MECHANICS GUIDE physics in introduction PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.

com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 05 Jan 2011 14:19:25 UTC Contents Articles mechanics 1 International System of Units 1 Physical quantity 9 Dimensional analysis 12 Physics 26 Scientific notation 37 Kinematics 41 Force 53 Mechanical equilibrium 75 Newton's laws of motion 77 Weight 85 Hooke's law 93 Spring (device) 102 Tension (physics) 108 Normal force 109 Rope 111 Pulley 118 Inclined plane 123 Lever 126 Wedge (mechanical device) 127 Wheel and axle 129 Momentum 131 Friction 142 Drag (physics) 151 Centripetal force 158 References Article Sources and Contributors 171 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 177 Article Licenses License 180 1 mechanics International System of Units The International System of Units [2] (abbreviated SI from the French Systme international d'units[3] ) is the modern form of the metric system and is generally a system of units of measurement devised around seven base units and the convenience of the number ten. It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and in science.[4] [5]

The older metric system included several groups of units. The SI was developed in 1960 from the old metre-kilogram-second system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. Because the SI is not static, units are created and definitions are modified through international agreement among many nations as the technology of measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves. The system has been nearly globally adopted. Three principal exceptions are Burma (Myanmar), Liberia, and the United States. The United Kingdom has officially adopted the International System of Units but not with the intention of replacing customary measures entirely. Cover of brochure The International System [1] of Units . History The metric system was conceived by a group of scientists (among them, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, who is known as the "father of modern chemistry") who had been commissioned by the assemblee nationale and Louis XVI of France to create a unified and rational system of measures.[6] On 1 August 1793, the National Convention adopted the new decimal metre with a provisional length as well as the other decimal units with preliminary definitions and terms. On 7 April 1795 (Loi du 18 germinal, an III) the terms gramme and kilogramme replaced the former terms gravet (correctly milligrave) and grave. On 10 December 1799 (a month after Napoleon's coup d'tat), the metric system was definitively adopted in France. The desire for international cooperation on metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention, a treaty which established three international organizations to oversee the keeping of metric standards: General Conference on Weights and Measures (Confrence gnrale des poids et mesures or CGPM) - a meeting every four to six years of delegates from all member states; Countries by date of metrication International System of Units 2 International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures or BIPM) - an international metrology centre at Svres in France; and International Committee for Weights and Measures (Comit international des poids et mesures or CIPM) - an administrative committee which meets annually at the BIPM. The history of the metric system has seen a number of variations, whose use has spread around the

world, to replace many traditional measurement systems. At the end of World War II a number of different systems of measurement were still in use throughout the world. Some of these systems were metric-system variations, whereas others were based on customary systems. It was recognised that additional steps were needed to promote a worldwide measurement system. As a result the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), in 1948, asked the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) to conduct an international study of the measurement needs of the scientific, technical, and educational communities. Based on the findings of this study, the 10th CGPM in 1954 decided that an international system should be derived from six base units to provide for the measurement of temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic quantities. The six base units that were recommended are the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin (later renamed the kelvin), and the candela. In 1960, the 11th CGPM named the system the International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the French name: Le Systme international d'units. The seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM. One of the CIPM committees, the CCU, has proposed a number of changes to the definitions of the base units used in SI. It is expected that the CGPM will consider this proposal in October 2011.[7] Related systems The definitions of the concepts 'quantity', 'unit', 'dimension' etc. used in measurement, are given in the International Vocabulary of Metrology.[8] The quantities and equations which define the SI units are now referred to as the International System of Quantities (ISQ), and are set out in the ISO/IEC 80000 Quantities and Units. A readable discussion of the present units and standards is found at Brian W. Petley [9] International Union of Pure and Applied Physics I.U.P.A.P.- 39 (2004). Units The International System of Units consists of a set of units together with a set of prefixes. The units are divided into two classesbase units and derived units. There are seven base units, each representing, by convention, different kinds of physical quantities. SI base units[10] [11] Name Unit symbol metre m kilogram kg Quantity Symbol length l (a lowercase L) mass m second s time t ampere A electric current I (a capital i)

kelvin K thermodynamic temperature T candela cd luminous intensity Iv (a capital i with lowercase v subscript) mole mol amount of substance n International System of Units 3 There are an unlimited number of derived units formed from multiplication and division of the seven base units,[12] for example the SI derived unit of speed is metre per second, m/s. Some derived units have special names; for example, the unit of resistance, the ohm, symbol , is uniquely defined by the relation = m2kgs3A2, which follows from the definition of the quantity electrical resistance. The radian and steradian, once given special status, are now considered derived units.[12] A prefix may be added to a unit to produce a multiple of the original unit. All multiples are integer powers of ten, and beyond a hundred(th) all are integer powers of a thousand. For example, kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli- denotes a multiple of a thousandth; hence there are one thousand millimetres to the metre and one thousand metres to the kilometre. The prefixes are never combined: a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram not a microkilogram. Standard prefixes for the SI units of measure Multiples Name deca- hecto- kilo- mega- giga- tera- peta- exa- zetta- yottaSymbol da Factor Fractions 100 101 hkMGTPEZY 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024 Name deci- centi- milli- micro- nano- pico- femto- atto- zepto- yoctoSymbol d Factor 100 101 cmnp f 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 a z 1018 1021 y 1024 In addition to the SI units, there is also a set of non-SI units accepted for use with SI which includes some commonly used non-coherent units such as the litre. Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities The value of a quantity is written as a number followed by a space (representing a multiplication sign) and a unit symbol; e.g., "2.21 kg", "7.3 102 m2", "22 K". This rule explicitly includes the percent sign (%). Exceptions are

the symbols for plane angular degrees, minutes and seconds (, and ), which are placed immediately after the number with no intervening space.[13] [14] Symbols for derived units formed by multiplication are joined with a centre dot () or a non-break space, for example, "Nm" or "N m". Symbols for derived units formed by division are joined with a solidus (), or given as a negative exponent. For example, the "metre per second" can be written "ms", "m s1", "ms1" or . Only one solidus should be used; e.g., "kg(ms2)" or "kgm1s2" are acceptable but "kgms2" is ambiguous and unacceptable. Many computer users will type the / character provided on computer keyboards, which in turn produces the Unicode character U+002F, which is named solidus but is distinct from the Unicode solidus character, U+2044. Symbols are mathematical entities, not abbreviations, and do not have an appended period/full stop (.). Symbols are written in upright (Roman) type (m for metres, s for seconds), so as to differentiate from the italic type used for quantities (m for mass, s for displacement). By consensus of international standards bodies, this rule is applied independent of the font used for surrounding text.[15] Symbols for units are written in lower case (e.g., "m", "s", "mol"), except for symbols derived from the name of a person (e.g., "Pa", "Hz", "K" for Pascal, Hertz, Kelvin).[16] The one exception is the litre, whose original symbol "l" is unsuitably similar to the numeral "1" or the uppercase letter "i" (depending on the typeface used), at least in many English-speaking countries. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology recommends that "L" be used instead, a usage which is common in the US, Canada and Australia (but not elsewhere). This has been accepted as an alternative by International System of Units the CGPM since 1979. The cursive l is occasionally seen, especially in Japan and Greece, but this is not currently recommended by any standards body. For more information, see litre. A prefix is part of the unit, and its symbol is prepended to the unit symbol without a separator (e.g., "k" in "km", "M" in "MPa", "G" in "GHz" and so on). Compound prefixes are not allowed. Symbols of units are not pluralised, for example "25 kg" (not "25 kgs").[15] The 10th resolution of CGPM in 2003 declared that "the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line." In practice, the decimal point is used in English-speaking countries as well as most of Asia and the comma in most continental European languages.

Spaces may be used as a thousands separator (1000000) in contrast to commas or periods (1,000,000 or 1.000.000) in order to reduce confusion resulting from the variation between these forms in different countries. In print, the space used for this purpose is typically narrower than that between words (commonly a thin space). Any line-break inside a number, inside a compound unit, or between number and unit should be avoided, but, if necessary, the last-named option should be used. In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean language computing (CJK), some of the commonly used units, prefix-unit combinations, or unit-exponent combinations have been allocated predefined single characters taking up a full square. Unicode includes these in its CJK Compatibility [17] and Letterlike Symbols [18] subranges for back compatibility, without necessarily recommending future usage. When writing dimensionless quantities, the terms 'ppb' (parts per billion) and 'ppt' (parts per trillion) are recognised as language-dependent terms, since the value of billion and trillion can vary from language to language. SI, therefore, recommends avoiding these terms.[19] However, no alternative is suggested by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Writing the unit names Names of units start with a lower-case letter, even when the symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter (e.g., newton, hertz, pascal). This also applies to 'degrees Celsius', since 'degree' is the unit. Names of units are pluralised using the normal English grammar rules,[20] [21] for example, "henries" is the plural of "henry".[20] :31 The units lux, hertz, and siemens are exceptions from this rule: they remain the same in singular and plural. The official US spellings for deca, metre, and litre are deka, meter, and liter, respectively.[22] Realisation of units Metrologists carefully distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realisation. The definition of each base unit of the SI is drawn up so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis upon which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be made. The realisation of the definition of a unit is the procedure by which the definition may be used to establish the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as the unit. A description of how the definitions of some important units are realised in practice is given on the BIPM website.[23] However, "any method consistent with the laws of physics could be used to realise any SI unit."[24] (p. 111). 4 International System of Units 5 Conversion factors The relationship between the units used in different systems is determined by convention or from the basic definition

of the units. Conversion of units from one system to another is accomplished by use of a conversion factor. There are several compilations of conversion factors; see, for example, Appendix B of NIST SP 811.[20] Cultural issues The near-worldwide adoption of the metric system as a tool of economy and everyday commerce was based to some extent on the lack of customary systems in many countries to adequately describe some concepts, or as a result of an attempt to standardise the many regional variations in the customary system. International factors also affected the adoption of the metric system, as many countries increased their trade. For use in science, it simplifies dealing with very large and small quantities, since it lines up so well with the decimal numeral system. Three nations have not officially adopted the International System of Units as their primary or sole system of measurement: Myanmar (Burma), Liberia, and the United States Many units in everyday and scientific use are not derived from the seven SI base units (metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela) combined with the SI prefixes. In some cases these deviations have been approved by the BIPM.[25] Some examples include: The many units of time (minute, min; hour, h; day, d) in use besides the SI second, and are specifically accepted for use according to table 6.[26] The year is specifically not included but has a recommended conversion factor.[27] The Celsius temperature scale; kelvins are rarely employed in everyday use. Electric energy is often billed in kilowatt-hours instead of megajoules. Similarly, battery charge is often measured as milliamperes-hour (mAh) instead of coulombs. The nautical mile and knot (nautical mile per hour) used to measure travel distance and speed of ships and aircraft (1 International nautical mile = 1852 m or approximately 1 minute of latitude). In addition to these, Annex 5 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation permits the "temporary use" of the foot for altitude. Astronomical distances measured in astronomical units, parsecs, and light-years instead of, for example, petametres (a light-year is about 9.461 Pm or about 9461000000000000 m). Atomic scale units used in physics and chemistry, such as the ngstrm, electron volt, atomic mass unit and barn. Some physicists prefer the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) units, or systems based on physical constants, such as Planck units, atomic units, or geometric units. In some countries, the informal cup measurement has become 250 mL. Likewise, a 500 g metric pound is used in many countries. Liquids, especially alcoholic ones, are often sold in units whose origins are historical (for example, pints for beer and cider in glasses in the UK although pint means 568 mL; champagne in Jeroboams in France).

 A metric mile of 10 km is used in Norway and Sweden. The term metric mile is also used in some English speaking countries for the 1500 m foot race. In the US, blood glucose measurements are recorded in milligrams per decilitre (mg/dL), which would normalise to cg/L; in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Oceania, and Europe, the standard is millimole per litre (mmol/L) or mM (millimolar). Blood pressure and atmospheric pressure are usually measured in mmHg and bars, respectively, instead of Pa. International System of Units The fine-tuning that has happened to the metric base-unit definitions over the past 200 years, as experts have tried periodically to find more precise and reproducible methods, does not affect the everyday use of metric units. Since most non-SI units in common use, such as the US customary units, are defined in SI units,[28] any change in the definition of the SI units results in a change of the definition of the older units, as well. International trade One of the European Union's (EU) objectives is the creation of a single market for trade. In order to achieve this objective, the EU standardised on using SI as the legal units of measure. At the time of writing (2009) it had issued two units of measurement directives which catalogued the units of measure that might be used for, amongst other things, trade: the first was Directive 71/354/EEC[29] issued in 1971 which required member states to standardise on SI rather than use the variety of cgs and mks units then in use. The second was Directive 80/181/EEC[30] [31] [32] [33] [34] issued in 1979 which replaced the first and which gave the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland a number of derogations from the original directive. The directives gave a derogation from using SI units in areas where other units of measure had either been agreed by international treaty or which were in universal use in worldwide trade. They also permitted the use of supplementary indicators alongside, but not in place of the units catalogued in the directive. In its original form, Directive 80/181/EEC had a cut-off date for the use of such indicators, but with each amendment this date was moved until, in 2009, supplementary indicators have been allowed indefinitely. References [1] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ publications/ brochure/ [2] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf) (8th ed.), ISBN 92-822-2213-6, [3] Resolution of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures establishing the International System of Units (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ CGPM/ db/ 11/ 12/ ) [4] Official BIPM definitions (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ base_units/ ) [5] An extensive presentation of the SI units is maintained on line by NIST (http:/ / www. physics.

nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ units. html), including a diagram (http:/ / www. physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ SIdiagram. html) of the interrelations between the derived units based upon the SI units. Definitions of the basic units can be found on this site, as well as the CODATA report (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ codata. pdf) listing values for special constants such as the electric constant, the magnetic constant and the speed of light, all of which have defined values as a result of the definition of the metre and ampere. In the International System of Units (SI) (BIPM, 2006), the definition of the meter fixes the speed of light in vacuum c0, the definition of the ampere fixes the magnetic constant (also called the permeability of vacuum) 0, and the definition of the mole fixes the molar mass of the carbon 12 atom M(12C) to have the exact values given in the table [Table 1, p.7]. Since the electric constant (also called the permittivity of vacuum) is related to 0 by 0 = 1/0c02, it too is known exactly. CODATA report [6] "The name "kilogram"" (http:/ / www1. bipm. org/ en/ si/ history-si/ name_kg. html). . Retrieved 25 July 2006. [7] Ian Mills (29 September 2010). "Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units" (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ en/ pdf/ si_brochure_draft_ch2. pdf). CCU. . Retrieved 2011-01-01. [8] "The International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM)" (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ publications/ guides/ vim. html). . [9] http:/ / www. physics. ohio-state. edu/ ~jossem/ IUPAP/ PhysicsNowText-A4-1. pdf [10] Barry N. Taylor & Ambler Thompson Ed. (2008). The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330. pdf). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 23. . Retrieved 18 June 2008. [11] Quantities Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry (http:/ / old. iupac. org/ publications/ books/ author/ mills. html), IUPAC [12] Ambler Thompson and Barry N. Taylor, (2008), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf), (Special publication 811), Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, p. 3, footnote 2. [13] The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf) (8 ed.). International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). 2006. p. 133. . [14] Thompson, A.; Taylor, B. N. (July 2008). "NIST Guide to SI Units Rules and Style Conventions" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ sec07. html). National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 29 December 2009. 6 International System of Units [15] Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2006). The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf). 8th ed.. . Retrieved 13 February 2008. Chapter 5. [16] Ambler Thompson and Barry N. Taylor, (2008), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf), (Special publication 811), Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, section 6.1.2 [17] http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U3300. pdf

[18] http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U2100. pdf [19] http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter5/ 5-3-7. html [20] Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor (2008). NIST Special Publication 811: Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf). National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 18 June 2008. [21] Turner, James M. (9 May 2008). May 2008/pdf/E8-11058.pdf "Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States" (http:/ / www. gpo. gov/ fdsys/ pkg/ FR-16). Federal Register (National Archives and Records Administration) 73 (96): 284323. FR Doc number E8-11058. May 2008/pdf/E8-11058.pdf. Retrieved 28 October 2009. [22] "The International System of Units" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330. pdf). pp. iii. . Retrieved 27 May 2008. [23] SI Practical Realization brochure (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ appendix2/ ) [24] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf) (8th ed.), p. 111, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, [25] BIPM - Table 8 (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter4/ table8. html) [26] BIPM - Table 6 (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter4/ table6. html) [27] NIST Guide to SI Units - Appendix B9. Conversion Factors (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ appenB9. html#TIME) [28] Mendenhall, T. C. (1893). "Fundamental Standards of Length and Mass". Reprinted in Barbrow, Louis E. and Judson, Lewis V. (1976). Weights and measures standards of the United States: A brief history (NBS Special Publication 447). Washington D.C.: Superintendent of Documents. Viewed 23 August 2006 at (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP447/ ) pp. 2829. [29] "Council Directive of 18 October 1971 on the approximation of laws of the member states relating to units of measurement, (71/354/EEC)" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ Notice. do?mode=dbl& lang=en& lng1=en,nl& lng2=da,de,el,en,es,fr,it,nl,pt,& val=22924:cs& page=1& hwords=). . Retrieved 7 February 2009. [30] The Council of the European Communities (21 December 1979). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CONSLEG:1980L0181:19791221:EN:PDF). . Retrieved 7 February 2009. [31] The Council of the European Communities (20 December 1984). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CONSLEG:1980L0181:19841220:EN:PDF). . Retrieved 7 February 2009. [32] The Council of the European Communities (30 November 1989). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CONSLEG:1980L0181:19891130:EN:PDF). . Retrieved 7 February 2009. [33] The Council of the European Communities (9 February 2000). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation

of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CONSLEG:1980L0181:20000209:EN:PDF). . Retrieved 7 February 2009. [34] The Council of the European Communities (27 May 2009). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CONSLEG:1980L0181:20090527:EN:PDF). . Retrieved 14 September 2009. Further reading International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. Electronic version. (http://www.iupac.org/ publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf) Unit Systems in Electromagnetism (http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/unit_systems/#rms) MW Keller et al. (http://qdev.boulder.nist.gov/817.03/pubs/downloads/set/Watt_Triangle_sub1.pdf) Metrology Triangle Using a Watt Balance, a Calculable Capacitor, and a Single-Electron Tunneling Device 7 International System of Units External links Official BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (SI maintenance agency) (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/) (home page) BIPM brochure (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/) (SI reference) ISO 80000-1:2009 Quantities and units -- Part 1: General (http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/ catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=30669) NIST Official Publications (http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/bibliography.html) NIST Special Publication 330, 2008 Edition: The International System of Units (SI) (http://physics.nist.gov/ Pubs/SP330/sp330.pdf) NIST Special Pub 814: Interpretation of the SI for the United States and Federal Government Metric Conversion Policy (http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Metric/pub814.cfm) Weights and Measures Act, Canada (http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/ShowTdm/cs/W-6///en) IEEE/ASTM SI 10-2002 Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System (http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/product.asp?sku=SI10-2002) (ANSI approved, joint IEEE/ASTM standard) Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units (http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/tsb/tsb003.pdf) National Physical Laboratory, UK (http://www.npl.co.uk/server.php?show=category.364) Information International System of Units (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Units_of_Measurement//) at the Open Directory Project EngNet Metric Conversion Chart (http://www.engnetglobal.com/tips/convert.aspx) Online

Categorised Metric Conversion Calculator U.S. Metric Association. 2008. A Practical Guide to the International System of Units (http://lamar.colostate. edu/~hillger/pdf/Practical_Guide_to_the_SI.pdf) History LaTeX SIunits package manual (ftp://cam.ctan.org/texarchive/macros/latex/contrib/SIunits/SIunits.pdf) gives a historical background to the SI system. Research The metrological triangle (http://www.npl.co.uk/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1835) Recommendation of ICWM 1 (CI-2005) (http://www.bipm.org/cc/CIPM/Allowed/94/ CIPM-Recom1CI-2005-EN.pdf) Pro-metric advocacy groups The UK Metric Association (http://www.ukma.org.uk/) The US Metric Association (http://www.metric.org/) Canadian Metric Association (http://niagara.cioc.ca/details.asp?RSN=5108&Number=0) Metrication US (http://www.metrication.us) Pro-customary measures pressure groups Pro-customary measures groups (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Government_Operations/ Anti-Metrication//) at the Open Directory Project 8 Physical quantity 9 Physical quantity A physical quantity is a physical property that can be quantified by measurement. Formally, the International Vocabulary of Metrology', 3rd edition (VIM) defines quantity as: property of a phenomenon, body, or substance, where the property has a magnitude that can be expressed as a number and a reference[1] Hence the value of a physical quantity Q is expressed as the product of a numerical value {Q} and a unit of measurement [Q]. Q = {Q} x [Q] Quantity calculus describes how to do math with quantities. Examples If the temperature T of a body is quantified (measured) as 300 degrees Kelvin this is written T = 300 x K = 300 K where T is the symbol of the physical quantity (NB degrees Celsius cannot be treated in this way) If a person weighs 120 pounds, then "120" is the numerical value and "pound" is the unit. This physical quantity mass would be written as "120 lbs", or m = 120 lbs An example employing SI units and scientific notation for the number, might be a measurement of power written as P = 42.3 x 103 W, Here, P represents the physical quantity of power, 42.3 x 103 is the numerical value {P}, and W is the symbol for the

unit of power [P], the watt Symbols for physical quantities Usually, the symbols for physical quantities are chosen to be a single letter of the Latin or Greek alphabet, and are often printed in italic type. Often, the symbols are modified by subscripts and superscripts, to specify what they refer to for instance Ek is usually used to denote kinetic energy and cp heat capacity at constant pressure. (Note the difference in the style of the subscripts: k is the abbreviation of the word kinetic, whereas p is the symbol for the physical quantity pressure rather than an abbreviation of the word "pressure".) Symbols for quantities should be chosen according to the international recommendations from ISO 31, the IUPAP red book and the IUPAC green book. For example, the recommended symbol for the physical quantity 'mass' is m, and the recommended symbol for the quantity 'charge' is Q. Symbols for physical quantities that are vectors are bold italic type. If, e.g., u is the speed of a particle, then the straightforward notation for its velocity is u. Numerical quantities, even those denoted by letters, are usually printed in Roman (upright) type, e.g.: 1, 2, e (for the base of natural logarithm), i (for the imaginary unit) or (for 3.14...). Symbols for numerical functions such as sin are Roman type too. Although the recommendation is not followed by Wikipedia, operators like d in dx are recommended also to be printed in Roman type. Physical quantity 10 Units of physical quantities Most physical quantities Q include a unit [Q] (where [Q] means "unit of Q"). Neither the name of a physical quantity, nor the symbol used to denote it, implies a particular choice of unit. For example, a quantity of mass might be represented by the symbol m, and could be expressed in the units kilograms (kg), pounds (lb), or Daltons (Da). SI units are usually preferred today. Base quantities, derived quantities and dimensions The notion of physical dimension of a physical quantity was introduced by Fourier in 1822.[2] By convention, physical quantities are organized in a dimensional system built upon base quantities, each of which is regarded as having its own dimension. The seven base quantities of the International System of Quantities (ISQ) and their corresponding SI units are listed in the following table. Other conventions may have a different number of fundamental units (e.g. the CGS and MKS systems of units). International System of Units base quantities Name Symbol for quantity Symbol for dimension SI base unit Symbol for unit Length l, x, r, etc. L meter m

Time t T second s Mass m M kilogram kg Electric current I, i I ampere A Thermodynamic temperature T kelvin K Amount of substance n N mole mol Luminous intensity Iv J candela cd All other quantities are derived quantities since their dimensions are derived from those of base quantities by multiplication and division. For example, the physical quantity velocity is derived from base quantities length and time and has dimension L/T. Some derived physical quantities have dimension 1 and are said to be dimensionless quantities. Extensive and intensive quantities A quantity is called: extensive when its magnitude is additive for subsystems (volume, mass, etc.) intensive when the magnitude is independent of the extent of the system (temperature, pressure, etc.) Some physical quantities are prefixed in order to further qualify their meaning: specific is added to refer to a quantity which is expressed per unit mass (such as specific heat capacity) molar is added to refer to a quantity which is expressed per unit amount of substance (such as molar volume) There are also physical quantities that can be classified as neither extensive nor intensive, for example angular momentum, area, force, length, and time. Physical quantity 11 Physical quantities as coordinates over spaces of physical qualities The meaning of the term physical quantity is generally well understood (everyone understands what is meant by the frequency of a periodic phenomenon, or the resistance of an electric wire). It is clear that behind a set of quantities like temperature inverse temperature logarithmic temperature, there is a qualitative notion: the coldhot quality. Over this one-dimensional quality space, we may choose different coordinates: the temperature, the inverse temperature, etc. Other quality spaces are multidimensional. For instance, to represent the properties of an ideal elastic medium we need 21 coefficients, that can be the 21 components of the elastic stiffness tensor , or the 21 components of the elastic compliance tensor (inverse of the stiffness tensor), or the proper elements (six eigenvalues and 15 angles) of any of the two tensors, etc. Again, we are selecting coordinates over a 21dimensional quality space. On this space, each point represents a particular elastic medium. It is always possible to define the distance between two points of any quality space, and this distance is inside a given theoretical context uniquely defined. For instance, two periodic phenomena can be characterized by their periods, and

, or by their frequencies, and . The only definition of distance that respects some clearly defined invariances is log log . These notions have implications in physics. As soon as we accept that behind the usual physical quantities there are quality spaces, that usual quantities are only special coordinates over these quality spaces, and that there is a metric in each space, the following question arises: Can we do physics intrinsically, i.e., can we develop physics using directly the notion of physical quality, and of metric, and without using particular coordinates (i.e., without any particular choice of physical quantities)? In fact, physics can (and must?) be developed independently of any particular choice of coordinates over the quality spaces, i.e., independently of any particular choice of physical quantities to represent the measurable physical qualities.[3] See also Physical constant Notes [1] Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM), International Vocabulary of Metrology, Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms (VIM), III ed., Pavillon de Breteuil : JCGM 200:2008, 1.1 ( on-line (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ documents/ jcgm/ JCGM_200_2008. pdf)) [2] Fourier, Joseph. Thorie analytique de la chaleur, Firmin Didot, Paris, 1822. (In this book, Fourier introduces the concept of physical dimensions for the physical quantities.) [3] Tarantola, Albert. Elements for physics - Quantities, qualities and intrinsic theories, Springer, 2006. ISBN 3-540-25302-5. (http:/ / www. ipgp. jussieu. fr/ ~tarantola/ Files/ Professional/ Books/ ElementsForPhysics-ScreenViewing. pdf) References Cook, Alan H. The observational foundations of physics, Cambridge, 1994. ISBN 0-521-45597Dimensional analysis Dimensional analysis In physics and science, dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations among physical quantities by using their dimensions. The dimension of a physical quantity is the combination of the basic physical dimensions (usually mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature) which describe it; for example, speed has the dimension length / time, and may be measured in meters per second, miles per hour, or other units. Dimensional analysis is based on the fact that a physical law must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables. A straightforward practical consequence is that any meaningful equation (and any inequality and inequation) must have the same dimensions in the left and right sides. Checking this is the basic way of performing dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is routinely used to check the plausibility of derived equations and computations. It is also

used to form reasonable hypotheses about complex physical situations that can be tested by experiment or by more developed theories of the phenomena, and to categorize types of physical quantities and units based on their relations to or dependence on other units, or their dimensions if any. The basic principle of dimensional analysis was known to Isaac Newton (1686) who referred to it as the "Great Principle of Similitude".[1] James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived.[2] The 19th-century French mathematician Joseph Fourier made important contributions[3] based on the idea that physical laws like F = ma should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. This led to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of measurement, a result which was eventually formalized in the Buckingham theorem. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving n variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of n m dimensionless parameters, where m is the number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables. A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or natural units of nature. This gives insight into the fundamental properties of the system, as illustrated in the examples below. Introduction Definition The dimensions of a physical quantity are associated with combinations of mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature, represented by sans-serif symbols M, L, T, Q, and , respectively, each raised to rational powers. The term dimension is more abstract than scale unit: mass is a dimension, while kilograms are a scale unit (choice of standard) in the mass dimension. As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed is distance/time (L/T or LT 1), and the dimension of the physical quantity force is "mass acceleration" or "mass(distance/time)/time" (ML/T2 or MLT 2). In principle, other dimensions of physical quantity could be defined as "fundamental" (such as momentum or energy or electric current) in lieu of some of those shown above. Most physicists do not recognize temperature, , as a fundamental dimension of physical quantity since it essentially expresses the energy per particle per degree of freedom, which can be expressed in terms of energy (or mass, length, and time). Still others do not recognize electric charge, Q, as a separate fundamental dimension of physical quantity, since it has been expressed in terms of mass,

length, and time in unit systems such as the cgs system. There are also physicists that have cast doubt on the very existence of incompatible fundamental dimensions of physical quantity.[4] The unit of a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not identical concepts. The units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard; e.g., length may have units of meters, feet, inches, 12 Dimensional analysis miles or micrometres; but any length always has a dimension of L, independent of what units are arbitrarily chosen to measure it. Two different units of the same physical quantity have conversion factors that relate them. For example: 1 in = 2.54 cm; then (2.54 cm/in) is the conversion factor, and is itself dimensionless and equal to one. Therefore multiplying by that conversion factor does not change a quantity. Dimensional symbols do not have conversion factors. Mathematical properties Dimensional symbols, such as L, form a group: The identity is defined as L0 = 1, and the inverse to L is 1/L or L1. L raised to any rational power p is a member of the group, having an inverse of Lp or 1/Lp. The operation of the group is multiplication, having the usual rules for handling exponents (Ln Lm = Ln+m). Dimensional symbols form a vector space over the rational numbers, with for example dimensional symbol MiLjTk corresponding to the vector (i,j,k). When physical measured quantities (be they like-dimensioned or unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by one other, their dimensional units are likewise multiplied or divided; this corresponds to addition or subtraction in the vector space. When measurable quantities are raised to a rational power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication in the vector space. A basis for a given vector space of dimensional symbols is called a set of fundamental units or fundamental dimensions, and all other vectors are called derived units. As in any vector space, one may choose different bases, which yields different systems of units (e.g., choosing whether the unit for charge is derived from the unit for current, or vice versa). Dimensionless quantities correspond to the origin in this vector space. The set of units of the physical quantities involved in a problem correspond to a set of vectors (or a matrix). The kernel describes some number (e.g., m) of ways in which these vectors can be combined to produce a zero vector. These correspond to producing (from the measurements) a number of dimensionless quantities, {1,...,m}. (In fact these ways completely span the null subspace of another different space, of powers of the measurements.) Every possible way of multiplying (and exponating) together the measured quantities to produce

something with the same units as some derived quantity X can be expressed in the general form Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the system can be rewritten in the form . Knowing this restriction can be a powerful tool for obtaining new insight into the system. Mechanics In mechanics, the dimension of any physical quantity can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions (or base dimensions) M, L, and T these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only possible choice, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the base set of dimensions is, thus, partly a convention, resulting in increased utility and familiarity. It is, however, important to note that the choice of the set of dimensions cannot be chosen arbitrarily it is not just a convention because the dimensions must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent. For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form an equivalent basis to M, L, T: the former can be expressed as [F=ML/T2],L,M while the latter can be expressed as M,L, [T=(ML/F)1/2]. On the other hand, using length, velocity and time (L, V, T) as base dimensions will not work well (they do not form a set of fundamental dimensions), for two reasons: 13 Dimensional analysis There is no way to obtain mass or anything derived from it, such as force without introducing another base dimension (thus these do not span the space). Velocity, being derived from length and time (V=L/T), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent). Other fields of physics and chemistry Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of M, L, T, and Q, where Q represents quantity of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, . In chemistry the number of moles of substance (loosely, but not precisely, related to the number of molecules or atoms) is often involved and a dimension for this is used as well. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are very important. Commensurability The most basic consequence of dimensional analysis is: Only commensurable quantities (quantities with the same dimensions) may be compared, equated,

added, or subtracted. However, One may take ratios of incommensurable quantities (quantities with different dimensions), and multiply or divide them. For example, it makes no sense to ask if 1 hour is more or less than 1 kilometer, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometer. On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that the object's average speed was 50 km/hour. As a corollary of this requirement, it follows that in a physically meaningful expression, only quantities of the same dimension can be added, subtracted, or compared. For example, if mman, mrat and Lman denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the expression mman + mrat is meaningful, but mman + Lman is meaningless. However, mman/L2man is fine. Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanity check of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions, i.e., the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous. Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may be meaningless to compare or add them. For example, although torque and energy share the dimension ML2T2, they are fundamentally different physical quantities. To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the standard procedure is to first convert them all to the same units. For example, to compare 32 metres with 35 yards, use 1 yard = 0.9144 m to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m. 14 Dimensional analysis Polynomials and transcendental functions Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionless) This requirement is clear when one observes the Taylor expansions for these functions (a sum of various powers of the function argument). For example, the logarithm of 3 kg is undefined even though the logarithm of 3 is nearly 0.477. An attempt to compute ln 3 kg would produce, if one naively took ln 3 kg to mean the dimensionally meaningless "ln (1 + 2 kg)", which is dimensionally incompatible the sum has no meaningful dimension requiring the argument of transcendental functions to be dimensionless.

Another way to understand this problem is that the different coefficients scale differently under change of units were one to reconsider this in grams as "ln 3000 g" instead of "ln 3 kg", one could compute ln 3000, but in terms of the Taylor series, the degree 1 term would scale by 1000, the degree-2 term would scale by 10002, and so forth the overall output would not scale as a particular dimension. While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity log(a/b) = log a log b, where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers a and b, but it does not hold if a and b are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined but the right-hand side is not. Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials (xn) of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for x2, the expression (3 m)2 = 9 m2 makes sense (as an area), while for x2 + x, the expression (3 m)2 + 3 m = 9 m2 + 3 m does not make sense. However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical quantities that are not dimensionless. For example, This is the height to which an object rises in time t if the acceleration of gravity is 32 feet per second per second and the initial upward speed is 500 feet per second. It is not even necessary for t to be in seconds. For example, suppose t = 0.01 minutes. Then the first term would be 15 Dimensional analysis 16 Incorporating units The value of a dimensional physical quantity Z is written as the product of a unit [Z] within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor, n. In a strict sense, when like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, these dimensioned quantities must be expressed in consistent units so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For example, 1 meter added to 1 foot is a length, but it would not be correct to add 1 to 1 to get the result. A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed: is identical to The factor is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to identical units so that their

numerical values can be added or subtracted. Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units. Position vs displacement Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describes all quantities are mathematical vectors. (In mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; the emphasis here is that vectors are closed under addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication, and permit scalar division.). This assumes an implicit point of referencean origin. While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics. A more rigorous approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change). Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them. Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable: adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty paces gets you thirty paces forward), adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection), subtracting two positions should yield a displacement, but one may not add two positions. This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement). Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity. Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity. Dimensional analysis 17 Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement. Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis. This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature for which there is an absolute zero that is different in different measuring systems. That is, for absolute temperatures 0 K = 273.15 C = 459.67 F = 0 R, but for relative temperatures, 1 K = 1 C 1 F = 1 R

Unit conversion for relative temperatures, where no temperature difference is zero in all units, is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 F / 1 K. But because these systems for absolute temperatures have different origins, conversion from one absolute temperature requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can still lead to errors if it becomes ambiguous if 1 K equals 274.15 C or 1 C. Orientation and frame of reference Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference. This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis. Other uses Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time (Pesic, 2005) in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue. Examples A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ? The four quantities have the following dimensions: [T]; [M]; ; and variables, . From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen = . The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables, but the group, , referred to means "collection" rather than mathematical group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well. Note that no other dimensionless product of powers involving with k, m, T, and g alone can be formed, because only g involves L . Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of g: it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant .

