25.

1/2000

International Rice Reasearch Notes

Copyright International Rice Research Institute 2000

International Rice Research Institute IRRI home page: http://www.cgiar.org/irri Riceweb: http://www.riceweb.org Riceworld: http://www.riceworld.org IRRI Library: http://ricelib.irri.cgiar.org IRRN: http://irriwww/IRRIHome/irrn.htm http://www.cgiar.org/irri/irrn.htm

The International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) expedites communication among scientists concerned with the development of improved technology for rice and rice-based systems. The IRRN is a mechanism to help scientists keep each other informed of current rice research findings. The concise scientific notes are meant to encourage rice scientists to communicate with one another to obtain details on the research reported. The IRRN is published three times a year in April, August, and December by the International Rice Research Institute.

About the cover Indonesian scientists are trained on how to use the chlorophyll meter in Sukamandi, Java.

Inset: Chlorophyll (SPAD) meter for need-based, real-time nitrogen management in rice. Cover photos: V. Balasubramanian

Editorial Board Michael Cohen (pest science and management), Editor-in-Chief Zhikang Li (plant breeding; molecular and cell biology) David Dawe (socioeconomics; agricultural engineering) Bas Bouman (soil, nutrient, and water management; environment) Bao-Rong Lu (genetic resources) Shaobing Peng (crop management and physiology)

Production Team Katherine Lopez, Managing Editor Editorial Bill Hardy and Tess Rola Design and layout CPS design team, Grant Leceta, and Arleen Rivera Artwork Juan Lazaro and Emmanuel Panisales Word processing Arleen Rivera

Contents
4
MINI REVIEW Adaptation of the chlorophyll meter (SPAD) technology for real-time N management in rice: a review
V. Balasubramanian, A.C. Morales, R.T. Cruz, T.M. Thiyagarajan, R. Nagarajan, M. Babu, S. Abdulrachman, and L.H. Hai

RESEARCH NOTES
Plant breeding

9 Evaluation of anther culture-derived lines

under upland conditions for the North Eastern Hill of India
A. Pattanayak and H.S. Gupta

11 Performance of cold-tolerant rice lines developed

through anther culture for mid-altitude areas of Meghalaya, India
A. Pattanayak, R.N. Bhuyan, H.S. Gupta, M. Sreedhar, and M.S. Prasad

10 Petei and Mocoi: two rice cultivars developed

through anther culture in Argentina
M.A. Marassi, J.J. Marassi, J.E. Marassi, and L.A. Mroginski

12 Reactions to an inferred resistance of Indian and

Bangladesh rice varieties to bacterial blight
K.S. Lee, E.R. Angeles, and G.S. Khush

April 2000

Pest science & management

14 Effect of variety and sowing date on false smut

incidence in upland rice in Edo State, Nigeria
M.O. Ahonsi, A.A. Adeoti, I.D. Erinle, M.D. Alegbejo, B.N. Singh, and A.A. Sy

17 Pathogenicity of cyst nematode, Heterodera

sacchari, on rice in sand and clay soil
D.L. Coyne and R.A. Plowright

18 A simple method for evaluating the virulence 15 Stem borer species composition
in Tamil Nadu, India
J.C. Ragini, D. Thangaraju, and P.M.M. David

of the brown planthopper

K. Tanaka

20 Hymenopteran diversity in single- and double16 An integrated approach to managing

rice stem nematodes
S. Chakraborti

cropped rice ecosystems in Kerala, India

S. Pathummal Beevi, K.R. Lyla, and T.C. Narendran

Soil, nutrient, & water management

22 Comparative efficiency of N management

practices on rainfed lowland rice in Batac, Philippines
A.C. Morales, E.O. Agustin, M.P. Lucas, T.F. Marcos, D.A. Culanay, and V. Balasubramanian

27 Evaluation of N management practices for

irrigated transplanted rice in Pondicherry, India
R. Balasubramanian, S. Ramesh, D. Maniamran, S. Anbumani, B. Vijayalakshmi, D. Tiroutchelvame, and R.S.S. Hopper

23 Assessing genotypic variation in N requirements

of rice with a chlorophyll meter
T.M. Thiyagarajan, S. Aruna Geetha, and V. Balasubramanian

28 Polymer-coated urea: an efficient controlledrelease N source for irrigated transplanted rice

T.M. Thiyagarajan, S. Aruna Geetha, Mir Zamman Hussain, P. Saradha, P. Janaki, and V. Balasubramanian

24 Effect of planting density on chlorophyll meterbased N management in transplanted rice

P. Janaki, T.M. Thiyagarajan, V. Balasubramanian

Crop management & physiology

30 Control of red rice seed banks under different

lowland management systems
Luis Antonio de Avila and Enio Marchezan

31 Identifying and grading limiting factors of upland

rice yields in farmers fields of northern Thailand
K. Van Keer, G. Trbuil, and Eric Goz

34 NOTES FROM THE FIELD 37 RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS 39

40 NEWS 47 INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

IRRN 25.1

MINI REVIEW

Adaptation of the chlorophyll meter (SPAD) technology for real-time N management in rice: a review
V. Balasubramanian, A.C. Morales, IRRI; R.T. Cruz, Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice); T.M. Thiyagarajan, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University; R. Nagarajan, M. Babu, Soil and Water Management Research Institute (SWMRI), India; S. Abdulrachman, Research Institute for Rice, Indonesia; and L.H. Hai, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),Vietnam E-mail: v.bala@cgiar.org

lanket or package fertilizer recommendations over large areas are not efficient because indigenous nutrient supply varies widely among rice fields in Asia (Dobermann and White 1999, Olk et al 1999). Rice crops thus require different amounts of nutrients in different fields, depending on native nutrient supply and crop demand. Farmers will benefit significantly if they can adjust N inputs to actual crop conditions and nutrient requirements. The chlorophyll meter can be used to monitor plant N status in situ in the field and to determine the right time of N topdressing in rice (Peng et al 1996b, Balasubramanian et al 1999).
4

By using this tool, we can synchronize fertilizer N application with actual crop demand. This paper reviews the development and adaptation of the chlorophyll meter technique for efficient N fertilization in rice. Chlorophyll meter The chlorophyll meter (or SPAD meter) is a simple, portable diagnostic tool that measures the greenness or relative chlorophyll content of leaves (Inada 1963, 1985, Kariya et al 1982). Meter readings are given in Minolta Company-defined SPAD (soil plant
April 2000

analysis development) values that indicate relative chlorophyll contents. There is a strong linear relationship between SPAD values and weight-based leaf N concentration (Nw), but this relationship varies with crop growth stage and/or variety (Takebe and Yoneyama 1989, Turner and Jund 1994), mostly because of leaf thickness or specific leaf weight (Peng et al 1993). The confounding effect of leaf thickness can be eliminated if foliar N concentration is expressed on a leaf-area basis. Leaf area-based N concentration (Na) has a unique linear relationship with SPAD values of rice plants at all growth stages (Peng et al 1995). The linear relationship between Na and SPAD values has led to the adaptation of the SPAD meter to assess crop N status and to determine the plants need for additional N fertilizer (Peng et al 1995, 1996b; Balasubramanian et al 1999). SPAD readings indicate that plant N status and the amount of N to be applied are determined by the physiological N requirement of crops at different growth stages. Suggested N rates for different growth stages are provided in Table 1. Measuring SPAD values in the field SPAD readings are taken at 7- to 10-d intervals, starting from 14 d after transplanting (DAT) for transplanted rice (TPR) and 21 d after seeding (DAS) for wet direct-seeded rice (DSR). Periodic readings continue up to the first (10%) flowering. The youngest fully expanded leaf of a plant is used for SPAD measurement. Readings are taken on one side of the midrib of the leaf blade, midway between the leaf base and tip. In early growth stages, when leaves are too narrow to allow SPAD measurements on one side of the midrib, the leaf tip can be used for measuring SPAD values. SPAD readings are more stable under the shade between 1000 and 1600 h of the day. Thus, it is recommended that SPAD readings be taken under the shade and at the same time of day, if possible. A mean of 10-15 readings per field or plot is taken as the measured SPAD value. Whenever SPAD values fall below the set critical values, N fertilizer should be applied immediately to avoid yield losses from N deficiency.
Table 1. Amount of N (kg ha-1) to be applied when measured SPAD values fall below established critical values. Crop duration Growth phase Short Medium Long (100-115 d) (125-135 d) (145-165 d) N (kg ha-1) Dry season Wet season

SPAD threshold or critical value The SPAD threshold or critical value indicates the leaf area-based critical N concentration (Na) in rice leaves. Whenever SPAD readings fall below the critical value, the crop suffers from N deficiency, and yields will decline if N fertilizer is not applied immediately. For example, a SPAD threshold value of 35 is equal to 1.41.5 g N m-2 of leaf area in semidwarf indica varieties (Peng et al 1996b). The SPAD threshold is not affected by luxury consumption because a plant will produce only as much chlorophyll as it needs, regardless of how much N is in the plant (Peterson et al 1993). Different SPAD threshold values are needed to optimize rice yields under different conditions (see discussion below). Factors affecting SPAD values Several factors affect SPAD values: radiation differences between seasons, plant density, varietal groups, nutrient status other than N in soil and plant, and biotic and abiotic stresses that induce leaf discoloration (Peterson et al 1993, Turner and Jund 1994). Users should be aware of these interfering factors and should take adequate precautions against them while using the chlorophyll meter. Effect of radiation (season). Seasonal differences in radiation affect the SPAD critical value. For example, in the Philippines, a SPAD threshold value of 35 works well for semidwarf indica varieties in transplanted rice systems during the dry season (DS). This critical value has to be reduced to 32 for TPR during the wet season (WS) when radiation is low due to continuous, heavy cloud cover for most of the growing season (WS rice yields are less than 60% of the DS yields) (Balasubramanian et al 1999). In India, however, the critical SPAD value for TPR is 37 for the wet (kharif) season and 3537 for the dry and winter (rabi) season to obtain high yields (IRRI-CREMNET 1998). This could be due to higher radiation in both seasons in India. Effect of plant or tiller density. Plant density as determined by the method of crop establishment influences SPAD readings. In the Philippines, a SPAD critical value of 35 optimizes grain yields for TPR with productive tillers of 450500 m-2 in the DS. When the same threshold was used for wet direct-seeded rice (W-DSR), N rates were high and grain yields were low (Balasubramanian et al 1999). Janaki and Thiyagarajan (p 24, in this issue) showed that, when the same SPAD threshold was used for various plant densities (33100 m-2) in TPR, more N was needed to produce similar grain yields in Coimbatore, India. Under Philippine conditions, a SPAD threshold of 30 is optimum for broadcast W-DSR with around 800 productive tillers m-2 (grain yield = 6,848 kg ha-1 in 1997 DS) and 32 for row W-DSR with 650 productive tillers m-2 (grain yield = 6,830 kg ha-1 in 1997 DS) for both WS and DS (Balasubramanian et al 1998). It was observed earlier that foliar N concentration in broadcast-seeded rice was less than that of TPR at all growth stages, irrespective of amount of N applied (Peng et al 1996a). This could be due to excessive vegetative growth resulting in dilution of plant N (N5

Transplanted rice: DATa Early 14-28 Rapid 29-48 Late 49-flowering Direct-seeded rice: DASc Early 21-35 Rapid 36-56 Late 57-flowering
a

14-42 14-63 43-70 64-85 71-flowering 86-flowering 21-56 21-70 57-84 71-90 85-flowering 91-flowering

30 45b 30 30 45b 30

20 30b 20 20 30b 20

DAT = d after transplanting.bApply the large dose of 30 kg N ha-1 in the monsoon season or 45 kg N ha-1 in the dry season only once or twice maximum during the rapid growth stage. cDAS = d after seeding.

IRRN 25.1

deficient canopy) when semidwarf rice varieties developed for TPR systems are planted by broadcasting (Dingkuhn et al 1991). Thus, the critical SPAD value is inversely related to plant or tiller density. We expect that the critical SPAD values will be 3032 for high-density (650800 productive tillers m-2) and 3335 for medium-density (400500 productive tillers m-2) DSR. Further research is needed to validate the suggested critical SPAD values for direct-sown rice at different densities. Critical SPAD values for rice varietal groups. Different threshold values may have to be used for different varietal groups (Table 2). We suggest SPAD thresholds of 3032 for traditional or improved local and aromatic rice varieties and 3537 for semidwarf indica varieties in the transplanted system. Tropical rice hybrids generally have thinner leaves and a slightly lower leaf N concentration than inbreds. Thus, the SPAD threshold for tropical hybrids will be equal to or slightly less than that of inbred cultivars (S. Peng, IRRI, 1999, pers. commun.). Suggested SPAD thresholds for traditional, aromatic, and hybrid rice varieties have to be confirmed by further research. Even varieties with different grain types (coarse, medium, and fine) were shown to require different rates and patterns of N application to optimize grain yields when a single SPAD threshold value was used for all three varieties. The finer the grain type, the larger the amount of N required and the higher the number of split applications, especially after panicle initiation (Thiyagarajan and Aruna Geetha p 23, in this issue). Further research is needed to confirm whether rice varieties with different grain types require different SPAD critical values to optimize N use efficiency. Effect of soil type and nutrient status. Phosphorus (P)-deficient rice plants produce dark green leaves that could show high SPAD values (e.g., 39, vs 35 for normal plants). Peng et al (1999) observed that SPAD values were 1-2 units higher for zero-P (P-deficient) rice plants than for P-fertilized plants at a given leaf N concentration during the vegetative phase (mid-tillering) but not at the panicle initiation stage. Thus, if the SPAD meter is used to accurately determine leaf N concentration, a different regression equation between SPAD values and leaf N concentration should be used for P-deficient and P-sufficient rice plants during the vegetative phase. Zinc and boron deficiency appears to have a minimal effect on SPAD values. SPAD readings are generally lower in peat (organic) and acid sulfate soils. Sulfur deficiency produces chlorotic leaves showing low SPAD values, and using the SPAD method for N fertilization of rice in S-deficient soils may be misleading (as we observed in Myanmar). If the SPAD method is properly adapted to different varietal groups and crop-growing conditions and if appropriate critical SPAD values are established, this method will be highly useful for fine-tuning N fertilization of rice crops. Suggested critical values are summarized in Table 2. These values can be refined by one to two seasons of testing for locally important rice varieties and crop (environmental, nutritional, cultural) conditions.

Table 2. Suggested critical SPAD values for different seasons, cropping conditions, and rice varieties. Crop establishment Transplanted rice Varietal group Traditional, improved local, aromatic rice Semidwarf indica varieties Hybrid rice Panicle density (m-2) 300-400 400-500 400-500 SPAD value Wet season 30a-32 32a-35 32a-35 29-30b 32a 32b 32-35 Dry season 32 35b-37 35-37 30b 35 32b 32-35

Wet directseeded rice Broadcast sown All varieties Row seeded (drum seeded) All varieties

High: ~ 800 Medium: ~ 400-500 High: ~ 600-650 Medium: ~ 400-500

a Under Philippine conditions where radiation is low in the WS due to continuous cloud cover for most of the growing season (mean WS yield is less than 60% of mean DS yield). b Validated in the Philippines.

Cost and utility of chlorophyll meter Because the chlorophyll meter is too expensive (US$1,400 per unit) for farmers in developing countries, we developed a simple and inexpensive leaf color chart that can be used as an alternative decision-making tool to determine the need for N application in rice. Under practical on-farm situations, the color chart has proven to be as good as the chlorophyll meter for high grain yield and improved N use efficiency (IRRI-CREMNET 1998). The SPAD meter, however, is highly useful as a research and training tool for researchers, extension specialists, and crop consultants. In all N-related experiments, the SPAD meter can be used to determine the N status of test crops at different growth stages for a better understanding of N dynamics in soil-plantfloodwater systems. With the chlorophyll meter, agronomists can study the N requirement of new rice varieties and develop precise N recommendations for well-defined domains. It is a quick and accurate method for breeders to evaluate segregating lines for N use efficiency, and for biotechnologists to choose N-efficient lines for identifying genes responsible for high N use efficiency. Extension specialists can verify the validity of existing N recommendations by monitoring crop N status for one to two seasons and refine them, if necessary. Extension agents and crop consultants can precisely advise clients/farmers on need-based N fertilization of rice crops after testing the N status of plants in the field. This practice will enhance the quality of the relationship and the level of confidence between the advisors and their clients. Comparative efficiency of chlorophyll meter technique for grain yield and N use The technical efficiency of applied N is expressed in two forms: (1) agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN), calculated as the

April 2000

additional grain yield per kilogram of N applied over the control, and (2) partial factor productivity of applied N (PFP-N), calculated as the grain yield divided by the amount of N applied. The SPAD technique is useful in measuring the current fertilizer use efficiency of farmers in different areas. Here are two examples: An increase in grain yield but with a higher N fertilizer use: The efficiency values are similar for the farmers practice and the SPAD method, indicating the efficient fertilizer use by farmers as in the case of the Philippines (Table 3). A savings in N fertilizer use without reducing grain yield: Here grain yields are similar for both the farmers and SPAD methods, but the amount of N used is much lower in SPAD plots compared with the farmers practice. Therefore, efficiency values are higher for the SPAD method than for the farmers practice or local recommendation as observed in India and Vietnam (Table 3). The farmers N fertilization practice has to be improved. On-farm trials have demonstrated the advantage of using the SPAD technique on rice. The increase in N use efficiency values (AEN and PFP-N) was due to higher grain yield with lesser N application in the SPAD-N plots; average savings in N fertilizer
Table 3. Comparison of chlorophyll meter (SPAD) method with farmers practice or local recommendation for N management in rice at selected sites in various countries.a Treatment N used (kg ha-1) Grain yield (t ha-1) AEN PFP-N 48.0 44.7 53.9 b 52.2 b 83.2 a 58.1 117.2 86.5 51.6 b 118.4 a 35.4 45.4 45.7 33.0 57.5

ranged from 32 to 65 kg N ha-1 for various locations in India and Vietnam (Table 3). An inexpensive alternative to chlorophyll meter One alternative to using the expensive chlorophyll meter is for local researchers and extension agents to use data obtained from these trials to modify local fertilizer recommendations in amounts per application and timing. A much better option is to calibrate the inexpensive leaf color chart (US$1 per unit) with the chlorophyll meter and train farmers in its use to promote needbased N application in rice. Research needs on chlorophyll meter method Further research is needed to determine specific SPAD threshold values for fine-grain type, aromatic, and hybrid rice varieties. The effect of SPAD-guided N management on head rice recovery and grain quality is yet to be established. Preliminary results of ongoing research indicate that differential rates of N application can be worked out based on observed SPAD values at critical stages of growth (early tillering, active tillering, panicle initiation, and first [10%] flowering). If these observations are confirmed, the number of SPAD measurements and split N applications will be reduced. Suggested graded levels of N application based on an observed range of SPAD values at critical crop growth stages are given in Table 4 for validation. Researchers speculate that rice plants exposed to SPADregulated N supply will be healthier and less susceptible to lodging and diseases such as blast and bacterial leaf blight. We need further research to clarify the effect of need-based, SPAD-regulated N supply on plant health and plant resistance to lodging and diseases. Similarly, the effect of SPAD-guided N management on weed pressure and rice-weed competition is not understood; we require well-planned studies to assess the effect of the SPAD method of N management on the weed ecology on rice farms. We do not use basal N application with the SPAD method. This may create problems in soils with very low soil organic matter and N contents. Removal of basal N application in such soils may reduce seedling vigor and tillering in the early growth stages. We have to develop well-defined soil criteria or indicators to distinguish soil types where basal N application will be essential in addition to SPAD-based N topdressing. Finally, we also need to study the long-term effects of needbased N application on soil quality and soil nutrient-supplying capacity. References
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT. 1998. Chlorophyll meter threshold values for N management in direct wet-seeded, irrigated rice. Paper presented at the National CREMNET Workshop-cum-Group Meeting, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), 7-9 Jan 1998, Hyderabad, India.

