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1. Material Standards
2. Wavelength Standard
The wavelength of a selected orange radiation of Krtypton-86
isotope was measured and used as the basic unit of length.
Slip Gauges
The gap between two wrung slip gauges is only of the order of
0.0065 microns, which is negligible.
Procedure :
Advantages :
Definitions:
Ex.:
OR
Bilateral 25.000 mm
Basic size: The basic size is the standard size for the part and is the same for
both the hole and its shaft. Ex. 50mm diameter hole and shaft.
Nominal size: the normal size of a dimension of part is the size by which it is
referred to as a matter of convenience (used for purposes of general
identification). Often, basic and nominal sizes of a part of dimensions are used
wish the same sense.
Zero line: It is the line, which represents the base size so that the deviation from
the basic size is zero.
Fig.2.1
Limits: These are the maximum and minimum permissible size of the part.
‘Go’ Limit: It refers to upper limit of the shaft and upper limit of a hole.
Corresponds to minimum material condition.
‘No Go’ Limit: It refers to the lower limit of the shaft and upper limit of the hole.
Corresponds to min. material condition.
Tolerance: The difference between the maximum and minimum limit of size.
fig.2.3
Lower deviation: Minimum limit size – basic size positive when minimum limit of
size > basic size and vice versa (EI for hole ei for shaft)
Fundamental deviation: this is the deviation either the upper or the lower
deviation, which the nearest one to the zero line (for both hole or a shaft).
Fits: When two parts are to assemble, the relation resulting from the difference
between the size before assembling is called fit.
Basic size of a fit: It is that basic size which is common to the two parts of a fit.
Variation of a fit: This is arithmetical sum of tolerances of the two mating parts
of fit.
Clearance: This is the difference between the size of the hole and shaft, before
assembly, when the difference is positive (i.e. shaft smaller than the hole).
Interference: This is the arithmetic difference between the sizes of the hole and
the shaft before assembly, when the difference is negative.
Type of fit:
Depending upon the actual limits of the hole or shaft, fits may be classified into
the following 3 categories.
Clearance fit
Interference fit
Transition fit
Fig.2. 4
Clearance fit: In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller
than the diameter of the smallest hole, so that the shaft can rotate or slide
through the difference degrees according to purpose of mating members Ex.
Bearing and shaft.
Interference fit: In this type of fit, the minimum permitted diameter of the shaft
is larger than the maximum allowable diameter of the hole. In this case the shaft
and the hole members are intended to be attached permanent and used as a solid
component but according to the application of this combination, this type of fit
can be varied. Ex. Bearing bushes, which are in interference fit in their housing
Ex. The small end of the connecting rod in an engine.
Transition fit: In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole is
greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the
largest shaft, so that small positive or negative clearance between the shaft and
hole members employable. Location fits Ex. Spigot in mating holes, coupling rings
and recesses are the examples of transition fit.
Note: Minimum clearance: In the clearance fit it is the difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft.
Hole based system: This is one which the limits one the hole or kept constant
and the variations necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged by varying
those on the shaft (Pl. note: Hole is kept constant)
fig.2. 6
Shaft based system: This is one which the limits on the shaft are kept constant
and the variation necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged by varying
the limits on the holes.
fig.2.2.7
Advantages or characteristics
An operator can easily specialize since he is concerned with only a limited portion
of work. (Improves quality)
Interchangeability ensures increased output with reduced production cost.
For full interchangeability only such machine, whose process capability is equal to
an or less than the manufacturing tolerance allowed for that part should be
selected.
2.2.18 Selective assembly: In this kind of production (assembly), the parts are
manufactured to rather wide tolerances and function as though they were slowly
manufactured in a precision laboratory to very close tolerance. In selective
assembly the components products by machined are classified into several groups
according to size.
This is done both for hole and shaft and then the corresponding groups will match
properly. Ex. If some parts are to assembled are manufactured to nominal
tolerances of 0.01mm an automatic gauge can segregate them into ten different
groups with 0.001mm limit for selective assembly.
Characteristics:
The parts obtained can be served with both high quality and low cost using
selective assembly.
The two component parts to be assembled must be kept with in the normal
distribution i.e. mean value should be at desired calculated value and process
capability of two machines producing shafts and holes must be identical otherwise
for some components the mating components will not be available.
Best and cheapest method of assembly of widely used in industries. Ex. Aircraft,
automobile, ball bedding industries.
This concept overcomes the drawback of scraping the ‘bad’ components after
inspection, thus reducing the loss.
Limit gauge: gauge are inspection tools of rigid design, without a scale, which
serve to check the dimension of manufactured parts, Gauges do not indicate the
actual value of the inspected dimension on the work. They can only be used for
determining as to whether the inspected parts are made with the specified limits.
Note: In case of hole the maximum metal condition is when the hole is as small
as possible.
In case of shafts the maximum metal condition is when the shaft is on the high
limit of size.
