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  • Massey Worlds in Motion

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    Dan Suárez
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    The International Union for the Scientific Study of Population was set up in 1928. Its main purpose was to promote international scientific co-operation. In 1947 the IUSSP was reconstituted into its present form.

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    The International Union for the Scientific Study of Population was set up in 1928. Its main purpose was to promote international scientific co-operation. In 1947 the IUSSP was reconstituted into its present form.

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    3K просмотров31 страница

    Massey Worlds in Motion

    Загружено:

    Dan Suárez
    The International Union for the Scientific Study of Population was set up in 1928. Its main purpose was to promote international scientific co-operation. In 1947 the IUSSP was reconstituted into its present form.

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    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Скачайте в формате PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd
    Отметить как неприемлемый контент
    из 31
    2? ‘The nrationUsion ote Sete uy of Popstin robles war ei 1905 with Dr yon au a Pei At th te the o'r wa ‘pron trations eric evaperatn state varus ect popul tion protien trongh natal sommes ad tough te memes theses 1817 the Iteraborl Unoa for the Salestie Sty of opanion (USS wat esos tt set fr THexpmged ts tes + stole resect on popaaon 1 scp intret in demographic mater ong goverment aia an ine soa rennin saris bees ad the gener pac + Tor tins teween pope aoe is popaaton ser * serine wet now on popltion ‘The princi wy trough whe the TUSS caret chive in a: + onpaatono wrdvie oreo antececes 1 Spates of Sent Commies under the spl of the Cvs | trpuiaton of ting cme + paca of contre peers and comnite report emogiphy mt dete ty it el of tay ans aaa meade. And ingly ean be repre a th elie ay 0 ea ppaltsns party a rept thir sn, the rect, nd tht Gevelopment Fr fas with ae ‘atoto te ir tine, th demographic meted ental inte ‘ogesinaowedpe els om the nporeseat fee, besepstcnton ‘tteonsement mato and the each for reales aud be act ain to the formation texto modes ncaa, theres ojos en a analyse odo, sar sad ane Iara Sin Demography totem fas greet conde by he TUSS ane Oxted Univer os Th otros he onan te Unies ee ts aol oa te ein ermine Union ad pert ‘ntemaonl met ithe ldo peptone develo. The rl Bont thes epi oan Clad, UK Hen Leon Fanos Jo Hotere, UK Rica at, UK ‘Gers Talos France Worlds in Motion Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium Douglas S. Massey Joaquin Arango ‘Graeme Hugo ‘Ab Kowaouct ‘Adela Pellegrino 1 Edward Taylor (CLARENDON PRESS - OXFORD Lit of Tables 91 Shorcren percentage ffest of Schengen international riprntremaitances total household cones eta laste of come) n selected village wide mode 261 92 Long-run perceatage effects of St change i international _migratreaitance oft Rouehold incomes (etn laste of come) ia selected ville wide mole 208 1. New Migrations, New Theories Like many bids, but wnlke most other animal humans area migratory ‘posi Inedy migration i td humanity etl OF thi fc there no ‘eter pro than de spread of bunun beings to all corner ofthe earth om ‘hentia ecological nce in sub-Saharan Atria (Davis 197438) A cata ‘tamination of wrtually any hte era teens coasstet propensity towards gooprapie mebiity among men and women, who ere diven 1 ‘wander by diverse mates, but nearly aways with some idea of material Improvement "The madera history of international migration can be dive rovghly into four periods, During the merce period, om 150 to 180, wo mig tion was dominted ty dows out of Europe and stemmed fom process of ‘oloniation and economic prowh under mereathst capa. Over the ‘oue of 200 years European lnabted large portions ofthe Amerie, ‘Nise, Ase and Ooeani (Altman 195; Hetfern 1995, Laces 1935 “Tinker 1995) Althongh the exact number of cloning emirauisisunkown, the otlow was sulin oesblsh Europe's dominion ove large pat of the world Duting thie period emigrant generally fl ita four claae: a relatively age numberof again eters» sale numberof adminis tors and artsaas, an even aller ule of entepreneus who fone Plantation to paoduce rw materials for Europes rowing mercantt coon "i an in ery feces, convict migrants en to penal oles overseas ‘Although the number of Europeaas valved i plantation production Was sal this sector Had 4 profound impact on the sze and eompostion of population Inthe Amecens, Given pend ecinaory, plantations ‘euied large mount of chesp labour a demand eet paral by denture ‘norkers fem Bast Aas (Gemery and Horn 1992; Hut 1998; Kr 992 Tnker 5, Twaddle 1995 Vertowe 185) The mos important source of planation labour however, was the forced migration of Alvan slaves (Palmer 1992), (Over thre centres, esly 10 aon Arian slaves were imported into the ‘Ameren (Cartan 1969) and together sth Europe colonia hey adel ‘wensformed the ral end ethnic compotion of te New Wei “The second nda period of emigration begins carlin the anetecth enlury and semmed from the economic development of Europe and the Spread of dein to former soloe i be New Worl (Hatton and ‘Willaon 1954) rom 1901 1925, more than 4 million people et he ‘nduraing counties of Europe in search of now ves inthe Americas {nd Osean OF these emigrant, 8S percent went to juste destinations 2 New Migrations, New Theories Argetina, Ausalis, Cans, New Zesland, and the USA, with the ltr eccving 0 per cea all by self (Perens 1923). Key sending nations were ‘rin, aly, Norway Portugal Spa and Swedea each of which exported laige share oft potential popuiton inthe enue of induniliig (Masoy 1988), “he period of lange-scale Europea emigration faleed wth the outbrsk of he Fast World War, which rough Earopesn emigration oun supe ale. and ushered in a fourdeeade period of limted migration (Massey 195). ‘Although eigation revived somewhat during the cary 120 by then evra important ecevng counties (most notably the USA) had paso etstne Immigzaion avs. The onset of the Great Depression stopped ual all imeratia! movement in 1929, and except fora smal smoot of ero ‘ugraon, hare war ile movertent cing the 13h, During the 1940, International igreen was checked bythe Second World War What ob) there was consted largely of etuges ata dplaced persons and was 0 ed ‘toni othe hytims of economic wowth and development (Hames 195 Noinl 199; Sword 1995 Kay 1995), a pater that persed well to the sutsoquent cece. "The period of ound migration emerged during the 196s and eon- sututed a harp brea wah the past Reber han big Goria by ots ‘tom Europe to «handful of former colonies, immigration became a tly slbal phenomenon asthe number sn vail of both sending an eeiing ounce steadily increased andthe lel spy ef migra shied from Europe to the developing countries of the Third World (Cates and Miler 1993). Whereas migration during the industrial era rovght people from densi etd, api industalzing areas to sparsely settle, apy ior ‘walang region, migration inthe post nda ea brought people fom Aensely sted counties inthe eres stages of ndriaation wo densely Setled pos industrial soctes Before 1925, 88 pe cnt ofa internation migrants vgn in Europe (Ferenc 192}, but since 1960, Europeans have comprised an creasingly Sal action of word immigrant flows and emigration om Ais A, and {tn Amaia iene dara (Kite 981 Saker 188) The variety of destination counties has ako grow. In addon to tational inuigrant receiving vations such as Canada the USA, Austin, New Zealid, and Argentina, counties throughout Western Europe now sts Signieant aunbers of immigrantsnoabiy Germany, Fran Belg, Sritzrind, Sweden and the Nethelands (Abadan Unt 1995, Anwar 1955, Hsenat 195; Hotiman-Nowotny 1995; Ogden 1985). ‘Dung te 197s, ten lonptenatons of migration sch tly, Spi, san Pool began feosvng immigrant trom the Mediterranean basins ‘Aria (Falls 1995, Sole 1985) and after the apd escalation ofl price it 1973, sovea less devlopod ut eapital-rch ations in fhe Gul son ao ‘began to sponsor masive ubour mipraon at abot he same tne (ks and [New Migration, New Theories 3 Snclaie 1980: Abella 1985). By the 18s, ntrnationsl migration had spread into As ot ost Japan but sls onowly indi counties sch Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong Stgapore, Malays, and Thailand (Bu 1955 os 1995; Hugo 19886 Loisandl 1995) [Aw Look at an Olé Phenomenon Human migstin is rooted inspect historical conditions that define ap: ‘har socal and economic conten. Historical specie explanations tor inverationsl migration