Philippines: Nueva Ecija, 1996 DS, 12 farms Control 0 3.7 c Farmers practice 126 6.0 b 18.2 SPAD-35 150 6.7 a 19.7 Philippines: Nueva Ecija, 1997 DS, 12 farms Control 0 5.0 b Farmers practice 139 7.5 a 17.7 b SPAD-35 138 7.2 a 15.7 b UT/DP 87 7.2 a 25.3 a India: Old Cauvery Delta, Padugai soil series, mean of 1997 & 1998 DS Control 0 4.9 b Local recommendation 125 7.3 a 18.6 SPAD-35 65 7.6 a 41.2 Basal N + SPAD-35 85 7.4 a 28.4 India: New Cauvery Delta, 1996 DS, 4 farms Control 0 5.3 b Local recommendation 125 6.4 a 8.8 b SPAD-35 60 7.1 a 51.0 a India: New Cauvery Delta, 1998 DS, 20 farms Control 0 3.6 b STCR recommendation 142 5.0 a 10.3 SPAD-35 110 5.0 a 12.9 LCC-4 108 4.9 a 12.6 Vietnam: Cai Lay District, 1996 WS, 6 replications Control 0 2.8 b Local recommendation 120 4.0 a 9.8 SPAD-32 70 4.0 a 17.8
a

AEN (agronomic efficiency of applied N) = kg additional grain over control per kg N applied, PFP-N (partial factor productivity for applied N) = grain yield divided by applied N, DS = dry season,WS = wet season. Values followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT.

IRRN 25.1

Table 4. Suggested graded levels of N application based on observed ranges of SPAD values at critical growth stages of semidwarf indica varieties (100-115 d) in transplanted (TPR) and direct-seeded rice (DSR) systems.a TPR Growth phase DAT Preplant/basal Early tillering 0 14-18 SPAD value/ control yield Yield > 3 t ha-1 Yield < 3 t ha-1 SPAD > 37 SPAD 35-37 SPAD < 35 SPAD > 37 SPAD 35-37 SPAD 32-34 SPAD < 32 SPAD > 37 SPAD 35-37 SPAD 32-34 SPAD < 32 SPAD > 37 SPAD 35-37 SPAD < 35 Apply N (kg ha-1) Nil 20 Nil 20 30 Nil 30 40 50 Nil 30 40 50 Nil 20 30 DAS 0 21-25 DSR SPAD value/ control yield Yield > 3 t ha-1 Yield < 3 t ha-1 SPAD > 35 SPAD 32-35 SPAD < 32 SPAD > 35 SPAD 32-35 SPAD 30-31 SPAD < 30 SPAD > 35 SPAD 32-35 SPAD 30-31 SPAD < 30 SPAD > 35 SPAD 32-35 SPAD < 32 Apply N (kg ha-1) Nil 20 Nil 20 30 Nil 20 30 40 Nil 20 30 40 Nil 20 30

Active tillering

28-32

35-40

Panicle initiation

42-46

50-54

First (10%) flowering

56-60

64-68

a Values shown are based on research conducted at different sites in Asia covered by the Reversing Trends in Declining Productivity project and the Crop and Resource Management Network. Further validation is ongoing.

Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT, Abdulrachman S. 1999. On-farm adaptation of knowledge-intensive nitrogen management technologies for rice systems. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:93-101. Dingkuhn M, Schnier HF, De Datta SK, Dorffing K, Javellana C. 1991. Relationships between ripening-phase productivity and crop duration, canopy photosynthesis, and senescence in transplanted and directseeded lowland rice. Field Crops Res. 26:327-345. Dobermann A, White PF. 1999. Strategies for nutrient management in irrigated and rainfed lowland rice systems. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:1-18. Inada K. 1963. Studies on a method for determining deepness of green color and chlorophyll content of intact crop leaves and its practical applications. 1. Principle for estimating the deepness of green color and chlorophyll content of whole leaves. Proc. Crop Sci. Soc. Jpn. 32:157-162. Inada K. 1985. Spectral ratio of reflectance for estimating chlorophyll content of leaf. Jpn. J. Crop Sci. 54:261-265. IRRI-CREMNET (International Rice Research Institute Crop and Resource Management Network). 1998. Progress report for 1997. Manila (Philippines): IRRI. Kariya K, Matsuzaki A, Machida H. 1982. Distribution of chlorophyll content in leaf blade of rice plant. Jpn. J. Crop Sci. 51:134-135. Olk DC, Cassman KG, Simbahan G, Sta. Cruz PC, Abdulrachman S, Nagarajan R, Tan PS, Satawathananont S. 1999. Interpreting fertilizer use efficiency in relation to soil nutrient-supplying capacity, factor productivity, and agronomic efficiency. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:35-41.

Peng S, Garcia FC, Laza RC, Cassman KG. 1993. Adjustment for specific leaf weight improves chlorophyll meters estimation of rice leaf nitrogen concentration. Agron. J. 85:987-990. Peng S, Laza RC, Garcia FC, Cassman KG. 1995. Chlorophyll meter estimates leaf area-based N concentration of rice. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26:927-935. Peng S, Garcia FV, Gines HC, Laza RC, Samson MI, Sanico AL, Visperas RM, Cassman KG. 1996a. Nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated tropical rice established by broadcast wet seeding and transplanting. Fert. Res. 45:123-134. Peng S, Garcia FV, Laza RC, Sanico AL, Visperas RM, Cassman KG. 1996b. Increased N-use efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Res. 47:243-252. Peng S, Sanico AL, Garcia FV, Laza RC, Visperas RM, Descalsota JP, Cassman KG. 1999. Effect of leaf phosphorus and potassium concentration on chlorophyll meter reading in rice plants. J. Plant Prod. Sci. 2(4):227-231. Peterson TA, Blackmer TM, Francis DD, Scheppers JS. 1993. Using a chlorophyll meter to improve N management. A Webguide in Soil Resource Management: D-13, Fertility. Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska USA. Takebe M, Yoneyama T. 1989. Measurement of leaf color scores and its implication to nitrogen nutrition of rice plants. Jpn. Agric. Res. Q. 23:8693. Turner FT, Jund MF. 1994. Assessing the nitrogen requirements of rice crops with a chlorophyll meter method. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 34:1001-1005.

April 2000

Plant breeding

Evaluation of anther culture-derived lines under upland conditions for the North Eastern Hill of India
A. Pattanayak and H.S. Gupta, Division of Plant Breeding, ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India E-mail: rcnehr@x400.nicgw.nic.in

The low productivity of upland rice in the North Eastern Hill of India makes it an unprofitable crop; yet, it occupies about 2025% of the cultivated rice area. Most local upland cultivars are long-duration, low-yielding, tall types that lodge at maturity. They are mostly susceptible to diseases such as blast and leaf scald. Because blast is a serious disease, a breeding program was started to develop blast-resistant upland rice lines with a yield potential of 44.5 t ha-1 and that mature in 120130 d. The higher production potential is expected to increase productivity, whereas the shorter duration will help increase cropping intensity. Anther culture shortens the breeding cycle because of rapid attainment of homozygosity, thereby shortening the period for developing new varieties. We report here the production and evaluation of doubled-haploid (DH) lines that outyielded all checks under rainfed upland conditions. Nine DH lines were produced by anther culture of F2 plants of a hybrid between PSN and 6131, following the

method of Gupta and Borthakur (1987). These lines were evaluated in replicated yield trials for 3 yr (1996-98) under the dryseeded upland conditions of Barapani (950 m asl) in Meghalaya, India. All DH lines, improved checks, and the local check were sown in terraces in randomized complete blocks with five replications in 5.6-m2 plots. Row-to-row and plant-to-plant distances were 20 cm and 10 cm, respectively. Data on various agronomic characters were recorded from five randomly selected plants from each replication. Unmilled rice yield, however, was calculated from the yield of 5.6-m2 plots in each replication. Days to flowering were recorded when

more than 50% of the plants in a plot flowered. Data on disease reaction were recorded following the IRRI standard evaluation system for rice. The average yield of RCPL 1-29 for 3 yr was the highest (4.4 t ha-1), followed by RCPL 1-27 (4.2 t ha-1) and RCPL 1-24 (4.0 t ha-1). The highest yielding improved check (IET13459) yielded 3.1 t ha-1 and the local check (Bali) yielded 2.6 t ha-1 (Table 1). All three DH lines had a compact and erect habit and intermediate maturity (123127 d), and were semidwarf (109.9111.8 cm) with high spikelet fertility (79.683.8%) (Table 2). They exhibited significantly higher yield per plant (7.99.2 g).

Table 1. Grain yielda (t ha-1) of doubled-haploid (DH) lines, improved checks, and local check, Barapani, Meghalaya, India, 1996-98. DH lines Year RCPL 1-29 1996 1997 1998 Av
a

Improved checks RCPL 1-24 2.9 c 3.3 c 5.8 a 4.0 ab IET13459 2.2 d 3.2 d 3.8 d 3.1 cd IET13783 1.7 e 2.3 f 4.1 c 2.7 cd

Local check Bali 1.4 f 2.9 e 3.4 d 2.6 d

RCPL 1-27 3.6 b 3.3 b 5.8 a 4.2 ab

4.3 a 3.5 a 4.9 b 4.4 a

Values in a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT.

Table 2. Comparison of some agronomic charactersa of doubled-haploid (DH) lines and checks evaluated at Barapani, Meghalaya, India, 199698. 1,000grain Yield plant-1 weight (g) (g) Head rice Milling (%) recovery (%) Blast reaction (under field conditions)b HR (0) HR (0) HR (0) S (7) HR (0) S (8)

Variety/ line

Days to maturity

Plant height (cm)

Fertile tillers (no.)

Panicle length (cm)

Spikelets panicle-1 (no.)

Spikelet fertility (%)

Hulling (%)

DH lines RCPL 1-29 RCPL 1-27 RCPL 1-24 Improved checks IET13459 IET13783 Local check Bali
a

126 123 127 116 129 129

111.8 111.5 109.9 118.3 131.2 131.2

4.3 4.0 3.9 3.2 2.5 2.5

23.7 22.8 23.5 20.6 20.6 20.6

133.7 129.7 124.4 124.8 145.3 145.3

82 80 84 78 85 85

7.9 9.2 8.7 4.7 4.0 4.0

29.5 40.4 28.7 29.4 26.3 26.3

80 83 79 71 80 82

73 76 65 58 67 67

67 69 58 35 53 59

Av of 3 yr. bBased on a 0 (HR) to 9 (HS) scale; HR = highly resistant, HS = highly susceptible, S = susceptible.

IRRN 25.1

Petei and Mocoi: two rice cultivars developed through anther culture in Argentina
M.A. Marassi, IBONE, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias (FCA), Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), C.C. 209, 3400Corrientes; J.J. Marassi, J.E. Marassi, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales (FCAF), Universidad Nacional de La Plata, C.C. 31 (1900) La Plata, Buenos Aires; and L.A. Mroginski, IBONE, FCA, UNNE, Argentina E-mail:marassi@agr.unne.edu.ar

We developed two rice varieties, Petei and Mocoi, through anther culture. These varieties were released in 1997 for commercial cultivation in Argentina. Petei was developed from a cross involving cultivars Quella and Guayquiraro, which were made available to the rice program at the Julio Hirschhorm Experimental Station, FCAF. Selected plants from the F2 population of this cross were used for anther culture at the biotechnology laboratory, FCA, UNNE. Mocoi was developed from crossing two F1s (H342 and H161-28-2-2-1). H342s parents were Guayquiraro and Nucleoryza, whereas H161-28-2-2-1 had Calady 40 and IR110315-10 as parents. Anther culture was performed on the F1s and progenies were multiplied for further evaluation. Anther culture was used following the protocol given by Marassi et al (1993). Panicles from F1 H353 and F2 H319 at the booting stage containing pollen at the miduninucleate stage were pretreated (8 C for 8 d). Anthers were plated on N6, a callus induction medium (Chu et al 1975) supplemented with 2 mg naphthalene acetic acid L-1 and 0.5 mg kinetin L-1, and
10

incubated in the dark at 27 2 C. Shoots were obtained on the regeneration medium. Flasks were transferred under light at 27 2 C. Plantlets were transferred to a rooting medium composed of MS (Murashige and Skoog 1962) culture solution that was free of hormones and supplemented with 8% sucrose. Plants were then transferred to the soil in the greenhouse until maturity, and the progeny was multiplied by the pedigree method. Data on callus formation and plant regeneration from anther culture of the two crosses are given in the table. The efficiency of anther culture (proportion of plants transferred to the soil

to total number of anthers cultured from the two crosses) was 8.4% for H319 and 5.4% for H353. Petei is 90 cm tall, resists lodging, and has intermediate threshability. It matures in 115 d and its yield potential is 8.5 t ha-1. Its grain is 5.9 mm long and 2.7 mm wide (short grain and special commercial type). The variety has 24.9% amylose, intermediate gelatinization temperature, 9.4% protein, and moderate resistance to blast. Because of its short growth duration, tolerance for low temperature, and good performance on saline soils, Petei is suited for growing in temperate climate under saline soil

Callus formation and plant regeneration from anther culture of rice. Calli with shoots (%) 75 70 Green shoots (%) 85 80
100. Number of cultured anthers

Progeny

Anthers (no.) 8,900 8,100

Calli (%) 14.6 11.0

Plantlets transferred to soil (%) 90 87

Anther culture efficiencya (%) 8.4 5.4

H319 (F2) H353 (F1)

a

Number of plantlets transferred to soil Anther culture efficiency =

April 2000

Senescence of leaves, especially that of the flag leaf, was slower in the DH lines than in the checks. These lines had long bold grains with white kernel. RCPL 1-29, RCPL 1-27, and RCPL 1-24 were resistant to leaf blast under field conditions, whereas improved check IET13459 and Bali were both susceptible to blast (Table 2). In addition, Bali lodged at maturity, whereas IET13459 and IET13783 lodged only under high-fertility conditions. In contrast, the DH lines did not lodge even under highfertility conditions. Hulling percentages of the DH lines were 83% in RCPL 1-27,

80% in RCPL 1-29, and 79% in RCPL 1-24 (Table 2). Milling percentages were 76% in RCPL 1-27, 73% in RCPL 1-29, and 65% in RCPL 1-24 (Table 2). A multilocation trial was conducted on regional research farms during the 1998 wet season in five states (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland) of the North Eastern Hill. The average unmilled yields of RCPL 1-29, RCPL 127, and RCPL 124 were 3.3, 2.5, and 3.1 t ha -1, respectively. The yield performance of RCPL 1-29 in Manipur and Meghalaya did not show a significant

difference (4.7 t ha-1 in Manipur and 4.9 t ha-1 in Meghalaya). No blast incidence was recorded in the DH lines in any of the five states. Average yield improvement over local checks was 46% in Mizoram, 36% in Meghalaya, 28% in Arunachal Pradesh, 19% in Manipur, and 17% in Nagaland. Reference
Gupta HS, Borthakur DN. 1987. Improved rate of callus induction from rice anther culture following microscopic staging of microspores in iron alum-haematoxylin. Theor. Appl. Genet. 74:95-99.

conditions. Petei was released for cultivation in areas near 36 S in Buenos Aires Province. Mocoi has a height of 75 cm, resists lodging, and has intermediate threshability. It matures in 120 d and its yield potential is 10 t ha-1. Its golden grain is 7.3 mm long and 2.3 mm wide (fine long commercial type). The endosperm has a high amylose content (26.6%) and the

protein content is 8.4%. It is moderately resistant to blast. Mocoi is suited for cultivation at 32 S near Villageny City ` (central region of Entre Rios Province) and in Buenos Aires Province. Both Petei and Mocoi are adapted to the new rice area (temperate with some saline areas) in Buenos Aires Province (3436 S) where traditional varieties are not well adapted.

References
Chu CC, Wang CC, Sun CS, Chen H, Yin KL, Chu CY, Bi FY. 1975. Establishment of an efficient medium for anther culture of rice through comparative experiments on the nitrogen sources. Sci. Sin. 18:659-668. Marassi MA, Bovo OA, Lavia GL, Mroginski LA. 1993. Regeneration of rice doubled haploids using a one-step culture procedure. J. Plant Physiol. 141:610-614. Murashige T, Skoog F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassay with tobacco tissue culture. Physiol. Plant. 15:473-479.

Performance of cold-tolerant rice lines developed through anther culture for mid-altitude areas of Meghalaya, India
A. Pattanayak, R.N. Bhuyan, H.S. Gupta, Division of Plant Breeding; M. Sreedhar and M.S. Prasad, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India E-mail: rcnehr@x400.nicgw.nic.in

Rice grown in mid-altitude areas (800 1,300 m asl) of the North Eastern Hill of India is exposed to suboptimum temperature during its life cycle, causing incomplete panicle exsertion, asynchronous flowering, and spikelet sterility. These factors reduce yield from 20% to 35%. Therefore, high-yielding indica cultivars do not have a significant impact in these areas because of thermosensitivity. Direct introduction of cold-tolerant japonica cultivars in these areas was not successful either. In addition, the long crop season does not allow more than one crop of rice per year; consequently, conventional breeding requires more time to develop new cultivars. Anther culture of F1s, on the other hand, helps speed up the breeding cycle by rapid fixation of homozygosity and simultaneous transfer of genes from one parent to the other. We report here the development of anther culture-derived doubled-haploid (DH) lines with cold tolerance at the reproductive phase. One of the linesDH7was the most promising and outyielded all checks in the mid-altitude areas. IR70 was crossed with a local cultivar, Khonorullo, which possesses cold tolerance at the reproductive phase and is
IRRN 25.1

grown in high-altitude areas (more than 1,400 m asl). F1-derived anther culture produced 21 DH lines. These lines were evaluated in initial trials and, based on their performance, two lines, DH7 and DH21, were selected for a replicated yield trial. Both DH lines were evaluated along with high-yielding indica (IR70 and IR72) and improved cold-tolerant checks (RCPL 1-874 and RCPL 1-87-8) in replicated yield trials in three replications for 3 yr (1996-98) as transplanted rice in rainfed lowlands. The cold-tolerant parent was not included in the replicated trial because its yield was poor in the mid-altitude areas.

Data were recorded using the IRRI standard evaluation system for rice. Unmilled rice yield (t ha-1) was calculated from the yield of 5-m 2 plots in each replication. The average unmilled rice yield of DH7 (3.9 t ha-1) was significantly higher than that of the indica checks and coldtolerant check RCPL 1-87-8. In addition, DH7 and DH21 matured 11 and 21 d earlier than the improved cold-tolerant checks RCPL 1-87-4 and RCPL 1-87-8, respectively (Table 1). Panicle length and seed fertility of both DH lines were either better than or comparable with those of improved cold-tolerant checks (Table 1). DH7 also

Table 1. Comparison of agronomic charactersa of doubled-haploid (DH) lines, indica checks, and cold-tolerant checks, Meghalaya, India, 1996-98.b Variety Days to maturity Plant height (cm) 72.0 a 75.2 b 67.4 b 58.8 c 70.8 ab 71.0 ab Fertile tillers (no.) 7.4 a 7.1 a 6.5 a 7.6 a 7.6 a 7.0 a Panicle length (cm) 21.6 a 22.2 a 20.2 cd 19.4 d 20.6 bcd 20.7 bc Spikelets panicle-1 (no.) 96.8 a 109.0 a 82.2 b 82.4 b 88.2 b 76.6 a Spikelet fertility (%) 79 a 74 a 64 b 63 b 78 a 76 a Brown rice yield (t ha-1) 3.9 a 2.3 d 3.2 c 2.4 d 3.6 b 3.3 bc

DH lines DH7 151 c DH21 141 e Indica checks IR70 158 b IR72 148 d Improved cold-tolerant checks RCPL 1-87-4 162 a RCPL 1-87-8 162 a
a

Values followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT. bAv of 3 yr.

11

performed well under upland conditions. In the trials of the All-India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project in 1998, this line ranked third overall in the advanced varietal trial (upland) group with an average yield of 2.8 t ha-1, significantly superior to that of the improved check (2.3 t ha-1) and local check (2.2 t ha-1). DH7, DH21, and all the checks were moderately resistant to leaf blast under field conditions at Barapani (Table 2). Among parents, IR70 was moderately resistant, but Khonorullo was susceptible. DH7 and RCPL 1-87-4 were resistant to sheath blight under field conditions, whereas DH21, RCPL 1-87-8, and Khonorullo were moderately resistant. In contrast, IR70 and IR72 were moderately susceptible to sheath blight. DH7 was moderately susceptible to leaf scald in the field, whereas DH21, all checks, and IR70

Table 2. Reaction of doubled-haploid (DH) lines, parents, and checks to various diseases under field conditions at Barapani, India (950 m asl). Disease reactiona Variety Leaf blast Sheath blight Leaf scald Grain discoloration (scale 0-9) HR (0.5) HR (2.4) HR (0.6) HR (0.2) HR (2.0) HR (0.2) HR (0.1)

DH lines DH7 MR (2.8)b DH21 MR (2.6) Parents IR70 MR (2.4) Khonorullo S (6.0) Indica check IR72 MR (2.8) Improved cold-tolerant checks RCPL 1-87-4 MR (2.2) RCPL 1-87-8 MR (2.6)

R (1.0) MR (3.0) MS (5.0) MR (3.0) MS (5.0) R (1.0) MR (3.0)

MS (4.0) MR (3.3) R (1.7) S (6.0) R (2.2) HR (0.3) R (1.2)

a HR = highly resistant, R = resistant, MR = moderately resistant, MS = moderately susceptible, S = susceptible. bNumbers in parentheses are average disease scores over 3 yr on a scale of 0 (highly resistant) to 9 (highly susceptible).

were resistant to the disease. The coldtolerant parent Khonorullo, however, was susceptible to leaf scald. All lines were

highly resistant to grain discoloration although IR70 showed some grain discoloration in some replications (Table 2).