The difference between the basic sizes of the two gauges is equal to the
tolerances on the component. If the size of the component is within the
prescribed limits, the gauge made to the maximum metal limit will assemble with
it, whereas the other will not. It for this reason the gauge made to the maximum
metal limit is called the ‘Go’ gauge and that made to the minimum metal limit is
called the ‘No Go’ gauge.
Note: closer attention must be paid to ‘Go’ gauges than is necessary with ‘No Go’
gauges because a component might be accepted even though the No-Go gauge
assembles, under no circumstances should a component be accepted when the
‘Go’ gauge fails to assemble.
Taylor’s principle: Taylor postulated some rules for designing the form of
gauges. When gauging a plain cylindrical plug gauges, the diameter of one, the
Go confirming to the maximum metal limit of the hole and the diameter of the
other the No-Go confirming to the minimum metal limit. If the go gauge enters
while the no go fails to enter the hole is considered to be with in the specified
limits.
Separate No-Go gauges should check the minimum metal condition of the
dimensions of the component. No-Go gauge should check only one element of the
dimension at a time.
This is because a No-Go gauge designed to check more than one dimension would
fail to detect any dimension out side the minimum metal limit if one of the
dimensions is being checked within the minimum metal limit as illustrated below.
Fig.2.2.9
As regarding no go gauges, Taylor stated that it need not be of full form and each
feature being dealt should be checked with a specific no go gauges. In other
words no go gauge shall check only one dimension of the piece at the time for the
minimum metal conditions.
Thus according to it, a hole should completely assemble with a go cylindrical plug
gauge made to the length of engagement of the hole and shaft. In addition, the
hole is measured or gauged to check that its maximum diameter is not larger
than the no go limit.
The Taylor principle interprets the limit of size for gauging holes and shafts as
follows:
For holes: The diameter of the largest perfect imaginary cylinder, which can be
inscribed within the hole so that it just contacts the highest points of the surface.
The diameter of the cylinder should not be less than the go limit of size further
the maximum diameter at any position in the hole should not exceed the no go
limit.
For shaft: The diameter of the smallest perfect imaginary cylindrical which can
be circumscribed around the shaft so that it contacts the highest points of the
surface. The diameter of cylinder should not be larger than go limit of size.
Further the minimum diameter
At any position on the shaft should not be less than "No Go’ limit of size.
Note: According the Taylor’s principle the ‘Go’ limit gauge should be a plug ring
gauge with exactly ‘Go’ diameter and length equal to the engagement length of
the fit to be made and this gauge must perfectly assemble with the work piece
inspected.
The No Go gauge should contact the work piece surface only at two diametrically
opposite points and have exactly No Go diameter at these two points. The gauge
should not be able to pass over in the work piece in any consecutive position in
the various diametric directions on the work piece length.
For Go limit: it is not advisable to use full form and full length gauges which are
bulky when the manufacturing process assures that the error of straightness will
not affect the character to fit.
Only segmental cylindrical bar could be used when gauge happens to be too
heavy and when manufacturing process assures that the error in roundness will
not have any effect on the character of fit.
For shafts (heavy) full form ring gauge need not be used. The manufacturing
process should take
care of the error of
roundness
(especially lobbing)
and error of
straightness in such
cases only gap
gauges could be
sufficient.
Fig.2.10
For No Go limit: only two point contact should be there according to Taylor but it
is not feasible because these devices are subjected to rapid wear etc. Hence
these can be safely replaced by small planes / cylindrical surfaces / spherical
surfaces. For
Gauging very small holes and in cases where work pieces may be deformed to an
oral by a two point mechanical contact device, the No Go gauge of full form, may
have to be used.
Material for gauges: The material for gauges should fulfill most of the following
requirements:
Corrosion resistance.
Ex. High carbon steel, case hardened mild steel, invar steel.
Wear Allowance: The measuring surfaces of ‘Go’ gauges, which frequently
assemble with work, rubs constantly against the surfaces of the work. This result
in wearing of the surfaces of the gauges of a result this loses initial dimensions.
Thus due to wear ‘Go’ plug gauges size is reduced. Hence a wear allowance is
added to the Go gauge in a direction opposite toe wear. Thus for a Go plug gauge
the wear allowance will be added while in a ring or gap gauge the allowance is
subtracted.
Gauge tolerance or Gauge makers tolerance: Gauges like any other job,
require a manufacturing tolerance, to compensate for imperfections in workman
ship. This is known as gauge makers tolerance.
First system: (For workshop and inspection gauges) in this method, workshop
and inspection gauges one made separately and their tolerance zones are
different.
According to this system the tolerances on the workshop gauge are arranged to
fall inside the work tolerances, while the inspection any tolerances fall outside the
work tolerances. In workshop gauges Go gauge should eat away 10% of work
tolerance and similarly No Go gauges tolerance is 1/10th of work tolerance. In
respection gauges, the gauges are kept beyond work tolerance by 10% of its
value.
