coordinates are known (consult quence file in your computer for later analysis.
the instructor before the beginning of the experi- 4. Using the EDITSEQ application of Lasergene,
ment if you are not sure). obtain some statistical information about the
DNA sequence that you have selected, search
for open reading frames (ORFs) within the se-
Supplies and Reagents quence, and translate the ORFs into protein se-
quences.
Lasergene software (contact DNASTAR, Inc. in Madi-
son, WI)
a. Open your sequence file (saved in step 3) by
200-Mhz computer with access to the Internet
selecting Open from the File menu.
Computer printer
b. Use Command-A to select the entire DNA
sequence and select Find ORF from the
Protocol Search menu. If there is more than one
ORF present in your DNA sequence, the
Find ORF function can be repeated several
times to identify all of them.
The following protocol explains the application
of the Lasergene and RasMol software in the
c. Click on the largest ORF in your DNA se-
Macintosh format. If you are using IBM comput- quence to highlight it, then select Trans-
ers, this protocol must be modified for use in late DNA from the Goodies menu. At this
the IBM format. A Lasergene “User’s Guide” point, you should see a new window con-
can be obtained from DNASTAR, Inc. RasMol taining the amino acid sequence encoded by
software compatible for IBM computers can be
installed after accessing the RasMol home
the DNA.
page. d. To obtain some statistical information about
your DNA sequence, use Command-A to
405
406 SECTION VI Information Science
highlight the entire sequence and select ORFs encoded by the bottom strand dis-
DNA statistics from the Goodies menu. played in green. You will likely see a “clus-
What is the %A, %G, %T, and %C in your ter” of ORFs specified by either the top or
sequence? What is the %A-T and %G-C the bottom strand that all end in the same
composition of your DNA sequence? What place, but have different start sites. These
is the melting temperature of this DNA “staggered” start sites represent all potential
sequence as determined by the Davis– ATG (met) start codons in the interior of
Botstein–Roth method? the full-length gene. Single-click with the
e. Print out the report of the DNA statistics mouse on the largest ORF specified by the
and select Quit from the EDITSEQ File top strand. In the upper left portion of the
menu. screen, you will see the range of base pairs
specified by this ORF. Record the range of this
5. Using the MAPDRAW application of Laser-
ORF (where it begins and ends) in your note-
gene, generate a detailed restriction map of
book. You will need this information later
your DNA sequence.
when you design a set of primers that could
a. To open your DNA sequence, select Open be used to amplify the gene by polymerase
from the File menu. At this point, your chain reaction (PCR).
DNA sequence (double-stranded) will be f. Select Quit from the MAPDRAW File
showing with the positions of all of the po- menu.
tential 478 restriction endonuclease recog-
6. Using the information obtained in step 5 and
nition sequences that it may contain. Below
your knowledge of molecular biology tech-
this, you will see the amino acid sequence
niques (see Experiment 21 and Section V), de-
specified by your DNA sequence in all six
sign a protocol that will allow you to clone your
reading frames (three for the top strand and
gene into the multiple cloning site of a vector
three for the bottom strand).
of your choice (pUC18/19, pBluescript S/K or
b. Select Unique sites from the Map menu
K /S, etc.). Your instructor will provide you
to show the position of all of the restric-
with a list of restriction-enzyme recognition se-
tion endonuclease sites that appear only
quences, where these enzymes cleave within
once within your DNA sequence. Print out
this sequence, and restriction maps of a num-
this report, which you will need for a later
ber of different cloning vectors for this exer-
exercise.
cise. If you cannot find restriction sites within
c. Select Absent sites from the Map menu to
your sequence that will allow you to easily clone
obtain a list of restriction endonucleases that
the entire gene, you may be forced to design a
will not cleave within your DNA sequence
protocol that will allow you to clone a portion
(the recognition sequence for these enzymes
of the gene. Alternatively, your instructor may
are not present within your DNA sequence).
have previously introduced “phantom” restric-
Print out this report, which you will need
tion endonuclease recognition sites at the 5
for a later exercise.
and/or 3 end of the gene to make this gene se-
d. Experiment with some of the different re-
quence easier to work with. Your detailed pro-
striction enzyme “filters” available in the
tocol should include the following:
MAPDRAW application (apply the New
Filter option under the Enzyme menu). a. The restriction endonucleases with which
When you feel that your restriction map is you will digest your DNA sequence.
complete and easy to read, print out the re- b. The restriction endonucleases with which
port displayed in the window for use in a you will digest your cloning vector.
later exercise. c. A complete map of the recombinant plas-
e. To view all of the potential ORFs in your mid that would result if your ligation reac-
DNA sequence, select ORF map from the tion were successful.
Map menu. You will see the ORFs encoded d. The host strain into which you would trans-
by the top strand displayed in red and the form your ligation mixture.
EXPERIMENT 25 Obtaining and Analyzing Genetic and Protein Sequence Information via the World Wide 407
Web, Lasergene, and RasMol
e. The method that you would use to select periment with the different parameters de-
both for transformed cells and for those cells scribed in step 7B to obtain 5 to 10 primer
that may contain the desired recombinant pairs that are 17 to 24 bases in length. The lo-
plasmid. cated primer pairs will be listed in order of
f. A set of restriction endonuclease digestions decreasing “score.”
and agarose-gel electrophoresis experiments e. Double-click on the primer pair with the
that would allow you to verify the structure highest score to obtain a schematic view of the
(sequence) of the recombinant plasmid after DNA product that would be produced in a
you have re-isolated it from the host cell. PCR reaction performed with this set of
(What enzymes would you digest the plas- primers.
mid with and what size DNA fragments f. Select Amplification summary from the
would you expect to be produced in these Report menu and print a copy of this re-
digests?) port. What is the 5 to 3 sequence of your
two primers? To which strands of the DNA
7. Using the PRIMERSELECT application of
template (top or bottom) will each primer
Lasergene, determine a set of primers that
anneal? What are the predicted melting
could be used to amplify your DNA sequence
temperatures (Tm) of these two primers?
using PCR.
What is the predicted length of the DNA
a. Select Initial conditions from the Condi- product that would result in a PCR reaction
tions menu to view the salt concentration performed with this set of primers? What
and primer concentration at which the pro- annealing temperature would you use in this
posed PCR experiment will be performed. PCR reaction?
These are fairly standard conditions, so you g. Select Composition summary from the
will not need to change them for purposes Report menu and print a copy of this re-
of this exercise. Record these values in your port. What is the molecular weight of your
notebook and close this window. two primers? What is the conversion factor
b. Select Primer characteristics from the (nM/A260 and g/A260) for each primer?
Conditions menu. This window will allow What is the %G, %C, %A, and %T com-
you to increase or decrease the stringency position of your two primers?
of your search for suitable primer pairs. We h. Select Quit from the PRIMERSELECT
will experiment later with the primer length File menu.
minimum, primer length maximum, the
8. Using the PROTEAN application of Laser-
maximum dimer duplexing, and the maxi-
gene, predict some of the secondary structural
mum hairpin values, so make a note of their
features of your protein based on its amino acid
locations in this window.
(primary) sequence.
c. Open your DNA sequence by selecting En-
ter sequence from the File menu. Next, se- a. Open your protein sequence file by select-
lect Primer locations from the Conditions ing Open from the File menu.
menu and select upper and lower primer b. Select Composition from the Analysis
ranges from the pull-down menu. Using the menu and print a copy of this report. What
upper and lower ranges for your gene ob- is the molecular weight of your protein?
tained with the MAPDRAW application of How many amino acids does it contain?
Lasergene (step 5E), enter the appropriate What is the molar extinction coefficient (at
ranges that will encompass the entire coding re- 280 nm) for your protein? What is the iso-
gion of the gene. electric point for your protein? What is the
d. Select PCR primer pairs from the Locate percent (by weight and by frequency) of the
menu to obtain a set of primers that fit the charged, acidic, basic, hydrophobic, and po-
criteria specified by the default values (step lar amino acids in your protein?
7B). If your parameters were too stringent, c. Select Titration curve from the Analysis
you may not have received any entries. Ex- menu to obtain a theoretical titration curve
408 SECTION VI Information Science
for your protein and print out a copy of this c. Experiment with different options in both
report. What is the net charge on your pro- the Display and Colours menu to obtain
tein at pH 5.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0? several different views or models of your pro-
d. Return to the original PROTEAN window tein (ribbon diagram, space-filling model,
to display a list of secondary structure pre- atomic backbone, etc.). Which of these mod-
dictions for your protein. Print out a copy els do you find to be most useful and why?
of this report. Using the Chou–Fasman and If your protein is an enzyme, can you locate
Garnier–Robson algorithms, locate the pre- some of the residues that may comprise the
dicted alpha helices, beta sheets, and turn active site?
regions in your protein. What stretches of d. Experiment with the different Select and
your protein are predicted to be quite hy- Label commands to highlight some differ-
drophobic? What residues in your protein ent residues in your protein.
are likely to be found on the surface? What e. Using the Cartoons command in the Dis-
peptide contained within your protein could play menu and the Structure command in
you use to raise an antibody against your the Colours menu, “select” and “label”
protein (the sequence of the peptide)? both the alpha helices and beta sheets in
your protein. Compare these experimental
9. Using the RasMol program, visualize your pro-
results with the secondary structural pre-
tein in three dimensions and compare its struc-
dictions generated by the Chou–Fasma
ture to the secondary structural predictions for
and Garnier–Robson algorithms in the
your protein generated by the PROTEAN ap-
PROTEAN application of Lasergene.
plication of Lasergene.
Which of the two algorithms performed
a. Open your sequence file and the RasMac better in predicting the structural charac-
program by selecting Open from the re- teristics of your protein? Which algorithm
spective File Menus. Be sure that the view- did a better job at predicting the -helical
ing window and command line window are regions within your protein sequence?
visible. Which algorithm did a better job at pre-
b. You can rotate your protein by clicking and dicting the -sheet regions within your
dragging within the viewing window. Ex- protein sequence? Is the same true for
periment with the RasMol viewing tools un- other proteins that members of your class
til you have obtained a good view of every have analyzed?
surface of your protein.
ch
The following appendix lists details for the prepa- 1 mg/ml lysozyme—Add 12.5 ml of 2 mg/ml lysozyme
ration of reagents and equipment for 100 students to 12.5 ml of water.
working in pairs (50 groups). It allows for student 0.5 mg/ml lysozyme—Add 12.5 ml of 1 mg/ml
waste of reagents. Smaller classes will need a frac- lysozyme to 12.5 ml of water.
tion of these quantities. Lesser quantities of reagents 0.25 mg/ml lysozyme—Add 12.5 ml of 0.5 mg/ml
will often suffice if reagent usage is carefully con- lysozyme to 12.5 ml of water.
trolled by an instructor. At times, specific commer- 1% (wt/vol) CuSO4 5H2O—Dissolve 2 g of CuSO4
cial sources of reagents are listed. These choices are 5H2O in 200 ml of distilled water.
mostly for convenience; alternative sources of these 2% (wt/vol) Sodium tartrate—Dissolve 4 g of sodium
reagents may be equally satisfactory. tartrate 2H2O in 200 ml of distilled water.
2% (wt/vol) Na2CO3 in 0.1 N NaOH—Dissolve 20.0 g
of NaOH and 100 g of Na2CO3 in 5 liters of dis-
Experiment 1: Photometry tilled water.
Folin–Ciocalteau Phenol Reagent (2 N)—200 ml re-
Spectrophotometer with cuvettes—At least 1 required quired. (Sigma catalog #F-9252).
Large (16 125 mm) glass test tubes—500 required.
411
412 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
potassium acetate in 4.75 liters of distilled water Volumetric dispensing bottle—Provide one bottle or ap-
and titrate to pH 6.0 with 15 to 25 ml of glacial paratus capable of dispensing 5 or 10 ml of scin-
acetic acid), and vacuum filter again. Repeat this tillation fluid, depending on the size of the scintil-
suspension and filtration step in 2 volumes of 1.0 M lation vials to be used.
potassium acetate, pH 6.0, a second time. Finally, Scintillation fluid—Dissolve 25 g of 2,5-diphenyloxazole
resuspend the filter cake in 2 volumes of 1.0 M in 5 liters of reagent-grade toluene.
potassium acetate, pH 6.0. At this point, you will Chloroform—50 ml required.
have approximately 1 liter of the swollen resin. Quenched 14C unknown—In a hood, mix 37.5 to 47.5 ml
CM-Sephadex (G-50) in 0.1 M potassium acetate, of the 14C-toluene standard with 2.5 to 12.5 ml of
pH 6.0—Perform the ethanol, acid, and 1.0 M chloroform to obtain 50 ml.
potassium acetate, pH 6.0 washings of CM- Scintillation vials—400 required.
Sephadex (G-50) as described above. After the sec- Scintillation counter—1 required.
ond wash, resuspend the filter cake in 4 volumes
Marking pen—preferably 1 per group.
of 0.1 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0 (i.e., 1 part
1.0 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0, ⫹ 9 parts distilled
water). Remove the excess fluid with vacuum fil-
tration and resuspend the filter cake in 2 volumes
of 0.1 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0. At this point,
Experiment 4: Electrophoresis
you will have approximately 1 liter of swollen
resin. NOTE: The quantities of materials to be used and
1.0 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0—Dissolve 490 g potas- details of preparation of the PAGE gels for elec-
sium acetate in 4.75 liters of distilled water and trophoresis will depend on the number of students
titrate to pH 6.0 with 15 to 25 ml of glacial acetic who share a single electrophoresis gel and the char-
acid. Dilute to 5.0 liters. acteristics of the electrophoresis apparatus to be
0.1 M potassium acetate, pH 6.0—Mix 0.5 liters of 1.0 M used. Appropriate adjustments must be made to fit
potassium acetate, pH 6.0 with 4.5 liters of distilled the specific circumstances of your laboratory. The
water. volumes given below are convenient volumes for
Glass wool—10 in3 required. preparation, but are generally well in excess of the
Chromatography sample—dissolve 25 mg of Blue Dex- amount required for 50 student pairs.
tran, 50 mg of cytochrome c, and 25 mg of DNP-
glycine together in 25 ml of distilled water. 1.5 M Tris chloride, pH 8.8—Dissolve 91 g of Tris (tris-
Tape—1 roll required. hydroxymethyl-aminomethane) free base in about
375 ml of distilled water. Titrate the solution to
Pasteur pipettes with dropper bulbs—50 required.
pH 8.8 with concentrated HCl and dilute to 500 ml
with distilled water.
