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FOLDING Folding is a bend in rock strata caused by movement of the earths crust acting horizontally towards a common point or plain from opposite directions. Folds occur in elastic rocks, which tend to bend rather than break. The two main parts of fold are anticlines (up-folds) and synclines (down-folds or trough) the two sides of the folds are called limbs and the fold-axis pass between the limbs through the anticlines and synclines. The fold axis passing through the anticlines or synclines are called axis of anticline and axis of syncline respectively. In the great fold mountains of the world such as the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes and Alps, due to complexity of the compressional forces, the folds developed much more complicated forms.

Fig 1: Structure of fold

Thus on the basis of nature of rocks, intensity of compression force and duration of operation of compression force, different types of folds may be recognized as: 1. Symmetrical folds: These are simple folds; both the limbs are inclining uniformly. They are formed when compression force work regularly but with moderate intensity.

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2. Assymetrical folds: These are characterized by unequal and irregular limbs. In these folds, one side of the limbs are long and gradual while the other sides are shorter and steep. Thus, both the limbs are asymmetrical in terms of inclination and length. 3. Monoclinal folds: These are those in which one side of the limb moderately incline

with regular slope while other side incline steeply at almost right angle to the surface and the slope is nearly vertical. 4. Isoclinal folds: These are those formed when compressive force are strong enough

that both the limbs of the fold are incline in the same direction, making it almost parallel to the surface. 5. Over folds or Overturned folds: These are those folds in which the axial plane is so

far inclined that the strata of the lower limb are overturned or inverted. In this case both the limbs dip or inclined towards the same direction. In other words, both the limbs of the fold became parallel as well as horizontal. 6. Recumbent folds or Over-thrust folds: When folds are very much overturned, so

much so that their axial planes are horizontal or very nearly so, it is described as recumbent folds. These are formed when compression forces are extremely strong that both the limbs become almost parallel to each other as well as to the horizontal surface. In extreme cases, fractures or breaks may occur along the axis, so that the upper part of the recumbent fold slides forward over the lower part along the thrust plane, forming an over-thrust fold. The over riding portion of the thrust fold is termed as nappe (from French, meaning a table cloth). 7. Fan folds: These folds represent an extensive and broad folds consisting of several

8. minor anticlines and synclines. Such folds resemble a fan and is called fan fold. A large

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anticline having many small anticlines and synclines is called anticlinorium and a big syncline consisting of many small anticlines and synclines is known as synclinorium. 9. Open folds: These are those in which the angle between the two limbs is more than 90

degrees but less than 180 degrees (i.e., obtuse angle). Such folds are formed due to moderate nature of compressional force. 10. Close folds: These are those folds in which the angle of the two limbs is less than 90

degrees (i.e., acute angle). Such folds are formed due to intense compression force.

Fig 2: Different types of folds.

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FAULTING A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks along which there is a movement of one side relative to each other. In other words, a fault is a fracture in the earths crust marked by relative displacement or dislocation of rock strata. The movement can be vertical, horizontal or oblique. Faults tend to occur in hard, rigid-rocks, which are more likely to break than to bend. When rock strata are subjected to intense tensional force in horizontal direction, it may break, giving rise to fractures and cracks. Faulting may follow these. Generally, the movement that produces dislocation or displacement of rock strata is sudden. The dislocation however, ranges in amount from a few centimeters to hundreds of kilometers. In all faults one of the dislocated blocks appear to have shifted upward or downward relative to other block, the former, therefore, is known as upthrown side and the later is called downthrown side. The surface along which a fault has taken place is called fault plane, and the line which marks the intersection of fault plane with the earths surface is known as fault line. When the fault plane become smooth on account of movement of block, it is known as slicken side. If the movement produced scratches on the fault plane, they are known as fault strike. A study of fault strike gives an idea of direction of movement. A few other terms regarding an ideal fault are given below: y Fault dip is the angle between the fault plane and horizontal plane, measured from the horizontal. y Strike is the direction of the horizontal line along a rock stratum, which is perpendicular (i.e., right angle) to the dip. y y Hanging wall is upper wall of a fault, which appears to rest on the other. Footwall represents the lower wall of a fault, which supports the hanging wall.

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y y y

Fault scrap is the steep wall-like cliff caused by faulting of the crustal rocks. Heave is the amount of lateral or horizontal displacement. Throw is vertical distance or the amount of vertical displacement between two displaced blocks, along the fault plane.

Hade is the angle between fault plane and vertical or the angle of inclination of the fault plane.

On the basis of position and direction of movements, faults can be classified into the following types: 1. Normal faults: When the blocks on either side of a fault move up or down

vertically in opposite directions, it is called normal fault. In normal fault the slope of the fault plane is usually between 45 and 90. The steep scarp resulting from normal fault is called fault scrap or fault-line scrap, the height of which ranges between a few meters to hundreds of meters. 2. Reverse faults: Reverse faults are formed when the blocks along the fault line

move towards each other and the block on both sides of the fault is strongly compressed, and hence it is also called compression fault or thrust fault. In this fault the hanging wall moves up with respect to the foot wall or the foot wall moves down relative to the hanging wall. Their characteristic feature, therefore, is horizontal compression rather than vertical displacement. Such a fault is called reverse fault because it reverses the slope of the ground. 3. Over-thrust faults: When the compressive force exceeds the strength of the blocks,

one block rides over the other block and the resultant fault is called over-thrust fault in

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which the fault plane become almost horizontal. Since these faults are formed by compression, they are usually accompanied by folds. 4. Lateral faults (Strike-slip faults): In this fault, the fracture extends straight down into the rocks, and the blocks of rock along the fault are displayed horizontally due to horizontal movements. This fault is also known as Transform fault or Transcurrent fault. If the opposite block has moved to the left, it is called left-lateral or sinistral fault. If the opposite block has moved to the right, it is known as right-lateral or dextral fault. 5. Step faults: When a number of parallel faults are thrown down in such a way that the

slope of the fault plane are inclined in the same direction the resultant faults are called step faults The following diagrams show Normal fault, Reverse fault (Compressional), Thrust-fault (Compressional) and Strike-slip fault.

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References
Holmes, Arthur, 1978, Principles of Physical Geography, University Printing House, Oxford, Great Britain. Mahapatra,G.B., 1987, A Text Book of Geology, Mr. Satish Kumar Jain for CBS publishers andDistributors, J.J. Offset Press, Delhi. Windows to the Universe, Retrieved July 13, from http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/fault.html Gupta,A.D. & Kapoor,A.N., 1999, Principles of Physical Geography, S.Chand & Company ltd., Ram Nagar, New Delhi. Fault (geology), from Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia, Retrieved July 13, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(geology).