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The aims of this investigation are: 1. To find the rate equation of the reaction of hydrogen peroxide and iodide ions. This will be achieved by using an iodine clock method and colorimetric analysis. 2. Draw a graph of rate against concentration for each reactant (Hydrogen peroxide, potassium iodide and H+ ions). 3. Finding the order for each reactant 4. Finding the rate-determining step. 5. Proposing a mechanism for the reaction. 6. Using Arrhenius equation to find the activation enthalpy.
Background
The basic reaction for this can be illustrated with the following equation: 3I-(aq) + H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) I3-(aq) + 2H2O(aq) (1)1 The half equations for this reaction can be written as follows: 3I- I3- + 2eH2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- 2H2O This reaction demonstrates that iodide ions are oxidised by hydrogen peroxide to tri-iodide ions. This is stage one of a sequence of reactions, which continues below: I3-(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq) 3I-(aq) + S4O6-(aq) (2) 2 This shows that the tri-iodide ions are reduced back to iodide ions by the thiosulphate ions. Thus, the iodine that is formed in reaction (1) is immediately transformed into iodide ion and we do not see the blueblack colour of the starch-iodide complex until all of the thiosulphate ion has reacted with I 2(aq) and is exhausted. I3- (aq) + starch Starch-I5- complex + I-(aq) 3 Once the thiosulphate ion has been exhausted, the tri-iodide ion can react with the starch, forming the Starch-I5- complex, giving the blue1 2
black colour. When this occurs, we will then know the amount of hydrogen peroxide that has reacted and the time it took to react. These equations will, thus, enable the slow step (rate-determining step) to be determined, which is another aim of this experiment. Though details of the starch and iodine reaction are not yet fully known, it is thought that iodine fits inside the coils of amylose. The transfer of charge between the iodine and the starch and the spacing between the energy levels in the complex formed corresponds to the absorption spectrum, and so, the complementary colour, a blue-black solution, is observed. 4
Reactant 1
Reactant 2
4 5
In the above example, reactant 1 can get to the outer atoms of reactant 2, but not the central atoms. This has a small surface area. However, if the surface area is increased,
Reactant 1 can get to all the atoms of reactant 2. Increasing the number of collisions per second increases the rate of reaction.
supposing fixed positions and an equal probability of being hit, the probability of a green particle hitting a red particle is 1/3. If we increase the number of red particles to 2, the probability now of a green particle hitting a red particle is , which is thus, an increase by 1/6. Although the temperature is being kept constant, however, the kinetic theory is applicable. This is because the molecules involved in the reaction have a range of energy levels. When colliding molecules have sufficient energy, a reaction takes place. If they do not, then a reaction cannot take place. This is because the temperature that is being measured is only the average temperature (and thus, kinetic energy, because T Ek) of the substance. It is impossible for the kinetic energy of every atom in the substance to be the same, and so, the temperature is an average. The reason for this is that each molecule
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has a certain amount of kinetic energy and once it collides (perfectly elastically) with another molecule, it transfers its kinetic energy to the molecule it collided with, giving it a higher kinetic energy than the initial molecule. In most cases, when you increase the concentration, the rate of reaction also increases. In certain multi-step reactions, however, the reaction happens in a series of small steps. Suppose the reaction happens as so:
The speed at which A splits into X and Y dictates the rate of the reaction. This is also known as the rate-determining step. If you increase the concentration of A, the chances of the first step happening also increase, due to the increase in the number of molecules of A. Increasing the concentration of B undoubtedly speeds up the second step, but makes little difference to the overall rate.
Planning
Now all these particles have enough energy to react as well A catalyst does this, and this can be shown on an enthalpy profile diagram:
A catalyst works in two ways. One of them is adsorption, and this is where the molecules are attached to the surface of the catalyst due to the weak interactions (typically Van Der Waals forces) between the surface and the reactants. Initially, the bonds in the reactants weaken
Planning
and break. Bonds are then formed between the reactants, forming the products, and they then diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst. Another way is the formation of the intermediate compounds, and many catalysts, including all enzymes, work by forming intermediates. The reactants involved in the reaction combine with the catalyst making an intermediate compound, but this is very unstable. When this intermediate breaks down, it releases the new compound and the original catalyst.
Planning
gaseous state. If the pressure is higher, the chance for collisions to occur also increases. If the reaction involves a particle splitting, the reacting particles must have enough energy to react. Supposing that one in a hundred particles have enough energy to react - if you had two hundred particles, two of them would react, and so forth, so if you double the pressure, the rate of reaction also doubles. Low pressure High pressure
Diagram referenced to www.chemguide.co.uk The main variable to be tested in this experiment will be the concentration of hydrogen peroxide and the concentration of iodide ions. These will be varied in two separate experiments, thus enabling a fair test to be attained. If both variables are altered at once in an experiment, it would be very difficult to say which variable has had more effect on the rate of reaction. Therefore, in the first investigation the concentration of hydrogen peroxide will be varied, keeping all other variables constant and in the second investigation the concentration of iodide ions will be altered, keeping all the other variables constant. The results of this investigation will enable me to draw a rate graph for the two investigations. This will later enable me to combine these two rates to form an overall rate equation. The iodine clock reaction is a chemical reaction in which two colourless solutions are mixed and react together to form a red/brown colour. However, initially, the iodine will be of a small concentration, and will appear very light in colour, and therefore, the production of iodine will be very hard to detect. This is, thus, enhanced by the addition of starch, which instantaneously turns dark blue/black with the formation of iodine ions, giving a more accurate time for the production of iodine ions. A colorimeter is an instrument that measures the concentration of a substance by comparing its colour with the standard (i.e. distilled water). In this experiment, the complementary colour to the orange of
Planning
iodine is blue-green, so a blue-green filter (470 nm) will be used in method two on the colorimeter. This reaction demonstrates that reaction rates depend on the concentrations of the reagents involved in the overall reaction. The time required to reach this point depends on the rates of the first two reactions, and consequently on the concentrations of all the reactants. Anything that accelerates the first reaction (e.g., iron catalysis or temperature) will shorten the time. Thus, increasing the concentration of iodide, hydrogen peroxide, or acid (it neutralises the
dy
dx hydroxide ion) will accelerate the reaction. On the other hand, increasing the thiosulphate concentration will have the opposite effect; it will take longer for the blue colour to appear. The rate of reaction is a measure of how fast the reaction occurs. The graph that can be drawn from the results is time against volume (concentration) of the variable solution. A rate of reaction can then be obtained. Average rates are not very good comparisons, because the reaction may finish before the designated time interval. The fairest way to measure the rate is at the start, as a fair test is attained. Thus, in this experiment, the initial rate of the reaction will be measured. This is to allow the reaction to progress to about 10-15%, which enables a fair comparison of the reactions to take place. To measure the initial rate, a number of readings will take place within a fairly short space of time. Drawing a tangent to the curve where it crosses the origin will help to measure the initial rate of the reaction. This is indicated below: dy/dx then gives the gradient of the curve at that particular point, or the initial rate. All the initial rates will be put onto a graph and the initial rate will be plotted against the concentration. This will give the order of rate for
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one reactant. When the rate orders for all the reactants are found, a rate equation can be formed. It will generally look like this: Rate = k.[H2O2]a[I-]b[H+]c The quantities in brackets are concentrations in moles of each reactant and k is the rate constant for the reaction. This stays the same throughout the experiment, no matter what the concentration of the reactants are. This rate constant is temperature dependent. The quantities a, b, and c are called the reaction order for H2O2, I- and H+; they will be determined in the experiment. To accomplish this, two principles from kinetic studies will be applied. The first principle is to hold two of the reactants constant while varying only one component. If the concentrations of I- and H+ are held constant we may write the rate as: Rate = d[I-]/dt = k.[H2O2]a = [S2O32-]/2t Where: t = time to reach an observable blue colour [I-]b and [H+]c have been absorbed into the constant k. If rate = k.[H2O2]a, Ln(Rate) = ln(k) + ln([H2O2])a = Ln(Rate) = ln(k) + a.ln([H2O2]). By plotting the ln(Rate) versus ln([H2O2]), a linear relationship will be formed: Comparing this with y = mx + c enables us to identify that the result will be a graph with a gradient of a, and a y-intercept of ln(k). This enables us to find a. Thus, a, b and c can all be found by looking at their reactions. The second principle is called The Method of Initial Rates. In this experiment, the concentration of thiosulphate is much smaller than the other reactants. The end point colour appears after all of the thiosulphate is used up, allowing I3- to react with the starch to form the blue complex (reactions 2 and 3). The amounts of reactants used up in causing this to take place are small, so the reactant concentrations remain essentially constant throughout the time of reaction. Also, the amount of reactants used up at the time of the endpoint is a constant because the amount (moles) of thiosulphate present is constant at the beginning of all the reactions.
