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CHAPTER ONE: GETTING STARTED
Supposing is good, but finding out is better—Mark Twain
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Thinking About How Learning Can Change You
• Being Ready for New Challenges
• Knowing What Motivates You
• Managing Your Time and Resources
Learning is something you do every day. Every time you go to your computer to review the weather
forecast, check the sports scores, or read a breaking news bulletin, you are taking basic steps in the learning
process: gathering information and storing it in memory for convenient use. Learning is a natural and
necessary aspect of everyday life. It’s an ordinary activity—but it holds extraordinary potential for growth
and change when you pursue it with specific, intense purpose in an academic setting. Then it empowers
you! We begin our book by looking at ways that learning can create meaningful change in your life.
Thinking about How Learning Can Change You
So here you are, one among many millions of adults who have chosen to go back to school to finish their
college education, and you have chosen an online program to do that. Maybe you have thought about it for
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a long time, or maybe it was an impulsive decision. Perhaps it is a long overdue personal goal, or maybe it
was driven by professional needs. There are lots of reasons why adults are returning to university studies in
increasing numbers: fulfillment of a lifelong dream, a push from an employer, a gnawing sense of “more out
there,” or even a sense of guilt at not having done it before.
Regardless of how you arrived in this moment, you are here. You took the leap, and now you are
looking at this book and your computer and probably wondering what you have gotten yourself into!
Though some adult students approach the return to the university with confidence and ease, as faculty at
Ashford University, it has been our collective experience that for many adult learners the task seems
daunting. Well, it is and it isn’t! Every journey begins with a single step, followed by another and another.
You might be a bit rusty, but if you put one foot in front of the other, you can do this.
The purpose of this book is to help you make the transition from a slightly fearful returning student
to an intentional learner. Actually, you didn’t really stop learning when you stopped going to school. It is
virtually impossible to live and engage in this rapidly changing world and not continue to learn. But you
probably did not perceive it as “learning” per se—you
“Only29% of people over age 25 in the United were working, meeting new people, thinking about new
States have a bachelor’s degree.”
ideas, helping your kids with their homework, or a list of
—U.S. Census Bureau (2008)
other things.
But the good news is that as an adult—even if it
has been years since you took a class—you are better prepared for this new experience than you may
imagine. In this book, we will explore what that means and show you how to take advantage of your
experiences to embrace this new learning endeavor. Collectively, we have more than seventy years of
experience working with people just like you—adults who have decided to return to formal learning—and
we have some great stories. We will share some of them with you as we go along. Our goal is to help you
not only learn how to be an online university student but also embrace a life of intentional learning that will
enrich each day.
LEARNING WITH AN EXTRAORDINARY PURPOSE
You can approach learning in an ordinary way, see it as
something to be engaged in casually to accommodate new
things as they occur, and hardly ever make it a structured,
focused activity. Many people engage in learning primarily on
this reactive level. Sociologists and others have pointed out that
the steady bombardment of media in our culture contributes
significantly to this passive pattern. Too often, they argue, we
accept just what is presented to us rather than seizing
opportunities to learn new things on our own. But, in returning
to university, you are leaving this common approach to learning
behind. You are embracing learning in a proactive way: You are The steady barrage of media in our
taking charge of your learning. In doing so, you are pursuing a culture contributes to reactive rather
higher educational goal than most people in the United States than active learning
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seek. This means that your goal (and the learning required to reach it) is not ordinary! It sets you apart and
requires you to approach learning with an extraordinary purpose.
The Learning–Knowledge Cycle
It’s helpful to think of learning and knowledge in terms of their differences rather than their similarities.
Learning is a seeking/accepting activity, whereas knowledge is a possessing/knowing experience. Or, you
might say, learning is an engaging process that results in knowledge. But the concept of knowledge is an
ironic one: You can discover particular knowledge (claim it, possess it) at the end of a learning process, but
it is invisible. You know you possess it; you can say, “OK, I got it!” But that doesn’t make it visible. Your new
knowledge does not become visible until you take action based upon it—then it becomes concrete, visible
to others, and fully owned for you to act on. We are all actors on the stage of knowledge every day.
Another ironic aspect of knowledge should not be overlooked. When you make your new
knowledge performance, the invisible stage that supports you may seem adequate, but it’s not completely
secure: Obsolescence (the state of being outdated) can devour it like termites devour wood. So you have to
return to learning (further learning) as a means of reinforcement, keeping your new (now‐becoming‐old)
knowledge continually up‐to‐date.
Thirty years ago, it was thought that 50 percent of the skills and knowledge needed for most
workplace jobs would become obsolete in twelve to fifteen years. Today, primarily because of extensive
technological change, the best estimate of occupational half‐life (defined as the point at which 50 percent
of skills learned for a job become obsolete) for most jobs is thirty to thirty‐six occupational months.
Consequently, the learning–knowledge cycle is an unending one.
1. Learning allows you to gain new knowledge that enables you to understand yourself, others, and
life more clearly.
2. Learning enables you to develop new skills that can be used to increase productivity in your life
and in your work.
3. Learning prepares you for initiating change, allowing you to grow, adapt, and mature. Most
people find that the more they learn, the easier learning becomes. Think of it as a grand adventure!
You can understand the full empowerment of learning only when you act based on what you know. When
you post observations in the discussion forum of an online learning environment, for example, you are an
active learner. Every time that you apply new knowledge or new skills in your workplace, family, or within
yourself, with an intention to initiate change (even in a small way), you are actively learning.
Whenever it is applied, learning becomes a powerful, creative force through which measurable
outcomes can be demonstrated (Worksheet 1.1).
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Worksheet 1.1, Which Outcomes Are Most Important to You?
Rank Prioritize these outcomes, listing the most important one first.
New potential for understanding yourself: Includes understanding physical abilities,
cognitive (thinking) strengths, and emotional stability.
New abilities for problem solving and decision making: Includes engaging in
development of values.
New perspective for innovating: Includes (1) recognizing historic and contemporary
processes of conceptualization and change and (2) developing global awareness.
New basis for productivity: Includes understanding group and organizational
behavior and the development and implementation of outcomes measurement.
New resources for leadership: Includes understanding culture and developing social
consciousness.
LIFELONG EMPOWERMENT
Learning energizes human experience and shapes meaning throughout our lifetime. From stage to stage,
the learning environments will differ greatly, the emphasis may change from informal to formal, and the
scope may increase from a personal to a global perspective. But life’s challenges are always with us,
whether we’re dealing with childhood and personal growth, completing formal education, coping with
family and societal problems, responding to technology and global change, recognizing occupational
obsolescence, or adjusting to aging.
It is helpful to examine the learning experience on the basis
of cognitive development theory. Jean Piaget, a noted psychologist
and developmental theorist, postulates the following stages of
development:
1. Sensorimotor Stage—Birth to Age Two Years
(Approximately): Children begin with no thinking structures (called
schemata) but develop them through exploration of their senses and
experimentation on the environment. Significant learning occurs, but
children in the sensorimotor stage are incapable of abstract or logical
thought.
2. Preoperational Stage—Age Two Years to Seven Years
(Approximately): Children rapidly develop language skills and more
sophisticated cognitive structures but are still prelogical. They are not
capable of conservation (the ability to understand that substance
Jean Piaget (1896‐1989) is renowned does not change when it only changes shape or form). When water is
for developing a theory on the stages
poured from a tall, narrow glass to a short, wide bowl, preoperational
of cognitive development
children will think that there is now less water. They are also incapable
of decentering (the ability to see things from another’s perspective). Preoperational children who
are asked to sit at a table and draw the view from the other end of the table (from the perspective
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of someone looking at them) cannot perform the task. Conservation and decentering are
prerequisites to higher‐level learning and logical thinking.
3. Concrete Operational Stage—Ages Seven Years to Adolescence: Children begin to grasp
conservation and decentering. They begin, for example, to wonder how Santa really does get to all
those houses in one night. They can now reason logically but only on a concrete level, not
hypothetically or abstractly. When a concrete operational child is shown a blue block and asked, “Is
the block green or not green?” he or she will probably answer, “Neither, it’s blue.” The concept that
blue is not green is too abstract.
4. Formal Operations Stage—Adolescence and Older: The person is now capable of sophisticated
logical thought. He or she can think in the abstract, can think hypothetically, and can solve
problems using the logic of combinations. It is interesting to note that research shows that only
about 25 percent of adults use formal operations on a regular basis; doing so requires significant
cognitive discipline in addition to mere capability (Dworetzky and Davis 1989).
Piaget’s stages ended with formal operations, but Klaus Riegel (1976) postulates a fifth stage called
dialectical reasoning. This is a stage beyond logic where (in our opinion) real critical thinking lies. It is the
ability to perceive the frequent paradoxes in life (to see the dialectic) and to question and analyze the
assumptions that underlie the logic. Dialectical thinkers “readily recognize, accept, and even enjoy conflict
and contradictions in values and possible courses of action because sorting out these conflicts forces them
to grow intellectually” (Dworetzky and Davis 1989, 360).
Being Ready for New Challenges
Higher education challenges you to examine your unexamined assumptions, to think critically and logically,
and to see and experience the world in new ways. It is enjoyable and exhilarating, and you can do it!
In taking up these unavoidable challenges, you discover that learning obligates you to be self‐
directed and self‐motivated. It requires a conscious commitment every day and cannot be fully achieved
without some personal sacrifice.
You should develop your own framework for ongoing learning, identifying activities that will keep
your mind active and increase your knowledge. The learning activity Worksheet 1.2 is particularly useful
and important in identifying the challenges that you should tackle.
List the learning activities below that you are now using: Which of the thirteen listed activities do
you need to increase most?
Worksheet 1.2, What Learning Strengths Do You Already Have?
Which learning activities are you now using? Which activities do you need to increase most?
Read widely
Explore Web resources
Listen and be open to new ideas
Raise questions in face‐to‐face
and Web dialogue
Accept feedback
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Reshape your ideas
Innovate and experiment to test
new assumptions
Solve problems
Unlearn
Teach
Follow your intuition
Review and reflect
Seek renewal constantly
LEARNING AS A SOCIAL ACTIVITY
Historically, learning has been considered a social activity, with the classroom functioning as a place for
personal interactions. Today, online learning, with its technological delivery, presents a challenge to this
highly social custom. Some people, in fact, consider technologically based learning unacceptable because it
does not provide sufficient social contacts.
Traditionally, the environment for formal learning
has been teaching centered. Boundaries and
methodologies for learning were determined by
authorities, who used lectures and printed
documents as primary ways to deliver/identify
relevant content. This classroom‐based
engagement between professor and student
involved social exchange, but its primary emphasis
was teaching centered. Today, this educational
modality is still highly valued, and rightly so,
because the wonder and workings of learning are The online learning experience can be just as social as
stimulated in face‐to‐face exchanges. traditional learning
With the growth of technology and the introduction of formal learning online, it was thought that
this “personal” environment would have to be forgotten. Consequently, many feared that the Internet’s
high‐tech, low‐touch environment would not be effective for learning. But two factors, in particular, have
combined to make the online environment an attractive and resourceful environment for formal learning:
•Access to Information: As access to information through the Internet spirals upward, the
environment for formal learning is becoming significantly less hierarchical. Correspondingly, the
focus in formal learning is becoming more practical, with greater emphasis placed on application of
knowledge. Focusing on the application of knowledge increases in importance as the rate of
change increases. Therefore, the design created for formal online learning presents not only
activities involving the transfer of knowledge but also opportunities for exploring actual application
of knowledge. In some online courses, students are encouraged to apply theoretical concepts in
their workplace settings while the course is still underway or to find Web‐based data related to the
implementation of theoretical concepts learned in the course. These features increase the
credibility and practicality of online learning—a desirable goal for many adult learners.
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•Social Networking: Paradoxically, “high‐touch” relationships have become common on the
Internet. There are literally millions of Web communities of people who are “learning to feel”
through the Internet. Choosing to be active in social networks,
“Online, you get to know your they explore common interests—sharing experiences,
students’ minds not just their faces.” imagination, and commitment in a high‐touch kind of way.
—Linda Harasim
Online educational programs are examples of people linked in
pursuit of common goals. Consequently, intense dialogue,
creative collaboration, and strong relationships are prominent elements in their learning‐centered
(rather than teaching‐centered) environment.
These two technological factors benefit you as you pursue educational goals online. They give
learning a global scope, which in turn increases diversity and depth within the learning process. They allow
online educational experiences to be learning centered
Do You Agree?
and enriched through socialization. But the essential
Do you agree that online learning is a social
driving force of online learning is not a technological one.
learning experience? Or does technology get
It’s a human one, a social one: the desire for connection
in the way too much?
demonstrated by self‐directed online knowledge seekers—
people like you.
THE CHALLENGE OF SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT
Consider this scenario about the “third place.” It challenges you to be socially engaged in your online
learning activities, approaching them from a personal perspective, not a totally technologically one. Our
home and our work comprise the two most common social surroundings in our lives. But, for most of us,
there is at least a third place that provides comfortable, meaningful social engagement. In The Great Good
Place (1989), Ray Oldenburg called “home” our first place and “work” our second place; he then discussed
“other places in our society”—third places—that were anchors of social interaction. He argued that many
locations—including cafés, coffee shops, beauty parlors, and general
stores—qualify as places of social engagement.
Howard Schultz, founder of Starbucks, designed his specialty
coffee sites with social gatherings in mind. In a 60 Minutes interview
(April 2006), Schultz said, “We’re in the business of human connection
and humanity, creating communities in a third place between home and
work” (Schorn, 2006). Besides having coffee aroma be the unifying
connector among the more than fifty million people who gather daily
around the world, Starbucks has created its own product vocabulary.
To some extent, your online learning experiences should become
a third place in your life. In other words, online learning should not be an
isolated endeavor; it has meaningful social dimensions and relationships.
We will have more to say about developing useful social networks in
In the digital age, online Chapter 2, but an important part of being ready for online learning is
communities are becoming part remembering this: Learning in university courses is a social experience,
of "the third place." and numerous Web‐based means are available to make its social
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dimensions enjoyable. We have experienced many graduations where students who have become close
friends and shared online learning experiences meet face to face for the first time. They embrace with the
affection of old friends, and the relationship is real. We have even seen a few marriages result, but that is
certainly not a promise!
Did You Know . . .
That online learning requires both formal and informal learning activities?
• Reading and seeking online information are primary formal learning activities built into
university courses. These activities are foundational for preparation of written or media‐based
presentations submitted to the instructor for formal review and evaluation. Informal learning
activities include posting and responding to discussion board questions, interacting (chatting)
with other students, and reflecting on critical insights/knowledge gained—and sometimes even
putting them into practice in the workplace during the course.
That informal learning gets 86 percent of all learning investments that corporations make annually,
while formal learning programs get 14 percent of the total investment?
• Informal learning opportunities and on‐the‐job training are highly valued by corporations
(Carnevale, Gainer, and Villet 1990).
That the process of active learning produces much higher retention rates than passive learning?
• Fifty percent retention when learning results from discussion groups
• Seventy‐five percent retention when learning results from practice by doing
• Ninety percent retention when learning results from teaching others
(National Training Laboratories 2006)
That fear demotivates learning?
• Fear is an emotional factor that can seriously block the learning process. Similarly, anger and
anxiety can prevent the learning process from unfolding.
That, because of learning, the brain never stops changing?
• For a long time, it was believed that as we aged the connections in the brain became fixed.
Research has shown that the brain in fact never stops changing through learning. The capacity of
the brain to change with learning is called plasticity (Michelon 2008).
SUMMARY: CHANGES AND CHALLENGES THAT ACCOMPANY LEARNING
Learning is what gives life meaning and purpose; it is relevant to educational goals, personal development,
social participation, success, and satisfaction. As you return to university studies, learning needs to be a
carefully considered goal in your life because it’s the ongoing process through which you gain knowledge of
yourself, others, your work, and your world—as well as insights into concepts and ideas that define life
itself. Learning equips you to act, to engage, to decide, to produce, to evaluate, to write, to lead/change, to
exert power, to accept, and to celebrate. Some of the important challenges that accompany learning are
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discovering your strengths, analyzing your learning patterns, and finding ways to maintain the social aspect
of learning in an online environment. No human process is more demanding or more renewing. An
invitation to learn is an invitation to live more meaningfully and become more socially conscious. It’s an
invitation that’s always there!
What Do You Think?
The following are a few observations, quotations, and narrative perspectives that you can use in
reflecting on the content of this chapter.
Observations
Albert Camus, a twentieth‐century French author and philosopher, observed, “In the midst of winter, I
finally learned that within me there lay an invincible [indestructible] summer” (Camus, 1960).
He may have wanted this statement to have philosophic implications, but at a basic level it’s a
statement about personal motivation. Or, more precisely, it’s about the discovery of personal motivation
that is vibrant and real—and committed to success (invincible). Sometimes the best context for starting
out on a new venture is one that is based simply (and inexplicably) on inner knowledge: You just know
it’s time to begin. It’s time to turn away from winter and look toward summer!
Quotations
“The people who get on in this world are the people who get up and look for the circumstances they
want, and, if they can’t find them, make them.”—George Bernard Shaw
Narratives
“I learned a lot of things in high school, community college, and at work, but I never thought much
about being ready to learn—until I got my first computer. It’s hard to explain . . . but from the moment I
first pressed the start button, I felt ready (had endless energy) to confront new things; I was ready to
absorb them, master them, use them. It was exhilarating!”—Arden, former student
“You’d think almost anyone would be ready to learn from a ski instructor. Well, I wasn’t. All I was ready
to do was head down the side of the mountain. On my first run from the top, I remembered that I was
to face forward and go fast—but I paid no attention to anything else I’d been instructed to do. It wasn’t
until I had wiped out four times in trying to negotiate turns (and breaking a ski on the fourth attempt)
that I was ready to learn that it really makes sense to ‘keep your weight on your downhill ski when
turning.’ I wonder now why I was so unready to accept this oh‐so‐important knowledge.”—Tony, former
student
Knowing What Motivates You
Learning leads to knowledge, and knowledge enables you to act. We have discussed this important insight
and asked you to think of knowledge as a stage on which you stand to act and pointed out that the firmer
the stage, the more confident and complete (better) your performance will be! So, if solid knowledge is
important in making you a person who acts confidently and initiates change, how can you know when the
knowledge you have is solid enough to begin? That’s what we will explore next. For example, ask yourself,
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“Is my understanding of the educational goal I’ve set for myself based on firm motivation?” We’ll give you
some tools for dealing with that question so that you’ll be able to say confidently, “I’m ready to accept my
educational goal!” And, more important, “I know (I have learned) what my readiness is based upon; I know
what motivates me.”
EXAMINING READINESS
If you watch a team of five‐year‐olds on the soccer field, all neatly uniformed and equipped with shiny
sneakers for a tough contest, it takes only a few minutes to discover that even though they all look ready
for the game, that’s not the case. Despite parents’ desperate shouts from the sidelines, some kids will be
more interested in splashing through water puddles on the field than in dribbling the ball toward the goal.
Some will forget which goal to defend; some will hover on the periphery of the action, imagining what it
will feel like to open gifts at their birthday party later in the day. Some are playing soccer.
Age alone is not a good measurement of readiness for most activities in life. Another way to
measure readiness is to base it on factual data. If you know, for example, that you have a $300 credit line
on your bank card and you have not charged anything against it, you can confidently click into eBay and bid
$125 on a piece of art that perfectly fits the décor of your den. Based on hard, cold facts, your eBay
purchase can be a done deal—because you know you have money.
Unfortunately, most actions that you initiate in day‐to‐day living are not determined simply by facts.