Dimensional analysis When faced with a case where our analysis rejects a variable (g, here) that we feel sure really belongs in a physical description of the situation, we might also consider the possibility that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, and that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields a solution of problems where only one dimensionless product of powers is involved, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete." A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length l (L) vibrating with an amplitude A (L). The wire has a linear density (M/L) and is under tension s (ML/T2), and we want to know the energy E (ML2/T2) in the wire. Let 1 and 2 be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by The linear density of the wire is not involved. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as where f is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f. But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to l, and so infer that E = ls. The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident. The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis. Extensions Huntley's extension: directed dimensions

Huntley (Huntley, 1967) has pointed out that it is sometimes productive to refine our concept of dimension. Two possible refinements are: The magnitude of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally distinct. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length unit L, we may have represent length in the x direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent. Mass as a measure of quantity is to be considered dimensionally distinct from mass as a measure of inertia. 18 Dimensional analysis 19 As an example of the usefulness of the first refinement, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannon ball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component and a horizontal velocity component , assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then dimensioned as , , both , R, the distance travelled, having dimension L, and g the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range R may be written: Or dimensionally from which we may deduce that and , which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental quantities L and T and four parameters, with one equation. If, however, we use directed length dimensions, then and g as will be dimensioned as , as , R as . The dimensional equation becomes: and we may solve completely as , and . The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent. In a similar manner, it is sometimes found useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of quantity (substantial mass). For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass we may

choose as the relevant variables the mass flow rate with dimensions the pressure gradient along the pipe with dimensions the density with dimensions the dynamic fluid viscosity with dimensions the radius of the pipe with dimensions There are three fundamental variables so the above five equations will yield two dimensionless variables which we may take to be and and we may express the dimensional equation as where C and a are undetermined constants. If we draw a distinction between inertial mass with dimensions substantial mass with dimensions and , then mass flow rate and density will use substantial mass as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written: where now only C is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law. Dimensional analysis Siano's extension: orientational analysis Huntley's extension has some serious drawbacks: It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables. It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, Lx, Ly, Lz, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries? Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's addition to real problems. Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless variables, and so the use of angles as

physical variables in dimensional analysis can give less meaningful results. As an example, consider the projectile problem mentioned above. Suppose that, instead of the x- and y-components of the initial velocity, we had chosen the magnitude of the velocity v and the angle at which the projectile was fired. The angle is, by convention, considered to be dimensionless, and the magnitude of a vector has no directional quality, so that no dimensionless variable can be composed of the four variables g, v, R, and . Conventional analysis will correctly give the powers of g and v, but will give no information concerning the dimensionless angle . Siano (Siano, 1985-I, 1985-II) has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols 1x 1y 1z to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10. Thus, Huntley's 1x becomes L 1x with L specifying the dimension of length, and 1x specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that 1i1 = 1i, the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results: Note that the orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem." Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of 1z. For angles, consider an angle that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z plane with being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation 1x and the side opposite has an orientation 1y. Then, since tan() = 1y/1x = + ... we conclude that an angle in the xy plane must have an orientation 1y/1x = 1z, which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin() has orientation 1z while cos() has orientation 10. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a cos()+b sin() , where a and b are real scalars. Physical quantities may be expressed as complex numbers (e.g. ) which imply that the complex quantity i has an orientation equal to that of the angle it is associated with (1z in the above example). The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach one sets up the dimensional equation and solves it as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral. This puts it into "normal form". The orientational

20 Dimensional analysis equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols, arriving at a solution that is more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd. As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, , being in the xy-plane will thus have dimension 1z and the range of the projectile R will be of the form: Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield a = 1 and b = 2, and orientational homogeneity requires that c be an odd integer. In fact the required function of theta will be sin()cos() which is a series of odd powers of . It is seen that the Taylor series of sin() and cos() are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like cos() + sin() and exp() are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical. It should be clear that the multiplication rule used for the orientational symbols is not the same as that for the cross product of two vectors. The cross product of two identical vectors is zero, while the product of two identical orientational symbols is the identity element. Percentages and derivatives Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. Derivatives with respect to a quantity add the dimensions of the variable one is differentiating with respect to on the denominator. Thus: position (x) has units of L (Length); derivative of position with respect to time (dx/dt, velocity) has units of L/T Length from position, Time from the derivative; the second derivative (d2x/dt2, acceleration) has units of L/T2. In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has units of "units" (say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has units of "units/time" (say, dollars/year). Beware that in some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions. This may or may not be misleading. For example, Debt to GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding (dimension of Currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of Currency) but one may argue that in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of Currency/Time (Dollars/Year, for instance), and thus Debt to GDP should have units of years. Dimensionless concepts Constants The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the C in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the in the spring problems discussed above come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics, and often

arises from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc. 21 Dimensional analysis 22 Formalisms Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlation length, ) becomes larger and larger. Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmize on "dimensional grounds" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be where is the dimension of the lattice. It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael Duff,[4] [5] that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent dimensionful constants: c, , and G, in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other. Just as in the case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the constants , c, and G (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit , and . In problems involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite. Applications Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry- and in the mathematics thereofbut finds some applications outside of those fields as well. Mathematics

A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an n-ball (the solid ball in n-dimensions), or the area of its surface, the n-sphere: being an n-dimensional figure, the volume scales as while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as Thus the volume of the n-ball in terms of the radius is for some constant Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone. Proof of the Pythagorean theorem A very simple proof of the Pythagorean theorem can be obtained by just dimensional reasoning.[6] The area of any triangle depends on its size and shape, which can be unambiguously identified by the length of one of its edges (for example, the largest) and by any two of its angles (the third being determined by the fact that the sum of all three is ). Thus, recalling that an area has the dimensions of a length squared, we can write: Dimensional proof of the Pythagorean theorem Dimensional analysis area = largest_edge2 f (angle_1, angle_2), where f is an adimensional function of the angles. Now, referring to the figure at right, if we divide a right triangle in two smaller ones by tracing the segment perpendicular to its hypotenuse and passing by the opposite vertex, and express the obvious fact that the total area is the sum of the two smaller ones, by applying the previous equation we have: c2 f (, /2) = a2 f (, /2) + b2 f (, /2). And, eliminating f: c2 = a2 + b2 , Q.E.D. Note that the result is obtained without specifying the form of the adimensional function f. Finance, economics, and accounting In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios. For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (units of years), and can be interpreted as "years of earnings to earn the price paid." In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has units of years (debt has units of currency, GDP has units of currency/year). More surprisingly, bond duration also has units of years, which can be shown by dimensional analysis, but takes some financial intuition to understand.

 Velocity of money has units[7] of 1/Years (GDP/Money supply has units of Currency/Year over Currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year. Dimensional analysis is rarely used in (mainstream/neoclassical) economic modeling,[8] and economic models are often dimensionally inconsistent.[9] The equation of exchange is the most notable example of a dimensional equation in economic modeling,[8] while the widely-used CobbDouglas model does not use dimensions in a meaningful way.[10] This lack of dimensional consistency is criticized by heterodox economics, notably Austrian economics,[11] while dimensional consistency is not considered necessary or desirable by mainstream economists. [9] [12] See also Quantity calculus Debt to GDP ratio Denominate number Dirac large numbers hypothesis Fermi problem Fundamental unit Nondimensionalization Equivalization Physical quantity Natural units Similitude (model) Buckingham theorem Units conversion by factor-label Affine space Vector space Frame of reference Point of reference 23 Dimensional analysis Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis

Covariance and contravariance of vectors Wedge product Geometric algebra Notes [1] Stahl, Walter R (1961), "Dimensional Analysis In Mathematical Biology", Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 23: 355 [2] Roche, John J (1998), The Mathematics of Measurement: A Critical History, London: Springer, p. 203, ISBN 978-0387915814, " Beginning apparently with Maxwell, mass, length and time began to be interpreted as having a privileged fundamental character and all other quantities as derivative, not merely with respect to measurement, but with respect to their physical status as well. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eiQOqS-Q6EkC& lpg=PP1& dq=isbn:978-0387915814& pg=PA203#v=onepage& q& f=false)" [3] Mason, Stephen Finney (1962), A history of the sciences, New York: Collier Books, p. 169, ISBN 0-02-093400-9 [4] M. J. Duff, L. B. Okun and G. Veneziano, Trialogue on the number of fundamental constants, JHEP 0203, 023 (2002) preprint (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0110060). [5] M. J. Duff,Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants, preprint (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0208093) [6] see, for example: F.Olness (1997), Dimensional Regularization Meets Freshman E&M (http:/ / www. physics. smu. edu/ ~olness/ cteqpp/ DimReg. 5. pdf) [7] "It's just a flesh wound..." (http:/ / www. debtdeflation. com/ blogs/ 2009/ 03/ 17/ its-just-aflesh-wound/ ), Steve Keen [8] (Barnett 2007, footnote 8, p. 96) [9] "And, from referee #3s report: 'There is no question that the lack of dimensional consistency is pervasive throughout mathematical economics. However, this paper does not make clear why this lack of dimensional consistency is problematical. The lack of dimensional consistency is not so much a problem in and of itself . . .'", (Barnett 2007, p. 101, referee report #3) [10] (Barnett 2007, p. 96) [11] (Barnett 2007) [12] Four mainstream economists at a leading journal are quoted in (Barnett 2007, Appendix, pp. 99102) as stating that dimensional consistency is not necessary in economic modeling and lack of dimensional consistency is not a valid criticism of an economic model. References Barenblatt, G. I. (1996), Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43522-6 Barnett (2007), "Dimensions and Economics: Some Problems" (http://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/ qjae7_1_10.pdf), Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics 7 (1) Bhaskar, R.; Nigam, Anil (1990), "Qualitative Physics Using Dimensional Analysis", Artificial Intelligence 45: 73111, doi:10.1016/0004-3702(90)90038-2 Bhaskar, R.; Nigam, Anil (1991), "Qualitative Explanations of Red Giant Formation", The Astrophysical Journal 372: 5926, doi:10.1086/170003 Boucher; Alves (1960), "Dimensionless Numbers", Chem. Eng. Progress 55: 5564 Bridgman, P. W. (1922), Dimensional Analysis, Yale University Press, ISBN 0548910294

 Buckingham, Edgar (1914), "On Physically Similar Systems: Illustrations of the Use of Dimensional Analysis", Phys. Rev. 4: 345, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.4.345 Hart, George W. (March 1 1995), Multidimensional Analysis: Algebras and Systems for Science and Engineering (http://www.georgehart.com/research/multanal.html), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94417-6 Huntley, H. E. (1967), Dimensional Analysis, Dover, LOC 67-17978 Klinkenberg, A. (1955), " ", Chem. Eng. Science 4: 130140, 167177, doi:10.1016/00092509(55)80004-8 Langhaar, H. L. (1951), Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models, Wiley, ISBN 0882756826 Moody, L. F. (1944), "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow", Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 66 (671) Murphy, N. F. (1949), "Dimensional Analysis", Bull. V.P.I. 42 (6) Perry, J. H.; et al. (1944), "Standard System of Nomenclature for Chemical Engineering Unit Operations", Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. 40 (251) Pesic, Peter (2005), Sky in a Bottle, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, pp. 2278, ISBN 0-262-162342 24 Dimensional analysis Petty, G. W. (2001), "Automated computation and consistency checking of physical dimensions and units in scientific programs.", Software Practice and Experience 31: 106776, doi:10.1002/spe.401 Porter, Alfred W. (1933), The Method of Dimensions, Methuen Lord Rayleigh (1915), "The Principle of Similitude", Nature 95: 668, doi:10.1038/095066c0 Siano, Donald (1985), "Orientational Analysis A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis I", J. Franklin Institute 320 (320): 267, doi:10.1016/0016-0032(85)90031-6 Siano, Donald (1985), "Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units II", J. Franklin Institute 320 (320): 285, doi:10.1016/0016-0032(85)900328 Silberberg, I. H.; McKetta J. J. Jr. (1953), "Learning How to Use Dimensional Analysis", Petrol. Refiner 32 (4 (p.5), 5(p.147), 6(p.101), 7(p.129)) Van Driest, E. R. (March 1946), "On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data in Fluid Flow Problems", J. App. Mech 68 (A-34) Whitney, H. (1968), "The Mathematics of Physical Quantities, Parts I and II" (http://jstor.org/stable/2315883), Am. Math. Mo. (Mathematical Association of America) 75 (2): 115138, 227256, doi:10.2307/2315883 GA Vignaux (1992), Erickson, Gary J.; Neudorfer, Paul O., ed., Dimensional Analysis in Data Modelling, Kluwer Academic, ISBN 0-7923-2031-X Wacaw Kasprzak, Bertold Lysik, Marek Rybaczuk (1990), Dimensional Analysis in the Identification of Mathematical Models, World Scientific, ISBN 9789810203047 PF Mendez, F Ordez (September 2005), "Scaling Laws From Statistical Data and Dimensional Analysis", Journal of Applied Mechanics 72 (5): 648657, doi:10.1115/1.1943434 G Hart (1994), The theory of dimensioned matrices S. Drobo (1954), "On the foundations of dimensional analysis", Studia Mathematica

External links List of dimensions for variety of physical quantities (http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Fluids/ Dimension_Analysis.html) Unicalc Live web calculator doing units conversion by dimensional analysis (http://www.calchemy.com/ uclive.htm) http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf http://rain.aos.wisc.edu/~gpetty/physunits.html Quantity System calculator for units conversion based on dimensional approach (http://QuantitySystem. CodePlex.com) Units, quantities, and fundamental constants project dimensional analysis maps (http://www. outlawmapofphysics.com) 25 Physics 26 Physics Physics (from Ancient Greek: physis "nature") is a natural science that involves the study of matter[1] and its motion through spacetime, as well as all related concepts, including energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[3] [4] [5] Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[6] Over the last two millenia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[7] Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as mathematical physics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy. Physics is also significant and influential through advances in its understanding that have translated into new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. Scope and aims Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects from which all other things are composed, and therefore physics is

sometimes called the "fundamental science".[8] Physics aims to describe the various phenomenon that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then to try to connect these causes together. For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone) were attracted to one another by some invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, and was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. A little earlier than the Chinese, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century, and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (Theory of Everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information). Physics involves modeling the natural world with abstract theory. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of calculus to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as mechanics. Physics 27 Scientific method Physicists use a scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using a methodical approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations conducted to test it. Experiments and observations are to be collected and matched with the predictions and hypotheses made by a theory, thus aiding in the determination or the validity/invalidity of the theory. Theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any competent empirical test are often called scientific laws, or natural laws. Of course, all theories, including those called scientific laws, can always be replaced by more accurate, generalized statements if a disagreement of theory with observed data is ever found.[9] Theory and experiment Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot

explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire new experiments. Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists. Phenomenologists look at the complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to fundamental theory. The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way.[10] Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,[11] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions. Experimental physics informs, and is informed by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators Lightning is an electric current and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well explored by theorists.[12] Physics 28 Relation to mathematics and the other sciences In the Assayer (1622), Galileo noted that mathematics is the language in which Nature expresses its laws.[13] Most experimental results in physics are numerical measurements, and theories in physics use mathematics to give numerical results to match these measurements. This parabola-shaped lava flow illustrates Galileo's law of falling bodies as well as blackbody radiation the temperature is discernible from the color of the blackbody. Physics relies upon mathematics to provide the logical framework in which physical laws may be precisely formulated and predictions quantified. Whenever analytic solutions of equations are not feasible, numerical analysis and simulations may be utilized. Thus, scientific computation is an integral part of physics, and the field of computational physics is an active area of research. A key difference between physics and mathematics is that since physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by comparing the predictions of its theories with data procured from observations and experimentation, whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, not limited by those observed in the real world. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics. Physics is also intimately related to many other sciences, as well as applied fields like engineering and medicine. The principles of physics find applications throughout the other natural sciences as some phenomena

studied in physics, such as the conservation of energy, are common to all material systems. Other phenomena, such as superconductivity, stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only appear in some systems. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistry is sometimes included), because each of the other disciplines (biology, chemistry, geology, material science, engineering, medicine etc.) deals with particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics.[8] For example, chemistry is the science of collections of matter (such as gases and liquids formed of atoms and molecules) and the processes known as chemical reactions that result in the change of chemical substances. The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which may be well-described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics, or quantum chemistry, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Philosophical implications Physics in many ways stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle's book Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well into the 18th century, physics was known as natural philosophy. By the 19th century physics was realized as a positive science and a distinct discipline separate from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science to give an adequate description of the scientific method.[14] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[15] The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[16] Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism,[17] and Erwin Schrdinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics. [18] The Physics mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[19] a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality.[20] Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with Penrose's views.[21] History Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the natural world. One great mystery was the predictable behavior of celestial objects

such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were proposed, the majority of which were disproved. The philosopher Thales (ca. 624546 BC) first refused to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. Early physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today. Many of the commonly accepted works of Ptolemy and Aristotle are not always found to match everyday observations. Even so, many ancient philosophers and astronomers gave correct descriptions in atomism and astronomy. Leucippus (first half of 5th century Isaac Newton (1643-1727) BC) first proposed atomism, while Archimedes derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics, statics and hydrostatics, including an explanation for the principle of the lever. The Middle Ages saw the emergence of an experimental physics taking shape among medieval Muslim physicists, the most famous being Alhazen, followed by modern physics largely taking shape among early modern European physicists, the most famous being Isaac Newton, who built on the works of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. In the 20th century, the work of Albert Einstein marked a new direction in physics that continues to the present day. Core theories While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research, and a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (16421727). These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity. 29 Physics Research fields Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education. Since the twentieth century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein

(18791955) and Lev Landau (19081968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[22] Condensed matter Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding and electromagnetic force between Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new atoms. More exotic condensed phases phase of matter, the BoseEinstein condensate include the superfluid and the BoseEinstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices. Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group previously solid-state theory in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.[23] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering. Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics, the collective behavior of atoms in weakly interacting gases (BoseEinstein Condensates and dilute Fermi degenerate systems), precision measurements

of fundamental constants, and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is 30 Physics 31 influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomenon such as fission and fusion are considered part of high energy physics. Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. High energy/particle physics Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them. It may also be called "high energy physics", because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high energy collisions of other particles, as can be detected in particle accelerators. Currently, the interactions of elementary particles are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively). The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson, the existence of which has not yet been verified; as of 2010, searches for it are underway in the Tevatron at Fermilab and in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Collider, featuring a possible appearance of the Higgs boson. Astrophysics Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earths atmosphere make space-based observations necessary

for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy. Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einsteins theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as Physics the steady state universe and the Big Bang. The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the CDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter. Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the Universe. [24] [25] In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years.[26] Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of weakly interacting massive particles, complementing similar experiments with the Large Hadron Collider and other underground detectors. IBEX is already yielding new astrophysical discoveries: "No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon" along the termination shock of the solar wind, "but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the heliosphere in which the solar system's enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind's charged particles is plowing through the onrushing 'galactic wind' of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet is wrong."[27] Fundamental physics While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match their predictions. Albert Einstein The basic domains of physics contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have

speeds approaching the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrdinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidates theories of quantum gravity are being developed. 32 Physics 33 Application and influence Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics. Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, Statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations. Archimedes' screw uses simple machines to lift liquids. With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, one can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, over time. It also allows for simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology. But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the physicist's methods, and so many other important fields are influenced by physics: e.g. presently the fields of econophysics plays an important role, as well as sociophysics. Current research Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable

spintronics and quantum computers. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. Particle accelerators have begun probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles.[28] Physics 34 Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity. Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies. A typical event described by physics: a magnet levitating above a superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb said:[29] I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic. References [1] Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would

contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1. p. I-2. ISBN 0201-02116-1. [2] J.C. Maxwell (1878). Matter and Motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=noRgWP0_UZ8C& printsec=titlepage& dq=matter+ and+ motion). D. Van Nostrand. p. 9. ISBN 0486668959. . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." [3] H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman (2004). University Physics with Modern Physics (11th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 2. "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles." [4] S. Holzner (2006). Physics for Dummies (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/ 0764554336). Wiley. p. 7. ISBN 0470618418. . "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." [5] Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world. [6] Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. [7] Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method. [8] The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume I. Feynman, Leighton and Sands. ISBN 0-20102115-3 See Chapter 3 : "The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences" for a general discussion. For the philosophical issue of whether other sciences can be "reduced" to physics, see reductionism and special sciences). [9] Some principles, such as Newton's laws of motion, are still generally called "laws" even though they are now known to be limiting cases of newer theories. Thus, for example, in Thomas Brody (1993, Luis de la Pea and Peter Hodgson, eds.) The Philosophy Behind Physics ISBN 0-387-55914-0, pp 1824 (Chapter 2), explains the 'epistemic cycle' in which a student of physics discovers that physics is not a finished product but is instead the process of creating [that product]. Physics 35 [10] See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Oersted. [11] Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical. [12] Feynman, Richard (1965). The Character of Physical Law. ISBN 0262560038. p.157: "In fact experimenters have a certain individual

character. They ... very often do their experiments in a region in which people know the theorist has not made any guesses. " [13] "Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." Galileo (1623), The Assayer, as quoted by G. Toraldo Di Francia (1976), The Investigation of the Physical World ISBN 0-521-29925-X p.10 [14] Rosenberg, Alex (2006). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34317-8. See Chapter 1 for a discussion on the necessity of philosophy of science. [15] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 14 "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 [16] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 15 "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 [17] See Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and Frederick Lincoln Emory, Dover Publications (New York, 1951) [18] See "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1-881987-09-4. and "My View of the World" Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0-918024-30-7. [19] Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose (1996), The Nature of Space and Time ISBN 0-69105084-8 p.4 "I think that Roger is a Platonist at heart but he must answer for himself." [20] Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality ISBN 0-679-45443-8 [21] Penrose, Roger; Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, Stephen Hawking (1997). The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78572-3. [22] Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for arXiv.org [23] "Division of Condensed Matter Physics Governance History" (http:/ / dcmp. bc. edu/ page. php?name=governance_history). . Retrieved 2007-02-13. [24] "NASA - Q&A on the GLAST Mission" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ GLAST/ main/ questions_answers. html). Nasa: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. NASA. 28 August 2008. . Retrieved 29 April 2009. [25] See also Nasa - Fermi Science (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ GLAST/ science/ index. html) and NASA - Scientists Predict Major Discoveries for GLAST (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ GLAST/ science/ unidentified_sources. html). [26] NASA.gov (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ GLAST/ science/ dark_matter. html) [27] Richard A. Kerr (16 October 2009). "Tying Up the Solar System With a Ribbon of Charged Particles" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ summary/ sci;326/ 5951/ 350-a?maxtoshow=& HITS=10& hits=10&

RESULTFORMAT=& fulltext=IBEX& searchid=1& FIRSTINDEX=0& issue=5951& resourcetype=HWCIT). Science 326 (5951): pp. 350351. . Retrieved 2009-11-27. [28] 584 co-authors "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon " Fermilab-Pub-07/196-E, June 12, 2007 http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0706. 1690v2 finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the [29] Goldstein, Sydney (1969). "Fluid Mechanics in the First Half of this Century". Annual Reviews in Fluid Mechanics 1: 128. doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.01.010169.000245. Further reading Popular reading Feynman, Richard (1994). Character of Physical Law. Random House. ISBN 0-679-60127-9. Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70811-1. Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-10953-7. Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th Dimension. Anchor. ISBN 0-385-47705-8. Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-2891863. Kakalios, James (2005). The physics of superheroes. Gotham books. ISBN 1-59240-242-9. Physics Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08016-X. Walker, Jearl (1977). The Flying Circus of Physics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02984-X. Fontanella, John (2006). The Physics of Basketball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 08018-8513-2. General textbooks Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-51003-0. Feynman, Richard. Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3. Caltech. ISBN 2-35648-789-1. Knight, Randall (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-8685-8. Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics 8th ed. ISBN 978-0471-75801-3. Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-321-05202-1. Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 013-060620-0. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern

Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8. Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13067644-6. Verma, H. C. (2005). Concepts of Physics. Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5. External links General HyperPhysics website (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/hframe.html) HyperPhysics, a physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University PhysicsCentral (http://www.physicscentral.com/) Web portal run by the American Physical Society (http:// www.aps.org/) Physics.org (http://www.physics.org/) Web portal run by the Institute of Physics (http://www.iop.org/) The Skeptic's Guide to Physics (http://musr.physics.ubc.ca/~jess/hr/skept/) Usenet Physics FAQ (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/) A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups Website of the Nobel Prize in physics (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/) World of Physics (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/) An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics Nature: Physics (http://www.nature.com/naturephysics) Physics (http://physics.aps.org/) announced July 17, 2008 by the American Physical Society Physics/Publications (http://www.dmoz.org//Science/Physics/Publications//) at the Open Directory Project Physicsworld.com (http://physicsworld.com) - News website from Institute of Physics Publishing (http:// publishing.iop.org/) Physics Central (http://physlib.com/) - includes articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics. The Vega Science Trust (http://www.vega.org.uk/) - science videos, including physics Video: Physics "Lightning" Tour with Justin Morgan (http://www.archive.org/details/ JustinMorganPhysicsLightningTour/) 52-part video course: The Mechanical Universe...and Beyond (http://www.learner.org/resources/series42. html) Note: also available at 01 - Introduction Physics (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=) at Google 36 Physics 37 Video (Adobe Flash video) Encyclopedia of Physics (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia_of_physics) at Scholarpedia de Haas, Paul, "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)" (http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/) Organizations AIP.org (http://www.aip.org/index.html) Website of the American Institute of Physics

APS.org (http://www.aps.org) Website of the American Physical Society IOP.org (http://www.iop.org) Website of the Institute of Physics PlanetPhysics.org (http://planetphysics.org/) Royal Society (http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk) Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics SPS National (http://www.spsnational.org) Website of the Society of Physics Students Scientific notation Scientific notation, also known as standard form or as exponential notation, is a way of writing numbers that accommodates values too large or small to be conveniently written in standard decimal notation. Scientific notation has a number of useful properties and is commonly used in calculators, and by scientists, mathematicians, doctors, and engineers. In scientific notation all numbers are written like this: a 10b ("a times ten to the power of b"), where the exponent b is an integer, and the coefficient a is any real number (but see normalized notation below), called the significand or mantissa (though the term "mantissa" may cause confusion as it can also refer to the fractional part of the common logarithm). If the number is negative then a minus sign precedes a (as in ordinary decimal notation). Ordinary decimal notation Scientific notation (normalized) 300 3 102 4,000 4 103 5,720,000,000 5.72 109 0.0000000061 6.1 109 Normalized notation Any given number can be written in the form of a10b in many ways; for example 350 can be written as 3.5 102 or 35 101 or 350 100. In normalized scientific notation, the exponent b is chosen such that the absolute value of a remains at least one but less than ten (1 |a| < 10). For example, 350 is written as 3.5 102. This form allows easy comparison of two numbers of the same sign in a, as the exponent b gives the number's order of magnitude. In normalized notation the exponent b is negative for a number with absolute value between 0 and 1 (e.g., minus one half is 5 101). The 10 and exponent are usually omitted when the exponent is 0. Note that 0 itself cannot be written in normalised scientific notation since the mantissa would have to be zero and the exponent undefined. In many fields, scientific notation is normally in this way, except during intermediate calculations or when an unnormalised form, such as engineering notation, is desired. (Normalized) scientific notation is often called Scientific notation exponential notation although the latter term is more general and also applies when a is not restricted to the range 1 to 10 (as in engineering notation for instance) and to bases other than 10 (as in 315220).

E notation Most calculators and many computer programs present very large and very small results in scientific notation. Because superscripted exponents like 107 cannot always be conveniently represented on computers, typewriters and calculators, an A calculator display showing the alternative format is often used: the letter E or e represents times ten raised to the Avogadro constant in E notation power of, thus replacing the 10, followed by the value of the exponent. Note that the character e is not related to the mathematical constant e (a confusion that is less likely with capital E); and though it stands for exponent, the notation is usually referred to as (scientific) E notation or (scientific) e notation, rather than (scientific) exponential notation (though the latter also occurs). Examples and alternatives In the FORTRAN, Perl, and Python programming languages, 6.0221418E23 is equivalent to 6.0221418 1023. The ALGOL 60 programming language uses a subscript ten "10" character instead of the letter E, for example: 6.02214151023[1] . The ALGOL 68 programming language has the choice of 4 characters: e, E, \, or 10. By examples: 6.0221415e23, 6.0221415E23, 6.0221415\23 or 6.02214151023[2] . The TI-83 series and TI-84 Plus series of calculators use a stylized E character to display decimal exponent and the 10 character to denote an equivalent Operator[3]. The Simula programming language requires the use of & (or && for long), for example: 6.0221415&23 (or 6.0221415&&23)[4] . Engineering notation Engineering notation differs from normalized scientific notation in that the exponent g is restricted to multiples of 3. Consequently, the absolute value of a is in the range 1 |a| < 1000, rather than 1 |a| < 10. Though similar in concept, engineering notation is rarely called scientific notation. This allows the numbers to explicitly match their corresponding SI prefixes, which facilitates reading and oral communication. For example, 12.5 109 m can be read as "twelve-point-five nanometers" or written as 12.5 nm, while its scientific notation counterpart 1.25 108 m would likely be read out as "one-point-two-five times ten-to-the-negative-eighth meters". Use of spaces In normalized scientific notation, in E notation, and in engineering notation, the space (which in typesetting may be represented by a normal width space or a thin space) that is allowed only before and after "" or in front of "E" or "e" is sometimes omitted, though it is less common to do so before the alphabetical character.[5] Examples An electron's mass is about 0.00000000000000000000000000000091093822 kg. In scientific notation, this is written 9.1093822 1031 kg. The Earth's mass is about 5973600000000000000000000 kg. In scientific notation, this is written 5.9736 1024 kg.

 The Earth's circumference is approximately 40000000 m. In scientific notation, this is 4 107 m. In engineering notation, this is written 40 106 m. In SI writing style, this may be written "40 Mm" (40 megameters). 38 Scientific notation An inch is 25400 micrometers. Describing an inch as 2.5400 104 m unambiguously states that this conversion is correct to the nearest micrometer. An approximated value with only three significant digits would be 2.54 104 m instead. In this example, the number of significant zeros is actually infinite (which is not the case with most scientific measurements, which have a limited degree of precision). It can be properly written with the minimum number of significant zeros used with other numbers in the application (no need to have more significant digits that other factors or addends). Or a bar can be written over a single zero, indicating that it repeats forever. The bar symbol is just as valid in scientific notation as it is in decimal notation. Significant figures Ambiguity of the last digit in scientific notation It is customary in scientific measurements to record all the significant digits from the measurements, and to guess one additional digit if there is any information at all available to the observer to make a guess. The resulting number is considered more valuable than it would be without that extra digit, and it is considered a significant digit because it contains some information leading to greater precision in measurements and in aggregations of measurements (adding them or multiplying them together). Additional information about precision can be conveyed through additional notations. In some cases, it may be useful to know how exact the final significant digit is. For instance, the accepted value of the unit of elementary charge can properly be expressed as 1.602176487(40) 1019 C,[6] which is shorthand for 1.602176487 0.000000040 1019 C. Order of magnitude Scientific notation also enables simpler order-of-magnitude comparisons. A proton's mass is 0.0000000000000000000000000016726 kg. If this is written as 1.6726 1027 kg, it is easier to compare this mass with that of the electron, given above. The order of magnitude of the ratio of the masses can be obtained by comparing the exponents instead of the more error-prone task of counting the leading zeros. In this case, 27 is larger than 31 and therefore the proton is roughly four orders of magnitude (about 10000 times) more massive than the electron. Scientific notation also avoids misunderstandings due to regional differences in certain quantifiers, such as billion, which might indicate either 109 or 1012. Using scientific notation Converting

To convert from ordinary decimal notation to scientific notation, move the decimal separator the desired number of places to the left or right, so that the significand will be in the desired range (between 1 and 10 for the normalized form). If you moved the decimal point n places to the left then multiply by 10n; if you moved the decimal point n places to the right then multiply by 10n. For example, starting with 1230000, move the decimal point six places to the left yielding 1.23, and multiply by 106, to give the result 1.23 106. Similarly, starting with 0.000000456, move the decimal point seven places to the right yielding 4.56, and multiply by 107, to give the result 4.56 107. If the decimal separator did not move then the exponent multiplier is logically 100, which is correct since 100 = 1. However, the exponent part " 100" is normally omitted, so, for example, 1.234 100 is just written as 1.234. To convert from scientific notation to ordinary decimal notation, take the significand and move the decimal separator by the number of places indicated by the exponent left if the exponent is negative, or right if the exponent is positive. Add leading or trailing zeroes as necessary. For example, given 9.5 1010, move the decimal point ten places to the right to yield 95000000000. 39 Scientific notation Conversion between different scientific notation representations of the same number is achieved by performing opposite operations of multiplication or division by a power of ten on the significand and the exponent parts. The decimal separator in the significand is shifted n places to the left (or right), corresponding to division (multiplication) by 10n, and n is added to (subtracted from) the exponent, corresponding to a canceling multiplication (division) by 10n. For example: 1.234 103 = 12.34 102 = 123.4 101 = 1234 Basic operations Given two numbers in scientific notation, and Multiplication and division are performed using the rules for operation with exponential functions: and Some examples are: and Addition and subtraction require the numbers to be represented using the same exponential part, so that the significant can be simply added or subtracted. These operations may therefore take two steps to perform. First, if needed, convert one number to a representation with the same exponential part as the other. This is usually done with the one with the smaller exponent. In this example, x1 is rewritten as: Next, add or subtract the significants: An example: Notes and references

[1] Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60, Ed. P. Naur, Copenhagen 1960 [2] "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 68" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ k902506t443683p5/ ). September 1973. . Retrieved April 30, 2007. [3] http:/ / education. ti. com/ downloads/ guidebooks/ sdk/ 83p/ sdk83pguide. pdf [4] "SIMULA Standard As defined by the SIMULA Standards Group - 3.1 Numbers" (http:/ / prosjekt. ring. hibu. no/ simula/ Standard/ chap_1. htm). August 1986. . Retrieved October 6, 2009. [5] Samples of usage of terminology and variants: (https:/ / darchive. mblwhoilibrary. org/ bitstream/ 1912/ 665/ 1/ WHOI-76-59. pdf), (http:/ / www. brookscole. com/ physics_d/ templates/ student_resources/ 003026961X_serway/ review/ expnot. html), (http:/ / www. brynmawr. edu/ nsf/ tutorial/ ss/ ssnot. html), (http:/ / www. lasalle. edu/ ~smithsc/ Astronomy/ Units/ sci_notation. html), (http:/ / www. gnsphysics. com/ mathreview. pdf), (http:/ / www. ttinet. com/ doc/ language_v44_003. html#heading_3. 2. 4. 2) [6] NIST value for the elementary charge (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?e) 40 Scientific notation External links Scientific Notation in Everyday Life (http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/plain/questionCorner/scinot. html) An exercise in converting to and from scientific notation (http://science.widener.edu/svb/tutorial/scinot.html) MathAce Scientific Notation (http://www.mathace.net/misc/scientific-notation) Basic explanation and sample questions with solutions. Scientific Notation To Decimal Converter. (http://www.csgnetwork.com/sntodeccalc.html) Decimal To Scientific Notation Converter. (http://www.csgnetwork.com/dectosncalc.html) Kinematics It is natural to begin this discussion by considering the various possible types of motion in themselves, leaving out of account for a time the causes to which the initiation of motion may be ascribed; this preliminary enquiry constitutes the science of Kinematics. ET Whittaker[1] Kinematics (from Greek , kinein, to move) is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects) without consideration of the forces that cause the motion.[2] [3] [4] [1] Kinematics is not to be confused with another branch of classical mechanics: analytical dynamics (the study of the relationship between the motion of objects and its causes), sometimes subdivided into kinetics (the study of the relation between external forces and motion) and statics (the study of the relations in a system at equilibrium). Kinematics also differs from dynamics as used in modern-day physics to describe time-evolution of a system. The term kinematics is less common today than in the past, but still has a role in physics.[5] (See analytical dynamics for more detail on usage). The term kinematics also finds use in biomechanics and animal locomotion.[6] The simplest application of kinematics is for particle motion, translational or rotational. The next

level of complexity comes from the introduction of rigid bodies, which are collections of particles having time invariant distances between themselves. Rigid bodies might undergo translation and rotation or a combination of both. A more complicated case is the kinematics of a system of rigid bodies, which may be linked together by mechanical joints. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a desired range of motion. The movement of a crane and the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematic systems. The crane is a type of open kinematic chain, while the piston is part of a closed four-bar linkage. Linear motion Linear or translational kinematics[7] [8] is the description of the motion in space of a point along a line, also known as a trajectory or path.[9] This path can be either straight (rectilinear) or curved (curvilinear). By: Arnel Arellano Jr. From I - canaan Particle Kinematics Particle kinematics is the study of the kinematics of a single particle. The results obtained in particle kinematics are used to study the kinematics of collection of particles, dynamics and in many other branches of mechanics. 41 Kinematics Position & Reference Frames The position of a point in space is the most fundamental idea in particle kinematics. To specify the position of a point, one must specify three things: the reference point (often called the origin), distance from the reference point and the direction in space of the straight line from the reference point to the particle. Exclusion of any of these three parameters renders the description of position incomplete. Consider for example a tower 50 m south from your home. The reference point is home, the distance 50 m and the direction south. If one only says that the tower is 50 m south, the natural question that arises is "from where?" If one says that the tower is southward from your home, the question that arises is "how far?" If one says the tower is 50 m from your home, the question that arises is "in which direction?" Hence, all these three parameters are crucial to defining uniquely the position of a point in space. Position is usually described by mathematical quantities that have all these three attributes: the most common are vectors and complex numbers. Usually, only vectors are used. For measurement of distances and directions, usually three dimensional coordinate systems are used with the origin coinciding with the reference point. A three-dimensional coordinate system (whose origin coincides with the reference point) with some provision for time measurement is called a reference frame or frame of reference or simply frame. All observations in physics are

incomplete without the reference frame being specified. Position Vector The position vector of a particle is a vector drawn from the origin of the reference frame to the particle. It expresses both the distance of the point from the origin and its sense from the origin. In three dimensions, the position of point A can be expressed as where xA, yA, and zA are the Cartesian coordinates of the point. The magnitude of the position vector |r| gives the distance between the point A and the origin. The direction cosines of the position vector provide a quantitative measure of direction. It is important to note that the position vector of a particle isn't unique. The position vector of a given particle is different relative to different frames of reference. Rest & Motion Once the notion of position is firmly established, the ideas of rest and motion naturally follow. If the position vector of the particle (relative to a given reference frame) changes with time, then the particle is said to be in motion with respect to the chosen reference frame. However, if the position vector of the particle (relative to a given reference frame) remains the same with time, then the particle is said to be at rest with respect to the chosen frame. Note that rest and motion are relative to the reference frame chosen. It is quite possible that a particle at rest relative to a particular reference frame is in motion relative to the other. Hence, rest and motion aren't absolute terms, rather they are dependent on reference frame. For example, a passenger in a moving car may be at rest with respect to the car, but in motion with respect to the road. 42 Kinematics Path A particle's path is the locus between its beginning and end points which is reference-frame dependent. The path of a particle may be rectilinear (straight line) in one frame, and curved in another. Displacement Displacement is a vector describing the difference in position between two points, i.e. it is the change in position the particle undergoes during the time interval. If point A has position rA = (xA,yA,zA) and point B has position rB = (xB,yB,zB), the displacement rAB of B from A is given by Geometrically, displacement is the shortest distance between the points A and B. Displacement, distinct from position vector, is independent of the reference frame. This can be understood as follows: the positions of points is frame dependent, however, the shortest distance between any pair of points is invariant on translation from one frame to another (barring relativistic cases). Distance In physics, distance is a distinct quantity

from either position or displacement. It is a scalar quantity, describing the length of the path between two points along which the particle has traveled. When considering the motion of a particle over time, distance is the length of the particle's path and may be different from displacement, which is the change from its initial position to its final position. For The distance traveled is always greater than or equal to the displacement. example, a race car traversing a 10 km closed loop from start to finish travels a distance of 10 km; its displacement, however, is zero because it arrives back at its initial position. If the position of the particle is known as a function of time (r = r(t)), the distance s it travels from time t1 to time t2 can be found by The formula utilizes the fact that over an infinitesimal time interval, the magnitude of the displacement equals the distance covered in that interval. This is analogous to the geometric fact that infinitesimal arcs on a curved line coincide with the chord drawn between the ends of the arc itself. 43 Kinematics Velocity and speed Average velocity is defined as where r is the change in displacement and t is the interval of time over which displacement changes. The direction of v is same as the direction of the displacement r as t>0. Velocity is the measure of the rate of change in position with respect to time, that is, how the distance of a point changes with each instant of time. Velocity also is a vector. Instantaneous velocity (the velocity at an instant of time) can be defined as the limiting value of average velocity as the time interval t becomes smaller and smaller. Both r and t approach zero but the ratio v approaches a non-zero limit v. That is, where dr is an infinitesimally small displacement and dt is an infinitesimally small length of time. [10] As per its definition in the derivative form, velocity can be said to be the time rate of change of position. Further, as dr is tangential to the actual path, so is the velocity. As a position vector itself is frame dependent, velocity is also dependent on the reference frame. The speed of an object is the magnitude |v| of its velocity. It is a scalar quantity: The distance traveled by a particle over time is a non-decreasing quantity. Hence, ds/dt is nonnegative, which implies that speed is also non-negative. Acceleration Average acceleration (acceleration over a length of time) is defined as: where v is the change in velocity and t is the interval of time over which velocity changes. Acceleration is the vector quantity describing the rate of change with time of velocity. Instantaneous acceleration (the acceleration at an instant of time) is defined as the limiting value of average acceleration as t becomes smaller