ave irequetly ad hoe and unsstemai ater than fenral. Nonetheless, ahistorical xmeworks that offer universal expla tons, immutable laws, and toes regularities are not very hepa n rying to undestnd new pateras of ntertaonal movemcat. The theoretical cou ‘eote nom employed by sca sett to anayee and expan iteration Ingration were forged primarily daring te indartialers snd elt pe ticsar economic arangements, social rttutions, ecology, demogrep, snd pois. "These indstriakera theories gave rise toa conesptul framework that lasted for deta. Although Buen cestive when es danived grew sd Der me and aow appears sulted to he raat diferent conatons the late tweatet century. With te pase of ine realy changed bat ‘cen thinking abut international migration erste mised in he past. “The eamicl approach has now ented state of is, calleaged by new dea, coneept and hypotheses. Altiough these new ways of taking Rave not yeteaeedinto angle theory, they haveeivigorateconeptal devel pment and spased 2 ne” wave of empiri! resvrch grounded ib he Paterus and fms of ternational migration inte ae tweet entry ‘Sooner or later theories most change to refect new social and esnomic reser We se now well ilo postnatal, post Cais War word and ‘bout embark oa rand new entry within which imigrtion wil aya eat ole (Cases and Mller 199), The ine has come, teeters ‘et theories of nteratons mirattn an bin ther nto enor Wah ‘ow empiri condtons Inthe chapters hat flo we poset ad ealute "hoodie that have been pt forth to expla the socal econom, and politcal ores that generate and perpetuate international migration around the word Often disuse nthe determinant of migration we Se the exglction of these fore as oe of wo cri aks now contoning the fl “The oer task ise theoreti lustion of wat mip be cle nm ant asinine eas mechanisms and poles by which migrants ‘Mat and are incrpotted within roving societies Although his ise ‘oof clear and unambiguous importance, we leave it aside for now and fas Instead onthe cases oisternational migration, ots consequences. Under Standing the causes of labal mgresons of paramount importance, for what- 4 New Migracon, Naw Theories ever coucpis and thearias we derive will determin predictions shout the ‘magnitide, duration, abé character of atesatonal migration inthe next ‘tury, and ence, te ples tht wil mse be adopted to mee ths ‘ig lob challenpe. ‘Tho Now Face of Internationl Migration ‘The emblemnticinterations migrant of the ate netenth and early tent cs centuries wars Earopeancroing the ocean ineeatch ofa beter, ‘acangng an ndstalizing region intensive abour for anther indus. fang reson intense inland (Hatten and Wiliarwon 198) Tadtons| ounse of inigrtion ruc asthe USA. Canada, Aust, and Argetina hod vas, spatsely inated terion as well ex rapidly groving ties, eeu Europe's counts Was densa sled andthe abwoptive spac) fits rowed urban centres wa often stained bayond pest lit. S ‘aoa 1941; B. Thomas 1973: Lavel 198), Europe's passage though the iil sn termediate stages of esonomic evelopment was accompanied bya deimograpis oom tha hough sal by contemporary Third World standards, was large enought alloc ates of ‘ngraton Ebbs aud ows inthe volume of out-migration from Earope were Slotted ooeilting coor ss case by eater ectuations in peed Telit, whieh were themselves responses 10 ioe economic cele (D5 ‘Thomas 1041; Easetin 196K, Germani T86h;B. Thomas 197. Halton sad Willamson 1942), Te tone of demographic growth continued wel ato the present century, and even winessed a ceting fev alter the Second Wold War Tneratonal migration iat the coutrc of Wester Europe began diag ‘he second haf ofthe twentieth century (Rose 169; Caste an Kosek 173, Power 197% Stalker 98. Darnghe hid quater af the century nach ofthe ‘movement was inracntnentat Worker lft nonin southern Earope tat ‘were sl elatelyntensve albu, Spin, Perea, {or nations i te noth and west tat had Become intensive i capital bat Scarce ia labour—Cermany, Frine, Belgom, the Netherlands Swedea (Matin and Miler 1980, Sebicrup 1998) Although war pot clear the ine, bythe late 160, southern Europe was itself on the verge of achieving the Toag-dszed sate of eaialabendance and abour scary, ad daring the 17% ely, Spin, and Porzugal sso began imporing migrant workers, ‘mainly from she Middle Est and North Ate. ‘The European hit rom exporting to importing abou was cable bocaise it involved, forthe fist ume the widasprend movement of migrant toca tees tht wero ot inten in and, Ants dative estar yi thew) European labour migrant were browght fn. Faced with rapid economic owt ight labour markets, and demand for workersthatwarimpossibe 0 [New Migrations, New Theories 5 fi om domestic sources (so Kindberg 1967), bat aking an indigenous tradition of mmigration or an ideology that favoured pemaneut seme [Enropean goverment sought to ecu temporary migrnteratarber orplesthorken lathe langue coined at the meh Would rer to thet counties of origin when the economic coaditions at made thee ecru ment necemary dappested (Martin 199%), ‘When this nomen aly eve, however, the yuet (aed wo take the sotao-uble hint of their hos and rtum home a anipted. On the ‘Sontay, are nome opted to ste permanent in Esrope and been Petidoning for the entry of their spouts cidren, and other relatives [though the unter of inmigran workers stopped prong, orlgn populations continued to ssl (Martin and Milt 198) nresponse, coun fro adopted more restive sdmiaons polis ster the mi 197m bat by then the cow was out ofthe barn and European governments faced the prospect of integrating rowing populations of mmpants and thi descend bts (Rone 19; Car and Konak 1973). Without any poplar referendum ‘Sresplct dessin onthe mater, Westen Europe had become mula, multeetins society (Cases and Miler 199). wa oniy rng the lst qunter of he tweet entry, the water shed event of the 1573 i shock pd the ening worldwide econ that the ‘ules ofthe new pst-ndustial migratory oede came nto cla Vew, Just in Europe, but throaghout the globe. The siden fusion of prods tranaformed the Persian Gl nto a apt ch labour seare epon, Sh it Europe pollical lender in the Gulfeounaey sought to ecu temporary ‘workers to lhe resting demand for labour, this tine fom Labour ‘aptalpoor States slaewhere im the Mile Eat and in Asin (Birks and ‘inca 180, With even weaker idon of migration ad plaraen han in Brope the Gulfttes placed hatserresticons cn migrant workers in aa fort to Keep them temporary (Dib 188), Despite the restrictive nature of thos polices, owever migrants have become permanent rita fe. ture of economic and social Hf Inthe Gul region, By the 19 several Asian Tiger had joed he ranks of wealthy, s- trad natin Toston to pan, which in some wap had become the ‘wor’ dominant econamie power, Tava, South Kore, Hons Kong, Sings pore, Thaland, and Maajia achieved stanig res of economic growth Shure the 1705 and bythe 1985 these nations also had become ntersve a ‘pital but poor i lbour (Hugo 10080) Lite the cotnides of outers Europe duit the 197s, many svtched fom exporting to importing abou, hile others conned simtttaeousy to. import and export_worker ‘Throughout Asa spd the Pact efforts were made to ep the ne Ibour migration ompoary to avoid he problem end wrsons of acl and eae ‘iersy create by permanent settlement "inal, traitonal mages receiving nations alo experienced a tans: formation in ther migratory patter after th mdI96Ds Not only the © New Migration, New Theories ‘numberof immigrants rise sharply, but the sources sie frm Barope to ‘Asia and Latin Americ (Massey 1581, 1995). Asin other migadon tons, intecnatioal migrants going to Argentina Aurain, Canada ad the USA. generally came from aboursichbatepital poor couse. As hee receiving unter imposed new resritions on inigratio it and ryt the ‘spuaing Nowe, undocumented migration egan to om, and ove Hane fame to compris a larger she ofthe (a ‘Although expeienoes mayer aro the works contemporary mire tion stem several common denominators stand ot, Fin, mt rants todey come om courses caruceried by ited spy of ep, low Fates of ob creation, and abundant reserves of labour Inde, the mbalance between labour sippy and demand inthe Third Wold ods fa exceed that which prevaed in Europe durin te period of inctalaton, Thi bal: “nee stems noon fom a reatie sear of expt and investment rom 2 articulation deren demographic conton and ecuromieit tht n ‘ater pesods had eonetraine them, Whereos pbs health msures were ‘eadlynported into por developing counties lower morality, oll an ‘esnom onion wun those countries did not haa rapidly enouth fo Scmulate corresponding edie ie fet, yalding an uapecadented ple of very modest means an quay for ced of wane sortTe edit init ‘ay be $50 andthe intrest rate high, but