1.0 M Tris chloride, pH 6.8—Dissolve 30.5 g Tris (tris-
Experiment 3: Radioisotope hydroxymethyl-aminomethane) free base in about
Techniques 175 ml of distilled water. Titrate the solution to
pH 6.8 with concentrated HCl and dilute to 250 ml
3
H and 14C unknowns—In a fume hood, mix sufficient with distilled water.
quantities of 3H-toluene, 14C-toluene and unla- 30% acrylamide (292 g/liter acrylamide, 8 g/liter N,N⬘-
beled toluene to obtain 2 to 10 nCi of 3H-toluene methylenebisacrylamide)—Caution: Acrylamide is
and 1 to 2 nCi of 14C-toluene per 0.1 ml of toluene toxic! Dissolve 146 g of acrylamide and 4 g of N,N⬘-
solution. You will need 10 ml of this solution for methylene-bis-acrylamide in 500 ml of distilled
50 groups to perform the experiment. water. Filter through a 0.45-m-pore-size mem-
14
C-toluene standard—In a fume hood, mix sufficient 14C- brane (to remove undissolved particulate matter)
toluene and unlabeled toluene to yield a known and store in a dark bottle labeled with the above
quantity of 14C-toluene (e.g., 1 to 2 nCi of 14C- warning at 4°C.
toluene) per 0.1 ml of toluene solution. Label the 10% (wt/vol) SDS—Dissolve (gently to avoid foaming) 5 g
sample with the 14C-toluene/ml with known dis- of sodium dodecyl sulfate in 50 ml of distilled wa-
integrations per minute (dpm). You will need ter.
250 ml of this solution. Save 50 ml of this reagent TEMED (N,N,N⬘,N⬘-tetraethylethylenediamine)—Use
for the quenched 14C unknown. Dispense the other the commercial liquid neat. (Caution: unpleasant
200 ml to the students. odor.) Approximately 500 l will be required.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 413
10% (wt/vol) ammonium persulfate in water—This solu- isoleucine, arginine, and cystine are less suitable
tion must be freshly prepared by the students. Provide for titrations than the others); also suitable are
ammonium persulfate as a dry powder. Students salts of weak acids (e.g., sodium formate, sodium
should prepare the solution needed by dissolving acetate) and bases (e.g., tris-hydroxymethylamino-
20 mg in 200 l of distilled water immediately be- methane). Take care to record the precise salt
fore use. form (sodium salt, hydrochloride) and hydration
SDS–PAGE electrophoresis buffer—Dissolve 30 g of of the salt used. Each group will require 800 mg
Tris free base, 188 g of glycine, and 10 g of SDS of their unknown.
(gently to avoid foaming ) in 9 liters of distilled wa- pH meters—50 required.
ter. Adjust the pH to 8.3 with concentrated HCl, 2 N HCl—Slowly add 415 ml of concentrated HCl to
and dilute to 10 liters with distilled water. 2.085 liters of distilled water. Keep tightly stop-
4X SDS–PAGE sample buffer—Mix together 17.5 ml of pered. The precise concentration should be deter-
distilled water, 12.5 ml of 1.0 M Tris ⭈ HCl (pH 7.0), mined by titration with commercial standard
15 ml of glycerol, and 5 ml of 2-mercaptoethanol. base.
(Caution: unpleasant odor.) Dissolve 4 g of SDS and 2 N NaOH—Dissolve 200 g of NaOH in 500 ml of dis-
2.0 mg of bromophenol blue in this mixture carefully, tilled water and dilute to 2.5 liters. Protect from
to avoid foaming. The stock 1.0 M Tris chloride, pH CO2 with a soda-lime tube. The precise concen-
7.0, is prepared by dissolving 60.5 g of Tris free base tration should be determined by titration with
in about 400 ml of distilled water, titrating to pH 7.0 standard acid.
with concentrated HCl, and diluting to 500 ml with Buffers for standardizing pH meters—Use commercial
distilled water. preparations; 4.0, 7.0, and 10.0 are suitable. We
Coomassie Blue staining solution—Dissolve 1.25 g of perform a 2-point calibration for the acid titration
Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 in 500 ml of with pH 4.0 and 7.0. For the base titration, we re-
destaining solution (see next entry). calibrate the pH meter with solutions at 7.0 and
Destaining solution—Mix 2 liters of methanol and 2.5 10.0. Approximately 500 ml of each standard will
liters of distilled water, then carefully add 500 ml be required.
of glacial acetic acid. 10-ml Burettes and holders—50 required.
Power supplies and electrophoresis apparatus—8 re- Magnetic stirring motors with stirring bars—50 required.
quired. NOTE: Instruction in the operation and principles of op-
Protein molecular weight standards—Suggested stan- eration of pH meters may be necessary. Provide
dards are phosphorylase (97,400 Da), bovine serum burette brushes and solvent (CHCl3) for cleaning
albumin (66,200 Da), ovalbumin (45,000 Da), car- burettes and removing stopcock grease, unless bu-
bonic anhydrase (31,000 Da), soybean trypsin in- rettes with Teflon stopcocks are used.
hibitor (21,500 Da) and lysozyme (14,400 Da) at
1 mg/ml each in a single mixture in 0.01 M Tris
chloride buffer, pH 7.0 (prepared by dilution of the Experiment 6: Sequence
stock 1 M buffer above). Approximately 2 ml of
this solution will be required.
Determination of a Dipeptide
Unknown protein solutions (approximately 1 mg/ml in
0.01 M Tris chloride buffer, pH 7.0)—It is conve- 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB) solution—Add
nient to prepare the unknowns in larger volumes 1.25 ml of FDNB to 23.75 ml of absolute ethanol.
(100 to 500 l) and to dispense them to students Ninhydrin spray—Dissolve 5 g of ninhydrin in 2.5 liters
as 20-l samples in microcentrifuge tubes. Any of of n-butanol. Add 2.5 ml of 2,4-collidine immedi-
the proteins used as standards or other readily ately before use.
available proteins with molecular weights within Dipeptides (gly-leu, ala-phe, leu-gly, ala-val)—Prepare
the range of the standards may be used. 25 glass test tubes (13 ⫻ 100 mm) and 25 micro-
centrifuge tubes each containing 2 mg of one of
the dipeptides. Number each of the tubes in match-
ing sets. Keep a record of the students’ names and
Experiment 5: Acid–Base their unknown numbers. Any dipeptide can be
Properties of Amino Acids used, provided that cysteine, tryptophan, arginine,
glutamine, and asparagine are not present.
Amino acid unknowns—5 g each; any of the common DNP-amino acid standards (for thin-layer chromatogra-
amino acids can be used (aspartic acid, leucine, phy)—Dissolve 1 mg of each standard in 1.5 ml of
414 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
acetone. DNP-gly, DNP-ala, DNP-leu, DNP-ser, column (250 ⫻ 4.6 mm)—1 required (Alltech cat-
and DNP-phe are useful for the four dipeptides alog #28935).
listed above. If the dipeptides that you choose con- PicoTag Eluant A (Waters catalog #88108)—2 liters re-
tain other N-terminal amino acids, DNP-amino quired.
acid standards of them must be prepared. 140 mM potassium acetate, pH 5.3 (optional)—Dissolve
Amino acid standards (for paper chromatography)—Dis- 27.48 g of potassium acetate in 1.9 liters of distilled
solve 2 mg of each amino acid in 2 ml of distilled water. Adjust to pH 5.3 with 2 M glacial acetic acid.
water. Gly, leu, ala, phe, val, gln, lys, and ser are Bring the final volume of the solution to 2 liters
useful. Store at 4°C. with distilled water. Filter sterilize and de-gas the
Peroxide-free diethyl ether—Place two 500-ml canisters solution before use in HPLC.
of this reagent in the fume hood. 60% (vol/vol) Acetonitrile—Mix 1.2 liters of HPLC-
Whatman 3 MM chromatography paper—Each group grade acetonitrile with 800 ml of HPLC-grade
requires an 8.5-in.-by-8.5-in. piece for paper chro- water.
matography. Amino Acid Standard H (Sigma catalog #AA-S-18)—
4-ml glass (hydrolysis) vials with Teflon-lined screw Approximately 1 ml required.
caps—100 required. Pressurized N2 tank—1 required.
6 N HCl—Add 50 ml of concentrated HCl to 50 ml of Chromatography chambers for thin layer chromatogra-
distilled water. phy—for 25 plates.
4.2% NaHCO3 —Dissolve 10.5 g of NaHCO3 in 250 ml Chromatography jars for paper chromatography—50 re-
of water. quired.
Silica-gel thin-layer chromatography plates (Fisher cata-
log #05-713-317)—Heat at 100°C for 10 min just
before use. (Store dessicated at room temperature.) Experiment 7: Study of the
Twenty-five will be required; we try to fit two
groups on one plate. Properties of -Galactosidase
pH paper (1–11)—One roll for every 2 to 4 groups is re-
quired. 0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.7—Dissolve 191 g
Heating block—Each group will require two compart- of Na2HPO4 (anhydrous) and 18 g of NaH2PO4 ⭈
ments in the heating block that will hold the 4-ml H2O in 14 liters of distilled water. Bring the pH
glass vials. to 7.7 with 10 M HCl or 10 M NaOH. Bring the
final volume to 15 liters with distilled water. Store
Pasteur pipettes—500 to 1000 required.
at room temperature.
Large (16 ⫻ 125 mm) and small (13 ⫻ 100 mm) glass test
-galactosidase stock solution—Dissolve 5000 units of
tubes—Approximately 500 of each required.
lyophilized -galactosidase (Sigma catalog #G-
Vacuum centrifuge—1 required.
6008) in 10 ml of 0.08 M sodium phosphate buffer,
Mobile phase for thin-layer chromatography—Mix 1.5
pH 7.7. Make dilutions of this stock solution in the
liters of chloroform, 600 ml of t-amyl alcohol, and
same buffer containing 1 mg/ml bovine serum albu-
60 ml of glacial acetic acid. Store tightly covered
min (1:10 to 1:500). Using these dilute solutions, de-
in a dark bottle at room temperature.
termine what dilution of the stock enzyme solution
Mobile phase for paper chromatography—Mix 1.8 liters will give a ⌬ A420/min of about 0.10, using the same
of n-butanol, 450 ml of glacial acetic acid, and protocol as described in Day 1 of the protocol. For
750 ml of water. Store tightly covered in a dark the class, prepare a stock -galactosidase solution
bottle at room temperature. that is five times as concentrated as the dilution that
Wash reagent for PTC-coupling of amino acids—Mix gave a ⌬ A420/min of about 0.10. Prepare 250 ml of
6 ml of absolute ethanol, 6 ml of triethylamine, and the appropriate dilution and divide this into 1.0-ml
3 ml of water. Store tightly covered at 4°C. aliquots. Each group will require about 4 ml of this
PTC coupling reagent—Mix 21 ml of absolute ethanol, enzyme solution to perform the experiment: 1 ml on
3 ml of triethylamine, 3 ml of phenylisothiocyanate Day 1, 2 ml on Day 2, and 1 ml on Day 3.
(Sigma catalog #P-1034), and 3 ml of water. Store 0.08 M sodium phosphate buffers, pH 6.4, 6.8, 7.2, and
tightly covered at 4°C. 8.0—Dissolve 11.04 g of NaH2PO4 ⭈ H2O in
HPLC unit—1 required. 900 ml of distilled water. Bring the solutions to the
UV/Vis Spectrophotometer and chart recorder for appropriate pH with 10 M NaOH. Bring the final
HPLC—1 of each required. volume of each solution to 1.0 liter with distilled
Alltech Adsorbosphere HS C18 reverse-phase HPLC water. Store at room temperature.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 415
just to pH 7.5 with dilute KOH. Bring the total more than a week, one drop of toluene or chloro-
volume of the solution to 15 liters with distilled form may be added to prevent bacterial growth.
water. Store at 4°C. If the buffer is to be stored for Carboxymethylcellulose slurry (equivalent of 75 g of dry
more than a week, one drop of toluene or chloro- material)—Slowly wet 75 g of dry resin in distilled
form may be added to prevent bacterial growth. water. Draw off the supernatant (after the resin has
0.10 M
-ketoglutarate (pH 7.5)—Prepare this reagent just settled) with vacuum filtration. Resuspend the fil-
before use and store at 4°C. Dissolve 8.76 g of tered resin cake in 1.5 L of 0.5 M NaOH (30 g of
-ketoglutaric acid in 480 ml of distilled water. Ad- NaOH dissolved in 1.5 L of distilled water). Allow
just the pH to 7.5 with NaOH. Bring the total vol- the resin to settle, draw off the supernatant, and
ume of the solution to 600 ml. wash the resin cake twice, as before, in 2.5 L vol-
250-ml plastic centrifuge bottles—50 required. umes of distilled water. Resuspend the resin cake
50-ml plastic centrifuge tubes—50 required. in 2.5 L of 0.5 M HCl (100 ml of concentrated
Bunsen burners—50 required. HCl in 2.4 L of distilled water). Allow the resin to
Pasteur pipettes—200 required. settle, draw off the supernatant, and wash the resin
cake twice, as before, in 2.5 L volumes of distilled
Spectrophotometer with cuvettes—At least 1 required.
water. Repeat the wash procedure described above
Small (13 ⫻ 100 mm) glass test tubes—500 required.
with 1.5 L volumes of 0.03 M sodium acetate
Large (16 ⫻ 125 mm) glass test tubes—500 required. buffer, pH 5.0, until the pH and ionic strength of
Cheesecloth—1 large roll required. the drawn-off supernatant is the same as that of the
Glass wool sodium acetate buffer (pH and conductivity me-
Chromatography columns (20 ml capacity) with tubing— ter). Resuspend the resin cake in 1.5 L 0.03 M
50 required. sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0. Add 2 g/liter
Meat grinder—1 required. sodium azide for storage to prevent bacterial
Blender—1 required. growth. Remove the azide by washing again in 0.03
3 mM NADH—Prepare this reagent just before use and store M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 when it is ready
at 4°C. Dissolve 68.7 mg of Na2 ⭈ NADH ⭈ 3H2O to be used by the class.
(if other salt and hydration forms are supplied, ad- Fresh pig hearts—10 required.
just weight accordingly) in 30 ml of 0.10 M potas- Dialysis tubing (8000–12000 molecular weight cutoff)—
sium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5. Because this reagent Heat tubing at 100°C for 15 to 20 min in a solu-
is expensive and unstable, only the quantity needed for tion containing 1 g of NaHCO3 and 0.1 g of
each day should be prepared at the start of each labora- disodium EDTA per 100 ml. Rinse thoroughly in
tory period. This reagent is stable for 2 to 4 hr. distilled water after the tubing has cooled and store
Malic dehydrogenase—Prepare this reagent just before use wet and covered at 4°C. Pierce Chemical Co. of-
and store at 4°C. Dilute commercially available en- fers SnakeSkin dialysis tubing in molecular weight
zyme in 0.10 M potassium phosphate buffer, cutoffs from 3500 to 10,000 Da. It is supplied in a
pH 7.5, in which 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin dry roll ready to use (no boiling or hydration re-
has been dissolved. The final concentration of quired as with conventional dialysis tubing). It is
malic dehydrogenase should be 200 units/ml. Pre- very convenient for use with large laboratory
pare a total of 20 ml of this reagent. groups.