Usually, you have to consider related factors even before making a small artwork purchase on eBay: Do I
really need it? Should I give this money to the Earthquake Relief Fund instead? These are subjective
considerations, and they are always more complex. Requiring thought based on judgment as well as
knowledge, they slow down the decision‐making process. The more important the decision, the more
complex the subjective factors become. So, to make a major decision like enrolling in an online degree
program, you have to use knowledge and exercise judgment related to such subjective factors as
motivation, purpose, values, timing/opportunity, expectations, strengths, and outcomes (Worksheet 1.3).
Worksheet 1.3 Reflect on These Subjective Factors
Subjective Factors Influencing My Answer
My Online Education Goal Use a question mark (?) if you’re unsure.
Motivation: What motivates
me most to pursue my
university degree?
Purpose: What is my main
purpose in seeking my
university degree?
Values: What values am I
demonstrating by seeking my
university degree?
Timing/Opportunity: Is the
timing (opportunity) right for
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me to pursue my degree?
Why?
Expectations: What things do I
expect during my online
experience—both positive and
not‐so‐positive?
Outcomes: What will be the
most enjoyable outcome? The
most measurable outcome?
The least measurable
outcome?
IT’S RISKY TO ACT ON INSECURE MOTIVATION
As just stated, research shows that most adults who re‐enter university to learn are self‐directed individuals
who have made their decision based on self knowledge—not merely on encouragement from others.
Nevertheless, the risk of taking such a big step without having secure motivation is very real.
Life’s experiences teach us the difference between “facing a new day” driven by inspiration and
energy for the task ahead and beginning it stimulated only by the jolt from coffee or other caffeinated
drink. The source of motivation in the first case is internal; in the second, it is external. Thus, we discover
the striking difference between the longevity of internal motivation and the meeting duration of external
motivation.
Many of us, in our adult years, come across statements that we wrote earlier in a diary or in an
adolescent letter in a display of extravagant expectation— vowing, for example, to love the prom queen or
a particular football captain forever. Then we realize that, although the circumstance once seemed so
certain, we can remember neither the feeling nor the face. If interior motivation ever was a factor
influencing these intentions, it had little depth.
From ancient times, self‐knowledge, rather than external opportunity, has been upheld as the most
profound source of human motivation. In the classic poem Bhagavad Gita, thousands of years old, this
principle is clearly laid out:
Better is one’s own duty, though devoid of merit, than the duty of another well discharged.
Better is death in one’s own duty; the duty of another is fraught with fear. (3.35)
The power of true self‐knowledge is not only motivational; it is liberating. Meaningful action and personal
growth spring from its authenticity. Without secure motivation, it’s difficult in any life situation—and
certainly in entering a university—to set realistic objectives and maintain a credible perspective.
Others’ expectations can keep you from knowing yourself. It is also possible that your “life”—
whatever it is that makes you whole—lies outside the challenges and demands that university studies
present. This is a sobering thought, but the motivation for returning to the university must be honestly
faced and evaluated. Be certain that your motivation is both solid and secure.
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AM I READY TO LEARN?
Because enrolling in a university degree program is a big decision—one of the most significant in a lifetime,
for many—it’s really important to be able to answer yes to the following question: Am I ready to learn?
Researchers have identified various contexts (sets of conditions) that
stimulate adults to learn and seek change. We invite you to explore four
particular contexts to help you understand what motivates and gives
you confidence to learn. As you read about each context, ask yourself,
“Is this context (situation) similar to mine as I pursue my degree
online?” Or, “Do I feel comfortable thinking of my online learning
decision in this context?”
When you can answer yes to these questions as you consider a
particular context, you are acquiring a level of self‐knowledge and
confidence about what motivates you to proceed toward your goal of a
university degree. That is, you are not saying, “I should” get a university
degree or “I want” to get a degree. Instead, you are recognizing (and
saying) “I know I’m ready to begin . . . I feel comfortable identifying
myself with a particular supportive context or perspective—one that
"Know Thyself" was a guiding motivates me to learn and makes my goal realistic and highly
principle of the ancient philosophy
desirable.”
Socrates. It remains a sound
principle today
A word of caution as you review the “readiness to learn
contexts” below: You may find particular aspects that describe your situation in more than one context, and
you may not feel that you completely fit into any one of the four. That’s fine. Human decisions are normally
motivated by more than one source. But, you should determine which of these contexts for learning
supports you (provides you with a framework) in a primary way and which supports you in a secondary
way.
CONTEXTS THAT MOTIVATE LEARNING
Based on the research of Malcolm Knowles (1984), here are four “distinct contexts” that stimulate adults to
learn. We have cited a student experience to illustrate each one. Read each short narrative carefully and
think about your own situation as you proceed.
Practical Context
I need to know in order to cope with things I face.
Sara’s story: I’m pretty open to learning, but I’m most enthusiastic about it when I know that I’m going to
gain something practical from it. I’m not really interested in just being told, “You gotta learn this,” without
knowing in advance how it’s going to benefit me. That doesn’t mean I always have to apply what I learn
immediately. I’m comfortable with knowing it will be useful sometime in the future. When I think about
situations in my family and at work that make demands on me, I feel that I’m handling them, but I’d like to
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be able to cope with them better. I’d like to be sure about the approaches I’m taking and decisions I’m
making. I’d like solutions to problems I face.
Personal Context
I want to do this myself, accomplish important goals.
Chris’s story: When it comes to learning, I see myself positioned in
the starting blocks with a clear path stretched out in front of me, a
path that will get me to the finish line. Sure, it would be a bit foolish
to say, “I see the finish line clearly,” because I’m realistic enough to
know that circumstances, conflicts, and surprises always happen to
slow you down. But what motivates me to learn is being able to say,
“There’s a goal out there that I can glimpse, and I’m committed to
reaching it.” I know what it is, and I’m on my way toward getting
there. Learning makes me feel better about myself, and I definitely
think that the learning quest that I’m on will improve the quality of
my life and my future. Personal goals can be one of the
greatest motivators
Experiential Context
I’m at a point where I can pull things together from experience.
Fred’s story: A lot of people talk primarily about the future when they explain their interest in learning. I
realize that it’s important to plan for the future. But, I like to consider the past, too, and my significant
insights from past experiences. Real‐life experiences have informed me accurately about many things,
allowing me to develop a solid foundation for forming values and being confident in what I do and think. I
may have to unlearn some things, but I’m open to that. My ideal learning environment is one where I can
consider what I’ve already learned from life experience, reflect on it, and then adapt it to a new situation—
discovering new meaning and competence in the process.
Idealistic Context
I want to explore ideas, theories, and concepts to experience discovery of something new.
Jamie’s story—Researchers call me a cognitive learner. Those who don’t use such technical terms label me
as a person more interested in theory than in practice. I can accept that, but I know that practice can’t be
avoided entirely. In any given situation, what triggers my interest in learning is learning for its own sake. I
know grades, diplomas, and new jobs are desirable aspects of the formal educational journey, but they
don’t motivate me nearly as much as the pleasure of discovering something new or learning something that
may not have utilitarian value. For me, there’s joy just in expanding my mind, and I don’t plan to abandon
this learning process as long as I live.
CHART THE CONTEXTS THAT MOTIVATE YOU TO LEARN
Compare your story (Worksheet 1.4) with the preceding stories to determine which context is the one that
primarily stimulates you to learn and supports you, allowing you to say, “Here’s why I’m ready to learn!”
14
Then, mark the motivational strength that each learning context has for you.
Worksheet 1.4 Contexts That Motivate You to Learn
Context That Motivates Weak Moderate Strong Very Strong
Learning Motivator Motivator Motivator Motivator
Practical context: I need to
know, to cope with things I face.
Personal context: I want to do
this myself, to accomplish
important goals.
Experimental context: I’m at a
point where I can pull things
together from experience.
Idealistic context: I want to
explore ideas, theories, and
concepts to experience discovery
of something new.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Your readiness to learn is also driven by psychological motivation. You are motivated by inborn needs,
which are universal. Only by satisfying these needs are you able to fully develop your unique personality
and human potential. Abraham Maslow’s research (1954) identifies five levels of need that are basic in our
human experience. They form a hierarchy, motivating each of us to achieve step‐by‐step change and
growth as our needs are satisfied at each level (see Figure 1.1).
Is this concept important for you? Yes, it is—in two particular ways:
• Being ready to learn at a university level involves more than being ready to get a diploma; it also
involves being ready to develop as a person.
• Paying full attention to physical and emotional well‐being needs is essential before it is realistic to
expect achievement of personal potential and influence (self‐actualization).
15
Figure 1.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Consider each level in the hierarchical chart carefully. Which of these levels of need have been
essentially satisfied in your life? At which levels do you sense a need (motivation) to seek further
development/growth?
SUMMARY: IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF MOTIVATION
Individual approaches to learning are changed by circumstances and age. So, in returning to university, it’s
important (1) to be aware of particular contexts and circumstances that motivate adults and (2) to evaluate
what truly motivates you to seek your educational goal. This serious, honest exploration is a sure means of
determining whether or not you are ready for the learning journey ahead, including a plan to fit “school”
into your day‐to‐day life.
When you are motivated toward your goal by a particularly strong context (set of circumstances) or
have a strong personal drive (psychological motivation) toward achieving it, you are well on your way to
being ready to embrace learning. Simply deciding on an educational goal on the basis of others’
encouragement, without having identified a solid internal and external motivational perspective of your
own, can be misleading. In other words, motivation can be an elusive thing: Readiness to learn is shaped by
making motivation concrete!
Managing Your Time and Resources
University studies take time. There is no easy pill. If you are ready to return to school, then you understand
that you will have to rearrange your life so that you have time to devote to your studies. Online learning
removes the travel, parking, and child‐care issues related to driving to a brick‐and‐mortar institution, but
there is no getting around the fact that you will have to carve out time to read, write, think, and interact
with instructors and peers. We have seen adult students attempt to return to university studies with very
16
unrealistic expectations. They assume that an hour here or there when they have some extra time will be
enough to keep up. Unfortunately, those students usually drop out after one or two courses.
So, as you embark upon this new adventure, you need to realistically assess your current life
situation and your schedule. What are you going to change to create time to complete your coursework? It
is easy to find excuses not to go back to school, and it is easy to get sidetracked by life once you have
started. Being ready means you have committed to making your studies a top priority. Initially it might be
difficult, but you will find that you soon fall into a rhythm, where school and study become second nature.
MAKING A SCHEDULE
In the same way that you need to create a monthly budget for your expenses, bills, and so on, consider
having a budget for your time. The most common problem students have with writing comes from lack of
planning. In fact, professional writers also have to plan their days, finding the time to write. You will always
find people and things that demand your time, so make it a habit of writing down what you need to do and
when you can add it to your schedule.
Below is a schedule sample of a working single mother’s week. Although every person has a
different set of circumstances and his or her own busy life, we all have one major challenge: There are only
twenty‐four hours in a day!
Sample Schedule
6:00 a.m.–7:30 a.m Get ready for work, get children ready for school
7:30 a.m.–8:00 a.m. Commute to work
8:00 a.m.–10:00 a.m. Work at home or for employer
10:00 a.m.–10:15 a.m. Break
10:15 a.m.–12:00 p.m. Back to work
12:00 p.m.–12:30 or 1:00 p.m. Lunch
1:00 p.m.–5:00 p.m. Work
5:00 p.m.–5:30 p.m. Commute back home
7:00 p.m.–9:00 p.m. Time with children, TV, activities with family or friends
9:00 p.m.–10:00 or 11:00 p.m. Various tasks or time to relax
Remember, every time that your children see you doing
schoolwork, reading, writing papers, and participating in Do You Agree?
online discussions, you are providing a lasting and invaluable Weekends: How do you spend your
impression. At first, they may make demands on your time and weekends? Can you find time then for
perhaps even resent that you are taking this time for yourself. studying? Are there leisure or
But if you explain that what you are doing is for the future of recreational activities you can forgo?
the whole family and suggest that you all do your homework
together, you will begin to see new attitudes, acceptance, and, soon, respect.
Worksheet 1.5 provides a blank schedule for you to fill out. Now, consider how you will spend your
time. When and how will you make time for school and set priorities? Studying and reading in short bursts
17
can be very effective. Spending fifteen minutes reading the summary of your chapter and highlighting
important points is all part of the process. Your peak study time, meaning that period during the day when
you can best focus and absorb information, is something that you will soon discover.
Worksheet 1.5 Create Your Schedule
5:00 a.m.
6:00 a.m.
7:00 a.m.
8:00 a.m.
9:00 a.m.
10:00 a.m.
11:00 a.m.
12:00 p.m.
1:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m.
3:00 p.m.
4:00 p.m.
5:00 p.m.
6:00 p.m.
7:00 p.m.
8:00 p.m.
9:00 p.m.
10:00 p.m.
11:00 p.m.
12:00 a.m.
Time management is important for all aspects of your return to school, and you must set aside
sufficient time for writing. Writing is the medium for communication when attending classes online.
How good is your time management? Try this online time management assessment
(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_88.htm)
ESSENTIAL SUPPORTS: MANAGING YOUR TIME
It’s all about balance and control!
Balance
To balance your online learning commitment with your existing commitments, it’s necessary to determine
how much time you’ll need each week for your online studies. This is pretty easy to do; thousands of adult
learners have responded to recent surveys designed to gather this important information. These survey
results indicate that most accelerated online university‐level courses (five weeks long) require the student
18
to set aside twelve to fifteen uninterrupted hours per week for learning activities. This time is needed for
reading, participating in online discussion,
researching, reflecting, and writing. “If x represents the things that cause you stress and y
represents the things that enhance your life, then for
When you know how much time your online the next week do two fewer of the things that cause
studies will require each week, you then face the you stress and one more of the things that enhance
daunting challenge of “finding the time.” A major your life. Repeat as necessary.”
misstep at this point in time management is —Anita Houghton
failing to actually identify the time required. It’s
not enough just to acknowledge that twelve to fifteen hours of time will be needed; it’s necessary to find
these hours each week, plot them on an outline of your week’s activities, and keep the outline in front of
you. Identify chunks of time uninterrupted. Your outline will show the balance that you’ve worked out to
accommodate the demands of study and other activities.
Control
Your remaining challenge is control. But remember, “planned balance” must precede control. Although it’s
never possible to achieve perfect control in time management—because unexpected things happen in
life—you can control a lot of what you concretely plan. Without question, control of your time is
determined largely by self‐discipline related to your life demands, activities, and relationships. Not only
that, honest assessment of the effectiveness of your control is also up to you. It’s wise to assess your time
management skills regularly.
Using Worksheet 1.6, try this approach to achieving balance and control in time management.
Worksheet 1.6 Achiveing Balance and Control in Time Management
Achieving Balance Make a List How I Plan to Cope
Unrealistic
demands
Activities that I can
adjust
Relationships that I
can change
Achieving Control Make a List How I Plan to Cope
Self‐discipline
Assessment of
progress
Self‐Test: Stress and Time Management
It’s easy to be misinformed about stress and time management. Try answering these statements:
______ (True) ______ (False) 1. I don’t feel stressed at work, so I can be confident that stress is not
affecting my performance negatively.
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______ (True) ______ (False) 2. If I didn’t have to work so many hours, I wouldn’t be so stressed.
______ (True) ______ (False) 3. By managing my time better, I can reduce my workplace and family
stress.
______ (True) ______ (False) 4. The reason I have a time management problem is obvious: too many
things have been assigned to me.
______ (True) ______ (False) 5. I find that working steadily through tasks as they come along—being
productive and getting things done—is the best way to use my time.
______ (True) ______ (False) 6. Just getting rid of clutter and not letting it accumulate around me is my
most valued time management strategy.
______ (True) ______ (False) 7. I identify blocks of time to work on projects or assignments and
maintain a hard line against distractions when I’m engaged in defined and planned work.
______ (True) ______ (False) 8. It’s never wise to postpone things; that’s my motto.
______ (True) ______ (False) 9. After I got a calendar and started writing things down, I began to
understand how foolish I’d been in trying to manage my time (and my life) without these simple tools.
______ (True) ______ (False) 10. Enrolling in online university studies, I’ve decided that “seeking a
balance” is going to be my approach to time management. I can’t give up everything!
Comments and Observations on the Ten Previous Statements
1. It’s true that stress is usually something you are aware of, but stress has insidious qualities that can
prevent you from being fully conscious of its influence on performance.
2. Certainly, the number of hours worked can affect stress, but the important underlying factor is how
you feel while completing the required hours.
3. Yes, effective time management can help you reduce stress, but, as indicated in the comment above,
your emotional perspective can influence stress at a level that time management techniques cannot
alter.
4. Use of time management techniques, such as planning and analysis of individual tasks, will help you
determine if “too many things have been assigned” to you. But don’t reach this conclusion without first
using proven time management techniques.
5. Just digging in is not always the best thing. Prioritizing personal responsibilities and tasks allows you
to deal with both the urgent and essential things systematically rather than randomly. Using this
approach, you can usually discover ways to increase time efficiencies.
6. This time management technique is an effective one: just handle things once; don’t pile them. But
think (about future needs) in your clearing‐away activities.
7. This strategy requires serious discipline, but its effectiveness is unequaled.
8. Postponing things can lead to a pattern of procrastination, but modifying a schedule and prioritizing
things—even eliminating routine activities sometimes—are necessary steps in managing time
effectively.
9. There’s no question about it—you can’t manage time fully without keeping a calendar consistently
and analyzing patterns that become evident there.
10. “Keeping balance” is a fundamental principle in managing time and creating satisfying life
experiences. Rest and relaxation, for instance, cannot be ignored in any time management plan.
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THE BIG ROCKS STORY
Stephen Covey’s book First Things First (1996) tells the story of an expert in time management who was
speaking to a group of business students. As he stood in front of the group of high‐powered overachievers
he said,
“Okay, time for a quiz.” He then pulled out a one‐gallon, wide‐mouthed Mason jar and set it on the
table. He produced about a dozen fist‐sized rocks and carefully placed them one at a time into the
jar. When the jar was filled to the top and no more rocks would fit inside, he asked, “Is this jar
full?” Everyone in the class said, “Yes.” Then he said, “Really?”
He reached under the table and pulled out a bucket of gravel. Then he dumped some gravel
in and shook the jar, causing the gravel to work down into the space between the big rocks. Then
he asked the group once more, “Is the jar full?” By this time the class was on to him. “Probably
not,” one of them answered. “Good,” he replied.
He reached under the table and brought out a bucket of sand and started dumping the
sand into the jar until it filled the spaces left between the rocks and the gravel. Once more he
asked the question, “Is this jar full?” “No!” the class shouted. Once again he said, “Good.”
Then he grabbed a pitcher of water and began to pour it in until the jar was filled to the
brim. Then he looked at the class and asked, “What is the point of
this illustration?”
One eager beaver raised his hand and said, “The point is, no
matter how full your schedule is, if you try really hard you can
always fit some more things in it!” “No,” the speaker replied, “that’s
not the point.”
“The truth this illustration teaches us is that if you don’t put
the big rocks in first, you’ll never get them in at all. What are the big
rocks in your life? Your children, your loved ones, your education,
your dreams, a worthy cause, teaching others, doing things you
love, your health, your mate? Remember to put these BIG ROCKS in
first or you’ll never get them in at all. If you sweat about the little
stuff, then you’ll fill your life with little things, and you’ll never have There is always room in
the real quality time you need to spend on the big, important stuff.” life for the "big rocks"
SUMMARY: APPROACHES TO TIME MANAGEMENT
Online learning offers great flexibility for participants, but it is nevertheless a structured activity that
requires a significant level of self‐directedness and accountability on the part of each learner. It is essential,
therefore, for you to examine your time management skills because the online learning environment makes
you almost totally accountable for effectiveness in these areas. To find time for online studies without
21
destroying balance in your life, you may need to restructure your day‐to‐day commitments. It’s necessary
to balance your study time with your existing life routines; it’s a good practice to have a systematic plan for
studying, rather than attempting to do too much at one time. It’s important to develop efficiencies, and it’s
necessary to eat and sleep properly. And, remember, relaxation and reflection are critically important
aspects of a balanced life; you can’t be successful at time management unless you allow for sufficient
“down” time.”