Reactions to an inferred resistance of Indian and Bangladesh rice varieties to bacterial blight
K.S. Lee, E.R. Angeles, and G.S. Khush, Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Biochemistry Division, IRRI E-mail: k.s.lee@cgiar.org

Bacterial blight (BB) caused by (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, Xoo) is one of the most important diseases of rice that cause substantial yield losses. Yield losses from this disease range from 10% to 30% under field conditions (Reyes et al 1983). In the absence of effective chemical control, cultivation of resistant varieties is the most practical, effective, and economical approach for managing this disease to keep losses below economic injury levels. Thus, incorporation of BB resistance has been a major component of most rice improvement programs in Asia (Khush et al 1989, Mew and Khush 1981). Ogawa et al (1991) classified BBresistant rice cultivars into eight groups based on their reaction patterns to four Philippine races of Xoo and the BB genes they possess. These groupings made it possible to determine gene(s) for
12

resistance to Xoo in BB-resistant cultivars. We tested 170 cultivars from the International Rice Germplasm Center (IRGC) of IRRI for reactions to six Philippine races of Xoo to determine genes for resistance to BB. A set of near-isogenic lines (NIL) for genes with BB resistance, IRBB4 (Xa4), IRBB5 (xa5), IRBB13 (xa13), and IR24 (the susceptible check), to all races of Xoo was inoculated to confirm the six isolates of Xoo. Results showed that 39 (23%) of the cultivars were resistant to races 1, 2, 3, and 5; moderately susceptible to race 4; and susceptible to race 6. This reaction pattern is typical of varieties belonging to the DZ192 group (see table). Thus, these cultivars possibly carry xa5. All cultivars classified in this group originated from Bangladesh. The BJ1 group represents 62 (36%) cultivars and was resistant to all six races of Xoo (see table). These cultivars may carry

xa5 and xa13. Gene xa5 governs resistance to races 1, 2, 3, and 5, whereas xa13 conveys resistance to race 6. On the other hand, the high level of resistance to race 4 in these cultivars is due to the complementary action of the two genes. Cultivars assigned to this group come from India and Bangladesh. The remaining 69 cultivars (41%) showed resistance to races 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 but are susceptible to race 6, suggesting that they may possess Xa4 and xa5 genes (Makhmal Mehi group). Cultivars classified under this group come from India and Bangladesh (see table). The classification of 170 cultivars into varietal groups based on reactions to BB pathotypes is useful in selecting for donor parents in resistance breeding programs. It is also a simple way to determine resistance genes in resistant cultivars.
April 2000

References
Khush GS, Mackill DJ, Sidhu GS. 1989. Bacterial blight of rice. In: Breeding rice for resistance to bacterial blight. Manila (Philippines): IRRI. p 207-217. Mew TW, Khush GS. 1981. Breeding for bacterial blight resistance in rice at IRRI. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. Cali (Colombia): Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). p 504-510. Ogawa T, Busto GS, Tabien RE, Romero GO, Endo N, Khush GS. 1991. Grouping of rice cultivars based on reaction pattern to Philippine races of bacterial blight pathogens (Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae). Jpn. J. Breed. 41:109-119. Reyes RC, Vera-Cruz CM, Aballa TC, Baraoidan MR, Mew TW. 1983. Bacterial disease of rice. In: Rice production manual. Laguna (Philippines): UPLB College of Agriculture. p 341-352.

Grouping of cultivars based on reaction pattern to six Philippine races of Xoo. Group DZ192 Cultivars DF1, Mohishdo, Molla Diga, Chengri, Hanumanjata, Katakchikou, Pankhiraj, Bilat Kolom, Aus15, Aus18, Aus21, Aus22, Aus70, Aus 76, Aus114, Aus225, Aus268, Aus277, Aus320, Aus323, Aus330, Aus334, Aus367, Aus447, Aus450, Aus462, Aus143, Chungur Bali, Holai, Sultanjata, Bangal Bokri, Bolorum, Kachilon, Jholi Aus, Porangi, Sthania Shon, Surjamoni, Bazail 424, Maitura Bazail 407, ARC10025, Phcar Tien P65, Beri, Terabali, Kaika, Dudh Bhawalia, Hida, Dholi Boro, Boteswar, Hanpa, Loroi, Aus28, Aus128, Aus133, Aus154, Aus175, Aus176, Aus190, Aus207, Aus265, Aus267, Aus283, Aus287, Aus355, Aus364, Kali Atia, Korchamuri, Norai, Saita, Baila Borki, Kalonchi, Taothabi, Lal ahu, Rerm Bilash, ARC10376, Sabakari, Marich Ful, Begun Bahar, Inda, Kali Haitya, Laksmilota, Saita, Choudda Mugur, Dulpi, AC10-38, Bazail 197, Bazail 1187, Dharial, Baishbish, Chinsurah 2, Kalimekri 391, ARC6068, ARC7128, ARC10313, ARC10520, Bakoi, Jhur, India Dular, Laksmi Dia, Laksmijota, Aswina Laki 659, Lakhsmi Digha, Bhaturi, Pankiraj, Bolium, Baturi, Ngasein Kalagyi, DD96, ARC7098, ARC10372, ARC11332 Benamuri, Garia, Munshilhail, Tepi Boro, Bowalia 2, Goria, Lema, Aus19, Aus35, Aus46, Aus77, Aus98, Aus126, Aus142, Aus148, Aus151,Aus157, Aus159, Aus173, Aus218, Aus243, Aus259, Aus269, Aus301, Aus304, Aus350, Aus464,Aus270, Aus272, Aus273, Aus275, Aus282, Aus297, Aus306, Aus307, Aus310, Aus314, Aus333, Aus340, Aus341, Aus342, Aus349, Aus406, Aus455, Aus456, Jogli, Kalamanik, Banshi Kolom, Banshiraj, Bazail 924, Bazail 975, ARC6608, ARC7327, Latu, Manik-Mundu, Kamoni Sail, Dharial, Dular Origin Bangladesh

BJ1

Bangladesh and India

Makhmal Mehi

Bangladesh and India

Digital Literacy for Rice Scientists

To help rice scientists take advantage of new information and communication technologies, the IRRI Training Center has developed the Digital Literacy Course for Rice Scientists. The course aims to provide scientists with information about what resources are available on the Internet and how they can go about accessing these resources. The course is unique in that, it focuses on the needs of rice scientists, it provides a forum for rice scientists to share their experiences and Internet resources with other rice scientists online, and it establishes a learner-centered knowledge network in the form of an online community centered on rice research. The topics covered by the course include What is the Internet What is the World Wide Web and what makes it work Key Internet terminology How to use the Internet for communication with other scientists How to use Web browsers How to search for information efficiently and effectively What are some of the good sources of information for rice scientists available on the Internet How to cite Internet documents What training opportunities are available online Connection to the Internet offers national scientists with a low-cost communication medium with other scientists linked to the Internet, gives them access to the ever-growing body of information available on and through interlinked computers throughout the world, and provides access to formal and informal training offered online from virtually anywhere. The course was developed by Robert T. Raab and Buenafe Abdon of the IRRI Training Center. Watch for more announcements in subsequent issues of IRRN.
IRRN 25.1

13

Pest science and management

Effect of variety and sowing date on false smut incidence in upland rice in Edo State, Nigeria
M.O. Ahonsi, A.A. Adeoti, I.D. Erinle, M.D. Alegbejo, Crop Protection Department, Institute for Agricultural Research, Samaru, PMB 1044; Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; B.N. Singh, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), c/o International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria; and A.A. Sy, WARDA, Bouak, Cte dIvoire E-mail: m.ahonsi@cgiar.org

Table 2. Effect of sowing date on false smut incidence at two sites on the outskirts of OvbiowunEmai, Edo State, Nigeria. Sowing date 2-3 Apr 16-17 Apr 2-3 May 16-17 May 2-3 Jun 16-17 Jun LSD (0.05) CV (%) Sowing date Site Sowing date site Assessment date 30-31 Jul 13-14 Aug 29-30 Aug 14-15 Sep 29-30 Sep 13-14 Oct Mean disease incidence (%) 0.0 3.1 1.2 51.6 48.5 29.6 8.65 33.19 0.0001 0.7643 0.5262 Pr>F

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14

False smut induced by Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Tak. is a prevalent inflorescence disease of upland rice in Edo State, southern Nigeria. The incidence is high in areas 75150 km northeast of Benin City in Edo State. Widely grown varieties FARO 3 (Agbede) and FARO 46 (ITA150) are severely infected. The disease has been observed yearly since 1989. Two field experiments were conducted in farmers fields during the 1993 and 1994 wet seasons to evaluate the effect of plant variety and sowing date on false smut incidence. Each experiment was conducted at two sites approximately 20 km apart on the outskirts of OvbiowunEmai (longitude 67 E and latitude 67 N) and 90 km northeast of Benin City. The location is in a humid forest zone. Incidence was taken as percentage of hills infected in a quadrant of 4 m2 in each replicate. In the first experiment, seven upland rice varieties were planted on three different dates depending on maturity period to ensure flowering by late August. Varieties reacted differently to false smut infection (Table 1). Although false smut incidence was apparently higher at one of the sites, the reaction of varieties to the disease followed the same trend at both sites and the site variety interaction was not significant. Varieties ITA150, FARO 49 (ITA315), FARO 3 (Agbede), and ITA335 were the most susceptible to false smut. ITA316 and Ex-China showed some resistance, while FARO 41 (IRAT170) was completely free from infection. In the second experiment, Agbede was planted on six dates at 2-wk intervals. False smut incidence on this variety at both

sites on the respective planting dates was not significantly different. Rice sown with early rains, between 2 April and 3 May, was virtually free from the disease (Table 2). But rice sown between 16 May and 3 June was the most infected. It is evident that varietal differences occur in false smut infection and planting dates affect disease incidence. Planting resistant varieties such as IRAT170 and Ex-China and early planting (by April) reduce false smut damage.

Table 1. Incidence of false smut in seven upland rice varieties tested under field conditions at two sites on the outskirts of Ovbiowun-Emai, Edo State, Nigeria. Variety ITA315 ITA335 ITA316 ITA150 IRAT170 Ex-China Agbede (FARO 3) LSD (0.05) CV (%) Variety Site Variety site Mean disease incidence (%) 40.5 43.3 8.6 36.1 0.0 2.3 40.6 12.09 41.30 0.0001 0.0271 0.2744 Pr>F

Wide Web for searching, 24 hours a day2? ... that IRRI Library staff are waiting right now to receive your requests3? We hope to be of service to you soon!
Maximum of 50 pages per request Web address: http://ricelib.irri.cgiar.org Write to Carmelita Austria at this address: Library and Documentation Service, International Rice Research Institute, MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271, Philippines E-mail address: c.austria@cgiar.org
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April 2000

Stem borer species composition in Tamil Nadu, India

J.C. Ragini, D. Thangaraju, and P.M.M. David, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Killikulam, Vallanad 628252, India

Species composition (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Tuticorin Kanyakumari Tirunelveli Madurai Tanjore Coimbatore Dharmapuri Vellore

YSB PSB DSB

Districts Fig. 1. Relative abundance of stem borer species in some districts of Tamil Nadu.Vertical lines indicate standard deviation.

Species composition (%) 100 YSB PSB DSB

80

60

40

20

References
Dutt N, Kundu DK. 1983. Stem borer complex of paddy in West Bengal. Indian J. Entomol. 45:229-236. Heinrichs EA. 1994. Insect pests of rice planttheir biology and ecology. In: Heinrichs EA, editor. Biology and management of rice insects. New Delhi: Wiley. p. 363-486. IRRN 25.1
0 25/SS 40/ET 50/AT 70/MT 80/FL 100/HD Crop age/stage
Fig. 2. Relative abundance of stem borer species in relation to crop growth stage. Vertical lines indicate standard deviation. SS = seedling stage, ET = early tillering, AT = active tillering, MT = maximum tillering, FL = flowering, HD = heading.

15

We conducted a district-level survey in 199798 cropping seasons in major rice-growing areas of Tamil Nadu to understand the pattern of stem borer species occurrence. In each of two or three rice fields in each district where rice is transplanted in irrigated lowlands, at least 50 infested tillers showing deadhearts or whiteheads were dissected at various growth stages to identify the species of larvae involved (Heinrichs 1994). Species composition was calculated by the formula (total larvae of particular species) / (total number of larvae collected) 100. The survey revealed that rice was damaged by three species of stem borers yellow stem borer (YSB) Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker), pink stem borer (PSB) Sesamia inferens (Walker), and dark-headed stem borer (DSB) Chilo polychrysus (Meyrick). YSB was collectively more numerous (63.9%) than PSB (22.8%) and DSB (13.3%) (Fig. 1). These species have been recorded earlier from different parts of India (Pathak 1968, Dutt and Kundu 1983, Kushwaka 1988, Upadhyay and Diwkar 1992). YSB occurred predominantly in all districts and its composition varied between 52.7% in Tirunelveli and 82.8% in Vellore. The occurrence of PSB and DSB varied among survey districts. Although PSB was more abundant than DSB in Tuticorin, Madurai, Tanjore, and Dharmapuri (23.6 39.2%), DSB was more common in Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, and Vellore (17.2 39.7%). The damage at seedling stage was fully due to S. incertulas, but the infestation decreased slowly at later stages (Fig. 2). On the other hand, PSB infestation, which was low at the seedling stage, increased steadily through tillering stages with a decrease in the YSB population in most districts. PSB was more abundant than YSB at later stages. DSB was always less numerous in all districts.

Kushwaka KS. 1988. Insect pest complex of rice in Haryana. Bull. Entomol. 25:100-102. Pathak MD. 1968. Ecology of common insect pests of rice. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 13:257-294.

Upadhyay KR, Diwkar MC. 1992. Present status of rice insect pests in India. Plant Prot. Bull. 44:38-39.

An integrated approach to managing rice stem nematodes

S. Chakraborti, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya Mohanpur 741252, India

Ufra disease caused by Ditylenchus angustus (Butler) has become prominent because of its increasing rate of occurrence and infestation intensity, and expansion in newer areas. It was first reported in east Bengal (Bangladesh) (Butler 1913); it now occurs in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Egypt, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Ufra is found mainly in deep water and usually spreads through floodwater (Miah 1984), but it can also cause serious damage in irrigated and rainfed lowland rice (Cuc and Kinh 1981). It had been reported to cause 50100% yield loss in Vietnam (Cuc and Kinh 1981) and 4080% yield loss in India (Chakraborti et al 1985). The Northern Old Alluvial Zone of West Bengal, which is part of the prime rice tract of India, is a floodprone area. Submergence (0.51 m) for long periods has contributed immensely to the entrenchment of the nematode. There is, however, a lack of scientific documentation on the control or management of ufra disease in this zone. This called for a study on the efficacy of an integrated approach to ufra management. Irrigated transplanted rice (IET4094) was raised following standard agronomic practices including fertilizer management. The experiment was set out in a randomized block design with three treatments and five replications per treatment. Each plot measured 3 2 m. Spraying was done with a 5-L-capacity brass sprayer (400 L ha-1). Granules were applied

manually. Ten randomly selected hills plot-1 were observed for nematode and sheath rot-infected tillers at 15-d intervals. An ufra disease rating was taken using Butler (1913): Ufra I: Thor or swollen ufra panicles did not emerge and were completely enclosed within the flag leaf sheath. Ufra II: Pucca or ripe ufrapanicles emerged partially and bore some unfilled grains. An elaborate pilot study was made to test the effectiveness of individual components separately against the nematode and the fungus. Some components were nematode-specific; some were fungus-specific. An integrated package was designed to provide simultaneous protection against both because ufra becomes serious in the presence of sheath rot fungus. Treatment 1: An integrated approach, comprising a seed treatment with ethyl mercuric chloride (EMC) at 3 g ai kg-1; seedbed treatment with NSKP at 10 g ai m -2 and carbofuran at 2 g ai m -2; seedling root dipping for 1 h in neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) at 10 mL ai L-1 followed by 8 h in carbofuran at 2.5 g ai L-1; 3-wk delay in sowing; burning of crop residues after sundrying in the field; deep plowing followed by soil solarization; crop rotation of jutemustardrice; use of trap crop Magursal, a local rice cultivar as seedbed trap crop; neem cake at 300 kg

ha-1 7 d before transplanting; carbofuran at 1 kg ai ha-1 just before transplanting; NSKE at 8 kg ai ha-1 10 d after transplanting (DAT); carbofuran at 1.5 kg ai ha-1 at 30 DAT; carbendazim at 3 g ai L-1 at 35 DAT; and NSKE at 15 mL ai L-1 at 50 DAT. Treatment 2: Chemical method with carbofuran at 2.5 g ai L-1 for seedling root dipping; carbofuran at 1.5 kg ai ha-1 just before transplanting; carbofuran at 1.5 kg ai ha -1 once every 30 DAT; and carbendazim at 3 g ai L-1 once every 35 DAT. Treatment 3: Controlonly water was sprayed. Results (Table 1) showed that treatment 1 (integrated approach) was very effective against the nematode. The population was maintained at a steady low level (4.5% and 3.8% ufra infection at 45 and 60 DAT, respectively). Fresh tillers greatly compensated for the infection loss. Results also showed that treatment 1 was very effective against sheath rot (Table 2) and thus prevented severe ufra infection due to a combination of sheath rot infection; it also had a good yield (3.4 t ha-1). Treatment 2 was effective but the yield loss was quite substantial because sheath rot infection made ufra infection more severe. The integrated treatment was generally superior to the chemical method. Seedbed treatment, seedling root dipping, delayed sowing, burning of crop residues, deep plowing and soil solarization, nonhost crop rotation, use of trap crop,

Table 1. Mean percentage of ufra-infected tillers 10 hills-1, proportion of ufra types in ufra infection, and nematode population in 250 g of soil. Treatmenta 30 DATb 1 2 3 12.6 (21) c 25.2 (30) 42.2 (40) C.D. at 5% 3.64
a

% ufra-infected tillers 45 DAT 4.52 (12) 15.93 (24) 48.37 (44) 5.28 60 DAT 3.85 (11) 14.23 (22) 54.27 (47) 5.43

Proportion of ufra types (%) Ufra I 19.38 (26) 26.35 (31) 32.86 (35) 3.58 Ufra II 80.62 (64) 73.65 (59) 67.14 (55) 4.54

Mean nematode population in 250 g soil (0-20 cm) (no.) Initial 302.1 304.5 296.6 10.13 Final 10.2 62.5 494.4 8.18

1 = integrated method, 2 = chemical method, 3 = control. bDAT = days after transplanting. cNumbers in parentheses are arcsine VP transformations.

16

April 2000

Table 2. Mean percentage of sheath rot-infected tillers 10 hills-1 and yield. Treatmenta % rot-infected tillers 30 DAT b 1 2 3 5.2 (13.17) c 11.1 (19.47) 45 DAT 2.8 (9.55) 8.3 (6.74) 60 DAT 2.7 (9.44) 8.6 (17.06) 3.4 2.8 1.6 0.64
b

References
Butler EJ. 1913. Disease of rice: an eelworm disease of rice. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa Bull. 34B:1-27. Chakraborti HS, Nayak DK, Pal A. 1985. Ufra incidence in summer rice in West Bengal. Int. Rice Res. Newsl. 10(1):15-16. Cuc NTT, Kinh DN. 1981. Rice stem nematode disease in Vietnam. Int. Rice Res. Newsl. 6(6):14-15. Das P. 1996. An integrated approach for management of rice stem nematode Ditylenchus angustus in deep water in Assam. Indian J. Nematol. 26(2):222-225. Miah SA. 1984. Disease problems and progress of research on ufra disease of rice in Bangladesh. Int. Rice Com. Newsl. 33(2):3538.

Yield (t ha-1)

% infected panicles % nonfilled grains 10 hills-1 panicle-1

7.0 (14.17) 18.5 (25.46) 48.3 (44.01) 4.25

c

16.8 (24.21) 25.2 (30.12) 49.2 (44.55) 6.17

20.2 (26.69) 27.4 (31.53) 38.3 (38.22) C.D. (5%) 2.84 3.15 5.34

1 = integrated method, 2 = chemical method, 3 = control. DAT = days after transplanting. Numbers in parentheses are arcsine VP transformations.

and applying neem cake and carbofuran just before transplanting and NSKE at 10 DAT can check the inflow of primary nematode inocula. Seed treatment, seedbed treatment with NSKP, burning of

crop residues, deep plowing and soil solarization, and neem application were prophylactic against the fungus. Results of this investigation generally agree with those of Das (1996).

