Exam seat no:

Project Report

On

“HEXAMINE”

Prepared By:- Guided By:-

Roll No:- Professor & Head of Department,

B.E Semester VIII
Chemical Engineering Department.
Chemical.

Chemical Engineering Department,

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,
Chandkheda- 382424
2009
 Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,
Chandkheda-382424.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. , Roll no. of B.E. Semester VIIIth (Chemical)
has successfully completed his project Report on “HEXAMINE”, during
the academic year 2009-10.

Date of Submission:

Professor & Head of Department,

Chemical Engineering Department.
 Acknowledgement

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere regards and deep
sense of gratitude to my Head of the department & my guide Prof. M.G. Desai. I am
thankful to my guide Prof. M.G. Desai , for not only guiding me for this project
report, but also encouraging me and finding time for reading and commenting on
manuscript.
His encouragement kept my spirit alive and lifted my moral up to very high
level of interest during the preparation of this project report.

I am highly thankful of library staff and my guide for providing valuable

references throughout the preparation of this project report. I would like to thank my
college authorities who gave me the internet facility to get some data and other
required information.
I would also like to take this opportunity to thank all my friends without
whom support I would not be able to complete this project report in time.
Finally, my grateful acknowledgements are of those who have helped me
directly or indirectly for preparing this project report.

INDEX
SR. CHP. CHAPTER PAGE
NO NO. NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Regulatory history 6

1.2 Uses 7
1.3 Health Effects 7
1.4 Product specification 7
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 10

2.1 Properties of raw material 10

2.2 Properties of HEXAMINE 11

3. PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL 13

DESCRIPTIO

3.1 Process selection 13

3.2 Process description 13
3.3 Schematic representation of manufacturing process 15
4. MATERIAL BALANCE 16

4.1 Material balance around Reactor -1 16

4.2 Material balance around Reactor -2 18
4.3 Filter press 20
4.4 Material balance around Reactor -3 20
4.5 Spray dryer 21
4.6 Rotary vaccum dryer 22
5. ENERGY BALANCE 23

5.1 Energy balance around reactor – 1 23

5.2 Energy balance around reactor – 2 24
5.3 Energy balance around reactor – 3 26
5.4 Spray dryer 27
5.5 Rotary vaccum dryer 27
6. EQUIPMENT DESIGN 28

6.1 Design of shell 28

6.2 Design of head 31
6.3 Design of jacket 33
6.4 Design of agitator 34
6.5 Design of flange 39
6.6 Design of bracket support 45
7. INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS 50
CONTROL
7.1 Process control 50
7.2 Control centre 51
7.3 Instrumentation 51
7.4 Flow control 52
7.5 Ratio control 53
7.6 Alarm and safety trips and interlock 53
8. COST ESTIMATION 54

8.1 Purchase equipment cost 54

8.2 Installation charge 55
8.3 Total product cost 56
8.4 Manufacturing cost 56
8.5 Profitability analysis 59
8.6 Payout period 59
8.7 Break even point 59
9 POLLUTION CONTROL AND 61
SAFETY ASSPECT
9.1 Pollution control 61
9.2 Material safety data sheet 63
10. UTILITIES 67

11. PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT 70

11.1 Plant location 70

11.2 Site selection criteria 71
11.3 Plant layout 73
12. REFERENCES 76

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Regulatory history

Hexamine is also known as hexamethylenetetramine, aminoform, crystamine,

methenamine or formin. It was first prepared in 1859 by Butlerov of Russia. It is a
white, crystalline powder with a slight amine odor. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and
chloroform, but it is insoluble in ether. However the aqueous solutions exhibit inverse
solubility, i.e., less hexamine dissolves as the temperature increases. The hydrate,
C6H12N4.6H2O, can be crystallized from the aqueous solution at temperatures below
14°C.

In 2000 Mexico accounted for 63% of the US imports. In 2001, 58% of imported
material came from Germany while 31% came from Mexico. In 2001 two producers,
Borden Chemical and Wright Chemical, served the US market. As the above table
shows, capacity is much greater than demand.

No longterm demand growth is expected unless a significant new end use is found.
There has been growth in some smaller volume applications, (such as commercial
explosives and steel pickling solutions). However the growth in these markets will not
be great enough to offset the slow decline in the use of phenolic resins that contain
hexamine

The price of hexamine can generally be expected to track the price of methanol,
which is the raw material for formaldehyde. As a rule of thumb, the realized cost of
hexamine moves 1 cent for every 4 cent move in the methanol price. The price also
moves one quarter of a cent for every $5/ton move in ammonia costs. Between 1995
and 2000, the price of imported hexamine dropped from $0.54/lb to $0.34/lb.

1.2 USES
Hexamine is produced as a granular and free flowing powder as well as a 42.5%
solution. The solution is shipped in tank trucks, railcars and drums. Solid forms are
packed in bags, fiber drums and super sacks. Hexamine is sensitive to moisture.
Therefore it should be stored in an atmosphere with a relative humidity below 60%.

Hexamine is used in the following areas:

• Rubber Industry: Vulcanization accelerator and rubber blowing agent

• Explosives Industry: Cyclonite (RDX), octogen (HMX), hexamethylene

triperoxide amine (HMTA)

• Synthetic Resin Industry: Liquid resin stabilizer, molding powder,

carbohydrate resins, vulcanization of vinyl resins and copolymers, aniline
shellac resins

• Pharmaceutical Industry: Disinfectant (formin, urotropin, crystazol, helmitol),

urinary antiseptic

• Photographic Industry: Stabilizer for developers

• Organic Synthesis Industry: Additives in deodorizing powder, absorption of
phosgene gas, preservation of fresh products
 • Metal Industry: Inhibitor against acids and hydrogen sulphide

• Leather Industry: Conservation of furs and skins

• Paper Industry: Surface treatment during manufacture of water repellent

papers and cardboards

• Lubricant Industry: Stabilizer for greases and oils

• Fertilizer Industry: Anticaking agent for prilled urea

• Other: Dyeing and artificial aging of wood, preservative for cosmetics,

treatment of cholera in chickens

An estimate five (5) million pounds per year of hexamine are consumed to make
commercial explosives. Hexamine demand from the phenolic resin segment has
declined due to increased competition from formaldehyde free resins and other resins
that offer performance advantages.

The production of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) may be the largest application for
hexamine (40 to 60 million pounds per year). However, since hexamine for this use is
manufactured as a captive intermediate (in solution) this segment is usually not
included in the production statistics.

1.3 Health Effects

• Acute Health Effects: Irritating to the skin and eyes on contact. Inhalation will
cause irritation to the lungs and mucus membrane. Irritation to the eyes will
cause watering and redness. Reddening, scaling, and itching are characteristics
of skin inflammation. Follow safe industrial hygiene practices and always
wear protective equipment when handling this compound.

• Chronic Health Effects: Prolonged skin contact may produce a rash to

affected area(in particular the wrist, ankles, beltline, and collar area of the
neck) similar in appearance to poison ivy. Hexamine may decompose to
formaldehyde in the presence of perspiration (slighly acidic pH 4-6.5). The
formaldehyde is trapped in the sweat pores of the skin and then oxidized to
formic acid, which is believed to be the actual agent responsible for the skin
rash. (WARNING: Formaldehyde may be a potential cancer hazard).

• Acute Health Effects: Hexamine could decompose to formaldehyde, which is

a listed potential carcinogen.

1.4 Product specification

Hexamine is a heterocyclic organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This white
crystalline compound is highly soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It has a
cage-like structure similar to adamantane. It is useful in the synthesis of other
chemical compounds, e.g. plastics, pharmaceuticals, rubber additives. It sublimes in a
vacuum at 280 °C.

