RajK.

Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Educational Planning and Curriculum Development

Introduction to curriculum development
ThewordcurriculumderivesfromtheLatincurreremeaningtorun.Thisimpliesthatoneofthe functionsofacurriculumistoprovideatemplateordesignwhichenableslearningtotakeplace. Acurriculumismorethanasyllabus.Asyllabusdescribesthecontentofaprogrammeandcanbeseen asonepartofacurriculum. Difference between curriculum and syllabus Education Curriculum Syllabus Content

Types of curriculum Theformalcurriculum:whattheinstitutionplansandorganizestoteach Theinformalcurriculum:whatthestudentslearnfromavarietyofsourcesandinteractions whiletakingpartintheextracurricularactivitiesattheinstitution Thehiddencurriculum:whatthestudentslearnbuttheinstitutiondidnotsetouttoteach. Muchofthisreferstotheaspectslikecaughtnottaught. Some definitions AlbertOliver(1977):curriculumistheeducationalprogramoftheschoolanddividedintofourbasic elements:1)programofstudies,2)programofexperiences,3)programofservice,4)hiddencurriculum. Bell(1971):theofferingofsociallyvaluedknowledge,skills,andattitudesmadeavailabletostudents throughavarietyofarrangementsduringthetimetheyareatschool,college,oruniversity. Harnack(1968):Thecurriculumembodiesalltheteachinglearningexperiencesguidedanddirectedby theschool.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) RalphTyler(1957):Thecurriculumisallofthelearningofstudentswhichisplannedbyanddirectedby theschooltoattainitseducationalgoals. DavidG.Armstrong(1989):"isamasterplanforselectingcontentandorganizinglearningexperiences forthepurposeofchanginganddevelopinglearners'behaviorsandinsights." Bringingallthesepointstogether,thecurriculumisviewedasacompositewholeincludingthelearner, theteacher,teachingandlearningmethodologies,anticipatedandunanticipatedexperiences,outputs andoutcomespossiblewithinalearninginstitution. Curriculum definitions fit into 5 categories. 1. Curriculumasaproductprogram,document,electronicmedia,ormultimedia 2. Curriculumasaprogramofstudyusuallycoursesoffered,curriculumsequencesofstudyin standardsasbenchmarks,gateways, 3. Curriculumasintendedlearningsgoals,content,concepts,generalizations,outcomes 4. Curriculumasexperiencesofthelearneractivities,plannedandunplanned. 5. Hiddencurriculumwhatstudentslearnthatisn'tplanned(alsocalledunofficialorcounter) Curriculum as PRODUCT Advantages canbedescribedinconcretetermsand definiteways providesdirectionforplanningand developmentbyproducingadocument

Disadvantages limitscurriculumtospecificprogramsand coursesdescribedinthosedocuments assumesthatallpossiblecoursescanbe describedinsuchdocuments separatesprocessesoflearningfromwhat istobelearned

Curriculum as PROGRAM Advantages easilydescribedinconcreteterms recognizelearningtakesplaceinmany differentsettingsinschool

Disadvantages viewthatallstudents'learningis containedinprograms programsimplythatwhatisdescribed,is whatstudentswillactuallylearn

Curriculum as INTENDED learnings Advantages curriculumbecomesaconceptratherthan aproduct moremanageablefocusbylimitedscope

Disadvantages Difficulttoclassifyexactintended learnings Difficulttodefinehowtoachieveandwhy itneedstobeachieved

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Curriculum as EXPERIENCES of the learner Advantages focusesonlearningandthelearner,rather thanteaching includesallexperiencesplannedand unplanned canallowforbroaderexperiences canbemoremeaningfullearningifit relatestostudentinterests,needs,orif studentshelpselectmeaningfullearning activities, canbegreaterretentionoflearning Elements of curriculum Thecurriculumhasfourelementsthatareinconstantinteraction: purpose(goalsandobjectives) contentorsubjectmatter methodsorlearningexperiences evaluation Fig:Interactionbetweendifferentelementsofcurriculum Purpose(Goalsandobjectives)

Disadvantages moreabstractandcomplex makescurriculumsocomprehensivethat itcannotbedescribedinsimpletermsor shortphrases

Methodsorlearningexperiences

Content(subjecttobestudied)

Evaluation(PerformanceMeasurement)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Concept of educational Planning

Whatevereducationalplanningis,itiscertainlynotamiracledrugforailingeducational systems. Educationalplanning,initsbroadestgenericsense,istheapplicationofrational,systematic analysistotheprocessofeducationaldevelopmentwiththeaimofmakingeducationmore effectiveandefficientinrespondingtotheneedsandgoalsofstudentsandsociety. Educationalplanningisideologicallyneutral.Itsmethodologiesaresufficientlyflexibleand adaptabletofitsituationsthatdifferwidelyinideology,levelofdevelopment,and governmentalform. Itsbasiclogic,concepts,andprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable,butthepracticalmethodsfor applyingthemmayrangefromthecrudeandsimpletothehighlysophisticated,dependingon thecircumstances.

Itisthereforewrongtoconceiveofeducationalplanningasofferingarigid,monolithicformula
thatmustbeimposeduniformlyonallsituations.

Principles of Educational planning

Educationalplanningshouldbebasedonfollowingcoreprinciples.

DefinedrangeView i. Itshouldhaveashortrange(oneortwoyears),amiddlerange(fourtofiveyears)and alongrangeperspective(tentofifteenyears). ii. Obviouslyitsvisionwillgrowlessprecisethefartheraheaditlooks.Butconsideringthe longleadtimerequiredtoincreaseeducationalcapacityandtoenlargeeducational output,longrangeperspectiveshouldalsobeconsidered.Forexample,forthe productionofdoctorsorengineers,orevenofelementaryschoolteachers;itis necessarytoplanyearsahead. Educationalplanningshouldbecomprehensive. i. Itshouldembracethewholeeducationalsysteminasinglevisiontoensurethe harmoniousevolutionofitsvariousparts. ii. Moreover,itshouldtrytoextenditsvisiontoimportanttypesofnonformaleducation andtrainingtoensuretheireffectiveintegrationwithformaleducationandwiththe priorityneedsandgoalsofsociety. Educationalplanningshouldbeintegratedwiththeplansofbroadereconomicandsocial development. i. Ifeducationistocontributemosteffectivelytoindividualandnationaldevelopment, andtomakethebestuseofscarceresources,itcannotgoitsownway,ignoringthe realitiesoftheworldaroundit. Educationalplanningshouldbeanintegralpartofeducationalmanagement. i. Tobeeffective,theplanningprocessmustbecloselytiedtotheprocessesofdecision makingandoperations

RajK.S Subedi(BPH,MPH) Ed ducationalplanningmustbeconcerned dwiththeQu ualitativeasp pectsofeducational development,notmerelyw withquantitat tiveexpansio n