Pathogenicity of cyst nematode, Heterodera sacchari, on rice in sand and clay soil
D.L. Coyne, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, and R.A. Plowright, CABI Bioscience, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK E-mail: dannycoyne@compuserve.com

The cyst nematode, Heterodera sacchari, occurs on rice throughout West Africa (Bridge et al 1990) but is also found outside Africa. Oryza sativa cultivars can be highly susceptible to H. sacchari (Plowright et al 1999). Production losses from H. sacchari infection on rice can be high under upland conditions, but are less severe under flooded conditions (Babatola 1983). This study assessed the pathogenicity of H. sacchari on improved O. sativa cv. IDSA6 on two different soil types under upland conditions: sand (9% clay, 15% silt, 75% sand) and clay loam (20% clay, 24% silt, 56% sand). Two seeds were sown in 8-L plastic pots filled with steam-sterilized soil, and seedlings thinned to one at emergence. Pots measuring 30 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep were perforated at the base and were watered daily from the base. They were arranged on benches in a randomized complete block design. Mature cysts of H. sacchari were mixed into the upper 5 L of the soil
IRRN 25.1

by hand, prior to sowing, at seven densities (Pi): 0, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 400 cysts pot-1, with 10 replications. Cysts were derived from mature IDSA6 plant roots following several generations in the pot in the screenhouse. The number of juveniles hatching into water from a subsample of cyst inoculum was assessed to estimate viable egg density. At 84 d after sowing (DAS), plant height was measured and relative leaf chlorophyll content recorded, using the Minolta SPAD-502 meter on the uppermost fully developed leaf. At harvest, leaf dry weight was recorded after oven drying, root fresh weight was recorded after rinsing each root system and dabbing dry, and grain weight was recorded. All data were analyzed using ANOVA. The relationship between initial nematode egg density (estimated from hatching assay) and relative yield (Y) (yield obtained with no H. sacchari stress) was established using Yercurve for DOS software, which

fitted the equation: Y = Ymin + (1Ymin)z(P-T) where z is a constant <1 and T is the nematode population density tolerance limit [derived from Nicholsons (1933) model]. Pathogenicity of H. sacchari on rice was evident in sandy soil but not in clay soil (see table). Grain yield and plant growth (except in the case of leaf dry weight, LDW) decreased at higher H. sacchari densities in sand but not in clay. Relative minimum yield in sandy soil was lower (0.15) than that observed in clay soil (0.6) over the range of H. sacchari Pi in the study (see figure). Relationships between Y and egg Pi (P) were described as
Sand: Y = 0.464 + 2.628 0.15(P - 0) R2 = 0.22 Clay: Y = 3.552 + 2.368 0.05(P - 0.93) R2 = 0.11

In both soil types, the term z was low, representing a high damage potential of individual nematodes of the first generation. In sand, no tolerance limit was
17

Effect of Heterodera sacchari Pi cyst density on development of rice cv IDSA6 in sand and clay loam soil.a Cyst density (L soil) Sandy soil GY RFW 19.1 12.3 9.7 8.2 5.8 5.2 2.9 6.8 9.0 ns LDW 7.5 10.3 7.3 6.3 7.8 5.8 5.2 ns ns HT 904 889 918 667 707 642 429 257 342 *** RLCC 33.2 31.1 30.8 22.2 31.6 33.1 15.0 10.1 13.4 ns GY 6.4 6.9 6.5 4.9 5.2 5.3 3.5 ns Clay soil RFW LDW HT 9.4 10.7 8.5 9.2 9.0 8.7 5.5 ns 9.7 10.9 8.1 8.7 8.7 7.4 5.1 ns 960 985 879 947 916 899 754 ns RLCC 28.8 28.6 28.1 28.4 30.3 28.5 26.1 ns

Relative yield (g) 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 2 4 6 Mean Pi egg density mL soil-1 8 Sand 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Clay

0 3.5 1.25 1.6 2.5 2.8 6.25 1.7 12.5 1.8 25 1.2 50 0.9 LSD <0.05 1.63 <0.01 ns Interactionb ***
a

GY = grain yield (g), RFW = root fresh weight (g), LDW = leaf dry weight (g), HT = plant height (mm) at 84 DAS, RLCC = relative leaf chlorophyll content at 84 DAS. LSD = least significant difference. bInteraction H. sacchari inoculum density soil type. ***Significantly different at P<0.001, ns = not significant at P<0.05.

Relationship between relative yield of rice cv. IDSA6 and Heterodera sacchari Pi egg density in sandy and clay loam soils.

A simple method for evaluating the virulence of the brown planthopper

K. Tanaka, National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba, 305-8604 Japan E-mail: tanaka@niaes.affrc.go.jp

To effectively use rice varieties resistant to the brown planthopper [BPH, Nilaparvata lugens (Stl)], it is necessary to monitor the virulence of BPH populations. BPH virulence is controlled
18

polygenically. This character, however, does not exhibit a continuous distribution of phenotype but is a threshold character that has two distinct phenotypes virulent and avirulent (Tanaka 1999).

Hence, a proportion of virulent individuals in a BPH population indicates a degree of virulence. For virulence tests of BPH individuals, many researchers have measured honeydew excretion of BPH
April 2000

detected; in clay, it was calculated as 0.93 eggs mL-1 soil. No differences in plant height between treatments in clay soil were observed at 84 DAS, although differences were observed at earlier growth stages. The root systems of infected plants were blackened, necrotic, and appeared stubby. This impairs the function of roots, particularly under conditions of low water availability. H. sacchari is clearly highly pathogenic on susceptible upland rice in sandy soil. Very low initial population densities resulted in severe grain losses in sandy soil, whereas, in the heavier clay soil, rice was more tolerant of H. sacchari. The chlorosis, reduced vigor, and root damage observed in H. sacchari-infected plants are likely to further predispose crops to

existing stresses, such as weed competition and drought, exacerbating overall losses. H. sacchari egg Pi fitted the critical point model well, despite the presence of multiple nematode generations over the duration of the crop cycle. The good fit of H. sacchari to the model is attributed to the aggressiveness of the parasite early in the plants growth. Field population densities similar to those used in the study likely occur in the field (Coyne et al 1996); moreover, conditions are representative of seedbed conditions. H. sacchari is therefore a potentially important threat to the sustainability of intensive upland rice production in West Africa, particularly with improved cultivars on sandy soils.

References
Babatola JO. 1983. Pathogenicity of Heterodera sacchari on rice. Nematol. Medit. 1:21-25. Bridge J, Luc M, Plowright RA. 1990. Nematode parasites of rice. In: Luc M, Sikora RA, Bridge J, editors. Plant parasitic nematodes in subtropical and tropical agriculture. Wallingford (UK): CAB International. p 69-108. Coyne Dl, Plowright RA, Fofana I. 1996. Preliminary investigations of nematodes associated with rice in Guinea, Benin and Togo. Afro-Asian J. Nematol. 6(1):70-73. Nicholson AJ. 1933. The balance of animal populations. J. Anim. Ecol. 18:132-178. Plowright RA, Coyne DL, Nash P, Jones MP. 1999. Resistance to the rice nematodes Heterodera sacchari, Meloidogyne graminicola and M. incognita in Oryza glaberrima and O. glaberrima O. sativa interspecific hybrids. Nematology. (in press)

Females (no.) 100

Dead

Thin

Medium

Swollen

A
80 60 40 20 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 1 2 3

4 5 0 1 Days after release

Changes in number of females in four virulence categories.A: an ASD7-selected BPH strain on ASD7 (carrying bph2), B: a Mudgo-selected strain on Mudgo (Bph1), C: a strain (collected in Isahaya, Japan, in 1997) on Mudgo, D: the Isahaya-1997 strain on Babawee (bph4).

IRRISTAT Windows 4.0

Now available online and on CD!

IRRISTAT is a computer program for data management and basic statistical analysis of experimental data. It can be run in any 32-bit Windows operating system. IRRISTAT has been developed primarily for analyzing data from agricultural field trials, but
IRRN 25.1

many of the features can be used for analysis of data from other sources. The main modules and facilities are: Data management with a spreadsheet, Text editor, Analysis of variance, Regression, Genotype environment interaction analysis, Quantitative trait analysis, Single site analysis, Pattern analysis, Graphics, and Utilities for randomization and layout, general factorial EMS, and orthogonal polynomial. The software (including tutorial in zip and pdf files) can be downloaded from the IRRI site at http://www.cgiar.org/irri/irristat.htm

The software is also available on CD for US$12.00 inclusive of handling and postage costs. Send suggestions, comments, or problems in using the software to: Biometrics International Rice Research Institute MCPO Box 3127 Makati City 1271, Philippines or e-mail: biometrics@irri.cgiar.org To order a CD, e-mail: e.ramin@cgiar.org

19

females using the parafilm-sachet method (Pathak et al 1982). This method is quantitative but very laborious and is not necessary if a study intends only to classify individuals as either virulent or avirulent. This paper describes a simple and easy method for evaluating the virulence of individual BPH. The abdomina of virulent BPH females become swollen on a rice variety within a few days, whereas the abdomina of avirulent females remain thin or become thinner (Tanaka 1999). An experiment was conducted to demonstrate the usefulness of this character in classifying virulent and avirulent BPH. Three seeds of rice were sown in a 220-mL plastic cup. At the tillering stage (4-7 wk after sowing, varies due to season), all plant parts including tillers and leaf blades, were cut off leaving a 15-cm-long main stem (3 stems in a cup). Trimming the plants is not required although it made observation of insects easy and it minimized space requirements. Trimmed plants were covered with a transparent plastic cylindrical cage (5.5 cm diam 20 cm height). Ten newly emerged brachypterous BPH females with thin abdomina were released into the cage, and the open end of the cage was covered with gauze. Test plants were kept in a laboratory controlled at 25 C, 16 L (light):8 D (dark), and the BPH were observed every day. Swollen females were counted and removed from the cage. Females that became swollen or that survived for 5 d were considered as virulent. Four experiments were conducted with three BPH populations (see figure). One hundred females were tested per experiment. Test insects were classified

into four categories (dead, thin, medium, and swollen). Medium is the category wherein females appeared to be the least swollen. Most females either became swollen or died after 5 d. Thus, it was reasonable to end the tests at day 5. The proportion of females with swollen or medium abdomina at day 2 was almost the same as that of females that survived for 5 d. Thus, tests can be ended at day 2. To end the tests at day 2, however, it is necessary to discriminate between medium and thin abdomina. The difference between medium and thin abdomina will vary between observers. Thus, at 25 C, it is best to continue the

tests until day 5. When tests are conducted at another temperature, the test period should be determined according to preliminary experiments because temperature affects the growth and development of BPH. References
Pathak PK, Saxena RC, Heinrichs EA. 1982. Parafilm sachet for measuring honeydew excretion by Nilaparvata lugens on rice. J. Econ. Entomol. 75:194-195. Tanaka K. 1999. Quantitative genetic analysis of biotypes of the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens: heritability of virulence to resistant rice varieties. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 90:279-287.

Hymenopteran diversity in single- and double-cropped rice ecosystems in Kerala, India

S. Pathummal Beevi, K.R. Lyla, Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Horticulture,Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala; and T.C. Narendran, Department of Zoology, Calicut University, Calicut, Kerala, India E-mail: kauhqr@ren.nic.in

Qualitative and quantitative studies of natural enemies of rice pests are prerequisites to promote natural biocontrol as the cornerstone of integrated pest management. Among the natural enemies, hymenopteran parasitoids play an important role in managing key pests of rice. The abundance and diversity of parasitoid fauna across ecosystems may vary with changes in modern agricultural practices. This study was undertaken to assess hymenopteran diversity in two different rice ecosystems as influenced by soil type, elevation, and cropping pattern. This was the first study on hymenopteran diversity in these ecosystems. The study was conducted during 1997 rabi in two selected villages in Thrissur District, Kerala, India, where rice was grown extensively. Koorkencherry village represented the kole lands (<7.5 m asl, hydromorphic soil rich in organic matter, flooded from June to September, single crop sown after draining, with large contiguous rice fields), while Ollukkara was the ordinary lowland (>7.5 m asl, laterite soil, double-cropped, with crop areas limited to 10-25 ha). Two locations were sampled in Koorkencherry (Avinissery, sampled in February and March 1998; and Kanimangalam, sampled in January and February 1998), and one location in Ollukkara (Mannuthy, sampled in November and December 1997). At each location, sampling was done in a 100-m2 area, untreated with chemical pesticides. The short-duration variety Jyothi was cultivated in all locations. In each plot, five double sweeps with a muslin cloth sweep net were made weekly, starting from 15 d after transplanting or 30 d after broadcasting. Sweeping was done from the plant canopy level including the interspaces between plants, during
20

morning hours at all sites on all sampling dates. Sweeping was done only up to the emergence of panicles, approximately 60 d after sowing. Samples collected were preserved separately, then sorted and counted. Parasitoids were then identified. The number of hymenopterans collected and the number of species collected were highest at Avinissery (Table 1). Altogether, 84 species of

hymenopteran parasitoids were identified from three locations. They belonged to 60 genera and 21 families. Except for Eumenidae and Formicidae, 19 families were parasitoids (Table 2). Among the parasitoids collected from all locations, the most predominant species were of the genera Telenomus, Fidiobia, Tetrastichus, Platygaster, Trissolcus, and Gonatocerus. Species from

Table 1. Relative abundance of hymenopterans in different locations. Location 1 Avinissery Kanimangalam Mannuthy 66 66 6 Hymenopterans at weekly intervals (no.) 2 211 37 14 3 109 139 4 4 16 115 3 402 357 27 56 35 13 Total Species (no.)

Table 2. Hymenopterans identified from different locations. Family Species Avinissery Aphelinidae Bethylidae Braconidae Encarsia sp. + Goniozus sp. + Bracon sp. Cotesia (= Apanteles) + parasae (Rohwer) Cotesia (= Apanteles) + ricini (Bhatnagar) Cotesia (= Apanteles) sp. +a Furcadesha sp. Glyptapanteles obliquae + (Wilkinson) Tropobracon luteus Cameron Tropobracon sp. + Aphanogmus sp. +a Antrocephalus dividens (Walker) Brachymeria excarinata (Gahan) + Brachymeria wittei (Schmitz) Hockeria sp. Psilochalcis sp. + Trichopria sp. + Elasmus sp. A. Elasmus sp. B. +a Elasmus kollimalainus + Mani and Saraswat Anagyrus sp. + Coccidencyrtus sp. + Lakshaphagus sp. Location Kanimangalam + +a +a + + + + + ++ a + Mannuthy +a + + +

Ceraphronidae Chalcididae

Diapriidae Elasmidae

Encyrtidae

April 2000

Contd.Table 2 Family Species Avinissery Esmarus sp. + Gronotoma (=Eucolia) sp. + Eulophidae Aprostocetus sp. ++ a Chrysonotomyia sp. + Pediobius inexpectatus Kerrich Stenomesius japonicus (Ashmead) Tetrastichus howardi (Olliff) + T. krishnaihi Saraswat + T. schoenobii Ferriere + Tetrastichus sp. Eumenidae Odynerus ovalis Saussure Eupelmidae Eupelmus australensis Girault Eupelmus sp. + Eurytomidae Eurytoma apara Narendran + E. manilensis Ashmead E. rajeevi Narendran +a E. sheelae Narendran + Eurytoma sp. + Neobephrata petiolata Narendran and Padmasenan Formicidae Hypoponera sp. + Monomorium dichrorum Forel + Plagiolepis sp. + Ichneumonidae Amauromorpha sp. Charops sp. Exochus sp. Isotima sp. Orthocentrinae sp. + Temelucha sp. + Xanthopimpla immaculata +a Bingham Mymaridae Erythmelus sp. + Gonatocerus longicornis Nees + G. malanadensis Subba Rao + G. munnarus Mani and Saraswat + Gonatocerus sp. Mymar sp. +a Platygasteridae Fidiobia sp. +++ a Platygaster sp. +++ a Synopeas indicus Mani + Pteromalidae Callitula sp. Homoporus sp. + Panstenon collaris Boucek + Pteromalus sp. A Pteromalus sp. B Pteromalus sp. C Pteromalus sp. D Systasis sp. Scelionidae Anteromorpha sp. + Gryon sp. + Idris lakshmani (Mani) + Idris sp. + Macroteleia lamba Saraswat ++a and Sharma Macroteleia sp. A Macroteleia sp. B +a Probaryconus sp. Psix sp. + Platyscelio pulchricornis + Kieffer Telenomus sp. +++ a Trissolcus sp. +++ a Torymidae Torymoides kiesenwetteri Mayr Trichogramma- Trichogramma chilonis Ishii + tidae Trichogramma sp. +
a

Location Kanimangalam ++ a + + +++ a + + + + + + +a +++ a + + + + ++ a +a + +a + +++ a + + Mannuthy ++ a +++ a + + ++ a + +++ a

Eucoilidae

other genera such as Aprostocetus, Pteromalus, Elasmus, and Macroteleia were also abundant. The study revealed that the single-cropped kole lands, a special rice-growing area, possessed a richer and more diverse parasitoid fauna than the double-cropped ordinary wetlands. High soil fertility and the resultant luxuriant growth might have contributed to increased pest and natural enemy migration. Species abundance was high at Avinissery. Sampling at Avinissery, which has contiguous and extensive fields, was done at a later date due to late planting and successional trends, and this might have contributed to the high parasitoid abundance in the sweep net samples.

IRRI Scholarships
IRRI is pleased to announce the availability of scholarships to be awarded during 2001 to support highly qualified scientists from rice-growing developing countries interested in pursuing a graduate degree in areas related to rice science. These scholarships include those provided by IRRI (PhD scholarships only) and scholarship funds which IRRI administers for other agencies, primarily the Asian Development Bank (ADB)Japan (MS and PhD scholarships). Scholarship slots are based on the capability of the applicants to work on areas highly relevant to the six major programs of IRRI (Irrigated, Rainfed, Upland, Cross-ecosystems, Genetic Resources, and Accelerating Impact of Rice Research). IRRI is not a degree-granting institution, but it supports candidates enrolled in one of the many universities throughout the world with which the Institute has a formalized memorandum of agreement. IRRI scholars must fulfill all requirements of that university and IRRI. The Institute provides the opportunity to conduct thesis research under the guidance and supervision of an experienced IRRI scientist on a topic of global importance to rice science. Upon successful defense of the research work, the scholar is conferred a degree through the collaborating university. Two kinds of scholarships are granted full and thesis-only. Selection for all grants is highly competitive and applications must be endorsed by the applicants institution. IRRI encourages the applications of women candidates. IRRI selection procedures stipulate that equally qualified women candidates will be given preference in IRRIs nondegree and degree training programs and workshops. Scholarships may be awarded to individuals working in government organizations, universities, and nongovernment organizations. For more information, contact: The Head, Training Center, IRRI, MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271, Philippines or e-mail: p.marcotte@cgiar.org

Present on multiple sample dates. +++ = most abundant, ++ = abundant, + = less abundant, = not present.

IRRN 25.1

21

Soil, nutrient, and water management

Part 1. All notes published under this section constitute part of the outputs of the second CREMNET (Crop and Resource Management Network) India Workshop-cum-Group Meeting held at the Soil and Water Management Research Institute, in Thanjavur, India on 2427 August 1999. The workshop was organized by the Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), India and CREMNET-IRRI with the theme Innovative nitrogen and other crop management techniques for intensive rice systems of South Asia.