Specification for technical grade Hexamine

Properties Unit Standard

Content % ≥ 99

Moisture % ≤ 0.5

Ash % ≤ 0.03

Heavy metals % ≤ 0.001

Chloride % ≤ 0.015

Sulphates % ≤ 0.02

Ammonium % ≤ 0.001

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Physical and Chemical Properties

2.1 PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIALS:

1. Formaldehyde Solution (37 %)

• Physical State at 15° C and 1 atm: Liquid

• Molecular Weight: 18-30

• Boiling Point at 1 atm: Varies with concentration

• Freezing Point: Varies with concentration

• Critical Temperature: Not pertinent

• Critical Pressure: Not pertinent

• Specific Gravity: 1.1 at 25°C (liquid)

• Liquid Surface Tension: Not pertinent

• Liquid Water Interfacial Tension: Not pertinent

• Vapor (Gas) Specific Gravity: Not pertinent

• Ratio of Specific Heats of Vapor (Gas): Not pertinent

• Latent Heat of Vaporization: Not pertinent

• Heat of Combustion: Not pertinent

• Heat of Decomposition: Not pertinent

• Heat of Solution: (est.) –9 Btu/lb = –5 cal/g = –0.2 X 105 J/kg

• Heat of Polymerization: Not pertinent

• Heat of Fusion: Currently not available

• Limiting Value: Currently not available

• Reid Vapor Pressure: 0.09 psia

2. Ammonia

• Molecular Weight: 17.03

 • Boiling Point (°C): 33.35 at 760 mm Hg

• Freezing Point (°C): 77.7

• Decomposition Temperature (°C / °F): 450 to 500 / 842 to 932

• Color: Colorless

• Critical Temperature (°C): 133.0

• Critical Pressure (kPa / psi): 1‚425 / 1‚657

• Specific Heat (J/kg °K)

0 °C: 2‚097.2
100 °C: 2‚226.2
200 °C: 2‚105.6

• Solubility in Water (weight %)

0 °C : 42.8
20 °C: 33.1
25 °C: 31.8
40 °C: 23.4
60 °C: 14.1

• Specific Gravity of Anhydrous Ammonia

40.0°C : 0.690
33.4°C : 0.682
0.00 °C : 0.639
40.0 °C : 0.580

• Vapor Pressure: 116.6 psig at 21°C (70 °F)

7‚500 mm Hg at 25 °C

• Vapor Density (Air = 1.0): 0.6 at 0 °C

• Flammable Limits in Air (% by Volume)

Lower Explosion Limit (LEL): 15
Upper Explosion Limit (UEL): 28

• Autoignition Temperature (°C / °F): 651 / 1‚204

•NFPA Ratings for Storage Vessels

Health : 3 out of 4
Flammability : 1 out of 4
Reactivity : 0 out of 4
2.2 PROPERTIES OF HEXAMINE

Chemical name : Hexamethylenetetramine

Formula : (CH2)6N4
Molecular Weight : 140.19

Sublimation Temperature : 285 – 295°C

Flash Point : 250°C

Density of solid @ 20°C : 1.33 g/cm3

Bulk Density : 700 to 800 g/L

Particle Size : 700 micron Maximum

Specific Heat : 36.5 cal/°C

Heat of Formation @ 25°C : 28.8 kcal/mol

Heat of Combustion @ 25°C : 1,003 kcal/mol

Solubility in Water
20°C : 874 g/L
25°C : 867 g/L
60°C : 844 g/L

pH of 10% Aqueous Solution : 8 to 9

Vapor Pressure @ 20°C : 0.0035 mbar

CHAPTER-3

3.1 PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL PROCESS DESCRIPTION

PROCESS 1:
Main Process Features
The feed materials for the production of Hexamethylene Tetramine (Hexamine) are
Formaldehyde and Ammonia. Formation and crystallization of Hexamine proceed
simultaneously in the same reactor.
Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously discharged from the reactor. Subsequent
separation from the mother liquor and drying are sufficient for product conditioning
prior to bagging. The Hexamine process delivers a pure white and crystalline product
with best flow characteristics for all applications and down stream uses of Hexamine.

Brief Process Description

Hexamine is produced from compressed Ammonia and Formaldehyde solution (37%).

In the process, gaseous Ammonia from store fed to the compressor and compressed
ammonia is bubbled in the Formaldehyde solution, which is already fed to the reactor.
The reaction of Formaldehyde with Ammonia to Hexamine proceeds according to the
following chemical equation:

6 CH2O + 4 NH3 (CH2)6N4 + 6 H2O + 746 kJ

The formation of Hexamine takes place in the reactor. Due to the large amount of
water, hexamine produced, is remain dissolved in water. Therefore from reactor it will
feed to the Triple Effect Evaporator.

The concentration of hexamine is increased from 26% to 60%. Then the concentrated
feed is charged to the crystallizer, where hexamine crystals are formed.

Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously withdrawn from the crystalliser and

separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a
filtration unit and returned to the Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried
to the desired rest moisture content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed.
The Hexamine produced by this process meets highest requirements for all down
stream uses. The Hexamine crystals are pure white and show best flow characteristics.

PROCESS 2:

In this process, gaseous Ammonia from store and Formaldehyde process gas are
directly introduced into the Hexamine reactor without intermediate condensation. The
Formaldehyde process gas is generated either by a Metal Oxide Catalyst process or by
a Silver Catalyst process for the production of Formaldehyde. The formation and
crystallization of Hexamine take place in the same reactor. The heat of reaction, i.e.
the heat of formation of Hexamine, and the heat of solution of are directly used for the
evaporation of excess water, Methanol and other condensable components
accumulating in the mother liquor within the reactor. Hexamine in crystalline form is
continuously withdrawn from the reactor and separated from the mother liquor by
centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a filtration unit and returned to the
Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried to the desired rest moisture
content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed.

CHAPTER-4

MATERIAL BALANCE:
Basis: Plant is to be designed to consume 1000-kg/batch of formaldehyde. Reactants
used:

• Formaldehyde solution (37%)

• Ammonia (compressed)

DATA:
Components Molecular Weight
Formaldehyde 30
Ammonia 17
Water 18
Hexamine 140

Reaction:

6CH2O + 4NH3 (CH2)6N4 + 6H2O

Formaldehyde Ammonia Hexamine Water

4.1 Reactor:

Assuming 90% conversion of reactants into hexamine.

CH2O = 1000 Kg

NH3 = 377.7 Kg

Reactor
1

Hexamine = 700 kg
For 1000 kg of formaldehyde, its solution required:

= 1000/0.37
= 2702.7 kg/batch (Aq. Formaldehyde solution)
water added:

= 2702.7 - 1000
= 1702.7 kg/batch

Mole feed of formaldehyde = 1000/30 = 33.33 kmol HCHO

NH3 required :

6 kmol HCHO required 4 kmol NH3

33.33 kmol HCHO required 22.22 kmol NH3

Amount of NH3 is consumed:

= 22.22 * 17
= 377.77 kg/batch

Total feed in reactor : HCHO solution + NH3

2702.7 + 377.77 = 3080.478 kg/batch

Since the conversion is 90%

Therefore,
HCHO reacted = 900 kg/batch
Ammonia reacted = 340 kg/batch
HCHO unreacted = 100 kg/batch
NH3 unreacted = 37.7 kg/batch

Solubility of ammonia is 33.1% weight in water at 20ºC.

Composition at Reactor outlet

Hexamine produced:
6 kmol HCHO required 1 kmol Hexamine
29.99 kmol HCHO required 4.99 kmol hexamine
Amount of Hexamine produced:
= 4.99 * 140
= 699.76 = 700 kg/batch

Water:
6 kmol of HCHO = 6 kmol of water
2.99 kmol of HCHO = 2.99 kmol of water

Amount of water produced:

= 29.99 * 18
= 540 kg/batch

Water from HCHO solution = 1702.7 kg/batch

Total water = 2242.52 kg/batch

INPUT KG/BATCH OUTPUT KG/BATCH

HCHO 1000 Hexamine 700
Water 1702.7 Water (produced) 540
NH3 377.7 Water (as reactant) 1702.7
HCHO 100
NH3 37.7
TOTAL 3080.4 3080.4

4.2 TRIPPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR:

In triple effect evaporator hexamine solution is concentrated to 60 %.