Fig.2.12
Disadvantages:
Second system: (revised gauge limits) Under this system reducing the tolerance
zone of inspection gauge reduces the disadvantages of inspection gauges and the
workshop gauge tolerance remains the same.
In this system 110 of the range of work tolerance is covered instead of 120th as in
the first system for inspection gauges.
Fig.2. 13
Third system: (Present British System) In this system following principles are
followed along with Taylor’s principle.
No work should be accepted which lies outside the drawing specified limits.
This system gives same tolerance limits on workshop and inspection gauges and
the same gauge can be used for both purposes. The tolerance zone for the Go
gauges should be placed inside the work limits and the tolerance for the No Go
gauges outside the work limits. Provision for wear of Go gauges is made by the
introduction of a margin between the tolerance zone for the gauge and maximum
metal limit of the work.
Fig.2.14
Fig.2.15
Fig 2. 16
Fig.2.17
Gauges for tapers: A taper is tested by using taper plug a or ring gauge. The
important thing in testing a tapered job is to check the diameter at bigger end
and the change of diameter per unit length.
FIG:2.18
CHAPTER - 3
Comparators
Working gauges: they are also used as working gauges to prevent work
spoilage
Types of Comparators:
The comparators differ principally in the method used for amplifying and
recording the variation measured. Most commonly available comparators are of
the following types:
• Mechanical comparators
• Optical comparators
• Electric and electronic comparator machines
• Pneumatic comparators
• Fluid displacement comparator machines
• Projection comparators
• Multi-check comparator
• Automatic gauging
Application of Comparators:
Advantages:
Mechanical Comparator:
Mechanical comparators use mechanical methods of amplifying the movement of
the contact plunger and their manufacture requires high degree of accuracy.
Usual magnification of the mechanisms ranges from about 250 to 1,000.
Mechanical Comparator: Sigma comparator is the most widely used for higher
precision work. Magnification ranges from 300 to 5000. Figure shows the details
of the magnifying system of the comparator. Plunger mounted on a pair of slit
diaphragms obtains the frictionless linear motion. A knife-edge is mounted on it
and bears upon the face of the moving member of a cross strip hinge. This hinge
consists of the moving component and a fixed member, which are connected by
thin flexible strips alternately at right angles to each other. A ‘Y’ arm is attached
to the moving member which has an effective ‘I’. If the distance of the hinge from
the knife-edge be ‘a’ then the magnification of the first stages is I/a. A phosphor
– bronze strip is attached to the two extremities of the Y arm and is passed round
a radius ‘r’ attached to the pointer spindle. The second stage magnification is R/r
where R is the length of pointer. Then total magnification is I/a x R/r. The
magnification can be altered by tightening one end slackening the other screw
attaching the knife-edge to the plunger and thus adjusting the distance ‘a’.
• The shock will not be transmitted since the knife-edge moves away from
the moving member of the hinge.
• A non-ferrous disc is mounted on the pointer spindle and it is made to
move in field of a permanent magnet to obtain deadbeat reading.
• Parallax error is avoided by having a reflective strip on the scale.
• A magnet plunger on the flame and keeper bar on the top of the plunger is
used to have the constant pressure over the range of the instrument.
Electrical Comparators: Electrical and electronic comparators depend on wheat
stone bridge circuit for their operations. We know that for the bridge is to balance
electrically the ratio of the resistance’s in each pair must be equal.
Optical comparators:
Fig 3.3
Optical comparators are used in metrology labs and standard room, but not in
routine production checking.
The optical system offers the advantage of lightness & simplicity in its indicating
unit.
Pneumatic comparators:
• An air controller to regulate the pressure and the amount of airflow from
the supply. The unit incorporates a manometer
• A gauging head designed for the work to be checked.
Air supply from the supply is fed into the instrument at pressure higher than the
constant pressure required in the manometer. Air enters the tube extending
downwards into a tank of liquid. Initially the tube is filled with liquid to the same
level as that in the tank. Entry of air into the top of the tube exerts pressure on
the liquid to completely empty it. Any excess pressure than that necessary to
clear the tube will escape into the tank as air bubbles. The pressure between the
valve V and the control jet G is therefore always the same, irrespective of any
variation in the air supply pressure.
The air will now pass through the control jet at the full controlled pressure and
will reach the measuring jet S. If this jet S cannot pass the full volume of the air
from the control jet, then a pressure will tend to develop between them. The back
pressure is instantly released through the opening into the manometer tube
where it will change the height of the liquid, which indicates the amount of back
pressure built up. The back pressure is the result of restriction at the measuring
jet due to the effect of variations in the dimension of the work being checked so
that the variations in the height of the liquid of the manometer are a measure of
the dimension variations.
Pneumatic Comparator
Fig 3.2.7.1
The pneumatic method is easily adaptable for the examination of bores, since the
machining element can be housed inside the plug used for accommodating the
component. This method is very simple and minimum wear of working parts takes
place, but it requires a supply of air to provide the motive force.
