SERIES EXPANSIONS : RECALL CFRON CALCULUS) THAT MANY OF THE ELEMENTARY FunCnOWs HAVE " POWER SERIES EXPANSIONS , E.C., 2S en” yznes mx > 23 fanny! * azo FOR ALL - 4X2, THESE HAVE NAny USES, E.6., APPROXINATIOWS 5 sivX x x- EXT + GX. THEY ALSO CAN CLARIFY THE PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN FUNCTIONS THAT NIGHT OTHERWISE BE OBSCURE, £.6., 2% 13 owpErIVED AT X= 0, BUT Het tne pete gee 0 SERIES EXPANSIONS PLAY AW EVEN MORE PROTINANT ROLE FOR ConPLex FUNCTIONS, THE REASONS FOR THIS LIE IW INTEGRATION THERY , COHICH WE TURN TD IN THE NEXT SECTION, HERE WE DESCRIBE omy THE BASIC THEORY, NUCH OF COHICH PARALLELS THE FAMILIAR MATERIAL FRoN CALcuLus, BEGIN WITH A BIT OF WoTATION THAT Cont NAKE THINGS EASIER TO SAY.FOR EACH CONPLEX NUNBER Z, AND BACH POSITIVE REAL NLONGER U, 2%, ) = OPEN DISC OF RADIUS f AROUT 2, ALL 2 w € sarisFyMG 12-2,1<0 Up (@o) © DELETED OPE O1SC oF RADIUS F ABOUT Z, ALL 2 WE SATISFYING O§< I2-2,1¢ 7 A SEQUENCE (2,, 22,23 ,--- ) OF ConpLEX NUMBERS IS SAID TO CONVERGE To A COMPLEX NUNBER 2, IF FOR EACH [> O (HOWEVER SMALL ) THERE ts AW WN sven THAT 2, 1S WU, t2p?) FoR ALL DN» N,BEGINNING WITH OWE SEQUENCE (2,,2,,2,,.-- ) owe CAN BUILD ANOTHER FRON IT BY SUCCESSIVELY ADDING TOGETHER NORE AND MORE oF ITS TERNS : Ww, Fey Ws 242, at BF By Ht By THIS 1$ CALLED Ary INFIWITE SERIES Aw 1S GENERALLY DENOTED 2, ~o (THEN (45, ),,, 1S CALLED ITS SEQUENCE OF PARTIAL SUNS 2. E.G., LET 2 BE SONE FIXED Conex NUNBER ano BEGIN wn HE 2 0 SEQUENCE (1,2,2,.-,2°,.-- 2, THEN m IPE HTH Hee 2” NOTE THAT gare aaah es #27 ea oe atl 2 on CB) ae, FU? pwp, PRoviDED 2 #1, o>av one taeaateee ee” = ae ’ aso, 27! 6 O WF ADomy IF 121<) AnoiT OWERCES IF ~° 12) > 1, SINCE (ay, ),,, CLEARLY DIVERGES IF 12) = 1 we FID THAT _ Zo 2” converses To FZ ur ial <1 Ano DWERGESIF IZ)% 1. a =, 1 a2: re , ware) azo (GEONETRIC SERIES ) THIS 15 A SPECIAL CASE OF A POWER SERIES ABOUT 0 15 AN INFINITE SERIES OF THE Forn > a Zo ag?” = ar azraatyn. are WHICH 1S ITSELF A SPECIAL CASE oF A POWER SERIES AGouT 2, 1S AN INFINITE SERIES OF THE FORD = o 2 Zo My t8-8y) = O44, (8°21 HA, 62-2) Hee aro 2 9 NoTE THAT ZL 2 (4,21 FORALL A ) COMVERGES FoR ALL zm a0 U,(0) Avo ow THIS SET DEFINES AW ANALYNC FuNcnow (7-3 ). THE GENERAL PATTERN Is THE SANE :« 9 THEOREM : FoR ANY PoweR SERIES 2 agt2-2,) THERE 1S AW RYO eel 50 cPossiBiy R=) FOR wHicH (ar THE SERIES CONVERGES ( ABSOLUTELY ) FOR Every 2 with 12-ape R Ub) THE SERIES DIVERGES FOR EVERY 2 wiTH r2-2,1>7 8, MOREOVER, ow ULt2,) THE Sun oF THE SERIES 15 AW Awaryne Funcnion oo z Peay = 2s Aal2-e,) n0 WHOSE DERIVATIVE 1S GIVEN On Up (2p) By bad ant , Par = D na,te-’,? a Cne., Ay DIFFeReWTIATING Fiz,“ teen - by-reRn” ), NoTE + THE PROOF oF TNS is WOT So BAD, eur REQUIRES IDEAS FRon AwALysis THAT WE DO W0T ASSUNE HERE, IF you wouLd LIKE To SEE IT LOOK ow PAGES 39-40 oF COnPLEX AWALYSIS, LARS AHLFORS, MeCrmo- Hite, 1966, THE R iw THE THEOREN 1S CALLED THE RADIVS OF ConvERGENCE oF THE