0.03 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0—Dilute 34.4 ml Supplies and reagents for SDS–PAGE—See Experiment
of glacial acetic acid to 19 liters with distilled wa- 4. We normally use a 12% polyacrylamide gel to
ter. Adjust the pH to 5.0 with NaOH. Do not over- analyze the purity of GOT in this experiment.
titrate or back titrate with acid. It is essential that the
buffer does not contain excess salt. Bring the total vol-
ume of the solution to 20 liters with distilled wa- Experiment 9: Kinetic and
ter. Store at 4°C. If the buffer is to be stored for
more than a week, one drop of toluene or chloro- Regulatory Properties of
form may be added to prevent bacterial growth. Aspartate Transcarbamylase
0.08 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0—Dilute 4.6 ml of
glacial acetic acid to 900 ml with distilled water. Escherichia coli strain EK1104 containing plasmid pEK2.
Adjust the pH to 5.0 with NaOH. Bring the total Obtain strain No. 700695 from American Type
volume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled wa- Culture Collection, 10801 University Blvd., Man-
ter. Store at 4°C. If the buffer is to be stored for assas, VA 20110.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 417
Materials for Growth Medium and concentrated HCl and dilute to 500 ml with dis-
Culturing Bacteria tilled water. Store at 1 to 4°C.
Sonicator—1 required.
The growth and harvesting of the bacterial cells 30 and 60°C Water baths—One of each required.
for this experiment is usually performed by a teach- 0.08 M Sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0—Dissolve
ing assistant or a technician in advance of the ex- 21.25 g of NaH2PO4 ⭈ H2O and 35.0 g of
periment. The cells and cell extracts can be stored Na2HPO4 (anhydrous) in distilled water to a final
frozen at ⫺20 or ⫺70°C before the class will use volume of 5 liters. The pH should be 7.0.
them. The amount of growth medium required 0.125 M Sodium L-aspartate—Dissolve 8.3 g of L-aspartic
will depend on the amount of cells required. Gen- acid in 350 ml of distilled water, bring the pH to
erally, 1 liter of bacterial culture will provide suf- 7.0 with NaOH (2 N or more concentrated; addi-
ficient enzyme for a class of 50 students working tion of NaOH may be necessary to dissolve all of
the aspartic acid), and dilute to 500 ml with dis-
in pairs.
tilled water.
Prepare the growth medium as follows (the
0.036 M Carbamyl phosphate—Dissolve 690 mg of
amounts given are for 1 liter of growth medium): dilithium carbamyl phosphate in sufficient distilled
Dissolve the following in 870 ml of distilled water: water (use weight appropriate to hydration state in-
6 g of Na2HPO4, 3 g of KH2PO4, 1 g of NH4Cl, dicated on label) to yield 125 ml of solution. If the
5 g of Casamino acids, and 0.5 g of NaCl. Auto- solution is cloudy, warm it briefly to clarify. Pre-
clave in a capped 2- or 3-liter culture flask. Sepa- pare just before the experiment and store at 1 to 3°C.
rately autoclave (in separate flasks or bottles): 4 g l.0 mM Carbamyl aspartate standard—Dissolve 17.5 mg
of glucose in 50 ml of distilled water and 12 mg of of carbamyl aspartate in distilled water, titrating
uracil in 25 ml of distilled water. Prepare (by filter with dilute NaOH to bring the solid into solution
sterilization) solutions of 40 mg of L-tryptophan in (do not go above pH 7.0). Dilute to 100 ml with
50 ml of distilled water and 50 mg of ampicillin in distilled water. Prepare just before experiment and
store at 1 to 3°C.
2.0 ml of distilled water. When the sterilized solutions
Antipyrine-H2SO4 reagent—Carefully add 1.25 liters of
have cooled, add the small-volume components to the
concentrated H2SO4 to 1.25 liters of distilled water
large flask (using sterile technique), holding back 0.5 ml and allow to cool. Dissolve 12.5 g of antipyrine in
of the uracil solution to add to the inoculation medium the H2SO4 solution. Label with warning: strong acid.
(see next paragraph). Separately, prepare autoclaved Diacetylmonoxime reagent—Prepare in advance 1.5 liters
stock solutions of the following components: 1 M of 5% acetic acid (75 ml glacial acetic acid diluted
MgSO4 ⭈ 7H2O (24.65 g/100 ml H2O); 0.1 M to 1.5 liters with distilled water). Just before the ex-
CaCl2 ⭈ 2H2O (1.47 g/100 ml H2O), 0.5% thiamine periment, dissolve 12 g of diacetylmonoxime (bu-
(50 mg/10 ml), 1 mM FeSO4 ⭈ 7H2O (27.8 tanedione monoxime) in the 1.5 liters of 5% acetic
mg/100 ml), and 1 mM ZnSO4 ⭈ 7H2O (28.7 acid. Keep refrigerated in a foil-covered bottle.
mg/100 ml). Using sterile technique, add 1 ml of 2% Perchloric acid—Add 30 ml 70% HClO4 to 1 liter
each of these solutions to the large flask. of distilled water.
Prepare the inoculation medium as follows: Us- 40 mM ATP—Dissolve 585 mg of Na2ATP ⭈ 2H2O (use
weight appropriate to salt and hydration form in-
ing sterile technique, withdraw 10 ml from the
dicated on the label) in 20 ml of distilled water,
growth medium described above and place it in a
titrate to pH 6.0 to 8.0 with 1 N NaOH, and di-
sterile growth tube. Add 0.5 ml of sterile uracil from lute to 25 ml with distilled water. Store frozen; thaw
the previous paragraph to bring the inoculation just before use and keep at 1 to 3°C.
medium to 30 g/ml. Add 150 g ampicillin per ml 10.0 mM CTP—Dissolve 138 mg of Na2CTP ⭈ H2O
of the medium by adding 30 l of a 50-mg/ml solution (use weight appropriate to salt and hydration form
of ampicillin in H2O, which has been filter-sterilized. indicated on the label) in 20 ml of distilled water,
Grow and harvest the bacteria as described in the titrate to pH 6.0 to 8.0 with 1 N NaOH, and di-
protocol for Experiment 9. lute to 25.0 ml with distilled water. Store frozen;
thaw just before use and keep at 1 to 3°C.
Shaking incubator at 37°C. 5 mM p-Mercuribenzoate—Dissolve 95 mg of sodium p-
0.1 M Tris chloride buffer, pH 9.2—Dissolve 6.05 g Tris chloromercuribenzoate in 50 ml of 5 mM KOH.
free base in distilled water, titrate to pH 9.2 with Prepare on the day of use. Store in a foil-wrapped con-
418 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
tainer to protect from light. The 5 mM KOH is pre- 10 mM reduced glutathione solution—Dissolve 0.3 g of
pared by dissolving 14 mg of KOH in a total of Tris free base in 40 ml of distilled water. Adjust the
50 ml of distilled water. pH to 8.0 with HCl. Add 0.15 g of reduced glu-
tathione to the solution, adjust the pH to 8.0 again
(if necessary), and bring the final volume of the so-
lution to 50 ml with distilled water. Prepare this
reagent just before use.
Experiment 10: Affinity
IPTG solution for strain induction—Dissolve 0.24 g of
Purification of Glutathione-S- isopropylthio-,D-galactopyranoside in 2 ml of
Transferase distilled water. Filter-sterilize this solution. Add
this entire solution to a growing 2-liter culture of
pGEX-2T/E. coli culture stock—We purchase pGEX-2T E. coli strain TG1 harboring plasmid pGEX-2T to
from Pharmacia (catalog #27-4801-01). This 25- induce expression of glutathione-S-transferase.
g package size of DNA can be resuspended in 25 Preparative centrifuge with a rotor for 250-ml centrifuge
l of TE buffer (see Experiment 24). To prepare a bottles—You will need one centrifuge and eight
culture stock, transform E. coli strain TG-1 (Strat- 250-ml polypropylene centrifuge bottles rated for
agene catalog #200123) with 10 l of a 1 ng/ml so- up to 17,000 to 20,000 ⫻ g.
lution of the plasmid prepared in sterile distilled Reagents and supplies to perform SDS–PAGE—See Ex-
water. If you prefer, E. coli strain DH5␣ (Gibco- periment 4. We suggest using a 12 or 15% poly-
BRL catalog #18265-017) or BL21 (Pharmacia cat- acrylamide gel for this experiment.
alog #27-1542-01) would perform well. After ob- Purified GST standard (prepared by instructor)—Pre-
taining colonies on an agar plate supplemented pare a 1-liter culture of the GST expression strain,
with 100 g/ml ampicillin, grow a 2-ml culture of harvest the cells, and purify the protein according
this stock (from a single colony) in YT broth con- to the protocol. Use 1 ml of the immobilized glu-
taining 100 g/ml ampicillin at 37°C for several tathione Sepharose 4B per 1 liter of culture. Ad-
hours. When the 2-ml solution achieves an OD600 just the concentration of the purified protein to
of about 0.3, add 140 l of dimethylsulfoxide 1 mg/ml, and store at ⫺20°C in 1-ml aliquots. One
(DMSO). Allow the culture to incubate at 37°C for preparation of GST will give enough protein to act
about 30 min with gentle agitation, and freeze the as a standard for many semesters.
culture in a sterile vial at ⫺70°C. Each semester, a
sterile inoculation loop can be used to streak out
the culture on a fresh agar YT-agar plate contain-
ing 100 g/ml ampicillin. NOTE: If you are unfa-
Experiment 11: Microanalysis
miliar with bacterial transformation and prepara- of Carbohydrate Mixtures by
tion of competent E. coli cells, refer to Experiment Isotopic, Enzymatic, and
21 and Table V-6. Colorimetric Methods
YT broth—Dissolve 20 g of bactotryptone, 10 g of yeast
extract, and 10 g of NaCl in 1 liter of distilled wa-
ter. Bring the final volume to 2 liters with distilled Unknown Carbohydrate Solutions
water, and autoclave in a single, 4-liter culture flask.
Prepare separate 30 mg/ml stock solutions of D-
Sonicator—1 required.
glucose, D-ribose, and D-glucosamine by dissolving
PBS buffer—Dissolve 13.15 g of NaCl, 3.4 g of
Na2HPO4, and 0.72 g of NaH2PO4 in 1.2 liters of
300 mg of each carbohydrate in 10 ml of distilled
distilled water. Adjust pH to 7.3 with HCl or water. Prepare “unknown” solutions containing be-
NaOH if required. Bring the total volume of the tween 5 and 10 mg/ml of each carbohydrate by mix-
solution to 1.5 liters with distilled water. ing different proportions of these stock solutions
Glutathione Sepharose 4B—We obtain this from Phar- with distilled water. Each group will require about
macia (catalog #17-0756-01). Prepare a 50% slurry 1 ml of the “unknown” carbohydrate solution.
of this resin in PBS buffer according to the man-
ufacturer’s instructions. NOTE: The resin can be Reduction of Carbohydrates
regenerated and used in following semesters by
washing the resin in 3 M NaCl. The Sepharose [14C]glucose—Dilute 2 l of a 200- to 300-mCi/mmol so-
4B matrix is chemically stable in the pH range of lution of [14C]glucose in 1 ml of distilled water. Each
4 to 9. group requires 5 l of this solution. Dilute com-
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 419
detergent, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate, should decant. Wash with 10 liters of 4% NH4OH and
be made available for washing glassware during this decant. Wash with 10 liters of 4% NaOH and de-
experiment. cant. Rinse with deionized water with stirring and
decanting until the pH of wash water is 9 or lower.
Phenylmercuric nitrate—2.5 g required. Store under water. Each pair of students will need
0.8 M Potassium phosphate buffer, pH 6.7—Dissolve about 250 ml of moist resin. The resin should be
950 g of K2HPO4 ⭈ 3 H2O and 545 g of KH2PO4 collected at the end of the experiment (Do not al-
in approximately 9 liters of distilled water and ad- low accidental mixing with Dowex 50.) and promptly
just to pH 6.7 with HCl or KOH, as necessary, be- regenerated as follows: Wash the resin with 5%
fore making up to 10 liters. KOH (50 g/liter, about 10 liters for the above
Soluble starch—500 g required. 2.5-liter quantity of resin), decant, and wash thor-
Filter aid (Celite 535 or similar material)—125 g re- oughly with distilled water until the pH is 9.5 to
quired. 10.5. Store tightly covered under water. A few days
before use of the regenerated IR-45 resin, remove
14% NH4OH—Mix 500 ml of concentrated NH4OH
yellow organic material that bleeds from the beads
with 500 ml of distilled water.
by washing thoroughly with methanol, and then
2.0 N HCl—Mix 165 ml of concentrated HCl with
again with distilled water. The same procedure can
850 ml of distilled water. (It is important that both
be used with Dowex-50 if yellow material accu-
this reagent and the 2.0 N NaOH below be exactly
mulates in the water in which it is stored.
2.0 N, or that equal volumes of each reagent yield
Absolute methanol—Freshly opened reagent-grade sol-
a neutral [pH 6 to 8] solution. A teaching assistant
vent should be used. Approximately 30 liters will
should check this by titration.)
be required.
2.0 N NaOH—Dissolve 80 g of NaOH in 1 liter of dis-
Glass tubes—Approximately 1 in. in diameter and 2 ft in
tilled water. (See note under 2.0 N HCl above.)
length, or equivalent columns for chromatography.
l.0 N HCl—Mix 41.5 ml of concentrated HCl with
The group will require 50 of these tubes.
460 ml of distilled water. (It is important that equal
Glass wool.
volumes of this reagent and the 1.0 N NaOH de-
scribed in the next entry neutralize each other Reducing agent—Dissolve 75 g of NaHSO3 and 25 g of
[pH 6 to 8]. This should be checked by titration.) p-methylaminophenol in 2.5 liters of distilled wa-
ter. Store in a brown bottle. Stable for 10 days.
l.0 N NaOH—Dissolve 20 g of NaOH in a total volume
of 500 ml of distilled water. Acid molybdate reagent—Cautiously add 680 ml concen-
trated H2SO4 to 1.8 liters of distilled water and al-
Potatoes—Stored 24 hr at l to 5°C and tested for phos-
low to cool. Dissolve 125 g (NH4)6Mo7O24 ⭈
phorylase activity. Do not freeze. Approximately 30
4 H2O in 2.5 liters of distilled water and add to
potatoes will be required.
the above sulfuric acid solution. Make up to 5 liters
Blenders—1 or 2 required.
with distilled water.
Cheesecloth—1 or 2 rolls required.