Comparative efficiency of N management practices on rainfed lowland rice in Batac, Philippines

A.C. Morales, IRRI; E.O. Agustin, M.P. Lucas, T.F. Marcos, and D.A. Culanay, Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines; and V. Balasubramanian, IRRI

Broadcasting prilled urea (PU) on the soil surface or floodwater is inefficient due to large N losses (6070%) (Savant and De Datta 1982, Craswell et al 1985). Deep placement of N as briquettes or supergranules is one N management strategy that minimizes N loss resulting from ammonia volatilization and denitrification and that improves fertilizer N use efficiency (NUE) in flooded rice. This technique has benefited resource-poor, small-scale rice farmers because of a savings of about 30% in fertilizer cost (Savant and Stangel 1990). It also reduces the chances of fertilizer-related environmental pollution. The cost of urea tablets (UT) or briquettes is about 1015% higher than that of prilled urea. Another method for improving NUE in rice is by synchronizing broadcast application of PU with actual crop demand using the chlorophyll or SPAD meter/ technique developed by the Soil Plant Analysis Development Division (SPAD) of the Minolta Company, Japan. The chlorophyll meter is a simple, portable diagnostic tool that can accurately measure the leaf N status of rice plants. Thus, it can suggest timely N topdressing for rice crops in situ. On-farm trials were conducted in Batac, Ilocos Norte Province, Philippines, for three consecutive wet seasons (199597) to compare grain yield and NUE of transplanted rainfed lowland rice (cv IR64) under these treatments: urea tablet deep placement (UT/DP), the SPAD method using PU, farmers N management practice of broadcasting PU in two splits, and zero N (control). The SPAD method was
22

included only during 1996 and 1997. Eleven (1995), 30 (1996), and 20 (1997) farmers participated in this evaluation. The soils of the experimental fields generally had a clay loam texture with moderate fertility. A randomized complete block design was used with each farm serving as a replication. Plot size was 50 m2 per treatment. Twenty-five-day-old seedlings were transplanted at 20- 20-cm spacing. In the UT/DP treatment, three urea tablets (1 g each) were point-placed at 510-cm depth in the center of four hills (87 kg N ha-1) 14 d after transplanting (DAT). SPAD readings were taken at 7-d intervals starting from 14 DAT until first flowering, using the youngest fully expanded leaf of 10 randomly selected plants from each plot. In the SPAD method, N was applied whenever the observed mean SPAD value fell below the set critical threshold of 32. The rates of N applied each time were 20 kg ha-1 (from early to maximum tillering [MT], and from panicle initiation [PI], to first flowering) and 30 kg ha-1 (from MT to PI). The amount of N applied by farmers was monitored and the mean N rate calculated. Phosphorus at 18 kg ha-1 and potassium at 33 kg ha-1 were applied uniformly to all plots at last puddling. Other cultural practices such as water management and crop protection were the same as those of local farmers. The performance of different N treatments was measured in terms of grain yield at 14% moisture content, agronomic N use efficiency (AEN, calculated as additional grain yield over the control per kilogram N applied), and partial factor

productivity of N (PFP-N, computed as the total grain yield per kilogram N applied). Farmers perceptions about the introduced technologies were also gathered. In 1995, grain yield of UT/DP plots was on a par with farmers practice (mean N rate of 136 kg ha-1) but was significantly higher than PU broadcast in two splits at 86 kg N ha-1 (see table). The AEN value for the UT/DP method (AEN = 26) was double that of the farmers practice or PU broadcasting (AEN = 13). PFP-N was also higher for the UT/DP than for other methods (see table). In 1996, significantly higher rice yields were obtained for the UT/DP treatment compared with other methods (see table). The mean AEN value was three times higher in the UT/DP and SPAD methods (AEN = 16) compared with the farmers practice (AEN = 5). The very low AEN for the farmers method was due to very high N rates (120-370 kg ha-1, mean of 185 kg ha-1) used by 30 farmers. The PFPN values for UT/DP and SPAD-N methods were 2.3 and 4 times higher, respectively, than those of the farmers practice (PFP-N = 22). In 1997, yield data from only 12 farms (out of 20) were obtained due to crop failure caused by El Nio. Some farms were unable to supplement the water requirement of their crops because there was no water in the shallow tube wells. Again, mean grain yields in UT/DP plots were significantly higher than in SPADguided and farmers methods (see table). Less N, however, was used in the SPAD method, resulting in higher AEN and PFPApril 2000

Effect of various N management practices on grain yield and N use efficiency of rainfed lowland transplanted rice, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, 1995, 1996, and 1997 wet seasons. N treatment 1995 (11 farms) Control UT/DP PU broadcast Farmers practice 1996 (30 farms) Control UT/DP SPAD-N Farmers practice 1997 (12 farms) Control UT/DP SPAD-N Farmers practice N applied (kg ha-1) 0 87 87 136 0 87 41 185 0 87 30 182 Splits (no.) 1 2 1-2 1 2 2 1 1 2 Panicles (no. m-2) 326 b 510 a 474 a 487 a 413 c 553 a 483 b 538 a 370 c 605 a 477 b 491 b Filled grains panicle-1 (no.) 58 b 74 a 66 ab 68 a 53 c 66 a 57 b 58 b 57 d 80 a 69 b 63 c Grain yield (t ha-1) 3.0 c 5.2 a 4.1 b 4.8 a 3.1 d 4.4 a 3.7 c 4.0 b 2.4 c 5.1 a 4.1 b 3.8 b AEN PFP-N

26 a 13 b 13 b 16 a 16 a 5b 30 b 56 a 8c

60 47 35 51 90 22 58 136 21

a In a column, means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT. PU = prilled urea broadcast in two splits, 40 kg N ha-1 at 14 d after transplanting (DAT) and 47 kg N ha-1 at panicle initiation (PI). UT/DP = urea tablet deep-placed by a hand applicator at 14 DAT. Farmers practice = N applied either as a single dose at 10-15 DAT or in two splits (35-50% at 10-15 DAT and 50-65% at PI). SPAD-N = N applied whenever SPAD value falls below critical threshold value of 32. AEN = additional grain yield per kilogram N applied, PFP-N = total grain yield divided by total N applied.

Assessing genotypic variation in N requirements of rice with a chlorophyll meter

T.M. Thiyagarajan and S. Aruna Geetha, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry (DSSAC), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore 641003, India; and V. Balasubramanian, IRRI

Rice genotypes differ in their soil N uptake and N use efficiency (NUE). The traits related to NUE per se are yet to be exploited in crop improvement programs. Having efficient genotypes will result in lower external input requirements, reduced production costs, and lesser environmental problems.
IRRN 25.1

Field experiments were carried out to determine the time-course requirement for N and NUE of rice genotypes that differ in grain type, using the chlorophyll meter or SPAD technique (Peng et al 1996, Balasubramanian et al 1999). Experiments were conducted at the TNAU farm in

Coimbatore, India, in the 1997 and 1998 wet (samba) seasons (June-September/ October). Soil at the experimental site was clayey, with a pH of 8.4, electrical conductivity of 0.4 dS m-1, KMnO4-N of 244 kg ha-1, Olsen P of 14 kg ha-1, NH4OAc-K of 440 kg ha-1, organic carbon of 5.9 g kg-1,
23

N values. Efficiency values for the UT/DP treatment were intermediate between the SPAD and farmers methods. The higher grain yields in the UT/ DP treatment were due to more productive tillers m-2 and a higher number of filled grains panicle -1 compared with PU broadcasting. SPAD readings indicated that UT/DP maintained a leaf N concentration above the critical value at all growth stages (data not presented) that could have contributed to higher grain yields and NUE. These findings corroborate and further support earlier reports of fertilizer N being

used more efficiently by the rice crop when it is deep-placed near the root zone than when it is broadcast on the surface of soil or floodwater. Farmer adoption is still low, however, because of the additional labor required and drudgery involved in placing the urea deep into the soil. The SPAD method is equally efficient in N fertilizer use, but grain yields were not as high as those observed in the UT/DP treatment. It may be possible to increase yield further with the SPAD method by adjusting the threshold value after additional research.

During field days conducted at harvest, farmer-cooperators and neighboring farmers evaluated the different N management techniques. They were convinced of the good potential of the UT/DP and SPAD-guided N management technologies in reducing the amount of N used in their rice fields and lowering N fertilizer cost. They felt, however, that applying urea tablets with a hand applicator was laborious and timeconsuming. They suggested adding a metering device to the hand applicator so that urea tablets or briquettes could be automatically dispensed. They also wanted suitable and cost-effective deep placement machines to ensure adoption of the UT/ DP technique. They said that the SPAD meter, though helpful, was expensive. Finding an alternative tool is another option. A simple, inexpensive, and easyto-use tool such as a leaf color chart can help farmers determine the right time of N topdressing in rice. References
Craswell ET, De Datta SK, Weeraratne CS, Vlek PLG. 1985. Fate and efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers applied to wetland rice. 1. The Philippines. Fert. Res. 6:49-63. Savant NK, De Datta SK. 1982. Nitrogen transformation in wetland rice soils. Adv. Agron. 35:241-302. Savant NK, Stangel PJ. 1990. Deep placement of urea supergranules in transplanted rice: principles and practices. Fert. Res. 25:1-83.

Effect of planting density on chlorophyll meter-based N management in transplanted rice

P. Janaki and T.M. Thiyagarajan, DSSAC, TNAU, Coimbatore 641003, India; and V. Balasubramanian, IRRI

The chlorophyll or SPAD meter is a promising tool for adjusting the rate and time of nitrogen (N) application for different rice fields. The SPAD technique
24

ensures N supply to the crop when there is demand for N and results in higher N use efficiency (NUE) (Peng et al 1996, Juliardo and Abdulrachman 1997,

Balasubramanian et al 1999). The exhaustion of soil N supply, however, would depend on plant population. This study examines the effect of planting
April 2000

and cation exchange capacity of 27.9 cmol (P+) kg-1. Three irrigated, transplanted rice genotypes were used: ASD16 (short bold grains), ADT36 (medium grains), and ASD20 (long slender grains). SPAD readings were made at 15, 21, 35, 49, and 56 d after transplanting (DAT), and N was applied when mean SPAD readings fell below predefined threshold levels. In 1997, SPAD threshold values were set as recommended by Balasubramanian et al (1999): at 32 for early growth stages until 35 DAT (when weather was cloudy) and at 35 for later growth stages after 35 DAT (under sunny conditions). Based on observations from the 1997 experiment, a higher threshold value of 37 was fixed for the experiment in 1998. N was applied as prilled urea in dosages of 30 kg ha-1 at 15, 21, 35, 49, and 56 DAT and in a dosage of 45 kg ha-1 at 35 DAT. The three rice genotypes required different timings and amounts of N application (see table). The first SPAD readings at 14 DAT showed that all three genotypes required N application in both years. This indicates the poor native N supply from this soil. ASD16 required only two N topdressings (6075 kg N ha-1) in the early stages (i.e., until 35 DAT). ADT36 required N application until 4956 DAT, while ASD20 needed four to five N topdressings from 14 DAT until flowering. ADT36 and ASD20 required more N application at the reproductive stage (from panicle initiation to first flowering) than at the vegetative stage. Grain yield and partial factor productivity of applied N (PFP-N = grain

Amount of N applied, grain yield, and partial factor productivity of N (PFP-N) for three rice genotypesa in an on-station SPAD-N management trial at TNAU farm, Coimbatore, India, 1997 and 1998 wet season (WS).b Amount of N applied (kg ha-1) 15 DAT 21 DAT 35 DAT 49 DAT 56 DAT Total 68 52 42 Grain yield (t ha-1) PFP-N

1997 WS: SPAD threshold = 32 (early cloudy period) and 35 (later sunny period) ASD16 30 45 75 5.1 ADT36 30 45 30 105 5.4 ASD20 30 45 30 30 135 5.7 1998 WS: SPAD threshold = 37 ASD16 30 30 ADT36 30 ASD20 30 30

45 45

30 30

30

105 105 165

6.4 6.2 6.2

61 59 38

a All three genotypes have 110-d duration. bPanicle initiation occurred at 36 days after transplanting (DAT) in 1997 and 42 DAT in 1998.

yield divided by total N applied) were higher in 1998 than in 1997 for all three genotypes. ASD16 was the most efficient genotype, requiring only 75 kg N ha-1 in 1997 and 60 kg N ha-1 in 1998, compared with ADT36 (105 kg N ha-1 in both years) and ASD20 (135 kg N ha-1 in 1997 and 165 kg N ha -1 in 1998). No significant differences in grain yield among all three genotypes, however, were observed in both years. PFP-N of ASD16 was 63% higher than that of ASD20 in 1997; it was more than double in 1998. This indicated that ASD16 is highly efficient in using native and applied N and that this variety could possibly induce nonsymbiotic N2 fixation in the rhizosphere. Further in-depth studies are required to explain ASD16s high NUE. The findings indicated that SPAD threshold values should be adjusted according to the responsiveness of

genotypes to applied N and to exploit the yield potential of different rice genotypes. The study also showed that genotypes with coarse grains required lesser N than varieties with finer grains when fixed SPAD threshold values were used. Rice cultivars with fine grains appear to demand more N during the reproductive phase than during the vegetative phase. Further testing of more genotypes, however, is needed to confirm observations. References
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT, Abdulrachman S. 1999. On-farm adaptation of knowledge-intensive nitrogen management technologies for rice systems. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:59-69. Peng S, Garcia FV, Laza RC, Sanico AL, Visperas RM, Cassman KG. 1996. Increased N-use efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Res. 47:243-252.

density on the SPAD method of managing N in rice. Two field experiments were conducted to find out the variation in time and quantity of N application under different planting densities by using the SPAD method. The trials also examined the effect of basal N supply through green manure (Sesbania rostrata) and urea on later N requirements of crops with different planting densities. Experiments were conducted in the 1998 and 1999 dry seasons (DS, kuruvai, June-September) using rice variety ASD18 at the TNAU wetland farm. Sowing, transplanting, and harvesting dates of the crop were the same in both years. Trials were located in two different fields of the same farm in 1998 and 1999. The soils of the two fields differed mainly in organic carbon and KMnO4-N contents (Table 1). A split-plot design with three replications was used. Three planting densities (33, 66, and 100 hills m-2) served as main plots and five N regimes (zero N, control; Sesbania green manure, SGM, at 6.2 t ha-1 + 150 kg N ha-1; SPAD-guided N topdressing, SPAD-N; basal N 25 kg ha-1 + SPAD-N; and SGM at 6.2 t ha-1 + SPAD-N) served as subplots. Fertilizer N was applied as prilled urea. For the SGM + 150 kg N ha-1 treatment, the additional 150 kg N was applied in four splitsi.e., 25% at 7 d after transplanting (DAT), 50% at active tillering (21 DAT), 50% at panicle initiation, and the remaining 25% at 10 d after panicle initiation. In all SPAD-N treatments, SPAD readings were taken at 7-d intervals starting from 14 DAT until first flowering using the youngest fully expanded leaf of 10 randomly selected plants from each plot. Topdressing of N was done whenever the average SPAD reading fell below the threshold value of 37. Different planting densities required different amounts of N in SPAD-guided treatments (Table 2). The trend of N required for the SPAD method under different planting densities was the same in both soil-years. For the three SPAD treatments, the amount of N required for 33 hills m-2 was less than that needed for other densities. For the SPAD treatment
IRRN 25.1

without basal N application, the quantity of N required was the same for both 66 and 100 hills m-2 densities. In the 25 kg basal N + SPAD-N treatment, the amount of N required for 100 hills m-2 was less than that for 66 hills m-2 in both years, probably due to better exploitation of native and applied N by the roots. When SGM was used as basal N, however, the amount of mineral N topdressed with the SPAD method increased with planting densities. The total quantity of N applied was higher in field 2 in 1999 than in field 1 in 1998 for all three SPAD treatments, probably due to lower organic matter and available soil N contents in field 2 (Table 1). This indicates that the SPAD technique can differentiate the plant N requirement of crops grown in soils with different available N status (field 1 vs field 2). The partial factor productivity of applied N (PFP-N) is calculated as the grain yield divided by the amount of N applied. Pooled analysis of the data for the two soilyears (field 1 of 1998 and field 2 of 1999) showed that the grain yield and PFP-N were significantly higher in field 1 in 1998 than in field 2 in 1999 at the 5% probability level (Table 3). Planting densities of 66 and 100

hills m-2 resulted in significantly higher grain yields than the planting density of 33 hills m-2. Since the amount of N applied under the SPAD method was, however, less in 33 hills m-2 , the PFP-N was significantly higher in 33 hills m-2 than in the other two densities. Earlier, Paraye et al (1996) reported significantly higher grain yield in plots with close spacing (15 10 cm) than in those with wide spacing (15 20 cm). Although the mean grain yield did not vary significantly between N treatments, PFP-N differed significantly; a high of 58.2 kg grain kg-1 N was observed for SPAD-N, whereas the lowest value of 32.4 kg grain kg-1 N was noted for SGM + 150 kg N (Table 3). This showed that the SGM + fixed application of 150 kg N ha-1 was the least efficient in nutrient use mainly due to the high level of total N applied. The benefit of need-based N application by the SPAD method was evident in all three SPAD treatments. The interaction of soil-year and density was not significant for grain yield but was significant for PFP-N (Table 3). The PFP-N for the 33 hills m-2 density was significantly higher than that for the other

Table 1. Soil characteristics of the two fields used for the trials in 1998 and 1999. Soil characteristic Texture Soil pH (water) Electrical conductivity (dS m-1) KMnO4-extractable N (kg ha-1) Olsen P (kg ha-1) NH4OAc-extractable K (kg ha-1) Organic C (Walkley and Black 1934) (g kg-1) Field 1 (1998) Clay 7.9 0.4 214 16 400 16.3 Field 2 (1999) Clay 8.1 0.5 163 13 425 5.7

Table 2. Total N applied (kg ha-1) in the different N management treatments and planting densities. Dry season: June-September, 1998 and 1999, TNAU wetland farm, Coimbatore, India. Planting density (hills m-2) 33 66 100 Total N applied (kg ha-1) SGMa + 150 kg N 1998 193 193 193 1999 201 201 201 1998 90 105 105 SPAD-N 1999 105 135 135 Basal N + SPAD-N 1998 85 130 100 1999 130 160 145 SGMa + SPAD-N 1998 73 118 148 1999 126 156 171

a Quantity of total N supplied through 6.2 t (fresh weight) of green manure (Sesbania rostrata) was 43 kg in 1998 and 51 kg in 1999.

25

Table 3. Grain yield (t ha-1), partial factor productivity for applied N (PFP-N), and agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN) for the different N regimes under different planting densities. June-September, dry season, 1998 and 1999,TNAU wetland farm, Coimbatore, India.a N regimes Planting density (hills m-2) Zero-N control 1998 1999 Mean SGMb + 150 kg N 1998 1999 Mean SPAD-N 1998 1999 Mean Basal N + SPAD-N 1998 1999 Mean SGMa + SPAD-N 1998 1999 Mean Net mean 1998 Field 1 6.5 7.0 7.1 6.7 a 69.5 55.9 57.8 61.1 a 1999 Field 2 4.6 5.3 5.4 5.1 b 38.1 37.3 37.7 37.7 b 16.0 19.9 19.8 18.5 a 13.6 a 15.4 a 14.5 a 53.8 a 46.6 b 47.8 b Net mean

Grain yield (t ha-1) 33 5.6 2.9 4.3 7.0 5.4 6.2 66 5.8 2.8 4.3 7.2 6.0 6.6 100 6.2 2.9 4.5 6.8 5.9 6.4 Mean 5.9 a 2.9 b 6.9 a 5.8 b Net mean 4.5 b 6.4 a PFP-N (total grain yield per kg of N applied) 33 36.3 26.7 31.5 66 37.2 29.8 33.5 100 35.1 29.4 32.3 Mean 36.2 a 28.6 b Net mean 32.4 d AEN (additional grain yield over control per kg of N applied) 33 7.4 12.1 9.7 66 7.0 16.0 11.5 100 3.1 15.2 9.1 Mean 5.8 14.4 Net mean 10.1 c Pooled analysis Source of variation SED Soil-year (SY) Density (D) Nitrogen (N) SY D SY N DN SY D N
a

6.8 7.1 7.3 7.1 a 75.8 67.9 69.3 71.0 a 13.7 12.4 10.5 12.2

5.1 6.0 5.9 6.5 5.9 6.6 5.6 b 6.4 a 48.5 62.2 43.4 55.7 4.39 56.6 45.3 b 58.2 a 20.6 17.2 22.7 17.6 22.8 16.6 22.0 17.1 a

6.7 7.6 7.4 7.2 a 78.1 58.1 74.2 70.3 a 13.0 13.2 12.4 12.9

4.7 6.3 6.3 5.8 b

5.7 6.9 6.8 6.5 a

6.5 7.1 7.8 7.1 a 87.1 60.1 52.6 66.6 a

5.1 5.7 5.7 6.4 5.9 6.8 5.6 b 6.3 a 40.6 63.8 36.7 48.5 34.4 43.5 37.2 b 51.9 c

5.6 b 6.2 a 6.2 a

36.4 57.6 39.2 48.6 43.1 58.7 39.6 b 54.9 b

13.9 1345 10.5 21.8 17.5 10.7 23.4 17.9 10.8 19.7 10.7 16.3 ab PFP-N

17.3 13.9 11.1 18.9 14.8 10.8 17.9 14.2 9.2 17.9 14.3 b 10.4 b

Grain yield
c

AEN LSD (5%) 3.27 4.01 2.70 5.67 3.82 4.68 6.62 SED 1.34 1.64 1.34 2.31 1.81 2.33 3.29 LSD (5%) 3.08 ns 2.73 ns ns ns ns

LSD (5%) 0.36 0.44 0.31 ns 0.44 ns ns

SED 1.42 1.74 1.33 2.46 1.88 2.31 3.26

0.16 0.19 0.15 0.27 0.22 0.27 0.37

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at LSD (5% level). bGreen manure (Sesbania rostrata). cSED = standard error, LSD = least significant difference, ns = not significant.

two densities in field 1 with higher available soil N in 1998. In N-rich soils, the better early growth and tillering would have compensated for the lower planting density in 1998. In field 2 with lower native N supply (1999), the PFP-Ns of all densities, however, were on a par, indicating the need for higher external N supply under all planting densities. The interaction of soil-year N treatment was significant for both grain yield and PFP-N (Table 3). Grain yields under all N regimes were significantly higher in 1998 (field 1) than in 1999 (field 2). In 1999 (field 2), PFP-N was significantly higher for SPAD-N without basal N application than with 25 kg N ha-1 or SGM as basal N application. But in 1998 (field 1), PFP-N was not significantly different among the three SPAD treatments. This showed that, in field 2, even with low N
26

fertility in 1999, basal N application in the mineral or organic form did not improve NUE. The interactions of density N and soil-year density N were not significant for grain yield but were significant for PFPN. The PFP-N in different N regimes differed significantly between 1998 (field 1) and 1999 (field 2). There were no significant differences in PFP-N for different densities under different N regimes in 1999 (field 2). But in 1998 (field 1), the PFP-N decreased significantly with increasing density where basal N was applied through prilled urea or SGM. Pooled analysis of the data on agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN) showed significant differences only for means for the soil-year and N regimes (Table 3). The AEN was significantly higher in 1999 (field 2) than in 1998 (field 1),

mainly due to the very low control yield in N-deficient soil of field 2. This also indicated a higher crop response to applied N under low soil N supply in field 2 (1999). Significant differences occurred among N regimes. The basal N (in mineral form) + SPAD-N was on a par with SPADN without basal N and SGM + SPAD treatments. The data again showed the superiority of the SPAD method without basal N over the application of basal N in organic form (SGM). The SPAD method is highly efficient for flooded rice, irrespective of basal N application in mineral or organic form in the clay soils of the TNAU farm. With the fixed SPAD threshold value of 37, the N requirement of rice crops varied with planting density. Further research is needed to standardize SPAD values for different planting densities in rice.
April 2000

References
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT, Abdulrachman S. 1999. On-farm adaptation of knowledge-intensive nitrogen management technologies for rice systems. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:59-69. Juliardo I, Abdulrachman S. 1997. Improvement of N use efficiency through SPAD. INMnet Bull. 3:8.