and smaller. Under such a limit, a a. where dv is an infinitesimally small change in velocity and dt is an infinitesimally small length of time. Types of motion based on velocity and acceleration If the acceleration of a particle is zero, then the velocity of the particle is constant over time and the motion is said to be uniform. Otherwise, the motion is non-uniform. If the acceleration is non-zero but constant, the motion is said to be motion with constant acceleration. On the other hand, if the acceleration is variable, the motion is called motion with variable acceleration. In motion with variable acceleration, the rate of change of acceleration is called the jerk 44 Kinematics Integral relations The above definitions can be inverted by mathematical integration to find: Kinematics of constant acceleration Many physical situations can be modeled as constant-acceleration processes, such as projectile motion. Integrating acceleration a with respect to time t gives the change in velocity. When acceleration is constant both in direction and in magnitude, the point is said to be undergoing uniformly accelerated motion. In this case, the integral relations can be simplified: Additional relations between displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time can be derived. Since a = (v v0)/t, By using the definition of an average, this equation states that when the acceleration is constant average velocity times time equals displacement. A relationship without explicit time dependence may also be derived for one-dimensional motion. Noting that at = v v0, where denotes the dot product. Dividing the t on both sides and carrying out the dot-products: In the case of straight-line motion, (r - r0) is parallel to a. Then This relation is useful when time is not known explicitly. 45 Kinematics 46 Relative velocity To describe the motion of object A with respect to object B, when we know how each is moving with respect to a reference object O, we can use vector algebra. Choose an origin for reference, and let the positions of objects A, B, and O be denoted by rA, rB, and rO. Then the position of A relative to the reference object O is Consequently, the position of A relative to B is The above relative equation states that the motion of A relative to B is equal to the motion of A relative to O minus the motion of B relative to O. It may be easier to visualize this result if the terms are re-arranged: or, in words, the motion of A relative to the reference is that of B plus the relative motion of A with respect to B. These relations between displacements become relations between velocities by simple timedifferentiation, and a

second differentiation makes them apply to accelerations. For example, let Ann move with velocity and let Bob move with velocity relative to the reference (we drop the O subscript for convenience) , each velocity given with respect to the ground (point O). To find how fast Ann is moving relative to Bob (we call this velocity To find ), the equation above gives: we simply rearrange this equation to obtain: At velocities comparable to the speed of light, these equations are not valid. They are replaced by equations derived from Einstein's theory of special relativity. Kinematics is the study of how things move. Here, we are interested in the motion of normal objects in our world. A normal object is visible, has edges, and has a location that can be expressed with (x, y, z) coordinates. We will not be discussing the motion of atomic particles or black holes or light. We will create a vocabulary and a group of mathematical methods that will describe this ordinary motion. Understand that we will be developing a language for describing motion only. We won't be concerned with what is causing or changing the motion, or more correctly, the momentums of the objects. In other words, we are not concerned with the action of forces within this topic. By. Arnel Arellano Jr. Kinematics Rotational motion Rotational or angular kinematics is the description of the rotation of an object.[11] The description of rotation requires some method for describing orientation, for example, the Euler angles. In what follows, attention is restricted to simple rotation about an axis of fixed orientation. The z-axis has been chosen for convenience. Description of rotation then involves these three quantities: Angular position: The oriented distance from a selected origin on the rotational axis to a point of an object is a vector r ( t ) locating the point. The vector r(t) has some projection (or, equivalently, Figure 1: The angular velocity vector points up for counterclockwise rotation and down for clockwise rotation, as some component) r(t) on a plane perpendicular to specified by the right-hand rule. Angular position (t) changes with the axis of rotation. Then the angular position of time at a rate (t) = d/dt. that point is the angle from a reference axis (typically the positive x-axis) to the vector r(t) in a known rotation sense (typically given by the right-hand rule). Angular velocity: The angular velocity is the rate at which the angular position changes with respect to time t: The angular velocity is represented in Figure 1 by a vector pointing along the axis of rotation

with magnitude and sense determined by the direction of rotation as given by the right-hand rule. Angular acceleration: The magnitude of the angular acceleration is the rate at which the angular velocity changes with respect to time t: The equations of translational kinematics can easily be extended to planar rotational kinematics with simple variable exchanges: Here i and f are, respectively, the initial and final angular positions, i and f are, respectively, the initial and final angular velocities, and is the constant angular acceleration. Although position in space and velocity in space are both true vectors (in terms of their properties under rotation), as is angular velocity, angle itself is not a true vector. 47 Kinematics 48 Point object in circular motion This example deals with a "point" object, by which is meant that complications due to rotation of the body itself about its own center of mass are ignored. Displacement. An object in circular motion is located at a position r(t) given by: Figure 2: Velocity and acceleration for nonuniform circular motion: the velocity vector is tangential to the orbit, but the acceleration vector is not radially inward because of its tangential component a that increases the rate of rotation: d/dt = |a|/R. where uR is a unit vector pointing outward from the axis of rotation toward the periphery of the circle of motion, located at a radius R from the axis. Linear velocity. The velocity of the object is then The magnitude of the unit vector uR (by definition) is fixed, so its time dependence is entirely due to its rotation with the radius to the object, that is, where u is a unit vector perpendicular to uR pointing in the direction of rotation, (t) is the (possibly time varying) angular rate of rotation, and the symbol denotes the vector cross product. The velocity is then: The velocity therefore is tangential to the circular orbit of the object, pointing in the direction of rotation, and increasing in time if increases in time. Linear acceleration. In the same manner, the acceleration of the object is defined as: which shows a leading term a in the acceleration tangential to the orbit related to the angular acceleration of the object (supposing to vary in time) and a second term aR directed inward from the object toward the center of rotation, called the centripetal acceleration. Kinematics 49 Coordinate systems In any given situation, the most useful coordinates may be determined by constraints on the motion, or by the geometrical nature of the force causing or affecting the motion. Thus, to describe the motion of a

bead constrained to move along a circular hoop, the most useful coordinate may be its angle on the hoop. Similarly, to describe the motion of a particle acted upon by a central force, the most useful coordinates may be polar coordinates. Polar coordinates are extended into three dimensions with either the spherical polar or cylindrical polar coordinate systems. These are most useful in systems exhibiting spherical or cylindrical symmetry respectively. Fixed rectangular coordinates In this coordinate system, vectors are expressed as an addition of vectors in the x, y, and z direction from a non-rotating origin. Usually i, j, k are unit vectors in the x-, y-, and z-directions. The position vector, r, the velocity vector, v, and the acceleration vector, a are expressed using rectangular coordinates in the following way: Note: , Two dimensional rotating reference frame This coordinate system expresses only planar motion. It is based on three orthogonal unit vectors: the vector i, and the vector j which form a basis for the plane in which the objects we are considering reside, and k about which rotation occurs. Unlike rectangular coordinates, which are measured relative to an origin that is fixed and non-rotating, the origin of these coordinates can rotate and translate - often following a particle on a body that is being studied. Derivatives of unit vectors The position, velocity, and acceleration vectors of a given point can be expressed using these coordinate systems, but we have to be a bit more careful than we do with fixed frames of reference. Since the frame of reference is rotating, the unit vectors also rotate, and this rotation must be taken into account when taking the derivative of any of these vectors. If the coordinate frame is rotating at angular rate in the counterclockwise direction (that is, = k using the right hand rule) then the derivatives of the unit vectors are as follows: Kinematics 50 Position, velocity, and acceleration Given these identities, we can now figure out how to represent the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors of a particle using this reference frame. Position Position is straightforward: It is just the distance from the origin in the direction of each of the unit vectors. Velocity Velocity is the time derivative of position: By the product rule, this is: Which from the identities above we know to be: or equivalently where vrel is the velocity of the particle relative to the rotating coordinate system.

Acceleration Acceleration is the time derivative of velocity. We know that: Consider the part. has two parts we want to find the derivative of: the relative change in velocity ( ), and the change in the coordinate frame ( ). Next, consider . Using the chain rule: from above: So all together: And collecting terms:[12] Kinematics 51 Kinematic constraints A kinematic constraint is any condition relating properties of a dynamic system that must hold true at all times. Below are some common examples: Rolling without slipping An object that rolls against a surface without slipping obeys the condition that the velocity of its center of mass is equal to the cross product of its angular velocity with a vector from the point of contact to the center of mass, . For the case of an object that does not tip or turn, this reduces to v = R . Inextensible cord This is the case where bodies are connected by an idealized cord that remains in tension and cannot change length. The constraint is that the sum of lengths of all segments of the cord is the total length, and accordingly the time derivative of this sum is zero. See Kelvin and Tait[13] [14] and Fogiel.[15] A dynamic problem of this type is the pendulum. Another example is a drum turned by the pull of gravity upon a falling weight attached to the rim by the inextensible cord.[16] An equilibrium problem (not kinematic) of this type is the catenary.[17] See also

 Acceleration Analytical mechanics Applied mechanics Celestial mechanics Centripetal force ChebychevGrblerKutzbach criterion Classical mechanics Crackle (physics) Distance Dynamics (physics) Engineering Fictitious force Forward kinematics Four-bar linkage Inverse kinematics Jerk (physics) Jounce Kepler's laws Kinematic coupling Kinetics (physics) Motion Orbital mechanics Statics Velocity Kinematics Notes [1] Edmund Taylor Whittaker & William McCrea (1988). A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=epH1hCB7N2MC& printsec=frontcover& dq=inauthor:"E+ T+ Whittaker"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=SN7_oYmNYM4QRSgjULXBU5jeQrA& source=gbs_book_other_versions_r& cad=0_2#PPA1,M1). Cambridge University Press. Chapter 1. ISBN 0521358833. . [2] Joseph Stiles Beggs (1983). Kinematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=y6iJ1NIYSmgC& printsec=frontcover& dq=kinematics& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=brRJKOjqGTavFsydCzhiB3u_8MA#PPA1,M1). Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN 0891163557. . [3] O. Bottema & B. Roth (1990). Theoretical Kinematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=f8I4yGVi9ocC& printsec=frontcover& dq=kinematics& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=YfoHn9ImufIzAEp5Kl7rEmtYBKc#PPR7,M1). Dover Publications. reface. ISBN 0486663469. . [4] Thomas Wallace Wright (1896). Elements of Mechanics Including Kinematics, Kinetics and

Statics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-LwLAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=mechanics+ kinetics& lr=& as_brr=0#PPA6,M1). E and FN Spon. Chapter 1. . [5] See, for example: Russell C. Hibbeler (2009). "Kinematics and kinetics of a particle" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA298). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 298. ISBN 0136077919. ., Ahmed A. Shabana (2003). "Reference kinematics" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zxuG-l7J5rgC& pg=PA28). Dynamics of Multibody Systems (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521544114. ., P. P. Teodorescu (2007). "Kinematics" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=k4H2AjWh9qQC& pg=PA287). Mechanical Systems, Classical Models: Particle Mechanics. Springer. p. 287. ISBN 1402054416. . [6] A. Biewener (2003). Animal Locomotion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=yMaN9pk8QJAC). Oxford University Press. ISBN 19850022X. . [7] James R. Ogden & Max Fogiel (1980). The Mechanics Problem Solver (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XVyD9pJpW-cC& pg=PA184& dq="curvilinear+ kinematics"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=WW7us4UJzSWOA19pfdAbwTJvPR4). Research and Education Association. p. 184. ISBN 0878915192. . [8] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Classical Mechanics: An Undergraduate Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uAfUQmQbzOkC& printsec=frontcover& dq="rigid+ body+ kinematics"& lr=& as_brr=0#PRA1-PA25,M1). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 2. ISBN 0521826780. . [9] In mathematics, a line refers to a straight trajectory, and a curve to a trajectory which may have curvature. In mechanics and kinematics, "line' and "curve" both refer to any trajectory, in particular a line may be a complex curve in space. Any position along a specified trajectory can be described by a single coordinate, the distance traversed along the path, or arc length. The motion of a particle along a trajectory can be described by specifying the time dependence of its position, for example by specification of the arc length locating the particle at each time t. The following words refer to curves and lines: "linear" (= along a straight or curved line; "rectilinear" (= along a straight line, from Latin rectus = straight, and linere = spread), "curvilinear" (=along a curved line, from Latin curvus = curved, and linere = spread). [10] Because magnitude of dr is necessarily the distance between two infinitesimally spaced points along the trajectory of the point, it is the same as an increment in arc length along the path of the point, customarily denoted ds. [11] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Chapter 16 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=uAfUQmQbzOkC& printsec=frontcover& dq="rigid+ body+ kinematics"& lr=& as_brr=0#PRA1-PA457,M1). Cambridge: Cambridge University. ISBN 0521826780. . [12] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). pp. 475-476 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=uAfUQmQbzOkC& printsec=frontcover& dq="rigid+ body+ kinematics"& lr=& as_brr=0#PRA1-PA475,M1). Cambridge: Cambridge University. ISBN 0521826780. . [13] William Thomson Kelvin & Peter Guthrie Tait (1894). Elements of Natural Philosophy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dHASAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA4& dq="inextensible+ cord"& lr=& as_brr=0&

as_pt=ALLTYPES). Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 1573929840. . [14] William Thomson Kelvin & Peter Guthrie Tait (1894). op. cit. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ahtWAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA296& dq="inextensible+ cord"& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPA296,M1). p. 296. . [15] M. Fogiel (1980). "Problem 17-11" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XVyD9pJpW-cC& pg=PA613& dq="inextensible+ cord"& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES). The Mechanics Problem Solver. Research & Education Assoc.. p. 613. ISBN 0878915192. . [16] Irving Porter Church (1908). Mechanics of Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=7-40AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA111& dq="inextensible+ cord"& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES). Wiley. p. 111. ISBN 1110365276. . [17] Morris Kline (1990). Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aO-v3gvY-I8C& pg=PA472& dq="inextensible+ cord"& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES). Oxford University Press. p. 472. ISBN 0195061365. . 52 Kinematics 53 References Moon, Francis C. (2007). The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux, Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Century. Springer. ISBN 9781402055980. External links Java applet of 1D kinematics (http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Kinematics.htm) Flash animated tutorial for 1D kinematics (http://frozenport.com/Movies/1D_Kinematics_Beta.swf) Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips (http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/) from the University of New South Wales physicsfunda.googlepages.com (http://physicsfunda.googlepages.com/download), Kinematics for High School ant IIT JEE level Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.php) Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php) of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering. Force See also Force (disambiguation). In physics, a force is any influence that causes a free body to undergo a change in speed, a change in direction, or a change in shape. Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector

quantity. Newton's second law, F=ma, can be formulated to state that an object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its mass, an approximation which breaks down near the speed of light. Newton's original formulation is exact, and does not break down: this version states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes.[1] Forces are also described as a push or pull on an object. They can be due to phenomena such as gravity, magnetism, or anything else that might cause a mass to accelerate. Related concepts to accelerating forces include thrust, increasing the velocity of the object, drag, decreasing the velocity of any object, and torque, causing changes in rotational speed about an axis. Forces which do not act uniformly on all parts of a body will also cause mechanical stresses,[2] a technical term for influences which cause deformation of matter. While mechanical stress can remain embedded in a solid object, gradually deforming it, mechanical stress in a fluid determines changes in its pressure Force and volume.[3] [4] Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force. In part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction, and a consequently inadequate view of the nature of natural motion[5] A fundamental error was the belief that a force is requied to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity. Most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Sir Isaac Newton; with his mathematical insight, he formulated laws of motion that remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years.[4] By the early 20th century, Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light, and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia. With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.[3] High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental

electroweak interaction.[6] Pre-Newtonian concepts Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids.[5] force is measured in newtons Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the natural world held four elements that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with mass on Earth, such as the elements water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of Aristotle famously described a force as objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led anything which causes an object to to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required undergo "unnatural motion" continued application of a force.[7] This theory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a vacuum, no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that air resists the motion of the projectiles.[8] Aristotelian physics began facing criticism in Medieval science, first by John Philoponus in the 6th century. The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the seventeenth century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of 54 Force impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.[9] Newtonian mechanics Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force,

and in doing so he found that they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687 Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[4] [10] In this work Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.[10] Newton's first law Newton's first law of motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force.[10] This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below). Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making rest physically indistinguishable from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's first law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities. Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation. For example, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and every thing inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable. Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest. The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Einstein extended the principle of

inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to herself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity.[11] 55 Force 56 Newton's second law A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector differential equation:[12] Though Sir Isaac Newton's most famous equation is \scriptstyle{\vec{F}=m\vec{a}}, he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that did not use differential calculus. where is the momentum of the system, and is the net (vector sum) force. In equilibrium, there is zero net force by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an unbalanced force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time.[10] By the definition of momentum, where m is the mass and is the velocity. In a system of constant mass, the use of the constant factor rule in differentiation allows the mass to move outside the derivative operator, and the equation becomes . By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of Newton's second law is derived: It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics".[13] Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the reduced form above. Newton's second law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass. Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. General relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but

lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed. Force The use of Newton's second law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks,[3] [14] because it is essentially a mathematical truism. The equality between the abstract idea of a force and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a force or "changing momentum" is must either be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of force include Ernst Mach, Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll. [15] Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of planets along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets. Newton's third law Newton's third law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. For any two objects (call them 1 and 2), Newton's third law states that any force that is applied to object 1 due to the action of object 2 is automatically accompanied by a force applied to object 2 due to the action of object 1[16] This law implies that forces always occur in action-and-reaction pairs.[10] If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is, action-and-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.[3] Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is conserved. Using and integrating with respect to time, the equation: is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2, which is the conservation of linear momentum.[17] Using the similar arguments, it is possible to

generalizing this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.[3] 57 Force Descriptions Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces.[4] As with other physical concepts (e.g. temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a standard measurement scale. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian mechanics. Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "vector quantities". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each Free-body diagrams of an object on a flat surface and an inclined plane. force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes know that two people are pulling on the same rope and the resultant. with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple onedimensional example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems. Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities: they have magnitude and direction.[4] When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant,

can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.[3] The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action. Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to determine the resultant.[18] As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using 58 Force magnitudes and directions.[19] This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or direction of the other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Orthogonal force vectors can be three-dimensional with the third component being at right-angles to the other two.[3] Equilibria Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero). When dealing with an extense body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0. There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium. Static equilibrium Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them.[20] The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the normal force). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.[4] Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not

move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object.[4] A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals object's weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes' principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs. These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his three laws of motion.[3] [4] 59 Force 60 Dynamical equilibrium Dynamical equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest. This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a Galileo Galilei was the first to point out moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the the inherent contradictions contained in cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to Aristotle's description of forces. travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.[9] Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the

definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity. A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion.[3] Special relativity In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia). It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law remains valid because it is a mathematical definition.[21] But in order to be conserved, relativistic momentum must be redefined as: where is the velocity and is the speed of light. The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass in the direction is: moving Force 61 where the Lorentz factor [22] Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that is undefined for an object with a non zero rest mass at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed. One can however restore the form of for use in relativity through the use of four-vectors. This relation is correct in relativity when m is the invariant mass, and is the four-force, [23] is the four-acceleration. Feynman diagrams In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum

(4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum, from Noether's theorem, can be directly derived from the symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be "fundamental interactions".[6] When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The W particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion. This description applies for all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and antimatter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.[24] The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.[24] Force Fundamental models All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles including nucleons and compound nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and the gravitational force acts between masses. All other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is

a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle,[25] which does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.[3] The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons.[26] This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A grand unified theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory. [6] 62 Force 63 Gravity What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth.[27] This observation means that the force of

gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force: An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. An image was taken 20 flashes per second. During the first 1/20th of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12 mm); by 2/20ths it has dropped a total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9 units and so on. In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground.[3] Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion.[28] Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same Force 64 force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.[28] Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass ( ) and the radius ( ) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration: where the vector direction is given by , the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth.[10] In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant,[29] though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all

celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is where is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.[10] This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis[30] were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed.[31] It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein finally formulated his theory of general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a correction which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative.[32] Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".[3] Electromagnetic forces The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two

charges.[33] The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the superposition principle. Coulomb's Law unifies all these observations into one succinct statement.[34] Force 65 Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical "test charge" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force. [35] Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge. Meanwhile, the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including, for example, those used in compasses. The fact that the Earth's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle. Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field. [35] The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law: where is the electromagnetic force, is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, the velocity of the particle which is crossed with the magnetic field ( is the electric field, is ). The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated

into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Willard Gibbs.[36] These "Maxwell Equations" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a speed which he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.[37] However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.[38] It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural force, it is technically only the Force 66 result of the existence of a finite set of electron states. Nuclear forces There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics. The strong nuclear force[39] is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei while the weak nuclear force[40] is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons.[3] The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).[41] The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The (aptly named) strong interaction is the "strongest" of the

four fundamental forces. The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called colour confinement. The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang. Non-fundamental forces Some forces are consequences of fundamental. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight. Normal force The normal force is the repulsive force of interaction between atoms at close contact. When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of electrons) follows resulting in the force which acts normal to the surface interface between two objects.[42] The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.[3] FN represents the normal force exerted on the object. Force 67 Friction Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction. The static friction force ( ) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction ( ) multiplied by the normal force ( ). In other words the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:

. The kinetic friction force ( ) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force equals: , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.[3] Tension Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object.[43] By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.[3] [44] Elastic force An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position.[45] This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676, for whom Hooke's law is named. If is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring equals: Fk is the force that responds to the load on the spring. Force 68 where is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the force to act in opposition to the applied load.[3] Continuum mechanics Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is

able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material. For example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being directed along the pressure gradients as follows: When the drag force ( ) associated with air resistance becomes equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on a falling object ( ), the object reaches a state of dynamical equilibrium at terminal velocity. where is the volume of the object in the fluid and is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight.[3] A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called "Stokes' drag" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction: where: is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the cross-sectional area), and is the velocity of the object.[3] More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly defined as where is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the crosssectional area (the off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all deformations including also tensile Force 69 stresses and compressions. Fictitious forces There are forces which are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of nonNewtonian (that is, non-inertial) reference frames. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.[46] These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.[3] In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, Kaluza-Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the

other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious. Rotations and torque Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with torques. Mathematically, the torque on a particle is defined as the cross-product: Relationship between force (F), torque (), and momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system. where is the particle's position vector relative to a pivot is the force acting on the particle. Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque: where is the moment of inertia of the particle is the angular acceleration of the particle. This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation. Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque: [47] where is the angular momentum of the particle. Force 70 Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques,[48] and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques. Centripetal force For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals:[49] where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not

change the speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.[3] Kinematic integrals Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse[50] which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum theorem). Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force:[51] which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem).[51] Power P is the rate of change dW/dt of the work W, as the trajectory is extended by a position change interval dt:[52] with the velocity. in a time Force 71 Potential energy Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point: Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while non-conservative forces are not.[3] Conservative forces A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space,[53] and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area.[3] Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force. Each of these forces has models

which are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric potentials.[54] Examples of this follow: For gravity: where is the gravitational constant, and is the mass of object n. For electrostatic forces: where is electric permittivity of free space, and is the electric charge of object n. For spring forces: where is the spring constant.[3] Nonconservative forces For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.[3] The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from Force 72 ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases.[3] Units of measurement The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kgms2.[55] The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or gcms2. A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dyne. The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665 ms2.[55] The pound-force provides an alternative unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared

when acted on by one pound-force.[55] An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.[55] The units of slug and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's second law. The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.[55] The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at 1 ms2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthne which is equivalent to 1000 N and the kip which is equivalent to 1000 lbf. Units of force newton (SI unit) 1N dyne kilogram-force, kilopond pound-force 0.22481 lbF poundal 1 kgm/s2 = 105 dyn 0.10197 kp 7.2330 pdl 1 dyn = 105 N 1 gcm/s2 1.0197106 kp 2.2481106 lbF 7.2330105 pdl 1 kp = 9.80665 N = 980665 dyn gn(1 kg) 2.2046 lbF 70.932 pdl 1 lbF 4.448222 N 444822 dyn 0.45359 kp gn(1 lb) 32.174 pdl 1 pdl 0.138255 N 13825 dyn 0.014098 kp 0.031081 lbF 1 lbft/s2 The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational units. Notes [1] See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963). [2] "glossary" (http:/ / eobglossary. gsfc. nasa. gov/ Library/ glossary. php3?mode=alpha& seg=f& segend=h). Earth Observatory. NASA. . Retrieved 2008-04-09. "Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body." [3] e.g. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. AddisonWesley.; Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow

(1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133134. ISBN 0070350485.. [4] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp1838 [5] Heath,T.L.. "The Works of Archimedes (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ worksofarchimede029517mbp). Archive.org. . Retrieved 2007-10-14. [6] Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8 [7] Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998) [8] Hetherington, Norriss S. (1993). Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities. p. 100. ISBN 0815310854. [9] Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-22616226-5 Force [10] Newton, Isaac (1999). The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08817-4. This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz. [11] DiSalle, Robert (2002-03-30). "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ spacetime-iframes/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-03-24. [12] Newton's Principia Mathematica actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon impulse. See Impulse. [13] For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions blog on February 26, 2007 at 9:29 a.m. (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ interactions/ 2007/ 02/ the_greatest_mystery_in_all_of. php) [14] One exception to this rule is: Landau, L. D.; Akhiezer, A. I.; Lifshitz, A. M. (1967). General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics (First English ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080033040. Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 1214, this book defines force as dp/dt. [15] e.g. W. Noll, On the Concept of Force, in part B of Walter Noll's website. (http:/ / www. math. cmu. edu/ ~wn0g/ noll). [16] Henderson, Tom (1996-2007). "Lesson 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/ newtlaws/ u2l4a. html). The Physics Classroom. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [17] Dr. Nikitin (2007). "Dynamics of translational motion" (http:/ / physics-help. info/ physicsguide/ mechanics/ translational_dynamics. shtml). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [18] "Introduction to Free Body Diagrams" (http:/ / eta. physics. uoguelph. ca/ tutorials/ fbd/ intro. html). Physics Tutorial Menu. University of Guelph. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [19] Henderson, Tom (2004). "The Physics Classroom" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ GBSSCI/ PHYS/ Class/ vectors/ u3l1b. html). The Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [20] "Static Equilibrium" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071019054156/ http:/ / www. uvi. edu/ Physics/ SCI3xxWeb/ Structure/ StaticEq. html). Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and torques). University of the Virgin Islands. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. uvi. edu/ Physics/ SCI3xxWeb/ Structure/ StaticEq. html) on October 19, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [21] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 855876. ISBN 047123124X. [22] "Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity" (http:/ / www. anu. edu. au/ Physics/ Searle/ Obsolete/ Seminar. html). THE RELATIVISTIC

RAYTRACER. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [23] Wilson, John B.. "Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physics" (http:/ / SciRealm. com/ 4Vectors. html). The Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [24] Shifman, Mikhail (1999). ITEP LECTURES ON PARTICLE PHYSICS AND FIELD THEORY. World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-2639-X. [25] Nave, R. "Pauli Exclusion Principle" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pauli. html). HyperPhysics***** Quantum Physics. . Retrieved 2008-01-02. [26] "Fermions & Bosons" (http:/ / particleadventure. org/ frameless/ fermibos. html). The Particle Adventure. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [27] Cook, A. H. (16-160-1965). "A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v208/ n5007/ abs/ 208279a0. html). Nature 208: 279. doi:10.1038/208279a0. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [28] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp5982 [29] "Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation" (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ history/ newtongrav. html). Astronomy 161 The Solar System. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [30] Watkins, Thayer. "Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular" (http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ perturb. htm). Department of Economics. San Jos State University. . [31] Kollerstrom, Nick (2001). "Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051111190351/ http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm). University College London. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm) on 2005-11-11. . Retrieved 2007-03-19. [32] Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ gallery/ gtext3. html) (PDF). Annalen der Physik 49: 769822. . Retrieved 2006-09-03. [33] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 519. ISBN 047123124X. [34] Coulomb, Charles (1784). "Recherches thoriques et exprimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'lasticit des fils de metal". Histoire de lAcadmie Royale des Sciences: 229269. [35] Feynman, Leighton and Sands (2006). The Feynman Lectures on Physics The Definitive Edition Volume II. Pearson Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-9047-2. [36] Scharf, Toralf (2007). Polarized light in liquid crystals and polymers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CQNE13opFucC). John Wiley and Sons. p. 19. ISBN 0471740640. ., Chapter 2, p. 19 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=CQNE13opFucC& pg=PA19) [37] Duffin, William (1980). Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed.. McGraw-Hill. pp. 364383. ISBN 0-07-084111-X. [38] For a complete library on quantum mechanics see Quantum_mechanics#References [39] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 940. ISBN 047123124X. [40] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 951. ISBN 047123124X. [41] Stevens, Tab (10/07/2003). "Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition - Science Articles" (http:/ / www. physicspost. com/ science-article-168. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [42] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 93. ISBN 047123124X. [43] "Tension Force" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/ ~phys2010/ Lectures/ Part_2__L6_-_L11/ Lecture_9/ Tension_Force/ tension_force. html).

Non-Calculus Based Physics I. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. 73 Force [44] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Strings, pulleys, and inclines" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node48. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [45] "Elasticity, Periodic Motion" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ permot2. html). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [46] Mallette, Vincent (1982-2008). "Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC -- Writings, Links and Software Distributions - The Coriolis Force" (http:/ / www. algorithm. com/ inwit/ writings/ coriolisforce. html). Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities. Inwit Publishing, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [47] "Newton's Second Law for Rotation" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ n2r. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [48] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-01-07). "Newton's third law of motion" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 336k/ lectures/ node26. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [49] Nave, R. "Centripetal Force" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ cf. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. . [50] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 222. ISBN 0-13-607791-9 [51] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3. [52] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2. [53] Singh, Sunil Kumar (2007-08-25). "Conservative force" (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ m14104/ latest/ ). Connexions. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [54] Davis, Doug. "Conservation of Energy" (http:/ / www. ux1. eiu. edu/ ~cfadd/ 1350/ 08PotEng/ ConsF. html). General physics. . Retrieved 2008-01-04. [55] Wandmacher, Cornelius; Johnson, Arnold (1995). Metric Units in Engineering. ASCE Publications. p. 15. ISBN 0784400709. References Corbell, H.C.; Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics p 28,. New York: Dover publications. ISBN 0-486-68063-0. Cutnell, John d.; Johnson, Kenneth W. (2004). Physics, Sixth Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.. ISBN 041-44895-8. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02116-1. Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-32057-9. Parker, Sybil (1993). Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443,. Ohio: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051400-3. Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. (1982). University Physics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07199-1. Serway, Raymond A. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics

(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Verma, H.C. (2004). Concepts of Physics Vol 1. (2004 Reprint ed.). Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 817709-187-5. External links Video lecture on Newton's three laws (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01PhysicsIFall1999/ VideoLectures/detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm) by Walter Lewin from MIT OpenCourseWare A Java simulation on vector addition of forces (http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Vector.htm) 74 Mechanical equilibrium 75 Mechanical equilibrium A standard definition of static equilibrium is: A system of particles is in static equilibrium when all the particles of the system are at rest and the total force on each particle is permanently zero.[1] This is a strict definition, and often the term "static equilibrium" is used in a more relaxed manner interchangeably with "mechanical equilibrium", as defined next.[2] A standard definition of mechanical equilibrium for a particle is: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a particle to be in mechanical equilibrium is that the net force acting upon the particle is zero.[3] The necessary conditions for mechanical equilibrium for a system of particles are: (i)The vector sum of all external forces is zero; (ii) The sum of the moments of all external forces about any line is zero.[3] As applied to a rigid body, the necessary and sufficient conditions become: A pendulum in a stable equilibrium (left) and unstable equilibrium (right). A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium when the sum of all forces on all particles of the system is zero, and also the sum of all torques on all particles of the system is zero.[4] [5] A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is undergoing neither linear nor rotational acceleration; however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity. However, this definition is of little use in continuum mechanics, for which the idea of a particle is foreign. In addition, this definition gives no information as to one of the most important and interesting aspects of equilibrium states their stability. An alternative definition of equilibrium that applies to conservative systems and often proves more useful is:[6] A system is in mechanical equilibrium if its position in configuration space is a point at which the gradient with respect to the generalized coordinates of the potential energy is zero. Because of the fundamental relationship between force and energy, this definition is equivalent to the first definition. However, the definition involving energy can be readily extended to yield information about the

stability of the equilibrium state. For example, from elementary calculus, we know that a necessary condition for a local minimum or a maximum of a differentiable function is a vanishing first derivative (that is, the first derivative is becoming zero). To determine whether a point is a minimum or maximum, one may be able to use the second derivative test. The consequences to the stability of the equilibrium state are as follows: Second derivative < 0 : The potential energy is at a local maximum, which means that the system is in an unstable equilibrium state. If the system is displaced an arbitrarily small distance from the equilibrium state, the forces of the system cause it to move even farther away. Second derivative > 0 : The potential energy is at a local minimum. This is a stable equilibrium. The response to a small perturbation is forces that tend to restore the equilibrium. If more than one stable equilibrium state is possible for a system, any equilibria whose potential energy is higher than the absolute minimum represent Mechanical equilibrium metastable states. Second derivative = 0 or does not exist: The second derivative test fails, and one must typically resort to using the first derivative test. Both of the previous results are still possible, as is a third: this could be a region in which the energy does not vary, in which case the equilibrium is called neutral or indifferent or marginally stable. To lowest order, if the system is displaced a small amount, it will stay in the new state. In more than one dimension, it is possible to get different results in different directions, for example stability with respect to displacements in the x-direction but instability in the y-direction, a case known as a saddle point. Without further qualification, an equilibrium is stable only if it is stable in all directions. The special case of mechanical equilibrium of a stationary object is static equilibrium. A paperweight on a desk would be in static equilibrium. The minimal number of static equilibria of homogeneous, convex bodies (when resting under gravity on a horizontal surface) is of special interest. In the planar case, the minimal number is 4, while in three dimensions one can build an object with just one stable and one unstable balance point, this is called Gomboc. A child sliding down a slide at constant speed would be in mechanical equilibrium, but not in static equilibrium. An example of mechanical equilibrium will be a person trying to press a spring, he can push it up to a point after which it reaches a state where the force trying to compress it and the resistive force from the spring are equal, so the person can not further press it, at this state the system will be in mechanical equilibrium. When the pressing force is removed the spring attains its original state.

See also Dynamic equilibrium Engineering mechanics Metastability Statically indeterminate Statics Water Notes and references [1] Herbert Charles Corben & Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=1gxk4oq9trYC& pg=PA113& dq="static+ equilibrium") (Reprint of 1960 second ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 113. ISBN 0486680630. . [2] Lakshmana C. Rao, J. Lakshminarasimhan, Raju Sethuraman, Srinivasan M. Sivakumar (2004). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=F7gaa1ShPKIC& pg=PA90& dq="static+ equilibrium"#PPA6,M1). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 6. ISBN 8120321898. . [3] John L Synge & Byron A Griffith (1949). Principles of Mechanics (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 4546. [4] Mechanical Equilibrium (http:/ / physics. tamuk. edu/ ~suson/ html/ 2325/ MechanicalEquilibrium. html) [5] The torque is taken with respect to some reference point. Because the sum of the forces is zero the total torque is independent of the choice of this point. [6] Herbert Goldstein (1950). Classical Mechanics (1rst ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 318. ISBN 0201029189. Further reading Marion & Thornton, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Fourth Edition, Harcourt Brace & Company (1995). 76 Newton's laws of motion Newton's laws of motion Newton's laws of motion consist of three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three centuries,[1] and can be summarized as follows: 1. First law: Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion (constant velocity) unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force. [2] [3] [3] This means that in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass of a body either remains at rest, or moves at a constant speed in a straight line. 2. Second law: A body of mass m subject to a force F undergoes an acceleration a that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass, i.e., F = ma. Alternatively,

the total force applied on a body is equal to the time derivative of linear momentum of the body. 3. Third law: The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equal, opposite and collinear. This means that whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second body, the Newton's First and Second laws, in Latin, from the second body exerts a force F on the first body. F and F are original 1687 edition of the Principia Mathematica. equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called the "action" and F the "reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous. The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687.[4] Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems.[5] For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Newton's laws are applied to bodies (objects) which are considered or idealized as a particle[6] , in the sense that the extent of the body is neglected in the evaluation of its motion, i.e., the object is small compared to the distances involved in the analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body is of no importance in the analysis. Therefore, a planet can be idealized as a particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star. In their original form, Newton's laws of motion are not adequate to characterize the motion of rigid bodies and deformable bodies. Leonard Euler in 1750 introduced a generalization of Newton's laws of motion for rigid bodies called the Euler's laws of motion, later applied as well for deformable bodies assumed as a continuum. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each governed by Newtons laws of motion, then Eulers laws can be derived from Newtons laws. Eulers laws can, however, be taken as axioms describing the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently of any particle structure.[7] Newton's Laws hold only with respect to a certain set of frames of reference called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the first law as defining what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of view, the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and therefore the first law cannot be proved as a special case of the second. Other authors do treat the first law as a corollary of the second.[8] [9] The explicit concept of an inertial frame of reference was not developed until long after Newton's death. 77 Newton's laws of motion 78

In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and (most importantly) force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the most common, but not the only interpretation: one can consider the laws to be a definition of these quantities. At speeds approaching the speed of light the effects of special relativity must be taken into account. [10] Newton's first law Lex I: Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum mutare. Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its [11] state by force impressed. This law states that if the resultant force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity of the object is constant. Consequently: An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless an unbalanced force acts upon it. An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless an unbalanced force acts upon it. Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable. The first law of motion postulates the existence of at least one frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial reference frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a straight line at a constant speed.[12] [13] Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that the total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the first law can be restated as: In every material universe, the motion of a particle in a preferential reference frame is determined by the action of forces whose total vanished for all times when and only when the velocity of the particle is constant in . That is, a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion [14] in the preferential frame continues in that state unless compelled by forces to change it. Newton's laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galilean invariance or the principle of Newtonian relativity.[15] Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had already described and Newton gave credit to Galileo. Aristotle had the view that all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects like rocks wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in the sky and the stars wanted

to remain in the heavens. He thought that a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed to continually propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo, however, realized that a force is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is needed to maintain its velocity. This insight leads to Newton's First Law no force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity. The law of inertia apparently occurred to several different natural philosophers and scientists independently.[16] The 17th century philosopher Ren Descartes also formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it. Newton's laws of motion Newton's second law The second law states that the net force on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of its linear momentum p in an inertial reference frame: where, since the law is valid only for constant-mass systems,[17] [18] [19] the mass can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in differentiation. Thus, where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's acceleration. Thus, the net force applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an external force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below). Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum. Newton's second law requires modification if the effects of special relativity are to be taken into account, because at high speeds the approximation that momentum is the product of rest mass and velocity is not accurate. Impulse An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time t, and it is given by[20] [21] Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second law.[22] Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.[23] Variable-mass systems Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly treated by making mass a function of time in the second law.[18] The reasoning, given in An Introduction to Mechanics by Kleppner and Kolenkow and other modern texts, is that Newton's second law applies fundamentally to particles.[19] In classical mechanics, particles by definition have constant mass. In case of a well-

defined system of particles, Newton's law can be extended by summing over all the particles in the system: where Fnet is the total external force on the system, M is the total mass of the system, and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass of the system. Variable-mass systems like a rocket or a leaking bucket cannot usually be treated as a system of particles, and thus Newton's second law cannot be applied directly. Instead, the general equation of motion for a body whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by rearranging the second law and adding a term to account for the momentum carried by mass entering or leaving the system:[17] 79 Newton's laws of motion where u is the relative velocity of the escaping or incoming mass with respect to the center of mass of the body. Under some conventions, the quantity u dm/dt on the left-hand side, known as the thrust, is defined as a force (the force exerted on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the quantity F. Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation becomes History Newton's original Latin reads: Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. This was translated quite closely in Motte's 1729 translation as: Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd. According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology,[24] this is understood, in modern terms, as an equivalent of: The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed. Motte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion, reading: If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both. The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to

be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations between Newton's formulation and modern formulations.[25] 80 Newton's laws of motion 81 Newton's third law Newton's third law. The skaters' forces on each other are equal in magnitude, but act in opposite directions. Lex III: Actioni contrariam semper et qualem esse reactionem: sive corporum duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse quales et in partes contrarias dirigi. To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction: or the forces of two bodies on each other are always equal and are directed in opposite directions. A more direct translation than the one just given above is: LAW III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by that other. If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is also pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will be equally drawn back towards the stone: for the distended rope, by the same endeavour to relax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as much towards the stone, as it does the stone towards the horse, and will obstruct the progress of the one as much as it advances that of the other. If a body impinges upon another, and by its force changes the motion of the other, that body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in its own motion, toward the contrary part. The changes made by these actions are equal, not in the velocities but in the motions of the bodies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered by any other impediments. For, as the motions are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made toward contrary parts are reciprocally proportional to the bodies. This law takes place also in attractions, as will be proved in the next scholium. [26] In the above, as usual, motion is Newton's name for momentum, hence his careful distinction between motion and velocity. The Third Law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies,[27] and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body. If body A exerts a force on body B, body B simultaneously exerts a force of the same magnitude on body A both forces acting along the same line. As shown in the diagram opposite, the skaters' forces on each other are equal in magnitude, but act in opposite directions.

