CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION This report focuses on DC to AC power inverter, which aim is to efficiently transform a DC power source to a high

voltage AC source, similar to power that would be available at an electrical wall outlet. Inverters are used for many applications, as in situations where low voltage DC sources such as batteries, solar panels or fuel cells must be converted so that devices can run off of AC power. One example of such a situation would be converting electrical power from a car batter y to run a laptop, TV or cell phone. The method, in which the low voltage DC power is inverted, is completed in two steps. The first being the conversion of the low voltage DC power to a high voltage DC source, and the second step being the conversion of t he high DC source to an AC waveform using pulse width modulation. Another method of completing the desired outcome would be to first convert the low voltage DC power to AC, and then using a transformer to boost the voltage to 220 volts. This project focuse s on the first method described and specifically the transformation of a high voltage DC source into an AC output. Again, in each and every field you will find some electrical and electronic device, be it in general household use or in some specialized industrial use. These electrical or electronics devices require electrical power for their operation and most of these devices are very particular about the quality of the power given to them. If the power given to these electrical/electronic devices can get damaged. Also, these devices will not be of any use if you do not provide them with proper power supply. In Nigeria a standard electrical/electronics equipment works on 230v/50Hz A.C power supply. This power supply should not contain any problem such as spike, noise etc, otherwise it could damage the equipment. In a developed country are good qualities without any of the above problems, but in a developing country like Nigeria, the power provided by PHCN might contain some of the problems. Also power cut s and line problems are very frequent which gets worse in some seasons. In a situation like this, an efficient inverter such as the one described on this work could be adopted to bridge the gap between power failures. Inverter produces a good quality A.C power supply which could be used to power most electrical electronics devices. 1.1 OBJECTIVE The primary aim of this project is to produce a very efficient, reliable and cost effective device that can convert DC Voltage (battery) to AC power supply with th e following features: i. ii. iii. iv. v. 1.2 Automatic change over Automatic charging system Battery full cut off Automatic mosfet cut off Feedback mechanism

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The scope of this work is to represent theory, design and analysis, and construction of an inverter that convert a 24 volts D C to 220 volts AC at a frequently of 50 hertz and produces a power of 5000 watts. However, a research of this nature was never without limitation. Some factor that poses difficulties to the construction on this project includes inconsistency in

power supply. In addition, the finance at disposal was inadequate. Furthermore, insufficient research material poses a problem. In order to achieve the objective of the project, we studied some areas that are related to the project such operations of a transistors, oscillators, transformers, relays, diodes to mention but a few and had interview with the people currently makin g use of the project to understand their difficulties.

1.3

EXPECTED RESULTS

The project is expected to produce a 220V ac supply from a 24V Battery having the same frequency as that of the PHCN supply and with the aforementioned features. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 BACKGROUND In the world today there are currently two forms of electrical transmission, Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC), each with its own advantages and disadvantages. DC power is simply the application of a steady constant voltage across a circuit resulting in a constant current. A battery is the most common source of DC transmission as current flows from one end of a circuit to the other. Most digital circuitry today is run off of DC power as it carries the ability to prov ide either a constant high or constant low voltage, enabling digital logic to process code executions. Historically, electricity was first commercially transmitted by Thomas Edison, and was a DC power line. However, this electricity was low voltage, due to the inability to step up DC voltage at the time, and thus it was not capable of transmitting power over long distances4. V =IR P=IV=I 2R (1) As can be seen in the equations above, power loss can be derived from the electrical current squared and the resistance of a transmission line. When the voltage is increased, the current decreases and concurrently the power loss decreases exponentially; therefore high voltage transmission reduces Power loss. For this reasoning electricity was generated at power stations and delivered to homes and businesses through AC power. Alternating current, unlike DC, oscillates between two voltage values at a specified frequency, and its ever changing current and voltage makes it easy to step up or down the voltage. For high voltage and long distance transmission situations all that is needed to step up or down the voltage is a transformer. Developed in 1886 by William Stanley Jr., the transformer made long distance electrical transmission using AC power possible. Electrical transmission has therefore been mainly based upon AC power, supplying most American homes with a 120 volt AC source. It should be noted that since 1954 there have been many high voltage DC transmission systems implemented around the globe with the advent of DC/DC booster, allowing the easy stepping up and down of DC voltages6. Like DC power, there exist many devices such as power tools, radios and TVs that run off of AC power. It is therefore crucial that both forms of electricity transmission exist; the world cannot be powered with one simple form. It then becomes a vital matter for there to exist easy ways to transform DC to AC power and vice versa in an efficient manner. Without this ability people will be restricted to what electronic devices they use depending on the electricity source available. Electrical AC/DC converters and DC/AC inverters allow people this freedom in transferring electrical power between the two. In the past, pulse width modulation techniques were employed in voltage source and current source inverter only. Availability of self -commuted devices, such as power transistor, Mosfets and GTOs, have made pulse width modulation AC