Evaluation of N management practices for irrigated transplanted rice in Pondicherry, India

R. Balasubramanian, S. Ramesh, D. Maniamran, S. Anbumani, B.Vijayalakshmi, D. Tiroutchelvame, and R.S.S. Hopper, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Pondicherry, India E-mail: rbala_india@yahoo.com

Insufficient and inappropriate fertilizer nitrogen (N) management may account for one-half to two-thirds of the gap between actual and potential yields. About twothirds of Indias rice soils are deficient in available N (Mahapatra et al 1985). Agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN) in rice dropped from 16.8 in 1970-71 to 6.6 in 1989-90. Therefore, emphasis is placed on improving N use efficiency (NUE) in rice. Optimal N management strategies aim to match fertilizer N supply with actual crop demand, thus reducing N losses and maximizing crop N uptake (Thiyagarajan 1997). The chlorophyll or SPAD meter can be used to monitor crop N status and to determine the right time for applying N on rice crops (Peng et al 1996, Balasubramanian et al 1999). The critical SPAD value below which N needs to be applied may vary with cultivar, season, planting density, and soil and plant nutrient status other than N (Balasubramanian et al 1999). Therefore, critical SPAD values have to be adjusted for specific crop-growing conditions. Controlled-release fertilizers release nutrients at rates and concentrations that match the needs of plants at specific growth stages for maximum efficiency (Shoji and Gandeza 1992). To improve NUE, we evaluated the SPAD method and controlled-release urea (CRU) along with
IRRN 25.1

local N management practices in on-farm trials in Pondicherry, India, in 1998. Four field trials each were conducted in the 1998 dry season (DS, navarai: January to May) and wet season (WS, sornavari: June to September). Rice variety ADT37 (semidwarf) was used in the DS, and Chinna Ponni (improved local variety) in the WS. Treatments included a zero-N control, SPAD-guided N application, 20 kg N ha-1 basal + SPADguided N application, a single basal application of 60 kg N ha-1 as CRU (with 6% coating), and the farmers practice of 150 kg N ha-1 applied in three splits (50% basal, 25% at active tillering, and 25% at panicle initiation to flowering). The first four N treatment plots received irrigation water directly from the field irrigation channel. Each plot was surrounded by a good bund. The farmers fertilizer plot was demarcated with four pegs adjacent to the other treatment plots. All plots received a basal application of 22 kg P and 42 kg K ha-1. In the SPAD-N treatments, leaf N status was monitored weekly starting from 14 d after transplanting (DAT) until first flowering. The youngest fully expanded leaf of 10 randomly selected plants from each plot was used for the measurement. Whenever the average SPAD reading fell below the set critical value of 35, N fertilizer was applied immediately. In the DS, the amount of N applied each time was 30 kg

N ha-1 from the early to maximum tillering stage (1428 DAT), 45 kg N ha-1 from the maximum tillering to panicle initiation stage (2948 DAT), and 30 kg N ha-1 from the panicle initiation to flowering stage (49 DAT to flowering); it was reduced to 2030-20 kg N ha-1 for corresponding stages in the wet season. Plant height recorded at physiological maturity varied with treatments (Table 1). Height ranged from 91.3 to 93.1 cm for CRU, followed by other treatments. The basal + SPAD-N treatment recorded the most panicles per unit area, closely followed by CRU. The lowest panicle number was recorded in the control. Among the four N treatments, basal application of 20 kg N ha-1 + SPAD-N produced the highest yield of 5.8 t ha-1 in the DS and 6.3 t ha-1 in the WS. Increased yields in the basal + SPAD-N treatment were mainly due to increased panicle number m-2. These soils, with a control yield above 4 t ha-1, require basal N application in addition to N topdressing based on observed SPAD values. This contrasts with observations at other sites in India . The CRU treatment recorded the highest straw yield, followed by basal application of 20 kg N ha-1 + SPAD-N. Gross return was computed based on the prevailing market value of inputs and produce, such as grain and straw. The
27

Paraye PM, Kandalkar VS, Paliwal AK. 1996. Effect of split application of nitrogen and plant spacing on lowland bunded rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron. 41(3):490-492. Peng S, Garcia FV, Laza RC, Sanico AL, Visperas RM, Cassman KG. 1996. Increased N-use efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Res. 47:243-252.

Walkley A, Black CA. 1934. An examination of the degtareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 40:233-243.

Table 1. Plant height, number of panicles m-2, grain yield, and straw yield of transplanted rice, Pondicherry, India, 1998 dry and wet seasons.a Treatment Control SPAD-35 N Basal + SPAD-35 N CRU (6.0%) Farmers practice SED CD (5%) Dry 76.9 c 86.8 b 90.8 a 93.1 a 84.9 b 1.0 3.0 Plant height (cm) Wet 75.1 d 86.5 b 88.2 ab 91.3 a 83.1 c 1.0 2.8 Dry 376 c 499 b 537 a 523 a 488 b 7 19 Panicles m-2 (no.) Wet 392 d 531 b 568 a 542 b 507 c 8 23 Grain yield (t ha-1) Dry 4.1 d 5.4 bc 5.8 a 5.6 b 5.2 c 87 253 Wet 4.2 d 6.0 b 6.3 a 5.7 c 5.6 c 90 261 Straw yield (t ha-1) Dry Wet 5.6 c 5.9 c 7.1 b 7.4 b 7.6 a 7.7 b 7.8 a 8.1 a 7.3 b 7.5 b 77 124 223 362

a In a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at CD 5% probability level. CRU = controlled-release urea, SED = standard error deviation, CD = critical difference.

highest gross revenues were recorded for the 20 kg N ha-1 basal + SPAD-N (Table 2). This was followed by CRU. The net returns, computed by deducting the paid-out cost from gross return, followed the same trend as the gross return. References
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT, Abdulrachman S. 1999. On-farm adaptation of knowledge-intensive nitrogen management technologies for rice systems. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:59-69. Mahapatra IC, Singh KN, Pillai KG, Bapat SR. 1985. Rice soils and their management: a review. Indian J. Agron. 30:l44-l92. Peng S, Garcia PV, Laza RC, Sanico AL, Visperas RM, Cassman KG. 1996. Increased N-use efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Res. 47:243-252.

Table 2. Gross and net returns (US$ ha-1) of transplanted rice under different N treatments in the 1998 dry and wet seasons.a Treatment Control SPAD-35 N Basal + SPAD-35 N CRU (6.0%)a Farmers practice SED CD (5%) Cost of cultivationb Dry Wet 193 c 209 b 216 ab 221 a 218 a 3.42 7.46 206 c 219 b 226 ab 231 a 228 a 3.55 7.74 Gross returns Dry 397 d 527 c 613 a 584 b 566 b 9.48 20.66 Wet 442 d 573 c 654 a 615 b 607 b 9.97 21.74 Net returns Dry 204 e 318 d 397 a 363 b 348 c 5.77 12.59 Wet 236 d 354 c 428 a 384 b 379 b 6.20 13.51

a In a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at CD 5% probability level. bCost of prilled urea = US$4.77 50 kg-1, assumed CRU price = US$5.71 50 kg-1 (20% more than PU), price of rice = US$8.90-9.67 (mean = US$9.28) 100 kg-1 rough rice (selling price varies among farmers). CRU = controlled-release urea, SED = standard error deviation, CD = critical difference.

Polymer-coated urea: an efficient controlled-release N source for irrigated transplanted rice

T.M. Thiyagarajan, S. Aruna Geetha, Mir Zamman Hussain, P. Saradha, and P. Janaki, DSSAC, TNAU, Coimbatore 641003, India; and V. Balasubramanian, IRRI

Fertilizer nitrogen (N) recovery in wetland rice is often low, ranging from 30% to 40% (De Datta and Buresh 1989), as N is lost through denitrification, ammonia volatilization, and/or leaching (Singh and Buresh 1994). Controlled-release fertilizers release nutrients at rates and concentrations that match the specific needs of plants at specific growth stages for maximum efficiency (Shoji and Gandeza 1992). To improve N use
28

efficiency (NUE), we evaluated polymercoated controlled-release urea (CRU) in two field experiments conducted at the TNAU wetland farm in Coimbatore, India. In experiment I, conducted in the 1997 and 1998 wet seasons (WS, samba: June to September/October), three irrigated transplanted genotypes were studied under five N regimes. Rice genotypes were selected to reflect contrasting grain types: ASD16 with short

bold grains, ADT36 with medium grains, and ASD20 with long slender grains. N treatments included a zero-N control, soil test and crop response-based N application (STCR-N) for a target yield of 8 t ha-1, green manure (Sesbania rostrata) at 6.2 t fresh weight ha-1 plus 150 kg N ha-1 as urea (SGM + N), chlorophyll meter (SPAD)-based N application, and CRU with 4.5% polymer coating. N doses applied through CRU were 140 kg N ha-1 (60% of STCR-N) in 1997
April 2000

Shoji S, Gandeza AT, editors, 1992. Controlledrelease fertilizers with polyolefin resin coating. Sendai (Japan): Tohoku University and Konno Printing Co. Ltd. Thiyagarajan TM. 1997. Manage-Na simulation tool for optimization of nitrogen application

to rice. In: Training course on systems analysis and modeling in crop production management, 24 Jul to 5 Aug 1997, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.

Table 1. Grain yield of three irrigated transplanted rice genotypes under various N sources and N management practices in on-station trials at TNAU farm, Coimbatore, India, 1997 and 1998 wet season (WS) (experiment I). Grain yield (t ha-1) Genotype/N applied Control 1997 WS N applied (kg ha-1) ASD16 ADT36 ASD20 Mean 1998 WS N applied (kg ha-1) ASD16 ADT36 ASD20 Mean 0 3.8 3.9 4.5 4.0 c 0 4.7 4.3 3.8 4.2 c STCR-Na 234 6.5 5.6 7.2 6.4 a 181 5.8 5.4 5.9 5.7 b 1997 LSD (5%) G means N means N means at same G G means at same or different N
a

SGM + Nb 214 6.7 6.6 7.0 6.8 a

SPAD-N (*)d 5.1 (75) 5.4 (105) 5.7 (135) 5.4 b

CRU (4.5%)c 140 5.8 6.2 6.9 6.3 a 72 6.6 5.9 6.6 6.4 a

Mean 5.6 ae 5.6 a 6.3 a 5.8 5.9 a 5.6 a 5.8 a 5.8

197 (*)d 6.1 6.4 (60) 6.0 6.2 (105) 6.4 6.2 (165) 6.2 a 6.3 a Mean comparisons 1998 ns 0.58 1.00 ns

ns 0.64 1.10 ns

STCR-N = soil test and crop response N for a target yield of 8 t ha-1 in 1997 and 7 t ha-1 in 1998. bSGM + N = sesbania green manure at 6.25 t ha-1 + 150 kg N ha-1 (total N = 204 and 197 kg ha-1 for 1997 and 1998, respectively). cCRU = controlled-release urea (4.5%) at 140 and 75 kg N ha-1 for 1997 and 1998 WS, respectively. d(*) SPAD-N = chlorophyll meter-guided N, with threshold values of 35 in 1997 and 37 in 1998; the rate of N (kg ha-1) applied varied with the rice genotype as given in parentheses. eMeans followed by the same letter are not different at LSD (5% level). ns = not significant, G = genotype, N = N treatments.

Table 2.Total N applied, grain yield, and N use efficiency of irrigated transplanted rice (ADT36) under various N sources and N management practices in an on-station trial at TNAU farm, Coimbatore, India, 1998 wet season (WS) (experiment II). Treatment Control Local N recommendation SGM + N CRU 6.0% LSD (5%) N applied (kg ha-1) 0 120 197 72 Grain yield (t ha-1)a 5.4 b 7.5 a 7.5 a 7.4 a 0.66 AENb 18 11 28 PFP-Nc 62 38 102

a In a column, mean yields followed by the same letter are not different at LSD (5% level). bAEN = additional grain yield over control per kilogram N applied. cPFP-N = total grain yield divided by total N applied. CRU = controlled-release urea, SGM = Sesbania green manure, LSD = least significant difference.

IRRN 25.1

29

and 72 kg N ha-1 (60% of local recommendation) in 1998. SPAD readings were made at 15, 21, 35, 49, and 56 d after transplanting (DAT), and N was applied when mean SPAD readings fell below 32 at early growth stages (until 35 DAT) and below 35 at late growth stages (after 35 DAT) in 1997, and below 37 at all growth stages in 1998. N was applied as prilled urea in dosages of 30 kg ha-1 at 15, 21, 35, 49, and 56 DAT, and at 45 kg ha-1 at 35 DAT. More information on SPAD treatments (and results) is given in other papers. A split-plot design with three replications was used with genotypes as main plots and N regimes as subplots. In experiment II, conducted in the 1998 WS, only cultivar ADT36 was grown with four N treatments: a control with zero N, CRU with 6% coating at a rate of 72 kg N ha-1, the locally recommended N rate of 120 kg ha-1, and SGM + N (same as in experiment I). Treatments were replicated thrice in a randomized complete block design. The NUE was computed in two forms: (1) agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN) and (2) partial factor productivity for applied N (PFP-N). Results of experiment I showed that applying CRU produced grain yields that were on a par with STCR-N (Table 1), resulting in a relative fertilizer N savings of 40%. In 1998, CRU produced the maximum yield of 6.4 t ha-1. The differential response of rice genotypes was significant for CRU at the 5% probability level in 1997 but not in 1998. In the 1997 WS, the grain yield of ASD20 was significantly higher than that of ASD16 due to the higher rate of N applied through CRU (140 kg ha-1). ASD16 required higher N to reach its yield potential. In the 1998 WS, no significant difference was observed in the yield of genotypes when only 72 kg N ha-1 was applied as CRU. For ASD20, this amount of N was not sufficient to express its yield potential. For ASD16, the N required to express its yield potential was low as indicated in the SPAD-N treatment. This could be the reason for the low yield at a high N level such as CRU in 1997. Grain yields of the SPAD treatment were not significantly different among genotypes in both years, but amounts of N required were different. This indicates

the usefulness of the SPAD method for refining N requirements of rice genotypes. In experiment II, grain yields obtained with applying CRU (72 kg N ha-1) were on a par with those using a local N recommendation of 120 kg ha-1 and sesbania green manure plus prilled urea at a total N rate of 197 kg ha-1 (Table 2). The NUE values (AEN and PFP-N) were significantly higher for CRU compared with other treatments. Our results indicate a great potential for using CRU in lowland rice in the tropics. If fully developed and made available to farmers at a competitive price, CRU will be an excellent alternative to prilled urea. No additional labor is needed for its single, basal

application and incorporation into the soil just before planting. The higher NUE of CRU means less N losses and less fertilizer-related pollution for the environment. References
De Datta SK, Buresh RJ. 1989. Integrated nitrogen management in irrigated rice. Adv. Soil Sci. 10:143-169. Shoji S, Gandeza AT, editors. 1992. Controlledrelease fertilizers with polyolefin resin coating. Sendai 981, Sendai (Japan):Tohoku University and Konno Printing Co. Ltd. Singh U, Buresh RJ. 1994. Fertilizer technology for increased fertilizer efficiency in paddy rice fields. In: Proceedings of the 15th World Congress of Soil Science, Acapulco, Mexico. p 643-653.

Crop management and physiology

Control of red rice seed banks under different lowland management systems
Luis Antonio de Avila and Enio Marchezan, Crop Science Department, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Centro de Cincias Rurais, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brazil E-mail: laavila@ccr.ufsm.br and emarch@ccr.ufsm.br

Red rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important weeds of lowland rice in Brazil, causing yield and quality losses and rendering land unusable for rice production due to the buildup of a persistent seed bank. Its control is particularly difficult because it is the same species as commercial rice. Red rice has many characteristic weedy traits such as seed longevity in the soil and, depending on agronomic management practices used, buried seed stays viable for several years. An experiment was conducted during the 1996-97 and 1997-98 growing seasons to evaluate lowland rice management practices as a way to control this weed and their effects on size of the red rice seed bank. The study site was in Rio Grande do Sul State, south of Brazil, in a climate considered as temperate and moderately humid, a Cfa according to Kppens classification, on Albaqualf soil. A completely randomized block design was used with four replications in the first year and three replications in the second year. Seven experimental treatments were examined (see Tables 1 and 2), covering selected crop establishment methods, and tillage and cropping systems. To measure the size of the seed bank, 10 core samples were taken with a diameter of 10 cm and a depth of 10 cm per experimental unit. Samples were taken before and after treatment and red rice seed number was estimated. Data were subjected to ANOVA and means were compared by DMRT at 0.05% probability. Results indicated that among treatments tested during the first growing season, T1 and T2 resulted in higher populations of red rice, and as a consequence, had lower rice grain yields (Table 1). The low yields observed in T2
30

Table 1. Emergence of red rice plants and panicles as percentage of the red rice viable seed bank before planting (% RRSB), rice grain yield (yield), and rice spikelet sterility (STE) during 1996-97 and 1997-98 growing seasons, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 1999.a 1996-97 growing season Treatmentb T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Av CV (%) % plants 26.5a 12.9 ab 5.1 ab 4.9 ab 0.6 b 10.0 70.2 RRSBc panicles 82 a 40 b 17 bc 12 bc 2c 30 37.7 Yield (t ha-1) 2.7 bc 2.0 c 4.0 ab 4.7 a 5.1 a 3.7 29.2 STE (%) 47 ab 58 a 36 bc 34 bc 33 c 42 12.3 1997-98 growing season % plants 40.6 a 10.9 b 2.8 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 10.9 57.7 RRSBc panicles Yield (t ha-1) STE (%) 16 14 19 22 17 18 17.7

69 a 1.7 c 35 ab 2.2 c 10 bc 4.1 b 0.2 c 5.0 ab 0.1 5.9 a 23.1 3.8 56.7 20.0

a Means in each column not followed by the same letter are significantly different according to DMRT at 5% probability. bT1 = rice under conventional seeding;T2 = rice under conventional seeding after preplant incorporation of herbicide molinate (5.75 kg ha-1) with seeds protected by naphthalix anhydride (0.5% v./v.); T3 = rice under conventional seeding 25 d after applying herbicide 2,4-D amine (8.64 kg ha-1);T4 = rice under minimum tillage in the first year and no tillage in the second; T5 = rice under no-tillage and water-seeded system (pregerminated crop seeds in a minimum tillage area);T6 = rice under transplanted seedling system; T7 = rice under water-seeded system; and = treatment not tested in season indicated. c Percentage means subject to arcsin square root transformation.