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The area under the graph represents the number of molecules present. Some interesting points to note from this distribution curve are that the kinetic energy can never be zero, there are only a few molecules
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with a high energy, and there is no defined maximum energy value (and so, it can theoretically continue to infinity).8 If we take the example of a single particle inside a box,9
w c u v
If we imagine that the particle moves from one wall to the other, and then rebounds back (perfectly elastically), the momentum of the particle intially moving from the right to the left would be p = mu Using vector quantities, once the particle bounces off the wall and heads in the opposite direction, the momentum is p = - mu The change in momentum is therefore, p = mu - (-mu) = 2mu Speed = distance/time taken = 2l/u Thus, the rate of change of momentum = 2mu/(2l/u) = mu2/l Newton's second law of motion states that force = rate of change of momentum, and lso the force on particle =
m
Since pressure = force per unit area, we can say that pressure, p, exterted on a wall of area l2 is given by:
l p=
3
If <u2> represents the mean value of the squares of all the velocities, <u2> = (u12 + u22 + + uN2)/N
8 9
Chemistry: AS level and A level (International), Ratcliffe, Eccles, Raffan, Nicholson and Johnson, 2004 Oxford: Succes at AQA Physics B A2, Ken Price and Gerard Kelly, 2001 Planning 11
and N<u2> = u12 + u22 + + uN2 Therefore, p = Nm<u2>/l3 For any molecule, pythagoras theorem can be applied to give: c2 = u2 + v2 + w2 This will also be true for all the mean square values, <c2> = <u2> + <v2> + <w2> However, since N is large and the particles move randomly, it follows that the mean values for u2, v2 and w2 are equal. Thus, <c2> = 3<u2> Therefore, <c2>/3 = <u2> Hence, p = Nm<c2>/3l3 l3 = volume of the cube = V, so pV= 1/3 (Nm<c2>) N = L = Avogadros constant, giving: pV = 1/3 (Lm<c2>) This can be written as: pV = 2/3 L(m<c2>) The ideal gas equation for a mole is pV = RT, Where R is the molar gas constant. Combining the last two equations gives: 2/3 L(m<c2>) = RT Therefore, (m<c2>) = 3/2 (R/L)T Now m<c2> is the average kinetic energy for each molecule, and from the above equation, we know R and L are constants. The ration R/L is called Boltzmanns constant = k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
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Hence, we can say: m<c2> = 3/2 kT. This will be particularly useful when working out the kinetic energy of each particle in the analysis, and for the extension task.
Transition Theory10
Another factor that could affect a reaction taking place is summarised in the Transition Theory. This states that a collision between reactant molecules may or may not yield a product. The factors that decide if a reaction takes place or not are the relative kinetic energies of the molecules involved, the orientation, and the internal energy of the molecules. If the reactants form an activated complex (an unstable grouping of atoms that break apart to form products) they are not guaranteed to go on and form products - they could just fall apart back into reactants.
Arrhenius equation
As mentioned earlier, k is temperature dependent. The rate constant is related to temperature by the Arrhenius equation, which predicts the rate of a chemical reaction at a certain temperature, given the activation energy and chance of successful collision of molecules: k = A.e-Ea/RT Where A is the frequency factor, k is the rate, Ea Is the activation energy, R is the gas constant (8.314 J K-1 mol-1), and T is temperature in Kelvin (K). The frequency factor has the same units as k. By plotting ln(k) verses 1/T, Ea and A can be determined: Ln(k) = ln(A) Ea/RT, Where Ea = the activation energy Comparing this to y =mx + c, Y = ln(k) c = ln(A) x = 1/T m = -Ea/R
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http://www.kobold.demon.co.uk/kinetics/collisio.htm Planning 13
Therefore, the activation enthalpy can be found by: Gradient = -Ea/R -Gradient x R = Ea
Measuring pressure
When two substances react with each other, and the product is a gas, the effect of varying pressure can be detected. Allowing a reaction to take place under normal room pressure and comparing this with a reaction under compression, such as placing a bung on a test tube, allows one to plot a graph of pressure (which can be calculated as nRT/V = p) against time. The gradient at the start of the experiment of this will give the initial rate of the reaction. These can then be plotted on a graph to give the overall order of a reaction.
Titrimetric analysis
This is a standard method of chemical analysis, and it can be used to determine the concentration of a known reactant. Using a burette, it is possible to determine the exact amount of a reactant before the endpoint is reached. With a reaction, small portions must be taken out at suitable time intervals, and the reaction quenched (halted). One way of quenching is to put the samples into a conical flask, immersed into a ice/salt mixture. This allows the concentration of the substance to be measured by titration. The measurements made are the concentrations of the reactant at the moment the sample was taken out. This can then be plotted on a graph of concentration against time, and the gradient at the start of the graph will give the initial rate of
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reaction, which can be determined by drawing on a tangent. The collection of these rates plotted together against concentration will give the overall order of the reaction.
Colorimetric analysis11
The size of the filter chosen for the colorimeter is extremely important, as the wavelength of light that is transmitted by the colorimeter has to be same as that absorbed by the substance. This is the complementary colour for the colour of the substance. The percentage absorbency can be measured at set intervals throughout the experiment. The percentage absorbency can then be plotted against time (with units of mol s-1). A calibration curve can also be plotted, with absorbance being plotted against time.
Coductimetric analysis
This is the measurement of the conductance of a solution. Ions conduct electricity, and as they will be present while the reaction is occurring, a measure of the electrical conductivity could be used to measure the rate of the reaction. For this, the conductivity of the substance would be plotted against the respective concentration, and the initial part of the curve gives the initial rate of reaction.
Clock method
This works by reacting small amounts of one reactant with another, and converting this to another intermediate substance. An indicator is added to enhance the production of the final product. An additional substance is also added which blocks the reactant from being produced by means of a chemical reaction, and so, until the additional substance is used up, the reactant will not react with the indicator to form a coloured complex. For example, if a small known volume of sodium thiosulphate is added to the reaction producing iodine, until all the thiosulphate ions have been consumed, the iodine will not build up.
Rate orders
The rate orders that I can expect for my results are one of three; Zero order, first order or second order.
Zero order
Rate laws are differential equations because the rate of a reaction is the rate of change of a reaction with time. Most reactions are of either first or second order. Rate laws of zero order are not common. Except
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Facts and Practice for A-level: Chemistry, Max Parsonage, 2001 Planning 15
for zero-order rate laws for which the rate is independent of concentration, the rate of a reaction will change as the reaction proceeds because the concentrations of reactants and products change as the reaction proceeds. The following graph is the graph of a zero order reaction, and it shows that the rate of reaction with zero order remains constant throughout the reaction. The gradient is constant, producing a straight line. It can be seen that the half-life is always decreasing with the decreasing
concentration. A zero order graph indicates that the rate of reaction is not affected by the reactant. If a reactant is zero order then it is not included in the rate equation as its not affecting the rate of the reaction.