Angular measurements and Interferometer
The mechanical bevel protractors are further classified into four types; A, B, C
and D. in types A and B, the Vernier is graduated to read to 5 minutes of arc
whereas in case of type C, the scale is graduated to read in degrees and the bevel
protractor is without Vernier or fine adjustment device or acute angle attachment.
The difference between types A and B is that type A is provided with fine
adjustment device or acute angle attachment whereas type B is not. The scales of
all types are graduated either as full circle marked 0-90-0-90 with one Vernier or
as a semicircle marked 0-90-0 with two Verniers 1800 apart. Type D is graduated
in degrees and is not provided with either Vernier or fine adjustment device or
acute angle attachment.
Fig 4.1
Clinometers :
A Clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level. Here the spirit level is
mounted on a rotary member carried in a housing. One face of the housing forms
the base of the instrument. On the housing, there is a circular scale. The circular
scale can measure the angle of base. The Clinometer is mainly used to determine
the included angle of two adjacent faces of work piece. Thus for this purpose, the
instrument base is placed on one face & the rotary body adjusted till zero reading
of the bubble is obtained. The angle of rotation is then noted on the circular scale
against the index. A second reading is then taken in a similar manner on the
second face of the work piece. The included angle between the faces is the
difference between the two readings.
Clinometers are also used for checking angular faces, and relief angles on large
cutting tools & milling cutter inserts. These can also be used for setting inclinable
table on jig boring machines & angular work on grinding machines etc.. The most
commonly used Clinometer is of the Hilger & Watts type.
These are also used for measuring angular displacements of small parts & setting
out angles. The special features of Precision Microptic Clinometer are direct
reading over the range 00-3600, optical reading system; totally enclosed glass
circles & easy to read scales ; main scale & micrometer scale visible
simultaneously in the eyepiece external scale for rapid coarse setting, slow
motion screw for fine setting, eye piece rotatable to most convenient viewing
position, & hardened ground steel base.
To determine the inclination of the Clinometer, the bubble unit is levelled & scale
is read. On looking through the reader eyepiece, the apertures can be seen. The
upper aperture contains two pairs of double lines & two single lines; to set the
micrometer the knob is turned until the single lines are brought exactly central
between the double lines. The scales can be read, the required angle being the
sum of the readings of the main scale & the micrometer scale. The double lines
are imaged from one side of circle & the single ones from a point diametrically
opposite; by using the double lines as an index for the single line, any residual
centering error of the circle is cancelled out. An integral low voltage lamp
illuminates the scales. The bubble unit is day light illuminated, but is also
provided with a lamp for alternative illumination.
The reference for inclination is the bubble vial. In order to measure the inclination
of a surface, the vial to which the circle is attached is turned until it is
approximately level; then the slow motion screw is used for a final adjustment to
center the bubble. To measure the angle between two surfaces the Clinometer is
placed on each surface in turn & the difference in angle can be calculated. The
Clinometer can be used as a precision setting tool to set a tool head or table at a
specific angle also.
Fig 4.3
Autocollimator:
Fig4.4
If the mirror is deflected about ‘O’ through an angle θ to the position BB’ and
therefore to be at right angles to the optical axis, the graticule, an image of the
object, giving a displacement x from G. the distance x is a measure of angle 2θ
and which is twice the angle deflection of the mirror.
If
X distance traveled by the image from the initial position of the object.
F focal length of the lens.
Then,
1. The position of the final image does not depend upon the objective lens.
2. If the reflector is completely moved back i.e. if θ become gauge, the
reflected rays will completely miss the lens and no image will be formed.
3. For high sensitivities i.e. for large value of X for smaller angular deviation
a long focal length is required.
Autocollimator Applications :
Angle Dekkor:
Terminology:
Fig 5. 1
Multiple-start screw thread: forming two produces this or more helical grooves
equally spaced and similarly formed in an axial section on a cylinder. This gives
‘quick traverse’ without sacrificing core length.
Axis of a thread: this is imaginary line running longitudinally through the center
of the screw.
Hand (right or left hand thread): Suppose a screw is held such that the
observer is looking along the axis, if a point moves along the thread in clockwise
direction and thus moves away from the observer, the thread is right hand: and if
it moves towards the observer the thread is left hand.
Form of thread: this is the shape of the contour of one complete thread as seen
in axial section.
Flanks of thread: these are straight edges, which connect the crest with the
root.
Angle of thread (included angle): this is the angle between the flanks and
slope
Flank angle: the flank angles are angles between individual flanks and the
perpendicular to the axis of the thread which passes through the vertex of the
fundamental angle. The flank angle of a symmetrical thread is commonly termed
as the half angle of thread.
Pitch: the pitch of the thread is the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the
thread, between corresponding points on the adjacent forms in the same axial
plane and on the same side of the axis. The basic pitch is equal to the lead
divided by the number of the thread starts. On drawings of thread sections, the
pitch is shown as the distance from the center of one thread crest to the center of
next, and this representation is correct for single start as well as multi-start
threads.