cre snoneises thee and ‘elie for emerzencis. The absence of consumer rei ean teste a strong. motivation for short-term migration, given a sudden need to make a lage purchase "A detpand foc consumer ered need no require household emergency, of couse. As marks expand into domsies former povered by non-market or ‘remmaretmechaninms,conrimers in developing cout ofen Hd then Selves ld witha rnge of new materi nprtions segue foc he mans ‘media, bt without ces ote ceat mechani hat make mas cone tion pestle Like thir ounterparts ia wealtuer counties resents of the ‘Third Word want to own televisions, CD player stereos and ide canes, tnd they ineeasinglfnd these goods fo sl nea meets, but they de fave the ready ash to pay for them and ein ony borrow the money ‘plete rates f sere” Ar international markets penetrate developing ountries,thertoe,nuacat demande for consumer goods cea suet ‘avaton for temporary mietion soa Pethps the met important consumer purchase ie 2 home. In many desel- ‘oped counties, horse ownership financed through bark mortgage that {habl borrowers to mae usa dowe payment and then coer the ale ‘ofthe purchase price wit longer ban oan, whieh spi of gradi ‘monthly inserts Ta thi way. home oereip sp within eho large share of fami of veaively modest means I he USA, fr example thy {Ss morgapesreqiing ab Iie as 10 per ceat down have Deon widely ‘alae to fami sce the 10s, giving that country cow ofthe highest. ‘ates of home ownership ia the worl "Win most dersloping county, in cnt, mortgages are uncommon or ‘ot-xistent, requiring fais fo amas the ene cost of 8 home in eth before making a purchase Under hee circimtancs international migration becomes trace as means of iaaeng home ownership Foreigh caning 26 Dheories of Inernational Migvaion sed or emit back to family member maybe pat rey nt the pur ‘hase expumion,o¢ constuction ofa home. Often now Bomes are aequced ‘hroagh » gradi proces of consttion nance by repestd fori is. Inmiprat sending communities throughout the developne worl, com: ‘sha ste hore Stalled vsius sages of constuction, emigrants run out ‘of fonds and return abroad to accumulate more ca The aqustion or Inoprowement ofa home is probably the single most important motvaton for ‘stematinal migtation preva the word today. Remtanee ie ties onsen reveal to be the most common target fr migret spending ad Investment (ee Chapter 8 and 9), Fares in consume cet ares ths fonsatute an extemal importa, i unrecoenzed, ete of internation Imigaton. etaive deprivation ‘A key proposition i the foreoing canon i that income is ot» homoge: ‘Soous god, a assumed by neolasia economic The source of he acme realy matter, and households havo sgaicantincedves to invert ace family resources in ates and projets that provide aces fo new acome ‘ouces, even has acts do not incest tal income. The new enon: icsof migraton alo questions the assumption that tosome has constant ‘fect on tty acer soi economic tings st 10D rea srs Income means he same tin oa person regaes of community conditions nu iespeive of his or het posto athe lol nce dito, "The new economic theorists ague that household sond workers saad not only to improve their incomes in abate terms, ut to ineresse the Tete to ete housholds, and, hence, to reset eave deprivation ‘Sompared with some reference soup (Se Stata a. 1986, 1988 Stark and ‘Viena 198; Stark and Taylor 199,199; Stark 1991). osshol's sense flat depvaion depends on the incames och tis deprived i he Feference-goup come cstibuion Ifa) sthecumuatie lca dsb tion and it~ Fa) represents th dsatsacon fl by a household with Fncome + fom ot having am snore that lp higher than = in he Tange from 1 to + An where At — 0), the the restive deprivation of household wit income cn be expresed conceptual a Ole) = Kd ~ Fe ® tee yar the get acre owed i th commana sing cne ‘ter hi R= 1 ~ Fe). ts exgenion ogutlent othe proto Iwo tems: the ave of household ih nme peter than andthe ‘verge teens between these higher Roushod cones nds (Sark nd Tapor en, >), "Yo late concept of elative come one n ince in the Inne ever boekci. poor howe loses ae eochanged, Theories of Iterntonl Migration 22 then thei reative deprivation increase fhousebold utlity i negatively fected by relative depstatisn then ven though poor howehol's able income and expected gains fom migiauan remain unchanged, ieee to ‘pariptein international mgraon increases oy snd fal member broad, cam hope 1 reap relative income pin inthe sammy. The Ikclkcod of migration thus grows because fhe change in oer houchlde’ Incomes, Markt fires tht cones local lcome opportu fr poor Ionsebods may also increase the aratveness of migradon as an avenue for ‘Mle gis i lative income ‘The theoreticl models proving out of the “aw esonami of migration ‘el et of propositions and bypotheses that are gute frat tom those ‘Santi rom neoeanicl theory, snd hey lend Toa very difetent st of oly preseiptons Families, houshols, or othe culturally defined unit of production and ensumption no the autoomus indies, are te spprepie unis of nals for migration research 2 wage diterental snot a necessary condition for international migration {0 oases households may have strong incentive to dvery risks or 0. ult capital trough transnational movement even inthe sbvence of wae diferences, 3. International migration and loca empfoymeat or local production ae not mutually excisive possible. Indeed there are stony incentives for households to engage in both migation and local evies. A nro st the retumstooealeoonomic actvites may even increase the tractive ff migration as a means of overcoming capt and risk const on investing in those celts. Ths, exonomie development within senting repions ned not edice the pesares for ineratonsl mization intensity them International movement des not neces top when wage iferentiix have been ciminated tetween different oatond labour markets cen "kes for migration wl contin to exit other markets thin sending ‘counts (surance, tures, capa, and consumer eed) ae Abn Imperfect or in esequittam, ‘5. The same enpcted gin in income may not have the sme elect on the probability of migration for howeholsloeated a eiferet point inthe Income datibutin, or even on hovsehole with Kent Incomes tat Ioeatd in commanities with different income diibtoas, 6, Goveranets ca afuence gration rates noon thro pices that Jntuence Lbour markets, but ao trough thse thit she insurance ‘marks, capital markets, consume cet markets, aod ftures mates Government insurance progranines, prtaarly unemployment ins fsoce,rerement, and oan programmes, can signteany aed the ince ‘ies forintemational movement. 28, Theories of ternational Migration 17, Government plies and economic changes thn shape the income tn: ‘ion wll change the relative deprivation ef some howebolde and hae ler Ue nceties o irae 8, Government polis and economic changes hat fet the dstbution of Income wl infuonc nteratonal migration dependent of her fects tm mean income. In fact, government pols thet produce higher mea Income fs migran-tendng ares may ncose migration i Teli pot owseholds donot share ia the locome ain. Convert, polices may reduce migration if elavely rich housed donot share i he came ‘Segmented Labour Maer Theory Although neodiscal theory and he new economics of migrtion lesd to ‘divergent contusions about he ois tnd ature of teroatonal mization, both are eentally mirotevl doesion models What dir are the wit sumed to make the deion (he indvival othe houstl) the entity Teng maximied or minimized (inome, cpl ork), asumpions bow the eomomic context of decson making (complete and wel funtionng ms ‘ts eras ising or perfect markets), andthe extent wo which the gra tion dean i Socal contetuszed (whether income is valet in absolute terms relate to some reference group). Standing tint apsct. from these modes of ronal choice, however, sginenta Ibu market thers which sets sights trom dessons made y individuals end args ha atretionalmigrati stm rom he tins labor demand of smacern instr scieties Pore (1979) har Been the most forceful and olgant proponest at ‘his theoretical viewpoint, arguing tal internation] migration i sed by ‘permanent demand for immigrant abou tat sheen tothe economic ftrutre of developed nations. Acearding to Pare, migration ot cused by push factors in sending councies (ow orgs or igh unemployment, ‘ut by ull factors in resiving counties (a chronic and snavoiable need {or fren workers. Thie btn demand for iumigrat lor sets fom four lunmental charncersics of advanced intl socetiersnd thet Seta ifation Wages not ony rect condone of supply and demands they aso confer statis and prestige, social quae tht ie othe jobs to which he wages te altached In gneral people elev tat nape shod rete soil a, ‘tnd they