to DC converter also popular in many applications. The steady state and dynamic performance of inverters and AC to DC converters and DC and AC drives are significantly dependent on the pulse width modulation techniques. Pulse width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle, to either convey information over a communication channel or control the amount of power sent to a load. Currently whatever work you do, in each and every field you will find some electrical/electronic devices in general household use or in some specialized Industrial use. The electrical/electronic device require electrical power for their operation, the devices will not be of any use if you do not drive them with proper power supply. In Nigeria the standard electrical/electronic equipment works on 220V/50HZ AC power supply. This power supply should not contain spikes, noise etc which could lead to damage of the equipment.

With this direct current (DC), to alternating current (AC) power inverter people now have an alternative to power supply when there is an outage thereby reducing irregularities of power supply by the National power body (PHCN) and since this device can also be used in remote areas were there is no electricity/power, the commutation problems associated with generator are eliminated.

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY AND CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

3.1

METHODOLOGY

The construction of the PWM inverter can be complex when thought as a whole but when broken up into smaller projects and divisions it becomes much easier to manage.The divisions comprises of the Inverter DC -AC, Battery charger, Battery full cut off, feedback system, Mosfet cut off, transformer, automatic change over and delay system. The above divisions will be design separately and assembly to achieve the desired aim. The above divisions were critically searched through several ways which includes internet, resource text book, and consultation. The specific operation and construction of each block will be discuss in the subsequent sections.
Mosfet drivers

Battery

Oscillator

Buffers

Transformers

Outlet socket

Change over

Fig. 3.1 Simple inverter block diagram

3.2

MATERIALS

In this project design, tools and components are carefully and properly selected. Materials for design should be done in a proper and careful manner because of the major role it plays in performance of any designed product and its marketability. If a product is designed at a very high cost, no matter how perfectly it was designed, it might meet consu mers resistance in terms of product purchasing. For a proper material selection, we have to put these into consideration: Availability of materials or components in the area where units is to be constructed. Reliability of the units components parts, this leads to the choice of components to be selected for a particular project design or construction. Another of our consideration should be ensuring that materials best meet the requirements. This section explains what materials, equipments and instruments t hat will be used in executing the project in particular. Our main objective here is not only to obtain an output but to achieve the desired output and qualities which would be affordable for everybody. To achieve this, we have to put caution in our choice of components to make use of a few components and so make it cheaper. The materials and tools employed includes soldering iron, casing, drilling machine, saw, to mention but a few. Most of the mechanical works such as drilling, cutting painting, etc were t aken to a welders shop.

3.3 a.

CIRCUIT COMPONENT DESCRIPTION TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a device which steps up or down a.c signal to any required magnitude. The transformer operation is based on the principal of electromagnet induction, which states that e. m.f is induced whenever there is a change in the flux flowing in the electromagnetic circuit. The transformer has two coils the primary and the secondary. The coil which makes electromagnet is called the primary coil while the outer coil into which the cur rent is induced can be called secondary coil. The process of inducing current in the in the secondary coil because of change of current in the primary is called induction. The induced current in the secondary coil changes at the same rate which the current in the primary coil is changing. The current in the secondary is generated by induced voltage across the secondary winding. The magnitude of this induced E.M.F. is proportional to the rate of change of the flux i.e. the line of magnetic force field, of th e magnetic field generated by the primary. With the induce emf of the secondary coil, a self induced EMF is generated in the primary coil as well. This EMF is induced by the primary coil to oppose the applied EMF. This generation of self induced EMF in the primary coil is known as self induction when current is induced in a coil due to change of current in another nearly coil, it is known as Mutual Induction. Hence, a transformer is a device which works on the principles of mutual induction. A transform er needs two coils, which wound on a laminated core. These coils are call:

Pri

The coil to which the AC supply is provided is called pri ary coil/winding while the coil in which EM is induced, and

In the transformer electric energy is transferred from one circuit to another circuit During this transfer the current and t he voltage can be changed i e., they can be increased or reduced. There is no direct electrical connection between the primary and secondary coil in the transformer.