Although the forces are equal, the accelerations are not: the less massive skater will have a greater acceleration due to Newton's second law. The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road). Newton's laws of motion Put very simply: a force acts between a pair of objects, and not on a single object. So each and every force has two ends. Each of the two ends is the same except for being opposite in direction. The ends of a force are mirror images of each other, one might say. Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum;[28] however from a deeper perspective, conservation of momentum is the more fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics. Importance and range of validity Newton's laws were verified by experiment and observation for over 200 years, and they are excellent approximations at the scales and speeds of everyday life. Newton's laws of motion, together with his law of universal gravitation and the mathematical techniques of calculus, provided for the first time a unified quantitative explanation for a wide range of physical phenomena. These three laws hold to a good approximation for macroscopic objects under everyday conditions. However, Newton's laws (combined with universal gravitation and classical electrodynamics) are inappropriate for use in certain circumstances, most notably at very small scales, very high speeds (in special relativity, the Lorentz factor must be included in the expression for momentum along with rest mass and velocity) or very strong gravitational fields. Therefore, the laws cannot be used to explain phenomena such as conduction of electricity in a semiconductor, optical properties of substances, errors in non-relativistically corrected GPS systems and superconductivity. Explanation of these phenomena requires more sophisticated physical theory, including general relativity and quantum field theory. In quantum mechanics concepts such as force, momentum, and position are defined by linear operators that operate on the quantum state; at speeds that are much lower than the speed of light, Newton's laws are just as exact for these operators as they are for classical objects. At speeds comparable to the speed of light, the second law holds in the original form F = dp/dt, which says that the force is the derivative of the momentum of the object with respect to time, but some of the newer versions of the second law (such as the constant mass approximation

above) do not hold at relativistic velocities. Relationship to the conservation laws In modern physics, the laws of conservation of momentum, energy, and angular momentum are of more general validity than Newton's laws, since they apply to both light and matter, and to both classical and nonclassical physics. This can be stated simply, "Momentum, energy and angular momentum cannot be created or destroyed." Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental theories (e.g. quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc.). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles. Other forces such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure also arise from the momentum conservation. Indeed, the conservation of 4momentum in inertial motion via curved space-time results in what we call gravitational force in general relativity theory. Application of space derivative (which is a momentum operator in quantum mechanics) to overlapping wave functions of pair of fermions (particles with semi-integer spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as "repulsion" of fermions. Newton stated the third law within a world-view that assumed instantaneous action at a distance between material particles. However, he was prepared for philosophical criticism of this action at a distance, and it was in this context that he stated the famous phrase "I feign no hypotheses". In modern physics, action at a distance has been completely 82 Newton's laws of motion eliminated, except for subtle effects involving quantum entanglement. However in modern engineering in all practical applications involving the motion of vehicles and satellites, the concept of action at a distance is used extensively. Conservation of energy was discovered nearly two centuries after Newton's lifetime, the long delay occurring because of the difficulty in understanding the role of microscopic and invisible forms of energy such as heat and infra-red light. References and notes [1] For explanations of Newton's laws of motion by Newton in the early 18th century, by the physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in the mid-19th century, and by a modern text of the early 21st century, see: Newton's "Axioms or Laws of Motion" starting on page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA19#v=onepage& q=& f=false) of the "Principia"; Section 242, Newton's laws of motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC& pg=PA178) in Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy, volume 1; and Benjamin Crowell (2000), Newtonian Physics. [2] Halliday [3] Browne, Michael E. (1999-07) (Series: Schaum's Outline Series). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of physics for engineering and science (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5gURYN4vFx4C& pg=PA58& dq=newton's+ first+ law+ of+ motion& q=newton's first law of motion). McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 58. ISBN 9780070084988. . [4] See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation (http:/ / ia310114. us. archive. org/ 2/ items/ newtonspmathema00newtrich/ newtonspmathema00newtrich. pdf) [5] Andrew Motte translation of Newton's Principia (1687) Axioms or Laws of Motion (http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~gravitee/ axioms. htm) [6] [...]while Newton had used the word 'body' vaguely and in at least three different meanings, Euler realized that the statements of Newton are generally correct only when applied to masses concentrated at isolated points;Truesdell, Clifford A.; Becchi, Antonio; Benvenuto, Edoardo (2003). Essays on the history of mechanics: in memory of Clifford Ambrose Truesdell and Edoardo Benvenuto (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6LO_U6T-HvsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=essays+ in+ the+ History& cd=9#v=snippet& q="isolated points"). New York: Birkhuser. p. 207. ISBN 3764314761. . [7] Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised Edition) (http:/ / www. ce. berkeley. edu/ ~coby/ plas/ pdf/ book. pdf). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486462900. . [8] Galili, I.; Tseitlin, M. (2003). "Newton's First Law: Text, Translations, Interpretations and Physics Education" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ j42866672t863506/ ). Science & Education 12 (1): 4573. doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805. . [9] Benjamin Crowell. "4. Force and Motion" (http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 1np/ ch04/ ch04. html). Newtonian Physics. . [10] In making a modern adjustment of the second law for (some of) the effects of relativity, m would be treated as the relativistic mass, producing the relativistic expression for momentum, and the third law might be modified if possible to allow for the finite signal propagation speed between distant interacting particles. [11] Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B. Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press, Berkeley 1999. [12] NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=ggPXQAeeRLgC& printsec=frontcover& dq=isbn=1852334266#PPA6,M1). London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6. . [13] Galili, I. & Tseitlin, M. (2003). "Newton's first law: text, translations, interpretations, and physics education.". Science and Education 12 (1): 4573. doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805. [14] Beatty, Millard F. (2006). Principles of engineering mechanics Volume 2 of Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics-The Analysis of Motion, (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wr2QOBqOBakC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA24#v=onepage& q). Springer. p. 24. ISBN 0387237046. . [15] Thornton, Marion (2004). Classical dynamics of particles and systems (http:/ / books. google.

com/ ?id=HOqLQgAACAAJ& dq=classical dynamics of particles and systems) (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 53. ISBN 0534408966. . [16] Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan: That when a thing lies still, unless somewhat else stir it, it will lie still forever, is a truth that no man doubts. But [the proposition] that when a thing is in motion it will eternally be in motion unless somewhat else stay it, though the reason be the same (namely that nothing can change itself), is not so easily assented to. For men measure not only other men but all other things by themselves. And because they find themselves subject after motion to pain and lassitude, [they] think every thing else grows weary of motion and seeks repose of its own accord, little considering whether it be not some other motion wherein that desire of rest they find in themselves, consists. [17] Plastino, Angel R.; Muzzio, Juan C. (1992). "On the use and abuse of Newton's second law for variable mass problems" (http:/ / articles. adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ 1992CeMDA. . 53. . 227P/ 0000227. 000. html). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy (Netherlands: 83 Newton's laws of motion Kluwer Academic Publishers) 53 (3): 227232. doi:10.1007/BF00052611. ISSN 0923-2958. . Retrieved 11 June 2009. "We may conclude emphasizing that Newton's second law is valid for constant mass only. When the mass varies due to accretion or ablation, [an alternate equation explicitly accounting for the changing mass] should be used." [18] Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. pp. 199. "It is important to note that we cannot derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv) as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass." [Emphasis as in the original] [19] Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133134. ISBN 0070350485. "Recall that F = dP/dt was established for a system composed of a certain set of particles[. ... I]t is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval[. ...] Consequently, the mass of the system can not change during the time of interest." [20] Hannah, J, Hillier, M J, Applied Mechanics, p221, Pitman Paperbacks, 1971 [21] Raymond A. Serway, Jerry S. Faughn (2006). College Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=wDKD4IggBJ4C& pg=PA247& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"). Pacific Grove CA: Thompson-Brooks/Cole. p. 161. ISBN 0534997244. . [22] I Bernard Cohen (Peter M. Harman & Alan E. Shapiro, Eds) (2002). The investigation of difficult things: essays on Newton and the history of the exact sciences in honour of D.T. Whiteside (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oYZ0PUrjBcC& pg=PA353& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"+ -angular+ date:2000-2009). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 353. ISBN 052189266X. . [23] WJ Stronge (2004). Impact mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nHgcS0bfZ28C& pg=PA12& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"+ -angular+ date:2000-2009). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 12 ff. ISBN 0521602890. . [24] According to Maxwell in Matter and Motion, Newton meant by motion "the quantity of matter

moved as well as the rate at which it travels" and by impressed force he meant "the time during which the force acts as well as the intensity of the force". See Harman and Shapiro, cited below. [25] See for example (1) I Bernard Cohen, "Newtons Second Law and the Concept of Force in the Principia", in "The Annus Mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton 16661966" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1967), pages 143185; (2) Stuart Pierson, "'Corpore cadente. . .': Historians Discuss Newtons Second Law", Perspectives on Science, 1 (1993), pages 627658; and (3) Bruce Pourciau, "Newton's Interpretation of Newton's Second Law", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol.60 (2006), pages 157-207; also an online discussion by G E Smith, in 5. Newton's Laws of Motion (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ newton-principia/ index. html#NewLawMot), s.5 of "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in (online) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007. [26] This translation of the third law and the commentary following it can be found in the "Principia" on page 20 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA20#v=onepage& q=& f=false). [27] C Hellingman (1992). "Newtons third law revisited". Phys. Educ. 27: 112115. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/27/2/011. [28] Newton, Principia, Corollary III to the laws of motion Further reading & works referred to Crowell, Benjamin, (2000), Newtonian Physics (http://books.google.com/books? id=TT4ssKhDdLUC), (2000, Light and Matter), ISBN 0-9704670-1-X, 9780970467010, especially at Section 4.2, Newton's First Law (http:// books.google.com/books?id=TT4ssKhDdLUC&pg=PA102), Section 4.3, Newton's Second Law (http:// books.google.com/books?id=TT4ssKhDdLUC&pg=PA106), and Section 5.1, Newton's Third Law (http:// books.google.com/books?id=TT4ssKhDdLUC&pg=PA125). Feynman, R. P.; Leighton, R. B.; Sands, M. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Pearson/Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0805390499. Fowles, G. R.; Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical Mechanics (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0030223172. Likins, Peter W. (1973). Elements of Engineering Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0070378525. Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0030973023. Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin edition (1726), volume 1, containing Book 1 (http://books.google.com/books? id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ), especially at the section Axioms or Laws of Motion starting page 19 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA19). Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin

edition (1726), volume 2, containing Books 2 & 3 (http://books.google.com/books? id=6EqxPav3vIsC). Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy (http://books.google.com/ books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC), volume 1, especially at Section 242, Newton's laws of motion (http://books. 84 Newton's laws of motion 85 google.com/books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC&pg=PA178). NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity (http://books.google.com/?id=ggPXQAeeRLgC& printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=1852334266#PPA6,M1). London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 185233-426-6. Galili, I. & Tseitlin, M. (2003). "Newton's first law: text, translations, interpretations, and physics education.". Science and Education 12 (1): 4573. doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805. External links MIT Physics video lecture (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01PhysicsIFall1999/VideoLectures/ detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm) on Newton's three laws Newtonian Physics (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/1np/ch04/ch04.html) - an on-line textbook Motion Mountain (http://www.motionmountain.net) - an on-line textbook Simulation on Newton's first law of motion (http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/firstlaw.htm) " Newton's Second Law (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/NewtonsSecondLaw/)" by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Newton's 3rd Law demonstrated in a vacuum (http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=9gFMObYCccU) Weight Weight is a name for the reactive half of a repulsive force exerted on a body with a particular mass, by contact with, or support from, another body (e.g. the Earth, and specifically the Earth's surface). The force between the bodies prevents them from entering free-fall, which they would otherwise do, due to gravity.[1] . This repulsive force, which acts equally between gravitating objects whose natural motion has been stopped or slowed it, is called "weight." Weight is not directly caused by the "force of gravity," for whenever gravity operates alone and unopposed, there is no force that corresponds to weight. Weight is rather a name for any mechanical forces (or other types of forces) that oppose the natural free-fall motion of objects caused by gravity, when gravity acts alone. Sometimes weight is defined in operational terms of the weighing process, as the force exerted by an object upon its support against gravity.[2] . This is equivalent to the above definition. Strictly speaking, a weighing scale measures the force exerted by an object on its support, which is defined as the weight. For example, standing at rest on a weighing scale on Earth, a person's weight equals the person's mass multiplied by the gravitational acceleration produced by the Earth. However, the direction of weight is downwards, whereas the acceleration from the force of the support is upwards. On the surface of the Moon, an object's weight is approximately one sixth of the weight at rest on Earth, as the gravitational force exerted by the Moon is much smaller than that of Earth. In a free falling elevator, a scale indicates a zero weight, as no net force is exerted by the body on the support; the person experiences weightlessness. Similarly, and for similar reasons, in a space craft in orbit around the Earth, the weight is also zero, as orbital

motion also represents a type of free fall in which the only force acting, is that of gravity. A spring scale measures the weight of an object The weight of an object when supported against gravity, often denoted W, is often defined as the "gravitational force" exerted on it, but this is the same as the opposite of the force that supports it (the real cause of weight). The Weight 86 object's weight is thus the product of the mass m of the object and the local gravitational acceleration g:[3] W = m g. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement for weight is that of force, the newton. On the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is approximately constant; this means that the magnitude of an object's weight on the surface of the Earth is proportional to its mass. In situations other than that of a constant position on the Earth, so long as the acceleration does not change, the force it exerts against support in any accelerated frame is proportional to its mass, also. In everyday practical use, therefore, including commercial use, the term weight is commonly used to mean mass.[4] In technical terms which also cover accelerating frames and scales (such as the case of an an elevator which is accelerating upward or downward, but is not in free-fall), the weight is given by: Where the vector-g is the g-force. The g-force is the proper acceleration which causes the object to deviate from a free-fall or inertial trajectory. A non-gravitational mechanical accelerating force must provide this proper acceleration, since gravitation does not cause proper acceleration (this is the basic reason that an object free-falling in a gravity field feels no weight, and is weightless). An example of a force that produces proper acceleration would be the mechanical force exerted by a scale, or the floor of an elevator. The reaction force resulting from the inertia of the mass, that resists the mechanical accelerating force, must be equal to the mechanical accelerating force, but acting in the opposite direction, according to Newton's third law of motion. This reaction force (with direction denoted by the minus sign) is what is defined by the ISO as "weight." The ISO standard ISO 80000-4 (2006) defines weight as follows: "The weight of a body in a particular reference frame is the force that gives the body an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in that reference frame."[5] When the accelerating force is provided by a simple support on the surface of the Earth, then the mechanical force from the support provides the proper acceleration equal to and thus the weight of the object against the support is . Definitions Several definitions exist for weight, not all of which are equivalent.[3] [2] [6] [7] The main differences in these definitions are:

 whether the definition is based on the standard gravity of the Earth, or is based on any other proper acceleration, for example, Moon's gravity for an object on the moon; whether the quantity is determined directly and is thus weighing-instrument-dependent (see apparent weight), or is determined indirectly, from other measurements of mass and acceleration; whether the quantity is a vector or a scalar. Gravitational definition One of the most common definitions of weight found in introductory physics textbooks defines weight as the force exerted on a body by gravity.[7] This is often expressed in the formula W = m g, where W is the weight, m the mass of the object, and g gravitational acceleration. This definition was established in Resolution 2 of the 3rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) of 1901: "The word weight denotes a quantity of the same nature[8] as a force: the weight of a body is the product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity."[1] This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining: "The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body."[9] Weight 87 The gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to a have a standard value of 9.80665 m/s2, which gives the standard weight.[10] Operational definition In the operational definition, the weight of an object is the force measured by the operation of weighing it, which is the force it exerts on its support.[2] This can make a considerable difference, depending on the details; for example, an object in free fall exerts little force on its support, if any, a situation that is commonly referred to as weightlessness. However, being in free fall does not affect the weight according to the gravitational definition. Therefore, the operational definition is sometimes refined by requiring that the object be at rest. However, this raises the issue of defining "at rest" (usually being at rest with respect to the Earth is implied by using standard gravity. A minor issue with the formulation is that the operational definition, as usually given, does not take buoyancy into account. However, this is an instrument-dependent problem (since in theory, an object will always be weighed in a vacuum, with the correct instrument).[7] ISO definition In the ISO International standard ISO 80000-4(2006), which is a part of the International standard ISO/IEC 80000, the definition of weight and remarks concerning that definition are given as , where m is mass and g is local acceleration of free fall.

It should be noted that, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity comprises not only the local gravitational force, but also the local centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth. The effect of atmospheric buoyancy is excluded in the weight. In common parlance, the name "weight" continues to be used where "mass" is meant, but this practice is deprecated. " The following points are emphasized in this definition of "weight": this quantity depends on the specified reference frame; when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity includes the gravitational force and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth, but excludes the effect of the atmospheric buoyancy. It implicitly contains the fact that the local acceleration g differs from point to point on the Earth surface and is equal to measured values obtained by observing locally the free fall in vacuum. More generally, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity excludes the effect of buoyancy of any fluid in which the body might be immersed. The international standard ISO 80000-4(2006), describing the basic physical quantities and units in mechanics, cancels and replaces the second edition of ISO 31-3:1992. The major technical changes introduced in comparison with the previous standards were the following: the presentation of numerical statements has been changed; the normative references have been changed; quantities from analytical mechanics have been added to the list of quantities. The new standard ISO 80000-4(2006) stresses some details concerning the definition of weight which were not clearly stated in the previous standard ISO 31-3:1992. The definition of the weight in the cancelled standard ISO 31-3:1992, with commentaries, is given in the following text. The ISO standard ISO 31-3 (1992) defines weight as follows: The weight of a body in a specified reference system is that force which, when applied to the body, would give it an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in that reference system.[11] Weight This definition allows use of the formula W = m g, with g interpreted as the local acceleration of free fall in the specified frame.[12] The definition is dependent on the chosen frame of reference. When the chosen frame is co-moving with the object in question then this definition precisely agrees with the operational definition.[6] If however the specified frame is the one of the surface of the Earth, then the definition agrees with the gravitational definition. Weight here is the force necessary to put an object in an "particular reference frame," (which must be an accelerated frame if the body is to have any weight at all) into a free-fall frame, instead. If such a body is not already in free fall, and yet is stationary (as it must be in its particular reference frame, where it has weight) this requires that the body already is being acted upon by a force, which acts against its weight. This force, a supporting force,

is responsible for its acceleration (which is also the acceleration of its frame). This force causes a measurable proper acceleration which is measurable by an accelerometer. This acceleration is, by definition, the acceleration of an object away from the acceleration of free fall. The object's weight must be exactly equal to this supporting force, but in the opposite direction, in order to keep the object motionless in its "particular reference frame." For example, an object sitting on a spring-scale on a table on the surface of the Earth (an accelerated frame) is subject to a supporting-force from the scale and table, which is exactly enough to keep it from going into free fall, in the scale and table's gravitationally accelerated reference frame. This force causes the object's 1-g proper acceleration, which is in a direction upward. This acceleration can be directly measured as a 1-g acceleration upward, by an accelerometer affixed to the object, or to its reference frame (see the article on g-force). In the object and table's frame, this force is balanced, by Newton's third law, by the counter-force of the object's weight, which is measured as a downward force, by the scale. If the table and scale are removed, however, the force of the object's weight is exactly enough to put it into free-fall, by the ISO definition, and it will therefore go into free-fall. At that time, an accelerometer placed on it will read zero, and it will have no weight. (Objects in a free-fall, obeying Newton's first law in an inertial frame, are weightless). In a similar situation where an object is on a scale on-board a rocket accelerating at 1-g in deepspace, the weight of the object will be measured as the same as on the Earth by the scale, and an accelerometer will show the same 1-g upward proper acceleration. However, in this case the acceleration is produced by the rocket engine, and the weight of the object is provided by the fictitious force (inertial force) associated with it being in the accelerated rocket-frame, rather than the similar gravitational force which causes positionally stationary frames near a mass to appear accelerated (these frames have a proper acceleration, even if they have no coordinate acceleration). In a centrifuge, or other similar accelerated frame system, weight is due to a similar fictitious inertial force (centrifugal force), and is a function of the system's proper acceleration, which is its difference in acceleration from a free-fall reference frame. The identical operational and the ISO definitions for weight do in themselves take into consideration the practical fact that a scale under an object cannot be expected to measure its full weight, if the object is supported, in part or in whole, by some other means which does not transfer downward weight-force to the scale. Such unmeasured support detracts from an object's weight and may give it a false apparent weight. For example, an object might be suspended

over a scale by a rope from a stand, and the scale would read an apparent weight of zero. This does not mean the object's weight is zero, but merely that the scale mechanism has been circumvented, by being placed somewhere other than the structures that supply the supporting force for the object; in this case, the object's weight would be correctly reported if the scales were placed under the stand. Similarly, an object undergoing levitation in a magnetic field does not actually lose its weight; rather the full weight would be shown if the scale were placed under the structures that supply the levitating field. In a similar fashion, the apparent weight of objects immersed in a fluid may be reported incorrectly by a scale placed immediately under the object, but this is only because the fluid, like the rope in the example above, has transferred some of the support for the object, to a surface supporting the fluid, where the scale does not measure the increase in weight. This does not happen if the entire fluid mass is supported by the scale: for example, if a beaker of water is 88 Weight 89 placed upon a scale and an object dropped into the beaker, the entire weight of the object will be is shown by the scale, no matter to what extent it is supported locally by buoyancy. In a similar fashion, objects immersed in air show a slightly smaller apparent weight, but this is only because scales do not measure the increased pressure and thus weight of the entire atmosphere (which would show the weight difference from true weight, directly). Such measurements are impractical, and therefore to correct for the buoyancy of air, the apparent weight of objects weighed by a spring-scale in air must have an additional calculated measure added, using the product of the density of air and the object's volume, as described in Archimedes' principle. However, the true weight of the object in such circumstances is unchanged, just as in the other "unmeasured support" examples. Vector or scalar The definitions of the physical concept of weight given above define it as a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. For an object at rest on the surface of the Earth, its weight is a force that points down, approximately towards the centre of the Earth. In spite of this, the vector aspect is usually ignored in common scientific discourse, and "the weight" is used to denote a scalar quantity, where, according to the definition employed, "the magnitude of the weight" would be more appropriate. Some physics textbooks define weight outright as a scalar quantity, as in the following definition: "The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body."[9] Weight and mass In modern scientific usage, weight and mass are fundamentally different quantities: mass is an

intrinsic property of matter, whereas weight is a force that results from the action of gravity on matter: it measures how strongly the force of gravity pulls on that matter. However, in most practical everyday situations the word "weight" is used when, strictly, "mass" is meant.[4] [5] For example, most people would say that an object "weighs one kilogram", even though the kilogram is a unit of mass. The scientific distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity is almost constant everywhere on the surface of the Earth. In a constant gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is directly proportional to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, weighing (using a weighing scale) is an entirely acceptable way of measuring mass. Conversely, a balance actually measures mass, not weight (in the scientific sense), but the quantity thus determined is still called "weight" in everyday use. The Earth's gravitational field is not actually constant but can vary by as much as 0.5%[13] at different locations on Earth (see Earth's gravity). These variations alter the relationship between weight and mass, and must be taken into account in high precision weight measurements that are intended to indirectly measure mass. Spring scales, which measure local weight, must be calibrated at the location at which the objects will be used to show this standard weight, to be legal for commerce. This table shows the variation of acceleration due to gravity (and hence the variation of weight) at various locations on the Earth's surface.[14] Weight 90 Location Latitude Equator 0 9.7803 Sydney 33 52 S 9.7968 Aberdeen 57 9 N 9.8168 North Pole 90 N m/s2 9.8322 The historic use of "weight" for "mass" also persists in some scientific terminology for example, the chemical terms "atomic weight", "molecular weight", and "formula weight", can still be found rather than the preferred "atomic mass" etc. In a different gravitational field, for example, on the surface of the Moon, an object can have a significantly different weight than on Earth. The gravity on the surface of the Moon is only about one-sixth as strong as on the surface of the Earth. A one-kilogram mass is still a one-kilogram mass (as mass is an intrinsic property of the

object) but the downward force due to gravity, and therefore its weight, is only one-sixth of what the object would have on Earth. So a 180-pound man on Earth weighs only about 30 pounds when visiting the Moon. Units Four examples of mass and force units System FPS Engineering FPS Gravitational FPS Absolute Metric Force (F) F = ma F = ma/gc = wa/g F = ma F = ma Weight (w) w = mg w = mg/gc m w = mg ft/s2 ft/s2 m/s2 Units Acceleration (a) ft/s2 Mass (m) slug pound-mass pound kilogram Force (F) pound pound-force poundal newton SI units In most modern scientific work, physical quantities are measured in SI units. The SI unit of force (and hence weight in the mechanics sense) is the same as that of force: the newton (N) a derived unit which can also be expressed in SI base units as kgm/s2 (kilograms times meters per second squared).[5] In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" is usually used to mean mass, and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of". Used in this sense, the proper SI unit is the kilogram (kg).[5] The pound and other non-SI units In United States customary units, the pound can be either a unit of force or a unit of mass. Related units used in some distinct, separate subsystems of units include the poundal and the slug. The poundal is defined as the force necessary to accelerate an object of one-pound mass at 1 ft/s2, and is equivalent to about 1/32.2 of a poundforce. The slug is defined as the amount of mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when one pound-force is exerted on it, and is equivalent to about 32.2 pounds (mass). The kilogram-force is a non-SI unit of force, defined as the force exerted by a one kilogram mass in standard Earth gravity (equal to 9.80665 newtons exactly). The dyne is the cgs unit of force and is not a part of SI, while weights Weight measured in the cgs unit of mass, the gram, remain a part of SI. Sensation of weight The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the vestibular system, a threedimensional set of tubes in the inner ear. It is actually the sensation of g-force, regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply. Measuring weight Weight is commonly measured using one of two methods. A spring

scale or hydraulic or pneumatic scale measures local weight, the local force of gravity on the object (strictly apparent weight force). Since the local force of gravity can vary by up to 0.5% at different locations, spring scales will measure slightly different weights for the same object (the same mass) at different locations. To standardize weights, scales are always calibrated to read the weight an object would have at a nominal standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2 (approx. 32.174 ft/s2). However, this calibration is done at the factory. When the scale is A weighbridge, used for weighing trucks moved to another location on Earth, the force of gravity will be different, causing a slight error. So to be highly accurate, and legal for commerce, spring scales must be re-calibrated at the location at which they will be used. A balance on the other hand, compares the weight of an unknown object in one scale pan to the weight of standard masses in the other, using a lever mechanism a lever-balance. The standard masses are often referred to, non-technically, as "weights". Since any variations in gravity will act equally on the unknown and the known weights, a lever-balance will indicate the same value at any location on Earth. Therefore, balance "weights" are usually calibrated and marked in mass units, so the lever-balance measures mass by comparing the Earth's attraction on the unknown object and standard masses in the scale pans. In the absence of a gravitational field, away from planetary bodies (e.g. space), a lever-balance would not work, but on the Moon, for example, it would give the same reading as on Earth. Some balances can be marked in weight units, but since the weights are calibrated at the factory for standard gravity, the balance will measure standard weight, i.e. what the object would weigh at standard gravity, not the actual local force of gravity on the object. If the actual force of gravity on the object is needed, this can be calculated by multiplying the mass measured by the balance by the acceleration due to gravity either standard gravity (for everyday work) or the precise local gravity (for precision work). Tables of the gravitational acceleration at different locations can be found on the web. Gross weight is a term that generally is found in commerce or trade applications, and refers to the total weight of a product and its packaging. Conversely, net weight refers to the weight of the product alone, discounting the weight of its container or packaging; and tare weight is the weight of the packaging alone. Relative weights on the Earth, other celestial bodies and the Moon The table below shows comparative gravitational accelerations at the surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, each of the planets in the solar system. The surface is taken to mean the cloud tops of the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). For the Sun, the surface is taken to mean the photosphere. The values in the table have not been de-rated for the centrifugal effect of planet rotation (and cloud-top wind speeds for the gas giants) and therefore, generally speaking, are similar to the actual gravity that would be experienced near the

poles. 91 Weight 92 Body Sun Multiple of Earth gravity 27.90 m/s2 274.1 Mercury 0.3770 3.703 Venus 0.9032 8.872 Earth 1 (by definition) 9.8226[15] Moon 0.1655 1.625 Mars 0.3895 3.728 Jupiter 2.640 25.93 Saturn 1.139 11.19 Uranus 0.917 9.01 Neptune 1.148 11.28 Notes [1] Barry N. Taylor and Ambler Thompson, ed (2008). The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330. pdf). NIST Special Publication 330 (2008 ed.). NIST. p. 52. . [2] Allen L. King (1963). "Weight and weightlessness". American Journal of Physics 30: 387. doi:10.1119/1.1942032. [3] Gat, Uri (1988). "The weight of mass and the mess of weight" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=CoB5w9Km0mUC& oi=fnd& pg=PA45). In Richard Alan Strehlow. Standardization of Technical Terminology: Principles and Practice second volume. ASTM International. pp. 4548. ISBN 978-0-8031-1183-7. . [4] The National Standard of Canada, CAN/CSA-Z234.1-89 Canadian Metric Practice Guide, January 1989: 5.7.3 Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term "weight." In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" nearly always means mass. In science and technology "weight" has primarily meant a force due to gravity. In scientific and technical work, the term "weight" should be replaced by the term "mass" or "force," depending on the application. 5.7.4 The use of the verb "to weigh" meaning "to determine the mass o f," e.g., "I weighed this object and determined its mass to be 5 kg," is correct. [5] A. Thompson and B. N. Taylor (July 2, 2009 (last updated: March 3, 2010)). "The NIST Guide for the use of the International System of

Units, Section 8: Comments on Some Quantities and Their Units" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ sec08. html#8. 3). Special Publication 811. NIST. . Retrieved 2010-05-22. [6] A. P. French (1995). "On weightlessness". American Journal of Physics 63: 105106. doi:10.1119/1.17990. [7] Galili, I.; Lehavi, Y. (2003). "The importance of weightlessness and tides in teaching gravitation" (http:/ / sites. huji. ac. il/ science/ stc/ staff_h/ Igal/ Research Articles/ Weight-AJP. pdf). American Journal of Physics 71 (11): 11271135. doi:10.1119/1.1607336. . [8] The phrase "quantity of the same nature" is a literal translation of the French phrase grandeur de la mme nature. Although this is an authorized translation, VIM 3 of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures recommends translating grandeurs de mme nature as quantities of the same kind. [9] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (2007). Fundamentals of Physics, Volume 1 (8th ed.). Wiley. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-470-04473-5. [10] Working Group 2 of the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM/WG 2) (2008) (in English and French). International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM) Vocabulaire international de mtrologie Concepts fondamentaux et gnraux et termes associs (VIM) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ documents/ jcgm/ JCGM_200_2008. pdf) (JCGM 200:2008) (3rd ed.). BIPM. Note 3 to Section 1.2. . [11] Technical committee 12 (1992). Quantities and units -- Part 3: Mechanics. International Standards Organization. [12] Wong Chee Leong, Yap Kueh Chin (November 2009). "The Semantics Problems on the Definitions of Weight" (http:/ / www. eras. org. sg/ papers/ 2-4-34. doc). ERAS Conference 2009. Educational Research Association of Singapore. . Retrieved 2010-06-09. [13] Hodgeman, Charles, Ed. (1961). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed.. Cleveland, USA: Chemical Rubber Publishing Co.. p.3480-3485 [14] Clark, John B (1964). Physical and Mathematical Tables. Oliver and Boyd. [15] This value excludes the adjustment for centrifugal force due to Earths rotation and is therefore greater than the 9.80665 m/s2 value of standard gravity. Weight 93 References Hooke's law In mechanics, and physics, Hooke's law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is a useful approximation are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials. Hooke's law in simple terms says that strain is directly proportional to stress. Mathematically, Hooke's law states that Hooke's law accurately models the physical properties of common

mechanical springs for small changes in length Hooke's law describes how far the spring will stretch with a specific force where x is the displacement of the end of the spring from its equilibrium position (in SI units: "m"); Hooke's law F is the restoring force exerted by the material (in SI units: "N" or kgms-2 or kgm/s2); and k is a constant called the rate or spring constant (in SI units: "Nm-1" or "kgs-2" or kg/s2). When this holds, the behavior is said to be linear. If shown on a graph, the line should show a direct variation. There is a negative sign on the right hand side of the equation because the restoring force always acts in the opposite direction of the displacement (for example, when a spring is stretched to the left, it pulls back to the right). Hooke's law is named after the 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke. He first stated this law in 1660 as a Latin anagram,[1] whose solution he published in 1678 as Ut tensio, sic vis, meaning, "As the extension, so the force". Elastic Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law. We may view a rod of any elastic material as a linear spring. The rod has length L and crosssectional area A. Its extension (strain) is linearly proportional to its tensile stress , by a constant factor, the inverse of its modulus of elasticity, E, hence, or Hooke's law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions. Steel exhibits linearelastic behavior in most engineering applications; Hooke's law is valid for it throughout its elastic range (i.e., for stresses below the yield strength). For some other materials, such as aluminium, Hooke's law is only valid for a portion of the elastic range. For these materials a proportional limit stress is defined, below which the errors associated with the linear approximation are negligible. Rubber is generally regarded as a "non-hookean" material because its elasticity is stress dependent and sensitive to temperature and loading rate. Applications of the law include spring operated weighing machines, stress analysis and modelling of materials. 94 Hooke's law 95 The spring equation The most commonly encountered form of Hooke's law is probably the spring equation, which relates the force exerted by a spring to the distance it is stretched by a spring constant, k, measured in force per length.