My Response
As a part of “Getting Started,” I am setting the following goals related to:
Being ready to face challenges
Knowing what motivates me
Managing my time and resources
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CHAPTER TWO:
LEARNING STYLES, THEORIES, AND WEB DELIVERY
It is what we think we know that keeps us from learning—Chester Barnard
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• How Adults Approach Learning
• Overview of Learning Theories
• How the Internet Is Changing Learning
Learning requires active exploration. It is something you do. So far, we have been considering things that
are important in planning for online learning: goals, motivation, and time management. Now we begin to
focus on the learning process. For adult learners, this emphasis immediately introduces the “theory versus
practice” dilemma, which is best resolved by finding ways to engage in learning effectively when it both
focuses on theoretical content and involves experiential implementation. Engaging in online learning in
university‐level courses, as we illustrate in this chapter, allows you to gain insights from both theoretical
sources and experiential exchanges and to affirm your preferred learning style.
37
How Adults Approach Learning
There has been plenty of opportunity in the last thirty years to study how adults make a decision to reenter
university, as millions over the age of twenty‐five have returned to formal education. This emerging body of
knowledge extends beyond what motivates adults to learn; it also describes ways that adults prefer to learn
and how to teach them effectively. Called andragogy, this field of study complements the field of
pedagogy, research‐based knowledge related to how children learn and ways to teach them successfully.
The primary insights verified by adult learning research are simple ones:
• Adults want to be in charge of their learning (that is, make deliberate choices).
• Adults want formal learning to be convenient and affordable.
• Adults want university‐level learning to be relevant to real‐world issues and workplace practices.
• Adults want to use their earned university credentials for personal and career advancement.
Youthful learners do not usually have the necessary
What Do You Think? experiential component to enrich a self‐directed learning
Are these the things that you value environment. From a pragmatic perspective, it should be noted
in online learning? What would you that, for adults, formal learning is usually added to an already full
add to the list? schedule of work and family responsibilities. For youth, learning
may be their primary life activity.
BASIC LEARNING STYLES
Educators are currently giving much attention to learning styles and
identifying preferred personal approaches to learning. Many instruments are
available, some online, that can help determine which basic styles of learning
are important to you: visual (seeing and reading), auditory (listening and
speaking), or kinesthetic (touching and doing). Many of these instruments
also try to identify the type of learning environment that you prefer, such as
social or independent. Analyzing your learning preferences and patterns in
relation to these ways of learning is helpful. Knowing which style suits you
best and which type of environment is most favorable allows you to achieve
optimal learning results by putting these preferences into practice. Given the
situational nature of learning, however, from time to time you will have to
engage in activities that require a learning style that isn’t your preferred one. Are you an auditory learner?
In this case, if you are aware of your preferred style, you will be prepared to Knowing which styles work best
for you enhances learning
make extra efforts to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Active learning is central in the online environment. The online environment stimulates active learning and
high levels of engagement. In fact, the Web‐based environment provides unlimited opportunities for
developing the learning types that Howard Gardner’s (1983, 1999) theory cites as necessary for achieving
38
full productivity as a person in society. As you engage in a single activity as an online learner, you can be
activating several sources of learning power within your brain simultaneously. Or with just a few clicks you
can make online connections that allow you to consider the topic from several learning perspectives.
For example, consider the levels of engagement and active learning that are instantaneously
accessible in Web‐based journaling. Granted, journaling may not be a learning activity in which you
regularly participate, but it’s one worth considering.
JOURNALING TO SUPPORT LEARNING
A journal is simply a record of your thoughts, observations, and feelings related to specific learning
experiences. A journal, if kept throughout a university course, at a time of training for competition, or for a
period of bereavement, for example, can provide an overview of high and low points in the learning
experience.
Journals are best structured, perhaps, when “thoughts and
observa‐tions” are recorded on one side of the journal format and “feelings”
on the other. Written entries are made without particular attention given to
form or style. Used as a learning tool, a journal is much more than a record
of thoughts, observations, and feelings. As a learning tool, it can be an
effective tool for reflecting on recorded experiences, clarifying values that
underlie recorded experience, or exploring new ideas generated by recorded
experiences.
Web‐based learning activates a range of learning sources in the
human brain, often stimulating several sources simultaneously. A Web‐based
Keeping a journal is both a journal can include pictures, cartoons, movies, and blogs from social
reflective hobby and an
effective learning tool
networking that capture particular insights associated with your learning
experience—as well as entries from more formal or scholarly research. Each
of these reflective activities stimulates critical thinking and increases self‐awareness. Each becomes an
engaging and self‐informing learning experience. Adult learners, in particular, can benefit fully from journal
reflections because very often a search for meaning is what drives them to reflect and learn.
FACILITATING ACTIVE LEARNING
With the active learning resources that the Web provides and the preference that adults who return to
university have for taking responsibility for their learning goals, the role of the instructor in most online
courses is that of a facilitator. That is, the instructor is not responsible for transferring course content
through lectures but is active in supporting the inquiry the adult learner is making independently.
The instructor facilitates (supports) learning in an online environment in two important ways:
• By monitoring discussion board dialogue, the instructor selects discussion board questions that
require students to apply insights from assigned readings to a particular issue or problem. In
monitoring the postings, the instructor supports (facilitates) the learning process by keeping the
discussion focused, by raising questions that require deeper thinking, by citing sources where
39
additional Web‐based materials may be found, and by encouraging critical thinking and energetic
dialogue. Often, in this supportive role the facilitator will emphasize the importance of reflection
and ask students to integrate and synthesize insights and discoveries that they have made.
• By evaluating and giving feedback on submitted assignments, the instructor provides personal
support to students. Frequently, in such responses the instructor will emphasize the importance of
applying insight to work and life situations and developing personal competencies, stressing the
immediate value of what has been learned.
Web‐based, active learning is a transactional experience in which the adult student must be
committed to acquiring content that has to be learned in a course and the facilitator is committed to
making the process of learning as productive and relevant as possible. These shared responsibilities
establish a context of mutual respect and trust. Such an
environment stimulates collaboration and creates “Be aware of wonder. Live a balanced life –
synergistic relationships that reduce anxiety often learn some and think some and draw and paint
associated with university‐level studies—making and sing and dance and play and work every
day some.”
learning an enjoyable, informing experience.
—Robert Fulghum
Overview of Learning Theories
Everyone knows that the brain is central in the learning
process, but there are many theories about the
intricacies of the brain’s functions and their effects on
learning. Because online learning is multidimensional,
we are introducing you to Gardner’s insights about the
separate sources within the human brain that can
stimulate and support various learning modes.
Over the last few decades, Gardner has
produced research on what happens when individuals
engage in learning. His theory presented in his seminal
work, Frames of Mind (1983), contends that learning is
rooted in biological sources (particular types of
Gardner argues that different areas
intelligence) and cultural sources (particular of the brain serve as access points
reasons/needs for learning). Gardner argues that there for different types of learning
are particular sites in the brain responsible for these
separate intelligences. He has identified these sources of intelligence and described how each offers a
different access to learning.
GARDNER’S SEVEN INTELLIGENCES
Gardner defines intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in
one or more cultural setting” (Gardner and Hatch 1989). Gardner identities seven types of intelligence—
that is, seven separate sources within the human brain to support learning. They are presented below, with
accompanying comments by Amy C. Brualdi (Brualdi 1996):
40
• Logical‐Mathematical Intelligence–consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and
think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
• Linguistic Intelligence–involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the ability
to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also allows one to
use language as a means to remember information.
• Spatial Intelligence–gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve
problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains‐‐
Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind
children.
• Musical Intelligence–encompasses the capability to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions
are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to
pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)
• Bodily‐Kinesthetic Intelligence‐–is the ability to use one's mental Many types of intelligence are in use in
abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements. This any one endeavor
intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical
activity are unrelated.
• Interpersonal Intelligence –the ability to understand and discern the feelings and intentions of
others
• Intrapersonal intelligence –the ability to understand one's own feelings and motivations. These
two intelligences are separate from each other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in
most cultures, they are often linked together.
More recently, Gardner (1999) has engaged in neurological research aimed at identifying naturalist
intelligence and existential intelligence as the eighth and ninth types.
Although Gardner’s neurological research shows that these intelligences are separated
anatomically in the human brain, they usually operate in an interdependent way rather than
independently. That is, they complement each other and function concurrently in enabling a person to
build skills and solve problems. Gardner provides the following example of a dancer: Dancers can excel in
their art only if they understand musical rhythms (that is, have strong musical intelligence), have the ability
to make their physical movements inspirational (that is, have strong interpersonal intelligence), and
demonstrate agility and coordination in their dance patterns (that is, strong bodily–kinesthetic intelligence).
Take a few minutes to think about how Gardner’s insights apply to you. Use Worksheet 2.1 to
identity satisfying learning situations in which you actually combined two or more of the types of
intelligence that Gardner describes.
41
Worksheet 2.1, Identifying with Gardner’s Theory
Type of Recall a recent successful learning experience in which you combined at least
Intelligence three of these types of intelligence.
Logical–
mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial–visual
Bodily–kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Type of Think about your preferred learning patterns. Which intelligence type are
Intelligence you most aware of as you learn? Which are you least aware of?
Logical–
mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial–visual
Bodily–kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
What’s your learning style? Find out with this quick online assessment (http://www.edutopia.org/multiple‐
intelligences‐learning‐styles‐quiz).
LEARNING HAS SEVERAL HIERARCHICAL STEPS: BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
A few decades ago, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) researched and
produced a taxonomy (model) that classifies thinking according to six cognitive levels, with each level being
more complex than the preceding one. It is widely used in explaining the learning process and was revised
by L. W. Anderson and D. R. Krathwohl in 2001 (Figure 2.1). Essentially, it indicates that the human brain in
its cognitive (thinking) functions has significant capacity to do more than acquire and understand factual
knowledge: Cognitive resources allow for application, analysis, and evaluation of factual knowledge and for
the integration of knowledge into a creative process that extends the knowledge even further.
42
Figure 2. 1 The revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001)
Terms That Describe the Learning Process at Each Level
Creating Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or
producing
Evaluating Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing
Analyzing Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing,
and attributing
Applying Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing;
understanding/constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages
through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing,
and explaining
Understanding Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and
explaining
Remembering Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory
Web‐Based University Courses and Bloom’s Taxonomy
Because, as already discussed, Web‐based courses tend to be learner centered, they require cognitive
(thinking) activity at the higher levels identified in Bloom’s taxonomy. In most courses, textbook materials,
syllabus directions, and guidance from the instructor are made available to assist you in moving through the
lower taxonomy levels of remembering and understanding. But, you have to make the effort to acquire the
knowledge, remember it, and grasp for it until it is clearly understood.
43
In other words, in active learning of this kind, information and knowledge are not neatly packaged for you
simply to memorize and restate in a test. Instead, you have to do some exploring, reading, grasping, and
sorting out (thinking) to identify particular knowledge and hold on to it. Having made this individual
effort—which requires time and concentration—you can
“Education’s purpose is to replace an empty
reach the point of saying, “I see . . . I’ve got it!” That’s
mind with an open one.”
when understanding occurs and you have a secure grasp —Malcolm Forbes
of particular knowledge.
But there’s more. The goal of most university‐level courses is to lead you well beyond this point of
gaining (understanding) new knowledge. Online university courses in particular require you to think more
comprehensively and engage in cognitive activity represented by the upper four levels in Bloom’s
taxonomy. When you proceed to apply, analyze, and evaluate new knowledge, you find yourself dealing
with a much larger framework in which you have to consider implications, choices, conclusions, principles,
and values. You discover that it’s necessary to interact with others, listen openly, and reflect on their
perspectives as you integrate essential ideas into your personal holistic view of the course subject. At the
end of this process, you begin creating something solid in your thinking, something solid enough to allow
you to act, to be confident—even generate new, more complex cognitive structures related to the subject.
LEARNING AS STAGES IN A JOURNEY: WILLIAM PERRY
William Perry (1970) saw intellectual and moral development as a
“journey” with four main stages and specific categories within each stage.
Here are his four main stages in the learning journey, each one projecting
a different attitude toward learning:
• Dualism/Received Knowledge: Emphasizing right and wrong
answers, gathering facts, memorizing, receiving knowledge from
authorities
• Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge: Recognizing complexity and
the existence of conflicting answers; consequently, needing trust
in one’s inner awareness as well as external sources in establishing Higher‐level learning requires
knowledge you do more than merely
comprehend and memorize
• Relativism/Procedural Knowledge: Considering and weighing
personal assumptions, experience, techniques, and solutions in light of established knowledge
• Commitment/Constructed Knowledge: Integrating, through reflection, the knowledge gained from
others with personal knowledge
How Do You Fit into Perry’s Pattern?
Which of Perry’s stages most accurately matches your approach to knowledge? What similarities do you
see in the personal demands made by Perry’s stages of intellectual development and Bloom’s stages of
cognitive complexity?
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What Do You Think?
Here are a few observations, quotations, and narrative perspectives that you can use in reflecting on the
content of this chapter.
Observations
Formal learning provides background and structure for informal learning; without the breadth of formal
learning, the depth of informal learning experiences would not be possible.
Often, the most valuable learning takes place unexpectedly—even by chance sometimes. These
serendipitous (unanticipated and opportune) insights can even be life changing.
Unlearning is not a new concept. Over two thousand years ago, the Greek Stoic philosopher Epictetus
pointed out that it’s impossible for one to learn what one thinks one already knows.
Quotations
Lao Tzu, the ancient Chinese philosopher, encouraged unlearning when he advised, “To attain
knowledge, add things every day; to attain wisdom, subtract things every day.”
“‘Students learn what they care about,’ Stanford Ericksen has said, but Goethe knew something else: ‘In
all things we learn only from those we love.’ Add to that Emerson’s declaration: ‘The secret of education
lies in respecting the pupil.’ And we have a formula something like this: ‘Students learn what they care
about, from people they care about and who, they know, care about them.’”—Barbara Harrell Carson
(1996)
“Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel.”—Socrates
Narrative
“I always hate it when people say to me, ‘You have an education, why don’t you fix this problem?’ Sure,
I’ve got an education—a bachelor’s degree, in fact. But that’s not the point. These people think
education is something static, like a big book, with the answers to everything. I use a lot of what I
learned in college, but when I graduated I didn’t close the book on learning. What I want to tell these
people—but I don’t think they’d understand—is that learning has a way of humbling you as well as
building you up.”—Beverly, former student
SUMMARY: LEARNING STYLES AND THEORIES ABOUT LEARNING
Learning can be achieved through three basic styles, or means of engagement: visual (seeing and reading),
auditory (listening and speaking), and kinesthetic (touching and doing). It is important to discover which
style of learning is best for you. Even more important, if you are to become an active learner, which online
courses require, you need to become aware of the fundamental resources that your brain has for
developing and supporting the learning process. Being aware of the range of resources in the human brain
that you can draw upon, you can identify which ones you depend on most and which ones need further
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exploration as part of your approach to learning. Active learning requires independent pursuit of
knowledge, but it should not be a solitary endeavor. It is necessary to accept guidance from instructors and
mentors, who seek to facilitate your learning progress; to consider theoretical constructs; and to engage
openly in discussion of ideas with others.
How the Internet Is Changing Learning
Learning is more interactive than ever. The Internet is everywhere, and it has become the medium of
communication for people throughout the world, especially those in academia at all levels. Recognizing the
pace at which change is occurring in our technologically driven information age, let’s discuss some of the
prominent aspects of electronic learning (e‐learning), explaining how study, research, and even attending
classes are made more effective through the use of the Internet.
A REVOLUTION IN LEARNING
The Internet has revolutionized the way that people learn,
think, and discuss information on a scale never before seen
in human history. For those with access to it, the Internet
has helped bridge gaps among race, gender, and
socioeconomic classes. This leveling of the playing field has
occurred because the Internet offers nearly complete
anonymity. By adequately masking sociocultural distinctions
with clear writing, an author can ensure that a reader will
think only about the ideas presented on the screen, not the The internet is a great leveler, it erases many sociocultural
presenter of those ideas. To a smaller extent, even the and physical boundaries
barriers of language have been reduced by the Internet as “machine” translations allow a nonspeaker to
get the gist of a news story or a Web page in languages as difficult as Arabic or Chinese.
At the same time, the anonymous nature of the Internet can be reversed as people use blogs and
social networking sites to communicate with friends and family to provide the customized, user‐driven
content that is the essence of the Web 2.0 concept. The Internet can be a mask shielding users from the
real world around them, or it can become a magnifying glass that broadcasts every life detail, depending on
their personal preferences.
However, for all that the Internet can do to improve discourse by removing sociocultural,
economic, and other barriers, it is merely a means of communicating, not a replacement for interaction in
the real world. Human beings are among the most social creatures that inhabit the earth, and thousands of
years of sociocultural evolution has led humankind to ways of communicating that the Internet will never
replicate. Touch, facial expression, and tone of voice are all critical components of human interaction and
add depth and meaning to words that would be misconstrued otherwise.
This means that the Internet has become a mixed blessing in terms of its ability to provide certain
elements of depth and substance to human relationships. Though the Web does allow for the initial
formation of new relationships and the maintenance of well‐established ones, it remains a part, not the
whole of societal interaction, and must be considered as such. Additionally, not everyone in cyberspace is
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acting with the same rules of conduct. With varying degrees of honesty, everyone plays a role like a
performer in online discourse, most with the best of intentions, others less so. This sometimes
manipulative, predatory, and/or deceptive element is an important factor for students new to the Internet
to consider, both in how they view information and how they treat others they encounter in research or
study.
For the academic world, the information revolution completely changed and reinvented college
classes, among many other industries and professions. However, for many older and/or returning students
who have not grown up with the Internet as a daily part of their lives, an online class may be their first
experience with this powerful new way of learning. For those less familiar with using the Internet for study,
this chapter will discuss a number of strategies for making the most of online learning.
A NEW WAY OF LEARNING AND ATTENDING CLASS
Online classes and training are no longer considered unusual
but a very standard means of education. According to the
Sloan Consortium (2006), a group that monitors the growth of
Internet‐based learning, close to 17 percent of all U.S. college
students take at least one course online. Courses using the
Internet generally fall into three major categories:
1. Completely online
2. Combination brick‐and‐mortar classroom mixed
with online instruction in which students receive some
instruction in a traditional setting and some online
Traditional "brick and mortar" universities are
3. Full‐time brick‐and‐mortar classroom with some no longer the only venue for obtaining a
online resources or lectures available online college degree
Typically, your online “classroom” will be on a Web site hosted by your college or university, which
you access through a software platform. You log in to Web forums (also known as discussion boards,
message boards, news groups, and so on) and post messages discussing lectures and reading assignments;
you may even solve math or science problems that the instructor provides online. Grades, attendance
records, the course syllabus, and other administrative information are also often made available on these
Web sites as well.
The Web forum is best thought of as your virtual classroom. At the beginning of each week, the
instructor will post a lecture or a series of reading assignments that would take the place of a lecture in a
traditional classroom. Readings are usually done from your course textbooks, though often Web sites with
pictures, music, and even video will also be included in your weekly “reading” (content acquisition)
assignments. This delivery method is called asynchronous, which means that students do not have to log in
at a particular time (as is required in a synchronous model) but can choose a convenient log‐in time.
Because you usually can’t raise your hand and ask a question during a lecture in a virtual classroom,
participation is accomplished by posting comments about the lecture or assigned readings on a Web forum.
