IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

The mole concept

When carrying out a reaction it is generally important to know how much is reacting. A balanced
equation tells the ratio in which species will react. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O tells us that 2 molecules
of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of water.
Hydrogen and oxygen will always react together in a numerical ratio of 2 : 1.

If we don't want unused reactants then we must ensure we have counted out the correct number of
molecules. Clearly atoms, molecules and ions are far too small for us to count e.g. 1 teaspoon of
copper sulfate contains 3 x 1022 ions. Instead we measure materials by mass, just as a banker
weighs out large numbers of coins knowing exactly how many coins correspond to1 kg.
Rather than count in millions or trillions, chemists use a much larger number called a MOLE
(abbreviated to mol, symbol n).
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023
(also called Avogadro's number).

1 mole is the number of atoms in 12 g of pure carbon-12 (about a handful of the solid).
NB: When a question refers to an amount of a substance it generally means the number of
moles.

Converting number of particles to amount, n

If the actual number of particles is known (atoms, ions or molecules) then the amount, n, is easily
calculated since
number of particles
n =
6.02x10 23
12 x10 24
For example 12 x 1024 sodium ions is equivalent to mol = 20 mol of sodium ions.
6.02 x10 23
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Exercise 1: How many moles of water molecules are there in 3 x 1022 molecules of H2O?

Moles of particles from a given formula.

The formula of a compound tells the ratio of moles of atoms or ions in a sample. e.g. since 1
molecule of H2SO4 contains 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulfur atom and 4 oxygen atoms, then 1 mol of
H2SO4 molecules contains 2 mol of hydrogen atoms, 1 mol of sulfur atoms and 4 mol of oxygen
atoms.
When considering an ionic solid we may consider either the individual atoms from which the
compound is made, or alternately the ions

2 mol Na2CO3.10H2O contains 2 x 2 = 4 mol of Na+ ions,

−
2 x 1 = 2 mol of CO32 ions,
2 mol of carbon atoms, 2 x 10=20 mol water
molecules,
or 2 x (3+10) = 26 mol of oxygen atoms!
Exercise 2:
a) A sample of 3 mol of CuSO4.5H2O contains how many moles of
(i) S atoms (ii) H atoms
2−
(ii) SO4 ions (iv) H2O molecules
(v) O atoms (vi) atoms altogether

(b) If a sample contains 3 x 1024 molecules of CH3COOH, calculate

(i) moles of CH3COOH
(ii) moles of C atoms
(i) moles of atoms altogether

Molar Mass
When doing a chemical reaction it is not possible to count out large numbers. Rather we weigh out
the sample and use a quantity called the molar mass. Molar mass, M, is the mass of 1 mol of any
substance, pure element or compound. (It has units of grams per mole, g mol-1.)

M = m/n where m is the mass in grams, and n is the number of moles.

The equation can be rearranged and written in the forms

n = m/M or m=nxM

The molar mass of an element is known and can be looked up in a data table. It has the same
numerical value as the atomic mass number of an element e.g. the molar mass of oxygen = 16 g
mol-1 and the atomic mass of O is 16.
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Note: For oxygen gas O2, molar mass = 32 g mol-1

If the formula of a compound is known then the molar mass of the compound is readily calculated.
M (g mol-1) Cu = 63.5 O = 16 N = 14 S = 32
hence the molar mass of CuSO4 = 63.5 +32 + (4 x 16) = 159.5 g mol-1
and the molar mass Cu(NO3)2 = 63.5 + 2 x ( 14 + 3 x 16) g mol-1 = 187.5 g mol-1
Exercise 1: Using data tables calculate the molar mass, M, of the following:
(a) H2SO4 (b) CH3COOH

(c) Ca(OH)2 (d) Na2CO3.10H2O

Calculating the number of moles in a sample given the mass and vice versa.
If you know the mass of a pure substance and the correct formula, it is possible to calculate how
many moles in the sample.
10 g m
10 g of CuSO4 is = 0.063 mol (n = )
159 .5 gmol −1 M
Exercise 2: Using the M values calculated above find the number of moles in each of the
following:
(a) 100 g CH3COOH (b) 5 g Ca(OH)2 (c) 20 g Na2CO3.10H2O

It is similarly possible to calculate what mass corresponds to a given number of moles.

e.g. 2 mol of Cu(NO3)2 weighs 2 x 187.5 = 375 g (m=n x M)
Exercise 3: What is the mass of each of the following amounts:
(a) 2.2 mol H2SO4

(b) 5 mol KMnO4

 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Relative Atomic and Molecular Masses, Ar and Mr

Sometimes information is provided in terms of the relative atomic mass, Ar, of an element rather
than its molar mass. This has exactly the same numerical value but has no units e.g. Ar of oxygen
is 16 and the M of oxygen is 16 g mol-1.