POWER SERIES Amo 17 IS DETERNINED, AS Iw CALCULUS, BY AppiviInc TE “RAND TEST”.Sone Cons€Quences : A Funcniow Fee» DEFINED BY A POWER SERIES 1S AWALYNG with 175 RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE ANO SO 1S ITS DERUATUE Fiz). Bur F'2) 1s ALSO GIVER BY A POWER SERIES So IT IS ALSO ANALYNC AND ITS DERIVATIVE fie) cAw BE ConPuTeD BY TERN - BY- TERN DIFFERENTIATION oF FL2>. CONTIVUING Gives tn Peed Feay, Pear, Puan, - APE ALL AWALYNIC OW UL L2,). R 2 o 1)? ange THE RANO TEST ARPUED TOD, meas EAsiLy SHows THAT aro zc So THE Sun is AW EwriRE Fuwcnow, BUT wiEW 2*X IS REAL THIS ENTIRE FumeTION AGREES WITH SIN X , SINCE THIS uni@vety DEFWES Siw 2 we nosT HAVE en” inet simee Z Gavoi ® py PRECISELY THE SANE ARGUNEWT GIVES ME FOLLOWING CONPLEX VERSIONS OF ALL OF THE USUAL SERIES EXPANSIONS. Ai 6 1zp4c cos2 + betes swh2 = > 1z1ece cosh? + 12140NOTE : THE MUCH MORE IVTERESTING CawD NORE DIFFICULT ) QUESTION OF WHETHER EVERY ANALYTIC FUNCTION HAS A POWER SERIES EXPANSION Wut HAVE TO WAIT UNTIL WE HAVE LEARNED SONETING ABOUT INTEGRATION, EXERCISES = 50. USE SERIES EXPANSIONS To SHow THAT Z (sm2)= cos? , Si, USE THE GEoneTRIC SERIES To SHew FIRST THAT 2 Paeeset cya ey toler) me ae Ano THEN THAT a) cos @- c® DL 6° cosne = 2 ae I-aresote Ano 2 osm O De" swne = ase Vrac@sO+rt FoR o«re | Ano Any O. SHow THAT 5a, sm? ago Feed = 15 Aw EWTIRE FUNCTIONTWO POWER SERIES ABovT 2, THAT ConveRcE ow 12-2,1< R CAw BE ADDED ( BY ADDING CORRESPONDING COEFFICIENTS ) Awd MULTIPLIED (BY THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) TO YIELD NEW SERIES THAT ALSO CONVERGE OW 12-2,1)¢R, THEY CAN BE DIVIDED CBY LONE Division ) PROWDED THE DEWomnaTeR 15 NONZERO om 12-2) < R, E.G. 7 2 3 t net ze’ smh? = 2°20 Gomi? oe St ames » 2 Gara! ® nto s 2 att tee Baten ow mur or C, STILL NORE CONVERGENT SERIBS EXPANSIONS CAN BE PRODUCED By ConPosinion, E.6., ow 1z1<1, oo ~ * a DL ets Lone” a=0 areA CONVERGENT POWER SERIES REPRESENTS fry ANALYTIC FonvCTION ON A bISsc, NAWY OF THE NOST INPERTANT APPLICATIONS OF CONPLEX ANALYSIS DEPEND On THE FACT ANALOGOUS EXPANSIONS (BUT WITH NEGATIVE AS WELL BS POSITIVE POWERS OF 2-2, ) ARE POSSIBLE FOR CERTBIN FUNCTIONS THAT FAIL To BE ANALYNC. WE FIRST ILLUSTRATE wiTH AN EXANPLE , 1 1 :xwm: far: 2 saq * Genes? PALS TO BE AWALYTIC OWly AT 22) AWO 222, ON THE AWNLLUS been Pr2> 15 AWALYTIC AND HERE WE caw wRITE (BECAUSE IE1<1 awn Iz1<1 ) Peed = (PARTIAL FRACTIONS )(#)” scan? SIMLARLY, oN O at ay an d > 9 Se A ze 2 " EXERCISE SZ: FIND SINILAR EXPANSIONS ON « 7 29) 9 59 cay O04 12a) <)} ams. (aay? a Do ocean ore sone) * (b) 12192 ans, 2, D2 azon, SERIES Svc AS THESE ARE OF THE FORD a2 = 2 O88) + 4 C8-dg) + A, +4, 2-2, ) +, (2-2, DH -e~ a ere POWER SERIES IN 5p POUER SERIES Ww 2-2, CONVERGES Ow SOE CONVERGES On SONE re-2,1> er Wa-2,16R ARE CALLED LAURENT SERIES Awd CONVERGE OW AN ANNULUS r< 12-B10. on 12172,13, EXANPLE =|: INFINITELY NANY NEGATIVE POWERS 2: FINITELY NANY WEGATIVE POWERS 3: NO NEGATIVE POWERS Sone TERMINOLOGY : ze Piz) FAILS 7 BE ANALYNC AT 2, , BUT 1S ANALYNC AT SONE POT m EVERY U,2,), 670, THEN 2, 15 CALLED A SivGuLARITY Cor simcuiAr Pot ) oF Pez), A swmoviarity 2, oF Fez) 1s AN ISOLATED SiMGULARITY IF IIS ANWALYNE AT EVERY POINT W SONE U (8) 20 For fiz) = Lag A won- EXANPLE : Now ASSUNE THAT, LIKE THE EXANPLES ABOVE, Fr2y CAN BE WRITTEN AS THE SUN OF A LAURENT SERIES ow UL tz) O«< 12-21 eR NOTE : WE WILL SEE LATER THAT, mo FACT, ‘T MUST HAVE SucH An EXPANSION,4, ” a “2 feed Z agtd-2) PQ eT 44 a) ta vad aay te —~_—___ Principar PART oF Fez) AT 2, 2, 15 Aw essenTiaL singuiamiry oF Pez) 1F THERE ANE iFmiTELy NAWY IF THERE 15 A LARGEST m FOR wHIcH & #0, Zo 15 A POLE OF ORDER m (POLE OF ORDER | 1$ A SIMPLE POLE ), 2, 15 A REMOVABLE SmvcuLARITy oF Fiz) 1F a,ra,* °, a, = Resiu€ of fizrar 2, : Res Fre? 7 a 222, . (THE SIGWIFICANCE OF THE RESIDUE WILL ENERGE 1) INTEGRATION THEORY, ) WoTE : THE BEHAVIOR oF Fre) NEAR Ar ESSENTIAL SICULARITY IS WILDLY COMPLICATED, HERE'S A CHARO) THECREN WE wilt WoT PROVE : PICARD'S THEOREN : IF Fray HAS AW ESSENTIAL SiNvCuLARITY AT 2, , THEN im EVERY U,'c2,>, HowevERsnALL, FL) TAKES EVERY ConPLEX VALUE, WITH OWE POSSIBLE EXCEPTION, INFINITELY OFTEN,WS EXERCISES + FOR EACH OF THE FoLLowiNG Fuwcrions Fee> FIND THE LAURENT SERIES EXPANSION ON O«< 12-8,1 aay : Res Fr2> = 2 ae 58. snow marie Pez) was A RenovasLe SINGULARITY AT 2, , WED Res fiz = 0, aa,4. SOLUTIONS To THE EXERCISES : ~ « a a 2 ane en? an 50, ag smeds FP a On Bamps ADE neo neo . on” 320 tan)! nzo Sl. FOR Wale), 2 > Soa = a ere) ems cum yeae ato no ner io FoR o« ale] SET 22 0E « ~ oy G nee ek res Pr oso +i 0'smn8 a an an ea 2 2 Di twsne + 4 2, "sw “am oa Ano re9 reos Ori rsmO — Ci-0l050) +i rsmwO yorel® * ci-rcos@)-irswd (110088) + irsmO — Lreos8 (1-1c0s 8) r*sw® ) +4 [ PSO UI e0sO)+ sw Oc0s 6] c-reos 92" + ctsin'O treosO =r?) + A rsmO cos 8-r* . esi @ i reos 8 ts ti ee 1-2arcosO +r rearcosO te” 1260s 40* 50 EQUATING REAL AND INAGINARY PARTS GIVES THE RESULTS.$2, fe ! re 7 2) * Wma e2-(2-a> Pa (ay FOR O<12-Q1<), 1 ! a t Peas x 7 Tea * Fea Tecan ! 2 9 ' i- 3 hana)” m- ae est on = 32 (ceed = FB z a0 ~ . art a = caeay’? + Zo en ta-ad ae (b> FoR 12272, Ig]<) (oo so Id1e1), 1 feos FTE: 27-3 7 5 A B2yPl st L » $l ey- £2 a30 n=O y 2° $ + : z gu - 2 went)18. SY. FRon EXERCISE 53 (a), ey Peay s caeay’ + Dp en cana)? a0 on 9 18-2)¢] So 2,22 If A POLE OF ORDER | 7) Resiove |, S © t yy? eae ss, farce? = Zale) Z te oo a0 on 0412/29 So 2,20 1S On ESSENTIAL SINGLLARITY wit RESIDUE ~ 20 coshé . wo a: alm? z ae! an-3 gets G 2 tant ® a 2 20-3 7 +2 om 0¢12/¢2 elt - eeerne 2 a a So 2,= 0 18 A POLE OF ORDER | WITH RESIDUE - 3. 2a 42 : sce a e te ot. Se: lam 57 ant ® ae a —_, > ” ol oo + oe cate-v? ow o¢ 1e-tl< eo (ant) Zz a 2 no 2 eet 2 ae ory ° a 2° yee a7 tai) Me Es ” 2 2. een? tae ten to : dia POLE OF ORDER 2 wiTh RESIDUE AE. so a= 58. FOR A RETIOVABLE SINGULARITY, EVERY O., 15 ZERO Se Res = 2,20,