Educati ional Plan nning spira al

Steps of Curriculum Developme ent Determineand dagreetheed ducationalor rprofessiona alcontextinw whichthepro ogrammeisto obe developedand ddelivered Definethenee edsofthelea arnersinlinewiththerequ uirementsofprofessionalbodies Determinethe eaimsandbroadlearningoutcomesof theprogram mme Id dentifyideasandconstrain nts Agreethebroa adstructurea andframewo orkofthepro ogramme,the emainareaso ofteachingand earning,thesequenceofthemaintopic csandtheke eyassessments le Allocatethedetaileddevel A lopmentofea achtopicorc courseareain ntermsofdef ives finingobjecti an ndlearningoutcomestoin ndividualsor rteams Channelanddirectteamstodevelopco oherentprogr rammeswhic chhavedefine edlearning metables,cont tent,appropr riateteaching g,learningand dassessment tmethodsan nd outcomes,tim whichutilisere w elevantanda availablelearn ningresource es Im mplementandrefinethep programme Agreeanappro opriateandd deliverableev valuationstra ategy Reviewandre evisethecour rseinlinewit thfeedback hasitmettheidentifiedneedsofthe e earnersandotherstakeholders? le

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Determinants of curricular trends

Technologyhashadatremendousimpactonsociety.Educationalcurriculumsmustkeepupwiththe pacesothatfuturegenerationswillbenefitandcontinuedevelopingtechnologicalinnovations.The conceptofknowledgehaschangedfromhavinginformationinthebrain,to"havingaccessto informationaboutaparticulartopicandknowinghowtouseit".Hence,thechangeintrendsof curriculumisdeterminedbyanumberoffactorsthatcanbebroadlyclassifiedastheextrinsicand intrinsicfactors. Extrinsic Factors Political Fromdefininggoals,interpretingcurricularmaterialstoapprovingexaminationsystems,politics affectscurriculumdevelopment. Howpoliticsinfluencescurriculumdesignanddevelopmentstartswithfunding. Bothprivateandpubliceducationalinstitutionsrelyonfundingforhiringpersonnel,building andmaintainingfacilitiesandequipment. Allaspectsofcurriculumdependonlocal,nationalandinternationalpoliticalstandards. Economic Curriculumdevelopedforinhousetrainingincorporationsfocusesoneducatingemployeesfor promotionsthatbringbetterreturnsinprofits. Nationsfinancingeducationexpectaneconomicreturnfromeducatedstudentscontributingto thecountry'seconomywithglobalcompetitionabilitiesintechnicalfields. Technological Thecomputertechnologyofthe21stcenturyinfluencescurriculumdevelopmentateverylevel oflearning. Technologicalmultimediauseinfluenceseducationalgoalsandlearningexperiencesamong students. Diversity (Sociocultural and religious) Religion,cultureandsocialgroupsaffectscurriculum. Affectedbyforceslikeconflicts,conceptsofjusticeandequity,inclusiveness,ethicsetc. Learning Theories (Philosophical) Bothchildandadultlearningtheoriesinfluencecurriculumdevelopment. Intrinsic Factors Acceptanceofthecurriculumbyteachers,studentsandadministratorsoftheacademic institutions Soundorganizationalpolicy,flexibility,financialstability,administrativecapacity Managerialaspectsoftheinstitution(leadership,communication,coordination,motivation, staffing,budgetingetc).

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Organizationalenvironment(physicalinfrastructures,safety,peace,harmony,innovative environmentforstudents,flexiblelawsandorders

Principles of curriculum design

1. PrincipleofUtility:It shouldbeusefulinsolvingproblemsandfacingsituationsinlife. 2. Principleofflexibility:It mustbecapableofaccommodatingthechangesinthechild'sdiverse interest,inclinations& accordancewithsocialrequirements. 3. Principleofchildcenteredness:Theselectionofcontenthastobeinkeepingwiththechild interestsandabilities. 4. Principleoflifecenteredness:Toenableasindividualtofunctionefficiently&facethe challengesinlife.Experiencesshouldachievethephysical,mental,social&emotional development. 5. Principleofcommunitycenteredness:Theneeds,problemsofthecommunityshouldbethe focusdevelopmentofsocialvalues&spiritofinquiry. 6. Principleofcorrelation:Theyshouldbeviewedasanintegratedwholebringingaboutthe development. 7. Principleofactivitycenteredness:Learningthroughpurposefulactivityandactuallife experiencesmakeslearningprocessinterestingandenjoyable. 8. Principlefortheuseofleisure:Theuseofleisureinanappropriatemannerdevelopscreativity, aestheticsenseandvocationalskills. 9. Principleofdevelopmentofcultureandcivilization:Thepupilshouldhavetheknowledgeof theircultureandcivilization. 10. Principleofneedbasedactivity:Itistocatertotheneedsofsociety&providethemanpower forsocialandeconomicdevelopment. 11. Principleofvalue:Fortheinculcationofvalueslikesocialjustice,equalityofopportunity, equalityofsexes,socialvaluesanddemocraticvalues. 12. Conservationprinciples:Conservationsofculturalheritage,monuments,naturalresources, wildlifeshouldbeinculcated. 13. Principleofcreativity:Itshouldstimulateanddevelopthecreativeabilitiesofthepupils. 14. Principleofharmony:Formal&Informaleducation,general,liberalandvocationaleducation, individualandsocialaimsshouldbeskillfullyinterwovenintoaharmoniouswholepavingthe wayforindividualdevelopment&socialupliftment.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Advantages and disadvantages of curriculum

Advantages
Makeslearningspecific,henceeasytolearn Makeslearningsystemicandsequential Makeslearningmeasurable,evaluativeandconcrete Savestimeandresourcestoconducteducationalactivity Helpsachievegoalsandobjectivesifplannedandimplementedcorrectly Nationalandinternationalrecognition

Disadvantages
Societyalwayschanging,sodifficulttomakechangesincurriculumaccordinglyfromtimeto time Needsintensiveworktodevelopagoodcurriculum.Hence,developmentofeffective curriculumrequireshighcost Makeslearningspecific,hencehighchanceofmanyrelevantcontentstobemissedout. Cantincludealllearningtheories Curriculummadeatonesettingmaynotbeapplicableinothersettings Curriculumchangerequiresintense,tediousprocesses Curriculumdevelopmenthighlyinfluencedbypoliticalfactors.Hence,challengetomakeit unbiased

RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)

Types of curriculu um model ls/ appro oaches

Thediffer rentmodelso ofcurriculum mdesignsaregivenbelow : Contentorient ted Behavioristic Processoriented Competencyb based Fl lexnermodel Th he'SPICES'm modelofcurric culumdesign PRISMSmodel l