Lead: lead is the axial distance moved by the threaded part when it is given one
complete revolution about it’s axis with respect to fixed mating thread. the
uniformity of pitch measurement does not necessarily assure uniformity of lead.
variations in either or pitch cause the functional or virtual diameter of thread to
differ from the pitch diameter.
Lead angle: on straight threads, lead angle is the angle made by the helix of the
thread at the pitch line with plane perpendicular to the axis. The angle is
measured in actual plane.
Helix angle: on a straight thread, the helix angle is the angle made by the helix
of the thread at the pitch line with the axis. the angle is measured in an axial
plane.
Depth of thread: this is the distance from the crest or tip of the thread to the
root of the thread-measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. This could
also be defined as the distance measured radially between the major and minor
cylinders.
Axially thickness: this is the distance between the opposite faces of the same
thread measured on the pitch cylinder in the direction parallel to the axis of the
thread.
Dedendum: this is radial distance between the pitch and minor cylinder for an
external thread and for internal thread, this is radial distance between the major
and pitch cylinders.
Major diameter: in case of a straight thread, this is the diameter of the major
cylinder (imaginary cylinder, coaxial with the cylinder, which just touches the
roots of an internal thread). It is often referred to as root diameter or cone
diameter of external threads.
Errors in threads:
In case of plain shafts and holes, there is only one dimension, which has to be
considered, and errors on this dimension if exceed the permissible tolerance, will
justify the rejection of the part. While in case of screw threads there are at least
five important elements, which require consideration, and error in any one of
these can cause rejection of the thread. In routine production all of these
elements (major dia, minor dia, effective dia, pitch and angle of thread form)
must be checked and method of gauging must be able to cover all these
elements.
Errors on the major and minor diameters will cause interference with the mating
thread. Due to errors in these elements, the root section and wall thickness will
be less, also the flank contact will be reduced and ultimately the component will
be weak in strength. Errors on the effective diameter will also result in weakening
of the assembly due to interference between the flanks.
Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as they cause progressive
tightening and interference on assembly. These two errors have a special
significance as they can be precisely related to effective diameter.
Drunken error
Irregular errors
Drunken error: this is the one having erratic pitch, in which the advance of the
helix is irregular in one complete revolution of the thread. Thread drunkenness is
a particular case of a periodic pitch error recurring at intervals of one pitch. In
such a thread, the pitch measured parallel to the pitch measured parallel to the
thread axis will always be correct, the error being that the thread is not cut to the
true helix. If the screw thread be regarded as an inclined plane wound around the
cylinder and if the thread be unwound from the cylinder, (that is development of
the thread be taken) then the drunkenness can be visualized. The helix will be a
curve in the case of drunken thread and not a straight line as shown in the figure.
Fig 5.2.
It is very difficult to determine such errors and moreover they do not have any
great effect on the working unless the thread is of very large size.
Progressive pitch error: this error occurs when the tool work velocity ratio is
incorrect, though it may be constant. It can also be caused due to pitch errors in
the lead screw of the lathe or other generating machine.
Irregular errors: these arise from the disturbances in the machining setup,
variations in the cutting properties of material etc. thus they have no specific
causes and correspondingly no specific characteristics also. These errors could be
summarized as follows:
Erratic pitch: this is irregular error in pitch and varies irregularly in magnitude
over different lengths of thread.
Periodic error: if the errors vary in magnitude and recur at regular intervals,
when measured from thread to thread along the screw are referred to as periodic
errors.
There are a large number of different standard forms of screw threads in common
use. A few important measuring types of screw thread elements are discussed
here. Here the nomenclature of the screw threads is not discussed here.
Core diameter: the diameter over the root of a thread may be checked by
means of a special micrometer adapted with shaped anvils, or an ordinary
micrometer may be used in conjunction with a pair of vee pieces. The second
method is more universal in application, and a diagram showing the arrangement
is given in the figure. It is important that while making the test the micrometer is
positioned at right angles to the axis of the screw being measured.
The vee pieces used for this test are of hardened steel with an angle of about 45 0
finished with a radius less than that of the root of the thread. The back faces
should be finished flat, perpendicular with the axis of the vee and parallel with the
edge of the radius.
Effective diameter: the only reliable means of inspecting the effective diameter
of a screw is to use some method, which enables a reading to taken from the
straight, sloping flanks of the threads.
Fig 5.4
Pitch:
Fig 5.5
With a good projection measuring the image and dividing by the magnification
may determine the pitch of the portion of the thread. Greater accuracy is
obtained if, the measurement is made perpendicular to the thread flanks (instead
of measuring parallel to the screw axis), and the result divided by the cosine of
half of the thread angle. Thus in figure length AB is measured when pitch
AC=AB/cosa .
Measurement of gear teeth elements:
A few types of measuring gear teeth elements are discussed here. The
nomenclature of a toothed is a prerequisite for the following section.
