Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Design and simulation of a low concentrating

photovoltaic/thermal system
J.I. Rosell, X. Vallverdú, M.A. Lechón, M. Ibáñez *

Department of Medi Ambient, Universitat de Lleida, Avenue Rovira Roure 191, E25198, Lleida, Spain

Received 30 July 2004; accepted 17 January 2005

Available online 9 March 2005

Abstract

The advantages of photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collectors and low solar concentration technologies are
combined into a photovoltaic/thermal system to increase the solar energy conversion efficiency. This paper
presents a prototype 11X concentration rate and two axis tracking system. The main novelty is the coupling
of a linear Fresnel concentrator with a channel photovoltaic/thermal collector. An analytical model to sim-
ulate the thermal behaviour of the prototype is proposed and validated. Measured thermal performance of
the solar system gives values above 60%. Theoretical analysis confirms that thermal conduction between the
PV cells and the absorber plate is a critical parameter.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Photovoltaic/thermal; Bi-generation; Concentration; Fresnel; Tracking

1. Introduction

Several approaches have been made to reduce costs of photovoltaic production, including the
idea of reducing the costly Si material in PV modules by producing solar concentrating systems. In
the last 25 years, a wide variety of concentrating system components and technologies have been
tested and evaluated. Optical concentrating systems used for photovoltaic applications have

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 973 702538; fax: +34 973 702613.
E-mail address: m.ibanez@macs.udl.es (M. Ibáñez).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.01.012
 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3035

Nomenclature

m_ mass flow (kg s
1)

As PV/T system aperture area (m2)
C specific heat (J kg
1 s
1)
CR concentration ratio (–)
F scaling factor (–)
H direct irradiance in concentrator plane (W m
2)
I electrical intensity (A)
M mass (kg)
PF packing factor, area covered by solar cells (%)
Q power (W)
R thermal resistance (W
1 K)
T temperature (C)
V electrical voltage (V)

Greek symbols
a absorptance (–)
c power coefficient
e Emissivity (–)
r Stefan–Boltzman constant (W m
2 K
4)
s transmittance (–)

Subscripts
A ambient
B absorber
C PV/T collector
E electrical
F fluid
G glass
I insulation
in input
m average
mp maximum power
o reference
out output
P PV plate
S sky

tended to call for high concentrations, up to 30 suns, which then often require new cell develop-
ments or use of more expensive concentrating technologies. The cooling of the cells has been
mainly achieved with passive heat sinks.
3036 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

Commercial solar cells convert solar energy into electricity at a relatively low efficiency, be-
tween 5% and 20%. Most of the absorbed energy, from 80% to 95%, is dumped to the surround-
ings again. During the 1980s, the non-concentrating hybrid photovoltaic thermal collectors (PV/
T) appeared [1]. A hybrid photovoltaic thermal collector is a bi-generating device where solar
energy is converted into both electrical and thermal energy. The electrical generation is obtained
using a photovoltaic laminate above the absorbent surface. The thermal energy is available in the
cooling process of the photovoltaic cells and the absorber. The average cells temperature in a PV/
T collector might be lower than that for a conventional module, thereby increasing its electrical
performance. Because the combined thermal and electrical performance of a PV/T device is higher
than that of the corresponding thermal collector or the photovoltaic module, a smaller area is
needed to match the energy demand. The overall efficiency thus increases. Bergene and Lovik
[2] showed that a total efficiency of 60–80% can be achieved with a PV/T collector.
Many researchers have attempted to develop hybrid PV/T collectors [3–5]. The effort invested in
optimising the overall design of liquid cooled PV/T collectors has been limited. Most of the work
focuses on the optimisation of sheet and tube designs. Exceptions were the work of Sandnes and
Rekstad [6] examining a bi-generating collector based on a polymer channel absorber plate.
In the previous perspectives, it is, therefore, tempting to investigate a simple, alternative path,
using low concentration and commercially available photovoltaic cells to build a PV/T collector
cooled using a liquid. Instead, the advantages of a PV/T collector and low concentration technol-
ogy are combined into one PV/T system to increase the total conversion efficiency of the solar en-
ergy. The aims of the present paper are: firstly, to design and build a PV/T low concentrating
system and, secondly, to propose and validate an analytical model that simulates the thermal
behaviour of the prototype.