Fig. 3.2

Transformer basic diagram

The voltage generated in the secondary coil depends on the ratio between the number of turns in the primary and number of turns in the secondary. Below, is the relationship between voltage, current and number of turns in the coil:

E1 E2

N1 N2

I2 I1

R1 R2

Where; E1 E2 N1 N2 I1 I2 R1 R2

Input voltage to primary coil Output voltage to secondary coil Number of turns in primary coil Number of turns in secondary coil Current in primary Current in secondary Resistance presented by primary winding to the source Actual load resistance.

The kind of transformer employ in inverter design and construction is bifilar winding transf ormer.

24V 240V 0V 220V 24V 0V

from which the o/p is taking is called secondary coil

Secondary coil

ry coil and

Fig. 3.3 Inverter transformer (bifilar)

As seen in the diagram above, it is designated 12v 0v 12v, 24v 0v 24v, etc on the primary side. 0v centre tapping is connected to the positive terminal of the battery while each channel of the MOSFETs, in the o/p section is connected to the 24v 0v 24v. b. BATTERY AND ITS MAINTENANCE

A battery is something that supplies DC power through chemical reaction. The kind of battery employ in inverter design are those capable of relaying after exhausting the stored charge in them. In this work, 24volts transformer is adopted hence two 12v battery are connected in series to obtain 24v to improve the duration of an inverter over a load, the batte ry can be used to build what we refer to as POWER BANK. Which are several battery connected in series to increase the voltage and in parallel to increase the power. The life of battery gets reduced with time owing to some factors ranging from undercharging , overcharging, rapid high current discharge to mention but few. The under listed point should be adopted to increase the life span of the battery: i. Overcharging: when a battery is overcharged, active material lead peroxide on the positive plate of the battery starts to fall. This damages the plate grids and the life of the battery is shortened. Overcharging also generates heat. This heat evaporates the water (if a wet cell is used) in the electrolyte taste, if the water is not restored regularly, the damage s the battery plates and battery performance suffers. ii. Undercharging: Protect the battery from undercharging; if undercharged regularly, sulphate starts to accumulate on the positive plates of batter y. iii. Leaving the battery unused: During the discharge cycle lead sulphate is formed on the battery plates. If the battery is allowed to remains in a discharged condition for a long time, these deposits harden. This battery then no longer responds to the rech arging process, it cannot be restored to its full capacity. If the sulphation extends for a long period, it makes the battery useless. iv. Damage to the battery container: If the battery is not handled properly, or if the battery sustains a fall, or if the nuts and bolts are too tight or too loose then the battery plates and separators can get damaged. Also, the electrolyte could leak from the container making the battery unrepairable. v. Forget to add water: When the water content of the electrolyte reduces, its acid content increase, if the acid concentration increases beyond a limit, it would damage the battery plates. To save the battery from this type of condition, timely check electrolyte level and the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Add water into the electrolyte, if the required ratio of water is not found. One should regularly check the water the water level in a battery. the battery is

vi.

Use only distilled/pure water: If the water used to restore the loss of water from the electrolyte is not pure then this could increase the impurities in the electrolyte. Main impurities due to impure are iron and chlorine, these impurities attack the battery plates and the battery life gets reduced. The chlorine in the tap water can damage the battery separator. Use only pure/distil led water to restore the electrolyte. If distilled water is not available use cooled boiled water .

c.

AUTOMATIC MOSFET CUT OFF AND CHARGING SYSTEM

The 24v and center tap sides of the transformer which suppose to join to the drain of the mosfet is connected t o the common of a relay while the drain of the mosfet is connected to the normally close of the same relay .The a.c input of the bridge rectifiers is connected to the normally open of the relay. When inverter is operating, the signal from the mosfet is ext ended to the transformer via the normally close of the relay but when ac mains is available the relay switches to the normally open while the step down ac output is extended to the bridge rectifier via the normally open.

Fig. 3.4 Automatic Mosfet cut off with charging system

d.