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Concentration of reactant
First Order
The following graph is the graph of a first order reaction, and it shows how the rate of reaction with first order varies throughout the reaction. The gradient is constantly changing, producing a curve (like the lefthand side of an x2 graph). It can be seen that the half-life is always decreasing with the decreasing concentration.
A first order graph indicates that the rate of reaction is affected by the reactant. If a reactant is first order then it is included in the rate equation as it is directly affecting the rate of the reaction.
Concentration of reactant
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As the concentration increases, the rate of reaction also increases. The evidence that shows that this graph is of first order is the direct proportionality between the concentration of the reactant and the initial rate of reaction, as it has a straight line and passes through the origin.
Second order
The following graph is the graph of a second order reaction, and it shows how the rate of reaction with second order varies throughout the reaction. The gradient is constantly varying, producing an exponential curve. It can be seen that the half-life is always decreasing with the decreasing concentration.
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Concentration of reactant
It is apparent upon looking at this graph that the initial rate does not have a linear relationship with the concentration of the reactant. It has an exponential relationship. This means that if the concentration doubles, the rate quadruples. It can be concluded that the initial rate is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactant squared (it has a squared relationship), i.e. Rate [x2] This graph is a second order graph.
Hydrogen peroxide often decomposes exothermically in the presence of light, and so, it needs to be stored in a cool environment in a brown bottle. This will mean that, in the experiment, the hydrogen peroxide solution will need to be freshly made up everyday. It decomposes into water and oxygen spontaneously, as indicated by the following reaction: 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 + energy The rate of decomposition is dependent on the temperature and the pH of chemicals present in the reaction. Hydrogen peroxide is incompatible with many substances which catalyse its decomposition, including most of the transition metals and their compounds. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is more likely in alkaline conditions, so, often, acid is added as a stabiliser. The sulphuric acid used in the reaction will mean that there is a much smaller chance for the hydrogen peroxide to decompose. Also, I will make sure that the hydrogen peroxide is newly made everyday, and so, there is little chance for it to decompose.
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Experiment
Variables
When a set of results are obtained, it is very difficult to determine exactly which variable has the greatest effect on the result. Therefore, there can be no more than one variable. The presence of only one variable is called a fair test. The variables that will need to be kept the same in every reading for this experiment are:
Use of the same volume of starch solution: In each experiment, 1.0cm3 of starch will be used. It is essential that the same volume of starch is present before each experiment. The reason for this is that for a higher volume of starch, there is a higher concentration, and so, the time taken for the blue-black colour to appear would lessen by a few milliseconds each time. 1.0 cm3 is a reasonable volume of starch to use, so it does not affect the experiment too much. If there was a lower volume of starch solution, a small inaccuracy in the reading of the starch solution could have a negligible effect on the experiment, and thus, vary the results of the experiment. This enables a fair test to be attained each time. Use of the same volume of potassium iodide solution: In each experiment, 2.0cm3 of potassium iodide will be used. It is essential that the same volume of potassium iodide is present before each experiment. The reason for this is that the potassium iodide is one of the factors that effects the rate of reaction, and the
Planning 22
order of the rate, and so, it must be kept constant if the affect of varying hydrogen peroxide is to be measured. 2.0 cm3 is a reasonable volume of potassium iodide to use, as it can be measured quite accurately with a graduated pipette, with a relatively small uncertainty. If the volume of potassium iodide were varied, then it would be very hard to measure the effect of varying hydrogen peroxide on the rate of reaction. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
Use of the same volume of sulphuric acid: In each experiment, 4.0cm3 of 0.300 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid will be used. It is essential that the same volume of sulphuric acid is present before each experiment. The reason for this is that the H+ ions have an effect on the reaction and the order of the rate, and so, must be kept the same of the affect of varying hydrogen peroxide concentration is to be measured. Also, hydrogen peroxide is less likely to decompose in acidic conditions. 4.0 cm3 is a reasonable volume of buffer solution to use, as it can be measured quite accurately with a graduated pipette, with a relatively small uncertainty. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
Use of universal indicator paper In each experiment, the pH of each reaction will be measured using universal indicator paper. It is essential that the pH is kept the same each time. The reason for this is that varying the pH could cause the results to become slanted and flawed, and so, to stop the results obtained from the experiment to be nullified, the pH must be fixed. This enables a fair test to be attained each time. Use of a balance: To make up each solution, a balance will be required to help measure out the weight of the solid chemical, and then made into a liquid. It is important to keep the same balance each time, because if there is a small calibration problem, then this will be carried all the way through the experiment, and so, the values obtained will be relative. This would mean a fair test is attained each time.
Use of the same volume of sodium thiosulphate solution: In each experiment, 2.0cm3 of sodium thiosulphate will be used. It is essential that the same volume of sodium thiosulphate is present before each experiment. The reason for this is that the sodium thiosulphate is one of the factors that affects the rate of this reaction, as it destroys the iodide ions. 2.0 cm3 is a reasonable volume of sodium thiosulphate to use, as it can be measured quite accurately with a graduated pipette, with a relatively small uncertainty. If the volume of sodium thiosulphate were varied, then
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it would be very hard to measure the effect of varying hydrogen peroxide on the rate of reaction. This is because the time measured each time would vary, as the amount of iodine destroyed would vary each time. Keeping the same volume of sodium thiosulphate each time enables a fair test to be attained.
Keeping the total volume constant: In each experiment, the total volume will be 14.0cm3. It is essential that the total volume should stay the same for each experiment. The reason for this is that if the total volume changes, the concentration also changes and the results obtained from the experiment vary. If the volume is kept the same, when you double the volume, the concentration will also double. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
Use of the same colorimeter: The colorimeter in every experiment will be the same, and the same blue-green filter (470 nm) will be used. This is due to the fact that different colorimeters may be calibrated differently at the place of manufacturing, and therefore, give slightly different absorption readings. This would hinder the final outcome of the results, as there would be fluctuations in the results obtained. The colorimeter will also have to be calibrated back to zero absorption each time with distilled water to keep a fair test, as a slight change in calibration can hinder the final results. Cleaning the equipment with distilled water: The equipment must be cleaned after each experiment to remove all the chemicals from the equipment. This ensures a fair test and makes sure that the results of the experiment are not flawed. Use of the same graduated pipette each time: If there is some error in the graduated pipette that makes it unable to read the volume accurately, then, as it will be used in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. Furthermore, due to human error, if the volume is not measured accurately, then as these errors will be continued in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test. Use of the same thermometer If there is some error in the thermometer that makes it unable to read the temperature accurately, then, as it will be used in every
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experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test. Use of a volumetric flask It is important to use a volumetric flask to measure solutions, because the calibration line accurately shows the volume of a liquid at room temperature. This ensures that the concentration of each solution is precise each time, meaning a fair test. Measuring below the meniscus: I will measure from below the meniscus to provide the most accurate reading possible. This is because the bottom of the meniscus provides the actual reading of the volume inside the measuring cylinder. This ensures a fair test each time. Use of a water bath: A water bath will be used to make sure that the temperature is kept constant at 25oC each time. As temperature is also a factor that affects the rate of a reaction, keeping this constant each time will allow the effect of changing concentration to be measured accurately. The starch solution, hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water will all be placed in a boiling tube, which will then be kept in a water bath, before the potassium iodide is added. Just to be doubly sure that the water bath is at the stated temperature, the mercury thermometer will be immersed into the water bath, and the temperature checked. This enables the reaction to take place at the same temperature each time, ensuring a constant temperature, and thus, enabling a fair test. The same stopwatch each time: If there is some error in the calibration of the stopwatch that makes it unable to read the time accurately, then, as it will be used in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. Furthermore, due to human error, if the time is not measured accurately, then as these errors will be carried through in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test.