The negative sign indicates that the force exerted by the spring is in direct opposition to the direction of displacement. It is called a "restoring force", as it tends to restore the system to equilibrium. The potential energy stored in a spring is given by Stressstrain curve for low-carbon steel. Hooke's law is only valid for the portion of the curve between the origin and the yield point(2). 1. Ultimate strength 2. Yield strength - corresponds to yield point 3. Rupture 4. Strain hardening region 5. Necking region A: Apparent stress (F/A0) B: True stress (F/A) which comes from adding up the energy it takes to incrementally compress the spring. That is, the integral of force over distance. (Note that potential energy of a spring is always non-negative.) This potential can be visualized as a parabola on the U-x plane. As the spring is stretched in the positive x-direction, the potential energy increases (the same thing happens as the spring is compressed). The corresponding point on the potential energy curve is higher than that corresponding to the equilibrium position (x = 0). The tendency for the spring is to therefore decrease its potential energy by returning to its equilibrium (unstretched) position, just as a ball rolls downhill to decrease its gravitational potential energy. If a mass m is attached to the end of such a spring, the system becomes a harmonic oscillator. It will oscillate with a natural frequency given either as an angular frequency or as a natural frequency Hooke's law 96 Multiple springs When two springs are attached to a mass and compressed, the following table compares values of the springs. Comparison In Parallel In Series Equivalent spring constant Compressed distance Energy stored Tensor expression of Hooke's Law Note: the Einstein summation convention of summing on repeated indices is used below. When working with a three-dimensional stress state, a 4th order tensor ( must be defined to link the stress tensor (ij) and the strain tensor ( ) containing 81 elastic coefficients

). Expressed in terms of components with respect to an orthonormal basis, the generalized form of Hooke's law is written as (using the summation convention) The tensor is called the stiffness tensor or the elasticity tensor. Due to the symmetry of the stress tensor, strain tensor, and stiffness tensor, only 21 elastic coefficients are independent. As stress is measured in units of pressure and strain is dimensionless, the entries of are also in units of pressure. The expression for generalized Hooke's law can be inverted to get a relation for the strain in terms of stress: The tensor is called the compliance tensor. Generalization for the case of large deformations is provided by models of neo-Hookean solids and Mooney-Rivlin solids. Hooke's law 97 Isotropic materials (see viscosity for an analogous development for viscous fluids.) Isotropic materials are characterized by properties which are independent of direction in space. Physical equations involving isotropic materials must therefore be independent of the coordinate system chosen to represent them. The strain tensor is a symmetric tensor. Since the trace of any tensor is independent of any coordinate system, the most complete coordinate-free decomposition of a symmetric tensor is to represent it as the sum of a constant tensor and a traceless symmetric tensor.[2] :Ch. 10 Thus: where where is the Kronecker delta. In direct tensor notation is the second-order identity tensor. The first term on the right is the constant tensor, also known as the volumetric strain tensor, and the second term is the traceless symmetric tensor, also known as the deviatoric strain tensor or shear tensor. The most general form of Hooke's law for isotropic materials may now be written as a linear combination of these two tensors: where K is the bulk modulus and G is the shear modulus. Using the relationships between the elastic moduli, these equations may also be expressed in various other ways. A common form of Hooke's law for isotropic materials, expressed in direct tensor notation, is [3] where and are the Lam constants, is the second-order identity tensor, and is the symmetric part of the fourth-order identity tensor. In terms of components with respect to a Cartesian basis, The inverse relationship is [4] Therefore the compliance tensor in the relation is

In terms of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, Hooke's law for isotropic materials can then be expressed as This is the form in which the strain is expressed in terms of the stress tensor in engineering. The expression in expanded form is where E is the modulus of elasticity and is Poisson's ratio. (See 3-D elasticity). In matrix form, Hooke's law for isotropic materials can be written as Hooke's law where 98 is the engineering shear strain. The inverse relation may be written as Plane stress Hooke's law Under plane stress conditions . In that case Hooke's law takes the form The inverse relation is usually written in the reduced form Anisotropic materials The symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor ( implies that ) and the generalized Hooke's laws ( . Similarly, the symmetry of the infinitesimal strain tensor implies that ) . These symmetries are called the minor symmetries of the stiffness tensor ( ). If in addition, since the displacement gradient and the Cauchy stress are work conjugate, the stressstrain relation can be derived from a strain energy density functional ( ), then The arbitrariness of the order of differentiation implies that . These are called the major symmetries of the stiffness tensor. The major and minor symmetries indicate that the stiffness tensor has only 21 independent components. Hooke's law 99 Matrix representation (stiffness tensor) It is often useful to express the anisotropic form of Hooke's law in matrix notation, also called Voigt notation. To do this we take advantage of the symmetry of the stress and strain tensors and express them as sixdimensional vectors in an orthonormal coordinate system ( ) as Then the stiffness tensor ( ) can be expressed as and Hooke's law is written as Similarly the compliance tensor ( ) can be written as Change of coordinate system If a linear elastic material is rotated from a reference configuration to another, then the material is symmetric with respect to the rotation if the components of the stiffness tensor in the rotated configuration are related to the components in the reference configuration by the relation [5] where are the components of an orthogonal rotation matrix

. The same relation also holds for inversions. In matrix notation, if the transformed basis (rotated or inverted) is related to the reference basis by then In addition, if the material is symmetric with respect to the transformation then Hooke's law 100 Orthotropic materials Orthotropic materials have three orthogonal planes of symmetry. If the basis vectors ( ) are normals to the planes of symmetry then the coordinate transformation relations imply that The inverse of this relation is commonly written as[6] where is the Young's modulus along axis is the shear modulus in direction on the plane whose normal is in direction is the Poisson's ratio that corresponds to a contraction in direction direction when an extension is applied in . Transversely isotropic materials A transversely isotropic material is symmetric with respect to a rotation about an axis of symmetry. For such a material, if is the axis of symmetry, Hooke's law can be expressed as More frequently, the axis is taken to be the axis of symmetry and the inverse Hooke's law is written as [7] Hooke's law 101 Thermodynamic basis of Hooke's law Linear deformations of elastic materials can be approximated as adiabatic. Under these conditions and for quasistatic processes the first law of thermodynamics for a deformed body can be expressed as where is the increase in internal energy and is the work done by external forces. The work can be split into two terms where is the work done by surface forces while the displacement field where is the work done by body forces. If is a variation of in the body, then the two external work terms can be expressed as is the surface traction vector, is the body force vector, represents the body and surface. Using the relation between the Cauchy stress and the surface traction, outward normal to ), we have represents its (where is the unit

Converting the surface integral into a volume integral via the divergence theorem gives Using the symmetry of the Cauchy stress and the identity we have From the definition of strain and from the equations of equilibrium we have Hence we can write and therefore the variation in the internal energy density is given by An elastic material is defined as one in which the total internal energy is equal to the potential energy of the internal forces (also called the elastic strain energy). Therefore the internal energy density is a function of the strains, and the variation of the internal energy can be expressed as Since the variation of strain is arbitrary, the stress-strain relation of an elastic material is given by For a linear elastic material, the quantity is a linear function of , and can therefore be expressed as where is a fourth-order tensor of material constants, also called the stiffness tensor. Hooke's law 102 Notes [1] The anagram was "ceiiinosssttuv", (http:/ / www. lindahall. org/ events_exhib/ exhibit/ exhibits/ civil/ design. shtml); cf. the anagram for the Catenary, which appeared in the preceding paragraph. [2] Symon, Keith (1971). Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. ISBN 0-201-07392-7. [3] Simo, J. C. and Hughes, T. J. R., 1998, Computational Inelasticity, Springer. [4] Milton, G. W., 2002, Theory of Composites, Cambridge University Press. [5] Slaughter, W. S., 2002, The Linearized Theory of Elasticity, Birkhauser [6] Boresi, A. P, Schmidt, R. J. and Sidebottom, O. M., 1993, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley. [7] Tan, S. C., 1994, Stress Concentrations in Laminated Composites, Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, PA. References A.C. Ugural, S.K. Fenster, Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity, 4th ed External links Java Applet demonstrating Hooke's Law in motion (http://webphysics.davidson.edu/applets/animator4/ demo_hook.html) Spring (device) A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of hardened steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. Some non-ferrous metals are also used including phosphor bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current (because of its low electrical resistance). When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts is proportional to its change in length. The rate or spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve. An extension or compression spring has units of force divided by distance, for example lbf/in or N/m. Torsion springs have units of force multiplied by distance divided

by angle, such as Nm/rad or ftlbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is compliance, that is: if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, it has a compliance of 0.1 mm/N. The stiffness (or rate) of springs in parallel is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series. Helical or coil springs designed for tension The English longbow - a simple but very powerful spring made of yew, measuring 2 m (6 ft 6 in) long, with a 470 N (105 lbf) draw force Depending on the design and required operating environment, any material can be used to construct a spring, so long as the material has the required combination of rigidity and elasticity: technically, a wooden bow is a form of spring. Spring (device) 103 History Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history e.g. the bow (and arrow). In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures. Ctesibius of Alexandria developed a method for making bronze with spring-like characteristics by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then hardening it by hammering after it is cast. Coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century,[1] in door locks.[2] The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century[2] [3] [4] and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century. In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke discovered the principle behind springs' action, that the force it exerts is proportional to its extension, now called Hooke's law. Military boobytrap firing device from USSR (normally connected to a tripwire) showing spring-loaded firing pin Types Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them: Tension/Extension spring - the spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it. Compression spring - is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it. Torsion spring - unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force, the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied. A spiral torsion spring, or hairspring, in an alarm clock. They can also be classified based on their shape: Coil spring - this type is made of a coil or helix of wire Flat spring - this type is made of a flat or conical shaped piece of metal. The most common types of spring are: Cantilever spring - a spring which is fixed only at one end. A volute spring. Under compression the coils

 Coil spring or helical spring - a spring (made by winding a wire slide over each other, so affording longer travel. around a cylinder) and the conical spring - these are types of torsion spring, because the wire itself is twisted when the spring is compressed or stretched. These are in turn of two types: Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded. Their turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no attachment points. Spring (device) 104 A volute spring is a compression spring in the form of a cone, designed so that under compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus permitting longer travel. Tension or extension springs are designed to become longer under load. Their turns (loops) are normally touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other means of attachment at each end. Hairspring or balance spring - a delicate spiral torsion spring used in watches, galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to partially-rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation. Vertical volute springs of Stuart tank Leaf spring - a flat springy sheet, used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches, bows. V-spring - used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheellock, flintlock and percussion cap locks. Other types include: Belleville washer or Belleville spring - a disc shaped spring commonly used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of pressure-activated landmines). Tension springs in a folded line reverberation device. Constant-force spring a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly constant force as it is unrolled. Gas spring - a volume of gas which is compressed. Ideal Spring - the notional spring used in physics: it has no weight, mass, or damping losses. Mainspring - a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power source in watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and mechanically powered flashlights Negator spring - a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement and negating any tendency to re-wind. The commonest application is the retracting steel tape rule.[5] A torsion bar twisted under load Progressive rate coil springs - A coil spring with a variable rate, usually achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or more coils rests against its neighbour. Rubber band - a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the material.

 Spring washer - used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a fastener. Torsion spring - any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed or extended. Used in torsion bar vehicle suspension systems. Wave spring - a thin spring-washer into which waves have been pressed.[6] Leaf spring on a truck Spring (device) 105 Physics Hooke's law Most springs (not stretched or compressed beyond the elastic limit) obey Hooke's law, which states that the force with which the spring pushes back is linearly proportional to the distance from its equilibrium length: where x is the displacement vector - the distance and direction in which the spring is deformed Two springs attached to a wall and a mass. In a situation like this, the two springs can be replaced by one with a spring constant of keq=k1+k2. F is the resulting force vector - the magnitude and direction of the restoring force the spring exerts k is the spring constant or force constant of the spring. Coil springs and other common springs typically obey Hooke's law. There are useful springs that don't: springs based on beam bending can for example produce forces that vary nonlinearly with displacement. Simple harmonic motion Since force is equal to mass, m, times acceleration, a, the force equation for a spring obeying Hooke's law looks like: The mass of the spring is assumed small in comparison to the mass of the attached mass and is ignored. Since acceleration is simply the second derivative of x with respect to time, The displacement, x, as a function of time. The amount of time that passes between peaks is called the period. This is a second order linear differential equation for the displacement the solution of which is the sum of a sine and cosine: as a function of time. Rearranging: Spring (device) and 106 are arbitrary constants that may be found by considering the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. The graph of this function with (zero initial position with some positive initial velocity) is displayed in the image on the right. Theory In classical physics, a spring can be seen as a device that stores potential energy, specifically elastic potential energy, by straining the bonds between the atoms of an elastic material. Hooke's law of elasticity states that the extension of an elastic rod (its distended length minus its relaxed length) is

linearly proportional to its tension, the force used to stretch it. Similarly, the contraction (negative extension) is proportional to the compression (negative tension). This law actually holds only approximately, and only when the deformation (extension or contraction) is small compared to the rod's overall length. For deformations beyond the elastic limit, atomic bonds get broken or rearranged, and a spring may snap, buckle, or permanently deform. Many materials have no clearly defined elastic limit, and Hooke's law can not be meaningfully applied to these materials. Hooke's law is a mathematical consequence of the fact that the potential energy of the rod is a minimum when it has its relaxed length. Any smooth function of one variable approximates a quadratic function when examined near enough to its minimum point; and therefore the force which is the derivative of energy with respect to displacement will approximate a linear function. Force of fully compressed spring where E - Young's modulus d - spring wire diameter L - free length of spring n - number of active windings - Poisson ratio D - spring outer diameter Zero-length springs "Zero-length spring" is a term for a specially-designed coil spring that would exert zero force if it had zero length. That is, in a line graph of the spring's force versus its length, the line passes through the origin. Obviously a coil spring cannot contract to zero length because at some point the coils will touch each other and the spring will not be able to shorten any more. Zero length springs are made by manufacturing a coil spring with built-in tension, so if it could contract further, the equilibrium point of the spring, the point at which its restoring force is zero, occurs at a length of zero. In practice, zero length springs are made by combining a "negative length" spring, made with even more tension so its equilibrium point would be at a "negative" length, with a piece of inelastic material of the proper length so the zero force point would occur at zero length. A spring with zero length can be attached to a mass on a hinged boom in such a way that the force on the mass is almost exactly balanced by the vertical component of the force from the spring, whatever the position of the boom. This creates a pendulum with very long period. Long-period pendulums enable seismometers to sense the slowest Spring (device) waves from earthquakes. The LaCoste suspension with zero-length springs is also used in gravimeters because it is very sensitive to changes in gravity. Springs for closing doors are often made to have roughly zero length so that

they will exert force even when the door is almost closed, so it will close firmly. Uses Balance springs mechanical timepieces Buckling spring keyboards In CD players Inside a pen Mattress Pogo Stick Slinky Trampoline Vehicle suspension References [1] Springs (http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-6/ Springs. html) How Products Are Made, 14 July 2007. [2] White, Lynn Jr. (1966). Medieval Technology and Social Change. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0195002660., p.126-127 [3] Usher, Abbot Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA305& sig=_SRpwfz0YBAjt2aGxXhmRkZ16GQ). Courier Dover. ISBN 048625593X. ., p.305 [4] Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1997). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=53K32RiEigMC& pg=PA121& sig=5huN81ukYRbSlxq4MsToTDIXYDY). Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-15510-2. ., p.121 [5] Samuel, Andrew; Weir, John (1999). Introduction to engineering design: modelling, synthesis and problem solving strategies (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Butterworth. p. 134. ISBN 0750642823. [6] Davis, Thomas Beiber; Nelson, Carl A. Senior. Audel Mechanical Trades Pocket Manual (4 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-7645-4170-4. External links Wright, Douglas. "Introduction to Springs" (http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/springs/intro/intro. html). Springs (http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/springs/home.html), Notes on Design and Analysis of Machine Elements (http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/). Deptartment of Mechanical & Material Engineering, University of Western Australia. Retrieved 2008-02-03. Silberstein, Dave (2002). "How to make springs" (http://home.earthlink.net/~bazillion/intro.html). Bazillion. Retrieved 2008-02-03. 107 Tension (physics) 108

Tension (physics) In physics, tension is the magnitude of the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or similar object on another object. It is the opposite of compression. As tension is the magnitude of a force, it is measured in newtons (or sometimes pounds-force) and is always measured parallel to the string on which it applies. There are two basic possibilities for systems of objects held by strings:[1] Either acceleration is zero and the system is therefore in equilibrium, or there is acceleration and therefore a net force is present. Note that a string is assumed to have negligible mass. System in equilibrium A system is in equilibrium when the sum of all forces is zero. [1] For example, consider a system consisting of an object that is being lowered vertically by a string with tension, T, at a constant velocity. The system has a constant velocity and is therefore in equilibrium because the tension in the string (which is pulling up on the object) is equal to the force of gravity, mg, which is pulling down on the object. [1] System under net force A system has a net force when an unbalanced force is exerted on it, in other words the sum of all forces is not zero. Acceleration and net force always exist together. [1] For example consider the same system as above but suppose the object is now being lowered with an increasing velocity downwards (positive acceleration) therefore there exists a net force somewhere in the system. In this case negative acceleration would indicate that | mg | > | T |. [1] or it can be found as... suppose that two bodies A and B having masses 'm1' and 'm2' are connected with each other by the help of an inextensible string over a frictionless pulley. There are so many forces acting on the body A and B. STUDY OF FORCES:- On Body A :- there are two forces acting on the body A. 1- weight. [w1=m1g][downward in direction]. 2- Tension in the string.[T][upward in direction]. net force=Greater force - smaller force if body A has greater mass than bodyB m1 > m2 so .. net force =weight - tension F1=W1 - T -----------> eq (1) where F=m1a and w=m1g so m1a=m1g-T-------------> eq(2) Tension (physics) 109 Strings in modern physics String-like objects in relativistic theories, such as the strings used in some models of interactions

between quarks, or those used in the modern string theory, also possess tension. These strings are analyzed in terms of their world sheet, and the energy is then typically proportional to the length of the string. As a result, the tension in such strings is independent of the amount of stretching. In an extensible string, Hooke's law applies. References [1] Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Section 5.7. Seventh Edition, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2008. Normal force In physics, the normal force (occasionally N) is the component, perpendicular to the surface of contact, of the contact force exerted by, for example, the surface of a floor or wall, on an object, preventing the object from entering the floor or wall. In another common situation, if an object hits the surface with some speed, and the surface can withstand it, the normal force provides for a rapid deceleration, with the speed depending on the flexibility of the surface. If the object is soft, the part on the side of the surface will tend to decelerate more rapidly, the part on the other side can do that more gradually, and the layer in between is compressed, deforming the object. FN represents the normal force The normal force is one of the basic concepts in mechanics, the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements. Equations In a simple case such as an object resting upon a table, the normal force on the object is equal but in opposite direction to the gravitational force applied on the object (or the weight of the object), that is, , where m is mass, and g is the gravitational field strength (about 9.81 Newtons/kilogram on Earth). The normal force here represents the force applied by the table against the object that prevents it from sinking through the table, and requires that the table is sturdy enough to deliver this normal force without breaking. Where an object rests on an incline, the normal force is perpendicular to the plane the object rests on. Still, the normal force will be as large as necessary to prevent sinking through the surface, presuming the surface is sturdy enough. The strength of the force can be calculated as: Weight (W), the frictional force (Fr), and the normal force (Fn) impacting a cube. Weight is mass (m) multiplied by gravity (g). where N is the normal force, m is the mass of the object, g is the gravitational field strength, and is the angle of the inclined surface measured from the horizontal. Normal force 110 The normal force is one of several forces which act on the object. In the simple situations so far considered, the most important other forces acting on it are friction and the force of gravity. Using vectors In general, the magnitude of the normal force, N, is the projection of the net surface interaction

force, T, in the normal direction, n, and so the normal force vector can be found by scaling the normal direction by the net surface interaction force. The surface interaction force, in turn, is equal to the dot product of the unit normal with the stress tensor describing the stress state of the surface. That is, Or, in indicial notation, The parallel shear component of the contact force is known as the frictional force ( ). The static coefficient of friction for an object on an inclined plane can be calculated as follows:[1] Real-world applications For a person standing in an elevator either stationary or moving at constant velocity, the normal force on the person's feet balances the person's weight. In an elevator that is accelerating upward, the normal force is greater than the person's ground weight and so the person's perceived weight increases (making the person feel heavier). In an elevator that is accelerating downward, the normal force is less than the person's ground weight and so a passenger's perceived weight decreases. If a passenger were to stand on a "weighing scale", such as a conventional bathroom scale, while riding the elevator, the scale will be reading the normal force it delivers to the passenger's feet, and will be different than the person's ground weight if the elevator cab is accelerating up or down. The weighing scale measures normal force (which varies as the elevator cab accelerates), not gravitational force (which does not vary as the cab accelerates). It is impossible to measure true gravitational force without knowledge of the motion of one's immediate environment. When we define upward to be the positive direction, constructing Newton's second law and solving for the normal force on a passenger yields the following equation: Lagrangian Mechanics In Lagrangian Mechanics, the normal force plays an important part in its formalization. Suppose a smooth surface, , is defined by the explicit equation . Furthermore, suppose a particle must move along this surface. The equation of motion would be given by Where is the acceleration of the particle, References [1] Nichols, Edward Leamington; Franklin, William Suddards (1898). The Elements of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8IlCAAAAIAAJ). 1. Macmillan. p. 101. . Rope 111 Rope A rope is a length of fibres, twisted or braided together to improve strength for pulling and connecting. It has tensile strength but is too flexible to provide compressive strength (i.e. it can be used for pulling, but not pushing). Rope is thicker and stronger than

similarly constructed cord, line, string, and twine. Coils of rope used for long-line fishing Construction Common materials for rope include natural fibres such as manila hemp, hemp, linen, cotton, coir, jute, and sisal. Synthetic fibres in use for rope-making include polypropylene, nylon, polyesters (e.g. PET, LCP, HPE, Vectran), polyethylene (e.g. Spectra), Aramids (e.g. Twaron, Technora and Kevlar) and polyaramids (e.g. Dralon, Tiptolon). Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or use co-polymer fibres. Rope can also be made out of metal. Ropes have been constructed of other fibrous materials such as silk, wool, and hair, but such ropes are not generally available. Rayon is a regenerated fibre used to make decorative rope. Three-strand twisted natural fibre rope Rope 112 Usage Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction, seafaring, exploration, sports and communications and has been since prehistoric times. In order to fasten rope, a large number of knots have been invented for countless uses. Pulleys are used to redirect the pulling force to another direction, and may be used to create mechanical advantage, allowing multiple strands of rope to share a load and multiply the force applied to the end. Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes. Rock climbing ropes The modern sport of rock climbing makes extensive use of so called "dynamic" rope, which is designed to stretch under load in an elastic manner in order to absorb the energy required to arrest a person in free fall without generating forces high enough to injure them. Such ropes normally use a kernmantle construction, as described below. "Static" ropes, used for example in caving, rappelling, and rescue applications, are designed for minimal stretch; they are not designed to arrest free falls. The UIAA, in concert with the CEN, sets climbing-rope standards and oversees testing. Any rope bearing a GUIANA or CE certification tag is suitable for climbing. Despite the hundreds of thousands of falls climbers suffer every year, there are few recorded instances of a climbing rope breaking in a fall, the cases that do are often attributable to previous damage to, or contamination of, the rope. Climbing ropes, however, do cut easily when under load. Keeping them away from sharp rock edges is imperative. Dynamic Kernmantle rock climbing rope with its braided sheath cut to expose the twisted core yarns and core yarn plies. Rock climbing ropes come with either a designation for single or double (twin) use. A single rope is the most common and it is intended to be used by itself, as a single strand. Single ropes range in thickness

from roughly 9 mm to 11 mm. Smaller ropes are lighter, but wear out faster. Double ropes are thinner ropes, usually 9mm and under, and are intended to be used as a pair. These ropes offer a greater margin or security against cutting, since it is unlikely that both ropes will be cut, but complicate belaying and leading. Double ropes are usually reserved for ice and mixed climbing, where there is need for two ropes to rappel or abseil. They are also popular among traditional climbers, and particularly in the UK. Rope 113 Aerial rope Rope is also an Aerial acrobatics circus skill, where a performer makes artistic figures on a vertical suspended rope. Tricks performed on the rope are for example drops, rolls and hangs. [1] . See also Corde Lisse. History The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest "ropes" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years.[2] Fossilized fragments of "probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter" were found in one of the caves at Lascaux, dating to approximately 15,000 BC.[3] Ancient Egyptians were the first to document tools for ropemaking The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 B.C. and was generally made of water reed fibres (See http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-2/ Rope. html, word-for-word not sure which "plagiarized" which). Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms, flax, grass, papyrus, leather, or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed the Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 B.C., rope made of hemp fibres was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years. In the Middle Ages (from the 13th to the 18th centuries), from the British Isles to Italy, ropes were constructed in so-called Ropewalks, very long buildings where strands the full length of the rope were spread out and then laid up or twisted together to form the rope. The cable length was thus set by the length of the available rope walk. This is related to the unit of length termed cable length. This allowed for long ropes of up to 300 yards long

or longer to be made. These long ropes were necessary in shipping as short ropes would require splicing to make them long enough to use for sheets and halyards. The strongest form of splicing is the short splice, which doubles the diameter of the rope at the area of the splice, which would cause problems in running the line through pulleys. Any splices narrow enough to maintain smooth running would be unable to support the required weight. Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches of a concept for a ropemaking machine, but just like many other of his inventions, it was never built. Nevertheless, remarkable feats of construction were accomplished without advanced technology: In 1586, Domenico Fontana erected the 327 ton obelisk on Rome's Saint Peter's Square with a concerted effort of 900 men, 75 horses, and countless pulleys and meters of rope. By the late 18th century several working machines had been built and patented. Some rope continues to be made from natural fibres such as coir and sisal, despite the dominance of synthetic fibres such as nylon and polypropylene which have become popular since the 1950s. Rope 114 A German ropemaker, around 1470 AD Public demonstration of historical ropemaking technique A piece of preserved rope found on board the 16th century carrack Mary Rose A ropewalk in Karlskrona, Sweden Styles of rope construction Laid or twisted rope Laid rope, also called twisted rope, is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern western history. Common twisted rope generally consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a final right-handed twist. The ISO 2 standard uses the uppercase letters S and Z to indicate the two possible directions of twist, as suggested by the direction of slant of the central portions of these two letters. The handedness of the twist is the direction of the twists as they progress away from an observer. Thus Z-twist rope is said to be right-handed, and S-twist to be left-handed. Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, fibres are gathered and spun to form yarns. A number of these yarns are then twisted together to form strands. The strands are then twisted together to form the rope. The twist of the yarn is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the rope. It is this counter-twist, introduced with

each successive operation, which holds the final rope together as a stable, unified object.[4] Illustration of the S and Z naming convention Traditionally, a three strand laid rope is called a plain- or hawser-laid, a four strand rope is called shroud-laid, and a larger rope formed by counter-twisting three or more multi-strand ropes together is called cable-laid.[5] One property of laid rope is partial untwisting when used. This can cause spinning of suspended loads, or stretching, kinking, or hockling Rope making using the twisted rope method on a of the rope itself. An additional drawback of twisted construction is 1928 Metters Rope Making Machine that every fibre is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the rope can degrade to numerous inch-long fibre fragments, which is not easily detected visually. Twisted ropes have a preferred direction for coiling. Normal right-laid rope should be coiled with the sun, or clockwise, to prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. Rope of this type must be bound at its ends by some means to prevent untwisting. Rope 115 Braided rope Braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester or polypropylene. Nylon is chosen for its elastic stretch properties though it has limited resistance to ultraviolet light. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load, is more abrasion resistant, has better UV resistance, and has less change in length when wet. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on water). Braided ropes (and objects like garden hoses, fibre optic or coaxial cables, etc.) that have no lay, or inherent twist, will uncoil better if coiled into figure-8 coils, where the twist reverses regularly and essentially cancels out. Single braid consists of even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into a circular pattern with half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock with either twill or plain weave. The central void may be large or small; in the former case the term hollow braid is sometimes preferred. Double braid, also called braid on braid, consists of an inner braid filling the central void in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid fibre is chosen for strength while the outer braid fibre is chosen for abrasion resistance. In solid braid the strands all travel the same direction, clockwise or anticlockwise, and alternate between forming the outside of the rope and the interior of the rope. This construction is popular for general purpose utility rope but

rare in specialized high performance line. Kernmantle rope has a core (kern) of long twisted fibres in the center, with a braided outer sheath or mantle of woven fibres. The kern provides most of the strength (about 70%), while the mantle protects the kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots in, and so on). In dynamic climbing line, the core fibres are usually twisted, and chopped into shorter lengths which makes the rope more stretchy. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core fibres and tighter braid, which causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch. Other types Plaited rope is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called square braid. It is not as round as twisted rope and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the material, very flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibres as well, with the same drawbacks as described above. Brait rope is a combination of braided and plaited, a non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes. Due to its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by arborists. It is also the most popular rope for anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered by Yale Cordage. Handling rope Rope made from hemp, cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or unravelling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine (whipping), tape, or heat shrink tubing. The ends of plastic fibre ropes are often melted and fused solid. If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks. The average rope life-span is five years. Serious inspection should be given to line after that point. Cordage aboard the French training ship Mutin Rope 116 When preparing for a climb, it is important to stack the rope on the ground or a tarp and check for any "dead-spots". Avoid stepping on rope, as this might force tiny pieces of rock through the sheath, which can eventually deteriorate the core of the rope. Ropes may be flemished into coils on deck for safety and presentation/tidiness as shown in picture. Line "Rope" refers to the manufactured material. Once rope is purposely sized, cut, spliced, or simply assigned a function, the result is referred to as a "line", especially in nautical usage. Sail control lines are mainly referred to as sheets(e.g.

jibsheet). A halyard, for example, is a line used to raise and lower a sail, and is typically made of a length of rope with a shackle attached at one end. Other examples include clothesline, chalk line, anchor line ("rode"), stern line, fishing line, and so on. References [1] http:/ / www. fedec. eu/ resources. 1637. html [2] Small, Meredith F. (April 2002), "String theory: the tradition of spinning raw fibers dates back 28,000 years. (At The Museum).", Natural History 111.3: 14(2) [3] J.C. Turner and P. van de Griend (ed.), The History and Science of Knots (Singapore: World Scientific, 1996), 14. [4] J. Bohr and K. Olsen (2010), The ancient art of laying rope (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1004. 0814), [5] G.S. Nares (1865), Seamanship (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8VoBAAAAQAAJ& pg=RA1-PA23#v=onepage& q=) (3rd ed.), London: James Griffin, p. 23, Sources Gaitzsch, W. Antike Korb- und Seilerwaren, Schriften des Limesmuseums Aalen Nr. 38, 1986 Gubser, T. Die buerliche Seilerei, G. Krebs AG, Basel, 1965 Hearle, John W. S. & O'Hear & McKenna, N. H. A. Handbook of Fibre Rope Technology, CRC Press, 2004 Lane, Frederic Chapin, 1932. The Rope Factory and Hemp Trade of Venice in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Journal of Economic and Business History, Vol. 4 No. 4 Suppl. (August 1932). Militzer-Schwenger, L.: Handwerkliche Seilherstellung, Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, 1992 Nilson, A. Studier i svenskt repslageri, Stockholm, 1961 Pierer, H.A. Universal-Lexikon, Altenburg, 1845 Plymouth Cordage Company, 1931. The Story of Rope; The History and the Modern Development of Rope-Making, Plymouth Cordage Company, North Plymouth, Massachusetts Sanctuary, Anthony, 1996. Rope, Twine and Net Making, Shire Publications Ltd., Cromwell House, Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire. Schubert, Pit. Sicherheit und Risiko in Fels und Eis, Munich, 1998 Smith, Bruce & Padgett, Allen, 1996. On Rope. North American Vertical Rope Techniques, National Speleological Society, Huntsville, Alabama. Strunk, P.; Abels, J. Das groe Abenteuer 2.Teil, Verlag Karl Wenzel, Marburg, 1986

Teeter, Emily, 1987. Techniques and Terminology of Rope-Making in Ancient Egypt, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 73 (1987). Tyson, William, no date. Rope, a History of the Hard Fibre Cordage Industry in the United Kingdom, Wheatland Journals, Ltd., London Rope Further reading In Bodmer, R. J., & In Bodmer, A. W. (1914). The Book of wonders: Gives plain and simple answers to the thousands of everyday questions that are asked and which all should be able to, but cannot answer. New York: Presbrey syndicate. Page 353+ (Rope information) (http://books.google.com/books? id=Ce4OAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA353). External links Ropewalk: A Cordage Engineer's Journey Through History (http://www.StoryOfRope.org) History of ropemaking resource and nonprofit documentary film Watch How Do They Braid Rope? (http://www.nfb.ca/film/how_do_they_braid_rope) 117 Pulley 118 Pulley Pulley Pulleys on a ship. In this context, pulleys are usually known as blocks. Classification Simple machine Industry Construction, transportation Powered No Wheels 1 Axles 1 A pulley, also called a sheave or a drum, is a mechanism composed of a wheel on an axle or shaft that may have a groove between two flanges around its circumference.[1] A rope, cable, belt, or chain usually runs over the wheel and inside the groove, if present. Pulleys are used to change the direction of an applied force, transmit rotational motion, or realize a mechanical advantage in either a linear or rotational system of motion. It is one of the six simple machines. Two or more pulleys together are called a block and tackle. Belt and pulley systems Flat belt on a drum A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles and, if the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage to be realized. A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets. In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the

pulley often is slightly convex to keep the flat belt centered. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely used in factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in upright vacuum cleaners. Belt and pulley system Pulley 119 Rope and pulley systems Also called block and tackles, rope and pulley systems (the rope may be a light line or a strong cable) are characterized by the use of one rope transmitting a linear motive force (in tension) to a load through one or more pulleys for the purpose of pulling the load (often against gravity.) They are often included in lists of simple machines. In a system of a single rope and pulleys, when friction is neglected, the mechanical advantage gained can be calculated by counting the number of rope lengths exerting force on the load. Since the tension in each rope length is equal to the force exerted on the free end of the rope, the mechanical advantage is simply equal to the number of ropes pulling on the load. For example, in Diagram 3 below, there is one rope attached to the load, and 2 rope lengths extending from the pulley attached to the load, for a total of 3 ropes supporting it. If the force applied to the free end of the rope is 10 lb, each of these rope lengths will exert a force of 10 lb. on the load, for a total of 30 lb. So the mechanical advantage is 3. Cone pulley driven from above by a line shaft. The force on the load is increased by the mechanical advantage; Cone pulley driven from below by an electric however the distance the load moves, compared to the length the free motor. end of the rope moves, is decreased in the same proportion. Since a slender cable is more easily managed than a fat one (albeit shorter and stronger), pulley systems are often the preferred method of applying mechanical advantage to the pulling force of a winch (as can be found in a lift crane). Pulley systems are the only simple machines in which the possible values of mechanical advantage are limited to whole numbers. In practice, the more pulleys there are, the less efficient a system is. This is due to sliding friction in the system where cable meets pulley and in the rotational mechanism of each pulley. It is not recorded when or by whom the pulley was first developed. It is believed however that Archimedes developed the first documented block and tackle pulley system, as recorded by Plutarch. Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using compound pulleys and his own strength. Types of systems These are different types of pulley systems: Fixed A fixed or class 1 pulley has a fixed axle. That is, the axle is "fixed" or anchored in place. A fixed pulley is used to change the direction of the force on a rope (called a belt). A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1. A mechanical advantage of one means that the force is equal on both sides of the pulley and there is

no multiplication of force. Movable A movable or class 2 pulley has a free axle. That is, the axle is "free" to move in space. A movable pulley is used to multiply forces. A movable pulley has a mechanical advantage of 2. That is, if one end of the rope is anchored, pulling on the other end of the rope will apply a doubled force to the object attached to the pulley. Fixed pulley Compound A compound pulley is a combination of a fixed and a movable pulley system. Pulley 120 Block and tackle - A block and tackle is a type of compound pulley where several pulleys are mounted on each axle, further increasing the mechanical advantage. Block and tackles usually lift objects with a mechanical advantage greater than 2. Movable pulley How it works Diagram 1 - A basic equation for a pulley: In equilibrium, the force F on the pulley axle is equal and opposite to the sum of the tensions in each line leaving the pulley, and these tensions are equal. Diagram 2 - A simple pulley system - a single movable pulley lifting weight W. The tension in each line is W/2, yielding an advantage of 2. Diagram 2a - Another simple pulley system similar to diagram 2, but in which the lifting force is redirected downward. A practical compound pulley corresponding to diagram 2a. The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. Pulley 121 In equilibrium, the total force on the pulley must be zero. This means that the force on the axle of the pulley is shared equally by the two lines looping through the pulley. The situation is schematically illustrated in diagram 1. For the case where the lines are not parallel, the tensions in each line are still equal, but now the vector sum of all forces is zero. A second basic equation for the pulley follows from the conservation of energy: The product of the weight lifted times the distance it is moved is equal to the product of the lifting force (the tension in the lifting line) times the distance the lifting line is moved. The weight lifted divided by the lifting force is defined as the advantage of the pulley system. It is important to notice that a system of pulleys does not change

the amount of work done. The work is given by the force times the distance moved. The pulley simply allows trading force for distance: you pull with less force, but over a longer distance. A crane using the compound pulley system yielding an In diagram 2, a single movable pulley allows weight W to be lifted advantage of 4. The single fixed pulley is installed on with only half the force needed to lift the weight without the crane. The two movable pulleys (joined together) assistance. The total force needed is divided between the lifting are attached to the hook. One end of the rope is attached to the crane frame, another - to the winch. force (red arrow) and the "ceiling" which is some immovable object (such as the earth). In this simple system, the lifting force is directed in the same direction as the movement of the weight. The advantage of this system is 2. Although the force needed to lift the weight is only W/2, we will need to draw a length of rope that is twice the distance that the weight is lifted, so that the total amount of work done (Force x distance) remains the same. A second pulley may be added as in diagram 2a, which simply serves to redirect the lifting force downward; it does not change the advantage of the system. Diagram 3 - A simple compound pulley system: a movable pulley and a fixed pulley lifting weight W. The tension in each line is W/3, yielding an advantage of 3. Diagram 3a - A simple compound pulley system: a movable pulley and a fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an additional pulley redirecting the lifting force downward. The tension in each line is W/3, yielding an advantage of 3. Diagram 4a - A more complicated compound pulley system. The tension in each line is W/4, yielding an advantage of 4. An additional pulley redirecting the lifting force has been added. Figure 4b - A practical block and tackle pulley system corresponding to diagram 4a. Note that the axles of the fixed and movable pulleys have been combined.