Overall material balance:

mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3

Material balance of hexamine

26% hexamine entered and 60% hexamine is collected from outlet.

0.26 * 10784 = 0.6 * m1

m1 = 4673 kg

Let us assume the U1 = 2500 W/m2K

U2 = 2000 W/m2K
U3 = 1000 W/m2K

Ts = 150ºC = 443 K (Temp of steam to the 1st effect)

Boiling point of solution in last effect = 90ºC

Overall temperature drop ∆T = 150 – 90
= 60ºC

Assuming heat loads equal in all sides

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
U1A1∆T1 = U2A2∆T2 = U3A3∆T3

For equal heat transfer surface

U1∆T1 = U2∆T2 = U3∆T3

∆T1 = U2/U1 ∆T2

∆T = ∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3

∆T = ∆T1 [ 1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3 ]

60 = ∆T1 [ 1 + 1.25 + 1.25 ]

∆T1 = 12ºC

Similarly,
∆T2 = 15.8ºC
∆T3 = 31.6ºC

Now,

T1’ = Ts - ∆T1
= 150 – 12 = 138ºC

T2’ = 138 – 15.8 = 122.2ºC

T3’ = 122.2 – 31.6 = 90.6ºC

Now we assume that amount water evaporated in every effect is same

i.e.
mv1 = mv2 = mv3 = mv

mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3

mf = m1 + 3mv

10784 = 4673 + 3 mv
mv = 2037 kg = mv1 = mv2 = mv3

Now, mass balance at 3rd effect

mf = m3 + mv3
10784 = m3 + 2037
m3 = 8747 kg
 mass balance at 2nd effect
m3 = m2 + mv2
8747 = m2 + 2037
m2 = 6710 kg

m1 = 4673 kg
m2 = 6710 kg
m3 = 8747 kg

Heat transfer area required, A2 = mv1 * ƛv1/U2 * ∆T2

= 2037 * 2199.46 * 103/ 2000*15.8*3600

= 40 m2
similarly A3 = 40 m2

Evaporator outlet composition: Hexamine solution 60% + Water 40%.

4.3 Crystallizer:
M.L. = 4920 kg

Feed = 1550.57 Hexamine crystals

kg Crystalliz
= 1282.7
er

Solubility of hexamine at 100ºC = 814 g/l

1866.68 * 0.814 = 1517.3 kg

Hence 1517.3 kg of hexamine remains dissolved in water.

Crystals form = total hexamine – hexamine dissolved

= 2800 – 1517.3 = 1282.7 kg

M.L. = water + hexamine + HCHO soln + NH3 soln

 = 1866.68 + 1517.3 + 1080 + 455.6
= 4920 kg

INPUT KG/DAY OUTPUT KG/DAY

Hexamine 2800 Hexamine crystals 1282.7
Water 1866.68 Hexamine 1517.3
dissolved
HCHO soln 1080 Water 1866.68
NH3 soln 455.6 HCHO soln 1080
NH3 soln 455.6
Total 6202.28 6202.28

4.4 Centrifuge:

PPT = 987.7kg
Centrifug
Feed = 737.552kg
e

M.L.= 1193 kg

Input :

Feed = 1282.7 kg hexamine + 30% water

= 1667.5 kg

Process water = 1 kg water / kg hexamine

= 1282.7 kg

Total feed = 2950.2 kg

Output :

Water = 10% water / kg hexamine

= 0.1 * 1282.7 = 128.27 kg

Hexamine = 1282.7 kg
Total = 1411 kg

Mother Lye = 1540 kg

INPUT KG OUTPUT KG
Hexamine 1282.7 Hexamine 1282.7
Water 384.8 Water 128.27
Process water 1282.7 M.L. 1540
2950.2 2950.97

4.5 Drier:

Feed = 1411 kg Product = 1295.5 kg (1%

water) Drier

Water = 1 % water / kg hexamine

= 0.01 * 1282.7 kg = 12.82 kg

Hexamine = 1282.7 kg

Water evaporated = 115.44 kg

INPUT KG OUTPUT KG
Hexamine 1282.7 Hexamine 1282.7
Water 128.27 Water 12.824
Water evap. 115.44
1410.97 1410.964

CHAPTER-5

ENERGY BALANCE

5.1 REACTOR :
Base temp 0°C

In reactor temp is 60°C to 70°C

Cp for HCHO soln: 3.42 KJ / Kg K

Cp for NH3: 2.226 KJ / Kg K

Cp for Hexamine: 0.153 KJ / Kg K

Cp for water: 4.176 KJ / Kg K

HEAT INPUT = Σ m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt HCHO + m Cp Δt NH3

= (2702.7×3.42× 35+273) + (377.77×2.226×308)

= 3105220.21 KJ / batch

HEAT OUTPUT = m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt HCHO + m Cp ΔtWater + m Cp ΔtNH3 + m Cp Δt Hexamine

= (100.3x3.43x353) + (2242.520x4.17×353) + (37.804×2.226×353) +

(700x0.153x353)

= 3384580.27 KJ / Batch

Heat of reaction at 68ºC = 745 KJ/mol

Therefore, (700/140) ×745 = 3725 KJ/batch (heat generated)

Q = HEAT OUTPUT - HEAT INPUT + Hreaction

= 3384580.27 – 3105220.21 + 3725

= 283085.06 KJ / Batch

Water required for Jacket in reactor

Qtotal = mCp Δt Water

283085.06 = m(4.176)[(75—40)+273]

m = 220.09 Kg/batch
5.2 TRIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Q = A U ∆TLMTD

= 10 x 2500 x 144

= 3.6x106 W = 12.96x106 KJ/S

[Note: Detailed calculations of above equipment is calculated in Chapter 4 Material

Balance]

5.3 ROTARY DRYER:

HEAT INPUT = Σ m Cp Δt

= m Cp Δt Hexamine + m Cp Δt Water + m Cp Δt Hot air

= (1282.7 x 0.153 x 353)+(128.27 x 4.176 x 353)+(1282.7 x 1.014 x 393)

= 769522.25 KJ / Batch

HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT

769522.25 = m Cp Δt Hexamine + m Cp Δt Water + m Cp Δt water evaporated

+ m Cp Δt Air

769522.25 = (1282.7 x 0.153 x T2) + (12.824 x 4.176 x T2) + (115.44 x 4.176 x T2)

+ (1282.7 x 1.014 x T2)

769522.25 = 2032.52 T2

T2 = 378.6 K = 105ºC

CHAPTER-6

PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

6.1 Triple Effect Evaporator

Design data for the evaporator in the first effect:

 • Feed inlet = 6706.5 kg

• Product outlet = 4666.68 kg

• Water evaporated = 2040 kg

• Steam inlet = 2040 kg

• Pressure of steam = 5 kg/cm2

• Temperature of steam = 150 ºC

• Temperature inside evaporator = 138 ºC

• Pressure inside evaporator = 3.46 kg/cm2

• Heat transfer area, A = 40 m2

• Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 2500 W/m2 ºC

∆TLMTD = (150 + 138)/2 = 144 ºC

Q = U A ∆TLMTD

= 2500 × 40 × 144 = 14.4×106 W

Tube Diameter, Do = 1 inch = 25.4mm

Tube Length, L = 4 Ft = 1219.2 mm

Area, A = 40 = Nt π Do L

No. of tubes, Nt = 40 / (π × 0.0254 × 1.219)

= 411.2 = 411 tubes

Cross section area of 1 tube = π/4 × Do2

= 506.7 mm2

Cross section area of 411 tubes = 411 × 506.7

= 208253.7 mm

We assume that c.s. area of tubes are 25% of the total c.s. of evaporator.