1.0 mM Phosphate standard—Dissolve 680 mg of
Mg(Acetate)2 ⭈ 4 H2O—1.5 kg required KH2PO4 in 5 liters of distilled water.
Dowex 50 (H⫹ form)—Mix 1 kg of Dowex 50, X-8, 20 5% KOH—Dissolve 500 g KOH in 10 liters of distilled
to 50 mesh, with 20 liters of dilute HCl (3 liters of water.
concentrated HCl ⫹ 17 liters of distilled water),
0.01 M KI, 0.01 M I2 —Dissolve 450 mg of KI in 250 ml
stir for 5 min, fill with additional H2O, and decant.
of distilled water. Add 325 mg of I2 and mix until
Wash by decantation or suspension and vacuum fil-
dissolved. Stable about 1 month.
tration until the eluate no longer yields any titrat-
Charcoal (finely powdered, e.g., Norit)—100 g required.
able acidity (pH 3 to 4). Drain the resin until a
moist paste is obtained. Each pair of students will Vacuum desiccator containing fresh P2O5 —1 required.
need about 350 ml of moist Dowex 50. The resin High-speed centrifuges—1 or 2 required.
should be collected at the end of the experiment 300-ml Centrifuge bottles or cans—50 to 100 required.
( Do not allow accidental mixing with IR-45) and Nelson’s A reagent—Dissolve 62.5 g of Na2CO3 (anhy-
promptly regenerated by the above procedure. drous), 62.5 g of potassium sodium tartrate, 50 g
Store tightly covered under a water layer. (See note NaHCO3, and 500 g Na2SO4 (anhydrous) in 1.75
following IR-45 preparation.) liters of distilled water and dilute to 2.5 liters with
IR-45 (OH⫺ form)—Add 5 liters of wet IR-45 to a bat- distilled water.
tery jar. Wash with 10 liters of 4% Na2CO3 and Nelson’s B reagent—Dissolve 37.5 g CuSO4 ⭈ 5 H2O in
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 421
250 ml H2O, and add 5 drops of concentrated Experiment 13: Isolation and
H2SO4.
Characterization of Erythrocyte
Arsenomolybdate reagent—Dissolve 125 g (NH4)6Mo7
O24 ⭈ 4 H2O in 2.25 liters of distilled water, and Membranes
add 105 ml of concentrated H2SO4. Dissolve 15.0
g of Na2HAsO4 ⭈ 7 H2O in 125 ml of distilled wa- Fresh pig blood—Approximately 4 liters required.
ter, and add to the above acid molybdate solution. Heparin sulfate/EDTA solution—Dissolve 80 mg of
Store in a brown bottle for 24 hr at 37°C. This heparin sulfate in 40 ml of 0.5 M EDTA. Stir this
reagent should be yellow with no green tint. solution into 4 liters of pig blood immediately after it is
Glucose standard (1.0 mol/ml in 1.0 M NaCl)—Dis- collected to prevent clotting.
solve 36 mg (weighed to 0.1 mg) and 11.2 g NaCl Isotonic phosphate buffer (310 mosM, pH 6.8)—Dis-
in distilled water and dilute to 200 ml with distilled solve 85.6 g of NaH2PO4 (monobasic monohy-
water. drate) and 88.0 g of Na2HPO4 (dibasic anhydrous)
Large sheets Whatman No. 1 chromatography paper— in 9.6 liters of distilled water. Chill the solution,
20 sheets required. adjust the pH to 6.8 with HCl, and bring the final
1% Glucose-1-phosphate standard—Dissolve 100 mg volume to 10 liters with distilled water.
glucose-1-phosphate dipotassium salt in 10 ml of Hypotonic phosphate buffer (20 mosM, pH 6.8)—Add
distilled water; store at 0 to 5°C. 600 ml of isotonic phosphate buffer to 8.7 liters of
1% Glucose-6-phosphate standard—Dissolve 100 mg distilled water. Adjust the pH to 6.8 if necessary.
glucose-6-phosphate Na or K salt in 10 ml of dis- Plastic centrifuge bottles (250–300 ml)—At least six re-
tilled water; store at 0 to 5°C. quired.
1% Glucose standard in 1 N HCl—Dissolve 100 mg glu- Plastic centrifuge tubes (30–50 ml)—50 required.
cose in 10 ml of 1 N HCl (concentrated HCl:H2O; 15-ml Plastic conical tubes with screw caps—100 re-
1:11); store at 0 to 5°C. quired.
1% Inorganic phosphate standard—Dissolve 100 mg of 1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes—500 required.
KH2PO4 in 10 ml of distilled water. Disposable Pasteur pipettes—Approximately 500 re-
10% Mg(NO3)2 in ethanol—Dissolve 5 g of Mg(NO3)2 quired.
⭈ 6 H2O in 10 ml of absolute ethanol. 4-ml Glass vials with Teflon-lined screw caps—Approx-
Methanol—2.5 liters required. imately 400 required.
88% Formic acid—500 ml required. 100°C Oven—One required.
Aniline–acid–oxalate spray—Dissolve 4.5 g oxalic acid in Silica-gel thin-layer chromatography plates—We pur-
1 liter of distilled water, add 9 ml of aniline. Store chase these from Fisher (catalog #05-713-317).
in a brown bottle. The plates are prepared (activated) by heating in a
Modified Hanes–Ischerwood spray reagent—Mix the 100°C oven for 5 to 10 min to remove any mois-
following: 250 ml of 4% ammonium molybdate ture from the matrix. Remove from the oven and
(10 g (NH4)6 Mo7 O24 ⭈ 4 H2O dissolved in H2O store desiccated at room temperature until they are
to yield 250 ml of solution), 100 ml of 1.0 N HCl ready to be used. Approximately 25 plates will be
(see instructions earlier in Experiment 12 list), required (1 plate/2 groups).
50 ml of 70% perchloric acid, and 600 ml of dis- Large (16 ⫻ 125 mm) glass test tubes—500 required.
tilled water. Prepare this reagent on the day of use. Thin-layer chromatography tanks—5 to 10 required, de-
Use phosphate (detergent)-free glassware for mix- pending on their size.
ing, storing, and spraying. I2 Chamber—Fill the bottom of a rectangular glass
Acid-FeCl3 in acetone—Mix 750 mg of FeCl3 ⭈ 6H2O, chamber with I2 (solid) and cover tightly. Allow 6
15 ml of 0.3 M HCl (12.5 ml concentrated HCl ⫹ to 8 hr for the chamber to saturate with I2 vapors
487.5 ml of H2O), and 485 ml of acetone until dis- before the thin-layer chromatography plates are
solved. Store in a tightly stoppered bottle. developed.
1.25% Sulfosalicylic acid in acetone—Dissolve 6.25 g of Pressurized N2 tank—1 required.
sulfosalicylic acid in 500 ml of acetone. Prepare on Perchloric acid (70%)—Aldrich catalog #31, 142-1 or
the day of the experiment. Store in a tightly stop- equivalent. 200 ml required.
pered bottle. Cholesterol assay reagent, pH 6.5 (See Supplies and
UV lamp—1 or 2 required. Reagents list for the formulation)—We purchase
100°C oven—1 required. this reagent in dry, mixed form from Sigma (cata-
422 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
log #352-50) and reconstitute each vial according Folin–Ciocalteau reagent (2 N)—200 ml required.
to the manufacturer’s instructions. Each group will Lysozyme solution (1 mg/ml)—Dissolve 100 mg of
require 6 ml. lysozyme in 100 ml of distilled water. Store at 4°C.
Cholesterol standard solutions (1 mg/ml, 2 mg/ml, and Phosphate standard solution—Dissolve 13.8 mg of
4 mg/ml)—We purchase prepared sets of these NaH2PO4 ⭈ H2O in 100 ml of distilled water.
standards from Sigma (catalog #C-0534). These 5% Ammonium molybdate solution—Dissolve 5 g of
standards are supplied as 100, 200, and 400 mg/dl ammonium molybdate in 100 ml of distilled water.
solutions, which are equivalent to 1, 2, and 4- Amidol reagent—Dissolve, in order, 25 g of sodium bisul-
mg/ml solutions, respectively, in an aqueous/ fite and 1 g of 2,4-diaminophenol in 100 ml of dis-
isopropanol solvent. They are ready to use in the tilled water. Make this reagent fresh on the day that
cholesterol quantitation assay. the assay is performed.
Phospholipid standard solutions in CHCl3 —We purchase SDS cleaning solution—Dissolve 10 g of sodium dode-
sphingomyelin from Sigma (catalog #S-1131). Dis- cyl sulfate in 2 liters of distilled water.
solve 25 mg of sphingomyelin in 0.5 ml of CHCl3.
We purchase L-␣-phosphatidylcholine from Sigma
(catalog #P-6638). It is supplied as a 10 mg/ml so-
lution in CHCl3 and is ready to use as a standard. Experiment 14: Electron
We purchase L-␣-phosphatidylethanolamine from Transport
Sigma (catalog #P-9137). It is supplied as a 10
mg/ml solution in CHCl3 and is ready to use as a Oxygen electrode system with recorder—For example,
standard. We purchase L-␣-phosphatidyl-L-serine Yellow Spring Instruments Model 53 oxygen elec-
from Sigma (catalog #P-7769). Dissolve 25 mg of trode (Yellow Springs, OH), or equivalent, at-
L-␣-phosphatidyl-L-serine in 0.5 ml of CHCl3. We
tached to a linear 10-mV recorder. Five of these
purchase L-␣-phosphatidylinositol from Sigma units will be required.
(catalog #P-2517). It is supplied as a 10 mg/ml so-
Oxygen electrode electrolyte—Fluid should be that spec-
lution in CHCl3 and is ready to use as a standard.
ified by the manufacturer of the oxygen electrode.
We purchase cholesterol from Sigma (catalog
Approximately 250 ml of this solution will be re-
#8667). Dissolve 500 mg of cholesterol in 10 ml of
quired.
CHCl3. Store all of these solutions tightly capped at
Oxygen electrode membranes—As specified by the man-
⫺20°C.
ufacturer of the oxygen electrode—5 required.
Heating block—5 to 10 required, depending on the ca-
Magnetic stirrers and stirring bars—Standard magnetic
pacity of the blocks for the 4-ml vials.
stirrers with stirring bars (or cut up paper clips)
Preparative centrifuge—At least one required. small enough to fit in sample chamber of the oxy-
Clinical tabletop centrifuge (low speed)—At least one re- gen electrodes—5 required.
quired. Sample injection syringe with tubing end (5 required)—
Spectrophotometer to read absorbance at 500 and Equip a calibrated 1-ml syringe with a short nee-
660 nm with cuvettes—At least one required. dle and slip a piece of polyethylene tubing 1 to 2
Chloroform:methanol (1:2)—Mix 150 ml of chloroform in. in length over the needle. The tubing diame-
with 300 ml of methanol. Store tightly covered in ter and length should be the minimum necessary
a dark bottle at room temperature. to reach to the bottom of the sample chamber of
0.1 M HCl—Add 500 l of concentrated HCl to 60 ml the oxygen electrode.
of distilled water. Fresh pig heart—5 required.
Mobile phase for thin-layer chromatography—Mix 1.25 Meat grinder—1 or 2 required.
liters of chloroform, 750 ml of methanol, 200 ml of 1 mM Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA), pH 7.4—
glacial acetic acid, and 50 ml of distilled water. Store Dissolve 7.44 g of disodium EDTA in 20 liters of
tightly covered in a dark bottle at room temperature. distilled water and titrate to pH 7.4 with NaOH.
1% Copper sulfate solution—Dissolve 1 g of CuSO4 ⭈ (You will use 5 to 10 liters of this to prepare other
5H2O in 100 ml of distilled water. reagents.)
2% Sodium tartrate solution—Dissolve 2 g of sodium Blender—1 or 2 required.
tartrate in 100 ml of distilled water. 0.02 M Potassium phosphate, 1 mM EDTA (pH 7.4)—
2% Sodium carbonate solution—Dissolve 40 g of Dissolve 13.95 g of K2HPO4 and 2.7 g of KH2PO4
Na2CO3 and 8 g of NaOH in 2 liters of distilled in 5 liters of 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.4.
water. High-speed centrifuge—This centrifuge must be capa-
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 423
ble of centrifuging 300 to 600 ml of fluid at at least 0.01 M Methylene blue—Dissolve 935 mg of methylene
5000 ⫻ g. A Sorvall RC2B centrifuge is satisfac- blue in 250 ml of distilled water.
tory. Antimycin A (180 g/ml 95% ethanol)—Dissolve 9.0 mg
0.25 M Potassium phosphate, 1 mM EDTA (pH 7.4)— of Antimycin A in 50 ml 95% (vol/vol) ethanol.
Dissolve 35.0 g of K2HPO4 and 6.7 g of KH2PO4 95% (vol /vol) Ethanol—Mix 47.5 ml of absolute ethanol
in 1 liter of 1 mM EDTA, and adjust to pH 7.4. with 2.5 ml of distilled water.
l.0 M Acetic acid—Dilute 29.5 ml of glacial acetic acid 6 M KOH—Dissolve 17 g of KOH in 50 ml of distilled
with 470 ml of distilled water. water.
1.0 mM NAD⫹ —Dissolve 40 mg of Na2NAD⫹ ⭈ 4 H2O DPIP solution—Dissolve 67.5 mg of 2,6-dichlorophenol-
in 50 ml of distilled water. Refrigerate until use. indophenol (DPIP) solution in 250 ml of distilled
Stable for 1 week. water.
0.3 M Potassium phosphate (pH 7.4)—Dissolve 210 g of
K2HPO4 and 40.5 g of KH2PO4 in 5 liters of dis-
tilled water; adjust pH to 7.4 if necessary with l.0 M Experiment 15: Study of the
KOH or HCl.
Phosphoryl Group Transfer
0.05 M Sodium succinate—Dilute 0.5 M sodium succi-
nate, prepared as below (5 ml of 0.5 M sodium suc- Cascade Governing Glucose
cinate ⫹ 45 ml of H2O). Refrigerate. Stable for 1 Metabolism: Allosteric and
week. Covalent Regulation of
0.5 M Sodium succinate—Dissolve 33.9 g of sodium suc- Enzyme Activity
cinate in 250 ml of distilled water. Refrigerate. Sta-
ble for 1 week.
1 M Tris, pH 8.0—Dissolve 88.8 g of Tris ⭈ HCl and
0.25 M Malate (Na salt)—Dissolve 1.675 g of malic acid 53 g of Tris free base in about 700 ml of distilled
and 500 mg of NaOH in approximately 40 ml of water. The pH of this solution will be approxi-
distilled water; adjust pH to 6 to 8 with 1 N NaOH, mately 8.0. Adjust the pH if necessary with dilute
and dilute to 50 ml with distilled water. Refriger- NaOH or HCl. Bring the final volume of the so-
ate. Stable for 1 week. lution to 1 liter with distilled water.