Table 2. Number of viable seeds per square meter and change in red rice seed bank as percentage of seeds present in the soil after treatments compared with initial level in the soil, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 1999.a Viable seeds (no. m-2)c Treatmentb Nov 1996 May 1997 May 1998 Percentage of viable seeds in soilc 1st yr (1996-97)d 346 ae 224 ab 189 ab 78 bc 63 bc 21 c 10 c 10 c 118 52.7 2nd yr (1997-98)e 551 a 441 b 87 bc 15 c 12 c 48 c 0c 0c 0c 128 36.8 Effect of 2 yr (1996-98)f 690 a 338 b 38 c 0c 0c 0c 178 35.8

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 Av CV (%)

a

402 454 555 893 416 538 441 432 516

919 285 184 3,616 2,471 612 110 16 13 914

4,345 1,410 159 389 210 172 0 0 0 725

Means in each column followed by a same letter are different according to DMRT at 5% probability. bT1-T7 = see Table 1. T8 = rice under no-tillage seeding and roguing to eliminate red rice panicles;T9 = fallow (simulating grazing by cattle);T10 = sorghum under minimum tillage using atrazine (2.25 kg ha-1) applied at early postemergence (red rice with 2-3 levels); T11 = soil tillage during summer season (three tillages per season); and = treatment not tested in season indicated. c Percentage means subject to arcsin square root transformation. dRelationship between 1997 seed bank and 1996 seed bank. eRelationship between 1998 seed bank and 1997 seed bank. fRelationship between 1998 seed bank and 1996 seed bank.

April 2000

Identifying and grading limiting factors of upland rice yields in farmers fields of northern Thailand
K.Van Keer, Laboratory for Soil Fertility and Soil Biology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; G. Trbuil, IRRI, seconded from the Department of Annual Crops, Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour la dveloppement (CIRAD-CA), France; and Eric Goz, CIRAD-CA. E-mail: guy.trebuil@cirad.fr

In peninsular Southeast Asia, swidden cultivation of upland rice is still an important component of remote highland farming systems. Also, yields in farmers fields are generally low (11.5 t ha-1) but very variable under no-external-input cropping systems. Yields of 3 and 4 t ha-1 for early and late local varieties, respectively, are observed in pockets in the field (Van Keer et al 1998). But such yields are seldom reached due to the multiple interacting limiting factors characteristic of such an unfavorable rice ecosystem. Identifying and ranking these limiting factors is a prerequisite to setting research and extension priorities for improving current farmers practices to reduce yield gaps. An on-farm diagnostic survey, covering a very extensive range of upland rice crop situations, was carried out during 1993-96 in Mae-Haeng, a Lahu highland village of Fang District, Chiang Mai Province, in upper northern Thailand (600800 m asl). The objectives were to characterize the upland rice crop
IRRN 25.1

population, environmental conditions, and farmers practices along the whole crop cycle; and to identify, date, and rank the main environmental and cropping system variables causing major yield limitations under farmers circumstances and management practices. Data on crop population status for two early and late-maturing types of local cultivars, crop environmental conditions, and cropping practices were obtained every 2 wk from 432 squares (1 m2 each). These squares were delimited at crop emergence to 63, often sloping, farmers fields of deep granitic soils with a clayloamy texture and medium chemical fertility. To identify and to rank causes of rice yield differentiation, a principal component analysis with instrumental variables (PCAIV, Lebreton et al 1991) was carried out on the 1993-96 pooled data, and for individual year subdatasets. PCAIV allows, for the same number of n individual entities (here, n=432), the simultaneous analysis of two multivariate data matrices, i.e., a dependent matrix,

made in this case of upland rice crop population characteristics (yield and successive components of yield), and an independent matrix comprising all the measured crop environmental and management variables. First, simultaneous multiple regressions for each variable of the dependent crop population data matrix on all variables of the independent crop environment and management matrix are carried out. After this step, a new matrix is obtained presenting the part of the crop population characteristics explained by the crop environment and management data. In the second step, classic principal component analysis (PCA) is done on this new matrix. In the on-farm agronomic survey, for both pooled data and individual years, relatively high levels were obtained for the percentage of inertia of the first two axes and for the pertinence of the PCAIV. For the reproductive phase, the analysis of the upland rice yield buildup processes (Wey et al 1998) pinpointed panicle formation and spikelet differentiation as key periods of yield
31

may be due to the phytotoxicity of the herbicide molinate, which from observation decreased plant population and development. This reduced development led to flowering during low air temperatures and to high spikelet sterility. The other treatments gave better red rice control and therefore higher crop yields. In the second year, treatments T1 and T4 resulted in lower rice grain yields due to poor weed control. On the other hand, treatments where seeding was done on inundated soil resulted in better red rice control and higher rice yield. Table 2 shows

the number of seeds per square meter in each of three evaluations, and the change in seed bank size as a percentage of viable seeds in the soil after each treatment (based on initial quantity). In the first cropping year, T1, T2, and T3 increased the soil seed bank, whereas T4 decreased it. Other treatments contributed to a decrease in the seed bank in the soil. A reduced seed bank in treatments that used inundated soil (T5, T6, and T7) was likely due to lesser new seeds in the soil and lower germination because anaerobic soil caused a higher loss rate in red rice seeds. On the other hand, for treatments T9, T10,

and T11, reduced red rice seeds was due to no new seeds added to the soil and loss of viability of older seeds through time. In conclusion, among treatments tested to establish lowland rice, the highest grain yields were observed in treatments that control red rice when rice is established in flooded land. Treatments using crop rotation with sorghum, summer tillage, fallow, and rice seeding in flooded soil are the most efficient in reducing red rice seed banks.

Lebreton JD, Sabatier R, Banco G, Bacou AM. 1991. Principal component and correspondence analyses with respect to instrumental variables: an overview of their April 2000

32

differentiation. During the vegetative period, poor crop biomass accumulation was also found to be more important than low plant density. Vegetative biomass accumulation per plant influenced panicle and spikelet formation, but not spikelet fertilization or grain filling (data not shown). The analysis of pooled data (see figure) reveals strong negative relationships for (a) number of panicles plant-1 and number of spikelets panicle-1 vs rice root aphid infestation; (b) plant density vs late weed competition and latematuring cultivars (with lower sowing densities); and (c) percentage of filled spikelets and 1,000-grain weight vs 1995 wet season, which was characterized by dry spells during the reproductive phase. Weak negative relationships were found for number of panicles plant-1 vs slope angle, erosion, number of successive upland rice crops, minimum tillage, and early weed stress. A rather weak positive correlation between the older forest type of fallow and upland rice grain yield was also observed. Brown spot was the only disease with limited importance, especially on late-maturing varieties. The analysis of the major and minor limiting factors of yield and its components for individual year subdatasets summarized in the table isolated rice root aphid infestation as the single major limiting factor with a strong and consistent effect on final upland rice grain yields. Weed competition during the vegetative phase of the crop cycle was found to be the second most important yield-limiting factor, followed by soil erosion in sloping fields after tillage. It was only in one out of four cropping seasons that the last two upland rice yield components were negatively affected by drought. Results of this on-farm agronomic survey support the validity of several common hypotheses on limiting factors in upland rice (weed competition, drought stress, soil erosion). That no very significant soil nutrient-limiting factor was diagnosed could be due to the fact that the survey was carried out on a soil type with a relatively high level of chemical

1.0 SPPA PAPL YIELD

%FSP 0.5 lc we2 1.0 WTG ws2 ws1 bs we1 mt sl yck er ff ws4 sand dt PL ec -0.5 ra ws3

-1.0 -1.0 -0.5 -0.0 0.5 1.0

Plane of PCAIV first two axes showing the relationships between upland rice yield, components of yield, crop environmental conditions, and crop management practices in Mae Haeng Village, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, pooled data for 1993-96. Crop growth variables (measured at harvest): PL = no. of plants m-2; PAPL = no. of panicles plant-1; SPPA = no. of spikelets panicle-1; % FSP = percentage of filled spikelets; WTG = 1000-g weight; YIELD = grain yield. Crop environmental and management variables: ec, lc = early, late cultivars; mt, dt = minimum, deeper tillage; yc = no. of successive years of upland rice cultivation; ff, bf, gf = forest, bamboo, grass fallows; ws1, ws2, ws3, ws4 = 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 wet seasons; sl = slope angle; er = severity of soil erosion; sand = percentage of sand; ph = pH; som = soil organic matter; pav = available P; camg = soil Ca + Mg content; k = soil K content; we1, we2 = cumulated area under the weed cover curve for 0-60 DAS and for 60 DAS to harvest, respectively; bs = degree of brown spot infestation; ra = degree of rice root aphid infestation.

fertility. It is also possible that the standard static soil fertility measurements used in the survey were not sufficient to identify meaningful relationships with crop population characteristics. Finally, this analysis showed that close attention should be paid to soil-borne upland rice pests when prioritizing issues for improving upland rice-based cropping systems in the northern Thailand highlands. References

roles in studies of structure-activity and species-environment relationships. In: Applied multivariate analysis in SAR and environment studies, ECSC, EEC, EAEC, Brussels and Luxembourg. p 85-114. Van Keer K, Trebuil G, Courtois B, Vejpas C. 1998. On-farm characterization of upland rice varieties in north Thailand. Int. Rice Res. Notes 23(3): 21-22. Wey J, Oliver R, Manichon H, Siband P. 1998. Analysis of local limitations to maize yield under tropical conditions. Agronomie 18:545-561.

Major and minor factors and conditions influencing upland rice yield buildup based on results of PCAIV analysis for each cropping year in Mae Haeng Village, Chiang Mai Province,Thailand, 1993-96. Boldface indicates strongest relationships.a Year Relationship No. of plants m-2 No. of panicles plant-1 1993 WS lca er we1, we2 mt, sl ra we1, we2 camg ph, bf mt, sl k ra we1, we2 camg ph, bf mt, sl ec + ec sand, dt sand, dt 1994 WS + we2, Ic ec we1 yc, ff er k ra, bs camg pav er k ra, bs camg pav 1995 WS + ra, we2 we1 er, yc ra, we2 gf er, yc we1 ec gf, lc ra, we2 ws3 ec gf ws3 lc we1 84% 79% camg sl 1996 WS + we1, we2 ec camg k, yc lc er dt ra sl/mt camg k, yc ra mt er 1993-96 WS + we2 ec lv dt ra ws3 er,sl we1, we2 yc mt ra ws3 ec er, sl yc ws3 ec ws3 ec ff

No. of spikelets panicle-1

ff

% filled spikelets 1,000-grain weight

lc

camg lc ec

lc ws2 lc ws2

Inertia of axes 1-2 84% Pertinence of PCAIV

a

87% 63%

70% 67%

75% 52%

37%

See figure for abbreviations of variables.

Instructional videos available

The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) (8:20 min)
Farmers generally observe the color of rice leaves to determine a rice crops need for nitrogen fertilizer. Dark green rice leaves mean a high nitrogen content, while pale green rice leaves necessitate the application of more nitrogen fertilizer. Mere observation, however, holds no absolute guarantee in measurement accuracy. Thus, to better help farmers determine their rice crops need for nitrogen, the Leaf Color Chart (LCC) was developed. The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) instructional video was produced to familiarize farmers and extension workers with the proper use of this new and affordable farming implement.

Portable chlorophyll meter for nitrogen management in rice (13:30 min)

In agriculture, excess nitrates can actually be highly damaging to crops and the environment. There is, thus, a need to efficiently manage the application of nitrogen fertilizers on rice crops. The Portable Chlorophyll Meter for Nitrogen Management in Rice introduces the features and use of the chlorophyll or SPAD meter which is capable of measuring the relative nitrogen content in plant leaves through a simple, quick, and nondestructive procedure.

Go break into the code (13:30 min)

Genetic engineering need not be a property of the scientific few. This is what IRRI had in mind when it produced Go breAk inTo the Code: to make the general public grasp and understand the seemingly complicated science through a visually stunning, fast-paced, and entertaining presentation about the genetic code, DNA sequencing, and plant biotechnology. The video also gives the public a glimpse as to how IRRI scientists are redesigning the rice plantthat most important food staple, using biotechnology tools. These instructional videos are available in English, in the 3/4-inch u-matic and VHS formats, and in the NTSC, SECAM, or PAL systems. For more information about the videos, contact: Marketing and Distribution Communication and Publications Services IRRI, MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271 Philippines E-mail: e.ramin@cgiar.org
IRRN 25.1

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NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Parthenium hysterophorus: a new weed in upland rice fields of the Chhattisgarh Plains (India)
P. Oudhia, Department of Agronomy, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU), Raipur 492001, India E-mail: pankaj.oudhia@usa.net

Parthenium hysterophorus L., commonly known as Gajar ghas, congress weed, carrotweed, Ramphool, whitetop, Star weed, and feverfew, is believed to have entered India accidentally in the mid-1950s (Mahadevappa 1998). The adverse effects of Parthenium not only on human beings but also on animal health have been well documented. The weed is known to cause asthma, bronchitis, dermatitis, and hay fever in humans and livestock. Chemical analysis has indicated that all plant parts including trichomes and pollen contain toxins from the chemical group of sesquiterpene lactones (Oudhia and Tripathi 1998). Over the last 5-6 yr, this common wasteland weed in Chhattisgarh has become a serious crop weed (Oudhia 1998). A phytosociological survey was conducted during the 1997-99 kharif by the Department of Agronomy, IGAU, to gather information about the extent of Parthenium infestation in upland rice fields of the Chhattisgarh Plains. Weed studies were made following the list count method suggested by Raju and Reddy Nageswara (1998) using a 0.5 0.5-m quadrat. Sampling was done randomly in 160 spots (40 spots from upland rice fields of each district) in four districts, Raipur, Durg, Rajnandgaon, and Mahasamund. The survey revealed that more than 45 weed species infest the upland rice fields of the Chhattisgarh Plains. The table shows details about relative density and relative frequency of eight major weeds. Data show that Parthenium and Cynodon have a high degree of patchiness and form large colonies.
34

In all districts, the high relative density and frequency of Cynodon were noted. In Raipur, the second highest relative density was noted in Echinochloa, whereas the second highest relative frequency was noted in Parthenium. In all districts, the relative frequencies of Parthenium were the second highest after Cynodon. The high relative dominance of Parthenium was attributed to its high frequency, aggressiveness, and suppressive effects on neighboring plants. Farmers in the region said that the very fast spread of Parthenium will surely make it the most problematic weed within 5 yr if proper management strategies are not adopted. During the survey, many farmers said that Parthenium poses health problems (e.g., skin and respiratory allergies) for them and their cattle. Heavy infestations of Parthenium in rice bunds and wastelands serve as potential seed banks for heavy infestation in rice fields. Unfortunately, not much work has been done on the use of herbicides in rice fields for Parthenium management in the region. This is why farmers are unable to avoid uprooting this harmful weed through handweeding. The

survey suggested the urgent need to start an effective integrated Parthenium management program in the Chhattisgarh region. References
Mahadevappa M. 1998. Ecology, distribution, menace and management of Parthenium. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Parthenium Management, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India, 6-8 October 1997. p 112. Oudhia P. 1998. Parthenium: a curse for the biodiversity of Chhattisgarh Plains. In: Abstract, National Research Seminar on Biochemical Changes: An Impact on the Environment. R.D. Govt. P.G. College, Mandla, India. 26 p. Oudhia P, Tripathi RS. 1998. Allelopathic effects of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on kodo, mustard and problematic weeds. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Parthenium Management, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India, 6-8 October 1997. p 136 139. Raju RA, Reddy Nageswara M. 1998. Phytosociological studies of rainy season weeds with special reference to Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuchl. in Godavari Delta. Indian J. Weed Sci. 30(3 and 4):182188.

Relative density and relative frequency of eight major weeds.a Districts Weed species RD Echinochloa colona 12.7 Cyperus sp. 6.9 Ischaemum rugosum 4.3 Cynodon dactylon 35.0 Parthenium 9.3 hysterophorus Eclipta alba 0.1 Commelina 0.4 benghalensis Dactyloctenium 3.3 aegyptium
a

Raipur RF 6.9 6.4 2.7 17.0 9.6 0.3 2.4 6.0 RD 12.0 5.9 4.0 30.0 9.0 0.1 1.4 3.0

Durg RF 6.0 6.8 2.5 20.1 9.2 0.2 3.5 6.5

Rajnandgaon RD 12.0 4.0 4.2 32.1 9.1 0.3 0.4 3.0 RF 5.0 6.5 5.3 25.2 9.0 0.3 2.4 6.5

Mahasamund RD 12.0 5.9 4.0 39.0 10.1 0.1 2.4 3.3 RF 8.0 6.3 2.6 42.1 9.0 0.5 1.5 6.9

Absolute density for a given species 100 Total absolute density for all species Absolute density = Total no. of individuals of a species in all quadrats Total number of quadrats Absolute frequency value for a species Relative frequency (RF) (%) = 100 Total absolute frequency values for all species Number of quadrats in which species occurs 100 Absolute frequency (%) = Total number of quadrats Relative density (RD) (%) =

April 2000

Carbonized ancient rice grains found by a Nepalese farmer in Buddhanagar, Nepal

B.R. Lu, Genetic Resources Center, IRRI, and S.R. Gupta, Agricultural Botany Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Nepal

During a collaborative field-exploring and -collecting mission between IRRI and the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) for wild rice species in central and eastern Nepal (31 Oct-21 Nov 1999), we met a Nepalese farmer and amateur archaeologist who found ancient carbonized rice grains (probably 5,500 years old) in Buddhanagar-5 in Morang District of eastern Nepal. Our exploration team met Mr. Kamal Kishor Yadav, who offered to show the way to a collecting site near the Indian border. He assisted us in collecting wild rice varieties. After sampling, we went to his house where he showed us his archaeological find. He has spent a lot of time collecting ancient clay bricks, tiles, lanterns, and other items near his field in an area around 1 km2, which he believes are the ruins of an ancient palace. Mr. Yadav strongly believes that this palace

dates back 5,500 yr, to the time of the Kingdom Birat. He showed us his collection of antiques and ancient clay items. Later he also showed some carbonized rice grains found in the ruins (see photos). He told us the story of how he found these grains. One day in April 1999, when he was plowing his field, the plow suddenly hit a hard item. When he removed the soil near this hard item, he found a part of an ancient wall made of bricks. So, he dismantled the wall and tried to use the bricks to build his house. Inside the wall he found a sealed clay pot. The pot contained about 150 carbonized rice grains. He thinks that all his collections, inluding the carbonized rice grains, were from 5,500 yr ago. We examined the morphology of these carbonized rice grains. They were slender and they looked like wild rice Oryza rufipogon or the primitive indica type. The site where the carbonized rice grains were unearthed was recorded by a global positioning satellite at latitude 2622' 31.78' N and longitude 8716' 01.87' E and is 170 m above sea level. Mr. Yadav gave us a few grains as a remembrance and kept the rest in a glass bottle. We may need to request specialists

to examine the age of these grains by carbon-dating techniques. This will enrich our knowledge about the role of Nepal and its wild rice species in the origin of the Asian cultivated rice (O. sativa).

Rice grassy stunt virus disease outbreak in the Mekong Delta

N.H. Huan, Plant Protection Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam, and K.L. Heong, Entomology and Plant Pathology Division, IRRI

Rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) disease was first noted in 1962 in the Philippines. Transmission by the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stl) was demonstrated in 1964. Since then, RGSV has been reported in most rice-growing areas in Asia. Diseased plants are characterized by severe stunting with narrow and yellowish leaves and practically no yields. In the last few years, the disease has been rare. Recently, the Plant Protection Department in Vietnam has received reports of RGSV-infected plants. In October 1999, we visited Long Thoi village in Nga Bei District in Ho Chi

Carbonized rice grains (left), probably 5,500 yr old, were found by Mr. Kamal Kishor Yadav, a farmer and amateur archaeologist (right), in an ancient clay pot buried in his field.