have rather igi notions about the cntclton between oeapatonl ‘aus py. Asa esl wages offered by employers are wa entirely 10 respood to changes inthe supply of workers A variety of informal social ‘Theories of Inematona Migration 29 ‘expectations and formal insituional mechaiss (suc a¢ union contracts, i service rules, bureoucrati replations, company job casictions) em fre tat wags coreespoad to the Meares ops and at that people perewe and expect employer eck to atvact worker for uke job athe otter f occupatonal hierarchy, they cannot imply abe wages. Raising wages at he Totem ofthe merarchy woud upset soll defined relationships Heinen satus and remuneration, Ir wages ae inceatd tthe bottom, thee wil Be Strong pressure to raise wager by coreponding amounts at other level of the hrarchy the wages of Wales aan re raed in responce to ‘ortage of entry-level workers, for example, they may overlay with tone fof wares, thereby threatening their ats and unermning he socepted ‘oc birachy, Waites, in turn, demand » corresponding wage fers, ‘hich theatens the position of ool, who ao pressure employers fora rae (Thos unfair th te stats hierarchies tyscal in restaurants shoul ead ‘GcongeOrwells Down and Oatin Landon end Pare) Workers may be ied ‘tbe efor by union representatives or contrat Tas, the costo employer of raking wages to arc lowvel workers is typically more than the cost ofthese worker’ wages aloe; wages mist be reused proportionately thoughout te jb irae nordert keep thet Inline wth socal expectations, problem Known as structural inflaton. At trating ative workers by raising entry wages during times of bor scarcity thus expensive and dirptve, prong employers with strog ince to sek euler and cheaper solutlons, sich as the inpoctaton of migrant worker who will acept low wags. ierarhica conan on motsation ‘Oczuptiona hierarchies re also crcl for the motivation of workers, ince spoople work wot onl for incre, bu alo forthe aearaltion and mainte Tanee of soca status Acute motvatioal problems arse athe baton of the Job hierarey beens there ino salts tbe maitained and there ate few {vemos for Upward mou. The problem x nexspabe nd stracarl he ‘se the botom cannot be clitiasted fom the abou market Mechanies: {ont eliminate the lowest op leat desirable clase job wl ipl erate ‘new bottom tir eomposed of jobs tht used fo be just above the baton. ‘ng. Since there alway bas io bes bottom of ay Hierarchy, matvatona problems ate inescapable. What employers need are worker who view otiom teva obs sinply 36a means tothe end of easing money, and fe ‘whom emplojmentredeed solely ogcome, with no mpisaone or stat prestige, For avait of reson, mmigrnts say thi need, a asta the Bet- ing of tht migratory careers Most migrants bein are earners, seeing {pear money fora speci goal that wl improve thei wat orwell being 30 Theors of emasonal Migration homebuilding house, paying fr schoo, baying lind, siting consumer goods Moreover, the auncure in ling standards betwen develope snd ‘developing societies means that eve low wages avoud appt be generous by the andar of the home community: and eventhough a migrant ay ‘eal thats foreign jb ol low status abvoad he doe net view hel ot being part ofthe receiving soca Rather bese hinslf asa member fit home cman, within which foreign labour end har-crrency retances fazeyconderale honour ad pres. cone duane Bitucated labour markers coms to characterize advanced indutil econo. mies because ofthe inberet duality between labour and capital. Capitals = xed factor of production that cant led by loner demand but not li of, ‘ners of capa must bear the cs of is unemployment. Laboar evr. te factor of production tat canbe released when demaed fall vo thst, workers are forced to Bear the costs of thelr own unempoyment. Wheaever Pose, therefore, expats sek out he sable, peamenent portion of de Imapd and ese forthe employment of equipment, heres the vse Porton of demand is met by adding about. Ths, exptlntensve methods $eused to met busi demand, ni iabour tensive methods ae reserved for the seasons: utuating component This dusiam crests ditnesons among ‘workers leading toa frcation of the labour fore "Werke in the eapitalntnsv primary actor get tale, kl obs work ing withthe best equipment ad oo. Explore are forced tives i these ‘workers by providing socalled ining and education Tei jabs ae com. pleted and require considerable knowledge and expeicnce to pvfor well, Toad fo he accamulation of frmapetie human expt. Prmy sector ‘workers tend tobe ualonzed or Bighly profesional, wit contacts that requis employers to beara shanti sare ofthe cont thekig a he om of scterance pay and unemployment benef), Besa of these cote andcontning obligations, worker he primary sector become expensive to let go they become more fice capital ste labour ten secondary sector, however, workers hol unstable ‘silos; they may be ald off aan) time th ile of mo cont to the employer Indeed the employer wil general lose money by reaining Work- tm during snc periods ring dwn ces theft thing seconduy setor ‘mplyer do ic thei puyol Ava rel employers force worker in his Sector to bear te caso thelr unemployment They resin arable ator ‘of production and are, hence, expendble Thus, the beret dun betwen abou nd capita extends tthe labour force in the form fa segmented labour markt sear. Low wages nae onlitons, and te ck of easonable prospects for mobility in the second) Sector make diet io atract native workers, who are stead drown to Fr ‘Theories of Iaemationa! Migraion 31 the primary, copteliatnsive sector, where wages ae higher, jobs te more seca, and there is «possiblity of occapaons improvement To fl he Shona in-demand win the secondary secon, employers turn 10 Sige, Bic enclaves ln their analysis of the proses by whic Cuban iumigrants wor incorporate Into the USA, Portes and Bach (1985) uncovered evence of thi employ ‘ent sector tat blends fetes of primary and secondacy labour marie Tike he secondary sect etic enclaves cota fo stats jobs character ia by low pay broil nd wapensant working condition, that ste routinely shunned by natives Ul the scoala soto, however the enclave provides immigrants with sgniant economic ens 10 ‘education and experience, aswel the very rel prospec f pnd soso ‘conomi mobility tha roplntng esr cl the pray sect, ‘Notall migrations produce ethnic enlives, however, and studies ugpest ‘hey ate rater hard to eat (Lopan ea 199) Inod, heen enclaves dented to this point have formod under rather unasul romances of ‘seoprphic concentration and disintely ned, class slecve immigration (ison and Maun 1982: Pos and Stick 1593) In general. an enclave sonomy emerges when anil wave of ete imran poses sai an amounts of fn human, sod abdoe caltraleapitl concent “Isproportnscly tr one urkun ares and, afer becoming eval there and founding new business enterprises, employs sacrane waves of lover ‘tur but aspiring immigrans from he sme couaty “The exsonce of» large, concentrated poptaton of cota crates & ‘éemand for specialized tural prod and ethnic services that inmigrant ntepreneursare uniquely qualified fT ten thei privileged access toa groming poo! of low'wage immigrant labour gies them aa nvanage ‘when competing with fms ouside the enclave, Immigrants working in the cave rage low wages and the sompance ote ipline upon aval or ‘beater chance vancerent nd independence er on (eres and Bash ‘985. Tho impel contract between employers ad worker sts fan ‘orm of etal solidarity (eta ot cultura) capita), which stares aad supports the enclave (Portes and Manning 1986 Ports and Rumbstt 19%). ‘At the same ine, socal networks and personal nage to her entero eu (form of sla apa) launch ne iumiranson independent careers ‘nal bones, and one exablised, these new enreprencurs ae expeted {0 halp and rome other immigrants in ret (ctrl ep again Tae [roepecs fr oucave formation are empocally enhanced if he inal Wyant are wo educated and posessoganuzatonal or busines kl (oman apt) or i they have acer to savings, te, or govetamentasisance (Gnncial esp), 32. Theorie of Ierstionl Migration Although it ay begin with the immigration of enteprenours, inorder to function effecvely over ine an tne enslave rogues sad team fat ew workers wing to wade low ial wage forthe posly of Tater mobility, ylang an independent structural source ot about demand for immigrant worker, complementing tht emanating rom the secondary sector ‘Av ingrntenreprencus ave, concentat eogrphialy ed ean new busines enterprises that ely upon unmgean labour fo Wet Suva, immigration can quite eral, generate its o¥n demand Demography of bout supply “The problems of motivation and sacral ination inherent to modern cst patio rach, logether withthe dus intra to market economies, Seate