Digital to Analog Converter:-

V ref = 15V

Digital C D/A Vout

Converter Analog output
Input B

D C B A Vout

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9
1 0 1 0 10
1 0 1 1 11
1 1 0 0 12
1 1 0 1 13
1 1 1 0 14
1 1 1 1 15
1 1 D/A
= 3 1conversion
0 = 2 0 is
1=the10process
0 = 0 of taking a value represented in digital code and converting it to a voltage or current
proportional to the digital value.
 What is an integrated circuit?

Ans: An integrate circuit (IC) is a complete electronics circuit fabricated on a tiny single ship of
silicone with both the active (such as transistor, FETs etc.) and passive (such as resistors, inductors
etc.) components.

• An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter of computer memory.

Advantages of IC :

1. Extremely small physical size.

2. Very small weight.
3. Reduce cost.
4. Extremely high reliability.
5. Low power consumption.
6. Easy replacement.

Disadvantages of IC :

1. Coils or inductors can not be fabricated.

2. ICs function on at fairly low voltage.
3. They handle only limited amount of power.

Scale of Integration in ICs :

Scale Integration The number of circuits contained in one IC

01. Small scale integration (SSI) 01. Less than 12
02. Medium scale integration (MSI) 02. Between 13 and 99
03. Large scale integration (LSI) 03. Between 100 and 9,999
04. Very Large scale integration (VLSI) 04. Between 10,000 and 99,999
05. Ultra Large scale integration (ULSI) 05. Between 100,000 and 999,999
06. Giga scale integration (GSI) 06. 1,000,000 or more.

Classification of IC by Construction :

Integrated Circuit

Monolithic Film Passive Hybrid

Active & Passive Active & Passive

Thickfilm Thinfilm
 Classification of ICs by Construction :

Analog integrated circuits:

Analog IC have continuously output that depends on the input signal level.
Digital integrated circuit :
Digital ICs operate at only a few defined levels or states, rather than over a continuous range of
signal amplitude.

The ICs are manufactured in four distinct stages :

Materials preparation

Crystal growing and silicone preparation

Silicone fabrication

Testing, bonding and packaging