Cross section area of evaporator = 208253.7/0.25

= 833014.8 mm2

Diameter of evaporator, do : π/4 × do2 = 833014.8

do = 1.029 m
Downcomer area = 25% of 833014.8

= 208253.7 mm2

Diameter of downcomer = 208253.7 × 4 / π

= 514.9 mm

MECHANICAL DESIGN

The required data are as following:

• Internal pressure = 5 kg/cm2

• External pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2

• Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

• Modulus of Elasticity = 1.9×105 N/mm2

• Allowable stress, f = 966.5 kg/cm2

• Height of the evaporator, H = 2710 mm

• Inside Diameter of the evaporator, Di = 1030 mm

6.2 DESIGN OF SHELL:

 Internal design Pressure = operating pressure × 10% of operating pressure

= (5 - 1.033) × 1.1 = 4.3637 kg/cm2

 External design pressure = operating pressure × 10% of operating pressure

= 1.033 kg/cm2

SHELL THICKNESS:

Thickness of shell required to withstand internal pressure:

ts’ = P × ri / (f × j - O.6 × P) + C.A

Where, ri = inside radius of shell

 P = internal design pressure

f = maximum allowable stress

j = joint efficiency

(If we go for double welded butt joint with 10% radiography) then j = 0.85 & CA =
1.5 mm

= 4.3637 × 515/ (966.5 × 0.85-0.6 × 4.3637) + 1.5

2
(f = 966.5kg/cm )

= 0.42cm

ts = l.06 × ts’

=1.06 × 4.2 = 4.452 mm

Let ts = 8 mm

Thickness of shell required to withstand external pressure:

We find thickness by graphically method

Let ts = 8 mm, t = 8 - 1.5 = 6.5 mm

D0 = Di + 2t – 1.5 = 1044.5 mm

L/D0= 2.59

D0/t = 160.69

From graph given in illustrated of process equipment design. (Appendix - C)

A=0.00014

B = 3500 Psi = 246.48 Kg/cm2

Pallow = B / (Do/t) = 1.533 Kg/cm2

Pd < Pallow, satisfied

So ts= 8mm

Outside Diameter of reactor D0 = Di + 2 th

= 1030 + 2 (8) = 1046mm

WEIGHT OF SHELL:

= π (Di + tas) × ts × l × δ

= π (1030 + 8) × 8 × 2710 × 8000 × 10-9

 = 565.58 kg

6.3 HEAD DESIGN

 Top head (torispherical head is used) :-

 Internal design pressure = 4.3637 kg/cm2

 External design pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2

 Internal diameter = 1030 mm

 Crown radius =1030 mm

 MOC = SA - 285, grade -C (c.s. plate material)

Now Knuckle radius = 0.1 × 1030 = 103 mm

Concentration factor, W = ¼ [3 + (Rc/Rk)1/2]

= 1/4 [3 + (1030/103)1/2]

= 1.54

Thickness of head required to withstand internal pressure:

th’ = P × Rc × w/(2fj-O.2P)+C.A

W = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rc = crown radius, ID of reactor

Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor

W=l.54

th’ = 4.3637 × 1030 × 1.54 1(2 × 966.5 × 0.85 - 0.2 × 4.3637) + 1.5

= 5.71 mm

th = 1.06 × th’

= 6.05 mm.

Thickness of head required to withstand external pressure (By analytical

method):

th’ = Pe × Rc × W/(2fj-O.2P) + C.A

w = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rc = crown radius, i.D of reactor

Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor

Pc =1.67 × 1.033

= 1.725 kg/cm2

W= 1.54

th’ = 1.725 × 1.54 × 1030 /(2 × 966.5 × 0.85 - 0.2 × 1.725) + 1.5

= 3.16 mm

th = 1.06 × th’

=3.35 mm

Here we take the thickness for top head is ts = 6mm

Head diameter D0 = 1030 + 2 × 6 = 1042 mm

SF = 3 × th or 1.5 inch which ever is greater.

= 1.5 × 25.4 = 38.1 mm, iCr = 10% ID of reactor,

Blank diameter = OD + OD/24 + th + 2SF + 2/3 × iCr

= 1042 + 1042/24 + 6 + 2 × 38.1 + 2/3 × 103 = 1236.3 mm

Weight of Head = (π /4) × (blank diameter) × th × δ

= (π /4) × (1.23632 × 0.008 × 7800)

= 74.9 = 75 Kg

Height of head OA = th + b + SF

b = Re – [(Re - Ri)2 – (i.D/2 - Ri)2]0.5

= 1030 - [(1030 - 103)2 - (1030/2 - 103)2]0.5

= 199.58 mm = 200mm

6.4 DESIGN OF FLANGE:

Gasket material = asbestos composition

Internal design pressure = 1.133 Kgf/cm2

Gasket factor m = 2.75

Minimum design seating stress y = 251.77 kg/cm2

Flange material = SA 240 Grade S type 304

Maximum allowable stress of flange material at design temp = 1020.7 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of f1ange material at atm. temp = 1257.9 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at design temp = 816.5 kgf/cm2

Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at atm. temp = 1020.7 kgf/crn2

GASKET WIDTH:

do/di = [y-Pm]/[y-p(m-1)] ___________________(a)

where, do = outside diameter of gasket

di = inside diameter of gasket

Internal diameter of flange = O.D of shell

di= 1.046 meter

Put the value in Eq-(a) then

do/di = 1.023,

do = 1.07m

minimum gasket width = (do-di)/2 = (1.07 – 1.046) /2 = 0.014 m

Hence minimum gasket width N =14 mm

Basic gasket seating width bo = N/2 =7mm = 0.275” > 0.25”

Effective gasket seating width b = (bo)0.5/2

 = 1.323 mm

Mean diameter of gasket G = (1.07+1.046) / 2 = 1.058 m

BOLT DESIGN:

Load due to design pressure, (operating pressure)

H= (π/4) ×G2×P

= π/4 × (1058)2 × (1.133/100) = 9960.7 kgf

Load to keep joint tight under operation

Hp = π × G×2b×mxp

= π × 1058 × 2 × 1.323 × 2.75 × 1.133 = 27402.36 kgf

Total operating load,

W1 = H + Hp

= 9960.7+27402.36 = 37363.06 kgf

Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition,

W2= π ×G × b × y

= π× 1058 × 1.323 × 251.77/100 = 11071.32 kgf

Bolt area required at operating condition

Am1 = W1 / fb

= 37363.06/816.5

= 45.76 cm2

Bolt area required at bolting up condition

Am2 = W2 / fa

= 11071.32/ 1020.7

= 10.846 cm2
Root area of bolt = 0.302” x 2.5422

= 1.9483 cm2

Amax. = 45.76 cm2

So no. of bolts required. = Am / 1 .9483

= 45.76/1.9483 = 23.48

Use 24 nos. of bolts

Bolt circle diameter is, C = B + 2(g1+ R)

B = ID of shell = 1.03 m

g1 = 1.5 × thickness of shell = 1.5 x 8 = 12 mm

R = (do-Do)/2 + dbh/2 + th (dbh=22mm, assume)

(1070—1046)/2 + 22/2 + 8 = 31 mm

C= 1030 + 2 (12+ 31) = 1116 mm

Bolt spacing = πC / n

= π 1116/ 24

= 146.084mm = 146 mm

Bs is not in range of 45 to 75 mm so take n = no. of bolts = 50

Bs = 70 mm

Thickness of flange t mm,

Bs = 2db + 6 × tmin / (m+0.5)

70 = 2×22 + 6×tmin / (2.75 + 0.5)

tmin = 14.083 mm

Check of gasket width.

Ab actual = 50 × 1.9483
 = 97.415 cm2

Min gasket width = (Ab×fba) / (2πyG)

= (97.415 × 1020.7) / (2×π×251.77×105.8)

= 0.594 cm

criteria for selection of flange

1. t -= 14.08 mm < 15.875 mm

2. B/t = 73.13 mm < 320 mm

3. P = 1.133 kg/cm2

Conditions are satisfied hence loose flange can be used.

Bending moment calculation.

For bolting up condition.