a permaneot demand for worker who ate ling to labour under Unpleasant eovlitions, at low wages, with great instabity. and facing te ‘hance fr advancmest Is the past seman war met prs by three Sets of people wh socal statuses and chatacters conducive to these sore ‘Of jobs women, teenagers, and rural-urban migrants Histone, women bat tended fo arpa the labor force ap to he te ofthe fee bath, and to lene extent aes Cen ave grown They sought to earn spplemeatl income for themselves of thei ais. They sere not primary Bresdmnner her prin soil identity was tha of ster, wor tnther, Thay were wing to pt op withthe low wager and Inna because they viewod the work st tatalent ad the crmings a ‘supplement the postions they held wee not threatening their ma social ‘ase, which were grounded in he fry Likewise, tcenagers historically have moved into and out of the labour fore with peat requency i order to eam entre money, to gain experience, fd to yout dillerenteccpational ois Tey donot view dendend abe ‘eproblmaticbacaue they expect to et better je inthe future, afer ‘ompleting too, gaining experience, oc sting down Mereove,ecnagets ‘Serve her soil ints rom her prensa ames of onentton not That jobs. They vow work instrumentally 6a means of earine Spending roves The money andthe tings that buyseshance thelr atu mong te Pe (aig hm thes rs mnt) ho a ee 88 ily, ral reas of developed ations for many yar provided indus ies with tedy soppy of low-wage workers, Movement ro a socal and ‘conom backwater to the dain and exctement ofthe cy crested Sense of upward mobility and personal inprovement repre ofthe mod ‘sy ofthe creumstaces at he place of destination even menial undid Jobs in cies provided aces 10 Housing, food, and consumer goods that {eprescte fal step up in the work te impoversed migrant from the ‘ountrysie. slong a large reeves of aa poplstin exe, ew id Yr ‘Teores of nertonal Migration 33 cil natons coal look internally to satisfy the emerpng demand for un ‘led, low-wage abou. n advanced nds societies, however tet soures of entry eel work es ve shrunk over time beesse of fou fundamental scouemographic ‘tens the seis femal about force patcpation, which hs tanstormed ‘romo's work into a arerpusied for scl tats ns well incomes fhe ise [dor rates, which has tasormed women's job ino a source of primary Income sopport te dedie ia Det ates andthe extension of fra educa toa, Which have prodeed very smal cohort ofeeager entering the about force; and the urbanization of society, which has einnated far and rata femmes as ptental source forte mira tothe iy. The balance eteon the sracural demand or enay-lvel workers andthe imited domes {supply of ich workers has generated an unr fog-rn demand for migrants in developed unin Seomented lsbour make theory neither posit ao denies that actors make ional sle interested decisions, as predicted by mizrossoomie model, The Sezntive quaitic that people i indariaied counties stack to low'mage Job, (or example, may open up employment opportunities oforiga workers, ‘hereby rising thelr expected earnings, ineeasing thet sbi to overcome skand cei constrains and cabling househols to achieve eative ncome {ins by cng family members abroad, Recrstnen by enployets bl 0 ‘rercome nformatloal and other constrains on itenationl movement, “aneing migrations ae as strategy for family income peneration or isk ‘dverafenton "Alou notin inherent cont with neoelascal economies, segmented Isbour marke theory does carry implications and corollaries that are quite Alfeent rom these emanating trom mit lvel dession model: 1. International Iour migration i largely destand-bved and i usally Inted though recruimen by employers in developed soi, or by fovernments ating onthe bee 2 Since he demand for unmirane workers wows otf the tetra needs ofthe coonomy ands expressed through recruitment practices ater tan ‘ng offers, international wage diferente ae nether = necemy no 2 ‘ulicen condition for labour mipation to zur deed, emploer have Inoetives to fecrut workers while holding wager constant, 5 Losvlvelwapes immigrant receiving societies do nt ris in response 10 decree nthe sappy of immigrant worker he ae bed dows by seca Sdnatatogal mecha and ae ot ret respond ote in soppy spd demand, 4 Losvlevel mages may fal, However a rel of increase athe spy ‘ot mumigrant workers ace the soil sod natutional checks that Keep Towevel wages rm Heng do ot prevent tem om fling 5, Under certain creamstance of geographic concentration and sme 34 Theories of lneratonal Migration iasselective migration, ethnic enclaves foam 36 thie sector ofthe Intoue marker to generic an independent structural dena for foie, ‘workers ha complrseats ha emanating rom the secondary sector. 6, Goveroments are uty to nuece international migration through poles that produce small changes in wages or employment rae {rat file dom for labour that racarly bi into moder poe {nds economies, and influncing this demand requies major anaes {8 conor opanton Historical Structural Theory and World Sytem ‘The histoialtactusl approach to sca theory emerged during th 1950s inespons ofunconlst theories of social change an develope, which held that ounties developed evonomeal by progesing troup sn orery series of evoluonar ages culminating in moderation ad edurlioa tion. In const, stove stratural theo arped that becuse poli overs unequal disuibuted ess ations, the expansion of bal apa [sm ated to pespetuteiequaies and relnfore a saiieg economic ose. Rather thin experiencing an inexorable progression towards development ‘and modemizstion, poor cout i ey wee trapped by the deren {aged postion win an wlequal geopolitical uc, whieh perpetuated tek poverty. "Historical structural thuor reached its pak of inuence Curing the 19608 snd 19%e and i gained parslr carreney among soil rents Latin ‘America, Theorists such at Furtado (1, 1970) and Caldao and Faletto (@0e9, 137), observing a detertoration in he tert of trade between wealthy "plist copies abd poor nations isthe eae after he Second Word War, oneluded that developing nations were blag forced ito dependency by Strustural conditions dita to them by powerful capitals nunties AC fending to Andre Gundte Frank (i968) pobal expt ated 1 develop Snderdeslopmene within the Tend Werld, “Tir line of historical structural thinking became know. a dependency ‘theory and ultimately embraced diverse group of cola who dew ins tion fom the work of Buran (987 1973) and his conception 0 he ideas of Mare and Lenn. chou they may have agreed fundamen ‘concepts, however dependency theorists arged reqety about the deals ‘nd poriulsy about the polical meats by which bares to economies ‘evelopment might be overcome, Wheres Frank (18 eld tht capita ‘aso able suatgy for economic development under any canst, ‘Amin (1974, 1976) atgued that peripheral countries coald achive sll. ‘astining and antonorcus economic pow if hey eoald only dnconnest ‘hse from the global market conn. "A second ln of histovcatstrutral theory emerged somewhat ltr aad «row on the work of the dependency theo, swells the Historsopaphy of rr Toso of Itersonal Migration 38 sn French oil historian Fernand Brae! (168,182) sadn exponent trai Emmansel Wallen (174, 1980), who sneak comprehensive byl of th global expandon o he cepa yee frome the seenth eatury onwards. He sought to reconsrct the historical procesies by whch Sosa polsclcconomietractares were created tnd extended thraoghost the world, andthe mecheisms by which nomapiast or pre-capitait re [poas wer incorporated into the global market economy. He cased code. fries according (othe degree oftheir dependency onthe dominant capitalist power wick he termed ‘cors” tins "erphera nation were the mst epeaden, whereas som-perpberal counts were somewhat welier and ad stat mee independence Inthe slobal marketplace. Nations in the “extemal aren’ remained fant and lagely std the global capita ‘pre Glen th cope a this work adit sweepog vane ofan expanding Dobl cptalsm, ts Ene of thought eveataly Became known at "world Stems theory” (Simmons 198, ‘Ati, naher world estes theory nor dependaney theory ha mach inrest in intcrbaional migration, Dusig the 196s and 1970, histor ‘tricia theort fended f fort onthe sonseadenots of ual population [gomth the ceplacement of agar worker hy the penetration of market forces, tho spall concntaion of population i lie, the rap growth of lage wan agglomerations, ad the se ofan femal urban economy. Given these concerns, researchers working in the historicastrctraltadiion teed to be surest i internl miralion, sn parla ia rural. ‘ban migration Incontest to economic theorits ssh Tedar (199,178) nd saolog ‘altheoriste sacha Le (968), who viewed migration a ational elesltion faude by individuals to secure their