The addition of a fixed pulley to the single pulley system can yield an increase of advantage. In diagram 3, the addition of a fixed pulley yields a lifting advantage of 3. The tension in each line is W/3, and the force on the axles of each pulley is 2W/3. As in the case of diagram 2a, another pulley may be added to reverse the direction of the lifting Pulley force, but with no increase in advantage. This situation is shown in diagram 3a. This process can be continued indefinitely for ideal pulleys with each additional pulley yielding a unit increase in advantage. For real pulleys friction among rope and pulleys will increase as more pulleys are added to the point that no advantage is possible. It puts a limit for the number of pulleys usable in practice. The above pulley systems are known collectively as block and tackle pulley systems. In diagram 4a, a block and tackle system with advantage 4 is shown. A practical implementation in which the connection to the ceiling is combined and the fixed and movable pulleys are encased in single housings is shown in figure 4b. Other pulley systems are possible, and some can deliver an increased advantage with fewer pulleys than the block and tackle system. The advantage of the block and tackle system is that each pulley and line is subjected to equal tensions and forces. Efficient design dictates that each line and pulley be capable of handling its load, and no more. Other pulley designs will require different strengths of line and pulleys depending on their position in the system, but a block and tackle system can use the same line size throughout, and can mount the fixed and movable pulleys on a common axle. References [1] Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1989. "A wheel with a groove round its rim, a sheave. A wheel or drum fixed on a shaft and turned by a belt, cable, etc.," bjn:Takal 122 Inclined plane 123 Inclined plane Inclined plane Roman soldiers constructed an inclined plane out of earth to lay siege to the Masada during the First Jewish-Roman War in 73 CE. Classification Simple machine Industry Construction The inclined plane is one of the original six simple machines; as the name suggests, it is a flat surface whose endpoints are at different heights. By moving an object up an inclined plane rather than completely vertical, the amount of force required is reduced, at the expense of increasing the distance the object must travel. The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans; this may also be

expressed as the cosecant of the angle between the plane and the horizontal. Note that due to the conservation of energy, the same amount of mechanical energy is required to lift a given object by a given distance, except for losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance. Ramps, chutes and slides An inclined plane is a simple machine that does not move. Many devices based on the principles of the inclined plane allow expending less force to achieve a task. Ramps enable accessing heights that would be too difficult to scale vertically. Ramps allow heavy objects to ascend to, and descend safely from, a high-level bridge. Portable ramps allow easy loading and unloading of high-decked trucks. Siege ramps gave ancient armies the ability to walk up bringing heavy equipment to the tops of high walls. Chutes and slides allow fragile objects, including humans, to be safely lowered from a vertical rise by countering gravitational force with the normal force provided by a stiff surface at an angle to the gravitational vector. Airplane rescue slides allow people to quickly reach the ground safely, without the danger of jumping from a height. The addition of the normal force and gravity vectors causes the sliding object to move parallel to surface of the slide, so a slide can be used to move objects through a distribution system from one area to another. Hoppers and funnels are formed by planes shaped into an inverted pyramid or cone shape to concentrate granular or fluid material at the apex. Eliminating friction from a slide increases the maximum speed at which an object can move down the slide, while the acceleration of the moving object can be controlled to any degree by varying the angle of the slide. Because of this, slides are one of the most common and popular forms of entertainment. A well-polished slide can allow a human to move at a high speed with no effort, even experience near free-fall acceleration, yet arrive on the ground safely because the angle of slide can be varied along its length to end up parallel to the ground, so the forward motion of the slider can be slowly arrested by friction. The metal slide is a popular piece of playground equipment, and towering water slides employ liquid lubrication to reduce friction even further. Wheeled cars of rollercoasters roll down inclined tracks to achieve high speeds. In the sports of luge, bobsled, sledding, and skiing, participants accelerate to extremely high speeds utilizing only the inclined plane, whether a mountain slope provided by nature, or a chute lined with near-frictionless ice. Mountains are another example of an inclined plane. Inclined plane Blades, wedges, and foils The blade is a compound inclined plane, consisting of two inclined planes placed so that the planes meet at one edge.

The edge where the two planes meet is pushed into a solid or fluid substance and overcomes the resistance of materials to separate by transferring the force exerted against the material into two opposing forces normal to the faces of the blade. First known to be used by humans in the knife to separate animal tissue, the blade allowed humans to separate meat, fibers, and other plant and animal materials, with much less force than it would take to tear them by simply pulling them apart. Blades can separate solid material, as with plows that separate soil particles, scissors and shears to cut flexible materials, axes to separate wood fibers, and chisels and planes to remove precise portions of wood. Wedges, saws and chisels can separate thick and hard materials, such as wood, including solid stone and hard metals, with much less force, less waste of material, and more precision, than crushing. Saws have many chisel-like "teeth" along their cutting surface to transfer linear or circular motion to counteract the normal force of the surface to be cut. Crushing, the overcoming of material bonds by transferring momentum to a material through the normal force of another, harder, object was the only way to cut through a hard material before saws, and the materials to make them, were developed. Drills produce circular holes in solids by rotating a chisel around its center, with the edge is sharpened at opposing angles on either side of the rotation axis, so as to cut in the direction of rotation. Twist drills provide one or more heliacally twisted chisels formed out of grooves cut along the side of the bit, to help evacuate cuttings from the drill hole, by using the same inclined plane principle as the archimedean screw. The water screw, though most likely preexisting Archimedes, has been used since ancient times to pump water, and is now also used to move granulated and ground materials, such as wheat, coal, and meat. Screws also join pieces of wood or metal together, by using a helical plane, usually formed by cutting a helical groove into a rod, so that the rod can force itself into the material when it is rotated. The ancient water wheel uses inclined planes mounted around a rotating wheel to transform the momentum of moving water into a torque that can turn a shaft and do work. Sails extract the momentum of moving air to drive a vehicle, and windmills extend the principle to move a balanced set of sails around a shaft to perform work. Although known for thousands of years, these devices for extracting work from a moving fluid were always limited in efficiency by the drag-inducing vortices caused when a fluid is separated. Foils are specialized blades, shaped to allow the most efficient movement of fluid over their surfaces, to minimize the turbulence caused by these vortices. Rotating vortices dissipate the momentum of the fluid as heat, reducing the amount of energy

available to do useful work. Foils have many different designs, depending on the viscosity, velocity, and pressure of the fluid they will operate in, and their intended purpose. Aircraft wings and helicopter rotors counteract gravity by redirecting momentum generated from lateral movement, as with fixed-wing aircraft, or from rotating airfoils around a shaft, as with helicopters, so that separated air flows over the top of the foil faster than it flows over the bottom. This difference in velocity causes the pressure to decrease on the top surface, generating a lifting force, through what is known as Bernoulli's Principle. The resulting decrease in pressure across the upper surface provides up to 65% of the lift of the airfoil. The same principle in reverse allows an automotive spoiler to keep a car firmly in contact with the road. Airplane and marine propellers use the same principle to drive vehicles though a fluid along the direction of the torque applied to the propeller shaft. Nautical propellers are often called screws. Rotating impeller blades increase the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of a pump to force fluids through pipes. Turbines capture momentum from fast-moving fluid at high efficiency to a torque vector along the direction of the turbine's axis of rotation, while compressors use rotational motion to increase the pressure in a fast-moving fluid. Rotary fans move air, and can harness the reaction force of the moving air to drive a limo. . 124 Inclined plane Calculation of forces acting on an object on an inclined plane To calculate the forces on an object placed on an inclined plane, consider the three forces acting on it. 1. The normal force (N) exerted on the body by the plane due to the force of gravity i.e. mg cos 2. the force due to gravity (mg, acting vertically downwards) and 3. the frictional force (f) acting parallel to the plane. We can decompose the gravitational force into two vectors, one perpendicular to the plane and one parallel to the plane. Since Key: N = Normal force that is perpendicular to the plane there is no movement perpendicular to the m = Mass of object plane, the component of the gravitational g = Acceleration due to gravity force in this direction (mg cos ) must be (theta) = Angle of elevation of the plane, measured from the horizontal equal and opposite to normal force exerted

f = frictional force of the inclined plane by the plane, N. If the remaining component of the gravitational force parallel to the surface (mg sin ) is greater than the static frictional force fs then the body will slide down the inclined plane with acceleration (g sin fk/m), where fk is the kinetic friction force otherwise it will remain stationary. When the slope angle () is zero, sin is also zero so the body does not move. The MA or Mechanical advantage(ratio of load to effort) of the inclined plane equals to length of the plane over the height of the plane, in an ideal case where efficiency is 100%. To calculate the MA (Mechanical Advantage) of an inclined plane, divide the length by the height of the ramp. Example: The height of the ramp = 1 meter The length of the ramp = 5 meters Divide 1 by 5=5 ma= 5 External links An interactive simulation of Physics inclined plane [1] References [1] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Incline. htm 125 Lever 126 Lever Lever Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a small force over a greater distance at the other. Classification Simple machine Industry Construction In physics, a lever (from French lever, "to raise", c.f. a levant) is a rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum or pivot point to multiply the mechanical force (effort) that can be applied to another object (load). This leverage is also termed mechanical advantage, and is one example of the principle of moments. A lever is one of the six simple machines. Early The earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by Archimedes. "Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth with a lever" is a remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).[1] It is assumed that in ancient Egypt, constructors used the lever to move and uplift obelisks weighting more than 100 tons [2] . Force and levers The force applied (at end points of the lever) is proportional to the ratio of the length of the lever arm measured between the fulcrum (pivoting point) and application point of the force applied at each end of the lever. Mathematically, this is expressed by fulcrum, and

, where is the force, is the distance between the force and the is the turning force known as the moment or torque. Classes There are three classes of levers representing variations in the relative locations of the fulcrum, the load and the force:[3] Class 1: The fulcrum is located between the applied force and the load, for example, a crowbar or a pair of scissors or a seesaw. Class 2: The load is situated between the fulcrum and the force, for example, a wheelbarrow or a nutcracker. Class 3: The force is applied between the fulcrum and the load, for example, a pair of tweezers or the human mandible. Lever In the real world For the classical mechanics formulas to work, or to be a good approximation of real world applications, the lever must be made from a combination of rigid bodies, (i.e., a beam) and a rigid fulcrum. Any bending or other deformation must be negligible. References [1] Mackay, Alan Lindsay (1991). "Archimedes ca 287212 BC". A Dictionary of scientific quotations. London: Taylor and Francis. p. 11. ISBN 9780750301060. [2] Budge, E.A. Wallis (2003). Cleopatra's Needles and Other Egyptian Obelisks. Kessinger Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 9780766135246. [3] Davidovits, Paul (2008), Physics in Biology and Medicine, Third edition (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=e9hbt3xisb0C), Academic Press, p. 10, ISBN 978-0-12-369411-9, , Chapter 1, p. 10 (http:/ / books. google. be/ books? id=e9hbt3xisb0C& pg=PA10) External links Lever (http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/l/e/lever/source.html) at Diracdelta science and engineering encyclopedia A Simple Lever (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ASimpleLever/) by Stephen Wolfram, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Levers: Simple Machines (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/physics/machines/Levers.shtml) at EnchantedLearning.com Levers at enchanced learning (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/physics/machines/Levers.shtml) Wedge (mechanical device) A wedge is a triangular shaped tool, a compound and portable inclined plane, and one of the six classical simple machines. It can be used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt A wood splitting wedge end into forces perpendicular (normal) to its inclined surfaces.[1] The mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width.[2] [3] Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, it requires more force than

a long wedge with a narrow angle. History The origin of the wedge is unknown likely because it has been in use for over 9000 years. In ancient Egyptian quarries, bronze wedges were used to break away blocks of stone used in construction. Wooden wedges, that swelled after being saturated with water, were also used. Some indigenous peoples of the Americas used antler wedges for splitting and working wood to make canoes, dwellings and other objects. Examples for lifting and separating Wedges can be used to lift heavy objects, separating them from the surface they rest on. They can also be used to separate objects, such as blocks of cut stone. Splitting mauls and splitting wedges are used to split wood along the grain. A narrow wedge with a relatively long taper used to finely adjust the distance between objects is called a shim, and is commonly used in carpentry. 127 Wedge (mechanical device) 128 The tips of forks and nails are also wedges, as they split and separate the material into which they are pushed or driven; the shafts may then hold fast due to friction. Examples for holding fast Wedges can also be used to hold objects in place, such as engine parts (poppet valves), bicycle parts (stems and eccentric bottom brackets), and doors. A wedge-type door stop (door wedge) functions largely because of the friction generated between the bottom of the door and the wedge, and the wedge and the floor (or other surface). Mechanical advantage The mechanical advantage of a wedge can be calculated by dividing the length of the slope by the wedge's width:[2] The more acute, or narrow, the angle of a wedge, the greater the ratio of the length of its slope to its width, and thus the more mechanical advantage it will yield.[3] However, in an elastic material such as wood, friction may bind a narrow wedge more easily than a wide one. This is why the head of a splitting maul has a much wider angle than that of an axe. References [1] Wedges and screws (http:/ / em-ntserver. unl. edu/ Negahban/ em223/ note16/ note16. htm), , retrieved 2009-07-29. [2] Bowser, Edward Albert (1920), An elementary treatise on analytic mechanics: with numerous examples (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mE4GAQAAIAAJ) (25th ed.), D. Van Nostrand Company, pp. 202203, . [3] McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, Third Ed., Sybil P. Parker, ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992, p. 2041. Cross-section of a splitting wedge with its length oriented vertically. A

downward force produces forces perpendicular to its inclined surfaces. Wheel and axle 129 Wheel and axle The wheel and axle is a simple machine. A wheel and axle is a modified lever of the first class[1] that rotates in a circle around a center point or fulcrum. The larger wheel (or outside) rotates around the smaller wheel (axle). Bicycle wheels, ferris wheels, and gears are all examples of a wheel and axle. Wheels can also have a solid shaft with the center core as the axle such as a screwdriver or drill bit or the log in a log rolling contest. The traditional form as recognized in 19th century textbooks is as shown in the image. This also shows one of the most widely recognized applications, i.e., lifting water from a well. The form consists of a wheel that turns an axle, which turns a rope, which converts the rotational motion to linear motion for the purpose of lifting. A well known application of the wheel and axle. By considering the machine as a torque multiplier, i.e., the output is a torque, items such as gears and screwdrivers can fall within this category. Calculating mechanical advantage Ideal mechanical advantage The ideal mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula: Actual mechanical advantage The actual mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula: where R = resistance force, i.e. the weight of the bucket in this example. Eactual = actual effort force, the force required to turn the wheel Wheel and axle Examples Doorknobs are similar to the water well, as the mechanism uses the axle as a pinion to withdraw the latch. With a simple chain fall, the user pulls on the wheel using the input chain, so the input motion is actually linear. Screwdrivers - an example of the rotational form. The diameter of the handle gives a mechanical advantage. Gears Bicycle wheels Ferris wheels automobiles blenders clocks escalators golf carts helicopters jet

 lawn mowers microwaves propellers quads unicycles Zambonis vending machines Notes [1] Elroy McKendree Avery, Elementary Physics, New York : Sheldon & Company, 1878. 130 Momentum 131 Momentum Momentum SI symbol: p SI unit: kg m/s Conserved: yes Derivations from other quantities: p = mv p = m0v In classical mechanics, momentum (pl. momenta; SI unit kgm/s, or, equivalently, Ns) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object (p = mv). In relativistic mechanics, this quantity is multiplied by the Lorentz factor. Momentum is sometimes referred to as linear momentum to distinguish it from the related subject of angular momentum. Linear momentum is a vector quantity, since it has a direction as well as a magnitude. Angular momentum is a pseudovector quantity because it gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation. The total momentum of any group of objects remains the same unless outside forces act on the objects (law of conservation of momentum). Momentum is a conserved quantity, meaning that the total momentum of any closed system (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. Although originally expressed in Newton's Second Law, it also holds in special relativity, and with appropriate definitions a (generalized) momentum conservation law holds in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and general relativity. Title page of the 1st edition of Isaac Newton's Principia defining the laws of motion. History of the concept Mmentum was not merely the motion, which was mtus, but was the power residing in a moving object, captured by today's mathematical definitions. A mtus, "movement", was a stage in any sort of change,[1] while velocitas, "swiftness", captured only speed. The concept of momentum in classical mechanics was originated by a number of great thinkers and experimentalists. The first of these was Byzantine philosopher John Philoponus, in his commentary to Aristotle s Physics. As regards the natural motion of bodies falling through a medium, Aristotle's verdict that the speed is proportional to the weight of the moving bodies and indirectly proportional to the density of

the medium is disproved by Philoponus through appeal to the same kind of experiment that Galileo was to carry out centuries later.[2] This idea was refined by the European philosophers Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan. Buridan referred to impetus being proportional to the weight times the speed.[3] [4] Moreover, Buridan s theory was different to his predecessor s in that he did not consider impetus to be self dissipating, asserting that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus.[5] Ren Descartes believed that the total "quantity of motion" in the universe is conserved, where the quantity of motion is understood as the product of size and speed. This should not be read as a statement of the modern law of momentum, since he had no concept of mass as distinct from weight and size, and more importantly he believed that it is speed rather than velocity that is conserved. So for Descartes if a moving object were to bounce off a surface, Momentum 132 changing its direction but not its speed, there would be no change in its quantity of motion.[6] Galileo, later, in his Two New Sciences, used the Italian word "impeto." The question has been much debated as to what Isaac Newton contributed to the concept. The answer is apparently nothing, except to state more fully and with better mathematics what was already known. Yet for scientists, this was the death knell for Aristotelian physics and supported other progressive scientific theories (i.e., Kepler's laws of planetary motion). Conceptually, the first and second of Newton's Laws of Motion had already been stated by John Wallis in his 1670 work, Mechanica sive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: "the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist" and "If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result".[7] Wallis uses momentum and vis for force. Newton's Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, when it was first published in 1687, showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II[8] defines quantitas motus, "quantity of motion", as "arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly", which identifies it as momentum.[9] Thus when in Law II he refers to mutatio motus, "change of motion", being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to mean momentum and not motion.[10] It remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of "momentum" in its proper mathematical sense is not clear but by the time of Jenning's Miscellanea in 1721, four years before the final edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica, momentum M or "quantity of motion" was being defined for students as "a rectangle", the product of Q and V, where Q is "quantity of material" and V is "velocity", s/t.[11] Some languages, such as French still lack a single term for momentum, and use a phrase such as the

literal translation of "quantity of motion". Linear momentum of a particle If an object is moving in any reference frame, then it has momentum in that frame. It is important to note that momentum is frame dependent. That is, the same object may have a certain momentum in one frame of reference, but a different amount in another frame. For example, a moving object has momentum in a reference frame fixed to a spot on the ground, while at the same time having 0 momentum in a reference frame attached to the object's center of mass. The amount of momentum that an object has depends on two physical quantities: the mass and the velocity of the moving object in the frame of reference. In physics, the usual symbol for momentum is a bold p (bold because it is a vector); so this can be written Newton's apple in Einstein's elevator. In person A's frame of reference, the apple has non-zero velocity and momentum. In the elevator's and person B's frames of reference, it has zero velocity and momentum. where p is the momentum, m is the mass and v is the velocity. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg traveling due north at 1 m/s in straight and level flight has a momentum of 1 kg m/s due north measured from the ground. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit it has a velocity and momentum of zero. According to Newton's second law, the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the direction of that force. The derivation of force from momentum is given below, however because mass is constant the second term of the derivative is 0 so it is ignored. Momentum 133 (if mass is constant) or just simply where F is understood to be the resultant. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 1 m/s due north in 1 s. The thrust required to produce this acceleration is 1 newton. The change in momentum is 1 kg m/s. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit there is no change of momentum. Its pressing backward in the seat is a reaction to the unbalanced thrust, shortly to be balanced by the drag. Linear momentum of a system of particles Relating to mass and velocity The linear momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the momenta of all the individual objects in the system: where P is the total momentum of the particle system, mi and vi are the mass and the velocity vector of the i-th object, and n is the number of objects in the system. It can be shown that, in the center of mass frame the momentum of a system is zero. Additionally, the momentum in a frame of reference that is moving at a velocity vcm with respect to that frame is simply:

where: This is known as Euler's first law.[12] [13] Relating to force - General equations of motion Motion of a material body Momentum 134 The linear momentum of a system of particles can also be defined as the product of the total mass of the system times the velocity of the center of mass This is a special case of Newton's second law. (If mass is constant) For a more general derivation using tensors, we consider a moving body (see Figure), assumed as a continuum, occupying a volume at a time , having a surface area , with defined traction or surface forces per unit area represented by the stress vector acting on every point of every body surface (external and internal), body forces per unit of volume on every point within the volume , and a velocity field prescribed throughout the body. Following the previous equation, the linear momentum of the system is: By definition the stress vector is defined as , then Using the Gauss's divergence theorem to convert a surface integral to a volume integral gives (we denote as the differential operator): Now we only need to take care of the right side of the equation. We have to be careful, since we cannot just take the differential operator under the integral. This is because while the motion of the continuum body is taking place (the body is not necessarily solid), the volume we are integrating on can change with time too. So the above integral will be: Performing the differentiation in the first part, and applying the divergence theorem on the second part we obtain: Now the second term inside the integral is: Plugging this into the previous equation, and rearranging the terms, we get: We can easily recognize the two integral terms in the above equation. The first integral contains the Convective derivative of the velocity vector, and the second integral contains the change and flow of mass in time. Now lets assume that there are no sinks and sources in the system, that is mass is conserved, so this term is zero. Hence we obtain: putting this back into the original equation: For an arbitrary volume the integrand itself must be zero, and we have the Cauchy's equation of motion Momentum As we see the only extra assumption we made is that the system doesn't contain any mass sources or sinks, which means that mass is conserved. So this equation is valid for the motion of any continuum, even for that of fluids. If we

are examining elastic continuums only then the second term of the convective derivative operator can be neglected, and we are left with the usual time derivative, of the velocity field. If a system is in equilibrium, the change in momentum with respect to time is equal to 0, as there is no acceleration or using tensors, These are the equilibrium equations which are used in solid mechanics for solving problems of linear elasticity. In engineering notation, the equilibrium equations are expressed in Cartesian coordinates as Conservation of linear momentum The law of conservation of linear momentum is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions with external agents) is constant. One of the consequences of this is that the center of mass of any system of objects will always continue with the same velocity unless acted on by a force from outside the system. Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). So, momentum conservation can be philosophically stated as "nothing depends on location per se". In analytical mechanics the conservation of momentum is a consequence of translational invariance of Lagrangian in the absence of external forces. It can be proven that the total momentum is a constant of motion by making an infinitesimal translation of Lagrangian and then equating it with non translated Lagrangian. This is a special case of Noether's theorem [14] . In an isolated system (one where external forces are absent) the total momentum will be constant: this is implied by Newton's first law of motion. Newton's third law of motion, the law of reciprocal actions, which dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, is due to the conservation of momentum. Since position in space is a vector quantity, momentum (being the canonical conjugate of position) is a vector quantity as wellit has direction. Thus, when a gun is fired, the final total momentum of the system (the gun and the bullet) is the vector sum of the momenta of these two objects. Assuming that the gun and bullet were at rest prior to firing (meaning the initial momentum of the system was zero), the final total momentum must also equal 0. In an isolated system with only two objects, the change in momentum of one object must be equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the other object. Mathematically, Momentum has the special property that, in a closed system, it is always conserved, even in collisions and separations caused by explosive forces. Kinetic energy, on the other hand, is not conserved in collisions if they are 135 Momentum

136 inelastic. Since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate an unknown velocity following a collision or a separation if all the other masses and velocities are known. A common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles. Since momentum is always conserved, the sum of the momenta before the collision must equal the sum of the momenta after the collision: where u1 and u2 are the velocities before collision, and v1 and v2 are the velocities after collision. Determining the final velocities from the initial velocities (and vice versa) depend on the type of collision. There are two types of collisions that conserve momentum: elastic collisions, which also conserve kinetic energy, and inelastic collisions, which do not. Elastic collisions A collision between two pool balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision, due to their high rigidity; a totally elastic collision exists only in theory, occurring between bodies with mathematically infinite rigidity. In addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide, the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after: In one dimension When the initial velocities are known, the final velocities for a head-on collision are given by When the first body is much more massive than the other (that is, m1 m2), the final velocities are approximately given by Thus the more massive body does not change its velocity, and the less massive body travels at twice the velocity of the more massive body less its own original velocity. Assuming both masses were heading towards each other on impact, the less massive body is now therefore moving in the opposite direction at twice the speed of the more massive body plus its own original speed. In a head-on collision between two bodies of equal mass (that is, m1 = m2), the final velocities are given by A Newton's cradle demonstrates conservation of momentum. Momentum 137 Thus the bodies simply exchange velocities. If the first body has nonzero initial velocity u1 and the second body is at rest, then after collision the first body will be at rest and the second body will travel with velocity u1. This phenomenon is demonstrated by Newton's cradle. In multiple dimensions In the case of objects colliding in more than one dimension, as in oblique collisions, the velocity is resolved into orthogonal components with one component perpendicular to the plane of collision and the other component or components in the plane of collision. The velocity components in the plane of collision remain

unchanged, while the velocity perpendicular to the plane of collision is calculated in the same way as the one-dimensional case. For example, in a two-dimensional collision, the momenta can be resolved into x and y components. We can then calculate each component separately, and combine them to produce a vector result. The magnitude of this vector is the final momentum of the isolated system. Perfectly inelastic collisions A common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two snowballs collide and then stick together afterwards. This equation describes the conservation of momentum: It can be shown that a perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the maximum amount of kinetic energy is converted into other forms. For instance, if both objects stick together after the collision and move with a final common velocity, one can always find a reference frame in which the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted. This is true even in the relativistic case and utilized in particle accelerators to efficiently convert kinetic energy into new forms of mass-energy (i.e. to create massive particles). Coefficient of Restitution The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. It is a ratio hence it is a dimensionless quantity. The coefficient of restitution is given by: for two colliding objects, where is the scalar final velocity of the first object after impact is the scalar final velocity of the second object after impact is the scalar initial velocity of the first object before impact is the scalar initial velocity of the second object before impact. A perfectly elastic collision implies that CR is 1. So the relative velocity of approach is same as the relative velocity of separation of the colliding bodies. Inelastic collisions have (CR < 1). In case of a perfectly inelastic collision the relative velocity of separation of the centre of masses of the colliding bodies is 0. Hence the bodies stick together after collision. Momentum 138 Explosions An explosion occurs when an object is divided into two or more fragments due to a release of energy. Note that kinetic energy in a system of explosion is not conserved because it involves energy transformation (i.e. kinetic energy changes into heat and acoustic energy). See the inelastic collision page for more details. Modern definitions of momentum Momentum in relativistic mechanics In relativistic mechanics, in order to be conserved, the momentum of an object must be defined as where m0 is the invariant mass of the object and is the Lorentz factor, given by where v is the speed of the object and c is the speed of light. Relativistic momentum can also be written as invariant mass times the object's proper velocity, defined as the rate of

change of object position in the observer frame with respect to time elapsed on object clocks (i.e. object proper time). Within the domain of classical mechanics, relativistic momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum: at low velocity, m0v is approximately equal to m0v, the Newtonian expression for momentum. The total energy E of a body is related to the relativistic momentum p by A graphical representation of the interrelation of relativistic energy E, invariant mass m0, relativistic momentum p, and relativistic mass m = m0. where p denotes the magnitude of p. This relativistic energy-momentum relationship holds even for massless particles such as photons; by setting m0 = 0 it follows that For both massive and massless objects, relativistic momentum is related to the de Broglie wavelength by where h is the Planck constant. Momentum Four-vector formulation Relativistic four-momentum as proposed by Albert Einstein arises from the invariance of fourvectors under Lorentzian translation. The four-momentum P is defined as: where E = m0c2 is the total relativistic energy of the system, and px, py, and pz represent the x-, y-, and z-components of the relativistic momentum, respectively. The magnitude ||P|| of the momentum four-vector is equal to m0c, since which is invariant across all reference frames. For a closed system, the total four-momentum is conserved, which effectively combines the conservation of both momentum and energy into a single equation. For example, in the radiationless collision of two particles with rest masses and with initial velocities and , the respective final velocities and may be found from the conservation of four-momentum which states that: where For elastic collisions, the rest masses remain the same ( and ), while for inelastic collisions, the rest masses will increase after collision due to an increase in their heat energy content. The conservation of four-momentum can be shown to be the result of the homogeneity of spacetime. Generalization of momentum Momentum is the Noether charge of translational invariance. As such, not just particles, but fields and other things can have momentum. However, where spacetime is curved there is no Noether charge for translational invariance. Momentum in quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as an operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg uncertainty

principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables. For a single particle described in the position basis the momentum operator can be written as where is the gradient operator, is the reduced Planck constant, and i is the imaginary unit. This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though the momentum operator in other bases can take other forms, for example in the momentum basis the momentum operator is represented as where the operator p acting on a wave function (p) yields that wave function multiplied by the value p, in an analogous fashion to the way that the position operator acting on a wave function (x) yields that wave function multiplied by the value x. 139 Momentum 140 Momentum in electromagnetism Electric and magnetic fields possess momentum regardless of whether they are static or they change in time. The pressure, P, of an electrostatic (magnetostatic) field upon a metal sphere, cylindrical capacitor or ferromagnetic bar is: where , , , are the electromagnetic energy density, electric field, and magnetic field respectively. The electromagnetic pressure may be sufficiently high to explode the capacitor. Thus electric and magnetic fields do carry momentum. Light (visible, UV, radio) is an electromagnetic wave and also has momentum. Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This leads to applications such as the solar sail. The calculation of the momentum of light within dielectric media is somewhat controversial (see AbrahamMinkowski controversy [15]). Momentum is conserved in an electrodynamic system (it may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum of moving parts). The treatment of the momentum of a field is usually accomplished by considering the so-called energy-momentum tensor and the change in time of the Poynting vector integrated over some volume. This is a tensor field which has components related to the energy density and the momentum density. The definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the principle of least coupling: , instead of the customary where: is the electromagnetic vector potential the charged particle's invariant mass

its velocity its charge. Analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer There are some notable similarities in equations for momentum, heat, and mass transfer[16] . The molecular transfer equations of Newton's law for fluid momentum, Fourier's law for heat, and Fick's law for mass are very similar. A great deal of effort has been devoted to developing analogies among these three transport processes so as to allow prediction of one from any of the others. Notes [1] Lewis, Charleton T.; Charles Short. "mtus" (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=#29780). A Latin Dictionary. Tufts University: The Perseus Project. . Retrieved 200802-15. [2] Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,John Philoponus (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ philoponus/ #2. 1) [3] Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Mehdi Amin Razavi (1996). The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 0700703144 [4] Aydin Sayili (1987). "Ibn Sn and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1): 477482. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x. "Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of momentum of Newtonian mechanics.". [5] T.F.Glick,S.J.Livesay,F.Wallis, Medieval Science,Technology and Medicine:an Encyclopedia,p.107 (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC& pg=PA107& dq=after+ leaving+ the+ arm+ of+ the+ thrower,+ the+ projectile+ would+ be+ moved+ by+ an+ impetus+ given+ to+ it+ by+ the+ thrower+ and+ would+ continue+ to+ be+ moved+ as+ long+ as+ the+ impetus+ remained+ stronger+ Momentum than+ the+ resistance,+ and+ would+ be+ of+ infinite+ duration+ were+ it+ not+ diminish& cd=1#v=onepage& q=buridan& f=false) [6] Daniel Garber (1992). "Descartes' Physics" (http:/ / www. cup. es/ us/ catalogue/ catalogue. asp? isbn=9780521366960). In John Cottingham. The Cambridge Companion to Descartes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310319. ISBN 0-521-36696-8. . [7] Scott, J.F. (1981). The Mathematical Work of John Wallis, D.D., F.R.S.. Chelsea Publishing Company. pp. 111. ISBN 0828403147. [8] Newton placed his definitions up front as did Wallis, with whom Newton can hardly fail to have been familiar. [9] Grimsehl, Ernst; Leonard Ary Woodward, Translator (1932). A Textbook of Physics. London, Glasgow: Blackie & Son limited. pp. 78. [10] Rescigno, Aldo (2003). Foundation of Pharmacokinetics. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 19. [11] Jennings, John (1721). Miscellanea in Usum Juventutis Academicae. Northampton: R. Aikes & G. Dicey. pp. 67. [12] "Euler's Laws of Motion" (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ research/ eulers-laws-of-motion-wom/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-30. [13] McGill and King (1995). Engineering Mechanics, An Introduction to Dynamics (3rd ed.). PWS Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-93399-8. [14] Hand, Louis N.; Finch, Janet D.. Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. Chapter

4. [15] http:/ / prl. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v104/ i7/ e070401 [16] Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass transfer (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hZxRAAAAMAAJ& cd=3) (2 ed.). Wiley. . References Halliday, David; Robert Resnick (1960-2007). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 9. Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7 Stenger, Victor J. (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 in particular. Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6 Hand, Louis N.; Finch, Janet D.. Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 4. External links Conservation of momentum (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch04/ch04.html) - A chapter from an online textbook 141 Friction 142 Friction Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and/or material elements sliding against each other. It may be thought of as the opposite of "slipperiness". There are several types of friction: Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.[1] [2] Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.[3] [4] [5] Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid body through a fluid. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.[2] When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. This property can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction between pieces of wood to start a fire. Force diagram for block on ground. Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. W is the force of weight, N is the normal force, F is an applied force, and Ff is the force of kinetic friction which is equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction times the normal force. Since the magnitude of the applied force is greater than the

magnitude of the force of kinetic friction opposing it, the block is accelerating to the left. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology. Friction is not a fundamental force but occurs because of the electromagnetic forces between charged particles which constitute the surfaces in contact. Because of the complexity of these interactions friction cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically. History Several famous scientists and engineers contributed to our understanding of dry friction.[6] They include Leonardo da Vinci, Guillaume Amontons, John Theophilus Desaguliers, Leonard Euler, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Nikolai Pavlovich Petrov and Osborne Reynolds later supplemented this understanding with theories of lubrication. Basic properties Basic properties of friction have been described as laws: [6] Amontons' 1st Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load. Amontons' 2nd Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity. Amontons' 2nd Law is an idealization assuming perfectly rigid and inelastic materials. For example, wider tires on cars provide more traction than narrow tires for a given vehicle mass because of surface deformation of the tire. Friction 143 Dry friction Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction are static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces. Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the equation: where is the force exerted by friction (in the case of equality, the maximum possible magnitude of this force). is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials, is the normal force exerted between the surfaces. The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would

commence. This maximum force is known as traction. The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road. In the case of kinetic friction, the direction of the friction force may or may not match the direction of motion: a block sliding atop a table with rectilinear motion is subject to friction directed along the line of motion; an automobile making a turn is subject to friction acting perpendicular to the line of motion (in which case it is said to be 'normal' to it). The direction of the static friction force can be visualized as directly opposed to the force that would otherwise cause motion, were it not for the static friction preventing motion. In this case, the friction force exactly cancels the applied force, so the net force given by the vector sum, equals zero. It is important to note that in all cases, Newton's first law of motion holds. Friction 144 The normal force The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where . In this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence the mass of the block. If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal force between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity. Coefficient of friction

Block on a ramp (top) and corresponding The 'coefficient of friction' (COF), also known as a 'frictional coefficient' or free body diagram of just the block (bottom). 'friction coefficient' and symbolized by the Greek letter , is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7. For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. For surfaces in relative motion equal to , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb friction is , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface. The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement it has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon. Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property even magnetic levitation vehicles have drag. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that is always < 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated Friction 145 surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1. While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now

popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test. Approximate coefficients of friction Materials Static friction, Dry & clean Aluminum Steel 0.61 Copper Steel 0.53 Brass Steel 0.51 Cast iron Copper 1.05 Cast iron Zinc 0.85 Concrete (wet) Rubber 0.30 Concrete (dry) Rubber 1.0 Concrete Wood 0.62 Copper Glass 0.68 Glass Glass 0.94 Metal Wood 0.20.6 Polythene Steel 0.2 Steel Steel 0.80 Steel Teflon 0.04 Teflon Teflon 0.04 Wood Wood 0.250.5 Lubricated [7] [7] [8] [7] 0.2 (wet) [8] 0.2 [8] [8] 0.16 [8] [8] 0.04 [8] [8] 0.04 [7] [7] 0.2 (wet) The slipperiest solid known, discovered in 1999, dubbed BAM (for the elements boron, aluminum,

and magnesium), has an approximate coefficient of friction of 0.02, about half that of Teflon.[9] Friction 146 Static friction Static friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as s, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: . When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to . Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicablethe friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction. An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction. The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as limiting friction,[10] although this term is not used universally.[1] It is also known as traction. Kinetic friction Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.[11] [12] In fact, Richard Feynman reports that "with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference."[13] New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.[14] Contrary to earlier explanations, kinetic friction is now understood not to be caused by surface roughness but by chemical bonding between the surfaces.[15] Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.[16] Angle of friction For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction angle. It is defined as: where is the angle from horizontal and is the static coefficient of friction between the objects. [17] This formula

can also be used to calculate from empirical measurements of the friction angle. Friction at the atomic level Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly-zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum.[18] Limitations of the Coulomb model The Coulomb approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this contact area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact), and that frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area (you can see the experiments on friction from Leonardo Da Friction Vinci). Such reasoning aside, however, the approximation is fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and versatility though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems. When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive in this way. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications. Fluid friction Fluid friction occurs between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. This internal resistance to flow is described by viscosity. In everyday terms viscosity is "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. Lubricated friction Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication

is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces. In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other, causing destructive damage, heat, and failure. Skin friction Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is moving through it. Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity. Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as much as is practicable. 147 Friction Internal friction Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes plastic deformation. Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature. The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is what is known in the literature as elastic deformation (or elasticity). Larger forces in excess of the elastic limit may cause a permanent (irreversible) deformation of the object. This is what is known as plastic deformation. Other types of friction Rolling resistance Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object and/or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that

associated with kinetic friction.[19] Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.[20] One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.[21] Triboelectric effect Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture. Belt friction Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation. In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks. Reducing friction Devices Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction. Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load. For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings. 148 Friction 149 Lubricants A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated. Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as

graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant. Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as dither. Energy of friction According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force. When an object is pushed along a surface, the energy converted to heat is given by: where is the normal force, is the coefficient of kinetic friction, is the coordinate along which the object transverses. Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility. Work of friction In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work, because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work.[22] However, friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing positive work.[23] The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating surfaces occur when work due frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.[24] Friction 150 Applications Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines. Transportation

 Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails. Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car. Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface. Measurement A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface. A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness. References [1] Beer, Ferdinand P.; E. Russel Johnston, Jr. (1996). Vector Mechanics for Engineers (Sixth ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 397. ISBN 0072976888. [2] Meriam, J. L.; L. G. Kraige (2002). Engineering Mechanics (fifth ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 328. ISBN 0471602930. [3] Ruina, Andy; Rudra Pratap (2002). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics (http:/ / ruina. tam. cornell. edu/ Book/ RuinaPratapNoProblems. pdf). Oxford University Press. p. 713. . [4] Hibbeler, R. C. (2007). Engineering Mechanics (Eleventh ed.). Pearson, Prentice Hall. p. 393. ISBN 0131271466. [5] Soutas-Little, Robert W.; Inman, Balint (2008). Engineering Mechanics. Thomson. p. 329. ISBN 0495296104. [6] "Introduction to Tribology Friction" (http:/ / depts. washington. edu/ nanolab/ ChemE554/ Summaries ChemE 554/ Introduction Tribology. htm). . Retrieved 2008-12-21. [7] Engineers: Handbook Friction Coefficients (http:/ / www. engineershandbook. com/ Tables/ frictioncoefficients. htm) [8] "The Engineering Toolbox: Friction and Coefficients of Friction" (http:/ / www. engineeringtoolbox. com/ friction-coefficients-d_778. html). . Retrieved 2008-11-23. [9] Kurt Kleiner (2008-11-21). "Material slicker than Teflon discovered by accident" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn16102-material-slicker-than-teflon-discovered-by-accident. html). . Retrieved 2008-12-25. [10] Bhavikatti, S. S.; K. G. Rajashekarappa (1994). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4wkLl4NvmWAC& pg=PA112& lpg=PA112). New Age International. p. 112. ISBN 9788122406177. . Retrieved 2007-10-21. [11] Sheppard and Tongue (2005). Statics: Analysis and Design of Systems in Equilibrium. Wiley and Sons. p. 618. ISBN 0471372994. "In general, for given contacting surfaces, k < s" [12] Meriam and Kraige (2002). Engineering Mechanics: Statics. Wiley and Sons. p. 330. ISBN 0471406465. "Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction force." [13] Feynman, Leighton, and Sands (1964). "The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I, p. 12-5" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ frict2. html). Addison-Wesley. . Retrieved 2009-10-16. [14] Persson, B. N.; Volokitin, A. I (2002). "Theory of rubber friction: Nonstationary sliding" (http:/ / juwel. fz-juelich. de:8080/ dspace/ bitstream/ 2128/ 1343/ 1/ 17249. pdf). Physical Review B 65: 134106. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.65.134106. . [15] Beatty, William J.. "Recurring science misconceptions in K-6 textbooks" (http:/ / amasci. com/ miscon/ miscon4. html#fric). . Retrieved 2007-06-08. [16] Persson, Bo N. J., Sliding Friction [17] Nichols, Edward Leamington; Franklin, William Suddards (1898). The Elements of Physics

(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8IlCAAAAIAAJ). 1. Macmillan. p. 101. . [18] Ternes, Markus; Lutz, Christopher P.; Hirjibehedin, Cyrus F.; Giessibl, Franz J.; Heinrich, Andreas J. (2008-02-22). "The Force Needed to Move an Atom on a Surface". Science 319 (5866): 10661069. doi:10.1126/science.1150288. PMID 18292336. [19] Benjamin Silliman, Principles of Physics, Or Natural Philosophy, Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & company publishers (1871) [20] Hans-Jrgen Butt, Karlheinz Graf, Michael Kappl, Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces, Wiley, ISBN 3527404139 (2006) [21] Hogan, C. Michael (1973). "Analysis of highway noise". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2: 387. doi:10.1007/BF00159677. [22] Den Hartog, J. P. (1961). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WRXrtu44W9UC). Courier Dover Publications. p. 142. ISBN 0486607542. . [23] Leonard, William J (2000). Minds-on Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=t_AKvmza5s8C& pg=PA603). Kendall/Hunt. p. 603. ISBN 0-7872-3932-1. . [24] Bayer, Raymond George (2004). Mechanical wear (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=Q64Kq2HlyucC& pg=PA3& lpg=PA3& dq=Physical+ wear+ is+ associated+ with+ friction). CRC Press. pp. 1, 2. ISBN 0824746201. . Retrieved 200807-07. Friction 151 External links Coefficients of Friction (http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm) tables of coefficients, plus many links Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips (http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/) from the University of New South Wales CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics Values for Coefficient of Friction (http://books.google.com/ books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=PT2503&lpg=PT2503) Characteristic Phenomena in Conveyor Chain (http://chain-guide.com/basics/2-3-1-coefficient-offriction. html) Atomic-scale Friction Research and Education Synergy Hub (AFRESH) (http://nsfafresh.org) an Engineering Virtual Organization for the atomic-scale friction community to share, archive, link, and discuss data, knowledge and tools related to atomic-scale friction. Drag (physics) Shape and flow Form Skin drag friction 0% 100% ~10% ~90% ~90% ~10% 100% 0% In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) refers to forces that oppose the relative

motion of an object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag forces act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow velocity.[1] Unlike other resistive forces such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.[2] For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement. The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust. In astrodynamics, and depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an inefficiency requiring expense of additional energy during launch of the space object or as a bonus simplifying return from orbit. Drag (physics) 152 Types of drag Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories: parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag, and wave drag (aerodynamics) or wave resistance (ship hydrodynamics). The phrase parasitic drag is mainly used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, drag is most often dominating, and then the qualifier "parasitic" is meaningless. Form drag, skin friction and interference drag on bluff bodies are not coined as being elements of parasitic drag, but directly as elements of drag. Further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in the aviation perspective of drag, or in the design of either semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs when a solid object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound in that fluid or in case there is a freely-moving fluid surface with surface waves radiating from the object, e.g. from a ship. Also, the amount of drag experienced by the ship is decided upon by the amount of surface area showing in the direction the ship is heading and the speed it is going up. For high velocities or more precisely, at high Reynolds numbers the overall drag of an object is characterized by a dimensionless number called the drag coefficient, and is calculated using the drag equation. Assuming a more-or-less constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity. Thus, the resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity. The standard equation for drag is one half the coefficient of drag multiplied by the fluid mass density, the cross sectional area of the specified item, and the square of the velocity.