Design bolt load W = (Ab+Am)fa/2

W = (97.415+45.76) ×1020.7/2

= 73069.36 kgf

hG = ½ (C-G)

= ½ (1116-1058)

= 29 mm

Bending moment created in flange material at bolting-up condition

Ma = WhG

= 2119 kgfm

Bending moment for operating condition

Mo = MD + MG + MT

Where MD = HD hD

HD = hydrostatic force acting on inside area of flange

HD = π/4 B2 P

= π/4 (10302) × (1.133/100)

= 9440.48 kgf
hD = (C-B)/2

= (1116-1030)/2

= 43 mm

MD = 9440.48×43

= 405.94 kgf

MG = HG × hG

HG = Wm1- π/4 G2P

= 37363.06 – 993.07

HG = 36369.99 kgf

hG = (C-G)/2

= (1116-1058)/2

= 29 mm

MG = 1054.7 kgfm

MT = HT × hT

HT = π/4 G2 P - π/4 B2 P

HT = 52024.54

hT = (2C – B - G )/2

= 72 mm

MT = 3745.76 kgfm

MO = 405.94+1054.7+3745.76

= 5206.4 kgfm

Ma . Ffo/Ffa

= 2119 × 1020.7/1257.9

= 1719.42 kgfm < MO

Mmax = MO = 5206.4 kgfm

Thickness of flange.

tf = ((YMmaxCF)/fB)^0.5 + C.A.+ M.A.

here, C.A. = corrosion allowance and M.A. = mechanical allowance

Assuming that CF = 1

For SS-304 C.A. = 0

K= = (O.D. of flange)/(ID of flange)

= 1186/1030

= 1.15

Y= (k2log10K/(k2-1))

Y = 25.579

tf = 11.56 cm.

tf = 115.6+5 (adding 5mm machining allowance)

actual bolt spacing Bs= C/n

= π× 2626/24

= 146 mm

Bolt pitch correction factor = CF = (Bs/(2d+t))0.5

= (146/(2×19.05+115.6))0.5

= 0.974

(CF)1/2 = 0.987

tf = 0.987 × 115.6

= 114 mm

CHAPTER:7

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

Instrumentation and process control deal with the measurement and control of
physical conditions required for mass production of high iuality products.
Instrumentation and process control ensures high output and uniform quality of
products and to ensure that least amourt of raw material are used. Physical science
have been used to argument over sense of temperature, viscosity, pressure and color,
we arc incapable of sensing within narrow slits, dillerence in temperature, speed,
color or light intensity. It produces mechanical aids that never get tired, seldom get
into trouble but are accurate and sensitive in response for long period of time while
also eliminating the elements of human errors.

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control
schemes are:

A. Safe plant operation:

o To keep the process variable within safe operating limits.

o To dictate dangerous situation as they develop and provide alarm automatic

shut down system.

o To provide interlock and alarms to prevent dangerous operating system.

B. Production Rate: To achieve the desired product output.

C. Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within, the specified quaiity
standards.

D. Cost: To operate at lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but
sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.

E. In a typical chemical plant, these objectives arc achieved by combination of

automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

7.1 Process Control:

Automatic process control and instrumentation are considered the mechanical brains,
and never of modern chemical processing. Automation is the must as it reduces labor
and improves feasibility of the product plant operation; the process and other units are
sensitive to temperature, pressure, and flow rate. I lcnce these variables are as follows:

The reaction vessel is the heart of the plant operation. Its performance determines
product quality and its efficiency is a major contributing factor to the total plant
production.

For temperature control cascade loop is used. The controlling variable is jacket
heating oil steam, which is allowed to adjust a jet point of a secondary loop; whose
response to change is rapid. Reaction temperature controller varies set point of jacket
temperature control ioop. The advantage of this loop is that a change in supply is
corrected for in sleeve loop and does not upset master controllers.
7.2 Control centre:

Since all devices are controlled from a control center, it becomes the brain of process
plant; it is designed for comfortable working conditions. It consists of a control board
and data logging system. Instruments are mounted closely together to centralize
working area, and central room is small in size, thus giving a good location. The room
must he air conditioned and free from flammable and toxic gases, green door is used
as it is pleasing and restful comfortable working surface, locate control panels
lhr’opcrating functionality.

7.3 Instrumentation:

Selection installation maintenance and operations of an instrumentation system are of

great importance to the company. Adequate effective instrumentation provides one
way to increase quality control, while maintaining or reducing prices ir the face of
higher cost of material supplied and labour. We will describe here the instrumentation
system for temperature, pressure, and levels and flow rate measuremems. We have to
select instrument which satisfy both our perfect technical and economy.

7.3.1 Instrumentation for temperature:

In our plant teiupciature is oi the prime importance and it should be strictly

maintained a the required level.

For this purpose, we have &li if erent types of expansion thermometers as

1) Mercury in glass thermometer

2) Bimetallic thermometer

3) Pressure spring thermometer

4) Pneumatic balance thermometer

7.3.2 Instrumentation for pressure Measurement:

Pressure is one of the most important factors in our process industry. For pressure
measurement we ave liquid column manometers such as U — tube manometer,
enlarged leg manometers, inclined tube manometer and well manometer. Beside from
this pressure spring gauge bellows pressure elements, melallic and non —metallic
diaphragm pressure elements and differential pressure meters. We select pressure
spring thermometer and especially bourdoii pressure gauge. it is simple in
construction and without any Conipi ication in oper it covers wind range of pressure
scale most system-handling vapour or gas ; the method of control will depend on the
process.

7.1.3 For level indication:

It is all-important to maintain the specified level in all storage tank and reaction
vessels. The level to be maintained depends upon quantities to be processed and
design specifications. For generally float end tube liquid level gauge float and shaft
liquid level unit and hydraulic remote transmission units are used. For the level
measurements in open vessels bubble system and diaphragm box system are widely
used. Level measurements in the pressure vessel liquid differential pressure
manometer, liquid scale with manometer and displacement float liquid level gauge are
used. For the measurement of flow, venturei meter, orifice meter, head flow meter,
pitot tube area flow meter such as rotameter and some quantity meters are used most
widely.

In many equipment, where an interface exists between two phases some me of

maintaining the interface the required level must be provided. This may be
incorporated in the design of the equipment as is usually done for the decanter or by
automatic control of the flow to the equipment.

7.4 Flow control:

Flow control is usually assGciated with inventory control in a storage tank or other
equipment; there must be a reservoir to take up the change in flow rates.

To provide flaw control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying
near constant volume output by a pass control be used.

7.5 Ratio Control:

Ratio control can be used when it is deckled to maintain two Ilows at a constant ratio.
For e.g. reactor feeds and distillation column reflux.

7.6 Alarm and safety trips and interlock:

Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments arc fitted with switches and relays to operate
audible and visual alarm on the control panels, lack ol’ response by the operator is
likely to land on the rapid development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would
be fitted with a tirp system to take action utomatically to prevent the hazard, such as
shutting down pumps, closing valves, operating energy.

The basic components of an automatic trip system are:

A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a present
value is exceeded instrument. A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually
consisting of a system ‘of pneumatic or electric relays. An actuator to carry out
required action, close or open valve or switch offmonitor.

CHAPTER-8
Cost Estimation
Cost estimation mainly consists of three parts:

1. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

 2. TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
3. PROFITABILITY

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

WORKING CAPITAL

(10% OF FCI)

DIRECT COST
INDIRECT COST

1. Purchased equipment 1. Engg. And supervision

2. Purchased equip. installation 2. Construction expanse

3. Instrument & control 3. Contractor’s fees

4. Piping installation 4. Contingency

5. Electrical installation

6. Building installation

7. Yard improvement

8. Service facilities

9. land

• SUMMARY OF PURCHASED EQUIPMENT & ITS COST:

NO. OF
SR. NO EQUIPMENT COST IN $ COST IN Rs.
EQUIPMENT

1. Reactor 1 32,400 14,90,400

 Triple effect
2. 1 494,100 2,27,29,060
evaporator

3. Crystallizer 1 46,800 21,52,800

4. Centrifuge 1 12,900 5,93,400

5. Drier 1 155,900 71,71,400

6. Filter bag 1 19,700 9,06,200

7. Agitator 1 4,000 1,84,000

8. Storage tank 4 104,400 48,02,400

9. Pump 4 22,500 10,35,000

10. Compressor 1 69,600 32,01,600

TOTAL ------- 868,340 4,42,66,260

All the equipments cost are taken from the internet

http://www.matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm

Now, 1$ = 46 Indian Rupees

Therefore,
Total Purchased Equipment Cost =Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 --------------- (A)

8.1 CALCULATION OF FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (FCI):

For calculating fixed capital investment we have to calculate

(A) Direct Cost

(B) Indirect Cost

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT COST:

1. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST:

The cost of purchased equipment is the basis for estimating fixed capital investment.
The most accurate method for determining purchased equipment cost is to obtain
quotation from fabricators or suppliers.