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It is bad practice to put solids into a volumetric flask. Therefore, before making up a solution, the solids must be added to a beaker, and about half the required distilled water added. The solution should then be stirred with a stirring rod. This solution should then be transferred to a volumetric flask using a glass funnel. The glass funnel and stirring rod should be washed repeatedly, and these washings added to the volumetric flask. Distilled water should then be added until the solution is 1.00 cm below the calibration line. The distilled water should then be added drop by drop until the bottom of the meniscus is just touching
This is the meniscus. You must always measure volumes from below the meniscus. the calibration line. A stopper should then be placed on top of the volumetric flask, and the volumetric flask inverted a few times.
It is important to use a volumetric flask to measure solutions, because the calibration line accurately shows the volume at room temperature. Also, to keep precision, all utensils used in the makeup of the solution should be washed repeatedly, and these washings added to the solution. This ensures a high level of precision, and a fair test overall.
Makeup of solutions
For a solid, Mol = mass/Mr, Where Mol is the number of moles of the substance, the mass is measured in grams using a balance, and the Mr is the relative molecular mass of the substance For a liquid, Mol = volume x concentration.
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Equating these two equations gives Mass/Mr = volume x concentration. Therefore, mass required = volume required x concentration required x Mr
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= 0.2 x 0.25 x 166 = 0.830g However, this is a very small value, and so, there is a high likelihood for uncertainties to arise. Therefore, 8.30g of potassium iodide will be added to a beaker, and then about 150 cm3 of water added. This solution will then be transferred to a 250cm3 volumetric flask using a glass funnel, and the beaker, glass funnel and stirring rod will then be repeatedly washed using distilled water. These washings will then be added to the volumetric flask, until the solution is made up to 250 cm3. This forms 0.200 mol dm-3 of potassium iodide solution, so a further ten-fold dilution will be made, by taking 25.0 cm3 out of the 0.200 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution and putting this inside another 250 cm3 volumetric flask. This solution will then be made up to 250cm3 using distilled water.
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a cool place before use, as the starch-iodine complex becomes unstable above 35oC.
Sulphuric acid
In this experiment, 0.300 mol dm-3 of sulphuring acid will be required. The recipe card states that, for small concentration values such as these, a ten-fold dilution will need to take place from 3.00 mol dm-3. As acid is very corrosive, gloves and eye protection (including a face shield if possible) should always be worn. Acid must always be added to water, and so, initially, the 500 cm3 volumetric flask should be halfPlanning 29
filled with distilled water. Next, 81.0 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid will be added to the 500 cm3 volumetric flask, and the solution then made up to 500 cm3. 50cm3 of this 3.00 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid solution will be taken out and placed in another 500 cm3 volumetric flask half-filled with water. This will then be made up to 500cm3 to give sulphuric acid of 0.300 mol dm-3 concentration.
Risk assessment
Before commencement of any experiment, the potential risks involved must be considered and eliminated in the experiment (or minimised as much as possible). Ways in which to minimise the potential chance of accidents happening are as follows: 1. Wear goggles to protect eyes 2. Tuck in loose ties 3. Button up loose cuffs on shirts 4. Keep work bench tidy and organised, making sure there are no loose bits of paper on desks 5. Clean up spills immediately with plenty of water 6. Keep loose coats and scarves away from work area 7. Open windows and keep room well ventilated 8. Wear a laboratory coat to protect clothing 9. If skin comes into contact with liquid wash immediately with plenty of water. 10. Tie hair back in necessary
11. Have a fire extinguisher and a fire blanket present in the room in-case of fire 12. 13. Ensure that the room is not too crowded Keep bags well under the table to avoid tripping
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14. Always have teachers supervision in-case of an extreme emergency 15. No eating or drinking in the laboratory
16. Do not wear hair gel/mousse when working with an open flame because the compounds contained in these substances may be flammable 17. Iodine, hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate, sodium ethanoate, potassium iodide and acetic acid are all irritants, and could irritate the skin. If they come into contact with the skin, wash with plenty of water. 18. Hydrogen peroxide is also a bleaching agent, so wash with plenty of water or sodium thiosulphate if spilt on clothes.
Planning 31
Sulphuric Acid:
This can cause severe burns, and solutions between 0.5 mol dm-3 and 1.5 mol dm-3 should be labelled as corrosive. Mixing concentrated sulphuric acid to water is extremely dangerous when mixed with water, and dangerous reactions have been known to occur. Therefore, the concentrated sulphuric acid must always be slowly added to cold water, and never the reverse. If swallowed: If splashed in eye: If spilt on skin or clothes: If spilt in laboratory: Wash out mouth and give a glass of water. Do not induce vomiting. Seek medical attention as soon as possible Flood the eye with gently running tap water for 10 minutes. Seek medical attention. Remove contaminated clothing and quickly wipe as much liquid as possible off the skin with a dry cloth before drenching the area with a large excess of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, seek medical attention. Wear eye protection and gloves. Cover with mineral absorbent and scoop it up into a bucket. Add anhydrous sodium carbonate over the mixture and leave to react. Add lots of cold water. Rinse the area of the spill several times with water.
Iodine:
It is harmful by inhalation and by contact with the skin. Avoid contact with the eyes. The solid has a corrosive action on the skin, causing burns if left for some time. If swallowed: If vapour inhaled: If vapour affects eyes: If solid gets in eyes: If spilt on skin or clothes: If spilt in laboratory: Wash out mouth and give a glass of water. Seek medical attention as soon as possible Remove victim to fresh air. Seek medical attention if breathing is slightly affected. Bathe eyes. If discomfort persists, seek medical attention. Flood the eye with gently running tap water for 10 minutes. Seek medical attention. Brush off solid immediately. Flood affected area with water immediately, or bathe in sodium thiosulphate solution. Seek medical attention if blistering occurs. Wear eye protection and gloves. Ventilate area of spill. Spread sodium thiosulphate over area of spill, leave for an
Planning 32
Planning 33
Hydrogen peroxide:
If swallowed: If liquid gets in eyes: If spilt on skin or clothes: If spilt in laboratory: Wash out mouth and give a glass of water. Seek medical attention as soon as possible Flood the eye with gently running tap water for 10 minutes. Seek medical attention. Flood affected area with water immediately. Seek medical attention if blistering occurs. Wear eye protection and gloves. Cover with mineral absorbent and clear up into a bucket. Rinse several times. Add water to dilute at least ten times before washing the liquid down the foul-water drain.
I have created a guideline as to how to carry out the practical, which I will comply with throughout the experiment. These rules are in place to ensure that the experiment is carried out safely, and to avoid any injuries or contamination. It also tries to ensure that I am safe, and that the people around me are also as safe as possible.
Planning 34
A graduated pipette: This helps measure the volume of solution required to a high degree of accuracy. This will help in trying to make sure that the data collected is reliable by indirectly making sure that the total volume is kept the same each time (i.e. 14cm3).