0.25 M -Hydroxybutyrate—Dissolve 1.3 g of - 1 M Glycerophosphate, pH 8.0—Dissolve 108 g of glyc-
hydroxybutyric acid in 25 ml of distilled water by erophosphate (disodium hydrate, Sigma catalog
gradual addition of 12.5 ml of 1 N NaOH (final #G-6501) in about 350 ml of distilled water. Ad-
pH should be in the range from 6 to 8); dilute to just the pH to 8.0 with HCl. Bring the final vol-
a final volume of 50 ml with distilled water. Alter- ume of the solution to 500 ml with distilled water.
natively, use the sodium salt of -hydroxybutyrate Filter-sterilize the solution and store at 4°C.
(1.575 g) and adjust the pH with HCl. Refriger-
60 mM Mg(acetate)2, pH 7.3—Dissolve 0.64 g of mag-
ate. Stable for 1 week.
nesium acetate tetrahydrate in 40 ml of distilled
6 ⫻ 10⫺4 M Cytochrome c—Quantities used depend on water. Adjust the pH to 7.3 with dilute NaOH.
purity of starting material. The molecular weight Bring the final volume of the solution to 50 ml with
is 13,000. Prepare 50 ml of this solution. Refrig- distilled water. Filter-sterilize the solution and
erate. Stable for 1 week. store at 4°C.
Ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate—Solutions are pre- Concentrated enzyme storage buffer—Add 0.5 ml of 1 M
pared by the students just before use (see Experi- Tris, pH 8.0 (see above), 0.5 ml of 1 M glyc-
ment 14). Approximately 25 g will be required. erophosphate, pH 8.0 (see above), 10 l of -mer-
1 N NaOH—Dissolve 2.0 g of NaOH in 50 ml of dis- captoethanol, and 40 l of 0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0,
tilled water. (Not needed if sodium ascorbate is to 6 ml of distilled water. The 0.5 M EDTA, pH
provided.) 8.0, is prepared as follows: dissolve 186 g of di-
0.5 M Malonate—Suspend 2.6 g of malonic acid in 6 ml sodium EDTA dihydrate in 800 ml of distilled wa-
of distilled water. Adjust to pH 6 to 8 with 4.0 N ter. Adjust the pH to 8.0 with concentrated NaOH.
NaOH (80 g NaOH/500 ml) and dilute to 50 ml Bring the final volume of the solution to 1 liter
with distilled water. with distilled water. Add 4 ml of glycerol to this
0.1 M KCN—Dissolve 325 mg of KCN in 50 ml of dis- solution and mix thoroughly.
tilled water on the day of use. Keep in a tightly Reaction buffer—Dilute 2.5 ml of 1 M Tris, pH 8.0, and
stoppered bottle marked Poison. Provide a 2.5 ml of 1 M glycerophosphate, pH 8.0, in 45 ml
propipette for dispensing. of distilled water.
424 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
2 mM ATP solution—Dissolve 11 mg of adenosine 5⬘- Film cassette for autoradiography—2 to 5 required, de-
triphosphate (disodium salt) in 10 ml of 60 mM pending on the size of the gels and cassettes.
Mg(acetate)2, pH 7.3. Divide into 20- to 50-l Dark room with solutions for film development.
aliquots and store at ⫺70°C. Thaw on ice just be- Kodak X-omat film—2 to 5 large pieces required.
fore use. 1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes—1000 required.
Spectrophotometer with cuvettes or colorimeter tubes— Glass test tubes (13 ⫻ 100 mm)—1000 required.
At least 1 required.
10-ml Pipettes with bulbs—50 required.
Glycogen phosphorylase b stock solution—Dissolve
30 mM cysteine, pH 7.0—Dissolve 527 mg of L-cysteine
25 mg (750 units) of glycogen phosphorylase b
hydrochloride monohydrate in 80 ml of distilled
(Sigma catalog #P-6635) in approximately 750 l
water. Adjust the pH to 7.0 by slowly adding solid
of concentrated enzyme storage buffer (resuspend
sodium bicarbonate. Bring the final volume of the
the lyophilized protein gently, do not use a vortex
solution to 100 ml with distilled water. Prepare this
mixer). Divide into 20 l aliquots and store at
reagent on the day that it is to be used.
⫺20°C. Dilute this 1000-unit/ml stock solution
to the required concentration (see protocol) just 80 mM cysteine, pH 6.8—Dissolve 1.4 g of L-cysteine
before use. Store the dilute enzyme on ice until it hydrochloride monohydrate in 80 ml of distilled
is ready to be used. water. Adjust the pH to 6.8 by slowly adding solid
sodium bicarbonate. Bring the final volume of the
Glycogen phosphorylase kinase stock solution—Dissolve
solution to 100 ml with distilled water. Prepare this
a 2500-unit package size of glycogen phosphory-
reagent on the day that it is to be used.
lase kinase (Sigma catalog #P-2014) in 1 ml of con-
centrated enzyme storage buffer (gently, do not use 250 mM Tris, pH 7.7—Dissolve 28.6 g of Tris ⭈ HCl and
a vortex mixer). Divide into 20-l aliquots and 8.3 g of Tris free base in 800 ml of distilled water.
store at ⫺20°C. Dilute this 2500-unit/ml stock so- The pH of the solution should be at or near pH
lution to the appropriate concentration (see pro- 7.7. Adjust the pH to 7.7 with dilute HCl or NaOH
tocol) just before use. Store the dilute enzyme on if necessary. Bring the final volume of the solution
ice until it is ready to be used. to 1 liter with distilled water.
4X SDS/EDTA buffer—Dissolve 3.51 g of Tris ⭈ HCl 250 mM glycerophosphate in 250 mM Tris, pH 7.7—
and 0.335 g of Tris free base in 50 ml of 0.5 M Dissolve 54 g of glycerophosphate (disodium salt)
EDTA, pH 8.0. Adjust the pH to 7.0 with dilute in 700 ml of 250 mM Tris, pH 7.7. Adjust the pH
NaOH or HCl if necessary. Add 30 ml of glycerol, to 7.7 with dilute NaOH or HCl, if necessary, and
10 ml of -mercaptoethanol, and 10 ml of distilled bring the final volume of the solution to 1 liter with
water. Dissolve (avoid foaming) 8 g of SDS into 250 mM Tris, pH 7.7.
this solution, as well as 4 mg of bromophenol blue. 40 mM glycerophosphate in 80 mM cysteine, pH 6.8—
Store the solution tightly capped at room temper- Dissolve 864 mg of glycerophosphate (disodium
ature. salt) in 70 ml of 80 mM cysteine, pH 6.8. Bring
␥-[32P]ATP (4000 Ci/mmol)—We purchase this from the final volume of the solution to 100 ml with
ICN Biochemicals (catalog #35001x). We dilute 80 mM cysteine, pH 6.8.
this solution 1:80 with distilled water for use in Glycogen phosphorylase kinase solution—Dilute 40 l of
the in vitro phosphorylation assay. At this specific the 2500-unit/ml glycogen phosphorylase kinase
activity, a 12- to 18-hr exposure time is usually stock solution in 4.96 ml of 30 mM cysteine, pH 7.0.
required. If you choose to do a greater dilution 30 mM ATP solution—Dissolve 165 mg of adenosine 5⬘-
of this reagent, longer exposure times will be re- triphosphate (disodium salt) in 8 ml of distilled wa-
quired. For safety purposes, we keep this reagent ter. Adjust the pH to 7.7 with very dilute NaOH
shielded and in the hands of the teaching assis- and bring the final volume of the solution to 10 ml
tant. The students bring their prepared reactions with distilled water. Divide the solution into 20- to
to the teaching assistant, who adds the reagent for 50-l aliquots and store at ⫺70°C. Thaw on ice
them. just before use.
Prestained high-molecular-weight protein markers—We 100 mM Mg(acetate)2, pH 7.7—Dissolve 21.45 g of mag-
purchase these from Gibco BRL (catalog #26041- nesium acetate terahydrate in 900 ml of distilled
020) and prepare them according to the manufac- water. Adjust the pH to 7.7 with NaOH, and bring
turer’s instructions. the final volume of the solution to 1 liter with dis-
Plastic wrap—1 large roll required. tilled water.
Whatman 3 MM filter paper—Approximately 8 to 10 500 mM potassium phosphate, pH 6.8—Dissolve 19.05 g
sheets required. of monobasic potassium phosphate (anhydrous)
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 425
and 62.71 g of dibasic potassium phosphate (anhy- buffer. Divide into 20-l aliquots and store at
drous) in 800 ml of distilled water. The pH of the 20°C. Dilute this 1000-units/ml stock enzyme
solution should be near 7.2. Adjust the pH of the solution 1:500 in 40 mM glycerophosphate, pH
solution to 6.8 with HCl, and bring the final vol- 6.8, shortly before use. Store on ice.
ume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. Glycogen phosphorylase b control solution (2 units/
4% (wt/vol) glycogen solution—Dissolve 10 g of rabbit ml)—Dilute the 1000-units/ml enzyme stock so-
liver glycogen (Sigma catalog #G-8876) in distilled lution (see above) 1:500 in 40 mM glycerophos-
water to a total volume of 250 ml. Filter sterilize phate, pH 6.8.
the solution and store at 4°C. Glycogen phosphorylase b control solution (2 units/ml in
300 mM MgCl2 —Dissolve 30.5 g of MgCl2 ⭈ 6 H2O in 60 mM AMP)—Dilute the 1000-units/ml enzyme
distilled water to a final volume of 500 ml. stock solution (see above) 1:500 in 40 mM glyc-
100 mM EDTA, pH 8.0—Dissolve 18.61 g of disodium erophosphate containing 60 mM AMP. This solu-
EDTA dihydrate in 400 ml of distilled water. Ad- tion is prepared by dissolving 2.08 g of adenosine
just the pH to 8.0 with NaOH and bring the final 5⬘-monophosphate (monosodium salt) in 100 ml of
volume of the solution to 500 ml with distilled wa- 40 mM glycerophosphate, pH 6.8.
ter. Reagents and supplies for SDS–PAGE—See Experi-
6.5 mM nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate so- ment 4.
lution (NADP)—We purchase this reagent in
preweighed vials from Sigma (catalog #240-310).
To prepare the 6.5 mM reagent, dissolve 10-mg
vial of NADP in 2.0 ml of distilled water. Prepare Experiment 16: Experiments in
this reagent immediately before use. Clinical Biochemistry and
0.1% (wt/vol) ␣-D-glucose-1,6-diphosphate solution—
Metabolism
Dissolve 0.1 g of ␣-D-glucose-1,6-diphosphate
(potassium salt, hydrate) in 100 ml of distilled wa-
ter. Filter-sterilize the solution and store in small Fresh pig blood—Approximately 100 to 200 ml required.
aliquots at ⫺20°C. Heparin sulfate/EDTA solution—Dissolve 4 mg of he-
Phosphoglucomutase solution (10 units/ml)—We pur- parin sulfate in 2 ml of 0.5 M EDTA. Stir this so-
chase this enzyme from Sigma (catalog #P-3397) lution into 200 ml of pig blood immediately after it is
as a crystalline suspension in 2.5 M ammonium sul- collected to prevent clotting.
fate. Consult the specification sheet for the prod- 5-ml and 10-ml Pipettes—50 of each required.
uct (lot-specific, usually 100–300 units/mg of pro- Small (13 ⫻ 100 mm) glass test tubes—1000 required.
tein) to determine a dilution that will yield a Spectrophotometer with cuvettes—At least 1 required.
10-unit/ml solution. The dilution of this enzyme Glucose standard stock solution (44.48 mM)*—Dissolve
is done in distilled water immediately before use. 80.1 mg of D-glucose in 10 ml of distilled water.
Store the remainder of the crystalline suspension 3.00 mM glucose standard solution*—Add 67 l of
at 4°C for use in future semesters. 44.48 mM glucose standard stock solution to 933
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase solution (10 units/ l of distilled water.
ml)—We purchase this enzyme from Sigma (cata- 11.10 mM glucose standard solution*—Add 250 l of
log #G-6378), which is derived from baker’s yeast. 44.48 mM glucose standard stock solution to
Reconstitute the enzyme in distilled water as per 750 l of distilled water.
the manufacturer’s instructions. Consult the spec- 16.65 mM glucose standard solution*—Add 374 l of
ification sheet (lot-specific, usually 200–400 44.48 mM glucose standard stock solution to
units/mg of protein) to determine a dilution of the 626 l of distilled water.
enzyme stock that will yield a 10-unit/ml solution 4.44 mM lactate standard—Dissolve 4.0 mg of D-lactic
(dilution is performed in distilled water). Store the acid (free acid, crystalline) in 10 ml of distilled
remainder of the reconstituted stock enzyme solu- water.
tion in small aliquots at ⫺20°C for use in future
semesters.
Glycogen phosphorylase a enzyme solution (2 units/ml)— *Sigma offers a combined glucose/urea standard set (catalog #16-11)
We purchase this enzyme from Sigma (catalog that can be used for these assays. These standards contain 800 mg/dL
(44.48 mM glucose, 133.3 mM urea), 300 mg/dl (16.65 mM glucose,
#P-1261). Dissolve 25 mg ( 625 units) of glyco- 50 mM urea), and 100 mg/dl (5.55 mM glucose, 16.66 mM urea) of
gen phosphorylase a (gently, do not use a Vortex each compound. These standards can be diluted appropriately to
mixer) in 625 l of concentrated enzyme storage prepare the standard solutions required for this assay.
426 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
Urea standard stock solution (35.70 mM)*—Dissolve Anti--galactosidase rabbit serum*—Each group will re-
21.4 mg of urea in 10 ml of distilled water. quire 180 l. Store at ⫺20°C
3.57 mM urea standard*—Add 100 l of 35.70 mM urea Polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20, Sigma
standard stock solution to 900 l of distilled water. catalog #P-5927)—about 10 ml required.
8.92 mM urea standard*—Add 250 l of 35.70 mM urea Immulon-2 96-well flat-bottomed microtiter (ELISA)
standard stock solution to 750 l of distilled water. plate (50 required)—We purchase these from
10.71 mM urea standard*—Add 300 l of 35.70 mM urea Fisher (catalog #1424561), but any standard ELISA
standard stock solution to 700 l of distilled water. plate would suffice.
Serum lactate reagent—Sigma catalog #735-10. Prepare Blocking solution—Dissolve 50 g of bovine serum albu-
by adding distilled water to the dry mixture as per min (BSA) and 2.5 ml of polyoxyethylenesorbitan
the instructions. Each group will require 6 ml. monolaurate (Tween 20) in 5 liters of 1X PBS.
