Term Paper on RF and Microwave Engineering

Praveen Thakur
Roll No. 40
B.Tech MBA ECE Integrated

Topic: Comparison of operation and Magnetron of TWT

Abstract: In the magnetron, the electrons move in

The topic of my term paper is to compare
the operation of travelling wave tube and
magnetron. Travelling wave tube (TWT) is
a type of tube which has displayed
considerable promise as a broad band
amplifier. It was proposed by Pierce and
others in 1946. TWT’s are broad band
device in which there are no cavity
resonators as in klystron
amplifier/oscillator and Magnetron
provides microwave oscillation of very
high peak power. An improved high power
magnetron was developed by Randall and
Boot in 1939.
In this term paper I have explain about the
operation of travelling wave tube and
magnetron and show that how they are
different from each other in functioning
and their applications.
circles rather than in straight lines. The
circular motion, produced by magnets at
either end of the tube, allows the electrons
to pick up energy over a greater distance.
Inside the TWT, the regions of high and
low electron concentration move along or
around the tube in waves. When the tube is
properly operating, some of the energy
from the electrons is imparted to the signal
in the coil. The result is amplification of
the signal.
TWT (Travelling Wave Tube):

Introduction:

A travelling-wave tube (TWT) is a

specialized vacuum tube used in wireless
communications, especially in satellite
systems. The TWT can amplify or
generate microwave signals. Two common
types of TWT include the Klystron and the
magnetron.

In the Klystron, a negatively charged

cathode emits a beam of high-speed, high-
energy electron s that travel through the
cylindrical tube in straight lines to a Fig 1.TWT DIAGRAM 1
positively charged anode. A coil is wound
around the tube. When the coil is
energized with a radio-frequency ( RF )
signal, the electrons in the beam
alternately bunch up and spread out.

Fig 2.TWT DIAGRAM 2
1) Introduction:
Several years before from now, several
(radio) amateurs have employed travelling
wave tubes (TWTS), colloquially known
as 'twits', as microwave power amplifiers.
The main attraction of these devices is
their very high gain (30-60 dB), linear
characteristics and 1-2 octave bandwidths.
The history of the twt goes back to the 2nd
world war, when research into radar
devices and techniques was at a
particularly intense level. The twt was
invented in the Nuffield Laboratory
Physics Department, Birmingham
University (also the birthplace of the
cavity magnetron) by Rudolf Kompfner.
He was seeking an alternative which had a
better noise performance than the klystron,
and in a 1946 paper he explained his
reasoning.
'One of the main reasons for the lack of
sensitivity of the klystron as an amplifier is
the inevitable energy exchange between
the electron beam and the electric field in
the rhumbatrons (resonators) ...It was
therefore a very inviting thought to use the
signal in the form of a travelling electric
field (instead of a stationary one) and
utilize the energy exchange between the
travelling field and electrons which travel
at about the same velocity.'
In December 1943 the first tube gave again
of about 8 dB at a 9.1 cm wavelength, with
a 13 dB noise figure. The work was later
transferred to the Clarendon Laboratory,
Oxford. Much of the mathematical
analysis of twt operation was developed by
John R. Pierce, of Bell Labs, and in 1947
Kompfner joined Pierce to continue twt
research.
Nowadays, TWTS are by far the most
widely-used of microwave tubes, and are
employed extensively in communication
and radar systems. They are especially
suited to airborne applications, where their
small size and low weight are valuable.
Satellite communication systems are
another extremely important application,
for the same reasons.
Practical travelling wave tube amplifiers
(TWTAs) have applications in both
receiver and transmitter systems, and come
in all shapes and sizes, but they all consist
of three basic parts-the tube, the tube
mount (which includes the beam focussing
magnets) and the power supply.
2) Construction:
The features of a typical TWT are shown
in diagram above. The electron beam is
provided by an electron gun which is very
similar to those used in CRTs, though the
beam current is much larger. Electrons
from a heated cathode are accelerated
towards the anode, which is held at a high
positive potential with respect to the
cathode, and a proportion pass through a
hole in the anode to produce the beam.
Some tubes have a grid between the
cathode and anode, at a few tens of volts
(adjustable) negative with respect to the
cathode, the function of which is to control
the beam current. The electron beam
travels down the tube, inside the helix, to
the collector, which is maintained at a high
voltage referred to the cathode. The helix
is also held at a high potential, but the
helix current is low because of the beam
focussing.