Content oriented d
Ancientmodel lofcurriculum mdesign Masteryofsub M bjectmatteriscentraltask k St tandardsaresetfor o Subjec ctmattercove ered o Learne ersmasteryo ontheconten nt Atextbookist theprimaryin nstructionaltool Breadthofthe esubjectcent teredcurriculumisdeterm minedbythen numberofsu ubjectstaught t achsubjecthasthreechar racteristics: Ea nt o Conten o Itsinte ellectualdiscipline o Patternfororganizi ingtheconte ent

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

Process oriented curriculum

Thisdesignfocusesonpersonalattributesandskillsoftheindividuallearner. Thesemayincludesuchaspectsas: workingwellwithothers, effectiveleadership, knowinghowtotakeandfollowdirections, communicatingeffectively, makingaccurateobservations, learningindependently, makingdecisions, makinggoodjudgments, inventing, forecasting, planning, monitoringtheeffectsofone'sownactivities, takingcorrectionactionwhennecessary, creating,initiating, developingasoundvaluesystem, havingselfconfidenceandbeingsensitivetoothers

CharacteristicsofProcessorientedcurriculum Thedevelopmentofskillsandtraitsthatwillservethelearnerforalifetimeprocesses Thereisahigherdegreeofcarryoverintoeverydaylivingexperiencesthaninotherdesigns Betterbalancebetweenaffectiveandcognitiveconsiderations. Thelibrarycanprovidematerials,resourcesandservicespromotingindependentlearningand creativity. Thiscurriculumdesignsuffersfromadifficultyinassessinglearningoutcomesduetosubjective judgments Parentsmaybeskepticalasmorefocusisontheprocessratherthanthecontent

RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)

Fig:Process sorientedcur rriculum

Compet tency base ed curricu ulum

COMPETENCYisthew wordusedno ormallytodes scribeaseto ofrelatedskill ls. Th heaimofthe ecompetencybasedcurricu ulumisto: o makes studentsself motivated,robustandlife elonglearne ers o streng gthenthelear rningcultureintheschool o improv veresults

Sixpriorit tyareasfora acompetency ybasedcurric culuminpub blichealthare e cu ulturalcompe etency, healthpromot tionskills, le eadershipdev velopment, programmana agement, dataanalysis,a and ommunityorg ganizing co

(JointCoun ncilofGovernm mentalPublicHealthAgenci ies,1995)

RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)

Fig: :Competency ybasedcurric culumdesign Character risticsofcom mpetencybase edcurriculum ms Competencies aremorehig ghlightedthan nobjectives Outcomesaremorehighlightedthanob O bjectives Le earneractivit tieswillbebasedonperformanceoflea arnerandacc complishmen ntofcriteria; Te eachingactivitiesarelearn nercentered; ; Fo ormativeevaluationisnec cessary.

Stepsofc competencyb basedcurricu ulumdesign 1. Co onductneedsassessment t Whatlearnersneed dtolearn Progra amrequireme ents,boardce ertificationre equirementsa and/orspecia alty,society,e etc. determ minemuchof fthecontentstudentsnee edtolearnon naparticularsubject

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH) 2. Identifycompetenciesaddressed culturalcompetency, healthpromotionskills,leadershipdevelopment, programmanagement, dataanalysis, communityorganizing 3. Writegoalsandobjectivesintermsofcompetencies Thegoalsandobjectiveshelpto: Provideaninstructionalroadmap Provideclarityabouttheeducationalprogramtolearners,teachersandexternal stakeholders Encouragehigherorderlearning Determinetheassessmentmethod 4. Determineteachingmethods Didacticconferences, Clinicalexposure, Casebasedteaching, Rolemodeling, JournalClub, Mentoring, Simulation, Individualorgroupprojects, Researchprojectsetc. 5. Determineassessmentmethods toevaluatethestudentsperformance Bettertousemultiplemethods 6. Determineprogramimprovementmethods Studentevaluationsofthestudy Facultyevaluationsofthestudy Studentsattainmentofthespecificgoalsandobjectivesofeducationalexperience

RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)

Behavio oristic app proach to curriculum m design

Th henatureofa apersonsthinkingcanbe eaffectedthro oughavariet tyofrewards sand co onsequences. Th heaimfored ducationthrou ughbehavior rismistodeve elopappropr riatebehavio orsinthe cl lassroomsett tingthatarec conducivetolearning. Behaviorismre efersmoreto oconditioning gthelearner tobereadyt tolearnandn notsomuch ducating. ed St tepbystepco onditioningp programsareusedtoachie evethedesire edbehaviora andrewardsa are us sedtomotiva ate. Le earnersreceiv vesimpleformsofmotiva ationsuchasv verbalpraise e,smiles,ato ouchonthe sh houlder,andcandy. Ex xtrinsicrewar rdsarefollow wedbytheint trinsicreward ds Th heroleofthe eteacherasa abehavioristisacondition ner. Ifstudentscan nchangethro oughtheirownthinking,th heywillbegin ntobecomec confidentand d mselvesmore e. believeinthem

Fig:B Behavioristicm modelofcurr riculumdesign n yoftheBehav vioristicmod delofcurriculumdesign Summary

ASPECTs EXPLANA ATION Contributors s Thorndike e,Pavlov,Watson,Skinner Viewofthel learningproce ess Changein nthebehaviorguideslearnin ng Locusoflear rning Purposeineducation Educator'sro ole Manifestatio ons Stimuliinexternalenvir ronment Produceb behavioralcha angeindesired ddirection Arrangesenvironmentt toelicitdesired dresponse,fac cilitatesstuden ntcenteredlea arning Sustainab blelearning,de evelopmentof fpositiveattitu udeandskills,l leadership developm ment,entrepreneurship

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

SPICES model of curriculum design

Hardenetalpublishedanarticlein1984whichwasaseminaloneinmedicaleducation.

Itdescribedsixdimensionsaroundwhichamedicalcurriculumcouldbeorganised. Eachofthedimensionscouldberegardedasacontinuum. Thusamedicalcurriculumcouldbelocatedsomewherealongthedimensionsof: o Studentcentred o Problembased o Integrated o Communitybased o Electives o Systematic

TrendsinMedicalEducation(BeforeandafterSPICESmodel)
Flexner(1910)model(ThiswasthemodelbeforeSPICES) Teachercentred Knowledgegiving Disciplineled Hospitaloriented Standardprogramme Opportunistic(apprenticeship)

Hardenetal(1984)TheSPICESmodel Studentcentred Problembased Integrated Communityoriented Electives(+core) Systematic

Blighetal(2001)PRISMS(ThismodelcameaftertheSPICESmodel) Practicebasedlinkedwithprofessionaldevelopment Relevanttostudentsandcommunities Interprofessionalandinterdisciplinary Shortercoursestaughtinsmallerunits Multisitelocations Symbiotic(organicwhole)

RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)