Universal indicator paper: In each experiment, the pH of each reaction will be measured using universal indicator paper. It is essential that the pH is kept the same each time. The reason for this is that varying the pH could cause the results to become slanted and flawed, and so, to stop the results obtained from the experiment to be nullified, the pH must be fixed. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
A mercury thermometer: A mercury thermometer is essential to this experiment, as it will determine when the reading should be taken. In the experiment, an analogue mercury thermometer will be used. This will be used because it measures to an accurate degree of accuracy (+ or 0.5oC). It will make sure that the data that is collected is reliable as mercury thermometers provide an accurate measurement of the temperature. As temperature is also a factor that affects the rate of a reaction, measuring, and therefore keeping, this constant each time will allow the effect of changing concentration to be measured accurately. This enables a fair test. Test tube rack Boiling tubes can be stored in the test tube rack to prevent accidents A colorimeter A standard colorimeter on the blue-green filter (470 nm) will be used. This is because it provides an accurate reading of the percentage absorbency. The results obtained will be reliable each time, because, as the colorimeter is the same, the calibration from the manufacturers will also be the same, causing reliable results to be attained. 15 boiling tubes These will ensure that there is enough space for the reaction to proceed in without the fear of the solutions overflowing the boiling tube. Also, the boiling tube is easy to use and can easily be placed on a test tube rack.
Planning 35
A wash bottle of distilled water This will be used to dilute the solutions to the required concentration. They will also be used to clean the equipment each time, resulting in a fair test each time as no contamination will occur. Water bath A water bath will be used to make sure that the solution is at the stated temperature for the extension task. The starch solution, hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate and water will all be placed in a boiling tube, which will then be kept in a water bath, before the potassium iodide is added. Just to be doubly sure that the water bath is at the stated temperature, the mercury thermometer will be immersed into the water bath, and the temperature checked. This enables the reaction to take place at the stated temperature each time, thus, enabling a fair test. 5 volumetric flasks: 1 x 0.100 dm3 flasks, 3 x 0.250 dm3 flask 1 x 0.500 dm3 flasks The solutions will be made up in the volumetric flasks, to ensure accuracy, and to make sure no cross-contamination occurs. If contamination does occur, then the results obtained would be flawed, and thus, unreliable. The use of separate volumetric flasks ensures a fair test. 5 beakers To avoid cross-contamination, the chemicals will be placed inside a beaker, and not be returned to the volumetric flask. This makes sure that no contamination of equipment can occur. If contamination does occur, then the results obtained would be flawed, and thus, unreliable. The use of separate beakers ensures a fair test. Stopwatch If there is some error in the calibration of the stopwatch that makes it unable to read the time accurately, then, as it will be used in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. Furthermore, due to human error, if the time is not measured accurately, then as these errors will be carried through in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test.
Planning 36
2 cuvettes For use in the colorimeter. Before running the experiment, a preliminary experiment will be performed so that I can become accustomed to the equipment and carry out the experiment without any flaws. This also enables my efficiency and confidence with the equipment to increase.
Method 115
This method was initially proposed in Shakhashiri's Chemical Demonstrations, Vol. 4, pages 42-43. However, for this experiment, instead of using a buffer comprised of ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate, I will use 0.3 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid. This is because the reaction requires H+ ions, which cannot be provided by this buffer solution quick enough for this reaction. I will measure the pH (and therefore, keep it constant each time) by using universal indicator paper.
15
150 cm3 of 0.0300 mol dm-3 hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 50 cm3 of Starch Solution 100 cm3 0.00500 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) 150 cm3 of 0.0200 mol dm-3 potassium iodide (KI) 150 cm3 of 0.300 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Apparatus
A graduated pipette: This helps measure the volume of solution required to a high degree of accuracy. This will help in trying to make sure that the data collected is reliable by indirectly making sure that the total volume is kept the same each time (i.e. 14cm3).
Universal indicator paper: In each experiment, the pH of each reaction will be measured using universal indicator paper. It is essential that the pH is kept the same each time. The reason for this is that varying the pH could cause the results to become slanted and flawed, and so, to stop the results obtained from the experiment to be nullified, the pH must be fixed. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
Test tube rack Boiling tubes can be stored in the test tube rack to prevent accidents A mercury thermometer: A mercury thermometer is essential to this experiment, as it will determine when the reading should be taken. In the experiment, an analogue mercury thermometer will be used. This will be used because it measures to an accurate degree of accuracy (+ or 0.5oC). It will make sure that the data that is collected is reliable as mercury thermometers provide an accurate measurement of the temperature. 15 boiling tubes These will ensure that there is enough space for the reaction to proceed in without the fear of the solutions overflowing the boiling tube. Also, the boiling tube is easy to use and can easily be placed on a test tube rack.
Planning 38
A wash bottle of distilled water This will be used to dilute the solutions to the required concentration. They will also be used to clean the equipment each time, resulting in a fair test each time as no contamination will occur. 5 beakers To avoid cross-contamination, the chemicals will be placed inside a beaker, and not be returned to the stock bottle. This makes sure that no contamination of equipment can occur. If contamination does occur, then the results obtained would be flawed, and thus, unreliable. Stopwatch If there is some error in the calibration of the stopwatch that makes it unable to read the time accurately, then, as it will be used in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. Furthermore, due to human error, if the time is not measured accurately, then as these errors will be carried through in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test.
Method
1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, starch solution, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 1 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 1, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of hydrogen peroxide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. The boiling tube will then be placed in a test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette 2cm3 of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using table 1) 5. Pour this (B) into the other (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 6. Stir. 7. Stop the time when the first blue colour appears and record this in the table of results. 8. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test.
Planning 39
Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of hydrogen peroxide. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 10. Next, plot a graph for the time against the concentration for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments. 11. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found.
9.
For the next set of results, the volume of potassium iodide will be varied, with the volume of hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid kept constant each time. 1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, starch solution, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 2 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 2, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of the potassium iodide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. Place the boiling tube into a test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette the set volume of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using Table 2). 5. Pour this (B) into the other boiling tube (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 6. Stir 7. Stop the time when the first blue colour appears and record this in the table of results. 8. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test. 9. Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of potassium iodide. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 10. Next, plot a graph for the time against the concentration for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments.
Planning 40
11. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found. For the next set of results, the volume of sulphuric acid will be varied, with the volume of hydrogen peroxide and potassium iodide kept constant each time. 1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, starch solution, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 3 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 3, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of the potassium iodide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. Place this in the test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette the set volume of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using Table 3). 5. Pour this (B) into the other boiling tube (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 6. Stir 7. Stop the time when the first blue colour appears and record this in the table of results. 8. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test. 9. Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of sulphuric acid. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 10. Next, plot a graph for the time against the concentration for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments. 11. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found.
Method 2
Colorimeter
Planning 41
Cuvette containing solution To corroborate the results from method 1, the measurement of the absorbency of the solution will now be measured. This absorbency will be plotted against time, and a tangent from the graph taken to give the initial rate. These initial rates will be plotted against their corresponding concentrations. A calibration curve will also be obtained. In this experiment, a 470nm filter will be used each time.
150 cm3 of 0.0300 mol dm-3 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) 150 cm3 of 0.0200 mol dm-3 Potassium Iodide (KI) 150 cm3 of 0.300 mol dm-3 of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Apparatus
A plastic pipette: This helps to add each solution drop by drop, to a high degree of accuracy.
Universal indicator paper: In each experiment, the pH of each reaction will be measured using universal indicator paper. It is essential that the pH is kept the same each time. The reason for this is that varying the pH could cause the results to become slanted and flawed, and so, to stop the results obtained from the experiment to be nullified, the pH must be fixed. This enables a fair test to be attained each time.
Test tube rack Boiling tubes can be stored in the test tube rack to prevent accidents A mercury thermometer: A mercury thermometer is essential to this experiment, as it will determine when the reading should be taken. In the experiment, an analogue mercury thermometer will be used. This will be used because it measures to an accurate degree of accuracy (+ or 0.5oC). It will make sure that the data that is collected is reliable as mercury thermometers provide an accurate measurement of the temperature.