Fig 3: the focussing of the electron beam
by the magnetic field
As is shown in fig 3 above, this focussing
is achieved by a magnet (either a solenoid
electromagnet or permanent magnets)
round the outside of the tube. An electron
with a component of velocity
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines
experiences a restoring force tending to
bring back its direction parallel to the field
lines.
To achieve good focussing by this method
requires a very large magnetic field, which
can mean a bulky, heavy magnet.
However, the arrangement usually
employed is called periodic permanent
magnet (PPM) focussing, in which a
number of toroidal permanent magnets of
alternating polarity is arranged along the
tube, as is shown below; this figure also
shows the contour of the beam.
Fig 4: Periodic permanent magnet
focussing
This arrangement reduces enormously the
required weight of magnet (under ideal
conditions by a factor 1/N*2; where N is
the number of magnets used). The
alternative method, solenoid focussing, is
generally only used in high-power earth
station TWTS, where size and weight are
unimportant.
The input to, and output from, the helix are
via coaxial connectors, or occasionally via
waveguide. In practice, it is impossible to
provide a perfect match at these
transitions, especially over a wide
bandwidth, so an attenuator is used to
prevent the energy reflected back down the
helix causing instability. This usually takes
the form of a resistive coating on the
outside of the central portion of the tube,
though a physical discontinuity in the helix
is also used in some cases. The attenuator
reduces the RF input signal, as well as any
reflected signal, to nearly zero, but the
electron bunches set up by the signal are
unaffected.
The helix itself is a fairly delicate
structure, and must be provided with
adequate thermal dissipation to prevent
damage. In medium-power tubes, the helix
is often supported on a beryllia or alumina
substrate, but for high-power TWTS,
alternative slow-wave structures are
employed (e.g. coupled cavities), though
usually at the expense of bandwidth. In
this form, the TWT resembles a klystron
amplifier.
3) Theory:
The essential principle of operation of a
TWT lies in the interaction between an
electron beam and an RF signal. The
velocity, v, of an electron beam is given
by:
An anode voltage of 5 kV gives an
electron velocity of 4.2 x 10*7 mso*-1.
The signal would normally travel at c, the
velocity of light (3x10*8 ms*-1), which is
much faster than any 'reasonable' electron
beam (relativistic effects mean that the
electron mass actually increases as its
velocity approaches c, so that achieving
electron velocities approaching c is a
complicated business), If, however, the
signal can be slowed down to the same
velocity as the electron beam, it is possible
to obtain amplification of the signal by
virtue of its interaction with the beam.
This is usually achieved using the helix
electrode, which is simply a spiral of wire
around the electron beam,
Fig 5: The geometry of the helix
Without the helix, the signal would travel
at a velocity c. With the helix, the axial
signal velocity is approximately c x (p /
2πa) where a, p are shown above, so the
signal is slowed by the factor p/2πa. Note
that this is independent of signal
frequency. The signal travelling along the
helix is known as a slow wave, and the
helix is referred to as a slow-wave
structure, The condition for equal slow-
wave and electron-beam velocities is
therefore approximately
The interaction between the beam and the
slow wave takes the form of 'velocity
modulation' of the beam (i.e. some
electrons are accelerated and some
retarded) forming electron bunches within
the beam. The beam current therefore
becomes modulated by the RF signal, and
the bunches react with the RF fields
associated with the slow wave travelling
down the helix, resulting in a net transfer
of energy from the beam to the signal, and
consequent amplification. Since there are
no resonant structures involved in this
interaction, amplification is obtained over
a wide bandwidth. In fact the principal
factors which limit bandwidth are the
input/output coupling arrangements.
It should also be mentioned that it is
possible to construct an oscillator, utilizing
the so-called backward wave, whose
energy travels in the reverse direction to
the electron beam. These tubes are known
as backward wave oscillators (BWOs) and
have the advantage of a very wide tunable
range (an octave or more). They have been
used extensively in swept frequency
sources (sweepers), but are rapidly being
displaced by Gunn diodes and, more
recently, transistor sources.
4) Operation:
Fig 6: Power supply arrangements for a
typical travelling wave tube
The power supply arrangements for a
typical TWT are shown in above. The
voltages and currents given are for a 10 W
output tube, but the alignment details
apply to almost all tubes.
However, manufacturers' data regarding
electrode voltages and tube operating
conditions should always be referred to
before running any particular tube.