ataral improvement, hier! structural theorists laked migration to the mactoorgenizaton of soo ‘conomie relaons, the geographic dvson of Iahour, and the pola Inechanisns of power and domieaton-Siser (171, 1975) and the est {ator who applied storia structural priate to the study of intemal Imiratin (6 Maize ab 1977, Raezyosi 1985; Stecn 1988) sought to ink ‘ualto-urbn noveents specie hstorcl contents and pareulr tran {owmations in the econo structure of ural and ub ae, “Throughout te 197s, te subject ofinteratiooal migration rarely engaged the interest of theory workin in he hina strata raion Even a the vlume of emigration tom te developing wold grew during the 1950. nd 170, investigators were slow to appreciate the sgcane of the phe ‘omenon It was only aller the evsmonte recessions ofthe mid 1970% tha ‘saervers bop to understand that inerational ows wee ol jest -tompo {any aberration, ed tha international migration also might be led to Structural changes tbat accompanied a nations insertion int the global ar et place. ‘One exception to the general lack of intrest in itermationalmigation 36. Theories of Ineraional Migration shown by historcl-srucatl theorists was their fascination withthe “rain Sai’ (te Khas 196; Kennappan 1968, Adan 1962 Watanabe 108. (taser 1978). The brain crin referred to the selective migration of tated tnd educsted people tom poot to wealthy gations, whic emerge a key Print of eontencon fetween the Fst and the Third Worst the Sear Foowing decolonization Although relatively aml in quantitative terme, do- eadeacy eas argued ha the emiraon of skilled sed odetes workers Secisvely undermined the prospects for development in poor counties by Spring them of esential human capital. They saw its yet another mnie lon of the unequal tems of trae Between developed and. developing ‘counties undone more means by which global capitalism ‘developed Iderdevelopment By stacting, and at ties eves eer, the mest Produetve workers from developing counties, core nations siphoned of a ‘cal esource for ute esonmie prot. Worse tan ht, besa eve ‘oping nations covered the cos of fesdins,lohing, educating, and masta ‘ng the emigrants til they reached productive gs th ba sin aly onttted a subs of wealthy nations bythe poo, “The foscnaton of stoncastructurl theorists with the bein drain r= ‘ected Les fan intrest in Labour migration than i pill ipa. AlMaueh the capita war ataced to people in hia, ts eal opetele and forte mow pat histo srucural thors were nt very intersted in the international movement of labour, The station changed dramatcaly inthe Inte 197 hen widespread economic stagnation trouphout the indus ‘zed world made expat theft hat the various migratory ger” mere not {going home and hat vitally ll developed nations now faced the prospect of Integrating etna diverse populations of permanent immigrant. ‘Ae the aorpion foreigners emerged aa poent policies trough ‘out the developed wor scholars there finaly hepa to apply the precepts of hitorcasttctural theory to analyse the saint ows of boar they ‘ere seal observing wth new eyes. Like tei inelctalfrebeaer, “icv ouch a Ports sed Walton (1981), Petra (198), Sanen (188), and ‘Moras (1990) sought o explain nterstional migration not an produc of ‘ndvisl or hourcold decsone, but asa sca consequence of the ‘kpuasion of markets situn 3 pobal pole hierarchy. Althovgh their ‘opines up to ow hive ot formed a coherent they 90 mich a {eotral approach tothe study o international migration, ere we alamo ‘yathesie historic strotral explanations unde the general rubric of wold ‘yea theory Tnessence, world ystems theory argues that the penetration of pti conomie elton into non-aptlito pre-capitalist cesta mo tie population that prone to marta Driven by «dei for higher rots tnd preatr wealth, owners and manager of spits firms in cove counties ‘et poorer nations onthe periphery af he World economy in search fas, Theorie of Iteration Migration ST 9 material abou, and consumer marks. nthe past his markt pene thon wae andre by colon! rime that administered poor regions forthe bene of economic ltrests in colonizing soc. Toda ts made posible ty asocoooial governments and. minal mw that pepetate the power of national ites who either paripte i he wold economy 6 (pias themes, or eller thle nan’ races 0 plbal fms On seoupable terms. Toternational migration thus emerges natural outgrowth of druptions nd deloaton tat ineviahyeccurin the proces fetal development ‘Avestan hus expanded ouwards rom sae in Westra Europe, North ‘America. Oceania apd Japan, ever-larger poten ofthe lobe and growing {area he numsn population ave been ncoported ino the posal market ons. Aslan, ra materials about wih peripheral eons cme Under te intueace and control of lobe rks rather thas local eon nes or national bureaucracies, migration Rows ate inevibly generate, tome of wich have aways moved abrasd (Mey 1968) Lond In order to achieve the greatest profit fom exiting aprvian resources and "9 campete within lol commodity markets, capitalist farmer in peripheral aneas ek to consoldnte landholdings, mechaize pron, rode cash ‘Sop and ape indetialy produced inputs euch we etn, moet, tnd high-yield seeds Land consolidation denttoye tacltoual spt of land tensre based on inheritance an common rights of wrt. Mechanica tion decentr the need for manual labour and maker many Apraian Workes redundant 1 production The station af eas cops for stapler Undermine traitfonal socal and ecnon relations bared oo sbsikence (Chssanow 1988); and the ase of modem pts prods high erp yee Now init paces, which dover anal sowcaptalt farmers oot of Teel markets Allo thx forces contribute ote eatin of moi about force epsced fom the land witha weakened stacmst to nel saan Raw eri ‘The extraction of raw material fo sale on glaba markets requires inden methods that rely on Fld abou. The offer of wages to former peasants “termine train forms of soc and exnomie organza Ras 08 owns of repent and fixed ole relations and rate inepen Ios ‘matketsbasod on now conceptions of ndivcuaim,paivte aun and seca ‘hunge Thess trends kewise promote the geographic moby of abou 3 eveloping selon, often With oterstional plover, re 38 Theorie of Internationa Migration Labour ‘ms fom cre capital countries enter developing counts to etablsh astm plants hat ake advantage of low wage rates often within special xportprocesing zones coated 89 shmpatete governments. Te demand for factory workers strengths foc labour markets and weakens radional productive relations Much ofthe labour demmnaded I fale, however, aad {he renting fenton ofthe wore mits opportunites for men: bat since the pe factory works demanding and pac psd, women end ony 9 ‘rk a fow yea, aor wtih time they eave to lod fr now opportunites, “Tae inser of forelgr owned Inte nto peripheral reins thus unde ines the lal economy by producing goods that compete wth those made Teal by feng the workforce without proving fsory based employ ‘mont opportu or man snd by soiling women frida work ‘modern consumption, abet wihout providing sifetine income capable ot testing there necceThe result ithe crstonof «population tht ssl nd ecoacrclly peoatd ad prone to mira "The same capalstcconoe provement crest migrants pcp repinssiultancouly tract them int developed aunt, Alou some People placed by the proses of market peaetaton move tte, eating {oth rbarzatton of developing ose neialy nn ave drawn abroad Decase globalization cieates mated and ieolpia inks to the poet where capital originates. The foreign investment that. dees economic ‘Shbalization fe manape from a small umber of global ie, whove sue {url characteristis eats asroag demand for ineigrant abu. Material Binks In orer to sip goods, deliver machinery, extract and export ra mera, ‘corinate buses operations, ad manage expatriate sembly plant, ap {alse i coe ations build snd expand trsnapertition tad communication links to the peripheral counties where they bave invested. These Uk not ony faitate the movement of goed, produet, information, and cap {a they aso promote the movement of people by reducing the ens of ‘msvemeot slong corsa international pathways, Because fvestnet and ‘hobalization are ineably accompanied by the builds of tansportaton Sndcommuniestion nfrastctre the international owemet of labour ee tral follows theinteraatonal movement of ods ad spl ia the opposite ‘itezion. Miary ties “The retin and perpetuation of plobl trading regime requies an usd ing system of intentional secu. Core captaist nations have both a Fr Theorie of intematonal Migration 39 conomisntrest in andthe military means of peseving opal order, Sn! mst ofthe leading powers msintain relatively lage astaed foes 10 depioy as needed to preserve the late ofthe pba capa