Serum urea nitrogen reagent—Sigma catalog #66-20. Wash solution—Dissolve 5 ml of Tween 20 in 10 liters
Prepare by adding distilled water to the dry mix- of 1X PBS.
ture as per the instructions. Each group will re- -Galactosidase stock solution—Dissolve 5 mg of -
quire 12 ml. galactosidase (Sigma catalog #G-6008) in 50 ml of
Serum glucose reagent—Sigma catalog #16-50. Prepare 1X PBS. Store at ⫺20°C.
by adding distilled water to the dry mixture as per -Galactosidase solution (10 g/ml)—Add 20 ml of the
the instructions. Each group will require 10 ml. -galactosidase stock solution to 180 ml of 1X PBS.
Serum creatine kinase reagent—Sigma catalog #DG- Store at ⫺20°C.
147-K. Prepare Reagents A and B by adding dis- -Galactosidase solution (40 g/ml)—Add 8 ml of -
tilled water to the dry mixtures as per the supplier’s galactosidase stock solution to 12 ml of 1X PBS.
instructions. Mix Reagents A and B at the recom- Store at ⫺20°C.
mended ratios. Each group will require 5 ml of this -Galactosidase solutions (“unknown concentrations”)—
working solution. Prepare about 5 ml of each unknown concentra-
tion by making the appropriate dilution of the -
galactosidase stock solution in 1X PBS. We have
Experiment 17: Partial found that unknown concentrations in the range
from 10 g/ml to 100 g/ml work well in the com-
Purification of a Polyclonal
petitive ELISA. Store each unknown solution at
Antibody, Determination of ⫺20°C.
Titer, and Quantitation of an 4 N H2SO4 —Dilute 666 ml of 12 N H2SO4 to 2 liters
Antigen Using the ELISA with distilled water. Store covered at room tem-
perature. Label with the warning Caution: Strong
10X Phosphate-buffered saline (10X PBS)—Dissolve Acid.
5.12 g of NaH2PO4 ⭈ H2O, 44.96 g of Na2HPO4 ⭈ HRP substrate—Mix equal volumes of each of the
7H2O, and 87.6 g NaCl in 1.5 liter of distilled 3,3⬘,5,5⬘-tetramethylbenzidene and H2O2 solu-
water. Adjust the pH to 7.3 with HCl or NaOH as tions (Kirkegaard & Perry catalog #50-7600) to
needed. Bring the final volume of the solution to prepare the substrate. This should be done right be-
2 liters with distilled water. Store short term at fore the students are ready to develop their microtiter
room temperature or long term at 4°C. Dilute this plates. About 750 ml of this substrate is required
solution 1:10 with distilled water to prepare the for the full three-day experiment.
PBS solution (1X) used in the blocking and wash
solutions described below.
* As stated in the text, the dilutions for the primary antibodies used in
Normal or pre-immune rabbit serum—Each group will this experiment are approximate. We have found that the titer of the J1
require 180 l. Store at ⫺20°C. We have also pur- monoclonal antibody varies somewhat from lot to lot. Obviously, the
chased normal rabbit serum from Sigma (catalog titer of the rabbit polyclonal antibody will also vary from animal to
animal. Because of this, we suggest that the experiment be performed in
#R-4505).
advance of the class in case some small adjustments of the dilutions stated in
the text are necessary. The secondary antibody dilutions described in the
*Sigma offers a combined glucose/urea standard set (catalog #16-11) text are much less variable from semester to semester. We raise the
that can be used for these assays. These standards contain 800 mg/dL rabbit-anti--galactosidase polyclonal antibody by shipping the antigen
(44.48 mM glucose, 133.3 mM urea), 300 mg/dl (16.65 mM glucose, (Sigma catalog #G-6008) to CoCalico Biologicals, Inc. in Reamstown,
50 mM urea), and 100 mg/dl (5.55 mM glucose, 16.66 mM urea) of PA. This company will raise the antibody and send you batches of the
each compound. These standards can be diluted appropriately to serum. The company will test the serum antibodies in an ELISA to
prepare the standard solutions required for this assay. determine if they are adequate for your application.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 427
Mouse-anti--galactosidase monoclonal antibody 020) and prepare them according to the manufac-
( J1)*—Keep the stock antibody (Sigma catalog turer’s instructions.
#G-8021) frozen at ⫺80°C. We have found that Coomassie Blue staining solution—Dissolve 400 ml of
the titer drops dramatically after short-term stor- methanol, 100 ml of glacial acetic acid, and 2.5 g
age at ⫺20°C. Dilute the antibody immediately be- of Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 in 500 ml of dis-
fore use in blocking solution (about a 1:1000 dilu- tilled water. Store tightly covered at room tem-
tion). Each group will require about 1.2 ml of the perature.
diluted antibody to perform the three-day experi- Coomassie Blue destaining solution—Dissolve 400 ml of
ment. methanol and 100 ml of glacial acetic acid in
HRP-conjugated-goat-antirabbit IgG*—Each group will 500 ml of distilled water. Store tightly covered at
prepare 2.5 ml of this solution by making serial di- room temperature.
lutions of the stock antibody (Kirkegaard & Perry Methanol—200 ml required to prepare 1 liter of trans-
catalog #074-1506) in blocking solution. The final fer buffer.
dilution should be about 1:9000. Prepare immedi-
Transfer buffer—We suggest that this solution be prepared
ately before use.
fresh on the day of the experiment. Dissolve 11.6 g of
HRP-conjugated-goat-antimouse IgG*—Each group Tris base, 5.86 g of glycine, and 0.038 g of sodium
will prepare 0.8 ml of this solution by making se- dodecyl sulfate in 700 ml of distilled water. Adjust
rial dilutions of the stock antibody (Kirkegaard & pH to 9.2 with HCl or NaOH as needed. Add
Perry catalog #074-1802) in blocking solution. The 200 ml of methanol. Bring the final volume of the
final dilution should be about 1:10,000. Prepare solution to 1 liter with distilled water. Store this
immediately before use. solution tightly covered at room temperature.
Saturated ammonium sulfate solution—Dissolve 350 g of Immobilon-P PVDF membrane (0.45-m pore size)—
ammonium sulfate (reagent grade) in 0.5 liter of We purchase this from Millipore (catalog #IPVH
distilled water. Store at room temperature. 000 10). One large roll required.
Spectrophotometer with cuvettes—At least 1 required.
Whatman 3 MM filter paper—Approximately 50 sheets
10-ml Pasteur pipettes—50 required. required, depending on the size of the gels and the
1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes—500 required. type of transfer apparatus used.
96-Well microplate spectrophotometer—1 required, Western blot blocking solution—We suggest that this so-
with a printer. lution be prepared fresh on the day of the experiment.
Dissolve 2.42 g of Tris base, 14.62 g of NaCl, and
86.22 g of nonfat dry (powdered) milk to 700 ml
Experiment 18: Western Blot to of distilled water. Bring the final volume of the so-
Identify an Antigen lution to 1 liter with distilled water.
Tween 20 (polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate)—We
Reagents and apparatus for SDS–PAGE—See Experi- purchase this from Sigma (catalog #P-5927). Ap-
ment 4. proximately 5 ml will be required.
Power supplies—Enough to power all available SDS– Western blot wash solution—We suggest that this solution
PAGE and Western blot transfer units. be prepared fresh on the day of the experiment. The
Prestained high-molecular weight protein markers—We amount given is sufficient for one group of students.
purchase these from Gibco-BRL (catalog #26041- Dissolve 2.42 g of Tris base, 14.62 g of NaCl, and
86.22 g of nonfat dry (powdered) milk to 700 ml of
distilled water. Add 0.5 ml of polyoxyethylenesor-
* As stated in the text, the dilutions for the primary antibodies used in
bitan monolaurate (Tween 20). Bring the final vol-
this experiment are approximate. We have found that the titer of the J1
monoclonal antibody varies somewhat from lot to lot. Obviously, the ume of the solution to 1 liter with distilled water.
titer of the rabbit polyclonal antibody will also vary from animal to Mouse-antiglutathione-S-transferase monoclonal anti-
animal. Because of this, we suggest that the experiment be performed in body—We purchase this from Sigma (catalog #G-
advance of the class in case some small adjustments of the dilutions stated in
the text are necessary. The secondary antibody dilutions described in the
1160). This antibody is supplied as a sterile liquid.
text are much less variable from semester to semester. We raise the Dilute as specified in the protocol in blocking so-
rabbit-anti--galactosidase polyclonal antibody by shipping the antigen lution. Prepare about 5 liters ( 100 ml per group).
(Sigma catalog #G-6008) to CoCalico Biologicals, Inc. in Reamstown, HRP-conjugated goat-antimouse IgG—We purchase
PA. For a very fair price, this company will raise the antibody and send
you batches of the serum. The company will even test the serum
this reagent from Pierce Chemical Co. (catalog
antibodies in an ELISA to determine if they are adequate for your #31430). This reagent is supplied as a lyophilized
application. powder. Reconstitute and store as specified by the
428 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
manufacturer’s instructions. Dilute as specified in Stock culture of wild-type B. subtilis (Bacillus Genetic
the protocol in blocking solution. Prepare about Stock Center strain 1A2) —1 required.
5 liters (100 ml per group). Inoculating needle—1 required.
Razor blades—10 to 20 required (students can share these). Luria broth—Luria broth: Prepare five 100-ml and five
Aluminum foil—1 large roll required. 10-liter solutions containing 10 g/liter Bacto-
Small metal or plastic trays for membrane incubations— Tryptone, 5 g/liter Bacto-Yeast extract, 5 g/liter
50 required. NaCl, 0.5 g/liter antifoam agent (e.g., Polyglycol
SuperSignal West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate— P-2000), and 1 g/liter glucose (autoclave sepa-
Pierce catalog #34080. Prepare the working solution rately). Autoclave the main solution and separate
immediately before use by mixing equal volumes of solution of concentrated glucose for 20 min at 105
the SuperSignal luminol/enhancer solution and the to 110°C and cool; use sterile conditions to add the
stable peroxide solution. Each group will require 5 glucose solution to the main solution and use
to 10 ml, depending on the size of the membrane. within 24 hr.
Plastic wrap—1 large roll required. 37°C Incubator-shaker—1 or 2 required.
Kodak X-omat film—5 to 7 large pieces required, de- Fermenter capable of handling 50 liters of growth
pending on the size of the membranes and film cas- medium.
settes. Centrifuges—For harvesting the 10-liter culture, a
Film cassettes—5 to 7 required, depending on the size continuous-flow centrifuge such as a Sharples is
of the membranes. most convenient. For washing the cells, a refriger-
Darkroom—1 required, preferably fitted with a “safe ated high-speed laboratory centrifuge (e.g., Sorvall
light.” RC-2B) is necessary.
Transfer apparatus—We use the BIORAD Transblot SD Sterile saline solution—Dissolve 4.25 g of NaCl in
model. With mini-gels, we can fit at least three 500 ml of distilled water and autoclave (20 min at
blots per unit. 105–110°C).
Parafilm or wax paper—1 or 2 rolls required.
Reagents for Colorimetric Detection of Bacterial cell paste—If performing Experiment 20 also,
HRP (optional) grow wild-type Bacillus subtilis (Bacillus Genetic
Stock Center strain 1A2, Columbus, OH) as de-
10 mM Tris-buffered saline (TBS), pH 7.4—Dissolve scribed for Experiment 20 or buy wild-type B. sub-
1.8 g of Tris free base and 13 g of NaCl to a total tilis from Grain Processing Corp. Muscatine, IA,
volume of 1.4 liters with distilled water. Adjust the or General Biochemicals, Chagrin Falls, OH. If
pH to 7.4 with 1 M HCl. Bring the final volume not performing Experiment 20, grow or buy any
of the solution to 1.5 liters with distilled water. bacterial species (late log phase). Provide frozen
4-Chloro-1-naphthol—This reagent can be purchased cells for students. Approximately 50 g will be re-
from Pierce Chemical Co. (catalog #34010). See quired.
the protocol for the preparation of this substrate 0.15 M NaCl, 0.l M Na2EDTA—Dissolve 21.9 g of NaCl
solution. and 93 g of disodium EDTA ⭈ 2H2O in 2.5 liters
Absolute ethanol—200 ml required. of distilled water.
3% (wt/wt) hydrogen peroxide in distilled water— Lysozyme solution, 10 mg/ml—Dissolve 1.25 g of crys-
Prepare this reagent immediately before use by talline egg white lysozyme in 125 ml of distilled
adding 10 ml of a 30% (wt/wt) hydrogen peroxide water. Refrigerate until use. Stable for 24 to 48 hr.
stock solution (Sigma catalog #H-1009) to 90 ml 25% sodium dodecyl sulfate solution—Dissolve 125 g of
of distilled water. sodium dodecyl sulfate in 400 ml of distilled water
and dilute to 500 ml with distilled water.
Experiment 19: Isolation of 5.0 M NaClO4 —Dissolve 1.53 kg of NaClO4 (anhy-
drous) in 2 liters of distilled water and dilute to 2.5
Bacterial DNA liters with distilled water.
Chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (24:1)—Mix 4.8 liters of
For Growth of Wild-Type (Trp⫹) Bacillus chloroform and 200 ml of isoamyl alcohol. Store
subtilis tightly capped in a dark bottle at room tempera-
ture.
Usually a teaching assistant or technician performs 95% Ethanol—Add 250 ml of distilled water to 4.75 liters
this portion of the experiment. This section is de- of absolute ethanol. Store tightly capped.
signed to yield cells for 10 students. Dilute (1/10 X) saline-citrate (0.015 M NaCl, 1.5 mM
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 429
Sterile 100% glycerol (if competent cells are to be stored 37°C incubator-shaker—1 required.
frozen)—Autoclave for 20 min at 105 to 110°C. 95% Ethanol—Add 125 ml of distilled water to 2.375
Approximately 5 ml will be required. liters of absolute ethanol. Store in a tightly capped
bottle.
Bent glass rods—Bend Pyrex glass rods so they fit in a
For Transformation 150-ml beaker. Fire polish (O2 torch) the ends. See
Figure 20-1 for details. Prepare 25 of these.