Note: The relative atomic mass is, in fact, the mass of an atom relative to the mass of an atom of
the isotope carbon -12 which has a mass of 12. This means an atom of oxygen-16 is 16 times
12
heavier than an atom of carbon-12. The relative molecular mass, Mr, is the mass of a molecule
relative to carbon-12. e.g. Mr of CuSO4 is 159.5, the same numerical value as the molar mass but
having no units, (M = 159.5 g mol-1).

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

The molecular formula gives the total number of atoms of each type in a molecule. The
molecular formula for ethane is C2H6, and for sulfuric acid, H2SO4.

The empirical formula is a formula which gives the lowest whole number ratio of atoms in a
molecule e.g. the empirical formula for ethane (C2H6) is CH3, while the empirical formula for sulfuric
acid is the same as the molecular formula, H2SO4, since this cannot be simplified further.
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Percentage composition
Any sample of a pure compound will contain the same percentage mass of each element. Since
the formula of the compound gives the ratio of the amount of each element (i.e. the relative
number of moles of each element) then it is possible to calculate the percentage mass as follows.
For example ethane has formula C2H6 which means all samples contain carbon and hydrogen in
the ratio 2 : 6.

1 mol ethane contains

n(C) = 2 mol n(H) = 6 mol
M(C) = 12 g mol-1 M(H) = 1 g mol-1
m=nxM
Thus m(C) = 2 mol x 12 g mol-1 = 24g m(H) = 6 mol x 1 g mol-1 = 6g
So 1 mol ethane has a mass of 30g and a percentage composition of
24 x100 6x100
%C = = 80% %H = = 20%
30 30
Exercise:
Show the percentage composition of glucose, C6H12O6, is 40.0% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O.

Using the % composition to find the empirical formula.

If supplied with a sample of a substance it is possible to experimentally determine the percentage
mass composition of the compound using special equipment. If the substance was pure then by
reversing the calculation on the previous page, you will be able to find the empirical formula.
e.g. A sample is found to contain 82.8% C and 17.2% H.
This means a 100g sample would contain
mass (C) = 82.8g m(H) = 17.2g
M(C) = 12 gmol-1 M(H) = 1 g mol-1
Since n= m/M
82 .8 g 17 .2 g
n(C) = −1 = 6.9 mol n(H) = = 17.2mol
12 gmol 1gmol −1
But the empirical formula is the lowest whole number ratio of C:H so the ratio shown above (6.9 :
17.2) needs to be converted to whole numbers. A “trick” to help you do this is to divide through by
the lowest number i.e. divide by 6.9
6 .9 17 .2
n(C) = = 1 mol n(H) = = 2.5 mol
6 .9 6 .9
To convert to a whole number ratio it will be also necessary to multiply both numbers by 2 to give a
ratio of 2 : 5
The empirical formula is C2H5.

Note: Numbers cannot be rounded to whole numbers unless they are between about 0.95 and
1.05 i.e. 4.96 can be rounded to 5.0 but 2.25 cannot be rounded to 2. Rather it will need to be
multiplied by 4 to give 4 x 2.25 = 9.0

Exercise:
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Show that a substance with % composition 2.0% Hydrogen, 32.7% Sulfur, 65.3% Oxygen has the
empirical formula H2SO4.

Finding the Molecular Formula

Using the % composition it is possible to find the empirical formula. To find the molecular formula it
is necessary to be also given the molar mass,M, of the unknown.
e.g. In the example above the substance with % composition 82.8% C and 17.2% H was found to
have empirical formula C2H5. This would correspond to a molar mass of 29 g mol-1.
In reality the substance is found to have a molar mass of 58 g mol-1 which is 2 x 29. Clearly the
molecular formula must be 2 x empirical formula, and the ratio of C : H is not 2:5 but 4:10.
The molecular formula is C4H10.
Show that a sample with composition 40% C, 6.7% H and 53.3% O and molar mass 60 g mol-1
has empirical formula CH2O and molecular formula C2H4O2.

Gravimetric analysis
Two examples of analytical methods involving mass determinations are as follows:
A: Finding the Water of Crystallisation.
When some ionic solids crystallise from solution a specific number of water molecules get trapped
inside their 3-D structure. Without these water molecules the ionic crystal may look quite different.
For example the common bright blue crystals of copper sulfate have the hydrated formula
CuSO4.5H2O but when the water molecules are removed by extreme heat, the resulting grey
powder has no regular crystalline shape.

It is possible to determine the formula of these hydrated crystalline solids where the exact number
of water molecules of crystallisation in the formula is unknown, e.g. find x in Na2CO3.xH2O.