2. PV/T system description

Fig. 1 shows the system developed at the University of Lleida based on a Fresnel concentrator
and a PV/T collector designed using water as the working fluid. The collector, according to Zon-
dag et al. [7], could be classified as a channel PV/T collector with the channel underneath the con-
centrating opaque PV cells.

2.1. Concentrating and tracking system

A two axes sun tracking system has been applied to increase the solar system efficiency. Two
axes tracking systems represent a solar energy collection increase in comparison to an optimally
tilted static surface of about 50% in the Ebro river valley climate (NE Spain) where the PV/T gen-
erator is constructed [8]. In this project, two linear actuators (36 V DC) move the concentrator
(Fig. 2). The actuators have reed sensors, and their maximum extension is 0.420 m.
The classical linear Fresnel system uses an array of mirror strips to direct the solar radiation to
a single linear elevated receiver. The first to apply this principle in a real system for solar collection
was Francia [9] who developed both linear and two axis tracking Fresnel reflector systems. Ad-
vanced Fresnel reflectors have been applied in solar thermal electricity generation power plants
[10,11], but they have not been used for PV/T systems before.
J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3037

Fig. 1. PV/T system at the University of Lleida terrace.

Fig. 2. Tracking system mechanical structure.

3038 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

The system presented here is based on 18 white mirrors that reflect light onto the focus band,
which is 0.10 m wide and 2.60 m long. The mirrors are of equal length but unequal widths. Solar
cells cover 87% of this illuminated area.
The aperture area is 4.86 m2, but the mirror strips cover an area of 3.60 m2. The solar cells are
illuminated with approximately 11.10 times the beam solar irradiance incident to the Fresnel con-
centrator, while the geometrical concentration ratio is 13.6.
Concentration solar systems require the sun to be tracked with accuracy. The greater the accu-
racy in computing the sun position, the greater the margin of tolerance will be for other sources of
error, such as optical or mechanical, that may arise within the concentrating system. Blanco et al.
[12] reviewed the solar literature concerning determination of the sun position published in the last
decades. In their paper, they introduced the new, more accurate and simpler algorithm that has
been used here.
A programmable logic controller system was designed and constructed. The system was char-
acterized by a fairly simple electromechanical setup. This reduces cost, maintenance and the pos-
sibility of failure. To keep down the price of the tracking system, the controller is based on a low
cost microprocessor (PIC16F877, Microchip) with an internal low power 32 kHz clock. The
microprocessor, in addition to computing the sun position, was developed to allow an advanced
strategic control of the solar energy system. The electromechanical system consists of two drivers.
The controller is connected to a GPS receiver to setup the geographical coordinates and the UTC
time.

2.2. PV/T collector

The PV/T collector is composed of opaque solar cells, electrical connections and mechanical
elements to cool and protect the cells. The design concepts for the PV/T collector are given in
Fig. 3. The collector is constructed as a water channel one. This design was chosen because,
according to the results shown in Zondag et al. [7], it gives one of the best ratios of electrical
to thermal efficiencies when high irradiance conditions are applied.
The concentrating solar cells main characteristic is the contacting structure, intended to reduce
the ohmic losses. High performance silicon cells for concentrating systems were acquired. The
cells electrical characteristics, according to manufacturer information, are listed in Table 1.
The temperature increase in the PV cells could be dramatic, if special measures were not taken
for cooling, as the absorbed power is multiplied by the effective concentration factor. Because the

Fig. 3. Cross-section of PV/T collector.