Wind resistance is a layman's term used to describe drag. Its use is often vague, and is usually used in a relative sense (e.g., a badminton shuttlecock has more wind resistance than a squash ball). Drag at high velocity The drag equation calculates the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity (i.e. high Reynolds number, Re > ~1000), also called quadratic drag. The equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A (L being some length). The force on a moving object due to a fluid is: see derivation where is the force vector of drag, is the density of the fluid,[3] is the velocity of the object relative to the fluid, is the reference area, is the drag coefficient (a dimensionless parameter, e.g. 0.25 to 0.45 for a car) The reference area A is often defined as the area of the orthographic projection of the object on a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion e.g. for objects with a simple shape, such as a sphere, this is the cross sectional area. Sometimes different reference areas are given for the same object in which case a drag coefficient corresponding to each of these different areas must be given. Drag (physics) 153 In case of a wing, comparison of the drag to the lift force is easiest when the reference areas are the same, since then the ratio of drag to lift force is just the ratio of drag to lift coefficient.[4] Therefore, the reference for a wing often is the planform (or wing) area rather than the frontal area.[5] For an object with a smooth surface, and non-fixed separation points like a sphere or circular cylinder the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re, even up to very high values (Re of the order 107). [6] [7] For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a circular disk with its plane normal to the flow direction, the drag coefficient is constant for Re > 3,500.[7] Further the drag coefficient Cd is, in general, a function of the orientation of the flow with respect to the object (apart from symmetrical objects like a sphere). Power The power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by: Note that the power needed to push an object through a fluid increases as the cube of the velocity. A car cruising on a highway at 50 mph (80 km/h) may require only 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to overcome air drag, but that same car at 100 mph (160 km/h) requires 80 hp (60 kW). With a doubling of speed the drag (force) quadruples per the formula. Exerting four times the force over a fixed distance produces four times as much work. At twice the speed the work (resulting in displacement over a fixed distance) is done twice as fast. Since power is the rate of doing work, four

times the work done in half the time requires eight times the power. Velocity of a falling object The velocity as a function of time for an object falling through a non-dense medium, and released at zero relative-velocity v = 0 at time t = 0, is roughly given by a function involving a hyperbolic tangent (tanh): The hyperbolic tangent has a limit value of one, for large time t. In other words, velocity asymptotically approaches a maximum value called the terminal velocity vt: For a potato-shaped object of average diameter d and of density obj, terminal velocity is about For objects of water-like density (raindrops, hail, live objects animals, birds, insects, etc.) falling in air near the surface of the Earth at sea level, terminal velocity is roughly equal to with d in metre and vt in m/s. For example, for a human body ( ( ~ 0.2 m) ~ 40 m/s, for a small bird ( ~ 0.05 m) ~ 0.6 m) ~ 70 m/s, for a small animal like a cat ~ 20 m/s, for an insect ( ~ 0.01 m) ~ 9 m/s, and so on. Terminal velocity for very small objects (pollen, etc.) at low Reynolds numbers is determined by Stokes law. Terminal velocity is higher for larger creatures, and thus potentially more deadly. A creature such as a mouse falling at its terminal velocity is much more likely to survive impact with the ground than a human falling at its terminal velocity. A small animal such as a cricket impacting at its terminal velocity will probably be unharmed. This, combined with the relative ratio of limb cross-sectional area vs. body mass, (commonly referred to as the Square-cube law) explains why small animals can fall from a large height and not be harmed.[8] Drag (physics) 154 Very low Reynolds numbers Stokes' drag The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for objects or particles moving through a fluid at relatively slow speeds where there is no turbulence (i.e. low Reynolds number, ).[9] In this case, the force of drag is approximately proportional to velocity, but opposite in direction. The equation for viscous resistance is:[10]

Trajectories of three objects thrown at the same angle (70). The black object does not experience any form of drag and moves along a parabola. The blue object experiences Stokes' drag, and the green object Newton drag. where: is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object, and is the velocity of the object When an object falls from rest, its velocity will be which asymptotically approaches the terminal velocity . For a given , heavier objects fall faster. For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid (and thus at small Reynolds number), George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the drag constant, where: is the Stokes radius of the particle, and is the fluid viscosity. For example, consider a small sphere with radius = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 m) moving through water at a velocity of 10 m/s. Using 103 Pas as the dynamic viscosity of water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.09 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium experiences as it swims through water.. Drag (physics) 155 Drag in aerodynamics Lift induced drag Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag) is drag which occurs as the result of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or fuselage of an airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components, including drag due to the creation of vortices (vortex drag) and the presence of additional viscous drag (lift-induced viscous drag). The vortices in the flow-field, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive from the turbulent mixing of air of varying pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the body, which is a necessary condition for the creation of lift. With other parameters remaining the same, as the lift generated by a body increases, so does the lift-induced drag. For an aircraft in flight, this means that as the angle of attack, and therefore the lift coefficient, increases to the Induced drag vs. lift point of stall, so does the lift-induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, increases due to the formation of turbulent unattached flow on the surface of the body. Parasitic drag Parasitic drag (also called parasite drag) is drag caused by moving a solid object through a fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components including viscous pressure drag (form drag), and drag due to surface roughness (skin friction drag). Additionally, the presence of multiple bodies in relative proximity may incur so called interference drag, which is sometimes described as a component of parasitic drag. In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain

lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the induced drag becomes much less, but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds in the transonic, wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximise gliding range in the event of an engine failure. Power curve in aviation The interaction of parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed can be plotted as a characteristic curve, illustrated here. In aviation, this is often referred to as the power curve, and is important to pilots because it shows that, below a certain airspeed, maintaining airspeed counterintuitively requires more thrust as speed decreases, rather than less. The consequences of being "behind the curve" in flight are important and are taught as part of pilot training. At the subsonic airspeeds where the "U" shape of this curve is significant, wave drag has not yet become a factor, and so it is not shown in the curve. The power curve: parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed Drag (physics) Wave drag in transonic and supersonic flow Wave drag (also called compressibility drag) is drag which is created by the presence of a body moving at high speed through a compressible fluid. In aerodynamics, Wave drag consists of multiple components depending on the speed regime of the flight. In transonic flight (Mach numbers greater than about 0.8 and less than about 1.4), wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves on the body, formed when areas of local supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0) flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs Qualitative variation in Cd factor with Mach on bodies traveling well below the speed of sound, as the local speed number for aircraft of air on a body increases when it accelerates over the body, in this case above Mach 1.0. However, full supersonic flow over the vehicle will not develop until well past Mach 1.0. Aircraft flying at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag at these speeds. In supersonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 1.0), wave drag is the result of shockwaves present on the body, typically oblique shockwaves formed at the leading and trailing edges of the body. In highly supersonic flows, or in bodies with turning angles sufficiently large, unattached shockwaves, or bow waves will instead form.

Additionally, local areas of transonic flow behind the initial shockwave may occur at lower supersonic speeds, and can lead to the development of additional, smaller shockwaves present on the surfaces of other lifting bodies, similar to those found in transonic flows. In supersonic flow regimes, wave drag is commonly separated into two components, supersonic lift-dependent wave drag and supersonic volume-dependent wave drag. The closed form solution for the minimum wave drag of a body of revolution with a fixed length was found by Sears and Haack, and is known as the Sears-Haack Distribution. Similarly, for a fixed volume, the shape for minimum wave drag is the Von Karman Ogive. Busemann's Biplane is not, in principle, subject to wave drag at all when operated at its design speed, but is incapable of generating lift. d'Alembert's paradox In 1752 d'Alembert proved that potential flow, the 18th century state-of-the-art inviscid flow theory amenable to mathematical solutions, resulted in the prediction of zero drag. This was in contradiction with experimental evidence, and became known as d'Alembert's paradox. In the 19th century the NavierStokes equations for the description of viscous flow were developed by Saint-Venant, Navier and Stokes. Stokes derived the drag around a sphere at very low Reynolds numbers, the result of which is called Stokes law.[11] In the limit of high-Reynolds numbers the NavierStokes equations approach the inviscid Euler equations; of which the potential-flow solutions considered by d'Alembert are solutions. However, at high Reynolds numbers all experiments showed there is drag. Attempts to construct inviscid steady flow solutions to the Euler equations, other than the potential flow solutions, did not result in realistic results.[11] The notion of boundary layers introduced by Prandtl in 1904, founded on both theory and experiments explained the causes of drag at high Reynolds numbers. The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid close to the object's boundary, where viscous effects remain important when the viscosity becomes very small (or equivalently the Reynolds number becomes very large).[11] 156 Drag (physics) See also

 Added mass Aerodynamic force Angle of attack Boundary layer Coand effect Drag crisis Drag coefficient Drag equation Drag-resistant aerospike Gravity drag KeuleganCarpenter number Morison equation Parasitic drag Ram pressure Reynolds number Stall (flight) Stokes' law Terminal velocity Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] French (1970), p. 210 French (1970), p. 211, Eq. 7-20 Note that for the Earth's atmosphere, the air density can be found using the barometric formula. It is 1.293 kg/m3 at 0 C and 1 atmosphere. Size effects on drag (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ sized. html), from NASA Glenn Research Center. Wing geometry definitions (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ geom. html), from NASA Glenn Research Center. Roshko, Anatol (1961). "Experiments on the flow past a circular cylinder at very high Reynolds number". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 10 (3): 345356. doi:10.1017/S0022112061000950. [7] Batchelor (1967), p. 341. [8] Haldane, J.B.S., "On Being the Right Size" (http:/ / irl. cs. ucla. edu/ papers/ right-size. html) [9] Drag Force (http:/ / www. ac. wwu. edu/ ~vawter/ PhysicsNet/ Topics/ Dynamics/ Forces/ DragForce. html) [10] Air friction (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ airfri. html), from Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University [11] Batchelor (2000), pp. 337343. References French, A. P. (1970). Newtonian Mechanics (The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series) (1st ed.). W.

W. Norton & Company Inc., New York. ISBN 393-09958-X. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Huntley, H. E. (1967). Dimensional Analysis. Dover. LOC 67-17978. Batchelor, George (2000). An introduction to fluid dynamics. Cambridge Mathematical Library (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. MR1744638. ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0. 157 Drag (physics) 158 External links Educational materials on air resistance (http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0609156) Aerodynamic Drag (http://craig.backfire.ca/pages/autos/drag) and its effect on the acceleration and top speed of a vehicle. Vehicle Aerodynamic Drag calculator (http://www.apexgarage.com/tech/horsepower_calc.shtml) based on drag coefficient, frontal area and speed. Centripetal force Centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path: it is always directed orthogonal to the velocity of the body, toward the instantaneous center of curvature of the path.[1] [2] The term centripetal force comes from the Latin words centrum ("center") and petere ("tend towards", "aim at"), signifying that the force is directed inward toward the center of curvature of the path. The mathematical description was derived in 1659 by Dutch physicist Cristiaan Huygens. Isaac Newton's description was: "A centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a center."[3] Formula The magnitude of the centripetal force on an object of mass m moving at a speed v along a path with radius of curvature r is:[4] Figure 1: A simple example corresponding to uniform circular motion. A ball is tethered to a rotational axis and is rotating counterclockwise around the specified path at a constant angular rate . The velocity of the ball is a vector tangential to the orbit, and is continuously changing direction, a change requiring a radially inward directed centripetal force. The centripetal force is provided by the tether, which is in a state of tension. where is the centripetal acceleration. The direction of the force is toward the center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle, the circle that best fits the local path of the object, if the path is not circular.[5] This force is also sometimes written in terms of the angular velocity of the object

about the center of the circle: Sources of centripetal force For a satellite in orbit around a planet, the centripetal force is supplied by gravity. In fact some sources, including Newton, refer to the entire gravitational force as a centripetal force. [6] [7] The gravitational force acts on each object toward the other, which is toward the center of mass of the two objects; for circular orbits, this center of gravity is the center of the circular orbits. For non-circular orbits or trajectories, only the component of gravitational force directed orthogonal to the path (toward the center of the osculating circle) is termed centripetal; the remaining component acts to speed up or slow down the satellite in its orbit. [8] For an object swinging around on the end of a rope in a horizontal plane, the centripetal force on the object is supplied by the Centripetal force 159 tension of the rope. For a spinning object, internal tensile stress provides the centripetal forces that make the parts of the object trace out circular motions. The rope example is an example involving a 'pull' force. The centripetal force can also be supplied as a 'push' force such as in the case where the normal reaction of a wall supplies the centripetal force for a wall of death rider. Another example of centripetal force arises in the helix which is traced out when a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field in the absence of other external forces. In this case, the magnetic force is the centripetal force which acts towards the helix axis. Analysis of several cases Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and acceleration. Uniform circular motion Uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this case. Geometric derivation The circle in the left of Figure 2 shows an object moving on a circle at constant speed at two different times in its orbit. Its position is given by the vector R and its velocity by the vector v. The velocity vector is always perpendicular to the position vector (since the velocity vector is always tangent to the circle of motion). Since R moves in a circle, so does v. The circular motion of the velocity is shown in the circle on the right of Figure 2, along with its acceleration a. Just as velocity is the rate of change of position, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Since the position and velocity vectors move in tandem, they go around their circles in the same time T. That time equals the distance traveled divided by the velocity and, by analogy,

Setting these two equations equal and solving for |a|, we get The angular rate of rotation in radians per second is: Figure 2: Left circle: The particle's orbit particle moves in a circle and velocity is tangent to orbit; Right circle: a "velocity circle"; velocity vectors are brought together so tails coincide: because velocity is a constant in uniform motion, the tip of the velocity vector describes a circle, and acceleration is tangent to the velocity circle. That means the acceleration is radially inward in the left-hand circle showing the orbit. Centripetal force 160 Comparing the two circles in Figure 2 also shows that the acceleration points toward the center of the R circle. For example, in the left circle in Figure 2, the position vector R pointing at 12 o'clock has a velocity vector v pointing at 9 o'clock, which (switching to the circle on the right) has an acceleration vector a pointing at 6 o'clock. So the acceleration vector is opposite to R and toward the center of the R circle. Derivation using vectors Figure 3 shows the vector relationships for uniform circular motion. The rotation itself is represented by the vector , which is normal to the plane of the orbit (using the right-hand rule) and has magnitude given by: Figure 3: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; vector representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit with polarity determined by the right-hand rule and magnitude d /dt. with the angular position at time t. In this subsection, d/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The distance traveled l of the particle in time dt along the circular path is which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rd and is in the direction tangent to the circular path. Consequently, In other words, Differentiating with respect to time, Lagrange's formula states: Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that r(t) = 0 at all times, In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude: where vertical bars |...| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius R of the path. This result agrees with the previous section if the substitution is made for rate of rotation in terms of the period of rotation T: Centripetal force When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with this one.

A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system. Example: The banked turn The upper panel in Figure 4 shows a ball in circular motion on a banked curve. The curve is banked at an angle from the horizontal, and the surface of the road is considered to be slippery. The object is to find what angle the bank must have so the ball does not slide off the road.[9] Intuition tells us that on a flat curve with no banking at all, the ball will simply slide off the road; while with a very steep banking, the ball will slide to the center unless it travels the curve rapidly. Apart from any acceleration that might occur in the direction of the path, the lower panel of Figure 4 indicates the forces on the ball. There are two forces; one is the force of gravity vertically downward through the center of mass of the ball mg where m is the mass of the ball and g is the gravitational acceleration; the second is the upward normal force exerted by the road perpendicular to the road surface man. The centripetal force demanded by the curved motion also is shown in Figure 4: Upper panel: Ball on a banked circular Figure 4. This centripetal force is not a third force applied to the ball, track moving with constant speed v; Lower panel: Forces on the ball. but rather must be provided by the net force on the ball resulting from vector addition of the normal force and the force of gravity. The resultant or net force on the ball found by vector addition of the normal force exerted by the road and vertical force due to gravity must equal the centripetal force dictated by the need to travel a circular path. The curved motion is maintained so long as this net force provides the centripetal force requisite to the motion. The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude |Fh| = m|an|sin. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force: |Fv| = m|an|cos = m|g|, which implies |an|=|g| / cos. Substituting into the above formula for |Fh| yields a horizontal force to be: On the other hand, at velocity |v| on a circular path of radius R, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force Fc of magnitude: Consequently the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition: or, As the angle of bank approaches 90, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for |v|2/R. In words, this equation states that for faster speeds (bigger |v|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for 161 Centripetal force 162 ), and for sharper turns (smaller R) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When the angle does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to

provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a different radius where the balance can be realized.[10] [11] These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual.[12] Nonuniform circular motion As a generalization of the uniform circular motion case, suppose the angular rate of rotation is not constant. The acceleration now has a tangential component, as shown in Figure 5. This case is used to demonstrate a derivation strategy based upon a polar coordinate system. Let r(t) be a vector that describes the position of a point mass as a function of time. Since we are assuming circular motion, let r(t) = Rur, Figure 5: Velocity and acceleration for where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and ur is the unit vector nonuniform circular motion: the velocity vector is pointing from the origin to the point mass. The direction of ur is tangential to the orbit, but the acceleration vector described by , the angle between the x-axis and the unit vector, is not radially inward because of its tangential component a that increases the rate of rotation: measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. The other unit vector for d / dt = | a| / R. polar coordinates, u is perpendicular to ur and points in the direction of increasing . These polar unit vectors can be expressed in terms of Cartesian unit vectors in the x and y directions, denoted i and j respectively:[13] ur = cos i + sin j and u = -sin i + cos j. We differentiate to find velocity: where is the angular velocity d/dt. This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangential to the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be R. Differentiating again, and noting that we find that the acceleration, a is: Thus, the radial and tangential components of the acceleration are: and Centripetal force 163 where |v| = R is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed). These equations express mathematically that, in the case of an object that moves along a circular path with a changing speed, the acceleration of the body may be decomposed into a perpendicular component that changes the direction of motion (the centripetal acceleration), and a parallel, or tangential component, that changes the speed. General planar motion Polar coordinates The above results can be derived perhaps more simply in polar coordinates, and at the same time extended to general motion within a plane, as shown next. Polar coordinates in the plane employ a radial unit vector u and an angular unit vector u, as shown in Figure 6.[14] A particle at position r is described by:

Figure 6: Polar unit vectors at two times t and t + dt for a particle with trajectory r ( t ); on the left the unit vectors u and u at the two times are moved so their tails all meet, and are shown to trace an arc of a unit radius circle. Their rotation in time dt is d, just the same angle as the rotation of the trajectory r ( t ). where the notation is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector u travels with the particle and always points in the same direction as r(t). Unit vector u also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to u. Thus, u and u form a local Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path traveled by the particle.[15] By moving the unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of Figure 6, it is seen that u and u form a right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same angle (t) as r(t). When the particle moves, its velocity is To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector u is needed. Because u is a unit vector, its magnitude is fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change du has a component only perpendicular to u. When the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount d, u, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by d. See Figure 6. Therefore the change in u is or In a similar fashion, the rate of change of u is found. As with u, u is a unit vector and can only rotate without changing size. To remain orthogonal to u while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount d, u, which is orthogonal to r(t), also rotates by d. See Figure 6. Therefore, the change du is orthogonal to u and proportional to d (see Centripetal force Figure 6): Figure 6 shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if du is positive with d, then du must decrease. Substituting the derivative of u into the expression for velocity: To obtain the acceleration, another time differentiation is done: Substituting the derivatives of u and u, the acceleration of the particle is:[16] As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then d/dt = 0, v = v, and: These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on nonuniform circular motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force.[17] For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in Figure 6, the instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly

to the coordinate system defined by u and u and to the length |r(t)| = . Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation.[18] [19] To deal directly with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next. 164 Centripetal force 165 Local coordinates By local coordinates is meant a set of coordinates that travel with the particle, [20] and have orientation determined by the path of the particle.[21] Unit vectors are formed as shown in Figure 7, both tangential and normal to the path. This coordinate system sometimes is referred to as intrinsic or path coordinates[22] [23] or nt-coordinates, for normal-tangential, referring to these unit vectors. These coordinates are a very special example of a more general concept of local coordinates from the theory of differential forms.[24] Distance along the path of the particle is the arc length s, considered to be a known function of time. A center of curvature is defined at each position s located a distance (the radius of curvature) from the curve on a line along the normal un (s). The required distance (s) at arc length s is defined in terms of the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve, which in turn is determined by the path itself. If the orientation of the tangent relative to some starting position is (s), then (s) is defined by the derivative d/ds: Figure 7: Local coordinate system for planar motion on a curve. Two different positions are shown for distances s and s + ds along the curve. At each position s, unit vector un points along the outward normal to the curve and unit vector ut is tangential to the path. The radius of curvature of the path is as found from the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve with respect to arc length, and is the radius of the osculating circle at position s. The unit circle on the left shows the rotation of the unit vectors with s. The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature is a signed quantity. A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to the osculating circle.[25] [26] See Figure 7. Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius . The local value of the angular rate of rotation then is given by: with the local speed v given by: As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in Figure 7):[27]

Consequently, the velocity and acceleration are:[26] [28] [29] and using the chain-rule of differentiation: with the tangential acceleration In this local coordinate system the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the local radius (s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term.[30] Centripetal force 166 Extension of this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas. [31] [32] Alternative approach Looking at Figure 7, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature between (s) and (s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds = (s)d. Reassurance on this point can be found using a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature. To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s let the path be described as:[33] Then an incremental displacement along the path ds is described by: where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds, showing that:[34] (Eq. 1) This displacement is necessarily tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is: while the outward unit vector normal to the curve is Orthogonality can be verified by showing that the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve is given by: and The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as: The derivative of can be found from that for sin: Now: in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes: where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1: With these results, the acceleration can be found: Centripetal force as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the same as that for circular motion based on the radius . Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be

analyzed on the basis of circular motion with that radius. This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach the question of the change in radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying upon it, thereby avoiding any questions Figure 7 might suggest about neglecting the variation in . Example: circular motion To illustrate the above formulas, let x, y be given as: Then: which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius . The position s = 0 corresponds to [, 0], or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism the derivatives are needed: With these results one can verify that: The unit vectors also can be found: which serve to show that s = 0 is located at position [, 0] and s = /2 at [0, ], which agrees with the original expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the derivatives of these vectors can be found: To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable speed v(t): where v(t) is the speed and t is time, and s(t = 0) = 0. Then: 167 Centripetal force 168 where it already is established that = . This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion. See also Fictitious force Example: circular motion Centrifugal force Mechanics of planar particle motion Applied mechanics Circular motion Frenet-Serret formulas Analytical mechanics Coriolis force Orthogonal coordinates Dynamics (physics) Reactive centrifugal force Statics Classical mechanics Kinematics Kinetics Notes and references [1] Russelkl C Hibbeler (2009). "Equations of Motion: Normal and tangential coordinates" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA131). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (12 ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 131. ISBN 0136077919. . [2] Paul Allen Tipler, Gene Mosca (2003). Physics for scientists and engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2HRFckqcBNoC& pg=PA129) (5th ed.). Macmillan. p. 129. ISBN 0716783398. . [3] Felix Klein, Arnold Sommerfeld (2008). The Theory of the Top (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=xdxGF918uI8C& pg=PA232) (Reprint with translators' notes of 1897 ed.). Boston, Mass.: Birkhuser. p. 232. ISBN 0817647201. . [4] Chris Carter (2001). Facts and Practice for A-Level: Physics. S.l.: Oxford Univ Press. p. 30. ISBN 9780199147687. [5] Eugene Lommel and George William Myers (1900). Experimental physics (http:/ / books.

google. com/ ?id=4BMPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA63& dq=centripetal-force+ osculating-circle). K. Paul, Trench, Trbner & Co. p. 63. . [6] E.M. Standish, X.X. Newhall, J.G. Williams and D.K. Yeomans (1992). "Orbital Ephemerides of the Sun, Moon, and Planets" (http:/ / iau-comm4. jpl. nasa. gov/ XSChap8. pdf). University Science Books. . [7] Benedek, George Bernard; Villars, Felix (2000). Physics, with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GeALYXiy9sMC& pg=PA52). 2 (2 ed.). Springer. p. 52. ISBN 0-387-98769-X. ., Extract of page 52 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GeALYXiy9sMC& pg=PA52) [8] Johnnie T. Dennis (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=P1hL1EwElX4C& pg=PA91& dq=centripetal+ component+ gravity). Alpha Books. p. 91. ISBN 9781592570812. . [9] Lawrence S. Lerner (1997). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=kJOnAvimS44C& pg=PA129& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"). Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 0867204796. . [10] Arthur Beiser (2004). Schaum's Outline of Applied Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=soKguvJDgmsC& pg=PA103& dq=friction+ "banked+ turn"). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 103. ISBN 0071426116. . [11] Alan Darbyshire (2003). Mechanical Engineering: BTEC National Option Units (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fzfXLGpElZ0C& pg=PA57& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"). Oxford: Newnes. p. 56. ISBN 0750657618. . [12] Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=m5V04SXE4zQC& pg=PT33& lpg=PT33& dq=+ "angle+ of+ bank"). Oklahoma City OK: Skyhorse Publishing Inc.. Figure 321. ISBN 1602390347. . [13] Note: unlike the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, which are constant, in polar coordinates the direction of the unit vectors ur and u depend on , and so in general have non-zero time derivatives. [14] Although the polar coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. The description of the particle motion remains a description from the stationary observer's point of view. [15] Notice that this local coordinate system is not autonomous; for example, its rotation in time is dictated by the trajectory traced by the particle. Note also that the radial vector r(t) does not represent the radius of curvature of the path. [16] John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=P1kCtNrpJsC& printsec=index& dq=isbn=189138922X). Sausalito CA: University Science Books. pp. 2829. ISBN 189138922X. . [17] Cornelius Lanczos (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC& pg=PA103& dq="Euler+ force"). New York: Courier Dover Publications. p. 103. ISBN 0486650677. . [18] See, for example, Howard D. Curtis (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6aO9aGNBAgIC& pg=PA193& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system"). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 5. ISBN 0750661690. . Centripetal force [19] S. Y. Lee (2004). Accelerator physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C& pg=PA37& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system") (2nd ed.). Hackensack NJ: World Scientific. p. 37. ISBN 981256182X. . [20] The observer of the motion along the curve is using these local coordinates to describe the

motion from the observer's frame of reference, that is, from a stationary point of view. In other words, although the local coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. A change in coordinate system used by the observer is only a change in their description of observations, and does not mean that the observer has changed their state of motion, and vice versa. [21] Zhilin Li & Kazufumi Ito (2006). The immersed interface method: numerical solutions of PDEs involving interfaces and irregular domains (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=_E084AX-iO8C& pg=PA16& dq="local+ coordinates"). Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p. 16. ISBN 0898716098. . [22] K L Kumar (2003). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=QabMJsCf2zgC& pg=PA339& dq="path+ coordinates"). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 339. ISBN 0070494738. . [23] Lakshmana C. Rao, J. Lakshminarasimhan, Raju Sethuraman & SM Sivakuma (2004). Engineering Dynamics: Statics and Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=F7gaa1ShPKIC& pg=PA134& dq="path+ coordinates"). Prentice Hall of India. p. 133. ISBN 8120321898. . [24] Shigeyuki Morita (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=5N33Of2RzjsC& pg=PA1& dq="local+ coordinates"). American Mathematical Society. p. 1. ISBN 0821810456. . [25] The osculating circle at a given point P on a curve is the limiting circle of a sequence of circles that pass through P and two other points on the curve, Q and R, on either side of P, as Q and R approach P. See the online text by Lamb: Horace Lamb (1897). An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=eDM6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA406& dq="osculating+ circle"). University Press. p. 406. ISBN 1108005349. . [26] Guang Chen & Fook Fah Yap (2003). An Introduction to Planar Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xt09XiZBzPEC& pg=PA34& dq=motion+ "center+ of+ curvature") (3rd ed.). Central Learning Asia/Thomson Learning Asia. p. 34. ISBN 9812435689. . [27] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Classical Mechanics: An Undergraduate Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=uAfUQmQbzOkC& pg=RA1-PA18& dq=particle+ curve+ normal+ tangent). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521826780. . [28] Edmund Taylor Whittaker & William McCrea (1988). A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: with an introduction to the problem of three bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=epH1hCB7N2MC& pg=PA20& vq=radius+ of+ curvature& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap) (4rth ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521358833. . [29] Jerry H. Ginsberg (2007). Engineering Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=je0W8N5oXd4C& pg=PA723& dq=osculating+ "planar+ motion"). Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0521883032. . [30] Joseph F. Shelley (1990). 800 solved problems in vector mechanics for engineers: Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ByNrVgf041MC& pg=PA46& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 47. ISBN 0070566879. . [31] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"). SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 0819445061. . [32] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337& vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825). New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.. p. 337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. . [33] The article on curvature treats a more general case where the curve is parametrized by an arbitrary variable (denoted t), rather than by the arc length s. [34] Ahmed A. Shabana, Khaled E. Zaazaa, Hiroyuki Sugiyama (2007). Railroad Vehicle Dynamics: A Computational Approach (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=YgIDSQT0FaUC& pg=RA1-PA207& dq="generalized+ coordinate"). CRC Press. p. 91. ISBN 1420045814. . Further reading Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Centripetal force (http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys06/bcentrif/default.htm) vs. Centrifugal force (http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys06/bcentrif/centrif.htm), from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City School District 169 Centripetal force External links Notes from University of Winnipeg (http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/circ/node6.html) Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr. gsu.edu/HBASE/cf.html#cf); see also home page (http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/HBASE/hframe. html) Notes from Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-102869/centripetal-acceleration) Notes from PhysicsNet (http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/RotationalKinematics/ CentripetalForce.html) NASA notes by David P. Stern (http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Scircul.htm) Notes from U Texas (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/node87.html). Analysis of smart yo-yo (http://gicl.cs.drexel.edu/wiki/Smart_Yo-yo) The Inuit yo-yo (http://www.fofweb.com/onfiles/SEOF/Science_Experiments/6-17.pdf) Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.php) Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php) of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering. 170 Article Sources and Contributors Article Sources and Contributors International System of Units Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405872674