Anhydrous?

Hydrated?

The procedure is shown in the following example.

Step 1- Carefully weigh an amount of the solid into a crucible of known mass.
e.g. mass crucible = 21.45 g
mass Na2CO3.xH2O used = 3.75 g
Step 2 - Vigorously heat the hydrated solid to remove all the water and form an anhydrous product.
After cooling reweigh the crucible and contents.
mass crucible and Na2CO3 = 22.84 g
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Hence mass anhydrous Na2CO3 = 22.84 g - 21.45 g = 1.39 g

Step 3 - Reheat the crucible for a few minutes, cool again and check that the weight has not further
decreased.

Step 4 - Calculate the mass of water removed and hence the mole ratio.
mass H2O = 3.75 g - 1.39 g = 2.36 g
m( H 2 O ) 2.36 g
n (H2O) = = = 0.131 mol
M ( H 2 O) 18 gmol −1
m( Na 2 CO 3 ) 1.39 g
n (Na2CO3) = = −1 = 0.0131 mol
M ( Na 2 CO 3 ) 106 gmol

Since the number of moles H2O will be a multiple of the moles of anhydrous salt, divide
n( H 2 O ) 0.131 mol
= = 10
n( Na 2 CO 3 ) 0.0131 mol
The formula is therefore Na2CO3.10H2O
Exercise: Find the correct formula for hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO4.xH2O) if 5.0 g of hydrated
salt produces 3.19 g of anhydrous salt.

B: Finding the formula of a metal oxide or sulfide.

Example: Find the correct formula of lead sulfide if practical measurements show that 3.00g of
lead produce 3.46g of lead sulfide on heating the lead with powdered sulfur.
m( Pb ) 3.0 g
Solution: m(Pb) = 3.00g => n(Pb) = = = 0.0144 mol
M ( Pb ) 207 gmol −1

m(S) = mass of lead sulfide - mass of lead = (3.46 - 3.00) g = 0.46 g

m( S ) 0.46 g
n(S) = = = 0.0143 mol
M (S ) 32 gmol −1

Hence ratio Pb:S = 0.0144 : 0.0143 = 1:1 and formula of lead sulfide = PbS.

Exercise: Find the correct formula of magnesium oxide if 1.40 g of magnesium produces 2.34 g of
magnesium oxide ash when it is completely burnt in pure oxygen.
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Mole Ratio in a Balanced Equation

A balanced equation gives the ratio of the number of moles of reactants to products.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
2 mol of Mg react with 1 mol of O2 to produce 2 mol of MgO.
Similarly 0.50 mol of Mg reacts with 0.25 mol of O2 to produce 0.50 mol of MgO.
Clearly the molar ratio of O2 : MgO is 1:2 while the molar ratio of Mg : MgO is 1:1.

Mass Balance in Chemical Reactions

It is important to realise that in any chemical reaction the

total mass of reactants = total mass of products

if the reaction is carried out in stoichiometric amounts (i.e. with no left-over reactants and
products). Before looking at the quantitative analytical procedures, it is necessary to do some
mass-balance calculations to find out the mass of product or reactant in a given reaction.
Example: How much CaO will be produced when 40g of CaCO3 are heated to remove all the
CO2?
Step 1 -Write a balanced equation.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Step 2 - Calculate the number of moles of CaCO3 (since this is the substance for which you
know the formula and the mass).
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

m(CaCO 3 ) 40 g
n(CaCO3) = = = 0.40 mol
M (CaCO 3 ) 100 gmol −1
Step 3 - From the balanced equation determine the mole ratio of CaCO3 : CaO
1 mol CaCO3 produces 1 mol CaO
So mol CaO produced in this expt = 0.40 mol
Step 4 - Convert the number of moles of CaO to mass.
m(CaO) = n(CaO) x M(CaO) = 0.40 mol x 56 gmol-1 = 22.4 g

Exercises:
1. How many grams of water vapour H2O(g) will be produced in the complete combustion of
100g methane, CH4(g)?
Equation: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

2. How many grams of MgO are produced when 25.0 g of Magnesium burns?
Equation: 2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

3. How many grams of iron oxide would be needed to produce 1.00 kg of iron according to the
following reaction?
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
NB: Before starting you will need to convert the kilograms to grams as molar mass is in g mol-1.

Limiting reagents
Commonly there will be an excess of all the reagents except one, which is the one that will be
totally consumed in the chemical reagent. This is called the limiting reagent and will determine how
much product will be formed. The reactants that are not totally consumed in the reaction are called
said to be in excess.