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However, in a large classroom of three hundred or more students, which is the case at many traditional
schools, it is doubtful you will interact with either students or faculty to any meaningful extent.
Because you also miss the chance to interact with your fellow students directly in the virtual
classroom, other students will be asked to comment on your work, and you will often be required to
comment on their work as well. It is important that your comments on other students’ work are
constructive, detailed, and relate to the readings or the key learning objectives outlined by the course
instructor.
One of the greatest advantages (and most problematic issues) for online classes is the flexibility in
terms of work schedule. You can “attend” the lecture
anytime you like, at any hour of the day, as long as it fits
within a workweek or weeks, as defined by your instructor.
You are completely in charge of your own time, which is
usually very helpful for older students who have to manage
work, family, and other responsibilities. Do not, however,
make the mistake of thinking that online classes are easier
or less demanding; the amount of reading required is usually
higher than that of a traditional course, and there is often
more writing to ensure that you understand and participate In a virtual learning environment, you can
in the class. interact with any classmate
Should you ever feel discouraged or intimidated by the technology required for online learning, you
should immediately telephone or contact your instructor face to face for assistance. Or use the technical
support provided by the university. Although successfully using your computer and virtual classroom
software is required for online courses, it should never be the reason to fail or withdraw from a course.
That is not the intent, not the purpose, of the technology. Help is always available for students who ask for
it. Your institution is prepared to help you, irrespective of your background, as long as you are willing to
make the effort required to be successful.
LEVERAGING WEB‐BASED RELATIONSHIPS
Online learning should never be considered, nor should it be, an isolating experience. Working in the
privacy of home does not mean that the student is not participating and interacting in a similar manner to a
traditional classroom. The means of interaction is just different from the everyday face‐to‐face contact in
the world around you. The difference is the ability to literally reach out across the globe to learn and
discuss issues with other people outside of your local community. This global reach can become a powerful
tool in improving the quality of both your coursework and the value of your education on a personal and
professional level as you develop new friendships and sharpen skills valuable to a future employer.
Let’s consider, then, how to develop online relationships that can improve the quality and depth of
your work. Useful relationships begin first and foremost with your classmates and course instructor and
then branch out as far as contact with preeminent experts in the subject matter. As with many endeavors,
one of the most important elements of being successful is to develop and maintain networks of people with
the skill sets, knowledge, or expertise to help you quickly find and formulate answers to difficult problem
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solving. The ability to communicate rapidly over great distances means that students in the information age
can access subject‐matter expertise and research in a manner unprecedented in human history.
The Internet makes learning dynamic and almost entirely user driven. Researching a paper or
additional study is no longer dictated by the size and content of the books and magazines found in local
libraries. More important, the interactive nature of the Web means that researching involves more than
passively receiving information. One key factor in changing learning from a passive experience to a more
interactive collaborative effort is the social networks that are developed and used online when you tap into
communities of interest related to your subject of study.
For example, suppose you are writing a paper on Kenyan tribal relations in their presidential elections. The
“global commons” that is the Internet will allow you to find the work of the top academic experts and
journalists in the world on the subject of tribes in Kenya.
By leveraging the ability to more than passively receive
information, you can email those experts if you have a
question their published paper doesn’t answer for you.
Oftentimes, many of them will respond to your question
and provide additional guidance on where to look for
further information. Impress them with your questions,
and they may even help further your studies or work in
their field. Yet another approach would be to look through
blogs written by Kenyans and read what average Kenyans
An online relationship has many similarities to a
personal relationship who have Internet access think about what is happening in
their country. Another option would be to find a Web forum that discusses Kenya. The possibilities are
nearly infinite with careful, focused research and allow you to tailor information exactly to your specific
research requirements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ONLINE RELATIONSHIPS
For many older students, virtual social networking is a foreign and intimidating task, though they are far
more familiar with the core concepts than they realize. Younger students use social networking platforms
such as MySpace, Friendster, Bebo, Facebook, and others as a part of their daily lives without recognizing
the dynamic that they are involved in. To these students, the technology of the online classroom is just an
extension of a part of their private lives. In fact, the first thing that many younger students do in their
online class is add fellow classmates onto their private Facebook and MySpace accounts as a matter of
course.
Older students are every bit as capable and often more effective at social networking; they are just
unfamiliar with this new Internet‐enabled platform that provides this capability. In fact, older students
usually have far more developed and advanced social networks than younger students do; they just don’t
realize how virtual efforts make the process of staying connected much easier. Consider the following
activities:
• Mailing cards for the holidays, anniversaries, birthdays, and other events to distant friends
• Sending a New Year’s letter to family and friends that summarizes the past year
• Keeping an address book—filled with names, addresses, and phone numbers—current
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• Phoning or writing friends and acquaintances to tell them important news, like a birth or change
of job
SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES
Social networking sites are nothing more than an automated way of doing precisely the types of things
listed above. They also allow you to share music, videos, and other media with your network. You, in turn,
can view the things that people in your network want to share. Though sharing music is not likely a high
priority for successful coursework, the ability to move information that could be of use for an assignment
often is.
Aware of it or not, every student in an online
course is automatically part of a social networking
effort. That network begins with the email account
assigned to you by your college or university and
continues with the course roster that will be made
available online for your class. This provides you with
the ability to reach and communicate with every
classmate. Requirements to communicate in online
courses will force you to critique your peers, and vice Social Networking Sites, such as Facebook, provide a
versa. As you learn which students are really helping quick and easy way to connect with colleagues and
classmates
to improve your work, you can begin that process of
building an online address book much like the paper one that you have at home.
Remember to think about social networks as a long‐term opportunity and investment. A fellow
student or the friend of a fellow student from two years ago may well have taken the same class you are
currently enrolled in. This person could be immensely valuable for information in locating, say, hard‐to‐find
resources for a term paper. He or she may even have a used book to sell you, saving time and money.
There is an even greater sphere of influence that may be built outside of your course mates. For
practically every topic imaginable, communities of interest from around the world debate and devote hours
of research on the field of study that you have chosen and its most detailed minutiae. These experts
congregate in a number of different forums on the Internet, but regardless of whether you find them, an
ocean of expertise is available on your topic. There are also people who can help you discover invaluable
resources that will make you a better student, highly appreciated by a present or future employer.
Some of the places where communities of interest for your subject may be found include the
following:
• Web sites of professional organizations
• “Groups” hosted by Yahoo, Microsoft, Google, and others
• Social networking sites
• Blogs where numerous authors write about a given field or one author constantly reviews work
for a related field
• Usenets/News group sites
• Emailing lists
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You may find these groups through Internet searches and asking the recommendations of instructors,
fellow students, librarians, and the people in your social networks.
A Practical Exercise
Log on to a social networking site like Facebook and find a person in a foreign country where English is not
the primary language. If you are not a member of any particular site, use MySpace but you will need to
register on MySpace to search for people. As you begin to look at profiles, keep in mind that some people
will not allow you to view their pages, whereas others allow anyone to view them.
Once you find a page that allows the general public to view it, do the following:
• Write a paragraph about the person (let’s call him Jorge). Where does Jorge live? What is his level
of education? What are Jorge’s hobbies? Is he single, married, divorced? Is he straight or gay? Is he
religious? Does Jorge have a blog on the site’s page? Does he share pictures or videos of his life?
How much of Jorge’s page is in English? How often does he or his friends speak English or use
English words in their posts? How good is their English?
• Do not judge the person or worry about whether you approve or disapprove of his politics,
beliefs, religion, and so on. However, notice how communication today is really not different from
the way that people kept in touch by mail and phone fifty years ago. We just have a new medium
of communication.
NETIQUETTE
Professional communication with anyone in your social network, and certainly in your online classes, is
governed by rules of etiquette known as netiquette. Students failing to follow these simple rules risk
appearing poorly educated, unprofessional, and ultimately not worthy of providing guidance or assistance.
Even worse, in online courses, repeated posts that are poorly written or seemingly malicious could
potentially mean a low or failing grade.
Most of the rules of netiquette are common sense and
involve little more than treating people as you would
wish to be treated. However, the anonymity of the
Internet creates a dynamic in communication that
sometimes leads people to be more critical or
negative than they would be in face‐to‐face
interactions. Students not used to constant
communication through the Internet need to be
aware of this change brought on by anonymity to avoid Much like in life, there are unwritten "do's" and
unintentionally seeming gruff or difficult. "don’ts" regarding online interaction
The best way to understand the dynamic of Internet communication is to consider the Latin‐derived
saying: “Spoken words fly away, written ones remain.” Remember that when you criticize someone’s work,
and especially when you chide them in writing, the other person cannot immediately respond to and know
your expression, mood, and tone of voice, to understand your good intentions or sense of humor. In other
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words, all the elements of nonverbal communication, which are as critical to understanding one another as
the words used, are going to be completely stripped from your interaction. In fact, the importance of
nonverbal communication, or the lack of it in Internet communication, is manifested in the use of smiling,
winking, sad, and other faces known as emoticons at the end of messages.
Before you send an email or post a particularly critical review of another student’s work, take the
extra time to ensure that your words are going to be construed as good‐spirited helping, rather than
sniping criticism that will be considered nonproductive. Make sure that your critique is absolutely clear and
offer positive as well as critical comments. If the person has clearly made an effort, you can find something
good to say about the work. Failing to be clear and to make your comments in a spirit of collegial
improvement may precipitate hostilities where neither side is learning anymore but circling each other,
waiting to land another punch like two boxers.
In short, do not become what is known as a “troll,” a person who lurks in Web forums and
constantly posts negative comments, looking to pick fights with people. Finally, don’t flame” people by
picking apart their work in a manner that is not constructive. The person you attack just may start to
retaliate and criticize your work. This could start what is known as a “flame war” that will lead to your not
receiving help for an assignment, or worse, a poor grade for your online participation from your professor.
GUIDELINES FOR ONLINE MESSAGES
Aside from positive and constructive interaction, there are some general guidelines to consider when you
construct messages:
• Be clear and concise. Often students think that the individuals who are being emailed are
familiar with a specific problem, and the student omits important details that he or she takes
for granted. Be sure to provide some context for your question or comments so that the
recipient of your message can respond in a meaningful way.
• Spell‐check and then edit your email or posting. Many Web forums do not have a spell‐check
function, and your typo‐laden post will not reveal that you are a serious and diligent person
worth helping or responding to. Furthermore, spell‐check is far from foolproof; for example,
spell‐check does not point out the error of the word their when you meant there.
SUMMARY: CHANGES IN LEARNING INTRODUCED BY THE
INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized the way that people communicate and has
facilitated greater interaction between people across the world. This new
medium, designed to move information in a faster and more dynamic
manner, has changed the way that people are educated worldwide.
Although considered ineffective or suspect as recently as ten years ago,
online or partially online courses are attended by millions of students. For
older students, some extra time may be needed to familiarize and better
use this powerful capability for research and study purposes Wireless access on mobile
Communication on the Internet has its limitations. Students new to phones is one example of
online discourse need to be aware that their words can be misconstrued, and how far the internet has
come over the past 10 years
52
well‐intentioned critique can be misunderstood as an insult by a fellow course mate. At the same time, the
Internet can be a powerful means of developing a worldwide network of contacts that can provide expert
assistance in a particular field of study.
The massive amounts of data to be found on the Internet are part help, part hindrance. Students
must carefully triage data into categories that consider source bias, credibility, and the amount of detail
needed to complete a particular project. Using the Internet as described above will seem like a time‐
consuming process at first, but the proficiency that can only come from practice and continuous use will
yield extremely effective results in a short period of time.
My Response
After considering “Learning Styles, Theories, and Web Delivery,” I am setting the following goals
related to:
Making optimal use of my
preferred learning style
Strengthening my least
preferred learning style
Applying learning theories in
my current studies
Identifying innovations that I
can make to strength my
online relationships
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CHAPTER THREE:
FINDING AND USING SUPPORT RESOURCES
To succeed you have to believe in something with such a passion that it becomes a reality—Anita Roddick
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• The Essential Learning Support Sources
• Course Design Resources
• Evaluating Research and Reference Resources
Learning can be informal or formal. When you return to university as an adult, you are getting involved
again in a formal learning environment. At the moment of reentry into your online program you may
have—and should have—a passionate commitment to the goal ahead, but you need to give careful
attention to underlying supports that are essential in sustaining your intentions. You’re beginning a
challenging journey alone, in many ways! Give careful attention to shaping it for personal success. Because
it’s easy to overlook the importance of support factors, we are providing an overview in this chapter of
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things you need to have in place, and able to count on, as you begin and continue course‐by‐course in
classroom‐based learning activities.
I was trying to daydream but my
The Essential Learning Support Sources mind kept wandering
Convenience is considered the greatest advantage of studying —Steven Wright
online. The fabled e‐learner is a person with a laptop logging into a
course discussion board from anywhere in the world—or sitting
quietly at home in front of a computer screen in pajamas, completing assignments in the evenings or on
weekends—and still showing up during the workweek at a regular job.
But, beyond the flexibility and the ability to study anywhere, at any time in a “virtual classroom,” there are
“realities” that must be encountered and a range of demands, unique to the online learning environment,
to be faced. You can’t afford to overlook them. A major demand in e‐learning is accountability. Fascination
with the Web’s endless resources, for example, can add complexity to your research activities and even
divert you from the main focus of an assignment. Potential distractions appear every time you boot your
computer, challenging your commitment to coursework tasks. Sooner or later, you encounter the jolting
awareness that e‐learning is a highly structured activity and demands structured, timely participation.
DEVELOPING ONLINE STUDY SKILLS
Assessment 3.1 lists other demands that online learners need to consider fully. Mark the ones that you
particularly need to pay attention to, as you prepare your online learning strategies.
Assessment 3.1, Skills for Studying and Learning Online
Skill Importance I Need to
Improve
Overcoming aloneness Because the verbal and nonverbal signals that stimulate
activity in the traditional classroom are not present, you
need to demonstrate confidence and readiness for online
activity.
Initiating interaction Go ahead, begin! Remember, in the online learning
environment, everyone has a voice.
Developing technological Technological know‐how is essential; build competence in
skill the instructional platform as rapidly as possible; add skills
as you go; use available technical support resources; keep
a hard copy of important work.
Using Web resources Don’t get sidetracked but use the Internet to explore and
locate rich information resources related to course topics
and assignment. Be an inquiring learner. Find out how to
document material you gather from the Web, properly
citing your sources.
Practicing persistence Anxiety and frustration most commonly occur in online
learning situations when there are “gaps” in
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communication or when communication is not clear. You
shouldn’t guess at what is intended but be direct—and
persistent—until you get a clear answer every time
vagueness exists.
Participating honestly It’s important to remember the human aspects of
and gracioiusly cyberspace. Your interactions are with other people who
value respect and honesty, even as you do. Web etiquette
(often called netiquette) emphasizes these basic
conventions: Respect others’ points of view and privacy;
avoid derogatory comments; be time‐zone and culturally
conscious; refrain from “flaming”—that is, control your
emotions. Be honest and willling to share knowledge and
experiences.
Meeting deadlines Self‐discipline is the key to meeting deadlines and an
irreplacable habit if online learning is to be satisfying and
successful.
Enjoying relaxation Find the Internet Lounge on your university’s instructional
platform and engage in open dialogue with other students.
These informal exchanges are vital sources of information
and personal encouragement!
SUPPORT BY FAMILY AND CLOSE FRIENDS
Your decision to begin an online degree program is a solitary one. Like dropping a pebble in a pool of water,
however, it’s not the initial splash but the resulting ripples that profoundly affect the people who are most
closely connected to you.
“So, you’ve decided to do some online learning,” a friend says to you. “Sounds like a good idea.”
Well, maybe so—until the ripple becomes a wave—and this person realizes that the cherished pattern of
sharing golfing or weekend activities with you is changing because you have to devote blocks of time to
your online studies each week.
Stress is an insidious enemy, capable of undercutting even the strongest intentions. Spoken at a
vulnerable moment, even casual comments from close friends—such as “Your studies are sure interrupting
the things we used to do together”—can create enough stress to make you feel unable to deal with the
situation. Just a few words, surprisingly, can cause you to shut down.
Consequently, the key to initiating and maintaining support from family and close friends for your
back‐to‐university decision is communication. Stress, unhappiness, and unproductiveness can be avoided
through frank and open discussion of the ways that your life will change while you are engaged in online
learning. Consider the case study of Joe’s dilemma.
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Case Study: Joe’s Dilemma
I was always committed to “family first!” And, subconsciously, I didn’t want to let go of this important
personal value. But, when I looked at how things were happening after I’d been enrolled in my online
degree program for a few months, I was pretty stressed—and my family was questioning my priorities.
To be blunt about it, we were ripping into each other because my personal life patterns had changed.
I couldn’t afford to give up every Saturday for family activities and have enough time to stay on top of
my online coursework. Before I started the program, I had talked with my family about my educational
goals, but at the time we didn’t really discuss the conflicts that are now happening.
So, I arranged some further family conversations, not to rehash my goals but to identify the
compromises that we all would need to make until my online program ended. We each listed the things
that we absolutely needed to continue to do together as a family, and I committed myself to “being
there” and not letting anything interfere. This was not easy! It was a difficult prioritizing process that
required two or three family conversations.
As part of these talks, we listed my online priorities, and my family promised not to hassle me about
them.
Open, frank communication reduced a lot of conflicts in our family, and I no longer felt that I was
pursuing an educational goal at the expense of my family.
BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK
This same structure of open communication and compromise can be useful in developing awareness of
your educational goal in your work relationships and in identifying support. Often, you can arrange
adjustments in such areas as scheduling and team responsibility assignments if you engage your colleagues
and supervisors in open communication about particular workload timelines that you are facing in
university courses. The common understanding resulting from such conversations creates a basis for
maintaining work productivity and replacing frustration with support. It is important to identify common
underlying values in the process, as Figure 3.1 illustrates.
Figure 3. 1 Underlying Values
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IDENTIFYING TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES
To participate successfully in university‐level online courses, having high‐level technological knowledge is
not necessary. But you have to be responsible for knowing the requirements for computer hardware,
software, and Web access in your e‐learning program. Each university’s online program will have clearly
defined technology requirements; be sure to know what they are. Here’s a basic checklist of questions you
are likely to be asked:
Computer Hardware
• What kind of computer do you have?
• What operating system does your computer have?
• What is the speed of your computer’s processor?
• What is the capacity of your computer’s hard drive?
• How much storage capacity does your computer have?
• Do you have a printer?
Computer Software
• What word processing software do you have on your computer?
• Do you have PowerPoint software?
• Do you have Excel software?
• Do you have Acrobat?
Internet Access and Functions
• Who is your Internet service provider?
• Do you have a high‐speed or a dial‐up connection?
• What Web browser do you use?
• What email client software do you use?
• Does your email service allow attachments?
THE INSTRUCTIONAL PLATFORM
The university will provide information about and access to a particular instructional platform. It will
provide course materials, explain how to use course management tools, and guide you in step‐by‐step
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communication with the instructor and students. The supportive features of the instructional platform
create a learner‐friendly environment, minimize navigation challenges, and encourage collaboration.
Learning activities may be designed with a synchronous structure (requiring all participants to be
engaged in a learning activity at the same time) or an asynchronous structure (allowing a learning activity to
be completed at a time convenient to each participant).