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Minh City (Table 1). Farmers in the area were growing varieties Mahsuri and OM344 and about 20 traditional rice varieties. The soil was mangrove, clayey with high salinity. Only a single crop from June to November is grown and farmers obtain yields of 34 t ha-1. Inputs are low and no pesticides are used. Natural enemies are very low mainly due to high salinity. Most farmers are part-time farmers and rice is not their main source of income. In January 2000, RGSV had spread inland from the coastal areas. About 11,000 ha were reported affected and 2,000 ha were heavily infected (Table 2). Agricultural officials attributed this spread to two typhoons that occurred in early and late November 1999. The strong westerly winds might have carried viruliferous hoppers from the infected areas on the coast.

Table 1. Outbreak of rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) disease in Nga Bei District, near Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam, October 1999. BPH = brown planthopper. Item Total rice area in Nga Bei District Total area affected by BPH/RGSV Lightly affected Moderately affected Severely affected Estimated hopper-burned area Area (ha) 5,400 3,800 (70%) 1,600 (42%) 1,300 (34%) 900 (24%) 220

Table 2. Areas affected by rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) disease in Mekong Delta, January 2000. Area affecteda (ha) Province Slightly Moderately Heavily Total Long An 1,000 1,000 700 2,700 Can Tho 0 363 419 782 Tra Vinh 236 256 279 771 Vinh Long 0 1,881 450 2,331 Ben Tre 0 170 0 170 Dong Thap 0 84 541 625 Soc Trang 399 0 0 399 Bac Lieu 3,100 0 0 3,100 Tien Giang 322 0 7 329 Total 5,057 3,754 2,396 11,207
a

Slightly = a few RGSV-infected plants, moderately = 5-30% plants with RGSV, heavily = 30-70% plants with RGSV.

2000 Calendar of international courses

Coordinator(s) Course title No. of trainees (min/max) 5/8 4/10 10 8/15 20 8/15 8/15 8/15 12/20 24 6/12 5/16 Date

PMarcotte TMew SSVirmani GMcLaren GMagsino GMcLaren GMcLaren GMcLaren SSarkarung SPhumiphon MBell/ PONolan SPKam

Instructional Video Production (IRRI) Rice Seed Health for Crop Management (IRRI) a Training Program on Two-Line Heterosis Breeding and Seed Production (China) Introduction to IRRIStat (IRRI) b Integrated Pest Management Introduction to New Developments in G x E Analysis and Interpretation of Results (IRRI) Analysis of Unbalanced Data (IRRI) Analysis of Categorical Data (IRRI) c Germplasm Evaluation and Utilization (Thailand) d Rice Production Research Course (PTRRC, Thailand) Use of Information Technology in Reaching Farmers (IRRI) Multi-Agents Simulation Modeling for Natural Resource Management (IRRI)

5-30 Jun 31 Jul22 Sep JulAug 1418 Aug 14 Aug6 Oct 2125 Aug 1115 Sep 1822 Sep 18 Sep27 Oct 9 Oct1 Dec Nov 20 Nov1 Dec

Collaborating institutions a Asian Development Bank; China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center, Mapoling, Changsha, Hunan, China; and IRRI. bNational Crop Protection Center (NCPC), University of the Philippines Los Baos (UPLB), Laguna; SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA); PhilRice; and IRRI. cUbon Rice Research Center (URRC) and IRRI. dPathum Thani Rice Research Center (PTRRC), Thailand, and IRRI.

For more information, please contact Dr. Paul L. Marcotte Head, Training Center, IRRI E-mail: p.marcotte@cgiar.org Fax: (63-2) 891-1292 Phones: (63-2) 844-3351 to 53

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April 2000

NEWS

IRRI celebrates 40 years of rice research

This April, IRRI marked 40 years of scientific effort combating poverty and hunger around the world. More than 200 leading scientists, researchers, donors, and senior government officials from around the world attended the special anniversary program held on 4 April at the Malacaang Palace, Manila, where Philippine President Joseph Estrada was the keynote speaker. The 14 members of IRRIs present Board of Trustees (BOT), including Philippine Department of Agriculture Secretary Edgardo J. Angara; University of the Philippines President Francisco Nemenzo; FAO Independent Chair Sjarifudin Baharsjah; Lao Agriculture and Forestry Minister Siene Saphangthong; Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference Vice Chair Jian Song; and Senator Mechai Viravaidya of Thailand, also attended the program. During the program, IRRI honored the various scientists who have worked at the Institute, its many partners, especially the national agricultural research systems (NARS) of rice-producing nations, and donors for their financial support. Plaques were presented to key donors to recognize their support for IRRIs research and development programs over the years. The program is one in a series of events marking IRRIs 40th anniversary celebration under the theme Rice Research for the New Millennium. The events started with the opening of the 23rd International Rice Research Conference at IRRI on 31 March with the theme Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation. About 200 top researchers

from countries in rice-producing regions of the world attended the conference. As part of its anniversary activities, IRRI will also host the Fourth International Rice Genetics Symposium on 22-27

October to discuss the latest developments in rice systematics and evolution, cytogenetics, classical genetics, tissue and cell culture, genetic engineering, and genomics.

Japan is honored for its continuing support and commitment to rice research and for sharing its scientific expertise and knowledge. Japanese Ambassador Yoshihisa Ara (right) accepts the plaque given in recognition of Japans role as one of IRRIs key donors from IRRI Director General Ronald Cantrell (left) and Philippine President Joseph Estrada (center).

IRRI Director General Ronald Cantrell (right) presents a plaque to Philippine President Joseph Estrada (center), with Department of Agriculture Secretary Edgardo Angara (left) and IRRI BOT Chair Roelof Rabbingge looking on, during IRRIs 40th anniversary program held in Malacaang Palace on 4 April.

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April 2000

IRRC 2000 tackles food security and poverty alleviation

Some 200 leading scientists and researchers from around the world met at IRRI to discuss two of the most important issues facing Asia todaypoverty and food security. The 23rd International Rice Research Conference (IRRC 2000) was held at IRRI from 31 March to 3 April to review the latest developments in science and research aimed at dealing with these twin problems. The meeting highlighted presentations by scientists on increasing the yield potential of irrigated rice, breeding of super hybrid rice, plant breeding for stress environments, host plant resistance, integrated pest and nutrient management, and water and weed management in directseeded rice. These areas could help provide solutions to poverty and food shortages and encourage reduced chemical use by farmers. IRRC 2000 hoped to strengthen partnerships by mobilizing resources of NARS of rice-producing countries and linking them to advanced research institutions throughout the world. To meet consumer demand in 2025, rice researchers predicted that farmers need to produce 4050% more rice with improved qualities using less land, less water, less labor, and fewer chemicals. Scientists also discussed the development of new plant types and the latest research advances on breeding rice for super high yields during the conference. They also discussed the changing structure of the world rice market and prospects for improving rice yields through the genetic manipulation of photosynthesis. They also tackled how closing the rice yield gap improves food security; opportunities and challenges of developing and using hybrid rice technology in the tropics; and the effects of nitrogen, calcium, and silicon nutrition on bacterial blight resistance in rice. IRRC is organized every 5 years. The 1995 IRRC was also held at IRRI and

focused on less-favored and fragile environmentsthe rainfed lowland, upland, and flood-prone rice ecosystems.

Sri Lankan scientists receive the first Senadhira Rice Research Award
A team of Sri Lankan scientists, who developed more than 20 rice varieties that are now widely adopted not only in Sri Lanka but also in much of Asia and Africa, won the first Senadhira Rice Research Award for 2000. Rice breeder Dr. R.M.T. Rajapakse, plant pathologist Dr. N. Dissanayake, and entomologist Dr. L. Nugaliyadde shared the award presented at the opening of the 23 rd International Rice Research Conference on 31 March at IRRI. Dr. Ronald P. Cantrell, IRRI director general, and Dr. Gurdev Khush, principal plant breeder and head of the Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Biochemistry (PBGB)

Division at IRRI, presented the award to the Sri Lankan scientists. About 90% of Sri Lankas rice production comes from varieties developed by the team. These varieties have high yield potential, wide adaptability, resistance to major diseases and insects, and are now planted on 75% of the countrys rice area. Their wide-scale adoption has increased Sri Lankas rice production by 50% since 1980. According to Dr. Khush, Sri Lanka is now almost self-sufficient in rice as a result of their work. Dr. Khush, chair of the Senadhira Rice Research Award Search Committee, said the awardees also generated knowledge on major diseases and insects of rice relevant to local conditions and have developed efficient and environmentfriendly pest management technologies for Sri Lankas integrated pest management program. The award honors the late Dr. Dharmawansa Senadhira, one of IRRIs most successful rice breeders who led the Institutes research program on floodprone rice and other areas related to soil

IRRI Director General Ronald Cantrell (second from left), and principal plant breeder and Plant Breeding, Genetics and Biochemistry head, Dr. Gurdev Khush (left), present the first Senadhira Rice Research Award to R.M.T. Rajapakse during the opening of the 23rd International Rice Research Conference on 31 March at IRRI, while Dr. Ren Wang, IRRI deputy director general for research (right), applauds. Dr. Rajapakse was among three Sri Lankan scientists who received the award for developing rice varieties, generating knowledge on rice insects and diseases, and for developing efficient and environment-friendly pest management technologies for Sri Lankas integrated pest program.

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and low temperature stresses and submergence in rice. Dr. Rajapakse, Dr. Dissanayake, and Dr. Nugaliyadde trained and worked with the late Dr. Senadhira for more than 15 years. The Senadhira Rice Research Award will be given every 2 years to a leading Asian scientist working on rice research under a $65,000 endowment fund established by the Senadhira family and from personal contributions from colleagues and friends of the late scientist. Funds for the award were also obtained from the prize money of the prestigious Fukui International Koshihikari Rice Prize for 1998, which Dr. Senadhira was supposed to receive before he died in a vehicular accident in Bangladesh in 1998.

IRRI rice breeder garners new awards

Dr. Gurdev Khush, principal plant breeder and head of IRRIs Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Biochemistry Division, was awarded the 2000 Wolf Prize for Agriculture for his services and contributions to agriculture and food security. Dr. Khush was unanimously chosen by the Wolf Prize Jury for his extraordinary contribution to theoretical research in plant genetics, evolution, and breeding, especially of rice, with regard to food production and alleviation of hunger. The jury noted Dr. Khushs remarkable contributions to rice research, developing new approaches and mobilizing new techniques to breed better rice varieties. The genetic maps of molecular and traditional markers in rice, which Dr. Khush and his team developed, are now widely used in studying the origin and evolution of other important grain crops such as wheat, maize, and barley. Dr. Khush and his colleagues also established the first molecular genetic map of rice and tagged many genes for disease and insect resistance as well as for stress tolerance.
42

An alumnus of the Punjab Agricultural University (India) and the University of California, Davis (USA), Dr. Khush has devoted much research effort to understanding the nature of plant resistance to diseases and insects. This has resulted in more productive and environment-friendly rice varieties resistant to several major insect pests and diseases. National agricultural programs in Asia, Africa, and Latin America have released more than 300 varieties of rice developed at IRRI under his leadership since the late 1960s. Dr. Khush will receive a cash award from the Israeli-based Wolf Foundation, which was established by the late Germanborn inventor, Dr. Ricardo Wolf. A resident of Cuba for many years, Dr. Wolf became ambassador to Israel, where he lived until his death in 1981. Since 1978, Wolf Prizes have been awarded to outstanding scientists and artists for their achievements in furthering the interests of mankind and fostering friendly relations among people, irrespective of nationality, race, color, religion, sex, or political views. In February this year, the Assam Agricultural University in India also awarded Dr. Khush an honorary doctorate of science for his outstanding contributions to the welfare of the underprivileged in developing countries. He received the award together with Pro-

fessor Amartya Sen, winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize for Economics. Earlier this year, the Indian Science Congress Association conferred on Dr. Khush the B.P. Pal Memorial Award. In September 1999, the Peoples Republic of China also honored Dr. Khush for his contribution to international agricultural research and awarded him the prestigious International Agricultural Cooperation Award for his contribution to rice breeding and production programs in China. Dr. Khush also received the 1996 World Food Prize for developing rice genetic lines and varieties that have helped double world rice production over the past three decades. Other prestigious prizes, given in recognition of his work, include the Rank Prize in 1998 and the Japan Prize in 1987.

Rice nations focus on plant variety rights

Asias rice industry faces its first major challenge in the 21st century as plant variety protection (PVP) and intellectual property rights (IPR) introduce the concept of ownership in the industry. While the idea of one company owning a popular variety is well established in crops such as wheat and maize, this is still unheard of in Asia where even newly developed varieties are always made freely available to all farmers. But with the advent of biotechnology in the rice industry and the looming rules and regulations of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), such traditions are changing fast. Rice-growing nations in the region have thus expressed concern that PVP and IPR legislation, if not handled properly, may restrict the free exchange of genetic material or seeds needed by scientists to develop new and higher yielding varieties. Most countries are already putting in place PVP and other patent laws that will meet the minimum requirements of WTOs Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) Agreement. According to Dr. William Padolina, IRRI
April 2000

Dr. G. Khush

IRRI Deputy Director General for Partnerships, Dr. William Padolina, encourages CORRA member countries to harmonize policies and synchronize management systems on plant variety protection during the Council for Partnerships in Rice Research in Asia (CORRA) meeting on the Impact on Research and Development of Sui Generis Approaches to Plant Variety Protection of Rice in Developing Countries held from 16 to 18 February at IRRI.

deputy director general for partnerships, these new laws protecting national genetic resources in each country are expected to affect the way in which research is conducted, germplasm is exchanged in the region, and how rice is grown, processed, and sold. A decision reached in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 by signatories to the Convention on Biological Diversity established that genetic resources, or seeds, were no longer the common heritage of mankind but fall under the sovereignty of each country involved. Thus, understandable concerns linger across Asia over the future control of the regions rich genetic history in rice. This includes the possibility of emerging monopolies as the private sector develops new rice varieties based on the regions traditional genetic material, which would then be sold to poor rice farmers. For many years, INGER, the worlds leading rice germplasm exchange and testing network, has facilitated the free exchange of
IRRN 25.1

such genetic material and has played a significant role in developing new and improved rice varieties in many countries. Late last year, IRRI and its national research partners in Asia continued efforts to address these issues at a meeting in Bangkok of the Council for Partnerships in Rice Research in Asia (CORRA) focusing on biotechnology, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and plant variety rights (PVRs). CORRA Chair Joko Budianto said it will be very important for rice-producing nations to master the complexities of PVP and IP laws as quickly as possible, otherwise their research efforts may suffer. Dr. Budianto, however, warned that each country must be very careful to fully understand the complete impact of any new law in this area. According to Dr. Budianto, these new laws will require us to introduce the concept of ownership with all the rights this will involve. But this must be done without having a nega-

tive impact on our research efforts, he added. Representatives of all the nations in CORRA also met from 16 to 18 February at IRRI to discuss the Impact on Research and Development of Sui Generis Approaches to Plant Variety Protection of Rice in Developing Countries. Sui generis is used to signify a system of IPR for the protection of plant varieties. The meeting provided a venue for the discussion of current developments and issues affecting PVP and the free flow of germplasm among CORRA members with inputs from international experts on IPR and PVP from the public and private sectors. According to Dr. Padolina, concerns were expressed at the latest CORRA meeting in that new PVP regimes could have a major impact on the operation of the International Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER), which it coordinates. But there was also a consensus that INGER should be allowed to continue and not be impeded, Dr. Padolina said. What we must do now is try and synchronize a management system for Asias vast and extremely valuable pool of rice germplasm. We must be able to manage it for the continuing benefit of all, he concluded. IRRI organized the CORRA workshop with support from the AsiaPacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), the Global Forum on Agricultural Research (GFAR), the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Netherlands.

Super cyclone hits CRRI, Cuttack

On 29 October 1999, a super cyclone struck Orissa State in eastern India, causing heavy damage and taking the lives of thousands of people. At the peak of the storm, the region was soaked with more than 360 mm
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of rain and battered by winds exceeding 250 km h-1. The Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) in Cuttack was directly in the path of the cyclone. CRRI, founded in 1946, is an institute of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and has principal responsibility for rainfed rice. The cyclone smashed the electrical and telecommunication systems, uprooted many trees, and damaged residential complexes. The institute was without electricity for 3 weeks. Germplasm being multiplied in the field and the garden of wild Oryza species were completely destroyed. The cost of the material damage to CRRI was estimated as $1.25 million, in addition to the value of lost crops in the field. Fortunately, there were no fatalities among the scientific staff of the institute. On 12 November, a team from ICAR, headed by Dr. K. Gopakumar (deputy director general for fisheries), visited CRRI to assess the damage. The Government of India has provided funds for rebuilding, and research activities at the institute have resumed.

CARDI hosts international conference

An international conference on The impact of agricultural research for development in Southeast Asia will be held at the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), Phnom Penh, Cambodia, on 24-26 October 2000. Over the past 10 years, Cambodia has made significant progress in developing the capacity to conduct agricultural research. These gains have been credited with increased rice production and other agricultural improvements. Other countries in Southeast Asia have made similar progress. The establishment of CARDI this year provides a focus for further development through research. Regional collaboration, including CARDI, will create further opportunities for agricultural development. Participants will learn from each other by sharing experiences on how to increase the impact of research on development. The conference will address the following issues: current status of agricultural research for development in Southeast Asia, impact of agricultural research; opportunities for impact through

agricultural research in Cambodia, and future investment in agricultural research in Southeast Asia (donors perspective). The conference secretariat will arrange accommodation for overseas participants. Hotel prices range from $35 to $75 per night. There will be a field trip to on-station and on-farm research experiment sites near CARDI. Abstracts will be provided at the registration desk. The complete set of papers of the conference will be published in the conference proceedings and posted to all participants. Sponsoring organizations include the Australian Agency for International Development; Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery; CARDI; IRRI; and the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project.

For more information, contact Mr. Seng Vang Chair, CARDI Conference Organizing Committee E-mail: CARDI.impact@bigpond.com.kh Telephone: (855-23) 219692-4 Fax: (855-23) 219800
Source: IRRI Hotline, IRRI Announcements, CRRI Newsletter.

Information support system for rice crop management

TropRice is an information support system of best-bet practices designed to provide practical field-level guides for rice crop management in the tropics. It aims to help users make informed decisions related to rice production. It is not a single system for the world. It contains some generic information, but some are site- or region-specific. TropRice is intended to be a template that could be modified for different environments. As improved systems on component technologies become available, they will replace or be linked to the system. The present system is aimed at irrigated rice in a Los Baos, Philippines-type of environment. TropRice is an ongoing project developed by IRRI scientists and specialists who have contributed to the technical content. It is intended for intermediary technology transfer agents as a response to the recognition that many farmers do not have access to information on how to grow rice. The system is being evaluated among three separate groups: nongovernment organizations, farmers, and the private and public sector. TropRice will be available in CD soon. Watch out for our announcement.

Web site: http://www.cgiar.org/irri/TropRice Source: Training Center, IRRI

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April 2000

Survey for International Directory of Rice Workers 2000

Dear Sir/Madam: The IRRI Library & Documentation Service is compiling an International Directory of Rice Workers. We hope that the directory will facilitate contact and encourage the exchange of information among scientists, administrators, and extension specialists dedicated to rice research. The target date of publication is December 2000. Please complete the enclosed questionnaire and return it to us as soon as possible if you want to be included in the directory. Photocopies of this form may be made for other researchers in your organization. Replies may be sent by e-mail to: c.austria@cgiar.org Thank you. Mila M. Ramos Acting Librarian Name: DR./MR./MS.
(Please underline your family name)

Write the first letter of your family name in this box

Permanent address
Street City/State Country Zip Code

Mail address E-mail Date of Birth (DY/MO/YR) Nationality EDUCATION: Degree Ph.D. M.A./M.S. B.A./B.S. Diploma AWARDS:

Street

City/State

Country

Zip Code

Fax Marital status M Number of children

Institution

Year of graduation

Membership in professional or honor societies:

My five most important publications are (LIST FIVE ONLY):

Title of journal or publication Date published Authors (sr. author first) Country where published Title of article

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Title of journal or publication

Date published

Authors (sr. author first)

Country where published

Title of article

Field of specialization: a. Administration b. Agricultural systems c. Agronomy d. Biotechnology e. Breeding f. Chemistry/Biochemistry

g. Economics h. Engineering i. Entomology j. Genetics & Cytogenetics k. Meteorology l. Nutrition

m. Pathology n. Physiology o. Social Science (except Economics) p. Soil Microbiology q. Soil Science

r. Statistics s. Training - Extension t. Others (Pls. specify)

Professional employment record (Start with your current position) Time period Organization Title

From:

To: Library and Documentation Service International Rice Research Institute MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271 Philippines

Airmail
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April 2000