Consider the reaction

H2O2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> I2(l) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

What mass of iodine is produced when 100.00g of KI is added to a solution containing 12.00g of
H2O2 and 50.00g H2SO4. Calculate the limiting reagent, the amount of substance in excess and
the theoretical yield.
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

In practice the theoretical yield is never achieved owing to impourities in reagents, side reactions
and other sources of experimental error.
Supposing 62.37g of iodine was eventually produced, calculate the percentage yield when
comparing the experimental with the theoretical yield.
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Gases and amount of substance

At a given temperature and pressure it is found that the volume of any gas always contains the
same number of particles. This is known as Avogadro's Law. It means that in reactions involving
gases the volumes of reactants and products, when measured at the same pressure and
temperature are in the same ratio as their coefficients in a balanced equation.

2CO(g) + O2(g) ---> 2CO2(g)

2vol 1vol 2vol

Exercise 10cm³ of ethyne is reacted with 50cm³ of hydrogen to produce ethane according to the
equation

C2H2(g) + 2H2(g) ---> C2H6(g)

Calculate the total volume and composition of the remaining gas mixture, assuming that
temperature and pressure remain constant.

At rtp one mole of gas occupies 24.0 dm3

At stp one mole of gas occupies 22.4 dm3
The Ideal Gas Equation
Ideal gases are those in which the volume of the particles and the attractive forces between them
can be neglected under the prevailing conditions and the kinetic energy of the particles is
proportional to the absolute temperature.

Ideal gas equation PV = nRT (R = gas constant – 8.314JK-¹mol-¹)

Normally the pressure is measured in KPa, temperature in K, volume in dm³.

 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Exercise
What would be the volume of 2.8moles of methane gas at 290K and 150KPa?

3.376g of a gas occupies 2.368dm³ at 17.6°C and a pressure of 96.73KPa, what is its molar mass?

Ideal Gas equation when changing the conditions of a given gas

When changing the conditions of a given amount of a certain gas, n and R cancel each other out.

P1V1 = P2V2 Since n and R are the same values on both sides they cancel each
nRT1 nRT2 other out.

This leads to the following equation.

P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

Exercise
A syringe contains 50cm³ of a gas at 1.0atm pressure and 20°C. What would the volume be if the
gas were heated to 100°C, at the same time compressing it to 5.0atm pressure?

Boyles Law P1V1 = P2V2 (at constant T) Graph (2)

Interpretation:

Charles Law V1 = V2 (at constant P) Graph

T1 T2

Interpretation:
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

Pressure law P1 = P2 (at constant V) Graph

T1 T2

Interpretation:

Key terms for solution chemistry

Solute

Solvent

Solution

Concentration
Concentration is a quantitative measure of how much dissolved substance there is in a given
volume of solvent. The concentration can be expressed or measured in 3 different ways:
1) grams per litre, g dm-3 - If the mass is in grams and the volume in litres then
concentration =

2) % w/v - or percentage weight per volume, is the mass of solute in 100mL of solvent.
3) moles per litre, mol dm-3
This is the most common concentration unit used in chemistry. It is calculated using
amount (in moles) n
concentration = =
volume (in litres) V
To calculate the concentration of a solution it is therefore necessary to know the amount (n,
in moles) and the volume (in litres) that are present in the sample. If the mass of solute is
 IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry

known then the amount, n, is calculated using the other important relationship
m
n=
M

Concentration can also be represented by square brackets eg

Example: Calculate the concentration of a solution of CuSO4.5H2O made by dissolving 6.2 g of

solid in water to make 250 cm3 of solution.
m 6 .2 g
n (CuSO4.5H2O) = = = 0.0248 mol
M 249 .5 gmol −1

n 0.0248 mol
c(CuSO4.5H2O) = = = 0.0992 mol dm-3
V 0.0250 L
Exercise: Calculate the concentration of each of the following solutions:
1. A solution of sodium carbonate made by dissolving 5.0 g of anhydrous Na2CO3 in water to
make 100 cm3 of aqueous solution.

2. A solution made by dissolving 25.0 g of CH3COOH (glacial ethanoic acid) in water to make up
500.0 of cm3 solution.

3. You are provided with a 250.0 cm3 volumetric flask. What mass of hydrated sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3.H2O has to be weighed out to produce a solution of concentration
2.5 x 10 -3mol dm-3 ?

A Standard solution
A standard solution is one where the actual concentration is known precisely and accurately.
Not all substances are suitable as primary standards (e.g the solid may be of variable composition,
or be impossible to purify, or absorb water or it may not be stable in solution for long periods).
To prepare a standard solution it is necessary to
• carefully weigh out a known mass of pure solid (of accurately known formula)
• dissolve the solid in a small amount of deionised water
• carefully transfer the solution to a volumetric flask
• add more deionised water and fill the flask to the mark.
• stopper and mix thoroughly.
IB Chemistry - Stoichiometry