The second best method is to obtain cost values from the file of past purchased record.

From above the total purchased equipment cost is found to be

Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 ----------------------------------------(A)

The total purchased equipment cost is always 15 to 40% of fixed capital investment.

For our convenience we take it as 22% of fixed capital investment.

As we know purchased equipment cost we can calculate estimated fixed capital

investment.

Therefore
Estimated fixed capital investment = 4, 42, 66, 260
0.22

= Rs. 20,12,10,272.70
So,
The estimated fixed capital investment = Rs. 20, 12, 10,272.70.

2. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION:

The installation of equipment involves cost for labor, foundation, support, platform,
construction expense & other factors directly related to the erection of purchased
equipment.
Purchased equipment installation is always 6-14% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of purchased equipment installation = 0.09*20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,81,08,924.55 -------------- (B)

3. INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL:

Instrument costs, installation cost constitute the major portion of capital investment
required for instrumentation. Total instrumentation cost depends on the amount of
controller required.
This cost is always 2-8% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 6% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of instrumentation & control = 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ---------------(C)
4. PIPING:

The cost of piping covers labor, valve, fitting, pipe, support & other item involved in
erection of all piping used in the process.
This cost is always 3-20% of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 10% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of piping = 0.1 * 20,12,10,272.70
=Rs. 2,01,21,027.27 ---------------- (D)

5. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION:

The costs for electrical installation consist primarily of installation, labor & material
for power & lighting. The electrical installation consists mainly of four major
components namely power wiring, lighting, transformation & service & instrument &
control wiring.
This cost is always2-10 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 7% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of electrical installation = 0.07 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,40,84,719.09 ---------- (E)

6. BULIDING INSTALLATION:

The cost for building including services consists of expense for labor, material &
supply involved in the erection of all building connected with the plant. In this cost of
plumbing, heating, lighting, ventilation & similar services are included.
This cost is always 3-18 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 11% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of building installation = 0.11 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,21,33,130 ----------- (F)

7. YARD IMPROVEMENT:

Cost of fencing, grading, roads, sidewalk, railroad siding, landscaping & similar item
constitute the portion of yard improvement.
This cost is always 2-5 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 4% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of yard improvement = 0.04 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 80,48,411 ------------ (G)

8. SERVICE FACILITIES:
Utilities for supplying steam, water, power, compressed air & fuel lies in the service
facilities. Waste disposal, fire protection & miscellaneous service item such as first
aid & cafeteria equipment are included in this.
This cost is always 8-20 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of service facility = 0.09 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,81,08,924.54 ------------- (H)

9. LAND:

The cost of land & the accompanying surveys & fees depends on the location of
property & may vary by cost factor.
This cost is always 1-2 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Cost of land = 0.02 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 40,24,205 ----------------- (I)

Now,
Direct Cost = (A) + (B) + (C) + (D) + (E) + (F) + (G) + (H) + (I)
= Rs. 16, 09, 68, 218 ------------------------- (A#)

B. CALCULATION OF INDIRECT COST:

1. ENGINEERING &SUPERVISION:

The cost of construction design & engineering, drafting, purchasing, accounting,

construction & cost engineering, travel, reproductions are included in this cost.
This cost is always 4-21 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 12% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Engineering & supervision cost = 0.12 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,41,45,232.72 -------- (A)

2. CONSTRUCTION EXPENSE:

This includes temporary construction & operation, construction tool & rental office,
home office at construction site etc.
This cost is always 4-16 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 13% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Construction expense = 0.13 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,61,57,335.45 ----------- (B)

3. CONTRACTOR’S FEES:
The contractor’s fee varies for different situation but it is always 2-6 % of fixed
capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 3% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Contractor’s fees = 0.03 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 60,36,308.181 ------------ (C)

4. CONTINGENCIES:

A contingency factor is usually included in an estimate of capital investment to

compensate for unpredictable events such as storms, floods, strikes, price change,
small design change etc.
This is always 5-15 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 5% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Contingencies = 0.05 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,00,60,513.64 --------------- (D)

Now,
Total indirect cost = (A) + (B) +(C) + (D)
= Rs. 6, 63, 99, 390 ------------------ (B#)

Therefore,
Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
= (A#) + (B#)
= Rs. 22, 73, 67, 607.8

8.2 CALCULATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):

TCI = FCI + WORKING CAPITAL ---------- (1#)

Working Capital is always 10% of TCI.
Therefore equation (1#) become,
TCI = FCI + 0.1 TCI 0.9 TCI
= 22, 73, 67, 607.8

Therefore,
TCI = Rs. 25, 26, 30, 675.3.

9 CALCULATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

RAW MATERIAL COST FOR 1.3 TPD OF Hexamine PRODUCTIONS:

Total working days in a year = 300 days

Raw Material Rs/Kg Rs/Annum

 Formaldehyde (37% 15 1,80,00,000
solution)
Ammonia (gas) 28 1,26,93,072
Water 0.06 15,840
Total 3,07,08,912

All chemical’s price data taken from the internet http://www.sunivo.com.

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT PRODUCT COST:

1. RAW MATERIAL COST:

The amount of raw material which must be supplied per unit time can be determined
from process material balance & from that we can find raw material cost required per
annum.

The raw material cost for our product is Rs. 3,07,08,912 ---------- (a)

The raw material cost is always 10 -50% of total product cost.

For our convenience we take it as 49% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Estimated total product cost = Raw material cost / 0.49
= 3,07,08,912 / 0.49
= Rs 6,26,71,249

2. OPERATING LABOR COST:

In general, operating labor cost is divided into skilled & unskilled labor.
It is most commonly 10 -50% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Operating labor cost = 0.10 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 62,67,124.9--------- (b)

3. UTILITIES:

The cost for utilities such as steam, electricity, process & cooling water, compressed
air varies depending on the amount of consumption.
As a rough approximation it is always 10-20% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Utility cost = 0.10 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 62,67,124.9------------- (c)

4. MAINTENANCE & REPAIRS:

A considerable amount of expense is necessary for maintenance & repair if a plant is
to be kept in efficient operating condition.
As a rough approximation this is always 6% of Fixed Capital Investment

Therefore,
Maintenance & repair cost = 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ------- (d)

5. OPERATING SUPPLIES:

In any manufacturing operation, many miscellaneous supplies are needed to keep the
process functioning efficiently & it is not included in the raw material cost.
It is always 15% of maintenance & repair cost.

Therefore,
Operating supplies cost = 0.15 * 1,20,72,616.36
= Rs. 18,10,892.45 ----------- (e)

6. LABORATORY CHARGES:

The cost of laboratory test for control of operation & for product quality is covered in
this cost.
For quick estimates, this is always 10-20% of operating labor cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of operating labor cost.

Therefore,
Laboratory charges = 0.10 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs. 6,26,712.49-------- (f)

7. PATENTS & ROYALTIES:

Many manufacturing processes are covered by patents & it may be necessary to pay a
set amount for patent right or royalty based on the amount of material produced.
For rough approximation this is 0-6% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Patent & royalty cost = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 6,26,712.5---------- (g)

Therefore,
Direct product cost = (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) + (e) + (f) + (g)
= Rs. 5,83,80,095.61 ------------------ (C#)

B. CALCULATION OF FIXED CHARGES:

1. DEPRECIATION:
Equipment, building & other material object comprising a manufacturing plant
require an initial investment which must be written off as a manufacturing expense.
This is called as depreciation.
This is always 10% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore, Depreciation = 0.1 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8

= Rs. 2, 27, 36, 760.78 ---------- (h)

2. LOCAL TAXES:

The magnitude of local property taxes depends on the particular locality of the plant
& regional laws.
This is always 2-4% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Local taxes = 0.02 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8
= Rs. 45,47,352.156--------- (i)

3. INSURANCE:

Insurance rate depends on the type of process being carried out in the manufacturing
operation & on the extent of available protection facilities.
It is always 1% of fixed capital investment.