 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3039

Table 1
Cells characteristics at different irradiances
1 sun · AM 1.5 10.5 sun · AM 1.5
Dimensions (cm) 4.83 · 9.65 4.83 · 9.65
VOC (V) 0.597 0.653
ISC (A) 1.291 14.44
FF (%) 79.3 78.7
Pmax (W) 0.71 7.42
g (%) 13.09 15.16
Vmax (V) 0.51 0.549
Imax (A) 1.2 13.5
Current density (mA cm
2) 27.69 309.41
Resistance (X) 0.045 0.045

efficiency of solar cells decreases rapidly with temperature, it is essential to maintain the temper-
ature actively at the lowest possible value. The luminous power absorbed and not converted into
electricity must be taken from the solar cell. The material means of transport or conduction of
heat generally consists of a set of solids in contact.
The solar energy converted into heat is removed by water flowing in a rectangular pipe to which
solar cells have been adhered. An adhesive layer has been used to fix the cells to the collector. The
adhesive used is a material with good heat transfer conductivity, is resistant to extreme tempera-
tures and is an extremely improved electrical insulator.

3. Mathematical description

The theoretical effort invested in modelling PV/T collectors based on liquid heat extraction has
not seen the intensive research and development activity documented for thermal and photovol-
taic devices separately. A model study was published in which the Hottel–Whillier model [13] was
adapted to cover PV/T collectors as well by Florschuetz [14], and some researchers have made
simulations [2,15] in order to determine its efficiency. De Vries et al. [16] compared a modified
Hottel–Whillier model with a two dimensional energy balance model.
Zondag et al. [5] published a four numerical model study, a 3D dynamical model and three
steady state models that are 3D, 2D and 1D. They found that all the models followed the
experiments within 5% accuracy. In addition, they concluded that a good correspondence exists
between the models. For determination of the efficiency curves and the daily and annual yield,
the simple steady state 1D model performs satisfactorily, while the calculation time is substan-
tially reduced in comparison to the more complicated models. They concluded that for PV/T
systems, the calculation of the dynamical effects does not result in a more accurate value for
the yield over the entire day. Zondag et al. [7], solving the energy balance for all the layers in
the PV/T collector, evaluated nine different designs.
Chow [17] developed an explicit dynamic model based on the control volume, finite difference
approach for a single glazed, flat plate, water heating PV/T collector. It allows detailed analysis of
the transient energy flow across the various collector components and captures the instantaneous
energy outputs.
3040 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

Coventry [18] was the first to develop a dynamic 1D model for a concentrating PV/T model
in order to simulate both the thermal and electrical performance. The Coventry [18] results
are applied to a sheet and tube PV/T collector combined with a concentrating parabolic
trough.
In the present case, the energy flows among the elements of the PV/T and the surroundings are
described in the thermal network drawn in Fig. 4. To get an accurate simulation of the PV/T sys-
tem, a one dimensional dynamical energy balance model is considered. The most important heat
flows are:

• solar energy interception, QG, QP and QB;

• electrical generation, QE;
• heat losses from the top layer to the sky and to the ambient;
• heat transport between the PV cells and the glass layer;
• conduction heat transport through the adhesive between the PV cells and the absorber;
• heat loss through the absorber insulation to the ambient;
• thermal output results from convective heat transport between the absorber and water flow.

The goal of this network is to evaluate the PV cells temperature and the energy flow to the cool-
ing water. The PV cells temperature is critical to estimating the electrical and thermal production.
In the constructed PV/T collector, capacitance effects could be important because the thermal
capacitance of the collector components is large (Table 2), and irradiation conditions may vary
considerably along the day due to the concentrating conditions. The heat capacities of the silicone,
adhesive and insulation materials are very small and, therefore, are neglected.

Fig. 4. Thermal network describing a PV/T collector.