EVALUATING FINANCIAL RESOURCES
Asking if a university degree provides a good return on
investment is a reasonable question. Normally, an
important part of the answer is provided by looking at
financial‐earning potential. Ample evidence shows that
people with university degrees typically earn more
money than those without a degree. According to a 2007
College Board Report, the typical full‐time, year‐round
worker in the United States in 2005 with a university
degree earned 62 percent more than a full‐time, year‐
There are non‐monetary rewards to college,
round worker with only a high school diploma. Over a individuals who attended university tend to be
lifetime, there is a 61 percent difference in the more open‐minded, rational, consistent, and less
accumulated earnings of these two groups. authoritarian
A Carnegie Foundation study cited several nonmonetary benefits associated with a university
degree (Porter 2002). It showed that individuals who attended university, compared to those who did not,
tended to be more open minded, cultured, rational, and consistent and less authoritarian. The Institute for
Higher Education Policy (1998) has also documented that university graduates are more
personally/professionally mobile, make better consumer decisions, and contribute a higher quality of life to
their offspring.
These and other benefits indicate that completing a university degree will give you a significant
return on investment, not only financially but holistically. As you think about finances, it’s helpful to list the
particular long‐term benefits that you hope to gain from your degree. Keep these in mind always as you
proceed; they will become important motivational resources as you develop your financial strategies. In
developing your financial plan, consider these areas fully:
Program: Do I Know the Exact Requirements of My University Degree?
• How many courses do I need?
• How long will it take me to complete all courses?
Cost: Have I Fully Calculated the Cost?
• Tuition
“Median lifetime earnings for individuals
with a university degree are 61% higher than
• Books
median lifetime earnings for high school
graduates.”
—Sandra Baum and Jennifer Ma
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• Fees
• Equipment
• Other related expenses
Payment Plan: What Are My Specific Sources for Payment?
• Personal funds
• Employer reimbursement
• Scholarships
• Federal financial aid
• Other sources
Repayment: Have I Carefully Considered Plans for Repaying Borrowed Funds?
• What will be my monthly loan repayment amount?
• How long will it take to fully repay my borrowed funds?
• What increased income can I expect when my degree is completed?
SUMMARY: ESSENTIAL LEARNING SUPPORT SERVICES
Personal success does not depend entirely on your motivation. You can enhance personal success by giving
careful attention to sources of support that are part of your immediate environment. It can come from
family, friends, and colleagues at work, if you seek it and are open in identifying areas where you need help.
In addition, make sure that your have appropriate technological equipment because technology is an
essential source for support of your educational goals. Often, if you are willing to consider some
restructuring in the critical area of finance, you may identify resources that alleviate financial stress. It is
wise to analyze potential support resources thoroughly; there are many ways to secure help in the field of
education.
Course Design Resources
Learning happens mostly by design, but there are many
circumstances in our lives in which we learn unexpectedly
and sometimes unintentionally. These experiences, often
described as “serendipitous,” have important and lasting
value. In fact, you should expect serendipitous encounters as
you read and interact with others in your university studies.
But in formal education, you will also engage in learning
experiences that have a systematic design. In other words,
the educators who develop your university courses have not Learning outcomes are well thought out in
advance to provide students with measurable
goals and expectations
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only carefully identified specific learning objectives for each course but also arranged relevant learning
resources and activities to guide you in exploring, understanding, and achieving the designated objectives
UNDERSTANDING COURSE DESIGN
In our daily work, we are familiar with orientation sessions—occasions when we learn what a new
challenge involves and how to go about meeting it successfully. When conducted effectively, such
orientation becomes the foundation for informed and satisfying performance in the workplace. Similarly, an
understanding of how university courses are designed and how learning in them is measured provides a
valuable basis for approaching university‐level learning confidently and successfully.
FIVE ESSENTIAL ASPECTS IN THE DESIGN OF UNIVERSITY COURSES
Course Description
Every course must have a set of overall purposes. The most essential aspect in course design, therefore, is a
succinct description of course purposes, including identification of particular concepts, principles, skills,
competencies, and knowledge required to be demonstrated upon course completion. If a prior skill or
proficiency level is necessary to begin the course, that prerequisite information is normally included in the
course description as well.
Course Outcomes
Also referred to as learning outcomes, these behavioral statements describe the observable performance
expected in the course and provide the framework for evaluating the learning evident in individual
performance. A well‐constructed learning outcome statement, as classically defined by Robert Mager
(1962), will have a behavioral verb and a description of performance criteria. That is, each learning outcome
identifies one or more specific behaviors that the student can be expected to demonstrate when the course
is completed. For example, here is a learning outcome that identifies a particular behavior to be expected
upon completing a course in English composition:
• Learning Objective: Upon completing the course, the student will be able to apply revising
techniques to develop an essay that illustrates techniques of unity, coherence, and grammatical
usage that are standard in the discipline.
• Behavioral Verb: Upon completing the course, the student will be able to apply revising
techniques to develop an essay.
• Performance Criteria: Upon completing the course, the student will be able to illustrate
techniques of unity, coherence, and grammar that are standard in the discipline.
Course Content and Materials
In most courses, the curriculum comprises several components. Historically, the basic components have
included a textbook (one or more), a bibliography of related readings, and lecture or handout materials.
Occasionally, course content also includes a field trip or attending a performance, an outside‐of‐class
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lecture, or symposium. With the advent of the Internet, the curricular spectrum of a course can be
broadened to include Web sites, blogs, iPod downloads, and other online media network feeds.
Course Instructional Methodology
Ordinarily, the nature of instruction in a course is
included to clearly explain the role of the
instructor and the format for student
participation. As we discussed in Chapter 1,
there is an increased trend in course design to
emphasize learning‐centered methodology
rather than teaching‐centered methodology.
Besides lectures and instructor‐led
demonstrations, such interactive methodologies
as the following are common in current course You don't need to be in a classroom to access
presentations such as this one
design: student presentations (PowerPoint and
video), collaborative problem‐solving projects, discussions, and coaching. Wikispaces allow online course
methodology to include engagement in communally constructive learning, where students and instructors
can construct learning (contributing as editors) for themselves and with others.
Course Assessment
It is important to recognize that measurement of learning in a course is not an activity that the instructor
completes randomly or according to personal preferences. Rather, it is a process that is completed
deliberately within a framework designed to determine how well each of the course outcome state‐ments
is satisfied by documented student performance in the course. It is a systematic activity: a mapped
approach.
As Figure 3.2 illustrates, a built‐in map must be followed in the assessment process. The instructor
begins a course by reviewing the course purposes, pointing out each clearly stated outcome and its specific
performance expectations. Then, as the course plan proceeds, the instructor oversees one or more learning
activities that are carefully linked to each stated outcome (providing opportunities for students to explore,
analyze, and understand the outcome). Finally, after the learning activities are completed, the instructor
then measures student performance. Through this measurement process (often involving tests or written
work), the instructor identifies, as objectively as possible, the extent to which each student’s performance
satisfies the stated course outcomes and performance expectations.
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Figure 3. 2 The map for course outcomes
STANDARD COMPONENTS IN A COURSE GUIDE (SYLLABUS)
A course guide, or syllabus, contains the five essential course design aspects already mentioned
(description, outcomes, materials, instructional methodology, and assessment). In doing so, it states the
purpose of the course, defines what the expected outcomes are, identifies what content will be considered,
how learning will be engaged in, and how assessment will be made. Additionally, a course guide provides
logistical information and states policies and procedures related to the course or to the program. These
include the dates for the course, the instructor’s name, and special instructions necessary for smooth
operation of the course.
SUMMARY: COURSE DESIGN RESOURCES
Approach this return to school as an exercise in taking one course after another. Take a step back and
evaluate how the university has crafted courses with specific descriptions, provided clear learning outcome
statements, and accompanied these with use of relevant content and assessment approaches. Look for
ways in which learning in one course leads to or builds on learning from
other courses. In doing so, you will increase your awareness of the
educational experience and your ability to apply your learning in meaningful
ways.
Evaluating Research and Reference Resources
Now that the potential of the Internet and online activities in learning and
researching have been discussed, let’s discuss effective research strategies
and understanding the value of the data you collect. This activity ranges
from where to start to looking for information to making sure that you have
cited the most objective sources possible; this will ensure that you are
Striking a balance between
making the best arguments in your work. A related component of effective effort and time is the key to
research is understanding how the constraints of time affect the scope and productive research
depth of your effort; there needs to be a careful balance between the time
committed and the effort required for the assignment.
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WHERE TO START
Aside from your course instructor, the first place to go for help to use the Internet is your college or
university’s librarians. Librarians are not simply experts on print media like books or magazines; they
specialize in research through the Internet and other sources. Librarians manage and maintain both the on‐
site resources for your college or university as well as subscriptions to online research catalogs. Librarians
are unquestionably the experts at your college or university regarding general research.
Each school uses different research tools, but some of the more common services you will
encounter are listed below:
• Credo Reference
• Noodle Tools
• EBSCO Host
• Project MUSE
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
• Reference USA
• Virtual Vertical File
• JSTOR
• WorldCat
“We heard that a million monkeys at a million
• Mergent typewriters could produce the complete works
of Shakespeare. Now, thanks to the Internet,
• World Book Online we know this is not true.”
—Robert Wilensky
• NewsBank
These different services have strengths and weakness in how they conduct searches, what documents they
store, and a host of other factors. Your librarian will help provide (1) training on how to do searches for
each service and (2) guidance on which services are best suited for
your particular topic. Did You Know?
For Ashford‐specific online
In addition to your college or university’s research capabilities,
library databases, link to the
numerous online sources abound: newspaper Web site archives,
library and the PDF guide for
government think‐tank reports, private corporation research,
“How to Use Proquest and Other
individual experts’ Web, blogs that observe specific communities of
Services.
interest, and so on.
CHOOSING PROPER SOURCES
With the combination of what your school library has to offer along with the vast Internet resources, you
are far more likely to have a very different problem than you have had in the past when the library had
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little or no resources related to your topic of research. The new problem for researchers is finding time to
assess possibilities and select credible sources that swim in this vast sea of information.
The fact that information was printed or Web published does not make it accurate. The ease at
which people can make their opinions or research known to the entire world with a few clicks of a mouse is
both the great strength and the Achilles’ heel of research on the Internet. Students new to research using
the Internet need to be aware that a great amount of information found on the Internet is incredibly biased
or wildly inaccurate.
When evaluating a Web site, always question the validity, accuracy,
authorship, timeliness, and purpose of the site. Approach your review of
every site on the Internet with the idea that you must confirm that the
information is correct. Web sites with a URL ending in “gov,” “edu,” or “mil”
are considered valid sites. In the past, you could feel relatively safe with an
“org” Web site, but that is no longer the case. Any person or group can
purchase an “org” domain name because they are no longer reserved for
nonprofit organizations.
There are many tutorials for guiding you in conducting solid academic
research on the Internet, and you will find one in the Ashford Writing Center.
Information moves and evolves at incredible speeds on the Internet. For
The internet is a great students new to a topic or subject, it is best to consult with your librarian and
research tool but not every find some neutral sources or at least receive guidance about which sources
source is credible
are considered suitable for academic research. Use your approved Writing
Style Handbook and University Online Writing Labs (OWLs) for information on how and where to conduct
Internet research.
My Response
In responding to “Finding and Using Learning Resources,” I can identify the specific benefits that I
can gain from:
Using support sources in my
environment
Understanding course design
resources
Finding research and
reference resources
CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING AND CRITICAL THINKING
The world we have created is a product of our thinking; it cannot be changed without changing our
thinking—Albert Einstein
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Writing as a Learning Process
• Writing as a Skill Development Process
• Basic Steps in the Writing Process
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Learning Sharpened by Critical Thinking
Strong writing skills are critical for academic and professional success. Research indicates that individuals
who possess excellent written communication skills are highly valued in most professional work
environments. Writing is an integral part of every online course. Purposeful writing requires a
springboard—which is often supplied by personal motivation or imaginative inquiry. Reasoning and critical
thinking processes also are fundamental resources for developing good writing patterns. These intellectual
processes, which require careful scrutiny of thinking behaviors, are developmental—they can be fully
understood and mastered only through attentive practice.
Writing as a Learning Process
Writing is relevant to learning. Sometimes students don’t realize that writing is an important learning
activity in their university‐level studies. In part, this lack of understanding results from thinking of writing in
terms of mechanics (grammar, paragraphing, punctuation, and so on). Certainly, these mechanical skills are
important if writing is to be effective, but writing is more than mechanics: It’s basically a learning process.
HOW WRITING CONTRIBUTES TO LEARNING
More specifically, writing is a transformative process; that is, it’s a “Writing is dialectical as opposed
process that requires you to engage in reshaping knowledge. to sequential; knowledge and
When you write, you are usually reshaping (transforming) understanding are products of the
writing process.”
knowledge that you already have. It may be a concept, an
—Gail Poirrier, Writing-to-Learn
assumption, a face, or a conclusion you have reached. But,
because thinking precedes writing, you first have to think about
your subject, analyze it, and select/arrange words to express particular things you now want to
communicate about it.
To put it another way, when you sit down to write, your thoughts don’t come to you neatly in sequential
order. As Gail Poirrier (1997) explains, writing engages you in a dialectical
process in which you must discuss/debate/ sort out (in your own mind) what
you want to put on the screen or paper in front of you. As you do this, there is
always some level of discovery of new thoughts, new insights, or conclusions.
It’s almost impossible to write in this manner without increasing your
understanding of the topic under consideration or without increasing your
knowledge base. Even if a writing experience only reinforces an understanding
that you already have of a particular subject, it is still valuable because it
solidifies learning. Writing in this case becomes a means of learning that you
know!
Writing is a dialectical process Writing is at the core of online learning, and you will find that, no matter how
that often leads to new rusty your skills are at the onset, the process of thinking, writing, and learning
thoughts and insights
will sand that rust right off. Don’t be surprised if your first attempts are shaky.
That is natural when you start doing anything more intensely than you might
have in the past. Most universities offer an entry course to help students get back in the swing of things.
Because you are reading this book, you are probably in one right now. Have faith in your ability to write and
to constantly improve your writing skills.
University‐level writing assignments are not designed to ask you to retell memorized information.
There is very little learning involved in such factual exchanges. Instead, university‐level writing assignments
require you to think critically about a subject. Thinking critically may require you to seek a solution to a
problem, analyze, synthesize, evaluate, or reflect on how to apply knowledge in a particular situation. In
each case, the assignment “sets the stage” for an intellectual quest in which you seek to capture
knowledge, draw it into the realm of your experience and understanding, and use words to define it. That
challenging quest is called learning, and the writing process used to communicate it to others becomes,
unavoidably, a learning process.
LEARNING TO USE APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE IN WRITING
Let’s talk for a minute about the language of academia. Think about the way that you use language when
interacting with your boss, an important client, or a visiting dignitary. Now contrast that with the way that
you use language at home with your family and loved ones. Is it the same? If you are like most of us, the
answer is probably no. That is true because of the level and formality of the relationships. It is as
inappropriate to use casual or intimate language at work as it is to use very formal language with your
significant other in an intimate setting.
In the 1950s, a linguist named Thomas Bertram Reid (1956) introduced the concept of register of
language. This theory was quickly adopted by most linguists to describe language. This idea refers to the
fact that the formality of language is a continuum ranging from very formally structured language (think
about swearing in a witness in a courtroom or the president of the United States taking the oath of office)
to very intimate language (think about a mother cooing to her new baby or a group of teenagers
congregating on a Saturday night). There are essentially five levels of registers (Joos 1967):
• Frozen: A level of language that does not change, including oaths, biblical quotations, and the like. The
“Pledge of Allegiance” is a good example.
• Formal: The language of work and school. It is composed of extensive vocabulary, employs correct syntax
and spelling, and requires complete, grammatically correct sentence
structure.
• Consultative: A version of formal register that is used in less structured
conversations. It is an interchange, but it does not assume
connectedness between the parties. It is considered respectful.
• Casual: The language of friends and acquaintances. Connectedness
between the parties is assumed, so conversations often leave out
background information. Private, shared vocabulary is often used and
ellipsis (unfinished thought) and slang are common.
• Intimate: Nonpublic interaction. It is the language between lovers,
siblings, and close family members. Intonation is more important than
wording or grammar.
The terms of a contract are You may or may not have really thought about this, but you
considered a form of "frozen" understand it intuitively. You would not talk to the CEO of your company
language
the same way you would talk to your friends while playing darts at a bar
on Saturday night. However, it is important to realize that this same concept is relevant to the kind of
writing that you will do in a university setting. The expectation in higher education is that you will use the
formal register when you are writing formal papers. It is the language of education.
When you post to a discussion forum, the expectation is for consultative register. If you live in the
world of texting and abbreviated email acronyms (things like LOL, b/c, OMG, and IMHO), using the
consultative register might constitute a pretty big change
in how you approach your written work. We have seen
many students who initially think that they can approach
their discussion forum postings in the same way that they
approach texting their friends (casual register). It doesn’t
work, but don’t worry—writing in formal English is not
hard to master. It just takes practice and attention.
You have to learn to write formally; that is the
“rule” of higher education. But let’s step back just a
moment to keep things in perspective. The critical thinker
While you may talk free amoung your friends, the
in us will understand that all these “rules” are just “the language of school and the workplace is formal
rules” because others in our educational culture decided
that they are. If your institution requires that you write in
the American Psychological Association (APA) format, you will learn that your list of sources is titled
“References” rather than “Works Cited” and that those references must be presented in a hanging indent.
That is “right,” according to the rules of APA, and if you want to be successful as a student, you will format
your references in that manner. But that doesn’t make rules equivalent to truth in any other sense.
LEARNING TO USE LANGUAGE TO EXERT POWER
A French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu, wrote extensively in the 1980s and 1990s about the idea of language
and power. He argues that language and power (he refers to both political and social power) are
inextricably intertwined. Bourdieu also argues that those groups within a society who wield the most
political and social power control the use of and assign value to language within that society.
Bourdieu (1991) has much to say on the role and power of educational institutions in the
systematization of legitimate language. He claims that the educational system has “delegated authority”
with which it engages in “a universal process of durable inculcation in matters of language, and given that it
tends to vary the duration and intensity in proportion to inherited cultural capital, it follows that the social
mechanisms on cultural transmission tend to reproduce the structural disparity between the very unequal
knowledge of the legitimate language and the much more uniform recognition of this language” (p. 62).
Now that’s a mouthful, but what he is saying is that educational institutions maintain the status
quo by supporting the perpetuation of the socially accepted “legitimate language.” Bourdieu wrote this
about French language and society two decades ago, but his ideas are clearly applicable to the use of
language in today’s world and in higher education.
The language of American power is Standard English (frozen, formal, and consultative register).
People whose professional language patterns differ too much from this standard continue to be
disadvantaged in society, especially in the business world. Bourdieu (1991) argues that educational systems
play a significant part in the devaluation of “popular modes of expression, dismissing them as ‘slang’ and
‘gibberish’” (p. 49), while imposing recognition of the legitimate language. Although this is true, his
argument prompts the “chicken or the egg” question. Does educational practice drive the linguistic market,
or does the linguistic market drive educational practice? We don’t necessarily have the answer to that
question, but the reality in which we all live is that Standard English is important to academic and
professional success. Now have some metacognitive understanding about why writing conventions are
important.
Writing as a Skill Development Process
Writing—the word alone can cause anxiety in students, but it doesn’t need to be that way. Writing is a skill
that must be learned and practiced like any other. When you first begin a new job, you expect to be trained
and have your duties explained to you. You do not feel incapable of handling the job or doing well because
you must first go through a training process. This is also true about writing, and in time you can become a
good academic writer, just as you will become a productive employee after the training. You will apply that
knowledge to doing your job well.
Have you noticed that, even though cell phones were first
designed to telephone one another and communicate by speaking, we
use them just as much, if not more, for emailing and texting? That means
writing, though at the casual level generally. The point is, writing is now
a part of everyday life, and how you write is the impression that people
will have of you. The issue is of such relevance that much research has
been conducted; the U.S. Department of Education (1998), the College
Board (2002, 2003), and the National Council of Teachers of English
(2002) have published studies and recommendations for all educational
institutions to focus on improving the writing skills of students at all
levels.