Description of the SPICES model

ThepurposesoftheSPICESmodelare: toreviewanexistingcurriculumtoseewhereimprovementscanbemade todevelopanewcurriculumfromscratch totacklespecificquestionsorissuesrelatingtoacurriculum tohelpdecideonwhatsortofteachingmethodstouseonacourse decidewhatformattheassessmentshouldtake

StudentCentered Mostoftheemphasisisonthelearner Increaseslearnermotivation Prepareslearnersforlifelongselfdirectededucation

Problembased Helpsdevelopproblemsolvingskills Activeparticipationofthelearner Helpsdealwithanovercrowdedcurriculum;highlightsconceptsratherthanknowledge

Integrated Reducesfragmentationofcourses Promotesstaffcommunicationandcollaborationasdepartmentsarebeingintegrated Holisticapproachtolearning

Communityoriented Directcontactwiththecommunitythelearnersarebeingtaughttoserve Seeawidevarietyofconditionsatawidevarietyofstages Learnerslearnaboutthesocialandeconomicaspectofillness

Electives Allowscurricularflexibility Elective+Core Enableslearnerstoexplorefurtherinterestsinmoredetails;matchingtothelearnersneeds

Systematic Teachingisstructuredandorganized Teachingissequential learnercanbecomecompetentandconfidentwiththeleastwasteoftimeandresources Easyforaccreditationandvalidation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Factors influencing curriculum design, level of evaluation and corrective action

Severalfactorsaffectallcurriculumdevelopmentinmeetingtheneedsof21stcenturylearners inbothorganizedacademicsettingsandcorporationlearningcenters. Blueprintingcurriculumdevelopmentrequiresselectinglearninggoals,designingknowledge deliverymodelsandcreatingassessmentmethodsforprogress. Political,economic,technological,sociocultural,religious,philosophical(learningtheories)and environmentalfactorsaffectcurriculumdesign. Factorsinfluencingthecurriculumdesign,evaluationandcorrectiveactioncanbebetter illustratedbyanalyzingthefactorsaffectingeachlevelofcurriculumdesign,evaluationand correctiveaction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determininghealthneedofsociety. Workinghypothesis Defineeducationalobjective. Developteachingprogramme. Observeandrecordaboutbehavioroftrainees. Cognitive Affective Psychomotor Evaluationandanalysis Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables: Teaching Examinationtechnique Budget Environmentstudent Health Situation Objectiverevise Hypothesisrevise

6. 7.

8. 9.

1. Determining health need of the society

Healthneedofthesocietyaffectscurriculumdevelopment Theneedassessmentisalsoinfluencedbymanyfactors. Somefactorsarerelatedtothesocietyandsomearerelatedtothosewhoassesstheneeds Thepoliticalforcesalsoinfluencetheneedassessment

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Differenthealthneeds/gap o Numberofhealthserviceproviders o Morbidity/disability o Mortality o NumberandtypeofHealthinstitutions o Qualityofexistinghealthservices o Adequacyofdrugsanddiagnosticequipments o Qualityofserviceproviders o Healthprofessionalspracticeandconduct o Costofhealthservices o Geographicalaccessibility o PeoplesparticipationinHealthServiceManagement o Informationmanagementsystemetc.

Factors influencing need assessment Societyrelatedfactorsinfluencingneedassessment o Socioeconomicstatusofpeople(education,incomeetc) o Religion o Tradition o Taboos o Availabilityofotherbasicfacilities o Trustonhealthsystem,pastexperiences o Politicalforceswithinsociety,formal&informalleaders o Burdenofdiseases o Populationdensityanddistribution Factorsrelatedtothosewhoassesstheneeds o Educationalstatusofthoseinvolvedinneedassessment o Communicationandcoordinationskills o Language o Financialcapacity o Degreeofobligation,Motivation o Volumeofassignedresponsibility o Complexity o Methodology o Technology o Time o Vestedinterest/hiddenagenda Politicalforcesinfluencingneedassessment o Donorinterestandinfluence o Politicalstabilityofthenation o Prioritybynation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) o o Politicalideologyandcommitment Countryseconomicstatus

2. Working Hypothesis
Aworkinghypothesisisahypothesisthatisprovisionallyacceptedasabasisforfurther research. Itmaynotbedirectlytestedbutprovidesusefulguidanceandagreeabledirections. Maynothaveconcretemathematicalandscientificbasisbutcanprovideideas,informationas wellasqualitativecontentsrequiredforcurriculumdesign. aworkinghypothesisisoftenusedasaconceptualframeworkinqualitativeresearch Initialcoursedesignisusuallyframedasworkinghypothesiswhichwouldbetestedinpractice andthenremodeledaccordingtothestudentsresponse. Settingworkinghypothesisdiscouragesputtingtheceilingonlearningprocessandfacilitates theredesigningofthecurricularelementsasperthefeedbackfromthedifferentstakeholders. Characteristicsofworkinghypothesis o Makeslearningflexible o Helpsinclusionofqualitativeaspectsoflearning o Savesresourcesforfurtherresearches o Complementsscientificandquantitativeassertions o Actsasapivotalfeatureintheprocessofinquiry o Providesprovisionalalertnessforerrorsincorrelationandcausation o Usefulduringbudgetarylimitations o Easytomodifyandchange Factorsinfluencingworkinghypothesis o Learningtheories o Technologicaladvancement,globalization o Politicalsituationofthecountry o Donorsinterest o Resources o Needofthesociety o Motivation,leadership,communication,coordinationandcommunication o Knowledge,attitudeandskillsofpeopleinvolvedincurriculumdesignetc.

3. Define Educational objectives

Educationalobjectivesarethestatementofwhatlearnersareintendedto(afterthespecificsession or/andtheprogramofstudy): o o o Know(cognitive) Think,believe(affective) Do(psychomotor)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Twotypes o o Courseorsessioninstructionalobjective(afterthespecificsessionorcourse) Programlearningobjective(afterthecompletionoftheprogramofstudy)

Courseorsessioninstructionalobjectives: o Statementsofwhatspecificteachersorinstructorsintendforstudentstoknow,think anddoafterthecompletionofthecourseorsession

Programlearningobjectives: o o Statementsofwhattheentirefaculty,collegeortheuniversitybelievesthestudentswill beabletoknow,thinkanddoaftercompletionoftheentireprogramofstudy. Theyarebroaderthanthecourseorsessionobjectives

Why educational objectives?? Tohelpcurriculumplanning,analysisandrenewal Easytogetfeedback Encouragesorganizedlearning Givesmeasurableindicators Standardizationofthecourseandprogramofstudy Writing educational objectives Useverbslikerecall,illustrate,demonstrate,generateetc.basedondifferentdomainsof learningprocess Usetheformat:WhoWhatbehavior.underwhatconditionhowwell??? Examples o Afterthecompletionofthecourse(condition),thestudents(who)willbeableto demonstrate(whatbehavior)thewaterpurificationbySODISmethodcorrectly(how well). Factors influencing the formation of educational objectives Interestofteacher,university,donoretc. Technology Budget Security Time Relevancetocurrentneedsofthesocietyandcountry Leveloftheprogramofstudy(eg.Basic,intermediate,advanced)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