Sterile test tubes with caps—Autoclave (20 min at 105 to Minimal medium agar Petri plates—Add 33.75 g of
110°C) test tubes (preferably 13 ⫻ 100 mm tubes) agar to sufficient salts and yeast extract to pre-
with sterile caps loosely set over tops. Approxi- pare 2.25 liters of the minimal medium described
mately 150 of these will be required. above (medium lacking the monosodium gluta-
Sterile 0.1- and 1.0-ml pipette tips: Autoclave (20 min at mate and glucose samples, which are autoclaved
105–110°C) in covered racks. You will require separately). Warm (50°C) this mixture in suffi-
about 400 of the 0.1-ml tips and about 25 of the cient water to dissolve (leaving room for later ad-
1.0 ml tips. ditions of sterile Na-glutamate and glucose solu-
Sterile minimal medium—Prepare and autoclave (20 min tions). Autoclave (20 min at 105–110°C) this
at 105–110°C) 25 capped 18 ⫻ 150 mm test tubes, solution and separate Na-glutamate and glucose
each containing 10 ml of the following medium: solutions. Just after autoclaving (while still hot),
2 g/liter (NH4)2SO4, 14 g/liter K2HPO4, 6 g/liter aseptically mix the three solutions to create min-
KH2PO4, 0.2 g/liter MgSO4, 1 g/liter Na3citrate ⭈ imal medium agar solution; pour 10-ml aliquots
2H2O, 1 mg/liter yeast extract, 5 g/liter mono- into each of 225 sterile Petri plates. Cover the
sodium glutamate (autoclave separately), and plates, allow medium to solidify, invert the plates,
5 g/liter glucose (autoclave separately). Prepare 5 and store (refrigerated) until use. Stable for 1
liters of minimal medium, because it is also needed for week.
preparation of the Petri plates (see below). Minimal medium agar Petri plates supplemented with
DNA from wild-type B. subtilis—As isolated and dis- 50 g/ml tryptophan—Add 18.75 g of agar and
solved in sterile 1X saline-citrate (a minimum of 0.6 62.5 mg of L-tryptophan to sufficient salts and
ml per pair of students) as described in Experiment yeast extract to prepare 1.25 liters of the minimal
19. Prepare about 15 ml of this reagent. medium described above (medium lacking the
Standard (1X) saline-citrate (0.15 M NaCl, 0.015 M Na3- monosodium glutamate and glucose samples,
citrate) (sterile)—Prepare as in the Appendix to which are autoclaved separately). Autoclave this so-
Experiment 19. Autoclave (20 min at 105–110°C). lution, and separate solutions of Na-glutamate and
Prepare about 250 ml of this reagent. glucose for 20 min at 105–110°C. Just after auto-
Pancreatic DNase (1 mg/ml in sterile 1X saline-citrate)— claving (while still hot), aseptically mix the three
Dissolve 1 mg of pancreatic DNase (Worthington solutions and then pour 125 sterile agar medium-
Biochemical Corp., Freehold, N.J.) in 5 ml of ster- containing plates as above. Refrigerate; stable for
ile 1X saline-citrate. Refrigerate or freeze until use. 1 week.
If possible, pass through a sterile bacterial filter Tubes containing 9.9 ml of sterile saline—Dissolve
(e.g., Millipore, type HAW) into a sterile test tube. 12.75 g of NaCl in 1.5 liters of distilled water. Dis-
Stable for 48 hr. pense 9.9-ml aliquots of this solution into each of
Recipient B. subtilis strain 168 cells in sterile saline— 135 test tubes (18 ⫻ 150 mm) with loose-fitting
These cells are conveniently provided as thawed sterile caps. Autoclave (20 min at 105–110°C),
0.6-ml aliquots of frozen competent cells prepared cool, and store capped until use. Save remaining
as described in Experiment 20. You will require ap- saline solution for dilution tubes (see following en-
proximately 250 ml of these cells. try).
Sterile 0.1 M EGTA, pH 7.9—Dissolve 1.9 g of EGTA Tubes containing 0.9 ml of sterile saline—Dispense 0.9-
(ethylene glycol-bis(-aminoethyl ether) N, N, N⬘, ml aliquots of above saline solution (12.75 g
N⬘-tetraacetic acid) in 35 ml of distilled water, NaCl/1.5 liters H2O) into each of 60 test tubes
titrate to pH 7.9 with 1 N NaOH, and dilute to (18 ⫻ 150 mm) with loose-fitting caps. Autoclave
50 ml final volume with distilled water. Autoclave (20 min at 105–110°C), cool, and store capped un-
in a capped test tube (20 min at 105–110°C) and til use.
cool. Masking tape (for taping stacks of Petri plates together
40 to 45°C water bath—1 required. during incubation)—1 or 2 rolls required.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 431
Experiment 21: Constructing and nal volume of the solution to 100 ml with distilled
water. Autoclave or filter sterilize the solution and
Characterizing a Recombinant store at room temperature.
DNA Plasmid Phenol (Tris-saturated)—Add 500 ml of liquefied phe-
nol to 500 ml of 0.5 M Tris ⭈ HCl, pH 8.0. Gen-
TE buffer—Prepare a 1 M stock solution of Tris by dis- tly but thoroughly mix the solution for 15 min. Al-
solving 121.1 g of Tris free base in 700 ml of dis- low the two phases to separate, and aspirate off as
tilled water. Adjust the pH to 7.5 with concentrated much of the aqueous (upper) phase as possible. Re-
HCl. Prepare a 0.5 M EDTA stock solution by dis- peat this extraction two more times with (500 ml
solving 93 g of Na2EDTA ⭈ 2H2O in 400 ml of per extraction) with 100 mM Tris ⭈ HCl, pH 8.0.
distilled water. Adjust the pH to 8.0 by slowly dis- After the final extraction, leave a sufficient layer of
solving in NaOH pellets. Bring the final volume Tris ⭈ HCl, pH 8.0, over the equilibrated phenol.
of the solution to 500 ml with distilled water. To Store this solution in a tightly capped dark bottle
prepare the TE buffer, add 1 ml of the 0.5 M at 4°C (stable for several weeks).
EDTA stock solution and 10 ml of the 1 M Tris Phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1)—Mix to-
stock solution to 989 ml of distilled water. gether 100 ml of Tris-saturated phenol, 96 ml of
pUC19 (0.25 g/l)—Pharmacia catalog #27-4951-01. chloroform, and 4 ml of isoamyl alcohol. Store
This plasmid is supplied in 25-g quantities tightly capped in a dark bottle at room temperature.
(0.5 g/l). Dilute the contents of the tube with Chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1)—Mix together 192 ml
an equal volume of TE buffer. Store in 10-l of chloroform and 8 ml of isoamyl alcohol. Store
aliquots at ⫺20°C. tightly capped in a dark bottle at room tempera-
pUC4K (0.5 g/l)—Pharmacia catalog #27-4958-01. ture.
Use as supplied. Absolute ethanol—Approximately 500 ml required.
HindIII (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— Dry ice/ethanol bath—Grind or crush enough dry ice to
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15207- fill a large tray about half full. Slowly add ethanol
020), but any other supplier of quality restriction or acetone to the dry ice, stirring constantly with
endonucleases will do. a spatula, until a bubbling gel or slurry is achieved.
BamHI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— Allow this slurry to stand for 10 min before the
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15201- precipitations are performed.
031), but any other supplier of quality restriction 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes—2000 required.
endonucleases will do. 70% (vol/vol ethanol)—Mix 300 ml of distilled water
EcoRI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— with 700 ml of absolute ethanol. Store tightly
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15202- capped at ⫺20°C and place on ice for the students
021), but any other supplier of quality restriction to use.
endonucleases will do. Vacuum microcentrifuge—1 required.
XhoI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— Incubating culture shaker with test tube racks—1 required.
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15231- Sterile glass rods for spreading cultures over petri
020), but any other supplier of quality restriction plates—50 required.
endonucleases will do. Sterile toothpicks (autoclaved)—Wash wooden tooth-
SalI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied—We picks thoroughly with distilled water (to remove
obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15217-029), any preservatives that may inhibit bacterial
but any other supplier of quality restriction en- growth). Place in a shallow container with a cover
donucleases will do. and autoclave for 20 min.
PstI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied—We 37°C Incubator—1 required.
obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15215-023), T4 DNA ligase (1 unit/l) with 5X reaction buffer—We
but any other supplier of quality restriction en- obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15224-025),
donucleases will do. but any other supplier of quality T4 ligase will do.
Heated water baths—One at 37°C, one at 15°C (place 100 mg/ml ampicillin solution—Dissolve 1 g of ampi-
in cold room and adjust the temperature), and one cillin (sodium salt, Sigma catalog #A-9518) in a to-
at 42°C. tal of 10 ml of distilled water. Filter-sterilize the
3 M sodium acetate, pH 5.2—Dissolve 40.8 g of sodium solution and store at ⫺20°C.
acetate ⭈ 3H2O in 70 ml of distilled water. Adjust 50 mg/ml kanamycin sulfate solution—Dissolve 0.5 g of
the pH to 5.2 with glacial acetic acid. Bring the fi- kanamycin sulfate (Sigma catalog #K-4000) in
432 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
10 ml of distilled water. Filter-sterilize the solution depending on the size of your electrophoresis
and store at ⫺20°C. chambers.
40 mg/ml Isopropylthio-,D-galactopyranoside (IPTG) GTE lysis buffer—Dissolve 1.8 g of D-glucose, 0.606 g of
solution—Dissolve 0.4 g of IPTG (Sigma catalog Tris free base, and 0.744 g of disodium EDTA
#I-6758) in 10 ml of distilled water. Filter-sterilize ⭈ 2H2O in 150 ml of distilled water. Adjust the pH
the solution and store at ⫺20°C. to 8.0 with dilute HCl. Bring the final volume of the
40 mg/ml 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-,D-galactopyra- solution to 200 ml with distilled water. Autoclave
noside (Xgal) solution—Dissolve 0.4 g of Xgal the solution and store at 4°C. If you wish, you may
(Sigma catalog #B-4252) in 10 ml of dimethylfor- add lysozyme to this solution to a final concentra-
mamide (DMF). DMF is very toxic and can be ab- tion of 10 g/ml. We find that this is not necessary.
sorbed through the skin. Avoid contact with this reagent Solution of 0.2 N NaOH and 1% SDS—Prepare a 10 N
and do not breathe in its vapors. Work in the fume hood. NaOH stock solution by dissolving 200 g of NaOH
Filter-sterilize the solution and store at ⫺20°C. in 300 ml of water. Bring the final volume of the
100 mM IPTG solution—Dissolve 0.715 g of IPTG in solution to 500 ml with distilled water and store in
30 ml of distilled water. Filter-sterilize the solution a plastic (not glass) bottle at room temperature.
and store at 4°C. Prepare a separate 10% (wt/vol) SDS solution by
Epicurian coli XL1-Blue subcloning grade competent dissolving 10 g of sodium dodecyl sulfate in 70 ml
cells—Stratagene catalog #200130. of water. You may have to heat the solution slightly
Disposable plastic petri plates—500 required. to allow all of the SDS to dissolve. Bring the final
Large (16 ⫻ 125 mm) glass culture tubes with caps—250 volume of the solution to 100 ml with distilled wa-
required. Sterilize by autoclaving for 15 min prior ter and store at room temperature. To prepare the
to use. 0.2 N NaOH/1% SDS solution immediately be-
YT broth—Dissolve 10 g of Bactotryptone (Fisher cat- fore the experiment, mix 2 ml of the 10 N NaOH
alog #DFO 123), 5 g of yeast extract (Fisher cata- stock solution and 10 ml of the 10% (wt/vol) SDS
log #DFO 127), and 5 g of NaCl in 800 ml of dis- stock solution with 88 ml of distilled water.
tilled water. Bring the final volume of the solution 5 M potassium acetate solution—Dissolve 29.4 g of
to 1 liter with distilled water. Autoclave for 25 min potassium acetate in distilled water to a final vol-
to sterilize. You will need 600 ml of this media for ume of 60 ml. Add 11.5 ml of glacial acetic acid
the growth of the students cultures on the “off day” and 28.5 ml of distilled water. Autoclave the solu-
of the experiment. To prepare the YT media agar tion and store at 4°C.
plates, add 15 to 20 g/liter agar (Fisher catalog 6X DNA sample buffer—Dissolve 0.25 g of xylene
#DFO 140) to each 1 liter batch of YT media be- cyanole FF and 0.25 g of bromophenol blue in
fore autoclaving. You will need to make 6.25 liters 70 ml of distilled water. Add and thoroughly mix
of this YT agar media for the IPTG/Xgal/amp in 30 ml of glycerol. Store the solution at room
plates. As each 1-liter batch cools following the au- temperature.
toclave step, add 1 ml of 40-mg/ml IPTG solution, 1-kb DNA ladder size standard—We purchase this from
1 ml of 40-mg/ml Xgal solution, and 1 ml of 100- Gibco BRL (catalog #15615-016). Add 50l of
mg/ml ampicillin solution to the YT agar media. 1-kb DNA ladder to 775 l of distilled water. Add
After the addition of these reagents and thorough 175 l of 6X DNA sample buffer. Mix thoroughly,
mixing, pour about 25 ml of the YT/agar media but gently, and store at 4°C. Each group will load
per plate. You will also need to make 2.5 liters of 20 l of this solution.
this YT agar media for the IPTG/Xgal/kan plates. Ethidium bromide (0.5 g/ml) in 0.5X TBE buffer—
As each 1-liter batch cools following the autoclave Dissolve 0.5 mg of ethidium bromide in 1 liter of
step, add 1 ml of 40-mg/ml IPTG solution, 1 ml 0.5X TBE buffer. Place the entire 1-liter solution
of 40-mg/ml Xgal solution, and 1 ml of 50-mg/ml in a shallow tray for students to incubate their gels
kanamycin solution to the YT agar media. After in. A more concentrated solution of ethidium bro-
the addition of these reagents and thorough mix- mide (1–2 g/ml) can be prepared if you wish to
ing, pour about 25 ml of the YT/agar media per decrease the required staining time. Caution:
plate. After the plates have cooled and hardened, ethidium bromide is a suspected carcinogen.
store them at 4°C in plastic bags. Polaroid camera fitted to a 256-nm light box—1 required.
5X TBE agarose-gel electrophoresis buffer—Refer to Film for camera—50 exposures required.
Experiment 4 (“Electrophoresis”) for this recipe. RNaseA—We purchase this enzyme from Sigma (cata-
The stock solution will be diluted 1:10 to produce log #R-5125). Dissolve 100 mg gently in 10 ml of
a 0.5X solution for use in this experiment. You will distilled water. Boil this solution for 5 min to in-
need 1 to 2 liters of the 5X TBE stock solution, activate any DNase that may be present (RNaseA
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 433
is heat stable while DNase is not). Allow the solu- 20 mg/ml Bovine serum albumin—Dissolve 2 g of bovine
tion to cool to room temperature and store at 4°C. serum albumin (RNase-free) in 100 ml of distilled
Agarose (electrophoresis grade)—25 g required. water. Filter-sterilize the solution and store at
Agarose-gel electrophoresis apparatus with casting molds 20°C.
and 10 well combs—50 required. TE buffer—See Experiment 21.
Power supplies—Enough to power all required elec- 0.1 M dithiothreitol solution—Dissolve 1.54 g of DL-
trophoresis chambers. dithiothreitol in 100 ml of distilled water. Filter-
sterilize (do not autoclave) and store at 20°C in
1.0-ml aliquots.