Writing doesn’t have to be an When hiring job applicants, employers place communication
exercise in frustration. It is a skill that and good writing skills at the top of the qualification list. Learning
can be developed like any other.
academic writing skills will enable you to write well in any situation for
any career. You will know the “structure and rules” for writing, which will allow you to communicate
effectively.
The first thing to remember in building writing skills is that you can always go back and change
what you have written, so don’t think you have to be perfect from the moment you begin. Perhaps even
more important, you need to understand that the feedback, or criticism, you receive about your writing
skills should not be taken personally. When your instructor or teaching assistant points out errors and
provides suggestions for improvement, he or she is trying to help you hone your skills, not attack your
ability or character.
Many students have not written a formal paper since high school (and perhaps not even then). You
were probably given multiple‐choice, true/false, or essay question exams to measure learning rather than a
writing assignment. If you think back, you most likely can’t remember much of what you learned after
taking a test. However, when you must organize your thoughts and think about what is important in the
assignment, you will retain far more of the information, which then becomes knowledge.
Writing is communication, and communication is the only way we can connect with others. Writing
is how we tell others what we think and know. Writing is probably the most important skill you will ever
learn. Writing is the key to your success in college and in the workplace. It serves to enrich your life by
deepening your understanding of your knowledge and increasing your critical thinking skills.
To understand more fully the importance of formal writing, consider the “Case Study: Returning
Adult Student.”
Case Study: Returning Adult Student
Brian, age thirty‐six, is married and has three children. Here is what he has to say:
I never paid much attention in high school, especially about grammar stuff, and I hated having to write
papers in English class. I don’t write in my job because I’m not a supervisor or anything, so it doesn’t
matter. Sure, I use email and texting, but who cares about commas or spelling out the words when you
can just type LOL?
But now I need to learn so that I can get a promotion or better job. The world has changed so much, and
everything is about computers and the Internet, and you have to write all the time. My kids are growing
up and need more things, and my wife and I barely make enough to pay the bills. I’m worried I can’t do
this or what other students and the teacher will think about me because of my bad writing. I need to
know I can get help and not have everyone know about it.
I know I have to get my degree, or I can’t get ahead and might lose my job. I want my kids to look up to
me. I want them to have a better life.
BUILDING CONFIDENCE ABOUT WRITING
The example of the student in the case study, Brian, is not uncommon. Even students who have had several
college courses prior to enrolling now have difficulties and concerns about their writing skills. Many
students find it difficult to decide where to start or what to write about. Most of your assignments will
contain specific instructions about the topic, what subjects must be covered, how long the paper should be,
and how many sources you should use.
Throughout your college coursework, you will write papers. There are many kinds of writing
assignments, levels, and register, meaning the audience or person who will read your paper. Again, don’t be
overanxious about writing papers. You will learn the process one step at a time; you will have many
resources available online, and you can practice and learn at your own pace.
Most universities have Online Writing Labs (or OWLs, as they are known), and you can access them
anytime from anywhere. Most contain the same information that is available in a writing handbook or style
guide, but some have tutors available through email; these tutors will provide the guidance that you need
to write your paper as the assignment requires.
Ashford University provides its students with an Online Writing Center that contains automated
tools that allow you to practice grammar and writing and then receive immediate feedback. You can
practice as often or as much as you need, and no one is tracking what you do. Ashford also provides writing
coaches through your entire beginning courses. You are never without guidance and support, and you will
always be treated with respect.
SUMMARY: WRITING AS A LEARNING AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Writing requires shaping and reshaping knowledge. As such, it is an important learning process. To present
ideas powerfully you must learn a process that involves critical thinking and a search for appropriate
language (beyond ordinary usage levels). Writing is also a skill‐
building activity. In today’s work world, individuals who can write
clearly and accurately are highly valued.
Basic Steps in the Writing Process
Most colleges and universities have a preferred “Writing Style
Handbook” that will provide the guidelines required for academic
writing at that institution. There are common standards for writing
styles and grammar rules, and you should acquire the handbook
and keep it handy. No matter how experienced and skilled you
become, you will find that there is always something you will need
to look up, just as you would use a dictionary. Having guidelines for
writing makes the task easier. You will know how to format your
paper and how to include the sources you use for research. Again, It is good to be eager about writing
your paper, but make sure you follow
this is a new skill that takes time and practice. the process
REMEMBERING THAT IT’S A PROCESS
The first thing to know—and remember—about writing is that it is a process. That is, to produce a strong
piece of writing, you must follow steps and work on multiple drafts. Think about your favorite recipe. For
that meal, dessert, or beverage to turn out just the way you want it, you have to follow steps and rules;
moreover, you probably have to make it more than once before you can enjoy it or share it with other
people. The same is true for writing: A paper is not going to be perfect the first time around. To help you
understand and navigate the writing process, we have divided the stages of writing into six simple steps:
1. Understanding the assignment
2. Making a schedule
3. Prewriting
4. Researching
5. Drafting
6. Editing/proofreading
Understanding the Assignment
Before you start writing, you should understand the assignment. Although different instructors will have a
different set of expectations and guidelines for you, every instructor will give you an assignment
description.
Take your time to read the description. This is an obvious piece of advice, but you would be
surprised at how many students merely glance at it, skim through it, or “save” reading it for later. It is also
common for students to read the description the day before the assignment is due or even on the due date
and to ask the instructor questions for which the answers are in the description. Don’t make this mistake!
Your assignments for college papers in an online, accelerated environment require that you plan ahead and
do the required reading and research. At the university level, you are expected to do more than summarize
and provide your own opinion; as you will read in later chapters, critical thinking is required.
As soon as you receive an assignment description, do the following:
• Read it once from top to bottom.
• Read it again—this time underline or highlight the question or questions you need to address in
your writing; circle keywords that emphasize the type of writing that you will need to do, such as
analyze, evaluate, propose, describe, identify, and so on.
• Ask your instructor questions about anything that you don’t understand or need clarified. Don’t
wait until the due date is near to ask because, by then, it will be too late.
• Make notes to yourself about the assignment requirements so that you can refer to them later
and make sure that you have met all these requirements.
Making a Schedule
It’s easy to overlook this step. In taking a few minutes to complete it, you can use your time management
skills to help you manage the writing task. Estimate how much
time you will need for each step and identify blocks of time
that you can set aside for each one. Allow for more time than
you think, at first, will be required. Almost certainly, you will
need an hour or two more than you initially estimate. You will
find that your anxieties about the assignment will be greatly
reduced if you clearly set aside sufficient time to complete it.
Your mind can begin working on what you are going to do in
that designated block of time. If you fail to identify such a
place and time to write, your mind remains frenzied.
Prewriting Directors often use storyboards to help in the filming
process. This is a form of "pre‐writing" for the silver
We all face a blank page when we begin to write. However,
screen
you can take certain steps so that when you do begin writing,
you will already have some idea of what you will write about, how to begin, and how to develop a first draft
or simply write down your thoughts without worrying about how you will complete the entire the paper.
This is called free writing, or stream of consciousness writing.
Here is an example: You have an assignment to write a three‐page paper on adult learning theory,
using your textbook and a source from the online library for your research. Your first thoughts are these:
What is adult learning theory? This is huge subject! Where do I start? How can I cover everything in
three pages? Am I supposed to write about how I feel about it? What does the instructor mean by
saying I need an introduction, a body, and a conclusion? The assignment says to include a clear
topic or thesis statement in the introduction. What does that mean? What is a thesis statement?
How do I write one?
These are often the concerns and questions that many students have when they are faced with writing a
paper. There are some quick and easy ways to get started and to reduce some of the stress you may feel
about getting this paper done. Begin by making a list, or a brief outline, of what you must do.
Below is a sample list that a student might make for the adult learning theory assignment.
Worksheet 4.1 is a more generic list that you could use for your own assignment.
Questions Answers
What is the subject of my paper? Adult learning theory
What is the length of my paper? Three pages
What part should I write about? Read chapters in text
What is definition of adult learning theory? Review reading assignment in textbook
Who invented the theory? Review textbook and look up name in library
Why is this important? Summarize what is in textbook and library
What does it mean to people/society? Think about the information and how it affects
them
What do I think? How does it apply to me?
How do I end the paper? Write a summary/conclusion
Worksheet 4.1 Prewriting
Questions Answers
What is the subject of my paper?
What is the length?
What area of the subject should I
write about?
Why is this topic important?
What has been said about this same
topic?
What point do I want to make about
this topics?
What kinds of evidence will I need to
support this point?
How will I begin the paper?
How will I end the paper?
Researching
The term research can run the gamut from personal soul searching for a narrative or reflective paper, to
interviewing sources, to checking out hard‐copy sources at a library or looking for electronic sources online.
Evaluating Internet Sources
• Stay away from self‐published “rants” that you might find on a blog or in a discussion forum.
• Always look at the credentials of the author or source.
• Web sites that are affiliated with educational institutions (.edu) or the government (.gov) are
reputable. Sometimes, Web sites attached to a nonprofit organization (.org) are also fair game.
• Sources that have been edited or “fact checked” by a third party are good sources. Some
examples include magazines, newspapers, and scholarly journals, both hard copy as well as online
versions.
• Pay attention to how current the information is. When was the article written? When was the
Web site last updated?
Drafting
Begin writing. It does not matter where you start; simply begin getting ideas down on paper. Select one of
the main points that you plan to cover and conduct more research about this issue. Review the research
information that you have found and select an idea that interests you or seems to be an easy place to begin
writing. Read the information again, paraphrase it (put it in your own words), and begin writing. Be sure to
carefully record all the source information for this idea (author, publication, page number, where you found
it, and so on) on a separate sheet of paper and place a note next to what you wrote so that you can cite the
source later in your final paper. Once you have finished writing about this idea, review your research
material again, and select another idea or another main point to write about. Don’t worry about organizing
ideas at this point; you will do that later. The drafting stage simply involves getting ideas down on paper.
Continue the drafting stage until you have incorporated all the ideas you generated in the prewriting stage.
You might even use the informal outline below to help organize your draft:
Draft Preparation
Introduction
Thesis Statement: __________________________________________
First body paragraph idea: ____________________________________
Supporting details
a. __________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________
Second body paragraph idea: ___________________________________
Supporting details
a. ___________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________
Third body paragraph idea: ____________________________________
Supporting details
a. ___________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________
Conclusion _________________________________________________
Once you’ve “mapped out” your paper using this informal outline, begin writing the first draft of
your paper, which will include the following:
• A thesis statement
• Introduction
• Body paragraphs
• Conclusion
Thesis Statement
In just one or two sentences, you will explain what you are writing about and the point you want to make.
This sounds like a difficult and perhaps impossible task, and at first, it may feel just that way. Remember,
though, that you can always revise your topic or thesis statement after you begin writing and discover more
information or a different position that you would like to take.
Use Worksheet 4.2 to help you build an effective thesis statement.
Worksheet 4.2, Thesis Statement Worksheet
State your topic.
State your opinion/main idea about
this topic.
Give the strongest reason that
supports your opinion/main idea.
Give another strong reason that
supports your opinion/main idea.
Include an opposing viewpoint to
your opinion/main idea, if
applicable.
Introduction. The introduction should provide a clear picture of what your paper is about. The main point
of your introduction is to set the tone for the reader. Clearly state the purpose of the paper (for example, to
persuade, explain, or give your personal opinion in the first person (“I”) along with facts to support your
viewpoint). You must write something that will cause the reader to be interested in your subject and be
inclined to read further. Here are do’s and don’ts in writing an introduction:
Do
• Use an interesting quotation.
• Provide little known or new research information.
• Bring up an opposing viewpoint and take the other side.
• Tell an anecdote that is related to your topic.
• Ask a question or series of question that will be answered in
the paper.
Don’t
• Begin your introduction with obvious statements such as
“In this essay, I will discuss . . . .”
• Use clichés or generalizations such as “In today’s world,” Including a passage from another
“Since the beginning of time,” or “In today’s society.” source is an effective writing tool, but
credit the source properly
• Simply quote a reference book—for example, “According to
the Oxford Dictionary” or “In the Encyclopedia Britannica.”
• List basic facts about the text you are using—for example, “This book was published in 2004 by
Random House. It was written by Author X. It is about . . . .”
Body Paragraphs. These are the building blocks of your paper. Each body paragraph should contain one
main point, support the thesis, expand upon it, and provide examples. Another important thing to keep in
mind is the transition from one paragraph to another. To move smoothly from one point to another, there
needs to be a connecting word or phrase, called a transition, to go from paragraph to paragraph. It is
distracting if the work does not flow logically and seamlessly from one point to the next, and the reader will
lose sight of the meaning of your work and become bored or dismissive. Remember to use transitional
words and phrases to move from paragraph to paragraph, such as moreover, additionally, for example,
therefore, most important, and furthermore.
Conclusion. Believe it or not, students find that the conclusion is the most difficult part of the paper to
write. The conclusion is where you want to leave your reader with some closure. In the same way that an
introduction sets up the scene for the reader, the conclusion has to set forth a lasting impression. In the
first sentence of the conclusion, rephrase your thesis statement. Instead of summarizing the points that you
just made, synthesize them. Show the reader how everything fits together. Though you don’t want to
present new material here, you can echo the introduction, ask the reader questions, look to the future, or
challenge your reader.
Editing/Proofreading
Students are often surprised at the grammar and punctuation skills they may have forgotten or did not
have the opportunity to learn effectively. This is common and you might it equate it with how to use
fractions in arithmetic because it is not something you have had to use in a long time. Very few people
remember how to multiply fractions! Take the short quiz, “Self‐Test: Grammar and Punctuation,” at the end
of this section to gain an idea of where you need to practice. Remember, this is another skill that most
students must work to learn or regain, and you will have time to practice. The need to use grammar and
punctuation correctly in academic writing is vital.
Here are some quick and easy proofreading tips that work:
• Proofread backward. This means to start from the end of
the paragraph or sentence. For instance, instead of reading
a paragraph from top to bottom, read it from bottom to
top. Instead of reading a sentence from left to right, read it
from right to left (end to the beginning). Proofreading
backward will help you slow down and consider each word
separately. Proofreading is important to the writing
process at both school and work
• Let your eyes rest. Taking a break from the paper that you
have worked on for a few hours or days is good for your
eyes and your mind. Working closely with your own writing for long periods of time can affect the
way that you read the paper. You will start to overlook typos and simple mistakes if you don’t allow
your eyes to rest.
• Read out loud. Many times, just reading what you wrote out loud to yourself can help you catch
both grammatical errors and awkward organization or development of ideas. A variation on this tip
would be to have a friend, relative, or spouse read your paper out loud to you. You put yourself in
the role of the audience, so you will be able to tell what doesn’t flow or make sense.
•Get to know your computer. Learn to use the tools that most word processing software have.
(Note: The Ashford Writing Center has a short, handy guide that explains how to use these tools
with screen shots and step‐by‐step instructions.)
•Use spell‐check. This does not mean, however, that you should not reread your paper on your
own or have a friend, relative, or spouse look at it.
• Use the “Find” feature. This helps you identify words and phrases that you overuse, such as they,
it is, and it has been said that.
• Use the thesaurus with care. Bigger words are not always better!
Did You Know?
In 1988 Robert Conner and Andrea Lunsford, two prominent scholars in the field of rhetoric and
composition, collected and analyzed three thousand college essays around the United States. They
discovered twenty common errors that students make in their writing:
• Missing comma after an introductory element
• Vague pronoun reference
• Missing comma in a compound sentence
• Wrong word
• Missing comma(s) with a nonrestrictive element
• Wrong or missing verb ending
• Wrong or missing preposition
• Comma splice
• Missing or misplaced possessive apostrophe
• Unnecessary shift in tense
• Unnecessary shift in pronoun
• Sentence fragment
• Wrong tense or verb form
• Lack of subject–verb agreement
• Missing comma in a series
• Lack of pronoun–antecedent agreement
• Unnecessary comma(s) with a restrictive element
• Fused sentence
• Misplaced or dangling modifier
• Its/It’s confusion
Keep these commonly made errors in mind as you write your papers.
Self‐Test: Grammar and Punctuation
1. Select the sentence that uses commas correctly.
a. At the end of the night the new Ethiopian restaurant was packed.
b. At the end of the night, the new Ethiopian restaurant was packed.
2. Select the sentence that uses commas correctly.
a. San Francisco was too expensive, so Felicia decided to live in the East Bay.
b. San Francisco was too expensive so, Felicia decided to live in the East Bay.
3. Select the sentence that uses commas correctly.
a. This wool sweater, a gift from my favorite aunt, has survived many washes at the laundromat.
b. This wool sweater, a gift from my favorite aunt has survived many washes at the laundromat.
4. Select the sentence with correct pronoun–antecedent agreement.
a. If a student wants to perform well on an exam, they should get enough sleep the night before
and have something to eat the next morning.
b. If students want to perform well on an exam, they should get enough sleep the night before
and have something to eat the next morning.
5. Select the sentence that does not have a misplaced or dangling modifier.
a. While driving along Bay Street, I saw a kite begin to climb above the trees
b. Leaning out of the window, the accident was clearly visible.
6. Select the sentence that uses its or it’s correctly.
a. Carl’s betta fish stopped eating because its aquarium was so filthy.
b. Carl’s betta fish stopped eating because it’s aquarium was so filthy.
7. Select the sentence that uses their or there correctly.
a. I went to my parents’ house to borrow there lawnmower, but it wasn’t their.
b. I went to my parents’ house to borrow their lawnmower, but it wasn’t there.
8. Select the sentence that is grammatically correct.
a. He had did good work.
b. He has done the work well.
9. Select the sentence that is grammatically correct.
a. She has written a good paper.
b. She had wrote a good paper.
10. Select the sentence that has correct pronoun usage.
a. Susan went shopping with her mother and me.
b. Susan went shopping with her mother and I.
Answer Key: 1b, 2a, 3a, 4b; 5a, 6a, 7b, 8b, 9a, 10a.
SUMMARY: BASIC STEPS IN WRITING
Strong writing skills are critical to both academic and professional success. Writing is an integral part of
every online course. However, it often looms as a barrier because students have not engaged thoroughly in
the process that is required to develop confident writing skills. To make the task of writing less daunting,
we have presented six simple steps that occur with every writing assignment: understanding the
assignment, making a schedule, prewriting, doing research, drafting, and editing/proofreading.
Avoiding Plagiarism
The Internet has changed our world dramatically. We do not yet know how to deal with all of the
information available; it may seem that, because it is just “out there,” we can do with it what we will. We
cannot. Everything that is on the Internet belongs to someone. It may seem harmless to “copy and paste”
information from here and there that supports the ideas in your paper. Yes, you can do that, but you must
give credit to the person who wrote it. Even if you do not know who wrote it, you must always state where
you found it and when. If you use someone else’s ideas and pass them off as your own or forget to give
credit to the author, you can be accused of plagiarism.
Plagiarism, unfortunately, has become a common practice among writers of all levels, and it is a
difficult issue that affects both academic and professional careers. In college, it detracts from your
educational experience and can result in grave consequences, including expulsion from the institution and
your inability to enroll in other accredited universities. Many new students are not entirely aware of just
what constitutes plagiarism and how serious a matter it is.
FIVE WAYS TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
Essentially, each of these ways involves mental alertness and a solid commitment to personal integrity:
1. Plan accordingly. In many cases, students accidentally or intentionally plagiarize because they
are under pressure to meet a deadline and have not had time to do proper research, to think about
the assignment, or to write a draft or two. Allowing yourself enough time to complete the
assignment will reduce your stress and decrease the chance of your seeking desperate measures.
Schedule a few hours a day to devote to a writing assignment in the way that you would for helping
your children with homework, preparing dinner, running an errand, or completing a task at work.