4. Develop teaching programs

Therewasatimewhenauniversitywasalmostsolelyresponsibleforthecontentofitscourses andthecurriculumwaslargelydefinedbyasyllabusthatwaslittlemorethanalistofthe contenttopicsthatweretobedealtwithbymeansofthelectureprogramme. Nowadaystheexplosioninknowledge,coupledwiththedemandsofvariousstakeholders, placestremendouspressuresondecisionsaboutthecontentofthecurriculum. Thereareveryrealtensionsbetweenthewishesoftheteacherswhodeliverthecurriculumto preserveandevenincreasethesubjectcontentoftheircourseandthemanyexternal stakeholderswhowantspaceforthedevelopmentofgeneralskillsthathaveastrongvocational relevance. Therearepressuresfromprofessional/vocationalbodiessuggestingimportantcoreareasof knowledge(content)thatshouldbeincludedintypicalcoursesofstudyinthesubject.

What is teaching program??? Theteachingprogramwhichisablendof curriculumcontent, Methodology philosophicalfoundationand Resources

Goodteachingprogramshouldfollowthekeyprinciplesof Usability Feasibility

Factorsaffectingdevelopmentofteachingprogram Severalcurriculumplayersaffectthedevelopmentofteachingprogram Government(DepartmentofEducation) Textbookpublishers Professionalbodies(Recruitingagencies) School,collegeanduniversity Teachers Students Donors

Besidesthecurriculumplayers,theotherforcesaffectingthedevelopmentoftheteachingprogramare: Currentneedsofthesocietyandcountry Changeinconceptsoflearning(learningtheories) Globalization Financialcapacity Time

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Researches Competenceofcurriculumdevelopers Levelofprogramofstudy

5. Observe and Record about the behavior of trainees

Observing and recording the behavior of trainees: Measurehowwellthestudentsmasteronthecontentsoftheteachingprogram Howthestudentsfeel,believeandvalueabouttheteachingprogram Howskilledthestudentshavebecomeonacquiringtheteachingprogram Usefulness of observing and recording the behavior of trainees.. Findingcurrentgapsinteachingprogram Evaluationandanalysisofperformance Providingfeedbacktothecurriculumdevelopers Furtherplanningandredesigningthecurriculum Levels of observing and recording the behavior of trainees Cognitive(knowledge) Affective(attitude) Psychomotor(motorskills) Factors affecting the observing and recording the behavior of trainees Time Competencyoftheteacher Teachinglearningenvironment Budget Typeandlevelofthecourseorprogramofstudyetc.

Blooms Taxonomy of learning domains

Knowledgeisnotpowerunlessitisactedupon. Theconceptoflearninghaschangedfrommerelyknowingtoknowing,developingattitudeand applyinginlifeprocesses. Acommitteeofcolleges,ledbyBenjaminBloom(1956),identifiedthreedomainsofeducational activities: o Cognitive:Mentalskills(Knowledge) o Affective:growthinfeelingsoremotionalareas(Attitude) o Psychomotor:manualorphysicalskills(Skills)

Cognitivedomain
Itfurtherincludessixdomainslikeknowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesis and,evaluation

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) o Knowledge o Recallingspecificandgeneralitemsofinformationandalsoinformationabout methods,processesandpatterns o KeyWords:defines,describes,identifies,knows,labels,lists,matches,names,outlines, recalls,recognizes,reproduces,selects,states. Comprehension o Recognitionofitemsofinformationsettingssimilartobutdifferentfromthosein whichtheywerefirstencountered. o KeyWords:comprehends,converts,defends,distinguishes,estimates,explains, extends,generalizes,givesanexample,infers,interprets,paraphrases,predicts, rewrites,summarizes,translates. Application o Explainingpreviouslyunseendataoreventsbyapplyingknowledgefromother situations o KeyWords:applies,changes,computes,constructs,demonstrates,discovers, manipulates,modifies,operates,predicts,prepares,produces,relates,shows,solves, uses. Analysis o Breakingdownblocksofinformationintoelementsforthepurposeofclarification. o KeyWords:analyzes,breaksdown,compares,contrasts,diagrams,deconstructs, differentiates,discriminates,distinguishes,identifies,illustrates,infers,outlines,relates, selects,separates. Synthesis o Combiningelementstoformcoherentunitsofinformation. o KeyWords:categorizes,combines,compiles,composes,creates,devises,designs, explains,generates,modifies,organizes,plans,rearranges,reconstructs,relates, reorganizes,revises,rewrites,summarizes,tells,writes. Evaluation o Makingjudgmentaboutthevalueofinformation,materialsormethodsforgiven purposes o KeyWords:appraises,compares,concludes,contrasts,criticizes,critiques,defends, describes,discriminates,evaluates,explains,interprets,justifies,relates,summarizes, supports.

Affectivedomain
Theaffectivedomainincludesthemannerinwhichwedealwiththingsemotionally,suchas o feelings,values,appreciation,enthusiasms,motivations,andattitudes.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Affectivedomainsarefurtherdividedintofivelevels: Receiving: o o Sensitivitytocertainstimuliandawillingnesstoreceiveorattendtothem. KeyWords:asks,chooses,describes,follows,gives,holds,identifies,locates,names,pointsto, selects,sits,erects,replies,uses.

Responding: o o Involvementinasubjectoractivityoreventtotheextentofseekingitout,workingwithitor engaginginit. KeyWords:answers,assists,aids,complies,conforms,discusses,greets,helps,labels,performs, practices,presents,reads,recites,reports,selects,tells,writes.

Valuing: o o Commitmenttoorconvictionincertaingoals,ideasorbeliefs KeyWords:completes,demonstrates,differentiates,explains,follows,forms,initiates,invites, joins,justifies,proposes,reads,reports,selects,shares,studies,works.

Organisation: o o Organisationofvaluesintoasystem,awarenessofrelevanceofandrelationsbetween appropriatevaluesandtheestablishmentofdominantpersonalvalues. KeyWords:adheres,alters,arranges,combines,compares,completes,defends,explains, formulates,generalizes,identifies,integrates,modifies,orders,organizes,prepares,relates, synthesizes.

CharacterisationbyaValueComplex: o o Integrationofbeliefs,ideasandattitudesintoatotalphilosophyofworldview. KeyWords:acts,discriminates,displays,influences,listens,modifies,performs,practices, proposes,qualifies,questions,revises,serves,solves,verifies.