Experiment 22: In Vitro
-[32P]ATP—Obtain 250 Ci of a solution at a specific
activity of 3,000 Ci/mmol. We use ICN catalog
Transcription from a Plasmid #32007x.
Carrying a T7 RNA Polymerase T7 RNA polymerase—We obtain this in 2500-unit (50
Specific Promoter units/l) aliquots from Gibco BRL (catalog
#18033-100). The enzyme is diluted immediately
HindIII (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— before use to 20 units/l in sterile distilled water.
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15207- 10X Transcription mix—Mix the following reagents to-
020), but any other supplier of high-quality re- gether to prepare 100 l of this solution. Prepare
striction endonucleases will do. this reagent immediately before use:
BamHI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied—
40 l of 0.4 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.0
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15201-
031), but any other supplier of high-quality re- 15 l of 0.15 M MgCl2
striction endonucleases will do. 5 l of 20 mg/ml bovine serum albumin
EcoRI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— 0.5 l of 100 mM ATP
We obtain this from Gibco BRL (catalog #15202- 10 l of 100 mM CTP
021), but any other supplier of high-quality re- 10 l of 100 mM GTP
striction endonucleases will do. 10 l of 100 mM UTP
pSP72 plasmid (100 g/ml)—Promega catalog #P-2191. 1 l of 0.1 M dithiothreitol (DTT)
This plasmid is supplied as a 1 g/l solution in 6 l of sterile distilled water
TE buffer. Dilute this solution 10-fold with TE 2.5 l of a 1:100 dilution of the
-[32P]ATP stock in
buffer. Each group will require 24 l of the plas- sterile distilled water
mid to perform the experiment. Store at 20°C.
37°C Water bath—1 required. Loading buffer—Dissolve 42 g of urea, 0.25 g of xylene
Dry ice/ethanol bath—See Experiment 21. cyanole FF, and 0.25 g of bromophenol blue in dis-
tilled water to a final volume of 100 ml. Store at
Phenol:chloroform (1:1)—Mix 250 ml of chloroform
room temperature.
with 250 ml of Tris-saturated phenol (see Experi-
ment 21). Add about 75 ml of water to the solu- Absolute ethanol—Approximately 100 ml required.
tion and allow the phases to separate. Leave a layer 15% Polyacrylamide gel—Refer to Experiment 4.
of water over the organic phase and store in a dark 0.5X TBE buffer—See Experiment 21.
bottle tightly capped at room temperature. Film cassettes—5 to 10 required, depending on the size
Chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1)—See Experiment 21. of the gels.
3 M sodium acetate, pH 5.2—See Experiment 21. Plastic wrap—1 roll required.
0.4 M Tris, pH 8.0—Dissolve 3.55 g of Tris ⭈ HCl and Razor blades—5 to 10 required (students can share these).
2.12 g of Tris free base in 100 ml of distilled wa- Kodak X-omat film—5 to 10 pieces required, depending
ter. The pH should be at or near 8.0. If necessary, on the size of the gels and film cassettes.
adjust the pH to 8.0 with dilute HCl or NaOH. Darkroom and solutions for film development.
Store at room temperature. Electrophoresis chambers and power supplies—25 re-
100 mM nucleotide solutions (UTP, ATP, CTP, GTP)— quired.
We buy these as a set from Boehringer Mannheim RNA size markers—Add 20 l of the pSP72 plasmid to
(catalog #1277057). Each nucleotide is supplied three microcentrifuge tubes. One of these plasmid
separately in the set at a concentration of 100 mM. samples will be digested with XhoI, the other with
0.15 M MgCl2 —Dissolve 3.05 g of MgCl2 ⭈ 6H2O in XbaI, and the third with EcoRV. Add 6 l of the
100 ml of distilled water. Filter-sterilize or auto- appropriate 10X restriction-enzyme buffers to each
clave the solution and store at room temperature. of the three tubes. Add 29 l of sterile distilled
434 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
water to each tube, as well as 5 l of the appro- of acid-washed sand in a cold mortar. Vigorously
priate restriction enzyme (10 units/l). Incubate grind the dry wheat germ and sand with a cold pes-
these tubes at 37°C for 2 hr. Ethanol-precipitate tle for 1 to 2 min. Add 5 ml of cold grinding buffer
the digested plasmid in each of these tubes by (20 mM HEPES, 100 mM KCl, 1 mM magnesium
adding 8 l of 3 M sodium acetate, 200 l of ab- acetate, 2 mM CaCl2, 6 mM dithiothreitol, pH 7.6)
solute ethanol, and incubating in a dry ice/ethanol and continue grinding until you obtain an even
bath for 10 min. Centrifuge at 4°C for 30 min to mush ( 1 min more). Continue grinding and
harvest the DNA and discard the supernatant. Af- adding 5-ml aliquots of fresh grinding buffer until
ter a 70% ethanol wash, dissolve the DNA pellets a total of 25 ml have been added. Centrifuge the
in 6 l of sterile distilled water. Add the following homogenate (30,000 ⫻ g) for 10 min at 4°C and
to each tube: collect the S-30 supernatant, being careful to avoid
the yellow fatty surface layer above the cell debris
4 l of 5X T3/T7 RNA polymerase buffer (supplied and mitochondria. Pass 15 ml of the supernatant
with enzyme) over a 50 ⫻ 2 cm Sepadex G-25 column pre-equi-
2 l of 0.1 M dithiothreitol librated with at least 600 ml of buffer (20 mM
4 l of a 2.5 mM solution of GTP, CTP, and UTP HEPES, 120 mM KCl, 5 mM magnesium acetate,
(see below) 6 mM dithiothreitol, pH 7.6). Collect the first 10
1 l of a 1 mM ATP solution (see below) fractions (1.5 ml each) as they elute from the col-
1 l of RNasin (20–40 units/l) (Promega catalog umn. Using a Pasteur pipette, slowly drip the frac-
#N2511) tions into a pool of liquid nitrogen. Allow each
2 l of the undiluted 10mCi/ml solution of ␣- drop to freeze and sink to the bottom of the ves-
[32P]ATP sel. When all of the material has been applied to
2 l of T7 RNA polymerase (20 units/l) the liquid nitrogen, frozen, and sunk to the bot-
tom of the vessel, pour off the N2 and place the
The 2.5 mM CTP, UTP, and GTP solution is prepared frozen S-30 fraction in small, airtight vials to be
by adding 1 l of each 100 mM nucleotide stock frozen at ⫺80°C.
solution to 47 l of distilled water. The 1 mM ATP 1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes—2,000 required.
solution is prepared by adding 1 l of the 100 mM Fine-tipped forceps—50 required.
ATP stock to 99 l of distilled water. Incubate
Millipore filters (HAWP, 0.45-m pore size)—2000
these three transcription tubes at 37°C for 1 hr.
required.
Store at ⫺20°C. To prepare the markers, the re-
actions will be mixed together in a defined ratio. Filtration apparatus with vacuum pump (or house vac-
You will have to experiment with an exact dilution uum)—50 required.
and ratio of these transcripts to produce RNA size Water baths at 30°C and 90°C—One of each required.
markers that will be visible as defined bands on the 100°C Oven—1 required.
film after an 18-hr exposure. The XhoI transcript Scintillation vials—2000 required.
will be 97 nucleotides in length, the XbaI transcript Scintillation counter—1 required.
will be 61 nucleotides in length, and the EcoRV Plastic squirt bottles—50 required.
transcript will be 20 nucleotides in length. Re-
Reaction buffer—Dissolve 7.15 g of N-[2-hydrox-
member that the EcoRV- and XbaI-digested tran-
yethyl]piperazine-N⬘-[2-ethanesulfonic acid]
scripts will have less radioactivity per mole than
(Sigma catalog #H-7523) and 0.46 g of dithio-
the XhoI-digested transcript.
threitol (Sigma catalog #D-5545) in 80 ml of dis-
tilled water. Adjust the pH of the solution to 7.1
with dilute NaOH. Bring the final volume of the
solution to 100 ml with distilled water and store at
Experiment 23: In Vitro
4°C.
Translation: mRNA, tRNA, and Salt solution I—Dissolve 9.7 g of KCl and 4.83 g of mag-
Ribosomes nesium acetate tetrahydrate in 80 ml of distilled
water. Bring the final volume of the solution to
S-30 Fraction from wheat germ—This can be obtained 100 ml with distilled water and store at 4°C.
commercially (Fisher catalog #L-4440) in a form Salt solution II—Dissolve 9.7 g of KCl and 0.483 g of
that is ready to use in the in vitro reaction. If you magnesium acetate tetrahydrate in 80 ml of dis-
wish to prepare it yourself, perform the following tilled water. Bring the final volume of the solution
protocol. Place 6.75 g of wheat germ and 6.75 g to 100 ml with distilled water and store at 4°C.
APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff 435
3
H-Phenylalanine solution—Dissolve 1.65 mg of L- Supplies and Reagents list for this exercise. We
phenylalanine (Sigma catalog #P-8324) in 100 ml usually order 100 nmol of each primer. Consult the
of distilled water. Add an amount of high specific specification sheet to determine exactly how much
activity (greater than 1000 Ci/mmol) [3H]-phe- of each primer is present when you receive it. Add
nylalanine that contains a total of 500 Ci. Store 0.5 to 1.5 ml of sterile distilled water to each tube
at 4°C. to bring the final concentration of each primer to
Poly(U) solution—Dissolve 10 mg of Sigma catalog #P- 100 pmol/l. Each group will need 42.5 l of each
9528 in 10 ml of distilled water. Store at 20°C. primer at a concentration of 10 pmol/l (10 M).
Poly(A) solution—Dissolve 25 mg of Sigma catalog #P- Dilute each of the primer stock solutions 10-fold
9403 in 25 ml of distilled water. Store at 20°C. in sterile distilled water to achieve this concentra-
Trichloroacetic acid solution—Dissolve 250 g of tion. Store the remainder of the primer stocks at
trichloroacetic acid (Sigma catalog #T-9159) in 20°C for use in future semesters (100 nmol of
5 liters of distilled water. Store at 4°C. primers is enough for approximately two semes-
ters).
Scintillation fluid—Dissolve 50 g of diphenyloxazole and
100 ml of Triton X-100 in 9 liters of toluene. Store Template DNA—The pBluescript II (S/K) and (K/S)
tightly covered in a dark bottle at room tempera- plasmids can be purchased from Stratagene (cata-
ture. log #212205 and 212207, respectively). The 20-g
package size for each plasmid is enough to perform
RNase A solution—Dissolve 5 mg of Sigma catalog #R-
the experiment for approximately 40 semesters.
5125 in 10 ml of distilled water. Store at 4°C.
Using serial dilutions, prepare 1 ng/l, 1 pg/l, and
RNase T1 solution—We use product #R-1003 from
1 fg/l stock solutions.
Sigma, which is supplied as a crystalline suspen-
dNTPs—We purchase 100 mM stock solutions of dATP,
sion in 3.2 M ammonium sulfate (300,000–600,000
dTTP, dGTP, and dCTP from Gibco-BRL (cata-
units/mg of protein). Transfer a volume equivalent
log #10297-018). Add 62.5 l of each 100 mM
to 1 mg of protein (consult the specification sheet)
stock dNTP solution to 4.750 ml of sterile distilled
to a microcentrifuge tube and centrifuge for 5 min
water to prepare the 1.25 mM dNTP stock solu-
to collect the crystals. Draw off the supernatant
tion. Each group will need 68 l of the dNTP so-
and resuspend the solid crystals in 2 ml of distilled
lution to perform the experiment. Store the re-
water.
mainder of the 100 mM dNTP stock solutions (in
Chloramphenicol solution—Dissolve 16.2 mg of Sigma
small aliquots) at 20°C for use in future semes-
catalog #C-0378 in 100 ml of distilled water. Store
ters.
at 20°C in small aliquots.
Taq polymerase—We purchase this from Gibco-BRL
Cycloheximide solution—Dissolve 14.1 mg of Sigma cat-
(catalog #18038-042). The enzyme is supplied with
alog #C-7698 in 100 ml of distilled water. Store at
10X Taq polymerase dilution buffer and a vial of
20°C in small aliquots.
50 mM MgCl2. Each group will require 68 l of
Puromycin solution—Dissolve 5.4 mg of Sigma catalog 12.5 mM MgCl2. To prepare, add 1 ml of 50 mM
#P-7255 in 100 ml of distilled water. Store at MgCl2 stock to 3 ml of sterile distilled water. To
20°C in small aliquots. adjust the 5-units/l Taq polymerase stock to 1
unit /l for use in the experiment, add 100 l of 5-
units/l Taq polymerase stock solution to 400 l
Experiment 24: Amplification of of 1X Taq polymerase buffer. This 1X Taq dilution
buffer is prepared by adding 100 l of the 10X Taq
a DNA Fragment Using polymerase buffer stock to 900 l of distilled wa-
Polymerase Chain Reaction ter. The dilution of the Taq polymerase to 1 unit/l
should be performed immediately before the start of the
TE buffer—See Experiment 21. experiment to preserve the activity of the enzyme. Each
0.5-ml Thin-walled PCR tubes—250 required. group will require 8.5 l of the 1-unit /l Taq poly-
1.5-ml Microcentrifuge tubes—500 required. merase solution to perform the experiment.
Primers—We order these from Integrated DNA Tech- 1-kb DNA ladder—We purchase these from Gibco-BRL
nologies, Inc., 1710 Commercial Park, Coralville, (catalog #15615-016). To prepare the 0.2 g/l so-
IA 52441. This company can be reached at lution, add 50 l of the 1 g/l stock solution to
1-800-328-2661, or on the World Wide Web 200 l of TE buffer.
(http://www.idtdna.com). The sequence of the 5X TBE agarose-gel electrophoresis buffer—See Exper-
primers needed for this experiment is shown in the iment 21.
436 APPENDIX Reagents and Materials Suggestions for Preparation and Teaching Staff
KpnI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied— Power supplies—Enough to power 25 agarose-gel elec-
We obtain this from Gibco-BRL (catalog #15232- trophoresis chambers.
036), but any supplier of high-quality restriction 6X DNA sample buffer—See Experiment 21.
endonucleases will do. Agarose (electrophoresis grade)—Approximately 12.5 g
SstI (10 units/l) with 10X reaction buffer supplied—We required.
obtain this from Gibco-BRL (catalog #15222-037), Ethidium bromide solution (0.5 g/ml) in 0.5X TBE
but any supplier of high-quality restriction en- buffer—See Experiment 21.
donucleases will do. Polaroid camera fitted to a 256-nm light box—1 re-
Agarose-gel electrophoresis chambers with casting molds quired.
and 10 well combs—25 required. Film for camera—At least 25 exposures will be required.