2. Read carefully and keep good notes. You should always make
an effort to understand the text that you are reading. Keeping
good notes is one way to do this. Underline sections you don’t
understand and look up terms and phrases that are new to you.
Always keep notes of where you found your information. You
might even use different‐color highlighter pens, develop a simple
coding system, or make a two‐column list to differentiate
between your ideas and someone else’s.
3. Learn to paraphrase and summarize. Put new ideas into your
own words, change the sentence structure, or use synonyms, but
always credit the source. Even though you are putting someone
else’s ideas into your own words, those ideas still belong to
someone else, so it’s necessary to provide a paper trail, if you
If you plagiarize, someone is going will, to avoid plagiarism.
to find out
4. Ask an instructor, a teaching assistant (TA), a writing tutor, or
a librarian. Don’t forget that your instructor, class TA, writing tutor, and librarian are excellent
sources of information. She or he can help you understand what counts as plagiarism and may
even have her or his own strategies for avoiding plagiarism. Also, if you are more of a communal
learner, you might even compare your interpretation of the text with that of a friend’s, relative’s,
or classmate’s understanding. Reading and writing don’t have to be solitary activities. Never feel
embarrassed or afraid to ask questions. Plagiarism is common and can easily be avoided if you
know what to do and who to talk to.
5. When in doubt, cite it. Regardless of the formatting style required by your institution, always give
credit to your source by including the name of the author (if it is known), the title of the work, and
the page on which the quote was found. The full bibliographic information will be found at the end
of your paper on a reference or works cited page. Make a list of all the sources that you use with
this information. Remember: It’s better to be safe than sorry later.
CITING SOURCES CORRECTLY
There are some fine points regarding how to cite sources and what belongs on the reference page, and you
will learn those as you go along in your college career. Sometimes it is difficult to determine whether
something is common knowledge or not. It is common knowledge that President Kennedy was
assassinated. However, it is not necessarily common knowledge that a man named Howard Brennan was
sitting across the street from the Texas School Book Depository and notified police that, as he watched the
motorcade go by, he heard a shot come from above and looked up to see a man with a rifle make another
shot from a corner window on the sixth floor. If you have any doubt about whether something you’ve
learned is common knowledge, cite the source in the text of your paper and add it to your reference page.
Plagiarism is dishonest and dishonorable. Using someone else’s words or ideas without giving due
credit is cheating, but the person who suffers most from this cheating is the one who plagiarized. College is
more than getting through quickly and easily to get that “piece of paper” that will make your life better. It is
about learning how to think independently and how to communicate those thoughts. You cannot
communicate your thoughts unless you can write well, and you cannot write well if you do not learn to do it
using your own words and style.
Take a moment to complete the exercise “Self‐Test: Plagiarism.”
Self‐Test: Plagiarism
1. True/False: When referring to the fact that Lincoln was assassinated, it is not necessary to provide a
reference to a source or author.
True: The information is known or easily verifiable, so neither a citation in the text nor a reference at the
end of the paper is necessary. This information is common knowledge. If information is widely known or is
available in numerous sources and can be easily verified, you are not required to provide a source for this
information.
2. True/False: Using a paper that you have already written for another class, having a friend or relative
write your paper, or buying a paper online that is written by someone else according to your guidelines or
ideas are safe options and not considered plagiarism.
False: These are all forms of plagiarism.
3. True/False: When you copy and paste something from the Internet and there is no author or name from
the Web site, it is permissible, and you don’t have to reference the source.
False: This is still considered plagiarism. You need to include some kind of information from the Web site,
such as the title of the online article, the Web‐site address, or name of the Web site itself.
4. True/False: Using someone else’s ideas but changing some of the words so that they are completely
different from the original and adding no quotation marks, a citation, or reference is not considered
plagiarism.
False: Using someone else’s ideas—no matter how you have camouflaged them—is plagiarism. Even if you
use synonyms or change the sentence structure of a source’s words, you must provide a citation and, if
applicable, use quotation marks around any key terms or phrases that you keep intact.
5. True/False: When you copy and paste a source’s words or borrow a source’s ideas and forget to include a
citation or reference, it is considered plagiarism.
True: Even if you did not mean to pass off someone else’s words or ideas as your own, it is still plagiarism.
Forgetting to mention where the quote or idea was found or not keeping good track of borrowed
information is regarded as plagiarism, whether or not you intended to do it.
Most important is this: Do not let the issue of plagiarism dissuade you from using all of the information that
you can find to support your opinions and make your point in a paper. There is a great body of knowledge
that has been accumulated through the centuries.
Learning Sharpened by Critical Thinking
Another way to look at learning is through the context of critical thinking. Learning requires critical thinking.
But what is critical thinking? The word thinking can describe any number of cognitive activities, and there is
certainly more than one way to think. But critical thinking is something distinct. This distinction is that it is
self‐assessing. Self‐assessing means that we think about and evaluate the quality of our thinking.
Much of our thinking is not self‐assessing. Richard Paul and Linda Elder (1999) use the analogy of a
stoplight to demonstrate the difference between noncritical and critical thinking.
Many of us pass through life using primarily what they call “green thinking.” Green thinking is an
unconscious mix of high‐ and low‐quality thinking. It is spontaneous, impulsive, reflexive, self‐protecting,
self‐validating, and subconscious. It is passing through life with a constant green light. This does not mean
that it is all bad thinking. Some green thinking can be of very high quality. The distinction is that it is not
self‐assessing, so we are not aware of the differences in our strong and weak thinking.
Critical thinking, on the other hand, is described as “red thinking.” It is higher‐order thinking that
applies rigorous standards to itself. It is disciplined, probing, truth seeking, and self‐correcting. It stops to
evaluate rather than unconsciously rushing ahead.
As a university student, you will be asked to engage in red thinking. We will operate on the
assumption that we are all quite adept at red thinking already!
CRITICAL THINKING AS A PROCESS
A good perspective of critical thinking comes from Steven Brookfield (1986). He has long been considered
an “expert” on critical thinking, and he contends that critical thinking is a process. His definition includes
emotional as well as rational components and clearly acknowledges the importance of culture and context.
It contains the following common characteristics:
1. Identifying and challenging assumptions
2. Challenging the importance of context
3. Trying to imagine and explore alternatives
4. Reflective skepticism
Brookfield defines reflective skepticism as the act of constantly questioning the status quo. Just
because something has been believed for years does not necessarily mean that it is true. Just because
something has been done a certain way for years does not mean it is the only or best way to do it.
Furthermore, just because someone of perceived importance says something is right, that does not prove
that it is right. We like to call this the “maybe–maybe not” life stance.
So are you a critical thinker? Are we? How can we tell? This is a hard thing to honestly determine
because by nature we tend to assume that our thinking is just fine, thank you very much!
TRIGGER EVENTS
Brookfield (1986) asserts that the journey to critical
thinking often begins with a highly emotional “trigger
event” (p. 26). These events often have the effect of
jolting us out of our comfort zones, forcing us to explore
new territory. Trigger events can be positive or negative
although most anecdotal literature supports growth
from negative events. However, positive trigger events
can also propel one down the road to critical thinking.
Formal higher education promotes critical thinking, as
Leaving home, starting school and other trigger
does exposure to individuals whose critical thinking skills events take us out of our comfort zones
are more fully developed than our own (Brookfield
1986). Typically, a trigger propels us into a period of appraisal. We internally explore the nature of the new
learning. Many times a person becomes uncomfortable with the dissonance (a natural response) and tends
to minimize and deny the new learning.
Do You Agree? According to Brookfield (1986), the period of
Entering a university program qualifies as a appraisal is followed by a period of exploration. Having
trigger event—actually the beginning of finally accepted that the discrepancy and dissonance are
many! Doesn’t that sound fun? real, we set out to make sense of it. We explore new ways
to think and view the world. Many people in this phase will
try on various attitudes and identities, much like the adolescent who is seeking to find him‐ or herself
through exploration. This exploration leads to the awareness of alternative perspectives and, paradoxically,
the understanding that the abundance of alternatives often signals the lack of any one right choice.
This phase is often the most difficult for people to endure. Existentialists refer to this difficulty as
existential angst. Many people choose not to endure the associated anxiety and retreat to their more
comfortable preexisting paradigms (Corey 1991). Eventually, those who endure the anxiety come to
Brookfield’s final phase of integration. Integration can involve radical life changes or invisible internal
cognitive life changes. But change occurs.
Do You Agree?
As you reflect on your own life, can you see the evolution of your thinking skills? Have there been trigger
events that have propelled you into new ways of looking at the world? Did a trigger event bring you to
the decision to enter a university program? Intentional learning cannot help but show you new ways to
view the world.
The steps you take to increase the relevance of learning (to connect fully to it) correlate with the
development of critical thinking and metacognition, especially steps that involve questioning
assumptions and being open to feedback.
METACOGNITION
Psychologists use the term metacognition to describe all this “thinking about your thinking.” Metacognition
is the awareness of our thinking processes and the efficient use of this self‐knowledge to regulate our own
thinking processes. It requires us to take a step back from just thinking about something and to evaluate
the quality of that thinking. We all have areas of logical vulnerability. Recognizing those weaknesses in our
own thinking processes frees us from being controlled by them. Remember the story about the French
sociologist earlier in the chapter? We shared that with you so that, besides understanding what kind of
writing would be required by a university, you would be able to step back and understand the “why.” The
why doesn’t change the what—but you are a deeper thinker because you understand them both.
Many people go through life assuming that the way they think is the right way to think and what
they think is correct just because they think it! They in some ways are stuck in Piaget’s preoperational
stage; they simply cannot “see” the world from any perspective but their own. They cannot decenter.
Part of becoming an educated person is learning to decenter. There is a lot of diversity in the online
classroom. You will be learning with people who are like you and people who are very unlike you. It is not
uncommon for a Marine stationed overseas, a Muslim, a businessman from Boston, an evangelical
Christian, a stay‐at‐home mother of three from Utah, a vegan, a Wiccan, and an artist from Soho to all end
up in the same class. Part of the adventure is learning about each other and learning to view the world
through each other’s eyes. That does not mean that you have to agree with each other. Educated people
agree to disagree all the time! People can look at the same thing and see something different. It happens all
the time. Try the visual experiment shown in Figure 4.1.
What did you see? Chances are, you did not all see the
same thing, even though you were looking at the very
same thing! However, you were looking at it from your
seat at the table (remember Piaget?) and that impacts
the view. There are two ways to view this picture. You
many have seen a picture of a vase, or you may have
seen two faces looking at each other. Go back and look at
it again until you see both images.
When we see conflicts arise in the online classroom, it is
Figure 4.1
usually based on the fact that students are being so rigid
in their personal perspectives that they cannot tolerate the fact that others do not share their exact
worldviews. This often occurs in general education courses like religion or philosophy where people come
with strong feelings and beliefs. But it doesn’t need to happen and only detracts from everyone’s learning
experience. Nine‐Dots Puzzle.
Connect the nine dots in accompanying Figure,
Our advice to you is this: Understanding a
using only four straight lines without lifting
viewpoint that differs from yours does not threaten
your pencil from the paper. (Find the solution
your own. In fact, it should strengthen it. A good college
in the appendix.)
education should expose you to all kinds of new ideas.
You can understand ideas and theories that you do not
espouse or believe. We know many things that are not
part of our personal belief systems. Yet we remain great
friends and colleagues with those whose personal belief
systems are different, and we respect and enjoy the
diversity in each other.
THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF CRITICAL THINKING
We cannot, in the context of this book, give you a full dose of critical thinking. Most likely, you will be
required to take a course in logic or critical thinking as part of your undergraduate curriculum, or maybe
you have already. In this section, we briefly discuss some basics, the “nuts and bolts,” of critical thinking in
the context of learning. As a university student, you will be exposed to many new ideas and concepts. You
will read textbooks, you will explore various Web‐based sites, and you will interact with many diverse
professors and students. All of these sources will provide you with new information and new ways of
looking at the world. You need to be ready to sort through all this new information.
The term critical thinking can be confusing to people. You happen to be reading a book written by
people with strong opinions and beliefs about critical thinking, but our voice is not the end‐all of critical
thinking. Many other voices might describe it differently, and part of the metacognition that should develop
in your university studies is an understanding of the subjectivity of reality. Much strong opinion is out there
about the definition of critical thinking, and most educational writers struggle in achieving a clear and
professionally acceptable definition.
Matthew Lipman (1991) observes that a more general approach would emphasize good judgment
or wisdom because it would connect the concepts of knowledge, personal experience, and the quality of
choices that are made by the individual. Critical thinking is a holistic approach that recognizes that all
choices are not equally good, which brings a more dynamic dimension to the process of critical thinking.
In fact, Lipman (1995) asks the interesting question, “What is wisdom?” He proceeds to answer his
own question by observing that wisdom refers to making intelligent or excellent judgments. Therefore, it
includes a variety of skills such as problem solving but is a more general idea. Ultimately, wisdom involves
the practical application of knowledge that is built upon a series of good judgments. Wisdom is an
educational outcome, or product, of critical thinking.
Develop your skills with these online critical thinking tutorials (http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/)
Essential Critical Thinking Skills
Defining and Clarifying the Problem
• Identify central issues or problems
• Compare similarities and differences
• Determine which information is relevant
• Formulate appropriate questions
Judging Information Related to the Problem
• Distinguish between fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment
• Check consistency
• Identify unstated assumptions
• Recognize stereotypes and clichés
• Recognize bias, emotional factors, propaganda, and semantic slanting
• Recognize different value systems and ideologies
Solving Problems/Drawing Conclusions
• Recognize the adequacy of data
• Predict probable consequences (Woolfolk 1990, 278)
LOGIC
Traditionally, philosophy has distinguished between two methods of reasoning: deductive logic and
inductive logic. Together, these two forms of inference comprise what is known as the scientific method. In
deductive reasoning, we draw a certain conclusion that must necessarily follow from known facts stated in
the premises. In inductive reasoning, we derive a probable conclusion from our general observation of
diverse facts. Thus, deduction and induction are two different processes of logical reasoning with different
levels of conclusiveness.
Inductive Reasoning
Charles Tate created what he called the “Diamond of Logic,” which he explains like this:
All thinking (logic) begins with observation. From the day you are born until the day you die, you
observe. You file all you observe in the data bank called your mind. Admittedly, some days you see
without really observing and some days are much better days for observation than others, but what
you are today is the sum total of what you have observed. Sometime along the way you began to
lump similar observations together and draw conclusions from them. After you did this for a time,
you saw patterns repeating themselves. Then you predicted that, given the same pattern of
circumstances, the same thing will happen, and you sat back and watched to see whether or not
the same patterns did produce what
you had seen them produce many
times before. When they produced
what you predicted they would, your
prediction was verified; you had just
run the whole range of inductive and
deductive logic. . . . [Figure 4.3]
Inductive arguments intend to
support their conclusions only to
some degree, that is, the premises do
not necessitate the conclusion.
Hence, the conclusion is probable, but not certain. The idea behind valid induction is that of
learning from experience. We observe many patterns, resemblances, and other kinds of regularities
in our experiences, some quite simple (sugar sweetens coffee), some very complicated (the laws of
planetary motion). A good inductive argument creates a strong probability that its conclusions are
true. It does not, however, prove or claim to prove that the conclusion has to be true. This is the
important distinction.
I call it the Diamond of Logic, because it shows you that induction and deduction, which
logic texts like to separate as if they were not related, are just two sides of the same process. The
broken line through the middle of the graphic only shows which side is induction and which is
deduction. They are two movements in the whole thought process. This is the basic pattern of the
scientific method, which begins with observation, then proceeds to prediction and verification,
almost without thinking about it. This pattern is clearly shown in the well‐known illustration on the
scientific method by T. H. Huxley. He supposed that you might go to a fruit market to buy some
apples. You pick up one and, on tasting it, find that it is sour. You look at it, seeing that it is hard and
green. You pick up another one, and that too is hard, green, and sour. When a clerk offers you a
third apple, before biting it, you look at it and when you see that it too is hard and green, you say
you don’t want it, because it must be sour like those you have already tasted. Run this little
illustration on the chart. You taste the apple and find it sour (#1, observation). You note that it is
hard and green as well as sour (#1, observation). You taste a second apple and find the same
conditions prevail (#1, observation). The clerk offers you a third apple, but you refuse it because
you see that it, too, is hard and green (#1, observation) and have decided that all hard, green
apples are sour (#2, generalization). You refuse the third apple because you have unconsciously
predicted that the one offered you will also be sour (#3, prediction). Now suppose the clerk had
said, “Oh, this one is different. Just try it.” If you tried it (#1, observation), you would have proved
or disproved your prediction (#4, verification); and you would have run the full course of inductive
and deductive logic. If indeed the apple was hard, green, and sour, your verification would have
proved your generalization true. But if you had found it hard, green, and sweet, then that would
have proved it false. What you prove or disprove is of no consequence here. What I want you to see
is that this is the very process we are talking about when we talk about induction and deduction
(Tate, 1975).
Inductive arguments arrive at generalizations on the basis of a number of observations. A typical
inductive argument proceeds from the premise that objects are observed to be similar with respect to a
number of attributes to the conclusion that most objects in that category are also similar with respect to
that attribute. Consider this example: The professor says, “I have no doubt that the vast majority of
students will pass this test. They’ve passed the last three tests I’ve
given, haven’t they?” In this case, the professor ties past
observations to predicting the probable outcome of the test. The
strength of such arguments depends on the degree to which the
attributes in question are truly generalizable.
Another example of induction is hypothetical reasoning. A
hypothesis is a tentative conclusion that helps us organize ideas
until we can come to a definite conclusion based on more
experience and evidence. Hypotheses are highly speculative. We all
come up daily with hypothetical explanations and expectations. For
example, if you notice that your hair has become dry and brittle,
you might begin to speculate on why. You might think of recent
changes in your lifestyle that could affect your hair: a new
shampoo, changes in diet, stress, medication. If you identify such a
change—say, new shampoo—you could hypothesize that the new
shampoo is the reason for your hair problem. If you switched back We could use inductive reasoning to
to your old brand and this solved the problem, then experience reach some conclusions about this
would have verified your hypothesis. man, but they would be hypothetical
and speculative
We must keep in mind, however, that when we are using hypothetical arguments, the conclusions
we draw are not certain. Yet, they can be inductively strong if we have enough relevant evidence to support
the conclusion—that is, if the premises establish good reason to believe the conclusion.
Deductive Reasoning
In contrast to inductive reasoning, the conclusions that we derive from deductive reasoning must follow
from the premises. The premises prove the conclusion. Thus, we can rely on not only probability but also
certainty. Note, however, that this certainty does not necessarily refer to the truth of an argument. It’s
important to understand that the deductive validity of an argument has nothing to do with the truth of its
premises. Validity has to do with the connection between premises and conclusion—that is, the structure
of the argument and not its content. An argument can be valid and still have a false conclusion.
Let’s look at an example: All cats can fly (premise). Dusty is a cat (premise). Therefore, Dusty can fly
(conclusion). This is a valid argument because—regardless of the false first premise—the conclusion follows
from the premises. When the structure of an argument—as in the “flying cat” example—suggests that if the
premises were true, then the conclusion would have to be true, we call it a valid argument. This is not to
say, however, that the conclusion is acceptable. A conclusion is acceptable only if (1) the argument is valid
and (2) we accept the premises as true. In this case, we call it a sound argument. An example of a sound
argument is the following:
All cats purr. Dusty is a cat. Therefore, Dusty purrs.
In this example, we can easily accept the premises, and the structure of the argument necessitates the
conclusion. Because a deductively valid argument cannot move from true premises to a false conclusion,
this argument is acceptable.
Did You Know?