BATTERY CHARGING:

Charging is the process of restoring the exhausted charges from a rechargeable battery. The charging section in this our inverter system comprises of a step down transformer (which is the same inverter transformer), Relay, rectifier & capacitor. The relay is connected to the secondary side of the transformer as shown in fig (3.4). The drain of the MOSFET is connected to the normally connected of the relay while the secondary side of the transformer is connected to the common of the relay. The connection is such that when the AC power is available, the relay will be energizing to cut off the MOSFET and switch to the normally open. Hence, the transformer secondary output appears at the normally open of the relay.

The step down A.C. power on the N/O of the relay is now extended to the rectifier, which converts the A.C. supply into a D.C. supply: The three most common types of rectifier circuits are
y y y

half wave rectifier full wave rectifier type full wave bridge rectifier type The one employed in the designed project is full wave rectifier. In this rectifier, four diodes are connected across

the secondary winding in a special arrangement of diode called bridge arrangement, as shown in fig. 5.1.

The so called D.C. output from the rectifier is containing ac ripple which may damage/reduce the life span of the battery. Hence, it is passed through a capacitor. A capacitor is connected between the output termina ls of rectifier to act as a filter. This give a D.C. output with reduced ripple. The output of the filter is what charges the battery.

Fig. 3.5

Full Bridge rectification

Fig.3.6 Action of a Filter

e.

BATTERY FULL CUT OFF

+VE -VE

Fig. 3.7 Battery Full cut off circuit For its operations, the inverter gets voltage and current from battery. When the battery becomes fully changed, my further voltage added to it damages the battery. Thus, when the battery voltage goes up to a set limit, the charger should be cut off.

A fully charged battery voltage will show voltage of around 13.5V (for 12V battery) or 26.5V (for 24V battery).

LM 324 was used to implement the design.

Fig. 3.8 LM324 internal circuitry

LM 324N is an operational Amplifier (op -Amp) 1C. it has four different Op-Amp units, which can be used individually.

OP Amp
Operational Amplifier plays a big role in the PWM based inverter. The OP-AMP is used as a comparator in the inverter circuit. Each OP Amp has 3 pins, two for input and one for output. Out of the two input pins, one is called inverting ( ) input and other is called non- Inverting (+) input. -

Non-Inverting Input Inverting Input

+ Output

Fig. 3.9 OP Non- Inverting Input (+)

the output will be high.

AMP

If the input given to this pin is less than the input given to the inverting input pin, then the op -Amp output will be low. If not,

Inverting input (-):

If the input given to this pin is less than the input given to the non -inverting input pin, then the OP Amp output will be high. If not, it is LOW. So, we can see that the OP-Amp output depends on the values of the signal not its input pins. This property of the OP -AMP makes it useful in comparator in Inverting circuit.

Vcc V+ + As can be seen from the + figure above, a fi ed reference voltage, 6v, is at the non- inverting input. A variable voltage is Vb OUTPUT placed at the inverting input which is dependent on the battery voltage and variable (10k) resistor.
Mathematically

R1

R2

R3 R4
but

V- _

(4.1)

(4.2)

In the work, the values of the resistors were choosen to fixed a 6v on the non inventing input of the op -Amp and to fixed a voltage greater than 6v wherever the battery is fully charged.

Provided the circuit is arranged as shown in the figure above when ever there is AC power supply and the battery is not fully charged, V+ > V-. Thus, a HIGH is at the output which activates the LED, D5 to show that the battery is charging. The HIGH cannot bias the PNP transistor hence no voltage is at the collector emitter junction. Immediately, the battery is fully charged, V- becomes greater than V+. Thus, a low biases the PNP transistor, hence collector emitter voltage energized the relay to switch to N/O and cut off the charging supply. f. THE OSCILLATOR