Planning 42
A colorimeter A standard colorimeter with a blue-green filter will be used. This is because it provides an accurate reading of the percentage absorbency, as the light emitted by the colorimeter is the same as that absorbed by the substance. The results obtained will be reliable each time, because, as the colorimeter is the same, the calibration from the manufacturers will also be the same, causing reliable results to be attained. A wash bottle of distilled water This will be used to dilute the solutions to the required concentration. They will also be used to clean the equipment each time, resulting in a fair test each time as no contamination will occur. Stopwatch If there is some error in the calibration of the stopwatch that makes it unable to read the time accurately, then, as it will be used in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. Furthermore, due to human error, if the time is not measured accurately, then as these errors will be carried through in every experiment, the errors will be relative to one another and it will not effect the final outcome greatly. This ensures a fair test. 2 cuvettes For use in the colorimeter.
Method
1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 4 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 4, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of the hydrogen peroxide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. Place this in the test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette the set volume of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using Table 4). 5. Calibrate and reset the colorimeter using a cuvette filled with distilled water. 6. Place a new cuvette into the colorimeter.
Planning 43
7. Pour the solution from one boiling tube (B) into the other boiling tube (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 8. Quickly transfer some of the solution from the boiling tube to the cuvette in the colorimeter 9. Every ten seconds measure the percentage absorbency of the solution, and record this in a table. 10. Stop after 120 seconds. 11. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test. 12. Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of hydrogen peroxide. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 13. Next, plot a graph for the time against the % absorbency for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments. 14. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found. For the next set of results, the volume of potassium iodide will be varied, with the volume of hydrogen peroxide kept constant each time. 1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 5 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 5, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of the hydrogen peroxide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. Place this in the test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette the set volume of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using Table 5). 5. Calibrate and reset the colorimeter using a cuvette filled with distilled water. 6. Place a new cuvette into the colorimeter. 7. Pour the solution from one boiling tube (B) into the other boiling tube (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 8. Quickly transfer some of the solution from the boiling tube to the cuvette in the colorimeter
Planning 44
9. Every ten seconds measure the percentage absorbency of the solution, and record this in a table. 10. Stop after 120 seconds. 11. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test. 12. Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of hydrogen peroxide. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 13. Next, plot a graph for the time against the % absorbency for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments. 14. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found. For the next set of results, the volume of potassium iodide will be varied, with the volume of hydrogen peroxide kept constant each time. 1. First place the solutions of hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulphate, sulphuric acid and water into a boiling tube (A) according to Table 6 (note: keep the potassium iodide separate; for Table 6, please refer to the appendices). The only concentrations that change are the volumes of the hydrogen peroxide and water. The total volume stays the same. 2. Place this in the test tube rack. 3. Measure the temperature each time, and record this down. The temperature must be kept constant in every experiment to keep a fair test. 4. Next, pipette the set volume of potassium iodide into a different boiling tube (B) (using Table 6). 5. Calibrate and reset the colorimeter using a cuvette filled with distilled water. 6. Place a new cuvette into the colorimeter. 7. Pour the solution from one boiling tube (B) into the other boiling tube (A) and immediately start the timing from the time the solution is added. 8. Quickly transfer some of the solution from the boiling tube to the cuvette in the colorimeter 9. Every ten seconds measure the percentage absorbency of the solution, and record this in a table. 10. Stop after 120 seconds.
Planning 45
11. After the reaction finishes, check the pH and record it down to ensure that the pH is kept constant in each experiment. This ensures a fair test. 12. Repeat the reaction twice, giving a total of three experiments per concentration of hydrogen peroxide. This helps to reduce anomalies and gives an accurate set of results, with the experiment being a fair test. If there are is an anomalous result, repeat the reading. 13. Next, plot a graph for the time against the % absorbency for each set of (averaged) results. A tangent will then be drawn on the first part of the graph. The gradient of this tangent will give the initial rate of the reaction. Doing this for each set of results will give initial rates for all of the experiments. 14. These would then be plotted against concentration, allowing the order of reaction to be found.
General points
For both methods, it is important to store the hydrogen peroxide in a brown stock bottle to stop it decomposing with light. For both sets of results, draw graphs of time versus concentration (for method 1), and percentage absorbency against concentration (method 2).
Pour the solution into a 100 cm3 volumetric flask and make up to 100 cm3 6. This produces a 0.1 mol dm-3 solution of iodine. 7. Take out 1.5 cm3 of the iodine solution using a graduated pipette, and add this to another 100cm3 volumetric flask. 8. Make up to the 100 cm3 mark. 9. This makes a 0.001500 mol dm-3 iodine solution
5.
The method to perform the experiment is below: 1. Reset the colorimeter by putting a cuvette filled with distilled water into the colorimeter and press reset. 2. Put a fresh cuvette into the colorimeter 3. Make up the required solution as table 8 (please refer to appendices) in a 50 cm3 beaker 4. Pipette some into a cuvette 5. Measure the absorbency and record into a table (Appendix 10) 6. Draw a graph of absorbency against concentration
Extension task - 1
For this the affect of temperature will be looked at. Method 1, the clock collection method will be used for this. This is because it will be much easier for the boiling tubes to be kept in a water bath, compared to putting a cuvette and colorimeter in a water bath. The step-by-step method outlined in method 1 should be followed again. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide and potassium iodide will be kept constant each time (see table 7). The only variable will be the temperature that the solution is in. This will be changed using a water bath. The time will start when the solutions are mixed, and will be stopped once the solution turns blue-black. Each experiment will be repeated at least 3 times.
Extension task - 2
For this, I will experiment by using a different filter (490nm) to the one I will use throughout the main part of the experiments (470nm) and test the absorbency (using table 4) of the set solutions. I will then compare this with the results obtained using the 470nm filter.
Planning 47
Synoptic table
Concept
Rate orders Redox reactions (reduction and oxidation) Absorption Spectrum Half-equations Rate-concentration graphs Rate-determining step Rate-mechanisms Half-life Intermediates Reactions incorporating colour changes Ionic lattices Affect of concentrations on rate The mole Kinetic theory Boltzmann Distribution Affect of pressure on rate Factors affecting rate Affect of temperature on rate Affect of catalysts on rate
Unit met
Engineering proteins From Minerals to Elements Elements of Life Steel Story Engineering Proteins Engineering Proteins Engineering Proteins Engineering Proteins The Atmosphere Steel Story From Minerals to Elements Minerals to elements Elements of life Engineering proteins Engineering proteins The atmosphere The atmosphere The atmosphere
Module
2849 2848 2850 2849 2849 2849 2849 2849 2848 2849 2848 2848 2850 2849 2849 2848 2848 2848 2850 + 2848 2848 2850
Year
A2 AS AS A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 AS A2 AS AS AS A2 A2 AS AS AS AS AS AS
Planning 48
Developing fuels and the atmosphere Van der Waals forces Polymer revolution Making up a standard Elements of Life
solution Using colorimeter Measuring the time taken for a reaction to reach a particular stage Arrhenius equation
2849 2854
A2 A2
2854
A2
Planning 49
Preliminary Experiment
To ensure that all my equipment works without glitches and to ensure that my results will be consistent, I will perform a preliminary experiment. This helps me to, not only identify areas of improvement for my experiment, but also assists me to familiarise myself with the equipment. I will run this experiment with the following concentrations of substance: Hydrogen peroxide: 5.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 I will follow method 1 from my plan for this experiment.