Fig 5.6
A gear tooth Vernier, figure is provided with two mutually perpendicular scales 1
and 5; the first is used in adjusting for a chordal height and the second, to
measure the chordal tooth thickness. Before measurement, the adjustable tongue
3 is set by means of Vernier 2 to the height at which the chordal thickness is to
be measured and locked in position. The measuring jaws are moved apart, and
after testing the instrument with the tongue on the tip circle of gear being
measured, the jaws are drawn closer together and brought into contact with the
tooth flanks.
The values of the measured chordal thickness are directly read from Vernier 4.
Measurement at the constant- chord tooth thickness is preferable (the constant
chord is the chord between the points of contact of the basic rack profile with the
tooth flanks at a normal section). The nominal values of the constant chord height
and tooth thickness are selected from the corresponding tables compiled or are
calculated by the corresponding formulae.
For standard spur gears with a normal pressure angle of 20 0< the constant-chord
height h equal to
h=0.7476m.
S=1.387m.
Base pitch:
The base pitch is the circular pitch of the teeth measures on the base circle. The
tooth span micrometer is used to check the mean value and variation in the base
tangent length. It varies from the standard micrometers only with respect to the
measuring anvils. Here disk type measuring anvils are used. The disk anvil frame
may be partly cut away. These micrometers are often used to determine an
unknown gear module. To this end the base tangent length is measured first over
n teeth then over n-1 teeth. The difference in measurement gives the base pitch
t0 which is used for module by the formula m=t0/p cosf where f is the pressure
angle.
Gear Measurements
The most commonly used forms of gear teeth are involute & cycloid. The involute
tooth is derived from the trace of the point on a straight line, which rolls without
slipping around a circle, which is the base circle, or it could be defined as a locus
of a point on a piece of string which is unwounded from a stationary cylinder. The
cycloid tooth is derived from the curve, which is the locus of a point on a circle
rolling on the pitch circle of the gear. Here the addendum tooth is the trace of the
point on a circle rolling outside of the pitch circle and this is an epicycloidal curve
whereas the dedendum portion of the tooth is the trace of the point on a circle
rolling on the inside of the pitch circle of the gear and is hypocycloidal gear.
Worm gear pair: the worm and mating worm wheel have their axes non-parallel
and non-intersecting.
Gear Terminologies
FIG.5.7
PITCH CIRCLE
When two gears are meshed and running there are two circles which appear to
roll one on another. These two rolling circles are called pitch circles. Diameter of
the gear is represented by diameter of the pitch circles and is denoted by "d".
ADDENDUM CIRCLE
DEDENDUM CIRCLE
TOOTH THICKNESS
SPACE WIDTH
It is the distance between two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
It is the distance from a point on one tooth to a similar point on the adjacent
tooth measured along the pitch circle. It is also the ratio of the circumference of
the pitch circle to the number of teeth.
Pc = π d/t
FACE WIDTH
It is the length of the tooth measured parallel to the axis of the gear.
ADDENDUM
It is the radial height of the tooth between the pitch circle and addendum circle.
DEDENDUM
It is the radial height of the tooth between the pitch circle and dedendum circle.
FACE
It is the working area of the tooth between addendum circle and pitch circle.
FLANK
It is the working area of the tooth between pitch circle and dedendum circle.
MODULE (m)
But Pc = π d/t
Pc = π m
PITCH POINT
LINE OF CONTACT
It is the line along which the points of contact between two pairs of teeth
proceed.
PRESSURE ANGLE
It is the angle between the line of contact and the common tangent at the pitch
point.
CLEARANCE
BACKLASH
It is the distance measured along the line of contact from the point of
engagement to the point of disengagement.
It is the ratio of the gear diameter to the pinion diameter or the ratio of the pinion
speed to the gear speed or ratio of number of teeth on gear to that on pinion.
The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth vernier.
Since the tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, the
instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified
position on the tooth. Further this is possible only when there is some
arrangement to fix that position where the measurement is to be taken. The tooth
thickness is generally measured at pitch circle & is, therefore, referred to as pitch
line thickness of tooth. The gear tooth in the vernier has two vernier scales &
they are set for the width ‘w’ of the tooth & the depth ‘d’ from the top, at which w
occurs.
FIG- 5.8
Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical values of w & d can be found out
which may be verified by the instrument. In the fig it may be noted that w is a
chord ADB, but tooth thickness specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the distance
d adjusted on instrument is slightly greater than the addendum CE, w is therefore
called chordal thickness & d is called the chordal addendum.
w=2AD=2*AO*sinθ
R=N*m/2
w=(N*m)*sin(360/4N)
= (N*m/2)+m
OD = R * cosθ
= N*m/2 cos(90/N)
d = (N*m/2)+m-(N*m/2) cos(90/N)
Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when
measuring tooth thickness.
In case of helical gears the above expressions must have to be modified to take
into account the change in curvature along the pitch line. These formulae apply
when backlash is ignored.
It is used to measure the thickness of gear teeth at the pitch line or chordal
thickness of teeth & the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. An
adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by adjusting the
screw on graduated bars, measures the thickness of the tooth at pitch line & the
addendum. The effect of zero errors should be taken into consideration.