 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3041

Table 2
Mass and specific heat of PV/T collector components
Specific heat (J kg
1 K
1) Mass (kg) Capacitance (J K
1)
Aluminium 900 9.03 8127
Water 4180 9.39 39,250
Glass 840 2.34 1966
Adhesive 2000 0.08 160
Silicone 760 0.25 190
Total 21.09 49,693

3.1. Energy balances

The energy balance is considered for each component of the PV/T collector:
dT G T A
T G T S
T G T G
T P
Glass cover : M G C G ¼ þ þ þ QG ð1Þ
dt RAG RGS RGP
dT P T G
T P T B
T P
PV plate : M PCP ¼ þ þ QP ð2Þ
dt RGP RBP

dT B T P
T B T I
T B T F
T B
Absorber plate : M BCB ¼ þ þ þ QB ð3Þ
dt RBP RBI RBF
TA
TI TB
TI
Insulation : 0 ¼ þ ð4Þ
RAI RBI
dT Fm T B
T Fm
Fluid : M F C F ¼ þ m_ F C F ðT Fin
T Fout Þ ð5Þ
dt RAI
T Fin þ T Fout
where T Fm ¼ ð6Þ
2
The overall heat transfer coefficients are computed from Rabl [19], Incropera and De Witt [20],
Duffie and Beckman [13] and Holman and White [21]. In the above equations, the unknowns are
the temperatures of the components TG, TP, TB, TI and the fluid, TFm and TFout. Some thermal
and geometrical characteristics of the prototype are given in Table 3.

3.2. Solar energy model

The total irradiance absorbed by the transparent cover, solar cells and absorber plate, as re-
flected by the mirror area, including the transmissibility of the glass and silicone cover and the
absorptivity of the solar cells and the adhesive are given by
QG ¼ CR  F  H d  As  aG ð7Þ

QP ¼ CR  F  H d  As  sG  aP  ð1
PFÞ ð8Þ
3042 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

Table 3
Thickness, area and heat transfer conductivity of materials
Thickness (m) Area (m2) Conductivity (Wm
1 K
1)
Glass 3 · 10
3 0.26 0.8
Silicone 5 · 10
3 0.26 0.1
Cells 3 · 10
4 0.24 148
Adhesive 1.27 · 10
6 0.26 0.37
Aluminium 4 · 10
3 0.31 211
Insulation 0.05 0.31 0.005

Table 4
Collector optical parameters
Parameter Absorptivity Emissivity
Glass 0.05 0.90
PV plate 0.80 0.35
Absorber plate 0.90 0.26

QB ¼ CR  F  H d  As  sG  aB  PF ð9Þ
where PF is a packing factor and F is a scaling factor for the accuracy and reflectivity of the
concentrator.
The absorption factor of the PV cells and the collector are the most important parameters in
determining the thermal efficiency of the PV/T system. As input for the model, the optical prop-
erties of the materials are used (Table 4).

3.3. Electrical model

The photovoltaic power is assumed to depend on cell temperature. This temperature depen-
dency is expressed by
QP
QE mp ¼ Q ½1 þ cðT
T o Þ ð10Þ
1000 E mpð0Þ
where the reference temperature To is 25 C, and c is the loss power coefficient (K
1) (Marion
[22]).

4. Experimental data

In order to quantify the efficiency of the PV/T prototype, an experimental outdoor system was
setup. Extensive measurements were conducted during the spring 2004. The experiments were
done in Lleida, Spain, 41.7N, 0.5E, a semi-arid location where 1540 kW h m
2 of solar radiation
per year are received. The experimental setup consisted of the PV/T system, the storage tank
(300 L), tubing and a circulation pump. Measurements of the different temperatures were done
using several thermocouples (type E). Two sensors were positioned to determine the temperature
rise across the collector, measuring the inlet and outlet water temperatures. Another sensor was
 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3043

used to measure air temperature. Next to the collector, a magnetic type flow meter, a total radi-
ation pyrometer, a diffuse radiation pyrometer and an anemometer were used for measurements
of the flow rate, global and diffuse irradiance and wind speed, respectively. All measuring trans-
ducers were connected to a data logger CR10X (Campbell Sci.). The sampling interval was 10 s
for all variables, and final mean values were stored every 10 min. The only control of the opera-
tion was by varying the set points for the inlet temperature between 10 and 50 C and the flow rate
between 0.02 and 0.1 kg s
1, corresponding approximately to 20–100 L h
1 m
2. The flow rate
and temperature values were used to calculate the energy output. The thermal efficiency is defined
as
_ F ðT Fout
T Fin Þ
mC
gt ¼ ð11Þ
H  As