Results
Time for reaction to happen (seconds) st 1 2nd 3rd Averag e 60.67 59.7 58.7 59.72 9 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 294 294 294 294
pH Temperature (K)
Planning 50
Hydrogen peroxide
The reaction was too slow, and therefore, I had to increase the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide to 0.100 mol dm-3. To do this, I needed: Mols of hydrogen peroxide required = concentration required x volume required = 0.1 x 0.25 = 0.0250 mol The volume required would then equal the number of moles/concentration given. In this experiment, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide given is 1.67 mol dm-3. Volume required = mol/given concentration = 0.0250/1.67 = 15.0 cm3
Potassium iodide
Furthermore, the concentration of the potassium iodide was also too weak, and so, this also needed to be upgraded to 0.200 mol dm-3. To do this: Mass required = volume required x concentration required x Mr, = 0.200 x 0.250 x 166 = 8.30g Therefore, 8.30g of potassium iodide will be added to a beaker, and then about 150 cm3 of water added. This solution will then be transferred to a 250cm3 volumetric flask using a glass funnel, and the beaker, glass funnel and stirring rod will then be repeatedly washed using distilled water. These washings will then be added to the volumetric flask, until the solution is made up to 250 cm3. This forms 0.200 mol dm-3 of potassium iodide solution, so a further ten-fold dilution will be made, by taking 25.0 cm3 out of the 0.200 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution and putting this inside another 250 cm3
Planning 51
volumetric flask. This solution will then be made up to 250cm3 using distilled water.
Planning 52
Implementing - Method 1
Changing the concentration of hydrogen peroxide
For the first set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 5.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 53.13 56.12 58.59 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 55.95 1.0 294.0
pH Temperature (K)
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous results: Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 59.15 63.21 62.63 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 61.66 1.0 294.0
pH Temperature (K)
These were anomalous, because the rate for this set of results was off the line of best fit. I put these anomalies down to teething errors with the beginning of the experiment. For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 4.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3
Implementing
Water: 1.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 70.68 72.25 76.81 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 73.25 1.0 294.0
pH Temperature (K)
Implementing
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 2.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 92.22 93.22 92.09 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 92.51 1.0 294.0
pH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 3.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 141.25 142.94 139.15 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 141.11 1.0 294.0
pH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 1.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 4.00 cm3
Implementing
pH Temperature (K)
Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 297.31 301.14 300.17 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0
The table for the average set of results for each concentration for hydrogen peroxide is below: Concentration of hydrogen peroxide (mol dm-3) 0.357 0.286 0.214 0.143 0.0714 Average time taken (seconds) 55.95 73.25 92.51 141.11 299.54
(In the table above, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is worked out by dividing the volume of hydrogen peroxide in the solution by the total volume).
Implementing
Concentration of hydrogen peroxide (mol dm-3) 0.0357 0.0286 0.0214 0.0143 0.00714
Calculation for Rate (mol s-1) rate 0.0025/55.95 0.0025/73.25 0.0025/92.51 0.0025/141.11 0.0025/299.54 4.47 3.41 2.70 1.77 8.35 x x x x x 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-6
Implementing
pH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 4.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 1.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 80.38 81.97 83.56 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 81.97 1.0 294.0
PH Temperature (K)
Implementing
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 2.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 108.16 108.63 108.01 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 108.27 1.0 294.0
PH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 3.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 143.32 143.02 141.71 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 142.68 1.0 294.0
PH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 1.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 4.00 cm3
Implementing
pH Temperature (K)
Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 303.94 308.87 297.06 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0
The table for the average set of results for each concentration for hydrogen peroxide is below: Concentration of potassium iodide (mol dm-3) 0.0714 0.0571 0.0429 0.0286 0.0143 Average time taken (seconds) 66.07 81.97 108.27 142.68 303.29
(In the table above, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is worked out by dividing the volume of hydrogen peroxide in the solution by the total volume).
Implementing
Concentration of potassium iodide (mol dm-3) 0.0714 0.0571 0.0429 0.0286 0.0143
Calculation for Rate (mol s-1) rate 0.0025/55.95 0.0025/73.25 0.0025/92.51 0.0025/141.11 0.0025/299.54 3.78 3.05 2.31 1.75 8.24 x x x x x 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-6
Implementing
pH Temperature (K)
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous results: Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 65.03 63.21 62.63 1.0 1.0 1.0 295.0 293.5 292.0 (seconds) Average 63.62 1.0 293.5
pH Temperature (K)
These were anomalous, because the rate for this set of results was off the line of best fit. I put these anomalies down to the fluctuation of the temperature in each experiment. For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 1.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen (seconds) 1st 2nd 3rd Average
Implementing 11
PH Temperature (K)
Implementing 12
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 3.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 2.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 121.32 122.49 119.21 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 121.01 1.0 294.0
PH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 2.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 3.00 cm3 Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 137.78 136.08 138.96 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0 (seconds) Average 137.61 1.0 294.0
PH Temperature (K)
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 1.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Water: 4.00 cm3
Implementing 13
pH Temperature (K)
Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 172.04 172.19 173.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.0 294.0 294.0
When I first conducted this experiment, I obtained these anomalies: Time for reaction to happen 1st 2nd 3rd 208.22 208.38 210.64 1.0 1.0 1.0 294.5 293.0 292.0 (seconds) Average 209.08 1.0 293.0
pH Temperature (K)
I put this down to the fluctuations in the temperature. The table for the average set of results for each concentration for hydrogen peroxide is below: Concentration of sulphuric acid (mol dm-3) 0.179 0.143 0.107 0.0714 0.0357 Average time taken (seconds) 96.15 107.85 121.01 137.61 172.41
(In the table above, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is worked out by dividing the volume of hydrogen peroxide in the solution by the total volume).
Implementing 14
The stoichiometry shows that, for every one mole of iodine produced, two moles of S2O32- ions are produced. Therefore, to work out the concentration of iodine produced, the following analysis can be made: [S2O32-]/2t, The thiosulphate concentration for each is 0.00500 mol dm-3, and therefore, the concentration of the iodine produced is 0.00250 mol dm3 .
Implementing 15
Using this equation and the above information, the following table can be constructed: Concentration of sulphuric acid (mol dm3 ) 0.179 0.143 0.107 0.0714 0.0357 Average time taken (seconds) 96.15 107.85 121.01 137.61 172.41 Calculation for Rate (mol s-1) rate 0.0025/96.15 0.0025/107.85 0.0025/121.01 0.0025/137.61 0.0025/172.41 2.60 2.32 2.07 1.82 1.45 x x x x x 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5
Implementing 16
Implementing - Method 2
Changing the concentration of hydrogen peroxide
For the first set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 5.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used for this experiment was 0.0357 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.14 0.32 0.40 0.58 0.73 0.89 1.01 1.10 1.24 1.28 1.32 1.35 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.14 0.27 0.41 0.58 0.72 0.87 1.01 1.18 1.22 1.29 1.30 1.35 294 1.0 0.13 0.28 0.39 0.57 0.74 0.88 1.02 1.17 1.23 1.28 1.31 1.35 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.14 0.29 0.40 0.58 0.73 0.88 1.01 1.15 1.23 1.28 1.31 1.35 294 1.0
Implementing 17
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous result: Time (seconds) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH Result 0.18 0.42 0.56 0.78 0.99 1.10 1.21 1.31 1.41 1.50 1.58 1.57 294 1.0
As this does not fit the general trend of my results, I put this anomalous result down to the initial teething errors of beginning the experiment and getting used to it. The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of hydrogen peroxide is shown overleaf
Implementing 18
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 4.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 1.00 cm3 The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used for this experiment was 0.0286 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.11 0.22 0.35 0.45 0.56 0.72 0.81 0.91 0.98 1.03 1.07 1.12 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.11 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.60 0.71 0.81 0.91 1.00 1.03 1.08 1.14 294 1.0 0.12 0.26 0.35 0.45 0.56 0.70 0.82 0.92 0.99 1.02 1.07 1.10 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.11 0.23 0.35 0.46 0.57 0.70 0.81 0.91 0.99 1.03 1.07 1.12 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of hydrogen peroxide is shown overleaf
Implementing 20
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 2.00 cm3 The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used for this experiment was 0.0214 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.13 0.21 0.29 0.37 0.45 0.52 0.60 0.66 0.72 0.78 0.84 0.90 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.12 0.21 0.29 0.39 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.69 0.76 0.83 0.89 0.95 294 1.0 0.11 0.19 0.27 0.33 0.43 0.50 0.58 0.64 0.70 0.76 0.82 0.88 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.12 0.20 0.28 0.36 0.45 0.52 0.60 0.66 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.91 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of hydrogen peroxide is shown overleaf
Implementing 22
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 3.00 cm3 The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used for this experiment was 0.0143 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.08 0.17 0.26 0.36 0.43 0.51 0.61 0.68 0.77 0.82 0.85 0.88 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.1 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.46 0.52 0.6 0.68 0.73 0.81 0.85 0.9 294 1.0 0.09 0.17 0.25 0.35 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.67 0.75 0.81 0.84 0.89 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.09 0.17 0.25 0.35 0.43 0.51 0.6 0.68 0.75 0.81 0.85 0.89 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of hydrogen peroxide is shown overleaf
Implementing 24
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Hydrogen peroxide: 1.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 4.00 cm3 The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used for this experiment was 0.00714 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.06 0.13 0.18 0.24 0.29 0.35 0.40 0.47 0.52 0.54 0.59 0.63 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.23 0.30 0.35 0.42 0.48 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.62 294 1.0 0.07 0.12 0.19 0.22 0.30 0.36 0.41 0.46 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.64 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.23 0.30 0.35 0.41 0.47 0.51 0.54 0.59 0.63 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of hydrogen peroxide is shown overleaf.