Three Geniuses Puzzle
The following puzzle is a great exercise in deductive thinking! Most people think in terms of probability,
but that is an inductive process. There is enough information in the text here for the front genius (and
you) to determine with certainty what color the hat is. Read it carefully and see if you can figure out
what color that the genius in the front is wearing. Here is a hint: With every step, ask yourself, what
would the genius need to see to know? The fact that the back and middle geniuses do not know is the
clue. (Find the solution in the appendix.)
1. Three geniuses stand in a line (one behind the other). Each can see only to the front, so the
rear person can see the middle and the front, the middle person can see the front, and the
genius in the front cannot see anyone.
2. You have five hats. Two are white and three are red. You blindfold the three geniuses, who
are utterly truthful, and put a hat—at random—on the head of each. Then you hide the other
two hats and remove the blindfolds.
3. You then ask each genius to name the color of his own hat (which he cannot see).
4. The rear one says, “I don’t know.” The middle one says, “I don’t know.” Then the front one
says, “I know.”
5. What color is the front genius’s hat?
Argument and Persuasion
Argument and persuasion are inherent in the learning process in higher education. You will have to
constantly evaluate information for its acceptability and validity. Before we can look at the components of
argument, we need to define the term. Many people think arguing means fighting or quarreling. In the
context of critical thinking, however, this definition does not work. An argument is simply a claim that
something is (or is not) true or should (or should not) be done. Not everything is an argument. Some
statements are merely factual information.
To say that the NBA team located in Phoenix, Arizona, is called the Suns would not qualify as an
argument. There is not anything to argue about. True, some uninformed, misinformed, obstinate, or just
plain dumb people may try to argue that it is not true. They may even try to tell you that Phoenix does not
have an NBA team or that there is no such place as Phoenix. But this is not really argument because these
are easily verifiable facts (at least at this writing).
However, the assertion that the Suns are the best (or the worst, or the fastest, or the slowest, or
whatever!) team in the NBA moves into the realm of argument because it involves a disputable claim.
An argument contains three basic elements:
• Issues
• Reasons (called premises in logic)
• Conclusions
In the NBA example, the issue is whether or not the
Phoenix Suns are the best (or the worst, or the fastest, or
the slowest, or whatever!) team in the NBA. Using a Arguments can be constructive and don't have to
“whether or not” statement helps you isolate the issue in a be a shouting match
longer, more complicated argument.
The conclusion is essentially the arguer’s decision about the issue. Yes, the Phoenix Suns are the
best (or the worst, or the fastest, or the slowest, or whatever!) team in the NBA. Or, no the Phoenix Suns
are not the best (or whatever!) team in the NBA.
The premises support the conclusion. They answer the “Why.” Why do I think that the Phoenix
Suns are the best team in the NBA? Because they have strong players; the coach is a class act; they have
depth on the bench; and so on.
Any argument or claim can be analyzed using this approach. Good arguments will give you clues
about which is which. Certain words, called logical indicators, indicate to the reader or listener where the
premises or conclusions are.
Logical Indicators
Logical indicators that typically identify the position of the premise(s) are the following:
• because
• in light of the fact that since
• for the following reasons
• due to the fact
Logical indicators that typically identify the position of the conclusion are the following:
• therefore
• hence
• thus
• it follows that
• consequently
• this proves that
It is not required that an argument use indicators for clarification, and not every argument will
contain indicators. It is, however, good practice to use indicators to clarify your own arguments as you
present them.
SUMMARY: INSIGHTS ON CRITICAL THINKING
In important ways, personal transformation occurs in the learning process through the development of
critical thinking abilities. These abilities are attained through a process of examining how you think,
questioning your existing reasoning patterns, and exploring alternative perspectives. It’s a challenging
process that equips you to make good judgments about both routine and significant life decisions.
Particularly, to be an informed, persuasive thinker and decision maker, you must develop skill in using logic,
inductive argument, and deductive argument.
My Response
Because of “Writing and Critical Thinking,” I can take the following specific steps to increase my
understanding of:
Writing as a learning process
Writing as a skill development
process
Basic steps in the writing
process
Avoiding plagiarism
Learning sharpened by critical
thinking
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CHAPTER FIVE: REFLECTION AND RENEWAL
Everyone who has ever taken a shower has had an idea. It’s the person who gets out of the shower, dries
off, and does something about it that makes a difference—Nolan Bushnell, founder of Atari
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Courage to Grow and Change
• Transformational Change
Learning begins again with reflection—if you allow reflection to lead to action. In other words, when
learning is applied and assessed (reflected upon), you can expect to find seeds of renewal and chance as
you think about what you’ve learned: new ideas, new passions, new possibilities—even new behaviors, like
changing hats. Here’s how a hardheaded rationalist might go about adapting a rigid lifestyle into a more
flexible (and possibly more creative) one:
Rationalists, wearing square hats,
Think, in square rooms,
Looking at the floor,
Looking at the ceiling.
They confine themselves
To right‐angle triangles.
If they tried rhomboids,
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Cones, waving lines, ellipses—
As for example, the ellipse of the half moon—
Rationalists would wear sombreros.
—Wallace Stevens (1916)
Courage to Grow and Change
You can view growth and change with apprehension, or you can choose to face both courageously. Annie
Dillard (1999) describes the remarkable courage of a person in a tribal mountain village in New Guinea
where no contacts with the modern world had been made. It happened in the 1930s when a British officer
had flown his small plane into the tribal territory, landing above three thousand feet on a hacked‐open
space. When the officer was preparing to take off, one villager cut vines and tied himself to a wing of the
plane, explaining that “no matter what happened to him, he had to see where it came from.”
Less dramatically, Douglas McGregor’s
(1960) research in organizational management
documented the significant relationship between
motivation and change. He found that workers,
when treated consistently, will accept basic
behavioral assumptions and continue to be defined
by them—rather than seeking change—in order to
have a stable, predictable environment. In other
words, if change is to be meaningful, it must be
sought intentionally; it must be owned. It requires
Having the courage to adapt and change is half the courage. When change is openly engaged, growth
battle inevitably results—allowing boundaries to be broken
and a new sense of freedom to be experienced.
Consider the fish when an experimental glass barrier that divided their tank is removed: They are free to
move beyond accustomed boundaries to explore areas they could formerly only see but not experience.
Consider the butterfly breaking free from its confining cocoon.
Consider the potential for learning that lies in untapped areas in the human brain. Learning invites
you to be courageous, to tap into these resources, to explore beyond comfortable boundaries. Such
exploration can be spontaneous—and often is—because learning opportunities present themselves
unexpectedly. But it’s also necessary to examine what motivates you to learn and analyze ways to develop
your motivational resources fully. That’s where reflection is useful. Reflection allows you to clarify not only
what you’ve learned but also what motivated you to begin a particular learning process. Reflection enables
you to burrow into the source of your intentions. When you understand what motivates you to seek change
and growth, you can begin to develop a planned approach.
WHY ARE REFLECTION AND PLANNING IMPORTANT?
Perhaps you remember this bizarre conversation in Lewis Carroll’s satirical story Alice in Wonderland
(1865):
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“Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?” asked Alice.
“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat.
“I don’t much care where—” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.
“—so long as I get SOMEWHERE,” Alice added as an explanation.
“Oh, you’re sure to do that,” said the Cat.
This is a pretty wise cat! It communicates Lewis Carroll’s view that just getting “somewhere” isn’t enough; it
is so much better to have a clear idea of where you want (intend) to go. Therefore, because learning is
often the vehicle that gets you from one point to another in your life journey, it’s wise to take a reflective
look at your life journey from time to time.
Many psychologists have identified the importance of this introspective activity in their research,
lending credibility to the process. Simply by viewing your life chronologically and identifying significant
learning experiences in each stage, you can gain important insights about change and personal growth that
has occurred and what you need to know to remain in charge of your life. These insights can give you
confidence as you think about the learning challenge associated with your next life‐stage goal. Similarly,
these insights can alert you to potential pitfall to avoid and weaknesses to be overcome as you try to
maintain balance in your life
“A good map frees you from hugging the shore.”
LIFE STAGES —Anonymous
Learning as Linear
All of us tend to think of life stages in a linear way: with infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
arranged into a chronological structure. Through research in the last half of the twentieth century, Erik
Erickson (1950) developed perhaps the best‐known psychosocial study of life’s sequential stages. He
identified eight distinct stages, each shaped by a different conflict (crisis) that requires a solution before the
next stage can be fully encountered. Each crisis brings a person’s inner instincts into conflict with external
social demands. Learning, resulting in personality development, is required for the crisis at each stage to be
resolved.
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Figure 5.1 Erickson’s stages of psychological development
Basic Important
Stage Outcome
Conflict Events
Infancy (birth Trust vs. Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
to 18 months) Mistrust provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
What Do You Think?
• Where do you place yourself in Erickson’s structure? At which stage?
• Do Erickson’s descriptions of your current stage match concerns that you are experiencing?
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Learning as Cyclical
Sometimes cyclical learning is referred to as a “seasonal” pattern. It’s a pattern that emphasizes the
continual nature of the learning process, a process that has identifiable phases (Figure 5.2), each
contributing uniquely to the outcome, just as the calendar year is made complete by the individual
contributions of each season.
Figure 5. 2 Phase one and phase two of the learning process
When learning is seen as a cyclical pattern, it can be understood as a renewing and transformative
process. These are two of the greatest contributions that learning can make in most stages of our lives. Just
as our lives are renewed by the recurring seasons in nature, they are constantly being renewed by cycles
(seasons) of learning. As we move through a particular cycle of learning and achieve our goal, we feel
renewed and ready to continue. Interestingly, should we fail to achieve our goal at the end of a particular
experiential cycle, most often it is the opportunity to “learn again” that renews us, challenging us to keep
on trying, inviting us (from within ourselves) to still go for it and gain the satisfaction we seek. Figure 5.3
illustrates the process.
Figure 5. 3
Transformational Change
When you face a significant issue in your life, such as considering a totally new career or adopting a value
system required by a new relationship, you are entering a learning cycle with complex challenges. Although
the learning resulting from a significant experience of this kind may be renewing, its outcome is likely to be
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more far‐reaching than that. Because of the depth of its outcomes, this type of learning experience is called
transformational. It produces a new level of meaning in your life.
Inevitably, the transformational learning cycle moves through the stages of recognizing a significant
problem, confronting it intensely, finding a solution, and integrating a new perspective and a new set of
assumptions into your life pattern. This process requires a great deal of reflection and is often painful and
stressful. Transformation, though desirable, rarely comes easily. It separates life into distinct “before” and
“after” realities.
Some years ago, Jack Mezirow (1991) conducted research on adults engaged in transformational
change and identified seven phases typically occurring in the challenging learning process:
• Experiencing a disorienting dilemma
• Self‐examination
• Critical assessment of assumptions
• Recognizing that others have gone through a similar process
• Exploring a process
• Formulating a plan of action
• Reintegration
What Do You Think?
• Have you experienced transformational learning?
• Which of the phases identified by Mezirow do you consider most difficult? Most Painful?
• Do you expect completion of your university degree to be a transformational learning experience?
CONSIDERING CORE VALUES
Since Plato’s time, at least, individuals have been conscious of the importance of personal values. In his
teachings, Plato observed that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” Today, we define a personal value
as a quality or principle that a person inwardly considers desirable and meaningful. Values are developed
through life experiences and often become clearly identified in crisis situations where they have to be
“owned” or acted upon. When you are not facing a crisis, it’s important to find occasions to reflect on your
values and list the particular personal attributes that identify who you are and describe your priorities.
From this list, you can develop a set of core (or primary) personal values.
Begin identifying your core values by analyzing what you “inwardly consider desirable and
meaningful” in the areas of your life:
• How do values such as these fit in the areas in Worksheet 5.1? Ambition, honesty, compassion,
thoughtfulness, self‐reliance, competence, goodness, stability, power, excellence, trust, wisdom,
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delight, faith, adventure, freedom, respect, beauty, order, honor, security, knowledge, prosperity,
creativity, and reliability
• What other values fit for you? Notice that these values are not included in the list above: Peace,
tolerance, forgiveness, independence, justice, and wealth. Are any of these core values for you?
Worksheet 5.1, Values
Life Area What Is Most Desirable and Meaningful?
Self‐awareness
Family relationships
Work relationships
Life goals
The process of clarifying values must lead to decision making; otherwise, it is not useful. Little is
gained by only making a list of values that you consider important. You must decide to seek and implement
particular values that you are attracted to but don’t consistently put into practice. Such decisions should
include both short‐term and long‐term goals for fully owning these essential personal values. The goals
should be realistic and measurable. In this way, values become associated with change and personal
growth. Core values are the foundation for planning and living each day fully and for anticipating and
enjoying the future.
MAPPING CHANGE
The reflective activity of sketching out a life map quickly brings past learning patterns and life stages into
focus. It produces a surprisingly useful instrument for evaluating the effectiveness of your current learning
approaches and for anticipating ways to make your future learning goals and activities as meaningful as
possible.
Follow these approaches to mapping learning and life patterns:
1. Review Erickson’s developmental stages; create and name the past stages and the present stage
in your life. List them in outline form, leaving space to add details for each stage.
2. Use Dan McAdams’s (2006) following three questions to identify significant events in each stage:
What was the high point, the low point, the turning point? Plot these on the outline that you just
created.
3. Write a brief narrative summarizing the nature of the plot line resulting from the significant
experiences that you listed. This activity not only allows you to focus on the narrative of your life
but also requires that you to do some assessment of it—to draw some conclusions about “where
you’ve been” and “how you’ve grown.” It brings out the tone of your life!
4. Imagine, then, what you want your next life stage to be like. List some words that clearly
describe it as you anticipate it.
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5. In Worksheet 5.2, which reflects Roger Säljö’s (1992) work on adult learning, determine how
important each type of learning will be in enabling you to achieve your next life stage successfully
and effectively.
6. Write a brief “projected narrative” of your next life stage. In it, be open about recognizing your
strengths and weaknesses and think about the barriers and opportunities that you can foresee.
Identify the values that you have developed that will allow you to proceed.
Worksheet 5.2, Importance of Learning Type
Learning as a quantitative increase
in knowledge: Learning is acquiring
information or “knowing a lot.”
Learning as memorizing: Learning is
storing information that can be
reproduced.
Learning as acquiring facts, skills,
and methods that can be retained:
Learning involves using attained
tools as necessary.
Learning as making sense or
abstracting meaning: Learning
involves relating parts of the subject
matter to each other and to the real
world.
Learning as interpreting and
understanding reality in a different
way: Learning involves
comprehending the world by
reinterpreting knowledge.
What Do You Think?
Here are a few observations, quotations, and narrative perspectives that you can use in reflecting on the
content of this chapter.
Observations
McAdams (2006) observes that it’s important to reflect on the following particularly informing points
when you are reviewing your life map: the high points, the low points, and the turning points. And ask
yourself what is significant about each as it relates to your future life script.
Quotations
“The picture [Four Seasons] was about friendship, but I didn’t fully understand what I had written until
after I’d shot and edited the movie and had to go out and talk about it to the press. This was clearly a
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case of finding out what you think after you’ve written it. Finally, I saw that this was a story of the four
seasons of friends; Spring, where everyone is fresh and attractive and new to one another; Summer,
where the blare of the sun begins to show everyone else’s blemishes; Autumn, where the fig leaves
finally fall and you see who they really are; and the Winter of friendship, where you either drop them
and start all over again with another springtime set of friends or take them as they are and huddle
against the cold winds of aging.”
—Alan Alda (2007)
“The illiterate of the future are not those who can’t read or write but those who cannot learn; unlearn,
and re‐learn.”—Alvin Toffler (1999)
Narratives
“I’m not a journal keeper, so when I faced the task of plotting my life journey I had to focus primarily on
the big events—because I had only sketchy memory of lesser ones. It was pretty easy to identify the
events that were ‘life‐changing’ in each chapter my life.
“With these crisis events in place, I then had to think about how they related to each other—and what I
really believed about my life’s plot line:
“Had I ever really linked these events together before?
“Had I allowed my life plot line to run in a negative direction?
“Did I see it differently now?
“More importantly, this life mapping activity, forced to me to think about my present life‐stage
dilemmas and choices. I became determined to make them learning experiences that would have a
positive outcome—because I want the shape of my next life stage to be positive.”—Joan, former
student
Summary: Insights on Reflection and Renewal
Learning requires an individual journey—a personal journey that results in changes in understanding and in
behavior. This journey is most meaningful and useful when your ways of learning are adapted to the
particular needs of each life stage. Because life is developmental with different demands at each stage,
learning is likewise not a static process. Its general pattern is cyclical and renewing, moving through phases
of visioning, acquiring, reflecting/refining, and doing. But the depth of this dynamic process varies
significantly, sometimes creating transformational insights and decisions that reshape your life from that
point forward.
My Response
In the following ways, “Reflection and Renewal” gave me insights and outlined steps that I can take to
demonstrate:
The courage to grow and
change
Transformational change
Chapter 1: My Response
As a part of Getting Started, I am setting the following goals related to:
Chapter 2: My Response
After considering Learning Styles, Theories and Web Delivery, I am setting the following goals
related to:
Making optimal use of
my preferred learning
style
Strengthening my least
preferred learning style
Applying learning
theories in my current
studies
Identifying innovations I
can make to strength my
online relationships
Chapter 3: My Response
In responding to this chapter on Finding and Using Learning Resources, I can identify the
following ways to be more aware of :
Writing as a Skill
Development Process
Avoiding Plagiarism
Chapter 5: My Response
In the following ways this chapter on Reflection and Renewal, gave me insights and outlined
steps I can take to demonstrate:
Courage to Grow and Change
Transformational Change
Worksheet 1.1 Which Outcomes are Most Important to You?
Rank Prioritize these outcomes listing the most important one first
New potential for understanding yourself –Includes understanding physical abilities,
cognitive (thinking) strengths, and emotional stability.
New abilities for problem solving and decision-making – Includes engaging in values
development.
New perspective for innovating –Includes recognizing historic and contemporary
processes of conceptualization and change, and developing global awareness.
New basis for productivity – Includes understanding group and organizational
behavior, and the development and implementation of outcomes measurement.
New resources for leadership – Includes understanding culture and developing
social consciousness.
Assessment 1.1
Values—What values am I
demonstrating by seeking my
university degree goal?
Timing/Opportunity—Is the
timing (opportunity) right for me to
pursue my degree? Why?
Expectations—What things do I
expect during my online
experience—both positive and
not-so-positive?
Assessment 1.3
Assessment of
progress
Assessment 1.6
Worksheet 2.1 Identifying with Gardner’s Theory
Type of Recall a recent successful learning experience in which you combined at least
Intelligence three of these types of intelligence:
Logical-
Mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial-Visual
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Type of Think about your preferred learning patterns. Which intelligence type are
Intelligence you most aware of as you learn? Which are you least aware of?
Logical-
Mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial-Visual
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Assessment 2.1
Practicing persistence Anxiety and frustration most commonly occur in online learning
situations when there are “gaps” in communication, or when
communication is not clear. You shouldn’t guess at what is
intended, but be direct—and persistent—until you get a clear
answer every time vagueness exists.
Participating honestly It’s important to remember the human aspectis of Cyberspace.
and gracioiusly Your interactions are with other human beings who value
respect and honesty, even as you do. Web etiquette (often
called “Netiquette“) emphasizes these basic conventions:
respect others’ points of view and privacy; avoid derogatory
comments; be time-zone and culturally conscious; refrain from
“flaming”—i.e. control your emotions. Be honest and willling to
share knowledge and experiences.
Meeting deadlines Self discipline is the key to meeting deadlines, and an
irreplacable habit if online learning is to be satisfying and
successful.
Enjoying relaxation Find the Internet Lounge on your university’s instructional
platform and engage in open dialog with other students. These
informal exchanges are vital sources of information and personal
encouragement!
Assessment 3.1
Worksheet 5.2