This method is simple & inexpensive. However it needs different setting for a
variation in number of teeth for a given pitch & accuracy is limited by the least
count of instrument. Since the wear during use is concentrated on the two jaws,
caliper has to be calibrated at regular intervals to maintain the accuracy of
measurement.
Most of the times a gear Vernier is used to measure the tooth thickness. As the
tooth thickness varies from top to the bottom, any instrument for measuring on a
single tooth must.
Fig 5.10
A gear tooth Vernier, figure is provided with two mutually perpendicular scales 1
and 5; the first is used in adjusting for a chordal height and the second, to
measure the chordal tooth thickness. Before measurement, the adjustable tongue
3 is set by means of Vernier 2 to the height at which the chordal thickness is to
be measured and locked in position. The measuring jaws are moved apart, and
after testing the instrument with the tongue on the tip circle of gear being
measured, the jaws are drawn closer together and brought into contact with the
tooth flanks.
The values of the measured chordal thickness are directly read from Vernier 4.
Measurement at the constant- chord tooth thickness is preferable (the constant
chord is the chord between the points of contact of the basic rack profile with the
tooth flanks at a normal section). The nominal values of the constant chord height
and tooth thickness are selected from the corresponding tables compiled or are
calculated by the corresponding formulae.
For standard spur gears with a normal pressure angle of 20 0< the constant-chord
height h equal to h=0.7476m.
S=1.387m.
Base pitch
The base pitch is the circular pitch of the teeth measures on the base circle. The
tooth span micrometer is used to check the mean value and variation in the base
tangent length. It varies from the standard micrometers only with respect to the
measuring anvils. Here disk type measuring anvils are used. The disk anvil frame
may be partly cut away. These micrometers are often used to determine an
unknown gear module. To this end the base tangent length is measured first over
n teeth then over n-1 teeth. The difference in measurement gives the base pitch
t0 which is used for module by the formula m=t0/π cosφ where φ is the pressure
angle.
FIG:5.11
GENERAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
1. Introduction
2. General Measurement System
3. Types of Input Quantities
4. Error Classification
5. Calibration
6. Experimental Test Plan
7. Measurements
1. Introduction
Measurements are important for quality assurance and process control, and to obtain
process information. Three aspects will be covered in the Experimental Engineering
class:
• Sensors-- fundamentals of sensors for mechanical and thermal quantities.
• Systems-- response and configuration.
• Experimental methods-- planning, acquisition, and analysis.
Quantities of interest include displacement, strain, temperature, pressure, force,
torque, moment,velocity, acceleration, volumetric flow rate, mass flow rate,
frequency, time, heat flux, etc.
1.1 Definitions commonly used in Sensors and Instrument
• Readability-- scales in analog instrument.
• Least Count-- smallest difference between two indications.
• Static Sensitivity-- displacement versus input, e.g., scale in oscilloscope (cm/mV),
etc.
• Hysteresis-- measured quantity which depends on the history to reach that particular
condition; generally it is a result of friction, elastic deformation, magnetic, or thermal
effects.
• Accuracy-- deviation of a reading from a known input.
• Precision-- related to reproducibility of measurement.
• Error-- deviation from a known input, a measure of accuracy.
• Uncertainty-- data scatter, a measure of precision.
1.2. Calibration
Calibration involves a comparison of a particular instrument with respect to a known
Quantity provided from (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary standard with a higher
accuracy
than the instrument to be calibrated, or (3) a known input source.
1.3. Standards
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has the primary
responsibility
to maintain standards for such quantities as length, time, temperature, and electrical
quantities for the US.
Mass. International Bureau of Weights and Measurements (Sevres, France) maintains
several primary standards, e.g., the kilogram is defined by the mass of a particular
platinum iridium bar maintained at very specific conditions at the Bureau.
Time. One second has been defined as the time elapsed during 9,192,631,770 periods
of
the radiation emitted between two excitation levels of the fundamental state of
cesium-
The Bureau International del' Hueure (BIH) in Paris, France maintains the primary
standard for clock time. The standard for cyclical frequency is based on the time
standard, 1 Hz = 1 cycle/second, or 1 Hz = 2π radian/second.
Length. One meter is defined as the length traveled by light in 3.335641 x 10-9 second
(based on the speed of light in a vacuum).
Temperature. The absolute practical scale is defined by the basic SI unit of a Kelvin,
K.
The absolute temperature scale, Kelvin, is based on the polynomial interpolation
between th eequilibrium phase change points of a number of pure substances from the
triple point of th eequilibrium hydrogen (13.81 K) to the freezing point of gold
(1337.58 K). Above 1337.58 the 4 scale is based on Planck's law of radiant emissions.
The details of the temperature standard are governed by the International Temperature
Scale-1990.