Psychomotor domain
o o o o o Thepsychomotordomainincludesphysicalmovement,coordination,anduseofthemotorskill areas. Developmentoftheseskillsrequirespractice measuredintermsofspeed,precision,distance,procedures,ortechniquesinexecution. Ittalksaboutthethirdlevelofperformancewiththehelpofphysicalmovementwhenthe cognitiveandaffectivelevelshavealreadymet. Itgoesbeyondtheclassroomsettingandfocusesonabilitytoapplythelearntthingsinpractical life.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) o o o Thelearnerhasreachedtheleveltoperforminfrontofothernovicelearners. Hence,thestudenthasreachedthelevelinwhichheismentallypreparedtoactphysically. Hence,thelearnerisabletousesensorycues(signals)toguidemotoractivitywhichgradually extendsuptothelevelinwhichhecanfinallybecomeusedtoitandfurthercandevelopnew movementpatterns.

Detail of the domain Thedifferentcategoriesofthepsychomotordomainfromsimpletocomplexlevelaregivenbelow: 1. Perception:Theabilitytousesensorycuestoguidemotoractivity.Alsocalledtheselectionstep a. KeyWords:chooses,describes,detects,differentiates,distinguishes,identifies,isolates, relates,selects. 2. Set:Readinesstoact.Itincludesmental,physical,andemotionalsets. a. KeyWords:begins,displays,explains,moves,proceeds,reacts,shows,states, volunteers. 3. GuidedResponse:Theearlystagesinlearningacomplexskillthatincludesimitationandtrial anderror.Adequacyofperformanceisachievedbypracticing. a. KeyWords:copies,traces,follows,react,reproduce,responds 4. Mechanism:Thisistheintermediatestageinlearningacomplexskill.Learnedresponseshave becomehabitualandthemovementscanbeperformedwithsomeconfidenceandproficiency. a. KeyWords:assembles,calibrates,constructs,dismantles,displays,fastens,fixes,grinds, heats,manipulates,measures,mends,mixes,organizes,sketches. 5. ComplexOvertResponse: a. Theskillfulperformanceofmotoractsthatinvolvecomplexmovementpatterns. b. Proficiencyisindicatedbyaquick,accurate,andhighlycoordinatedperformance, requiringaminimumofenergy. c. Thiscategoryincludesperformingwithouthesitation,andautomaticperformance. d. TheKeyWordsarethesameasMechanism,butwillhaveadverbsoradjectivesthat indicatethattheperformanceisquicker,better,moreaccurate,etc. 6. Adaptation:Skillsarewelldevelopedandtheindividualcanmodifymovementpatternstofit specialrequirements. a. KeyWords:adapts,alters,changes,rearranges,reorganizes,revises,varies. 7. Origination:Creatingnewmovementpatternstofitaparticularsituationorspecificproblem. Learningoutcomesemphasizecreativitybaseduponhighlydevelopedskills. a. KeyWords:arranges,builds,combines,composes,constructs,creates,designs,initiate, makes,originates.

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6. Analysis and Evaluation

Evaluationisasystematicwayoflearningfromexperienceandusingthelessonlearnttoimprove currentactivitiesandpromotebetterplanningbycarefulselectionofalternativesforfutureaction WHO o o o o Analysisisapartofevaluation. IntheabovedefinitionofevaluationgivenbyWHO,analysisisthesystematicwayoflearning fromexperiences. Thusanalysishelpsidentifythecurrentgapsinteachingprogrammewhereasevaluationis analysis+whatcanbedonetoovercomethecurrentgapsappropriatelyforfutureaction Thusevaluationistheprocessof o Determiningtheappropriatenessofprogramplanning(diagnostic), o Assessingthedegreeofeffectivenessandprogressofprogrammeimplementation (formative), o Measuringthefinalachievementoftheprogram(summative), andfinallysuggestingappropriatemeasuresforcorrectiveaction

6.1. Levels of evaluation o Diagnosticevaluation o Formativeevaluation o Summativeevaluation 6.1.1.Diagnostic evaluation Doneatbeginningofprogram. Alsocalledinputevaluation Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin o needassessment, o workinghypothesis, o settingobjectives, o Selectingcontent o selectingtheappropriatemethodsandresources 6.1.2. o o o Formative evaluation Doneinthemiddleofevaluation Alsocalledprogressevaluation Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin o Deliveringthecontent o Usingtheselectedmethodsandresources o Observingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees o Alsorecommendsthewaysandmeanstoimprovelearningprocedures

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) 6.1.3. Summative evaluation o Doneattheendoftheprogramme o Alsocalledachievementevaluation o Donetoanalyze: o Successoftheprogrammeasawhole.E.g.Developmentinknowledge,attitudeand skillsofstudentsafteroverallprogramme,Changeinthemorbidityandmortalityrate, Improvementofsocioeconomicstatusofpeople o Providesappropriatefeedbackforredesigningthecurriculum Criteria for evaluation (as recommended by WHO) o Adequacy o Relevancy(aspertheneeds) o Efficiency o Appropriateness(techniques,procedures) Methods of evaluation o Interview o Observation o Reviewofrecordsandreports o Meetinganddiscussion Process of evaluation (R.F Mager) o Formulatingtheobjectivesofevaluation o Determiningappropriatetechniquesandtools o Collectingdataandinformationusingdeterminedtechniquesandtools o Analyzingandinterpretingthecollecteddataandinformation o Preparingevaluationreportandrecommendtoconcernedauthorityfornecessaryaction Factors influencing analysis and evaluation o Resourcefactors(Man,material,money,time,technology) o Politicalfactors(instability,bureaucracy) o Performanceandachievementofstudents o Impactofoverallprogramonsociety o Abilityoftheanalystsandevaluators

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7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables

Manipulative variables o Manipulativemeansskillfulatinfluencingsborforcingsbtodowhatyouwant,ofteninan unfairway,byediting,redesigningetc. o Somanipulativevariablesareatriskofbeingusedinanunfairwaythatmayhinderthe effectivenessofteachingprogramme o Hencecorrectiveactionneedstobedonebasedonmanipulativevariablesforeffectiveteaching learningactivities. Some manipulative variables Teaching Examinationtechnique Budget Environmentstudent(setting) Health(degreeofconcern) Situation(situationofcollege(HR),university(concern),society(needs,pressure),job opportunities(filtering),politicalsituation,trendacrossuniversities) Factors affecting the corrective action based on manipulative variables: Interest,levelofparticipation,pressureandfeedbackfromthestudents Cognitive,affectiveandpsychomotorlevelofthestudents ResearchesrelatedtoHRissues,schoolhealthetc. Pressurefromparents,society,university Competition

