JONIZING RADIATION. IONISING RADIATION 1.1, Introduction The term ionising radiation is used to denominate both electromagnetic radiant flux (eg. radiation X, 7) and loaded particle flux. The property which the two types of radiation have in common is the ionisation medium resulting from their activity. This radiation, used in medicine in certain doses is helpful both in diagnostics and therapy. It must be emphasized that any deviation from the recommended dosing of the radiation may prove counter effective. That is why there is so much concem about proper dosing of the radiation and the protection of patients and medical staff against excessive exposure to it. 1.2. Interaction between ionising radiation and matter. For long time it has been known that atoms of elements consist of nuclei which contain both neutrons and positrons. Around the nucleus in circular orbits travel electrons. The number of electron shell depends on the type of the element and ranges from 1 to 7. There is a maximum number of electrons for each shell: NR shell 4 2a eZ Max electrons HH: 3118 Letetet Talal s As it appears, the number of electrons in each shell is different which is determined by the structure if the atom and consequently the interactions occurring within it. In the last shell, regardiess of its number, there may only be 8 electrons at the most, and these electrons are called valence electrons or outer-shell electrons. : When a particle or atom is supplied with the right amount of ionising energy the electron disconnects loose and the ionising takes place. The products of the ionising process are a positive ion and a free electron. Such free electrons can, in the tight conditions, join other atoms or particles thus forming negative ions. Not all particles can perform ionisation - the only particles which can are the ones whose energy is equal to or greater than the ionisation potential. The ionisation potential is the product of work needed to separate the least strongly attached electron times jts electric charge. (iced) z ip. It is expressed in volts and for different atoms it adopts their characteristic value ranging from 3,9 V (caesium) to 24,5 V (helium). It follows that helium’s ionisation potential is the greatest. It is a precious gas and its nucleus consists of one proton and one neutron - its two valence electrons circulating in its only orbit, which makes the attraction force between them so strong that the ionisation potential needed to ionise this atom is the greatest. It is not without a reason that the gases of the last 8" main group are called precious gases, These elements rarely interact with other elements, and if it happens they usually form short-lived hydrates. The particles of precious gases have one nucleus. lonising radiation is only that radiation which carries energy strong enough to induce many ionising occurrences. It is this property of ionising radiation which ” poses the greatest danger to matter. This radiation can be classified into direct ionising radiation (particles with charge - particles a, f, protons, nuclei of recoil) and indirect ionising radiation (particles without charge - photons of radiation X and y, neutrons)LONIZING RADIATION 1.2.1. Direct ionising radiation Particles with heavy electric charge strongly interact with matter. Positive particles ionise atoms of matter taking away electrons - power of electrostatic attraction, whereas negative particles push them out - power of electrostatic repulsion. The capacity to ionise charged particles is directly proportional to the charge of the particle, and inversely proportional to its velocity. 1.2.2. Indirectly lionizing radiation. 1.2.2.a Interaction of radiation X and y with matter. + Photoelectric effect This phenomenon was discovered in 1888 by Hallwachs who observed that a zinc plate exposed to ultraviolet radiation becomes positive. However it was only in 1902 that Lenard formed the basic laws governing the photoelectric phenomenon. ‘A quantum of electromagnetic radiation (photon) with a specific energy hv, upon collision with an atom, strikes the electron out of its structure thus ionising it. The kinetic energy of the free electron produs in this way follows from the equatior rl ORION mv" WK: The energy difference carried by photon minus electronic work function results in kinetic energy of free electron. Such free electron when encountering another particle or atom ionises it. + Compton effect Compton scattering effect was discovered and described by A.H. Compton in 1922. It consists in scattering of radiation quanta on free electrons and bound electrons, whose binding energy is so weak compared with the energy of the quantum, that we can consider them as free electrons. As a result of such scattering, the energy of the colliding quantum decreases, the quantum itself changing the direction of propagation. The colliding quantum's wavelength 2. is shorter than the wavelength of the scattered quantum 4. + Electron-positron pair formation effect. When the energy of the photon which is penetrating a material medium is greater than the rest energy of two electrons, i.e. exceeds 1,02 MeV 1,02 MeV=2mqc? (threshold energy of the electron pair formation) we observe the phenomenon of electron-positron pair formation. The energy balance of this process can be described as follows: The probability of the occurrence of the electron-positron pair formation is directly proportional to the square of the atomic number of atoms interacting with the radiation y and is also directly proportional to the energy of the photon. The pair formed in this way is not stable and in the right conditions the annihilation of the electron pair takes place. During the annihilation, the positron and electron (negatron) disappear and are replaced by two quanta y with opposite directions. The phenomenon follows the law of conservation of energy i.e. the total energy of the positron-electron pair equals the total energy of quanta y formed during the annihilation, L2.2.b Interaction of neutrons with matter As a result of the interaction of neutrons with matter during collision kick’s protons are formed.LONIZING RADIATION «As a result:of free neutrons capture by e.g. hydrogen, isotope of hydroge! formed —»deuterium and quantum of radiation y. * Normal atom of carbon ‘C ccntains 6 protons 6 neutrons of isotope of carbon “C. and it contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons. This isotope is formed as a result if bombardment of atoms of nitrogen “*N (7 protons, 7 neutrons) which are found in the atmosphere free neutrons flux. cosmic radiation which results in 1 neutron being placed in the atom of nitrogen and at the same time 1 proton being pushed out. Alll these products cause ionisation of atoms and particles of the medium through which they come. 1.2.3 Formation of free radicals As a result of ionising radiation the particle's bonds may be broken, which produces atoms with unpaired valence electrons called free radicals. Because of the high water content in living organisms its radiolysis is particularly important because of the effects it produces on these organisms. ‘Two most basic formulas for water radiolysis: a) photon H20->H0*+H"+OH" OH lasts for only10*s b) photon-+H20->H,0" + € H:0+3H" + OH Free radicals are a product of water radiolysis, they initiate biochemical reactions which result in damage to the particles responsible for normal functioning of cells and tissues. This is an effect of indirect interaction of ionising radiation with living organisms. 1.3. LET, density of radiation Intensity of primary physical phenomena like ionisation, excitation is described by LET function (Linear Energy Transfer): E uer=“! Al It describes the amount of energy AE lost by a particle per one unit of distance Al. LET can be linked:-with specific ionisation (or density of ionisation): AE _An-E, LET =—— = + AL AL An where—— - number of pairs ions (homonymous) formed in the distance Al, Ej — ionisation energy. LET value for loaded particles depends on 2 1.N-Z, v where q stands for charge of the particle, v ~its speed, N — number of atoms of absorbent per capacity unit, and Z— atomic number of the atoms of absorbent LET ~ + Regarding the importance of X and y radiation, let us determine quantitative intensity of this radiation when coming through matter. Intensity of radiation | is the amount of energy carried by beam of radiation through unitary surface perpendicular to direction of partition of particle in a time unit. As a result of the above-mentioned phenomena of absorption and scattering of 3