Implementing 26
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of potassium iodide is shown overleaf
Implementing 28
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 4.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 1.00 cm3 The concentration of potassium iodide used for this experiment was 0.0571 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.13 0.24 0.34 0.44 0.52 0.61 0.71 0.81 0.90 0.90 0.96 1.00 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.16 0.29 0.34 0.48 0.56 0.68 0.74 0.81 0.90 0.96 0.98 1.01 294 1.0 0.12 0.20 0.29 0.45 0.48 0.63 0.69 0.82 0.89 0.99 0.97 1.00 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.14 0.24 0.32 0.46 0.52 0.64 0.71 0.81 0.90 0.95 0.97 1.00 294 1.0
Implementing 30
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous result: Time (seconds) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH Result 0.17 0.35 0.57 0.84 1.01 1.19 1.34 1.45 1.54 1.60 1.65 1.69 294 1.0
As this does not fit the general trend of my results, I put this anomalous result down to the fact that I had to move the solutions quickly, introducing errors into the experiment. The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of potassium iodide is shown overleaf
Implementing 31
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 2.00 cm3 The concentration of potassium iodide used for this experiment was 0.0429 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.11 0.19 0.26 0.33 0.41 0.48 0.54 0.61 0.67 0.73 0.72 0.78 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.10 0.20 0.29 0.34 0.38 0.47 0.55 0.62 0.69 0.76 0.82 0.79 294 1.0 0.08 0.15 0.21 0.28 0.44 0.40 0.54 0.61 0.68 0.71 0.76 0.78 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.10 0.18 0.25 0.32 0.41 0.45 0.54 0.61 0.68 0.73 0.77 0.78 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of potassium iodide is shown overleaf
Implementing 33
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 2.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 3.00 cm3 The concentration of potassium iodide used for this experiment was 0.0286 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.32 0.37 0.41 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.58 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.07 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.29 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.62 294 1.0 0.04 0.09 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.36 0.38 0.44 0.48 0.52 0.54 0.59 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.06 0.11 0.18 0.21 0.26 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52 0.55 0.60 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of potassium iodide is shown overleaf
Implementing 35
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Potassium iodide: 1.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 2.00 cm3 Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 4.00 cm3 The concentration of potassium iodide used for this experiment was 0.0143 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.22 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.23 294 1.0 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.21 0.20 0.21 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of potassium iodide is shown overleaf.
Implementing 37
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf
Implementing 39
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 4.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 1.00 cm3 The concentration of sulphuric acid used for this experiment was 0.143 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.08 0.16 0.25 0.34 0.41 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.81 0.84 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.07 0.18 0.26 0.33 0.41 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.81 0.84 294 1.0 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.33 0.42 0.49 0.57 0.66 0.72 0.79 0.82 0.83 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.33 0.41 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.81 0.84 294 1.0
Implementing 41
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous result: Time (seconds) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH Result 0.11 0.19 0.26 0.34 0.41 0.48 0.55 0.61 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.83 294 1.0
As this does not fit the general trend of my results, I put this anomalous result down to the fact that I had to move the solutions quickly, introducing errors into the experiment. The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf
Implementing 42
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 3.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 2.00 cm3 The concentration of sulphuric acid used for this experiment was 0.107 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.07 0.15 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.66 0.70 0.72 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.29 0.36 0.41 0.50 0.57 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.73 294 1.0 0.06 0.14 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.61 0.63 0.71 0.73 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.73 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf
Implementing 44
When I initially conducted this experiment, I got the following anomalous result: Time (seconds) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH Result 0.10 0.21 0.29 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.53 0.58 0.64 0.71 0.77 0.82 294 1.0
As this does not fit the general trend of my results, I put this anomalous result down to the fact that I had to move the solutions quickly, introducing errors into the experiment. The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf
Implementing 45
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 2.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 3.00 cm3 The concentration of sulphuric acid used for this experiment was 0.0714 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.06 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.29 0.35 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.62 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.06 0.13 0.16 0.23 0.30 0.35 0.41 0.46 0.50 0.55 0.59 0.63 294 1.0 0.07 0.12 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.34 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.57 0.61 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.06 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.29 0.35 0.40 0.44 0.49 0.54 0.58 0.62 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf
Implementing 47
For the next set of experiments, the following volumes of solutions were used: Sulphuric acid: 1.00 cm3 Hydrogen peroxide: 3.00 cm3 Potassium iodide: 3.00 cm3 Starch solution: 2.00 cm3 Sodium thiosulphate: 1.00 cm3 Distilled water: 4.00 cm3 The concentration of sulphuric acid used for this experiment was 0.0357 mol dm-3 Time (seconds) Run 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Temperatu re (K) pH 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.36 0.39 0.44 0.45 294 1.0 % Absorbency Run 2 Run 3 0.05 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.41 0.46 0.48 294 1.0 0.04 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.43 0.42 0.46 294 1.0 Average absorbency 0.04 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.46 294 1.0
The graph of % absorbency against time for this concentration of H+ ions is shown overleaf.
Implementing 49
Calibration curve
The colorimeter was tested using different known concentrations of iodine at specific increments. The percentage absorbency was then measured for each. The results are below: Concentrat ion (mol dm-3) 0.00010 0.00020 0.00030 0.00040 0.00050 0.00060 0.00070 0.00080 0.00090 0.0010 0.0011 0.0012 0.0013 0.0014 0.0015 Run 1 0.04 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.27 0.30 0.38 0.44 0.49 0.52 0.56 0.63 0.65 0.70 0.76 Percentage absorbency (%) Run 2 Run 3 Average 0.06 0.11 0.15 0.20 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.41 0.48 0.50 0.57 0.60 0.64 0.70 0.81 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.24 0.32 0.34 0.39 0.47 0.49 0.55 0.60 0.63 0.69 0.75 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.26 0.30 0.35 0.41 0.48 0.50 0.56 0.61 0.64 0.70 0.77
Implementing 49
Implementing 51
Implementing 52
Implementing 53
Analysis
Implementing 51