system, ‘Threats tothe stabi otha sytem are often mat by mutary force projested fiom one or more o the core tons Aer 1045, for example neat of communis expansion in Burope pescted sch a heat oa weakened cp ‘als that Drain, France, and che USA stationed large number of toons permanently fm Bae teoughoot the Continent They also persed Patched miltary ores to various bot sot that copped up in Ac, the Nile East, Asa, and Lata Ameria inthe course of 3 forts year Cal War vith the Soviet Union "As the leadiag econric and politcal power in the post-war capitalist wot, of cous, the USA has plated the mont important role in preserving International peace and security inthe postwar worl, minting» gues large military extabisnment and frequently daptshing fs sms forces to counter lft insurgenies, tars back communi invasions orl thea ft olece tat eaten the apts order Inthe years since 1945, the USA. has intervened covertly or overty in at leat 2 dozen countie Ian, Guatomal, Nearagua, Cubs, he Dominican Republi, Hat, Grenada, Chie, Somalia apd of couse, Viewam, Cambodi, ape Korea, Mos resent ied ‘ muliatonl fret estore order (and the fw of oi) in Kuwait Th oder {o rea ts eapaty to project military power whnver sa whesever eed, the USA maiataiesaumeroas large mitry bass i fain mst throupioat he wort "Each miliary base and amed intervention, however, creates range of social and plat eannections tht promete the sbsegutstsnovsnet ‘of immigrats, Sod often aoure loa spouses who sek to accompa) ‘them hore when their tour of duty ends, and in the USA (and many ‘ther counties) spouses ave pveged chi on etry by iste of thet ‘rigs toa eae, Spoutes, in turn, mny sok fo sponsor the immigration ether bothers, ser, mothers, tater, and minor ciren Thete people have theron cis on entry by virtue of thei Kiship wih ep rene tnd if che Spouse ulumatelyatuatzes, by irae of thar ksh wi 2 {Erpe-seae military operations as involve the hing of numerous apport pesoane om the lel ian population, ceting persia esos, Pita debts and moral oblgtons that may be invoked to gin aces fo Fnmigran vss when the milary depart, fo eat retuee statin the ‘rent the eleat tt ealyes, Ifthe itary presence loa aes, moreover, “thos ofcommercia andscriceettishments eval grow around the ate, father expanding the range of pessoal intcratons and sol debts, ‘and transmting new ings codes and clu! conventions nto the lea population. Intensive comtact with US troops nt only nceases the oso Iavimony, i algo incucaes& kxowledge of Enpish ané US elere that 40 Theores of Inematonl Migration ‘ses the potential rewards of working nthe USA and increases the motive {onto dose For these remo, therefore, anifiean tery deploys ‘ypially accompanied by sizeable return ows of lamin (nso 8nd ‘Rowetawelg 109; Donat 1994 Sheil 97), Hielogcl inks ‘The process of economic globalzaon creates cultral links between core capitals countless ther peripheries though ether mens besides milary intervention. In many cases, these cultural lake ate longstanding. efctng a ccional past in which core countries established admins ‘nd educational som that mitvored thst ows in onder to govern sad plot a peripheral region. Citzens of Senegal for example lean Pench, Sty at ses and use a carrey ieee to the Fen rane in foo: nomic transactions. Likewise, Indians and Pakistan lean English ake Brtshstyle degrees, and join wth ther in tanationa sien Known 1 the Hntish Commonwealth. Even in the absence of colonial pas he Jntacace of economie penetration ean be profound: Mica iaceasaly soa US ures speak Enea flow Ameria commer ses ‘These ideological and clue! conncevons are enforced by mas comm cations and advertising eampains deste rom the core counties Tee sion programming from the USA, Fraee, Bias, and Germany transmits information abou iets and lving standards inthe developed word and onnmerisprpare by foreign advetsing agencies ince moder con ‘Smet tases within peripheral peoples, The difsion of sore county lr ‘apes and cultural peters and the spread of modem cnusption pains inert wth he emergence ofa transportainlcommuniaton astute "channel iteration! migration to particular coe counts, Goats "he world economy is manage! fom a realy sal uber of urban cates in which banking. nace, siataton, profosiona service, and high-tech production tend to be conentatoa (Cant 1989; Sasa 198). the USA, global ees incude New York, Chisago, Los Angels and Mian i Europe, they iniude London, Pars Prank, and Nilay din the Pace, Tokyo, Oaks and Sydney qu, Within these bale, eet lof wealth and a highly edusted workforce sre sonentaed eecatng & ‘strong demand forthe services a unskilled workers gardeners, waters wale santas, hte workers, domestic servants) A¥ The me ne the ti ‘ng of heavy indusal production overseas; the growth of ‘igech ‘manufacturing in elecuoni, computer, apd telsomumuniation, and the ‘expansion of service vectors suchas ath apd edeation cet a tlreted ‘Theories of tersatonal Migration $1 Intour market srcture wth tong demand for workers at boththe upper and Tower ends, bet nih relatively moa demand inthe mile Poot educatod naves et tang lw-psyng Jobs atthe bottom ofthe occupational hierarchy, creating « srong demand for immigranss Meanwhile, Sfolteducated native nd ale foreigners dominate the artic job a the Sper tier ofthe ooupatioal distribution, and the concentration of wealth thong thet help to fac the demand forthe type of serosa are os wing to meet Native workers wth modes edcatons cling to job in the cing mide, migrate out of global ce, or ely on soil insurance Progiammes or support "Werld systems tory ths argues that international migration follows the politcal and ecnnomi oranzation ofa expanding lob markt, sew bat yield se ninet bypotbeee 1, International migration ea matral consequence of apt matt for mation in the developing werd; the penetration ofthe lobal economy into Piper selon the catalyst fr lterational orem. 2. The internation! flow of labour follows iteration Rows of goods capt bot in the oppoitecnecsen, Captait vestet foment ‘hinge the erento an uprooted, mabe population x perpheral counts Wile sltaneousy forging stong material an clara inks with core counties, leading to transnational movemeat International migration is especially Lely between pat colonial powers tnd thei former colons, becuse cultural nuit, edmiistaive in ‘estnent, enporiatio, and commutation inks were esablsed ea'y tnd were alowed to develop fe from case competition rng the ‘Solon er, ending othe formation of pie wanenatonal markets and sem 4, Since international migration stems from he globalization of the marke ‘economy, the way Lor overaments (0 fallen immigration Fats by ‘equating the ovrtss vestments of corporations and contro lng international Rows of eaptal and goods Such policies, However, ae unk to be implemented Recast they ae ill 10 enforce, ten Incite iteraational ade puts, ak word ecoaomieteesion, and an tagonze mination ims ith substan poliial esoures that nn be motlied to beck them. Piel and military interventions by goveenments of capitalist countries to protect nvestents abroad an to suppor foreign governments symp tate tothe expansion of he lob market when they fl proce rela pee movements dete lo pertelur core coun, constiting another form of interstona igraton. 6 Ineraatonal migration altima ast todo wth wage rates cr em Ploymentciferentias between couse; follows tom the dynamics ot ynaret creation and the politcal stuctre of the global economy, | Theorie of Iterations Migration ‘The Perpetuation of Intemational Movement Immigration may begin fr vatity of reasons dese for navi in ‘ve gin an attempt odver rks oHousebald income propane of ‘ecrument to sy employer demands for low-wage workers, ab ines ‘onal displacement of peasants by market penetration within pedphert regions, or some combination thereat But the conditions that iiate International movement may be qe fret frm those that perpetuate ‘soos tie and pace. Although wage deren relive rake rsrment ‘fos, abd market penetration may continue to case peopl to move, new onon tat ane inthe course of migration come to futons lade- pendent cases themselves migrant networks spread, intition sporting feassnatonl movement develop, and the uosial meaning of work changes in recsving socstin The general thrst of tse tutfomaons 0 take ‘Mdtloeal novemeat mote itl esdingo the perpetuation of aternationsl Inigraton across time aod space. Soca Capital Theory “The economist Glenn Louy (197 introduce the concept of social spit to esgnate ast of intangible esures in ames and somes bel to promot seca development among young peopl, but Hoare (186) pointed out its broader elsvaece to human sey. Acsorng to Boudin {Ed Wacquant (1992119, soil apt the cum the esurce