8. Objective Revise
1. Objectivesarethestatementofwhatlearnersareintendedto(afterthespecificsessionor/and theprogramofstudy): Know(cognitive) Think,believe(affective) Do(psychomotor) 2. Twotypes Courseorsessioninstructionalobjective(afterthespecificsessionorcourse) Programlearningobjective(afterthecompletionoftheprogramofstudy)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) 3. ObjectiveRevisionishencetheRevisionofthestatementsofwhatthelearnersareexpectedto doaftercompletionofthesession,courseortheoverallprogram 4. Objectiverevisionisoneofthestepsincorrectiveactionincurriculumdesigninwhichchange ormodificationisdoneasperthe: Analysisandevaluationprocesses. Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables Changeintheconceptsandtheoriesoflearning 5.Suppose,thecorrectiveactionisdoneintheexaminationtechniqueasfollows:E.g.letus supposethat, Previouslyitwassubjectivequestionsinwhichstudentshadtoexplainaboutdomains oflearningandnow,itismultiplechoicequestionsinwhichstudentshavetoidentify whichbehaviorfallsunderwhatdomainoflearning. Hencethepreviousobjectiveandrevisedobjectivewillhavedifferentexpectationsfrom thestudents

9. (Working) Hypothesis Revise

Initialcoursedesignisusuallyframedasworkinghypothesiswhichwouldbetestedinpractice andthenremodeledaccordingtothestudentsresponse. Hencerevisionofworkinghypothesiscanbedoneastheyareflexibleandwerejustthedraft hypothesispreviouslywhentheywereinitiallydesigned.

Why revision of hypothesis?? Toavoiderrorsandfulfillgapsinthecurrenthypothesis Tomakecurriculummorestableandfunctional Tofacilitatethelearningprocess, torevisethecontentsasperthechangeintheneedsofthestudents,societyandcountry Toobeythediagnostic,formativeandsummativeevaluationprocedures Factors affecting revision of working hypothesis Changeintheneeds Changeinlearningtheories Researches Resources Findingsfromtheevaluationprocesses

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)

Curriculum change
Thedevelopmentinthefieldofeducationispossiblebythegradualimprovementand advancementi.e.change Curriculumalsoneedstochangeovercertainperiodoftimetocomplythetrendinthefieldof educationsoastomeettherequirementofstudents,colleges,university,recruitingagencies andthesociety Curriculumchangeishenceessentialandequallychallengingthatrequirescarefulprocedures startingfromreviewingandrevisingtheeducationalobjectivestotheevaluationofthe outcomesofeducation.

Steps of curriculum change

1. Objectivesofeducation 2. Diagnosisindevelopedcurriculum Achievement(examinationperformance,proficiencyincompetencytoservesociety) Studentaslearner(interview,meetingsanddiscussions) Curriculumproblem(inappropriatedepthandbreadth,lessadaptable,lesssignificant andlessapplicableetc.)

3. Selectionofcurriculumcontentandexperience(keepingfollowingthingsinconsideration) Rationalselection Problemestablishingcriteria(i.e.problemsettlingcriteria) Significance Depthandbreadth Adaptability Appropriateneedandinterestoftrainees

4. Organizationofcurriculumexperiencesandlearning 5. Evaluationoftheoutcomesofcurriculum

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1. Objectives of education:
organizededucationcontainvariedpossibilitiesforlearning,whetherornotthepersons involvedinplanningthecurriculumcontenttakethemintoaccountinmakingdecisions. Unfortunately,thepossibilitiesfornegativelearningarealsoavailablelike: Inadequategoodfeelingstoselfandothers Mechanicalresponseswithoutcompleteunderstanding Overdependence Jumpingtoconclusionswithoutmuchthoughtorevidenceetc.

Hence,clarityofobjectivesisoneofthemostimportantaspectsindesigningthecurriculum. So,duringthecurriculumchangeprocess,theobjectivesshouldbereviewedandrevised keepingthefollowingthingsinconsideration: theacquisitionofdesirablelearningshouldnotbeplacedtochance Weshouldntoveremphasizecertainlearninginwaysthatleadstolessemphasison desirablelearning Weshouldequallybealertonpotentialnegativelearning

Thus,objectivesshouldbereviewedandrevisedtomake abalancebetweenCognitive,affectiveandpsychomotordomainsoflearning abalancebetweenCourseorsessionobjectivesandoverallprogramobjectives

2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum

Achievement(examinationperformance,proficiencyincompetencytoservesociety) Studentaslearner(interview,meetingsanddiscussions) Curriculumproblem(inappropriatedepthandbreadth,lessadaptable,lesssignificant andlessapplicableetc.)

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2.1. achievement
Thediagnosiscanbedoneindifferentways.Achievementisoneofthem.TheAcademicperformanceof thestudentsaswellastheirpracticalskillscanbeevaluatedinordertomakenewcurriculum experiencewiththeaimofdevelopingcurriculumexperiencetoimproveperformance Thediagnosisintheachievementisdonetoevaluatethefollowing: Theexaminationperformanceofthestudents(Writtenandverbalexaminations) Proficiencyincompetenciestoservethesociety Evaluationofperformanceintheprofessionalorganizationsbymeasuring competencies(directmeasurement) Feedbackfromtherecruitingagencies,communitypeopleetc(indirect measurement)

2.2. Student as learner

Thestudentscanalsobeaskedwhetherornottheyhaveexperiencedthepositivelearning. Thediagnosisofstudentaslearnerisdonebecauseofthefollowingreasons: Theremaybenegativelearningexperienceslikelessfeelingofgoodtoselfandothers, mechanicalresponseswithoutcompleteunderstanding,abuseandunnecessary pressure,lesssupportfromthecurriculumimplementersetc. Toassessthemotivationlevelofstudentsandtheirinvolvementincurriculum experience.

Thedifferenttechniquestodiagnoselearningexperiencebystudentscanbedoneby: Reviewmeeting Interview Discussions Seminarsetc.

2.3. Curriculum problem

Inappropriatedepthandbreadth Thecontentsareanalyzedhowdeepthecontentshavegoneintoandhowwidehave theyreached. Depthisdiagnosedtoanalyzethecontentadequacyorsufficiency Breadthisdiagnosedtoanalyzecontentlinkagetootherdisciplines

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Lessadaptable Thecontentsandteachingmethodologiesarediagnosedtoevaluatewhetherornotthe curriculumexperiencescanbeinternallyacceptedbythestudentstomakeitanintegral partoftheirlifeandwhetherornotthestudentscanadaptthecurriculumexperiences. Alsotakesintoaccounttheadaptabilityintermsofsocioculturaldeterminants,legal provisions,choiceandinterestetc

Lesssignificant Whetherornotthecurriculumexperiencesareaspertheneedofthestudents,society Whetherornotthecontentsarevalidandreliable

Lessapplicable Whetherornotthelearningexperiencesarepossibleinreallifesituationsi.e.volume andcomplexity Whetherornotthelearntthingscanreallybetranslatedintobehaviorsi.e.feasibility

3. Selection of curriculum content and experience

Whilecontentisthemeatofthecurriculumplan,wecanconsiderlearningexperiences plannedforthestudentsastheheartoftheplan(OrnsteinandHunkins,1998). Thelearningexperiencesarethemeanstowardsachievingthegoalsandobjectivesofthe curriculum. Curriculumexperienceisalsocalledthelearningexperience Tylerusedthetermlearningexperienceinhismodelofcurriculumdesign Itistheinstructionalcomponentofthecurriculuminwhichthestudents,teachersandcontent interactamongeachother Hencecurriculumexperienceincludesthefollowing: Methods(thelecturemethod,smallgroupdiscussion,roleplaying,fieldwork) learningactivities(answeringquestions,solvingproblems,journalwriting,viewing videos,doingexperiments,playinggames) Useofresources(whiteboards,markers,charts,LCD,OHPetc.)