Therefore,
Insurance = 0.01 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8
= Rs. 22,73,676.078 ----------- (j)

Therefore
Fixed charges = (h) + (i) + (j)
= Rs. 2,95,57,789.01 ---- (D#)

C. CALCULATION OF PLANT OVERHEAD COST:

The expenditure required for routine plant services are included in plant overhead
cost.
This is always 50- 70% of total expense of operating labor cost.
For our convenience we take it as a 50% of operating labor cost.

Therefore,
Plant overhead cost = 0.50 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs. 31,33,562.45 -------------- (E#)

Therefore,
Manufacturing cost = (C#) + (D#) + (E#)
= Rs. 9,10,71,447 -------- (F#)
D. CALCULATION OF GENERAL EXPENSES:

1. ADMINISTRATIVE COST:

The expenses connected with top management or administrative activities are

necessary to include if economic analysis is to be done.
This is always 20-30% of total expense of operating labor cost.
So we take it as 20% of operating labor cost.

Therefore,
Administrative cost = 0.20 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs 12,53,424.98 ---------- (k)

2. DISTRIBUTION & MARKETING COST:

Distribution & marketing cost vary widely for different types of plant depending on
the type of material being produced, plant location & lay out etc.
For rough approximation this is 2-20% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Distribution & marketing cost = 0.02 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 12,53,425 ---------- (l)

3. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

This includes salaries & wages for all personnel directly connected with this type of
work.
In chemical industry this cost amount is about 1% of total product cost.

Therefore,
Research & development cost = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (m)

4. INTEREST:

Interest is considered to be compensation paid for the use of borrowed capital.

For rough approximation this is 0-10% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.

Therefore, Interest = 0.01 * 6,26,71,249

= Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (n)

Therefore,
General expenses = (k) + (l) + (m) + (n)
= Rs. 37,60,275 ------- (G#)
Therefore,
Total product cost = Manufacturing cost + General expenses
= (F#) + (G#)
= Rs. 9,48,31,722 --------- (H#).

8.4 CALCULATION OF PROFIT:

Hexamine production/ day = 1.3 TPD

Therefore,
Hexamine production/annum = 1.3 * 300
= 390 TPA
Selling price of 1 kg of Hexamine = Rs. 300

Therefore,
Sales income from Hexamine = 390,000 * 300
= Rs. 11,70,00,000 --------- (I#)
Now,
Gross profit = total sales income – total product cost
= (I#) – (H#)
= Rs. 2,21,68,278 ---------------- (J#)
Now, total income tax is equal to 35%

Therefore,
Total income tax = 0.35 * Gross profit
= 0.35 * 2,21,68,278
= Rs. 77,58,897.3-------------- (K#)

Therefore,
Net profit = Gross profit – Income tax
= (J#) – (K#)
= Rs 1,44,09,380.7

Now,
Rate of return = (Net profit/Total capital investment)
= (1,44,09,380.7/25, 26, 30, 675.3) * 100
= 5.70%

Now,
Payback period: depreciable fixed capital investment
Net profit per year + depreciation per year

= 25, 26, 30, 675.3/(1,44,09,380.7+ 2, 27, 36, 760.78)

Payback period = 6.8 years

Turn over ratio = Gross Annual Sales

 F.C.I
= 40, 80, 00,000
22, 73, 67, 607.8

Turn over ratio = 1.8

8.4 BREAK EVEN POINT CALCULATION (n):

F.C. + (DPC/kg) n = sell price* n

Break Even Point ‘n’ (B.E.P.) = F.C* 100/ (sell price – DPC/Kg)

Here,
F.C. (Fixed Cost) = Fixed Charges + Overhead + General Expenses
= 2,95,57,789.01 + 31,33,562.45 + 37,60,275
= Rs. 3,64,51,626.5

D.P.C. /kg = Rs. /kg 150

Sell Price = Rs. /kg 300

n = 243010.8433 kg/year
= 243 ton/year
= 0.81 ton/day
= 62.31 %

Thus, from the above Break Even Point it is required that the plant must produce 0.81
ton/day for no loss and no profit conditions. That is the plant must regularly run at an
efficiency of n = 62.31 %.

Chapter 9
Material Safety Data Sheet
Hexamine MSDS
Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification
Product Name: Methenamine
Catalog Codes: SLM4459, SLM3688
CAS#: 100-97-0
RTECS: MN4725000
TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: Methenamine
CI#: Not available.
Synonym: Hexamine; Hexamethylenetetramine
Chemical Name: Methenamine
Chemical Formula: C6H12N4

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Composition:
Name CAS # % by Weight
Methenamine 100-97-0 100

Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Methenamine: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 569

mg/kg [Mouse].

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye
contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.

Potential Chronic Health Effects:

CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available.
Repeated or prolonged exposure is not known to aggravate medical condition.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes
with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical
attention.

Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated
skin with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be
used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention.

Serious Skin Contact:

Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial
cream. Seek immediate medical attention.

Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing
is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.

Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim
is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.

Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are
swallowed, call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband.

Serious Ingestion: Not available.

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: Flammable.

Auto-Ignition Temperature:
Flash Points:
Flammable Limits:
Products of Combustion:
Not available.
CLOSED CUP: 250°C (482°F).
Not available.
These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2),
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2...).

Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Slightly flammable to flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Non-
flammable in presence of shocks.

Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available.
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static discharge: Not available.

Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:

Flammable solid.
SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use water spray or fog. Cool containing vessels with water jet in order
to prevent pressure build-up, autoignition or explosion.

Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Not available.

Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:
Explosive reaction with acetic acid + acetic anhydride + ammonium nitrate + nitric
acid, 1-bromopenta borane(9) above 90 C, iodoform (at 178 C), iodine (at 138 C).

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste
disposal container.

Large Spill:
Flammable solid.
Stop leak if without risk. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray curtain to
divert vapor drift. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if
needed. Eliminate all ignition sources. Call for assistance on disposal.

Section 7: Handling and Storage

Precautions:
Keep locked up. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground
all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable
protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory
equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or
the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as
oxidizing agents.

Storage:
Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep container tightly closed and
sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Do
not store above 25°C (77°F).

Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls:
Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls to
keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate
dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below
the exposure limit.

Personal Protection:
Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves.

Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:

Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective
clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Exposure Limits: Not available.

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Crystals solid. crystalline powder.)

Odor: Odorless.
Taste: Not available.
Molecular Weight: 140.19 g/mole
Color: White.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: Not available.
Melting Point:
Sublimation temperature: 280°C (536°F) [Lewis, R.T., Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary]
263 C [Merck Index]
Critical Temperature: Not available.
Specific Gravity: 1.331 @ -5 C (23 F) (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: Not applicable.
Vapor Density: 4.9 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: Not available.
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available.
Ionicity (in Water): Not available.
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water.

Solubility:
Soluble in cold water.
Insoluble in diethyl ether.
Soluble in chloroform.
Soluble in alcohol.

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data

Stability: The product is stable.

Instability Temperature: Not available.
Conditions of Instability: Heat, incompatible materials
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.

Special Remarks on Reactivity:

Reacts violently with Na2O2.
Decomposes when in prolonged contact with strong acids and concentratred solutions
of organic acids.
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available.
Polymerization: Will not occur.

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Inhalation. Ingestion.

Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 569 mg/kg [Mouse].
Chronic Effects on Humans: MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria
and/or yeast.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of
ingestion, of inhalation.
Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.

Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:

May cause cancer (tumorigenic) based on animal data.
May affect genetic material (mutagenic).

Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans:

Acute Potential Health Effects:
Skin: Causes skin irritation.
Eyes: Causes eye irritation.
Inhalation: Causes respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation. May affect
urinary system, and metabolism.
Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract irritation/distress with nausea, abdominal pain,
vomiting. May affect the urinary system (bladder, kidneys), behavior (excitement,
muscle contraction, spasticity, tremor).

Section 12: Ecological Information

Ecotoxicity: Not available.

BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Products of Biodegradation:
Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long
term degradation products may arise.

Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less

toxic than the product itself.

Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not available.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental
control regulations.

Section 14: Transport Information

DOT Classification: CLASS 4.1: Flammable solid.

Identification: Hexamethylenetetramine UNNA: 1328 PG: III
Special Provisions for Transport: Not available.

CHAPTER- 10

UTILITIES

(A) Utility Requirement

(B) Labour Requirement

1. Utilities

The work utilities is now generally used for the ancillary service needed in operation.
These services will normally be supplied form a central site facility. The utilities requi
ed include.

1. Water

2. Electricity

3. Steam requirement for process heating

4. Storage & movement of raw materials/products

5. Fire protection

6. Maintenance facilities

7. Plant sewer system and waste disposal

Water:

Water is vital for any plant following types of water used for the plant.

Cooling water:

Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling
water required on site. Water cay bt deacon form a river, lake of form wells.

Some treatment is necessary for once through system to prevent scale f small quantity
of surface active agents is added to the water. So it increases the solubility of the salt
in the water by preventing. Prevented by adding corrosion inhibitors such as,
chromate or surfaces acidic phosphates.

Dematerialized Water:

Dematerialized water form which all the minerals have been removed by ion-
exchange, is used when pure water is needed for process use and as boiler feed water.

Fire water:
Requirement for fire water are intermittent and assumed that other services will be
shunt if necessary to provide sufficient water capacity. The fire water lop system
should be so designed that breakdown at a specific hydrant does nto put the entire
system out of operation. Provision should be made for emergency connection of the
fire water system into the large reservoir of water. Sea water and brackish water is
often used if plant is located at the coastal area.

Sanitary water:

It must be free disease causing bacteria and potable Treated water is chlorinated to
destroy bacteria. Sanitary water systems are operated at 20-30 psi. An elevated water
storage tank is installed to ensure uninterrupted flow of water.

Utility water:

Utility water is used for miscellaneous washing operations such as cleaning an

operating area. It should be free form sediments. Notices should be put to wan
personnel not to drive this.

Electricity:

The power required for motor drivers, righting and general use, may be generated on
site, but usual it is purchased form the local supply company. In our plant main air
blower is the high power consuming equipment. As in our plant large quantity of
excess is available, we produce power in plant itself by using steam turbine. Actually
electricity is one of the by-products of our company.

The voltage at which the supply is taken will depend on the demand. In this case three
phases 415V is used for general industrial purpose and 210V single phase for lighting
and other low l)0 requirments.

Steam:

The steam for process heating is usually generated in waste heat boilers using the
most economic fuel available. In our plant we produce steam in Reboiler-I&II Steam
is used for power generation In power plant.

Storage & Movement of Raw Materials & Product:

The process contains liquid raw material and products for storage area & n a floor.
The CS is highly corrosive storage tank is located away form main plant storage tank
is properly lined to prevent any hazard. For the movement of liquid pipe lined arc
required. Pipelines are provided with flow meters to measure the flow rate.

Maintenance Facilities:
Maintenance facilities are provided to ensure efficient working of equipment. The
expensive units must be maintained by a knowledge mechanic as outlined by the
manufacture. The most efficient filtration system available for breathing air is
employed. .lf laboratory contain chromatography, it should be properly set-up.

One more item deserving mention is to blow down cylinders fI while compressing air
and inspecting annually with an inner scrape for water and rust.

So converter should be checked at frequent time periods, its construction and

performance should match with the standards set—up.

Fire Protection:

Acid handling line must be leak proof. If acid is present in atmosphere, hazard may
occur which can become a source of Accordion. Therefore, acid handling line should
be lea proof. Maintenance work is required for keeping it as leak proof.

Plant Sewer System and Waste Disposal:

Preliminary sources of sewage and waste in the plant are;

• Sanitary Waste

• Process Drain

• Surface Drainage

The plant sewer system is designed to conduct these wastes to the disposal system
without becoming clogged with solids.

Plant Roadways:

Plant roadways are designed to permit easy access to all points of plant for mobile
servicing equipment, trucks and fire fighting equipment.

CHAPTER- 11

11.1 PLANT LOCATION

The geographical location of the final plant can have stron influence on the success of
the industrial venture. Considerable care imist he exercised in selecting the plant site,
and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located
where. the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other
lactors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as
well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant can
also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site
should first be based on a complete survey of the ad and disadvantages of various
geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the
available real estate. The various principal factors that must be considered while
selecting a suitable plant site, are briefly discussed in this section. The factors to be
considered are:

1. Raw material availability.

2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)

3. Availability of suitable land.

4. Transport facilities.

5. Availability of fabors.

6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).

7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.

8. Local community considerations.

9. Climate.

10. Political strategic considerations.

11. Taxations and legal restrictions

11.2 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA -

Location:

The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of pioduct
distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an
important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because thc buyer usually l
advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the
major consumers are fi industries and hence the plant should be erected in close
proximity to those units.

Availability Of Suitable Land:

The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully.
The topography of the tract of lami structure must be considered, since either or both
may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is
important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may
make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be
ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation
should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.

Transport

The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is
close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a
central warehouse. Rail transport will be ch for the long- distance transport. If
possible the plant site should have access to all three types of’ transportation. There is
usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and
the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the
plant personnel are necessary.

Availabi of Labors:

Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally and labors suitable for
training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability and suitability .of the labors for recruitment and training.

Availability of Utilities:

The word “utilities” is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the
operation of any production process. ‘Ihese services will normally be supplied from a
central facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity, which are briefly described
as follows: Water: -
The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with
water for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production
of sulfuric acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply
is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal
fluctuations, it’s desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells.
The temperattire, mineral content, slit a sand content, bacteriological content, and cost
for supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water
supply. Demineralized water, from which all the minerals hav been removed is used
where pure water is needed l tIle process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft
cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site.

Electricity: -

Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the
various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use
and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of olant site.

Environmental impact and Effluent Disposal:

Facalities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any
public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various
effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requiren’euts
for additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste
products, full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal.
The disposal of’ toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and
the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine the standards that must be met.

Local Community Considerations:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose
a significant additional risk to the community.

Climate

Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures
will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment
and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems
and must be co:isidered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be
needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.

Political And Strategic Considerations:

Capital grants, lax conccsstoils, and other inducements are olten given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can he the overriding consideration in
site selection.

Taxation And Legal Restrictions:

State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar
items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning,
building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on
the final choice of the plant site.

Conclusion: Considering the above factors the plant should be

• Located near the refinery for getting propylene.

• It should have a near the sea because of discharging a lot of brine solution
or should be near the chior/alkali plant.

11.3 PLANT LAYOUT :-

After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural
and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the
equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an
important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be
planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus
the economic construction and efficient operation of a process nit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The
principal factors that are considered are listed below:

1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.

2. Process requirements.

3. Convenience of operation.

4. Convenience of maintenance.

5. Health and Safety considerations.

6. Future plant expansion.

7. Modular construction.

8. Waste disposal requirements

Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of co pipe between equipment, and least
amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of construction. However, this
will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

Process Requirements:

An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to
elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump.

Convenience of Operation:

Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must he provided to
allow easy access to equipment.

Convenience of Maintenance: -

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can he easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst
or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
(hsmanhling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places
under cover.

health and Safety Considerations: -

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided
from each level in process buildings.

Future Plant Expansion: —

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and
service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.

Modular Construction: -

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or
sea. The advantages of modular construction are:

1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.

3. Less need for skilled labors on site.

The disadvantages of modular construction arc:

1. Higher design costs & more structural stem work.

2.More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.