etl or ‘tual dat aceue oa nda or group by vie of possessing datble etwork of more o es iasittoealized relationship of mate asintsnce "Th ky charactertic of social opt iit comverliy—it maybe tan lated ino other forms ot expa, ata financial capital in hie ae orign stages andthe remittances they emit (Here a 199 Peopl nin cee {oscil expt through member in networks and so aston snd {hen contr iat other form of capital to improve or mata tht os tion in rocety (Bourdon 1986; Coleman 10), Although Portes end Sensenbrenner (1998) point otthat social capital may have negative swell at postive consequences or he navi. theorite generally have emphasited the postive rte pays inthe acquson and aceamalton of ober for of faptal See Coleman 1350, 198), an emphasis that hat been particlarly Song in work oa mipant network. Mian nerworks Miran network are set of nterpersonl es hat connec ira, fore migrants, apd aon-migrans in ougin and destination area Urouph tes of esp itendship, and shared community erga. They Incease the Hl rT ‘Theorie of Internationa Migration 48 tod of ateationa movement Because they lower the cons and rks of ‘ovement en incre the expected et ets to mipaon. Newer on ecto const s for of socal esp tht people ean dw upon ain Secs to varios kinds faa capa florea employment gh Wags, Shu th ponubity of cessing saving nd ending rman ‘ering in the 192 soklgite ecogaised he npotace af networks in promoting Iteration movement (ee Thoma and Znanicki 1916-20 {Gamio 193), Drawing on soca es to relates and ends wao have mi [patel before non migrants pied sees Knowle amistanc, ed eter Fours tha acted movement (Cholden 197) Til abd Brown (1967) felered wo thes ess the sui’ of miation; others hae abled them “gation chen (MacDonald and MacDonald i'3);and Levy an Wael (G51) ave cael them tay and ends eet, Taylor (1986, 187) Shores thm stom of eomonic‘igation capital” May {0567 170) seat o have been the ft to deny mere nelworks spe Say ata for of social ep Tollowing Coleman's (10 0) tum that socal capital. i eeated wn te lations tnongperion cbnge in as tht fot ston Musto aa his sito ones mation te the tala fo hia ‘hangzin the tre of ae elton Every Us of enhipand Kinship fone advange and of hemes, to people sesking to migrate broad. Onc someone aa personal network has migrated, however, he es tre tnsorad to seuace ta one aed to gin aca 0 frig rploynent and ll ha brings ach cto gation rats socal eaptal Sons peopl to whom the new mira related thereby rang he ods of ther migration (Msey ef a 19671988). "The fst migrate who leave fot 2 new destination have 20 soils 12 cia poo, an forte gration con, paral tines entering ‘other country witout documents. Aer the ist marants bate le, how ‘er the penal css of migration at substantial lowered for Sends and ‘Sihives Bit bbind Boon of th axtre of iaip and toni tse tars cach new migrant creates tf ope wih scale othe desi tim aren Migrants are neil linked to sonra andthe ater daw ‘pon gan imple elstionship such asain endshipo ein ‘cen to employment and anstanoc a the pit of dexinaion ‘etmons mate ntralonel mgaton exempt satay for si dverteton r tly asinizaton. When iran networks ate ‘el developed they put destination jb win any reath of mo amine Ty member and make emigration a etale and secre sure of toome. “Thus the growth of etwort that osu through the proreve redutio of cost may ao be explained theoretical by the progressive redncton of ‘Every new mgrat expands the network tn eden the ka of movement foval thse to whom e os iret, eventual making tl ke fees cstes o Gray household labour alloeations throughemigation 4 Toone oflneratonal Migration Mlgran-supporinginsitions ‘Once international migration bas begun, private institutions and voluntary ‘expats alo tend 10 aris to sity the demand rete by 2 growieg Inbalance becween the lyge numberof people who seek entry into capital rich counts and the limited nomber of imran vat thee counses ‘ppl offer. This inbalace, end the Saves that core cutis eft to cep people ut rete a fcrarve conan niche for entepencits and Instddons dedicated to promoting intrnationl movement or prof, yield ing black market in migration. thi anderground matkot eater cond tions conducive to expleation aad victimization, voluntary humanarian rgnizations aso arise in developed counties to enforce the rik tnd Improve the weameat of legal and documented migrants (Hagan ac Gonznler Baker 1999) ‘Goss and Lindguint (1995) point to migrant insite a a tac ‘complement to migrant networks, arguing that interpessonal es ae not the ‘only means by which isteraaonal movement f prpetsted. Bulag on “Meas put forth by Giddens (1980), they argue tha ‘neationl migration st tae a2 eu od tron a Socal dtrmtion hog thse mat ly» par ny eps ‘he aicalatin af pens ith gir tro and playing mie rae hin testo ervman, roingEnowoably ope eof so Stee ceo ences (Go nd Ling 1995315) For prot orgslzatlons sed private entrepreneurs provide range of ser ‘cet migrants in exchange fr fsa et on he underground ark: sep tious mupling across border clandestine wanapst fo nteral desist lubourceatrectingfetncen employers and migrant soustret documents and vio. aranged marriages tatween migrnts nd lgal eden oes ‘the destination country and lodging eet and oer asian fo Sout ties of desiaton (Prothero 1980), Humaiarian groupe help migans by providing couseling. soil services, hte, legal advice about how t0 ‘btn leptimate papers, and even insulation fom immigration nw efor ‘ment authors (Chrsinsen 1996). Over time, iadidal, fms, and ‘Stzaizations become wel own t numigrans sa atonal sible, ‘ottting another frm esol apa that migrants can dae upon gah ‘ses (0 frepn abour markets Recruiting agent cana ines he stv ‘renting aw dos of mlgration from ares of labo usps to zea olor ret, “The recognition ofa gradual buil-ep of institations, organizations and entepreneursdedeated to arranging immigrant eat legal or ilega, ils hypotheses that aze once spain gute dint from those eating om imigroeveldecion models The theory of soil eaptlaceps the ew Incermationa ration anvil or Household, fu spe that ats of ‘Theories of Internationa Migration 45 gation atone point in ime systematically alter the contet within which fre migration econ are made greatly inreaing the klhood that [ber dedion-maker wil choose to migrate The concepcualzation of mle tion a self-sustaining diasio proces has implications an corals that fret diferent rom those derived from the penal eqs ales tppely employes to study migration: 1, Once Begun, international migration tends to expand ore time unt xe ‘wor comectons have difsedso widely. cendng repon iat ll people ‘wo wh to meee can do so witout df; then migration begin to eceeate, 12 The ine othe migratory Sow between two countries nttrongl come: Inte to wage ifrentts or employment rae, because whatever effects thes varales haven premotng o inhibiting migration ae roses ‘overshadowed by the fling costs and sks of movement stemming from the growth of migrant never oer Lie 4. As interatonal migration booms asttuonalized though the formas tin ad elaboration networks t becomes prosesvly dependent of the ftors hat orgy caused, be they sacral rida “4 Governments can expect o have rt dficulycontrling ows nce they hae begun, because the proces of network formation les argey outside theirconrl and oxcrs no matte what pole exime i pare 5, Certain immigration pois, however, sucha hoe intone Yo promote reunilcatonbetneeansigrants and thes famles brood, Work et cos Purposes withthe contol of immigration fons, since they reinfore Iigranv ners ine members of kin network spe hts of ent). 46 Re orpanzatons develop to support usta, and promot interatonal Imovemeut, the international ow of migrants becines more and more institutionalize and independent of the factor that eign cased it 11 Governments bave deity controling migration foe ence they have Iepun because the process of istubonaizatin i diel to regulate Given the pois tobe made ty meeting the demand for immigrant ext), pos etforts only serve to create aback markt ip international mone ent, and wicer immigration polos are met wih restance fom hi aniaran groups. Cumulative Causation “The toory ofculative cation argues tht ovr tine iteration mgr tio tena co stan sel in ways hat make adatonl movement promes Svely toe tks, prose fet ented by Myrdal (1957) and Inter Feitrodod tothe fit by Massey (9). Catton is cma in he Sem that ea ac of migration slr the Sol conte wha Whisk subse ‘quent migration decions are made, spill in ways thst make atonal 46. Theories of eration! Migration movement ore likely. So fa, socal aint have discs sight ways that ‘igraton fected in th cumative shin the expansion of networks the

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