It is very important that a suitable matched

load be connected to the output of the
amplifier, as the power reflected from any
mismatch at the output is dissipated in the
helix and can burn it out. For the same
reason the antenna must be properly
matched.

The beam current is controlled by the grid-

cathode voltage. In modern TWTS, the Fig 7: The transfer characteristic of a
beam focussing is preset and no travelling wave tube amplifier
adjustment is necessary, but if the
focussing is adjustable the tube should be
The transfer characteristic is essentially
run initially at a low beam (collector)
linear, which permits the tube to be used to
current, and the beam focussing magnets
amplify ssb-one of its great advantages in
adjusted for minimum helix current. The
an amateur context. As the input is
helix voltage should also be set for
increased, however, the amplifier
minimum helix current.
saturates. There is no harm to the tube in
operating at saturated output power, except
With the tube running at its specified
that amplification is no longer linear,
collector current, RF drive can be applied.
although if appreciable harmonic power is
The collector current will hardly change,
generated this may be reflected at the
but the helix voltage should be set for
output transition and damage the helix
maximum output consistent with not
through over dissipation.
exceeding the tube voltage or helix current
ratings. If the focussing is adjustable this
The output from the amplifier can also be
should be readjusted for minimum helix
amplitude-modulated by a signal on the
current, since the RF drive will defocus the
grid, but the attendant phase modulation is
beam slightly. As the helix is fragile and
quite high; this method is not normally
will not dissipate more than a certain
used to produce a great depth of
power without damage, the helix current
modulation, other than to operate the TWT
should be metered, and a current trip
in the pulsed mode. This is because at
incorporated to cut the power supplies to
some voltages between maximum and
the tube if the helix current becomes
minimum output, beam interception by the
excessive. The EHT supplies to the tube
helix occurs, which causes excessive helix
should be well smoothed, since ripple will
dissipation unless the transitions are rapid.
phase-modulate the output and give a
Phase modulation is obtained by varying
rough note.
the helix voltage over a small range.
Typically, plus or minus 100V from 2 kV
If the collector dissipates more than about
nominal helix voltage will give 2 radian
100 W it may be necessary to use a blower
phase shift, with 1-2 dB reduction in
to cool the collector end of the tube.
output, which occurs because the gain is
Typical efficiency of the TWTA is about
very sensitive to cathode-helix voltage.
10 per cent, though some modern tubes
may reach 40 per cent.
It is very useful to include some permanent
form of power monitor of the output from
the amplifier. This can conveniently take
the form of a directional coupler and diode
detector.
Fig 8: A simple 10 GHz power monitor
Above is a simple 10 GHz version of a
detector/power meter, which is extremely
versatile. In its simplest form the detector
uses a small cheap edgewise meter. which
can be calibrated roughly. A more accurate
detector can be made by replacing the
meter with a suitable socket (BNC) and
connecting the detector across a suitable
multi-range milli-ammeter.
Fig 9: The form of the calibration chart for
the power meter
The calibration chart plots percentage full-
scale deflection of the meter vs incident
power. Matching screws, if fitted, are
adjusted to match the detector and then
locked securely in position. Note that the
calibration is strictly correct at only one
frequency, and is somewhat dependent
upon meter resistance. The dynamic range
of this power meter can be vastly extended
using a calibrated variable attenuator. or
directional coupler. Suitable WG16
directional couplers are described in.
It is most important that anyone
contemplating generating more than a few
milli-watts of power at microwave
frequencies should make sure they
understand potential radiation hazards.
Power densities are greatest in open-ended
waveguide or around dish feeds, and
especial care is required in these regions.
The diode detector should be used to check