Thecurriculumexperienceisselectedinsuchawaythatitmeetsthenewlyrefinedand designedobjectivesofeducation(Rationalselection)

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Rationalselectionisdoneforbothcontentsaswellasexperiences Therationalselectionofcontentsisdoneonthebasisofproblemestablishingcriterialike: Rationalselectionofcurriculumexperiencesisdoneby: Properselectionofteachingmethodologyasperthecontent Properselectionofactivitiesasperthemethodology Properselectionoftheresourcesforcarryingoutactivities Rationalselectionhelpsformutualinteractionbetweentheteacher,studentandcontent Theselectionisinfluencedby:budget,time,competencytouseresources,technological advancementetc. Significance Depthandbreadth Adaptability Appropriateneedandinterestoftrainees

4. Organizing curriculum experiences and learning

Afterhavingdecidedonthecontentandcurriculumexperiences,thenextstepistoorganisethemina formthatwillfacilitatelearning.

Principles of Content Organisation

Thefollowingprincipleshavebeenproposedwhendecidingoncontentorganisation(Sowell,2000; Ornstein&Hunkins,1998): Scope Whendecidingaboutthescopeofacurriculum,thefollowingguidelinesmaybeuseful: Theusefulnessofthecontentselected. whetherthecontentcaterstodiversestudentabilities iftheamountofcontentselectedcanbecoveredinthespecifiedperiodoftime if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Sequence Sequencereferstotheorganisationofcontentandtheextenttowhichitfosterscumulativeand continuouslearning(referredtoasverticalrelationshipamongsectionsofthecurriculum). Thefollowingaresomeprinciplesidentifiedasguidelinesinsequencing the curriculum:(Ornsteinand Hunkins,1998,Taba,1962,Bruner,1960). a) Simple to complex content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complexcomponentsdepictinginterrelationshipsamongcomponents.Optimallearningoccurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstractcontent. b) SpiralInaspiralcurriculum,conceptsmaybeintroducedonasimplelevelintheearlygrades, thenrevisitedwithmoreandmorecomplexityandapplicationlateron(Bruner,1960) c) Prerequisitesitworksontheassumptionthatbitsofinformationorlearningmustbegrasped beforeotherbitsofinformationcanbeunderstood. d) Wholetopartcontentisbetterunderstoodifanoverview(whole)isfirstpresentedtoshow theconnectionsbetweentheparts. e) Chronology this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history,politicalscienceandworldevents. f) VerticalorganisationThissimplymeansthatcontentandskillsarearrangedsothattheybuild on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicatewhatstudentshavelearnedandwhattheywilllearnlater. g) HorizontalorganisationItinvolveshowskillsandcontentthataretaughtduringonelevelor oneperiodoftimerelatetoanother.Forexample,inasocialsciencecourse,youmightconsider particularissuesfromahistorical,sociological,politicalandeconomicpointofview. Integration Integrationisthebringingtogetheroftheconcepts,skillsandvaluesofdifferentsubjectareasto reinforceeachother.Bitsofinformationfromdifferentsubjectareasarebroughttogetherinsuchaway topresentthelearnerwithaunifiedpictureofknowledge. Exampleoftheintegratedcurriculumincludessciencetechnologysociety.Inthesciencetechnology society(STS)curriculum,scienceiscombinedwithsocialsciencesinattemptingtosolvepractical, everydayproblems.Theintegratedapproachtakesthestudentoutsidethelaboratoryandawayfrom thetextbookintothelocalcommunity. Continuity Continuityensuresthatideas,themesandskillsarerepeatedasthelearnerprogressesthroughthe grades.Forexample,studentsintheprimarygradesaretaughttheprinciplesofessaywriting.Thesame principlesarerepeatedinthesucceedingyears.Continuityensuresthereappearanceofcertainmajor ideasatdifferentgradelevelsatincreaseddepthandcomplexityoverthelengthofthecurriculum.

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Criteria for organizing learning experiences:

Domainsoflearning: Methodsandmaterialsshouldbeorganizedinsuchawaythatitmeetstheobjectivesindifferentlevels insequencei.e.fromcognitive,affectivetopsychomotor.Forexample,lecturemethodgroup discussiondemonstration Feasibility: Thelearningexperiencesshouldalsobeorganizedinsuchawaythattheycanbecarriedoutin sequencewithtime,availablefacilitiesandexpertiseofteachers.Theyareprioritizedaccordinglyin whichsomelearningexperiencesmaybeomittedandsomemayberepeatedlyusedinsequence. Complexity: Thesimplemethodsandmaterialsareselectedfirstwhicharefollowedbymoreandmorecomplex methodsandmaterialstoenhancesequentiallearning.

5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum

Whenthenewdraftcurriculumhasbeenformedduringthecurriculumchangeprocess,the evaluationofoutcomesofthecurriculumisnecessarybeforemakingitaccepted,accreditedand stable. Theoutcomesofcurriculumareevaluatedbythesummativeevaluation.

Twolevels: toknowiflearnersachievedtheobjectives whethertheprogrammeproducedthedesiredoutcomes.

Somequestionsthatcanbeusedwhileevaluatingtheoutcomesofcurriculum: 1) Havethecompetenciesdevelopedinstudentsasperthesetobjectivesafterthecompletionof theprogramofstudy? 2) Hasthecurriculumbeenapplicableinreallifesituations? 3) Hasthelackofhumanresourcesinthesocietybeenovercome? 4) Arethepeoplebenefittedbythegivencurriculum?Towhatextent? 5) Hasthegivencurriculumbeensuccessfulinobeyingthesocioculturalnormsandvalues?Etc.

RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Methodsofevaluation: Questionnairesurvey Keyinformantinterviews Focusgroupdiscussions Observations Casestudy Reviewofrecordsandreports

Processofevaluation: Formulatingtheobjectivesofevaluation Determiningappropriatetechniquesandtools Collectingdataandinformationusingdeterminedtechniquesandtools Analyzingandinterpretingthecollecteddataandinformation Preparingevaluationreportandrecommendtoconcernedauthorityfornecessaryaction