Electric Dimensions; volt (V), ampere (A), and ohm ( Ω ) . One ampere absolute is
defined by 1.00165 times the current in a water-based solution of AuN2 that deposits
Au at an electrode at a rate of 1.118 x 10-5 kg/s. One ohm absolute is defined by
0.9995 times the resistance to current flow of a column of mercury that is 1.063 m in
length and has a mass of 0.0144521 kg at 273.15
K. The practical potential standard makes use of a standard cell consisting of a
saturated solution of cadmium sulfate. The potential difference of two conductors
connected across such a solution is set at 1.0183 V at 293 K.
Laboratory calibration is made with the aid of secondary standards, e.g. standard cells
for
Voltage sources and standard resistors, etc.
Fundamental dimensions are: length, mass, time, temperature, and force. Basic SI
units
are: m, kg, s, A, K, cd (candela, luminous intensity), and supplemental units are rad
(radian, plane
angle) and sr (steradian, solid angle). There are many derived SI units, for example,
N, J, W, C (Coulomb = A • s), V (W/A), Ω(V/A), Hz, W/m2, N/m2 (Pa), Hz (1/s), etc.
Conversion factors between the SI and US engineering units are fixed, e.g. 1 in. =
0.02540005 m, 1 lbm
=0.45359237 kg., (oC) = (K) - 273.15, (oF) = (K) -459.67, etc.
INDICATOR
RECORDER
PROCESSOR
CONTROLLER
TRANSDUCER
SIGNAL
SENSOR CONDITIONER
CALIBRATION CONTROL STAGETO PROCESS
Statistical Analysis
I.1 Introduction
Variations are usually observed in engineering measurements repeatedly taken under
seemingly identical conditions. Source of the variation can be identified as follows:
M easurement System
Resolution and Repeatability
M easurement Procedure and Technique
Repeatability
M easured Variable
Temporal variation and spatial variation
Statistical analysis provides estimates of
(1) Single representative value that best characterizes the data set,
(2) Some representative value that provides the variation of the data,
1. Introduction
Transducers - electromechanical devices that convert a change in a mechanical
quantity such as displacement or force into a change in electrical quantity. Many
sensors are used in transducer design, e.g., potentiometer, differential transformers,
strain gages, capacitor sensors, piezoelectric elements, piezoresistive crystals,
thermistors, etc.
2 . Metrology
The science of weights and measures, referring to the measurements of lengths,
angles,
and weights, including the establishment of a flat plane reference surface.
2.1 Linear Measurement
Line Standard are defined by the two marks on a dimensionally stable material.
End Standard the length of end standards is the distance between the flat parallel end
faces.
Gauge Block length standards for machining purposes.
Federal Accuracy Grade; combination of gauge blocks yields a range of length from
0.100to 12.000 in., in 0.001 in. increments.
Vernier Caliper
Micrometer
Tape Measure measuring tape up to 100 ft, uncertainty as low as 0.05%; hand
measuring tools are commonly used for length measurements.
3. Displacement Sensor
Potentiometer, Differential Transformer, Strain Gage, Capacitance, Eddy Current
3.1 Potentiometer
Displacement can be measured from the above equation. Different potentiometers are
available to measure linear as well as angular displacement. Potententiometers are
generally used to measure large displacements, e.g., > 10 mm of linear motion and >
15 degrees of angular motion. Some special potentiometers are designed with a
resolution of 0.001 mm.
Differential Transformer
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a popular transducer which is
based on a variable-inductance principle for displacement measurements. The position
of the magnetic core controls the mutual inductance between the center of the primary
coil and the two outer of secondary coils. The imbalance in mutual inductance
between the center location, and an output voltage develops. Frequency applied to the
primary coil can range from 50 to 25000 Hz. If the LVDT is used to measure dynamic
displacements, the carrier frequency should be 10 times greater than the highest
frequency component in the dynamic signal. In general, highest sensitivities are
attained at frequencies of 1 to 5 kHz. The input voltages range from 5 to 15 V.
Sensitivities usually vary from 0.02 to 0.2 V/mm of displacement per volt of
excitation applied to the primary coil. The actual sensitivity depends on the design of
each LVDT. The stroke varies in a range of +150 mm (low sensitivity). There are two
other commonly used differential transformers: DCDT--Direct Current Differential
Transformer and RVDT-- Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (range of linear
operation is ± 40 degrees). Consult Figs. 12.9 and 12.11 of Textbook for typical
schematic diagrams of LVDT and Fig. 12.12 for that of RVDT. LVDT and RVDT are
known for long lifetime of usage and no over travel damage.
3.2 Resistance-type stain gage
Lord Kelvin observed the strain sensitivity of metals (copper and iron) in 1856. The
effect can be explained in the following analysis.
R =ρL
A (uniform metal conduction)
Where R = resistance, ρ = specific resistance, L = length of the conductor, A = cross
sectional area of the conductor dR
R =dρρ+dL
L –dA/A
Consider a rod under a uniaxial tensile stress state:
Lεa =dL
L , εt = - νεa = -ν dL
L
where εa = axial strain, εt = transverse strain, ν = Poisson ratio
df = do ( l - ν dL/L ).