around flanges and lengths of flexible
waveguide, both of which can become
leaky without showing external signs of
damage.
5) Travelling wave tube
applications:
There are many areas in which TWT
amplifiers are used. They are an ideal form
of RF amplifier for satellites and as a result
they are extensively used for satellite
transponders where low levels signals are
received and need to be retransmitted at
much higher levels. In addition to this
TWT amplifiers are used in microwave
radar systems where they are able to
produce the high levels of power required.
Traveling wave tube, TWT technology is
also used for electronic warfare
applications. In these applications the grid
on the travelling wave tube may be used to
pulse the transmission. Another major use
of TWTAs is for the electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) testing industry for
immunity testing of electronic devices.
6) Drawbacks:
The problem unfortunately still remains
that TWTS are very difficult to acquire,
nevertheless, their high power output, high
gain, and ease of operation make them the
ideal way to run power at frequencies
above about 4 GHz, where conventional
tubes like the 2C39A run out of steam, and
they represent practically the only way to
run high-power SSB. It is relatively easy
to generate the 1 mW or so of SSB at
microwave frequencies required to drive
most TWTS, which will produce over 1 W
of power.
Magnetron:
In 1921 Albert Wallace Hull invented the
magnetron as a microwave tube. During
World War II it was developed by John
Randall and Henry Boot to a powerful
microwave generator for Radar
applications.
It type of microwave tube in which the
electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other. The principal
tube in this type are called M type i.e.
Magnetron. A Magnetron is a high power
microwave oscillator in which the
potential energy of an electron cloud near
the cathode is converted into radio
frequency. In the linear tubes klystron,
reflex klystron the electrons are interacted
for shorter duration so efficiency is less as
compare if increase the duration of
interaction of electron the efficiency will
increase.
There are three type of magnetron:
1) Negative resistance magnetron
(NRM)
2) Cyclotron frequency magnetron
(CFM).
3) Travelling wave or cavity
magnetron (TWM or CM)
1) NRM: It make use of negative
resistance between two anode segments
but they have less efficiency and useful at
low frequency i.e. less than 500MHz
2) CFM: It depends upon synchronism
between an alternating component of
electric and periodic oscillations of the
electrons in a direction parallel to this
field. These are useful only frequency
greater than 100MHz.
3) TWM or CM: It depends upon the
interaction of electron with a rotating
electromagnetic field of constant angular
velocity. It provides the oscillation of very
high peak power.
So we generally study the cavity
magnetron.
Magnetrons function as self-excited
microwave oscillators. Crossed electron
and magnetic fields are used in the
magnetron to produce the high-power
output required in radar equipment. These
multicavity devices may be used in radar
transmitters as either pulsed or continuous
wave oscillators at frequencies ranging
from approximately 600 to
30,000 megahertz. The relatively simple
construction has the disadvantage that the
Magnetron usually can work only on a
constructively fixed frequency.
Figure 1: Magnetron МИ 29Г of the Old
Russian Radar „Bar Lock”
1) Physical construction of a
magnetron:
The magnetron is classed as a diode
because it has no grid. The anode of a
magnetron is fabricated into a cylindrical
solid copper block. The cathode and
filament are at the center of the tube and
are supported by the filament leads. The
filament leads are large and rigid enough
to keep the cathode and filament structure
fixed in position. The cathode is indirectly
heated and is constructed of a high-
emission material. The 8 up to 20
cylindrical holes around its circumference
are resonant cavities. The cavities control
the output frequency. A narrow slot runs
from each cavity into the central portion of
the tube dividing the inner structure into as
many segments as there are cavities.
 resonant cavities Anode microwave frequencies at a Magnetron can
be subdivided into four phases too:

1. phase: Production and acceleration

of an electron beam
filament 2. phase: Velocity-modulation of the
leads electron beam
3. phase: Forming of a „Space-Charge
Wheel”
4. phase: Dispense energy to the ac field

Figure 2: Cutaway view of a magnetron

The open space between the plate and the

cathode is called the interaction space. In
this space the electric and magnetic fields
interact to exert force upon the electrons.
The magnetic field is usually provided by
a strong, permanent magnet mounted
around the magnetron so that the magnetic
field is parallel with the axis of the
cathode.

Figure 3: forms of the plate of magnetrons

The form of the cavities varies, shown in

the Figure 3. The output lead is usually a
probe or loop extending into one of the
tuned cavities and coupled into a
waveguide or coaxial line.

a. slot- type
b. vane- type
c. rising sun- type
d. hole-and-slot- type

2) Basic Magnetron Operation:

As when all velocity-modulated tubes the

electronic events at the production
1. Phase: Production and acceleration of
an electron beam: When no
magnetic field exists, heating
the cathode results in a uniform
and direct movement of the field
from the cathode to the plate
(the blue path in figure 4). The
permanent magnetic field bends
the electron path. If the electron
flow reaches the plate, so a large
amount of plate current is
flowing. If the strength of the
magnetic field is increased, the
path of the electron will have a
sharper bend. Likewise, if the
velocity of the electron
increases, the field around it
increases and the path will bend
more sharply. However, when
the critical field value is
reached, as shown in the figure
as a red path, the electrons are
deflected away from the plate
and the plate current then drops
quickly to a very small value.
When the field strength is made
still greater, the plate current
drops to zero. When the
magnetron is adjusted to the cut
off, or critical value of the plate
current and the electrons just fail
to reach the plate in their circular
motion, it can produce oscillations
at microwave frequencies.
Figure 4: the electron path under the
influence of different strength of the
magnetic field
2. Phase: Velocity-modulation of the
electron beam: The electric field in the
magnetron oscillator is a product of ac and
dc fields. The dc field extends radially
from adjacent anode segments to the
cathode. The ac fields, extending between
adjacent segments, are shown at an instant
of maximum magnitude of one alternation
of the RF oscillations occurring in the
cavities. In the figure 5 is shown only the
assumed high-frequency electrical ac field.
This ac field work in addition to the to the
permanently available dc field. The ac
field of each individual cavity increases or
decreases the dc field like shown in the
figure.
Well, the electrons which fly toward the
anode segments loaded at the moment
more positively are accelerated in addition.
These get a higher tangential speed. On the
other hand the electrons which fly toward
the segments loaded at the moment more
negatively are slow down. These get
consequently a smaller tangential speed.
Figure 5: The high-frequency electrical
field
3. Phase: Forming of a „Space-Charge
Wheel”: On reason the different speeds of
the electron groups a velocity modulation
appears therefore. The cumulative action
of many electrons returning to the cathode
while others are moving toward the anode
forms a pattern resembling the moving
spokes of a wheel known as a „Space-
Charge Wheel”, as indicated in figure 6.
The space-charge wheel rotates about the
cathode at an angular velocity of 2 poles
(anode segments) per cycle of the ac field.
This phase relationship enables the
concentration of electrons to continuously
deliver energy to sustain the RF
oscillations.

One of the spokes just is near an anode

segment which is loaded a little more
negatively. The electrons are slowed down
and pass her energy on to the ac field. This
state isn't static, because both the ac- field
and the wire wheel permanently circulate. Figure 7: Path of a single electron under
The tangential speed of the electron spokes influence of the electric RF-field
and the cycle speed of the wave must be
brought in agreement so. 3) Modes of Oscillation:

The operation frequency depends on the

sizes of the cavities and the interaction
space between anode and cathode. But the
single cavities are coupled over the
interaction space with each other.
Therefore several resonant frequencies
exist for the complete system. Two of the
four possible waveforms of a magnetron
with 8 cavities are in the figure 8
represented. Several other modes of
Figure 6: Rotating space-charge wheel in oscillation are possible (3/4π, 1/2π, 1/4π),
an twelve-cavity magnetron but a magnetron operating in the π mode
has greater power and output and is the
4. Phase: Dispense energy to the ac most commonly used.
field: Recall that an electron moving
against an E field is accelerated by the
field and takes energy from the field. Also, Strapping
an electron dispenses energy to a field and
slows down if it is moving in the same
direction as the field (positive to negative).
The electron spends energy to each cavity
as it passes and eventually reaches the
anode when its energy is expended. Thus,
the electron has helped sustain oscillations
because it has taken energy from the dc
field and given it to the ac field. This
electron describes the path shown in figure
7 over a longer time period looked. By the
multiple breaking of the electron the
energy of the electron is used optimally. Figure 8: Waveforms of the
The effectiveness reaches values up to magnetron
80%. (Anode segments are
represented „unwound”)
 of the cavity, as shown in view (B), causes
the magnetron to obtain sufficient pickup
at higher frequencies.