5. Results

The experimental validation of the PV/T model has been focused on the thermal output. The
performance of the model has been tested by simulating the yield of the PV/T system over whole
days using different concentration ratios and flow rates. In order to do so, the yield of the proto-
type was measured as described in the previous section during several weeks. Next, the data col-
lected on the irradiances and the ambient temperatures were used as the input for simulations. As
an example, the modelled outlet water temperatures and the corresponding experimentally
measured data for a given day are shown in Fig. 5. A 11X concentration ratio and a flow rate

70 1000

60 800 Direct Irradiance (Wm-2)

Temperature (ºC)

50 600

40 400

30 200

20 0
06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00
Time
Tcalculated Tmeasured Hd

Fig. 5. Calculated and measured outlet temperature for the 3rd June 2004.
3044 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046

Table 5
RMSE (C) of calculated versus measured outflow temperature
Concentration Flow rate (L/m2)
25 75
X6 1.73 0.52
X11 2.35 0.83

Table 6
Measured mean daily yield and performance
Concentration X6 X11
Flow rate (L/m2) 25 75 25 75
Yield (kJ/m2) 14.1 14.6 14.2 15.2
Efficiency (%) 61.1 63.3 61.7 65.8

of 75 L/m2 were the conditions imposed. The inlet temperature to the collector was not constant
during this day.
Table 5 shows the RMSE of the comparison of calculated and measured outflow temperatures
for the case without production of electricity. Five days of data were used for each case. Even in
days with strong fluctuating irradiation, the model and the measured data gave comparable outlet
temperature. According to Table 5, the model predicts the measured outflow temperature very
well.

30
Increase thermal performance (%)

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Increase thermal conductivity (%)

Fig. 6. Thermal performance increase versus adhesive conductivity increase.

 J.I. Rosell et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3034–3046 3045

The mean daily yields measured in different conditions are presented in Table 6. As expected,
the PV/T system efficiency depends on the flow rate and concentration ratio. However, the ther-
mal performance, without electrical production, varies from 60% to 65%.
The explicit model can perform energy analysis for arriving at an optimum design. One key
manufacturing defect found in PV/T collectors is the low conductivities between the PV plate
and the absorber plate. Therefore, this conductivity was one of the parameters studied using
the mathematical method. Obtained from simulation, Fig. 6 shows the variation of thermal effi-
ciency due to imperfect adhesions between plates. The thermal performance variation is plotted
versus increasing conductivities of the adhesive material (11X concentration ratio, 25 L h
1 m
2
flow rate). It is observed that an improved adhesive will affect substantially the overall perfor-
mance of the system. An adhesive with a thermal conductivity 100% better would increase
efficiency around 13.5%, giving a value of 69% compared to the measured 60.7% (Table 6).

6. Conclusions

The main novelties of the constructed prototype are the combination of a linear Fresnel con-
centrator with a channel PV/T collector. Based on the experience achieved in the present work
about the thermal behaviour of PV/T systems with low concentration, the following topics need
to be investigated more deeply: (1) the materials stability, (2) the thermal interaction between the
solar cells and absorber, especially the physical contact where electrical isolation is needed and, at
the same time, high heat conductivity is required, (3) the use of new optical components and (4)
selective spectral layers.
However, it is demonstrated that it is possible to design and construct a well functioning PV/T
system with low concentration. Experimental results are encouraging because the total efficiency is
over 60% when the concentration ratio is above six suns. Future improvements seem possible
using a sheet and tube collector.
The developed model predicts the thermal performance of the hybrid PV/T collector very well.
By variation of the model parameters, information can be obtained with respect to the effect of
further improvements. The relevance of good thermal transfer between cells and absorber plates
has been demonstrated.

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