Fig. 3.10 Oscillator circuit with fan control

The oscillation section of this inverter uses a very common PWM controller IC SG3524. This IC is used to generate the 50HZ frequency required to generate A.C supply by the inverting DC supply from battery to AC. To start this process, battery supply is given to the pin 15 of SG3524 via the control relay, RLA, and inverting ON/OFF switch. Pin 8 is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Pin 6 and 7 of the IC are oscillation section pins. Frequency produced by the IC depends on the value of the capacitor and resistance at these pins. A variable resister is employ to serve as a preset to adjust the frequency output to a constant 50 Hz. The signal generated by oscillator section within the SG3524, reach the frequenc y section of the SG. This section converts the in coming signal into signal with changing polarity. The output is a two signal with changing polarity, when the first signal is positive, the 2 nd is negative. This process is repeated 50 times per second, i.e . an alternating signal with 50 Hz freq is generated inside the flip flop. This 50Hz frequency alternating signal is output at pin 11 and 14 of the SG. This alternat ing signal is known as MOS drive signal . The signal voltage is between 3 -4v, any difference could change the MOSFET. The MOS drive signals are given to the base of MOS drive T1 and T2. This result in the MOS drive signal getting separated into two different channels. Transistor, T1 and T2 amplify the 50HZ mos drive signal at their base to a sufficient level output

then form emitter, the 50hz signal from the emitter of T1 is given to the gate of each MOSFET in the first MOSTET channel and the same 50hz signal from T2 is applied to the gate of the second mosfet channel.

Fig. 3.11

Complete Inverter circuit without mosfet driver, cut off but with automatic changeover

g.

OUTPUT SECTION

The 50Hz alternating MOS drive signal reach each MOSFET channel separately the result in the MOSFET channels being alternatively ON/OFF. When first channel is ON, the 2 nd will be OFF, and when the 2nd is ON the 1 st will be OFF. This ON/OFF switching process is repeated50 times per second. DRAIN.D, of all the MOSFET of one end are connected together. The 24 volts wire of the bifilar winding is connected to the drain. The Drain of the MOSFET of the second channel are also connected together and the other end of the inverter transformers bifilar winding is connected to this connection. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the centre tapping of the wi nding. The source terminals of the two MOSFET channels are connected together to the negative terminal of the battery.

When the first MOSFET channel is ON, the current flows through first half of the inverter transformer bifilar winding. When second MOSFET channel turns ON, the current flows through second half of the inverter transformer winding. This switching ON/OFF of the MOSFET channels will start an alternating current in the bifilar winding of the inverter transformer. This AC current in the bifilar winding will induce an AC current of 50Hz, in the 270v tapping of the transformer. The AC voltage input from 270v tapping of secondary winding is regulated to 220v by feeding it to an upto coupler IC, 4N35.

To make the PWM work, the PWM, SG3524 should receive a feedback of AC supply generated by the inverter circuit. If the SG3524 does not receive feedback, then as the value of the load connected to the inverter output socket changes, the PW output from PIN 11 and 14 will also change. This results in fl uctuation of the inverter output supply at its output socket. 3.4 FEEDBACK

To provide feedback to the PWM controller, the AC voltage generated at the 270v winding of the inverter transformer is given to pin 3 of the connector CN14. this AC voltage at pin 3 of CN4 is given to dropping resistance, R and then connected into DC voltage by bridge rectifier D1 D4. DC voltage from the bridge rectifier is sent to pin 1 & 2 of the opto coupler, 4N35. where pin 1 & 2 receive supply, a LED inside the IC starts to glow, the light from the LED falls in the base of the photo transistor inside the 4N35. this will conduct the photo - transistor. Collector of photo-transistor is connected to pin 5 of 4N35 & the emitter is connected to pin 4. Pin 5 of 4N35 receives 1 2v supply from the battery when the photo transistor conducts; the supply at the collector of the photo -transistor is output as feedback at its emitter that is pin 4. feedback signal at pin 4 is given to Pin 1 of SG, through a potential divide circuit m ade of 100k and PWM adjustment present, VR. PIN 1, 2 and 9 of the SG are pins 7 or OP Amp, pin 1 and 2 are input pins & pin 9 is output. As explained earlier, pin 1 of SG is given feedback signal from the supply, pin 2 is given 5v regulated supply a s reference voltage. When the value of the load connected at the inverter output changes, the voltage at pin 4 of 4N35 will also change. This will result in variations in the feedback voltage reaching pin 1 of SG will result in change in output from pin 9. Pin 9 of IC2 is internally connected to the section, which controls the width of the oscillatory frequency. A Change in the signal at pin 9 w ill result in change in the width of the output frequency. This will in turn result in change in 50Hz freq output at pin 11 and 1. This change in the width of 50Hz frequency will bring back the inverter output to its original 220V. Preset VR connected to the pin 4 of 4N35 is used to set the inverter output by changing the width of the 50Hz frequency signal.