Figure 9: cutaway view of a magnetron

(vane-type), showing the strapping rings
and the slots.
So that a stable operational condition
adapts in the optimal pi mode, two
constructive measures are possible:
* Strapping rings:
The frequency of the π mode is separated
from the frequency of the other modes by
strapping to ensure that the alternate
segments have identical polarities. For the
pi mode, all parts of each strapping ring
are at the same potential; but the two rings
have alternately opposing potentials. For
other modes, however, a phase difference
exists between the successive segments
connected to a given strapping ring which
causes current to flow in the straps.
Figure 10: Magnetron coupling, view (A)
and (B)
The segment-fed loop method is shown in
view (C) of figure 11. The loop intercepts
the magnetic lines passing between
cavities. The strap-fed loop method (view
(D), intercepts the energy between the
strap and the segment. On the output side,
the coaxial line feeds another coaxial line
directly or feeds a waveguide through a
choke joint. The vacuum seal at the inner
conductor helps to support the line.
Aperture, or slot, coupling is illustrated in
view (E). Energy is coupled directly to a
waveguide through an iris.

* Use of cavities of different resonance

frequency e.g. such a variant is the anode
form „Rising Sun”.

4) Magnetron coupling methods:

Energy (RF) can be removed from a

magnetron by means of a coupling loop.
At frequencies lower than 10,000
megahertz, the coupling loop is made by
bending the inner conductor of a coaxial
line into a loop. The loop is then soldered
to the end of the outer conductor so that it
projects into the cavity, as shown in figure
10, view (A). Locating the loop at the end
Figure 11: Magnetron coupling, view (C),
(D) and (E)
5) Magnetron tuning:
A tunable magnetron permits the system to
be operated at a precise frequency
anywhere within a band of frequencies, as
determined by magnetron characteristics.
The resonant frequency of a magnetron
may be changed by varying the inductance
or capacitance of the resonant cavities.
Tuner additional
frame inductive
tuning
anode elements
block
Figure 12: Inductive magnetron tuning
An example of a tunable magnetron is the
M5114B used by the ATC- Radar ASR-
910. To reduce mutual interferences, the
ASR-910 can work on different assigned
frequencies. The frequency of the
transmitter must be tunable therefore. This
magnetron is provided with a mechanism
to adjust the Tx- frequency of the ASR-
910 exactly.
Figure 13 shows the inductive tuning
elements of the TH3123 Magnetron used
in ATC-radar Thomson ER713S. Note that
the adjacent the filament supply lines
resonant cavity and the coupling loop
cavity are not tunable!
Coupling loop filament supply lines
Figure 13: resonant cavities of an hole-
and-slot- type magnetron with inductive
tuning elements.
6) Applications of Magnetron:
1) Radar: In radar devices the waveguide
is connected to an antenna. The magnetron
is operated with very short pulses of
applied voltage, resulting in a short pulse
of high power microwave energy being
radiated. As in all radar systems, the
radiation reflected off a target is analyzed
to produce a radar map on a screen
2) Heating: In microwave ovens the
waveguide leads to a radio
frequency-transparent port into the
cooking chamber.
3) Lighting: In microwave-excited
lighting systems, such as a sulfur
lamp, a magnetron provides the
microwave field that is passed
through a waveguide to the lighting
cavity containing the light-emitting
substance (e.g., sulfur, metal
halides, etc.)
7) Health hazards:
Among more speculative hazards, at least
one in particular is well known and
documented. As the lens of the eye has no
cooling blood flow, it is particularly prone
to overheating when exposed to
microwave radiation. This heating can in
turn lead to a higher incidence of cataracts
in later life. A microwave oven with a
warped door or poor microwave sealing
can be hazardous.

There is also a considerable electrical

hazard around magnetrons, as they require
a high voltage power supply. Operating a
magnetron with the protective covers
removed and interlocks bypassed should
therefore be avoided.

Some magnetrons have beryllium oxide

(beryllia) ceramic insulators, which is
dangerous if crushed and inhaled, or
otherwise ingested. Single or chronic
exposure can lead to berylliosis, an
incurable lung condition. In addition,
beryllia is listed as a confirmed human
carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken
ceramic insulators or magnetrons should
not be directly handled.

References:

Books and article:

Travelling Wave Tubes, J.R.Pierce. Bell

Lab Series.
VHF/UHF Manual, 3rd Editions, RSGB
Publications.
Microwave Column, RadCom
R.F. and Microwave by M. Kulkarni.

Sites:

R-type.org
radartutorial.eu
Wikipedia