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Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epic Penguin123, Erebus555, Eric Herboso, Ericnutsch, Erik9, Esanchez7587, Estarriol, Eu.stefan, EugeneZelenko, Euryalus, Evan Mayer, Evercat, Everyking, Exert, Explicit, F, F Notebook, Faustina.minor, Favonian, Fbazjohn, FeloniousMonk, Fergo100, Fibonacci, Fieari, Fieldday-sunday, Filll, Finalius, Fingerz, FiniteTree, Fl, Flashgordon12, Flauto Dolce, Flewis, Flyer22, Flyguy649, Fmiddleton, Frankenpuppy, Franklin.vp, Freakinadrian, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fredbauder, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Frito, Frosted14, Fs923, Funkydunky9, Fuzheado, Fyyer, F, G. Campbell, G. Moore, GKaczinsky, Gaara unleashed, Gaara144, Gabbe, Gabi bart, Gabrielleitao, Gahs, Gail, Galaxiaad, Galluer, Galoubet, Garion96, Gauze123, General Galavan, General Reader, Geobio, Geometry guy, Georgelikesboys, Georgelulu, Ghaly, Ghurtad1, Ghyll, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimme danger, Gina va gina va, Gioto, Giraffedata, Gjd001, Glane23, GlasGhost, Gnixon, Go for it!, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GoldenMeadows, Goldom, Goozle, Grafen, Graham87, Graysen98, Greenguy1090, Grubber, Grunt, Grunty Thraveswain, Gtg204y, Gunslinger of Gilead, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gurin Nicolas, Gwernol, HKT, Hadal, Haisch, HalfShadow, Haljolad, Harald88, Harryboyles, Haselhurst, Haus, Hcollin, Hdt83, Headbomb, Hellboy2hell, HelpInHandy, Herakles01, Herbee, Hermione1980, Heron, Hidaspal, Hike395, Holbergj, Hollyellis, Horselover Frost, Howcheng, Hrishikesh911, Huangdi, Hugh Mason, Hungrypoo, Huppafa, Husond, Huwwaters, Hydraton31, Hydrogen Iodide, I already forgot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IIsL337, IRP, Icairns, Ice Cold Beer, Ilmari Karonen, ImGladMyMomIsDead, Imadeausrname, Immualkurt, Immunize, ImperfectlyInformed, Imran, IncognitoErgoSum, Insvik, InvertRect, Inyuki, Ipatrol, Iridescent, Ironholds, Isis, Island, Isomorphic, Itub, Ixfd64, 171 Article Sources and Contributors J.delanoy, J04n, JDCMAN, JForget, JFreeman, JHBrewer, JHMM13, JNW, JRGBruno, JYOuyang, JaGa, JabberWok, Jackelfive, Jackol, JackyR, Jade Knight, Jagged 85, Jake Wartenberg, Jamie fearon, JamieS93, Javainone, Jaydawg89, Jbarta, Jbergquist, Jeff G., Jehochman, Jeronimo, JessBr, Jfdwolff, Jim E. Black, Jim woz ere, Jim62sch, Jimothytrotter, Jitse Niesen, Jjasi, Jklin, Jmabel, Jmundo, Jni, Joanee Woolee, JoanneB, JoeBlogsDord, John, John254, JohnCD, JohnOwens, Joke137, Jon Awbrey, Jon513, Jonie2102, Jorend, Jose77, Josh the Nerd, Joshua P. Schroeder, Jossi, Joymmart, Jredmond, Jsc83, Julesd, Juliecoolgirl34, Jumping cheese, Jusdafax, Jusjih, Just Call Me Einstein, Justinfr, Justup2002, K, KGasso, KLHS6, Kaihsu, Karada, Karen Holman, Karlthegreat, Karlwick, Karol Langner, Kasparov, Katalaveno, Katieh5584, Kazvorpal, Kbh3rd, Keegan, Keesiewonder, Keith-07, Kelvin Case, Keo, Kevin B12, Kevin aylward, Kf4bdy, Khalid Mahmood, Kiba, King of Hearts, KingTT, Kingpin13, Kmizzledabombdizzle, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knulclunk, Kornfan71, Koyaanis Qatsi, Koyn, KrakatoaKatie, Krea, Kribbeh, Kubigula, Kungfuadam, KurtRaschke, Kuru, Kushal one, Kville105125, Kwekubo, Kwsn, Kyoko, LAX, LaRouxEMP, Lagrangian, Lambertian, Lantonov, Laplace's Demon, LaszloWalrus, Laurascudder, LaurenceBoss, Laverty-j2, Laxragaza, Lcarsdata, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Lee Daniel Crocker, Lenticel, Leobyun, Levineps, LexCorp, Lexor, Lightmouse, Lights, Lisatwo, Little guru, Little_guru, Littlealien182, Livilou517, Llull, Logan, Logologist, Lokal Profil, Loodog, Loom91, Looxix, Lotje, Lseixas, Lumidek, Luna Santin, Lupin, Lupo, Lycurgus, M, M C Y 1008, M-le-mot-dit, M.thoriyan, MASQUERAID, MC10, MER-C, MLauba, MONGO, MPerel, Maddemo, Madesfuga, Madhero88, Madman, Maganjeanthrower, Magic5227, Magister Mathematicae, Magnumstealth, Magnus Manske, Magog the Ogre, Makewater, Malafaya, Malhonen, Mannafredo, MarSch, Marijuanaboy, Markan, Markashley1990, Marnanel, MarsRover, Marsrocks09, Martin Hogbin, Masamunecyrus, MassimoAr, MastCell, Master shepherd, Materialscientist, Matthead, Mattmac, Mattyisafatty, Maurice Carbonaro, Maurreen, Mav, MaxSem, Maximus Rex, Maxis ftw, Mayumashu, McSly, McVities, Mdd, MearsMan, Meelar, MegaSloth, Melchoir, Men99999, Meno25, MercuryBlue, Methcub, Mets501, MetsFan76, Mic, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Michael K. Edwards, MichaelMaggs, Miffy900, Mike Peel, Mike Rosoft, Mikeblas, Miketwardos, Minesweeper, Minna Sora no Shita, Mista

poe, Mithent, Moink, Molobo, Moncrief, Monedula, Moni3, Monkeykiss, MoogleEXE, Moriori, Morwen, Mpatel, Mr Stephen, Mr. Billion, Mr. Know-It-All, Mr. Lefty, Mr.Nostalgia, MrOllie, Mschel, Mtruch, Muchness, Murdajvc, Murtasa, Mushroom, Mwanner, Mwborwmb, Mxn, Mynameisearl12345, N5iln, NJA, Najoj, Nakon, Naktys, NarSakSasLee, Narutohaku, Naveen Sankar, Naveensankar, Naveeyindren Thangrajah, Navilon, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Neelix, NeilN, Nein, Neonstarlight, Netoholic, Never give in, NewEnglandYankee, Newportm, Nickmanning214, Nicolas wolfwood, Nigholith, Nihiltres, Nikola Smolenski, Nimocks, Nineg, Nishantnag1992, Niteowlneils, Nitya Dharma, Nivix, Nixdorf, Njaelkies Lea, Nnedass, No Guru, Noctibus, NodnarbLlad, Noeckel, Noetica, Noodle snacks, Notinasnaid, Notjake13, Notreallydavid, Nowrunningweb, Nsaa, Nuclear ace, Nufy8, Nvf, Nygiants2744, Nyh, O process, OBI EMMANUEL, Odd nature, Odie5533, Ohnoitsjamie, Oisuzie, Ojay123, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Olgaflow13, Oli Filth, Olivier, Olleicua, Omicronpersei8, Onceonthisisland, One Night In Hackney, Onestone, Orangemarlin, Orion11M87, Orionix, Ottershrew, OverSS, Oxymoron83, Ozcep, PL290, PSU PHYS514 F06, PaddyLeahy, Pandanator75, Panoramix, Panplenty, Panser Born, Papa November, Passandid, Passw0rd, Patilsagar09, Paul August, Paulmcdonald, Pcarbonn, Pelivani, Pennie666, Pentasyllabic, Penubag, Persian Poet Gal, Petiatil, Petitspois, Pgk, Phaedriel, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pharos, Phdkimd, Phgao, Philip Trueman, Phisicsfa, PhotoBox, Phusis, PhySusie, Phys, Physics - The Science of Nature, Physicsformorons, Pierpontpaul2351, PierreAbbat, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Pinky raj01, Piotrek54321, Pjoef, Pjvpjv, Plastikspork, Plumbago, Pmlineditor, Poeloq, Polluxian, Polypipe Wrangler, Polyvios, Possum, Prestonhenry, PrimeCupEevee, Przepla, Psyche825, Ptk, Purplees2, Qorilla, Quadell, Quiddity, Quintessent, Qutezuce, Qxz, R'n'B, RG2, RJHall, RJaguar3, RTC, Rabarberski, Radhisure, Radon210, Rahulvohra29, Railer 295, Ramir, Randomblue, Rasmus Faber, Raul654, Raven4x4x, Ray765, Razism99, Razorflame, Rbeas, Rbj, Rdsmith4, Reach Out to the Truth, Reddi, Reedy, Reerpizza, Reliableforever, ReluctantPhilosopher, RenamedUser2, Rettetast, RexNL, Rexc2011, Rhrad, Riana, Rich257, RichardF, Richieisking19, Rickyrossdaboss, Rightly, Rise Against713, Rising Dragon Fist, Rl, Rls, Rmalloy, Rmrfstar, Roachie, Rob Mahurin, Rocks on the road, Rockzer, Roflbomb, Rogwan, Roo72, Rootybeer4eva, Rory096, Rotem Dan, Rracecarr, Rror, Rtyq2, RunOrDie, Ruud Koot, Ryan Roos, RyanGerbil10, Ryeterrell, Ryugahideki, Ryulong, SCZenz, SEWilco, SFC9394, SJP, ST47, Sadi Carnot, Saeed.Veradi, Saganaki-, Sai2020, Saikiri, Salmar, Salsa Shark, Salsb, Sam Coutu-Oughton, Sam Korn, Sam Li, Samlyn.josfyn, Samoboow, Samsonov1947, Sandeepsreevastav, SandyGeorgia, Sango123, Santaisnotyourfriend, Saros136, SaveThePoint, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Schroer, Schzmo, Sciencenerdgeek, Scott McNay, Scott3, Seatdistrict, Sengkang, Serapio, Shadowbane1001, Shadowoftime, Shalom Yechiel, Sharkface217, Sharmarkeali, Shawn in Montreal, Shebeer, Shell Kinney, Shepherrd, Shesterov, Shoeofdeath, Shoessss, Sietse Snel, Sifaka, Sign Creator, Silence, Silly rabbit, Silverlining5678, Simi 11 krish, Simon009988, SimonP, SiobhanHansa, Sionus, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, SivaKumar, Sjakkalle, Sjking92, Sj, SkerHawx, Skeye1215, SlamDiego, SlashDot, Sljaxon, Slmader, Slowking Man, Smenge32, Snowolf, Snoyes, SoSaysChappy, Some Color Mage, SomeStranger, Someone else, Soumyasch, Spades92, Spiff, Spike Wilbury, SpikeToronto, Spitfire8520, Sputnikcccp, Squishey, Srleffler, Srnec, Staffwaterboy, Standardfact, Starkrm, Starship Trooper, StaticGull, Staxringold, Stefan Jansen, Stefo, Stephenb, Steven Zhang, Stevenwagner, Stevertigo, Straighter, Stsang, Stultus, Sturmde, Sultangris, Sum1cool, Sundar, Sunray, Supersion77, Susurrus, Svanslyck, Sverdrup, Sylv3st3r101, T-borg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TML, TSchwab, TTE, Ta bu shi da yu, TachyonP, Tadas12, Taejin, Talyor Will, Tamjid, Tankmaster01, Tannin, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tarotcards, Tarquin, Tasudrty, Tavilis, Tawnyman1, Tbhotch, Tcncv, TedE, Teh Rote, Template namespace initialisation script, Terfili, Tevatron, Tgv8925, Thaejas, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Original Wildbear, The Psycho, The Thing That

Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB), TheFeds, TheFox3, Thehamman55, Thehotelambush, Theirishpianist, Thenamenottaken, Theoneintraining, Thepretender41, Theshibboleth, Theunixgeek, Thewayforward, Thingg, This user has left wikipedia, Thomaswgc, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tigershrike, Til Eulenspiegel, Tim Shuba, Tim Starling, TimNelson, TimothyRias, Timwi, Titoxd, Tjlafave, Tmac88ivrsn, Tmsmith, Tom harrison, Tomasz Prochownik, Tombomp, Tommy2010, Toohool, TracySurya, Trafford09, Traroth, Trelvis, Trevor MacInnis, Trevorcavell, TriTertButoxy, Triwbe, Tronkete, Troy 07, Trulystand700, Trumpetplaya44, Trusilver, Truthnlove, Tspilman, Tsumetai, Ttlxxx, TutterMouse, Tyler, Typuifre, Tyrol5, Tytrain, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., UberCryxic, Ukulele, Ultimus, Uncle Dick, Unigfjkl, Unknown123123123, Urgos, Urvabara, Uugedsaz, VMS Mosaic, Vampus, Van helsing, Vanished User 1004, Vanished User 4517, Vary, Vatoking, Vedant lath, Velvetron, Versus22, Vikasmorankar, Vinay tv, Vincenzo.romano, Vipinhari, Voigfdsa, Voyajer, Vsmith, Vssun, Vulcan Hephaestus, WPjcm, Waggers, Wakka, Walkerma, WanderingFinches, Wardigong, Washable20, Wavelength, Wayward, Wdfarmer, Wdjunkin, WebHamster, Webmeischda, West Brom 4ever, Whassuo, White Cat, WhiteC, Whiten667, Wiki Administrator of Physics, Wiki alf, Wiki woo, WikiSlasher, WikiWacked, Wikid77, Wikiklrsc, Wikimichael22, Wikitumnus, Wiktionary4Prez!, Wildnox, Wile E. Heresiarch, William M. Connolley, Wimt, Winhunter, Winston365, WinterSpw, Wintonian, Wisebridge, Witten Is God, Wizardman, Wolfkeeper, Wolfmankurd, Wolfrock, Wood Thrush, Woohookitty, Wronkiew, Wtmitchell, XJamRastafire, Xemoi, Xezbeth, YK Times, Yahel Guhan, Yaley101, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yanksox, YassineMrabet, YellowMonkey, Yes, I'm A Scientist, Yevgeny Kats, Yidisheryid, Yong Liang, Youssefsan, Yugolervan, YusrSehl, Zac wise, Zachary, Zachorious, Zakian49, Zarniwoot, Zazaban, ZimZalaBim, Zoicon5, ZomBGolth, ZsigE, Zsinj, Zsynopsis, Zundark, Zvis, Zzuuzz, ^demon, , , , 3332 anonymous edits Scientific notation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406007864 Contributors: ABF, Acroterion, Adam.J.W.C., Adamarthurryan, AdjustShift, Akitstika, Alansohn, Alfio, Algebraist, Allintime333, Andrea105, Andrewa, Anetode, Anonymi, Anonymous Dissident, Antiuser, Army1987, Astrale01, AxelBoldt, Blaze10001, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, BostonMA, Bovineone, Brambleclawx, Brews ohare, BrokenSphere, Bugamahagen, Burner0718, CBM, CaRzRlIfE, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ccrrccrr, Cerberus0, Chris23456789, ChronoKinetic, Coemgenus, Corruptcopper, Crispmuncher, Csigabi, Cutler, D. F. Schmidt, DGaw, DJDahm, DaDrought3, DavidBelew, Dbfirs, Diego UFCG, Discospinster, Dnvrfantj, Doniago, Dysprosia, Eeekster, Ekajor, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric Forste, Esanchez7587, EvertoExcel, Everyking, Excirial, Federhalter, Finlay McWalter, Floria L, Formulax, Forteblast, Fredrik, Fresheneesz, Funandtrvl, Gaelen S., Gail, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen, Ghettoblaster, Giftlite, Gifas, Glenn L, Goudzovski, Grouse, Gurch, Hadal, Halmstad, Hbent, Headbomb, HeavenInk13, Hemmer, HenningThielemann, Hgilbert, Hydrogen Iodide, Icairns, IloveMP2yea, Impala2009, Imrahil, Indefatigable, Irishguy, Itssteph, J.delanoy, Jaraalbe, Jebix, Jerome Charles Potts, Jeronimo, Jimp, Jmeppley, Jmk, Joanjoc, JoanneB, JoeKearney, John cena is raw, Johndburger, JosephAdaoag, Josh Parris, Jpvinall, Jsd, Jshadias, Jusdafax, Just James, KCinDC, KaiSeun, Katalaveno, Katanada, Katieh5584, Kawehi 65, Keilana, Ken-ken-ken@hotmail.com, Ketsuekigata, Kilnhanger, Kingal86, Kjarda, Kku, Kr5t, LeaveSleaves, Legion fi, Luk, Lunchscale, Lunkwill, MAG1, Malcolm, Maltmomma, Markus Kuhn, Martarius, MathiasRav, MattieTK, Mav, Max, Mfc, Michael Hardy, Michelleyy, Miguelfms, Mike.lifeguard, Mindybb, Minesweeper, Mirokado, MithrandirAgain, MorganGreen, MorganaFiolett, Mr. Accident, Muk 9797, N5iln, Nabla, NawlinWiki, NevilleDNZ, NewEnglandYankee, Newbyguesses, NickW557, NickyMcLean, Nnayebi, Nutella002, Oashi, Ocaasi, Octahedron80, Oddity-, Oleg Alexandrov, OverlordQ, PGWG, PRHaney, ParisianBlade, Patrick, Pearle, Peter Karlsen, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phatboi858, Pianoplonkers, Pinethicket, Pizza Puzzle, Pjvpjv, Pseudov00, Quota, Qwerty Binary, Ragzouken, Rdsmith4, Recognizance,

Reconsider the static, Rfl, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Maxwell, Rjwilmsi, Robert Merkel, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, SYSS Mouse, SchfiftyThree, Sciurin, Shirik, Shlomke, Shoessss, Shreevatsa, SimonP, Sionus, SkyLined, Smackatatack, Snowolf, SomeHuman, Spitfire, Steel, SunCreator, SuperHamster, Supertouch, Sydius, TAKASUGI Shinji, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tapir Terrific, Tarquin, Tcsetattr, Techman224, TehBrandon, Terrek, Texture, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thechamelon, Thingg, Thunderbrand, Tide rolls, Vancouver Outlaw, Vary, Vballbryan, Vrenator, Vuo, Wanderer57, Webhat, Welsh, Who, WikiLaurent, WikiParker, Wikieditor06, Wikier9, Wonderland42, XJamRastafire, Xanzzibar, Xcalizorz, 566 anonymous edits Kinematics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405996351 Contributors: 4drenalin3, 6vargasa, A d777, Abce2, Abhrammullapudi, AdinaBob, Akshaysrinivasan, Alansohn, Alzarian16, Angr, Anonymous Dissident, Army1987, BearTrueFaith, BenFrantzDale, Benhocking, Bethkenworthy, Bfesser, BoomerAB, Brews ohare, Burssdola, C.Fred, Camembert, CanadianLinuxUser, Carmichael95, Carultch, Cdang, Charles Matthews, Charles Merriam, Coolhandscot, Cronholm144, Crumley, D6, DVD R W, Dank, Davwillev, Db099221, Dcaps, DeadEyeArrow, Democritus the Minor, Desconosida23, DnetSvg, DonSiano, Doulos Christos, Dugosz, EagleFan, EconoPhysicist, Elessar iitkgp, Eleusis, Engineering1, Epbr123, Eu.stefan, Exir Kamalabadi, Exteray, Faturita, Frozenport, Giftlite, Gioto, Goswamisoumen, HEL, Haein45, Headbomb, Hydrogen Iodide, IGeMiNix, ITxT, Icairns, IceUnshattered, Ironpole, Isis, J Hill, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, J.delanoy, Jalexiou, Japanese Searobin, Jauerback, Jeri Aulurtve, Jhausauer, Jni, Joe056, Jpc4031, Kaiwhakahaere, LA2, Landon1980, Lee, LizardWizard, Lodiieeroxx, Lookang, Lotje, Lseixas, LutzL, M samadi, M0nstr42, MagneticFlux, Mailseth, Materialscientist, Maxim, Merovingian, Michael Hardy, Moink, Mokele, MrOllie, Mw, Mxn, NarSakSasLee, NickW557, Nikai, Noldoaran, Noobeditor, NuclearWarfare, Oleg Alexandrov, Omnipaedista, Panndder, Paolo.dL, Patrick, PerryTachett, Peterlin, Phasechange, Pkbharti, Pmlineditor, Poppycock, Psyche825, Ptpare, Rich Farmbrough, RobertG, Rockerroyal, Roland Kaufmann, Rracecarr, Rsrikanth05, Sanpaz, Sean Whitton, Seidenstud, Silly rabbit, Sillyfolkboy, Sillyvalley, Soumengoswami10, Spinningspark, Steve Pucci, StradivariusTV, Subheight640, Sylent, T. D. Christiansen, Tarquin, Tgilro01, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thezookeeper, Thurth, Tlroche, Tony24644, U danesh, User A1, Vanished User 1004, Vanished user, Versus22, WalrusMan118, WarFox, WaysToEscape, WikiDao, WikipedianYknOK, WillowW, XJamRastafire, Yidisheryid, Zayzya, Zouhair, 356 anonymous edits Force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406066140 Contributors: ..Playa187.., 12.45.50.xxx, 2D, 2help, 5 albert square, A8UDI, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Academic Challenger, Acather96, Adam McMaster, Agge1000, Airplaneman, Akshaysrinivasan, Alan Au, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex.muller, Alex2009258, Alfred Centauri, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Alucard (Dr.), AmiDaniel, Amirabelli, Andeggs, Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, AndrewHowse, Andrewrost3241981, Andycjp, Angie Y., Ann dan88, Another Stickler, Antandrus, Arakunem, ArchonMagnus, Ariele, Arjun01, Army1987, Arthena, Ashley Y, AstroNomer, Atropos235, AubreyEllenShomo, Autiger, Awadewit, AxelBoldt, Ayla, Azimsultan, Aki, Badseed, Ball3r90, Bassington, Bbatsell, Beao, Beast of traal, Beetstra, Bensaccount, Bevo, Bidabadi, BigChicken, Bil1, BillC, Blackjackdavie1992, Bobby1011, Bobo192, Bonadea, Brews ohare, Brianga, Bryan Derksen, BryanG, Bvcrist, CALR, CDN99, CTZMSC3, CWii, Caltas, Calumm, Camembert, Canadian-Bacon, Capricorn42, Cardamon, CardinalDan, Cargoking, Carlmen2, Caster23, Casull, Centerfold07, Ceyockey, Chaitanyatikule, Charles Matthews, Chovain, Christopher Thomas, Chunhian, Ckatz, ClanCC, Clarityfiend, Clyde frogg, Coffee, Complexica, Conversion script, Count Iblis, Courcelles, Covington, Cowardly Lion, Crazynas, Crazytales, Crouchingtigershiningdragon, Crowsnest, Cyberphysics, Cyclonenim, Cyp, ClculIntegral, D. Recorder, D4g0thur, DARTH 172 Article Sources and Contributors SIDIOUS 2, DMacks, DVdm, Dadude3320, Dan Gluck, Dan Granahan, Dancergal, Darth Panda, DaughterofSun, Davehi1, Davwillev, Dddin12345, DeadEyeArrow, Delldot, DerHexer, Doniago,

DoubleBlue, Doulos Christos, Dpjoh32, Dreadstar, Dude1818, Dusti, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, Dzhim, Eakaphray Udeday, Ellywa, Eloquence, Ems57fcva, Enormousdude, Enzo Aquarius, Epbr123, Eraserhead1, Everton137, Excirial, F-j123, F3meyer, Fairz, Falcon8765, Farosdaughter, Femto, Fetchcomms, Fieldday-sunday, Fieldmarshal Miyagi, Figma, Filelakeshoe, Frau369, Freedom gundam200, FreplySpang, Fuhghettaboutit, Funkysam123, Futurebird, Fyrael, G. Campbell, GB fan, Gabrielmulenga, Gamesguru2, Gang65, Gene Nygaard, GeneChase, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Glenn, Gnixon, Gogo Dodo, Golden Sugarplum, GrahamColm, Grahamec, Gregbard, Greswik, Griffinofwales, Grutness, Guiltycivilian, Gwernol, Gyrofrog, Hadal, Haein45, Hamiltondaniel, Harley peters, Hazard-SJ, Headbomb, Hemmingsen, HenryLi, Herbee, Heron, HexaChord, Hibernate SWE, Hidaspal, Hmrox, Husond, IGeMiNix, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IRP, Icairns, Igit, Iiteehee, Imnotminkus, Indopug, Inkington, Ionescuac, Iridescent, Irishguy, Isis, J.delanoy, J8079s, JD554, JForget, JaGa, JabberWok, Jacob Lundberg, Jagged 85, Jakes18, JamesBWatson, Janek Kozicki, Jaraalbe, Jason Le Vaillant, Jauhienij, Javert, Jbmurray, Jclemens, Jeff Maniac, Jimwilliams57, Jitse Niesen, Jj137, Joanjoc, JoanneB, Joefaust, John Vandenberg, John of Reading, JohnCD, Johnflux, JohnnyRush10, Josh Parris, Joshua P. Schroeder, Jossi, Jrtayloriv, Judyll, JulianDalloway, Juliancolton, Jusjih, Jwilso911, Jwissick, KJS77, Kaenneth, Kahriman, Kaldari, Kaneman14, Karinsteinbock, Karol Langner, Katieh5584, Kbh3rd, Ketiltrout, Kevin Lamoreau, Kevinbboobb, Kiaparowits, Killahrich, Kineticman, Kjkolb, Kloddant, Kmarinas86, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kprateek88, Kri, Krich, Kre-Olav, L Kensington, LAX, La Pianista, Landon1980, Larryg510, Laurascudder, LeBofSportif, Leasky24, LeaveSleaves, Leszek Jaczuk, Leujohn, Light current, Lightmouse, Little Mountain 5, LittleOldMe old, Livrocaneca, LizardJr8, Loodog, Loren.wilton, Lseixas, Luk, Luna Santin, M-le-mot-dit, MER-C, MK8, Mac Davis, Mackensen, Maddie!, Majorly, Makrtbear, Malleus Fatuorum, Marcmarroquin, MarcusMaximus, Marek69, Mars786420, Martin451, Master Bigode, Matt Gies, Matthew Yeager, Matthew1992, Maurreen, Maxim Razin, Maxis ftw, Meok, Merovingian, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, MichaelBillington, Miraceti, MissAlyx, Miz213, Mmxx, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Mr Bound, Mr. dick 008, MrB, MrOllie, Mreult, Ms2ger, Muijzo, Musicaddict36, Mythdon, Mrten Berglund, N419BH, N5iln, Nabla, Nacho999, Natalya, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Netsnipe, Newbyguesses, NickCT, NielsenGW, Nitpicker06, Nk, NoPetrol, Nondistinguished, Nonsuch, Nsaa, Nuno Tavares, OMGsplosion, Ocaasi, Oleg Alexandrov, Omnipaedista, Ongar the World-Weary, Orchew, Outriggr, PaddyLeahy, Pak21, Paolo.dL, Parallel Child, Paste, Patrick, Pcarbonn, Pearle, Penubag, PerryTachett, Peter Horn, Pfalstad, Phil Boswell, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Philipp Wetzlar, Philippe, Philwelch, PhySusie, Phys, Physchim62, Physicstutorials, Pill, Pishogue, Pjacobi, Pkkphysicist, Pmetzger, Pmlineditor, Pomte, Postlewaight, Praveen java, Prolog, Qui-Gon Jinn, Quintote, Qwyrxian, Qxz, RG2, RYNORT, RadiantRay, RadioActive, Randomblue, Ravedave, Ravidreams, Reach Out to the Truth, RedRollerskate, RetiredUser2, RexNL, ReyBrujo, Rho, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Rmrfstar, RossPatterson, Roy Brumback, RoyBoy, Rpf, Rracecarr, Rtdrury, Rudchenko, Rupesh.ravi, Rwalker, Ryguasu, S h i v a (Visnu), SJP, SM262009, ST47, Sadi Carnot, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Samwb123, Sango123, Sanpaz, Saturn star, Savant13, Savidan, Sbharris, Scott3, Sean Whitton, SeanMack, Seb, Seckelberry1, Seltar, Shadowdragonofdoom, Shadowfireinside, ShelfSkewed, Shockkorea, Shoeofdeath, Sholtar, Signalhead, Silly rabbit, Sionus, Sjakkalle, Sj, Skslater, Slipperyweasel, Smenge32, Smokizzy, Snigbrook, Snydale, Soliloquial, Sonett72, Soup with noodles, SpK, SpaceFlight89, SpeedyGonsales, Splash, Spondoolicks, Squids and Chips, SriMesh, Srikeit, Srleffler, Srr712, Starelda, Stefano85, Stephenb, Stevertigo, StradivariusTV, Strait, Substar, Superboy112233, Supersaiyanplough, Sure kr06, Syncategoremata, Synth3t1c, T-borg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tad Lincoln, Tail, Tanjir, Tarquin, Taymonkey, Tdadamemd, Teles, Tempodivalse, The Haunted Angel, The Thing That Should Not Be, The way, the truth, and the light, TheOtherJesse, Theo10011, Theone00, Theonlyedge, Thisismymsnaddie, Thljcl, Thom443, Thrawst, ThreeE, Thright, Thue,

Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tim Starling, Timmeh, Tobias Bergemann, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom harrison, Tomasr, Tombomp, Travelbird, Traxs7, Treesmill, Trusilver, Truthnlove, Ttasterul, Twin Hills student, UberCryxic, Uncle G, Unmerklich, Urocyon, Usgnus, Utcursch, VASANTH S.N., VCleemput, Valley2city, Vary, Vb, Velho, Venny85, Versus22, Vianello, Volfy, Vrenator, Vsmith, Vssun, WAvegetarian, WHeimbigner, WaiteDavid137, Ward20, Warniats, Wassupwestcoast, Wayne Slam, WaysToEscape, What do i want to..., Whosyourjudas, WikHead, WikiLaurent, Wikidudeman, Wikipelli, William Avery, Wimt, Wizard191, Wknight94, Woggly, Wolfeye90, Wolfkeeper, Womenwithhorses, Wppo, Wysprgr2005, X!, XJamRastafire, Xaariz, XandroZ, Yachtsman1, YanA, Yankeesfan7602, Yekrats, Yevgeny Kats, Yidisheryid, Ynhockey, Yosef1987, Zahid Abdassabur, Zakian49, Zalgo, Zapvet, Zayzya, Zeroparallax, Zondor, Zzyzx11, , 1288 anonymous edits Mechanical equilibrium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391074834 Contributors: Abronikowski, Academic Challenger, Anwenchung, Art Carlson, Avihu, Bob f it, Brews ohare, Brook251, Carultch, Charles Matthews, Coppertwig, CyborgTosser, DavidCary, Dollara, Domokos, EconoPhysicist, Gerbilo, Giftlite, Headbomb, Jim.belk, Karelj, Kcordina, KnightRider, Logan, M.hodge1, Marj Tiefert, Meni Rosenfeld, Mike Rosoft, Oleg Alexandrov, Ong saluri, Patrick, Pengrate, Pkbharti, Salsb, Serpent's Choice, Sonett72, User A1, 39 anonymous edits Newton's laws of motion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403862119 Contributors: 1812ahill, 21655, 5IIHoova, 7, 963kickemall, @pple, A More Perfect Onion, AHrafn, A. di M., A3RO, AJKING182, Aaronsclee, Abc518, Abdullah Krolu, AceMyth, Adambro, Addihockey10, Addshore, AdjustShift, Aelyn, AeonicOmega, Af648, Agge1000, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajraddatz, Aksi great, Aktsu, Al pope, Alana Shirley, Alansohn, Aleksas, Alexandria37, AlexiusHoratius, Alexjohnc3, Alfredsimpson, Ambassador Quan, Anaraug, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andres, Andrevan, AndrewDressel, Angelus Delapsus, Animum, Anna Lincoln, AnonGuy, Anskas, Antandrus, Apis O-tang, Apollo, April to August, Arakunem, Aremith, ArglebargleIV, Armaetin, Armaghanwahid, Army1987, Arniep, Ashman512, AstroNomer, AtticusX, Avatar 06349, Avenged Eightfold, Avoided, Avono, AxelBoldt, Axy, Aymatth2, AzaToth, Azuris, Aki, B44H, BEWBS, Baa, Babygene52, BanditBubbles, Bardnick187, Bartledan, Bcrowell, Bdesham, Bdodo1992, Becritical, Ben pcc, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Bender2k14, Berl95, BertSen, Betterusername, Betterworld, Bh3u4m, Biopresto, Blackangel25, Bobo192, Bogey97, BokicaK, Bomac, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, BorgQueen, BrettAllen, Brews ohare, Brian the Editor, Brianjd, Bronzie, Bth, Bubla, Burntmonkey5, C'est moi, CART fan, CWii, Caiaffa, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanOfWorms, Canadian-Bacon, CanadianLinuxUser, Candy12324, Capricorn42, Captain Wikify, Captain-tucker, Cardamon, CardinalDan, Carewolf, Carmichael95, Cb77305, Cbgermany, Celebere, Cellorau.murthy, Cethegus, Chairmclee, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chaseyoung1500, Chcknwnm, Cholmes75, Chris the speller, Cimex, Cisca Harrison, Citicat, Clayboskie, Closedmouth, Connelly, Conrad.Irwin, Control-alt-delete, Conversion script, Cool3, Courcelles, CoyoteG, Cpastern, Cpl Syx, Crazycomputers, Creektheleftcheeksneak, Cress Arvein, Crowsnest, Cryptic, Crypticfortune, Crystallina, Cuckooman4, Curps, Cybercobra, D, D-Notice, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, Da monster under your bed, Dallas84, Daniel Case, Dark Dragon Master1337, Darkmaster333, Dave6, David.hillshafer, DavidCary, DavidRF, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow, Decltype, Decumanus, DeltaQuad, Deor, DerHexer, Deutschgirl, Dfrg.msc, Difu Wu, Digmaster, Dilip rajeev, DivineAlpha, Djr32, Djsolie, Dkasak, Docu, Dodiad, Dodo von den Bergen, Dogah, Donarreiskoffer, Doradus, DoubleBlue, Dougluce, Dranorter, Dreadstar, Dspradau, Durtysouthgurl, Dycedarg, Dugosz, E2eamon, EJF, ERcheck, EconoPhysicist, Ed-dg, EdTrist, Edgar181, Eeekster, Egmontaz, Ehabkost, El C, ElTchanggo, Eliz81, Elm-39, Elmer Clark, Elockid, Enormousdude, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric119, Erik9, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Explicit, Extransit, Ezelenyv, FF2010, Falcon8765, Fangfufu,

Faradayplank, Farosdaughter, Farquaadhnchmn, Favonian, Feezo, Fetofs, Fil21, Filll, Firebat08, Flame1009, FlamingSilmaril, Flewis, Flowerpotman, Flyguy649, Foxtrotman, Fram, Frankenpuppy, Frdayeen, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Fuzbaby, Fvw, F, Gabrielleitao, Gandalf61, Gary2863, Gautampratapsingh1993, Gene Nygaard, Gerbrant, Gerhard.Brunthaler, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, GnuDoyng, Gogobera, Grafen, Graham77, Graham87, Grandpsykick, Guoguo12, Gurch, HJ Mitchell, HaLoGuY007, Hadal, Haein45, Haham hanuka, Hakufu Sonsaku, Half-Blood Auror, HalfShadow, Hamsterlopithecus, Hankston, HappyCamper, Hayabusa future, HazeNZ, Hbent, Headbomb, Hector2138, Hellojoshhowareyou, Heracles31, Heron, Heyyal77, Homerguy, Hongooi, HorsePunchKid, Hqb, Hu12, Hulten, Hwefhasvs, Hydrogen Iodide, I dream of horses, IAcre, Ian13, Icairns, IceBlade710, Idk my bff jill, Idont Havaname, Ihope127, Ilyushka88, Imgo, Imlost20, Immunize, IncognitoErgoSum, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Isaac Dupree, IsaacNewton17, Isis, Ixfd64, J Di, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, J.delanoy, J04n, J8079s, JCSantos, JForget, JRSpriggs, Jack1002009, Jagged 85, James R. Ward, JamesAM, JamesM123, JamieS93, Jason Quinn, Jcrook1987, Jedi062, Jeff G., Jfkdklsjf, Jgmakin, Jhud89, Jj137, JodyB, JoeBlogsDord, JoeSmack, John254, JohnCD, Johnflux, Jok2000, Joke dst, Jon Cates, Jorgenumata, Josh Parris, Joshkb01, Joshua P. Schroeder, Jovianeye, Jp347, Jshane04, Jusdafax, Jwoodger, Jzenksta, KChiu7, Kabton14, KaiMartin, Kainino, Kaisershatner, Kalathalan, Karada, Karol Langner, Kartano, KathrynLybarger, Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Keithdizon, Kerotan, Ketsuekigata, Kevinsam, Kid A, Killiondude, Kimse, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, Kipton, Kjkl, Kliao93, Kman229, Knackers1, Knakts, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knutux, Kool11, Korandder, Kornfan71, Kotiwalo, Kourosch44, Krazyklink, Krea, Kribbeh, Kryic83, Kukini, Kuru, Kyle Barbour, Kzollman, L Kensington, LAAFan, LAX, LGSlayer1127, La Pianista, LaFoiblesse, Lahiru k, Laky68, Laurapr, Laurascudder, Law200000, LeaveSleaves, Lectonar, LedgendGamer, Lee J Haywood, Leo44, Leuko, LiDaobing, Light current, LightAnkh, Lightmouse, Lilchicklet007, Limideen, Ling.Nut, Lir, LizardJr8, Lmhjulian, LonelyBeacon, Loom91, Looxix, Lordgilman, Lpug21, Lseixas, Luna Santin, Lunchscale, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MASQUERAID, MER-C, MSGJ, Maaru, Maclean25, Magnus.de, Make91, Malerin, Mandarax, Manishearth, Mankar Camoran, Manubaba11, MapsMan, MarSch, MarcusMaximus, Marek69, MarkSweep, Marvinfreeman, Mastercampbell, Matt 888, Matt Deres, Matthew Stannard, Matusz, Maxim, Mayank Abhishek, Mazca, Mboverload, McVities, Mchhabria, Mct mht, Mecanismo, Meisterkoch, Mentifisto, Michael Hardy, MichaelBillington, Mikenorton, Mikeo, Mindmatrix, Minimac, Minish man, Misza13, Mmeijeri, Moondyne, Mr Poo, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mrboh, Mrdempsey, MuZemike, Muhends, Mutinus, Mwtoews, Mxn, Mysid, NCurse, NJA, Nabla, Nacho123456789987654321, Nancy, Natalie Erin, Natl1, NawlinWiki, Nbauman, Ncmvocalist, Neurolysis, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Newton890, Neyshan, Nhandler, Nicholasnice, Nicholeeeeo, Nickpowerz, Nicop (Usurp), Nihiltres, Nilfanion, Ninetyone, NinjaKid, Nipper211, Nishadpotdar, Nishkid64, Nk, Nneonneo, No Guru, Noah Salzman, Nobar, Nommonomanac, Notalex, Novakyu, Obli, Obvioustrollisobvious, Ocvailes, Oda Mari, Ohnoitsjamie, Oleg Alexandrov, Oolongy, Opelio, OrbitOne, Orfen, Oxymoron83, Oysta, PMDrive1061, PaddyLeahy, Paolo.dL, Passamaquoddy boi, Pasteman, Patrick, Paul August, Pedro, Pedro1557, Pele' boy, Pepper, Peregrine Fisher, Perfgeek, Persian Poet Gal, Peterlin, Pevarnj, Pewwer42, Pfalstad, Phearson, Philip Trueman, Phinnaeus, PhySusie, Pingveno, Pizza Puzzle, Pkbharti, Pleasantville, Plrk, Pmetzger, Pmlineditor, Polluxian, Pomona17, Possum, Prashanthns, PrincessofLlyr, Proofreader77, Proud Muslim, Psinu, Puchiko, Puneetbahri 82, Quantumobserver, Quantumor, Qwertyqwertyqwertyy, R'n'B, R. Baley, RFerreira, RG2, RHB100, RJaguar3, RUL3R, RadioFan, Radon210, RainbowOfLight, Rama's Arrow, RandomXYZb, Raven in Orbit, RayAYang, Raziaex, RebornX, Reconsider the static, Redfarmer, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Richard L. Peterson, Richard75, Ricky81682, Rishi.bedi, Rje, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Robdurbar, Robin Patterson, Robinh, Rogper, Rokfaith, Rolo Tamasi, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Rubicon, Rudjek, S Schaffter, S3000, SFC9394, Salsa Shark, Salt Yeung, Sanpaz, Saros136, Sarregouset, Saxum, Schipperke22, Schlongboymega, Science4sail, Scigatt, Sciurin, Scizor55, Sean William, Seaphoto, Sergay, Sethmiester, Shanes, Sharonlees, Shastra, Shaverc,

Shearyears394, Sheliak, Shirulashem, Shizhao, Shockkorea, Shoy, Sibusiso Mabaso, Siddhant, Silly rabbit, Simetrical, Simon123, SimonP, Sionus, SirGrant, Sj, Skier Dude, Sl, Slakr, Slon02, Smack, Smjg, Smokizzy, Snigbrook, Snowmanradio, SoCalSuperEagle, SoWhy, Sodium, Sokane, Solitude, Sonia62585, South Bay, Sowelilitokiemu, Spaceman85, Spaceneil8, Specter01010, SpeedyGonsales, SperryTS, Spinachwrangler, Spinningspark, Splash, SpookyMulder, StaticGull, Staxringold, Stephenb, Steve Quinn, SteveBaker, Stevertigo, Stewartadcock, Stickee, StradivariusTV, Stroppolo, Stuhacking, Stui, Stwalkerster, Subheight640, Sunilbajpai, SuperHamster, Susan118, Susanwangrules, Sven Manguard, Sverdrup, Sword, Syncategoremata, Synchronism, TStein, Tagishsimon, Tameradly, Taneli HUUSKONEN, Tannkrem, Tblaxland, Tcncv, Tej karani, Ter890, Teressa Keiner, Terry0051, ThaddeusB, The Evil IP address, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, TheEditrix2, Theda, Thingg, Thljcl, Thranduil, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tiptoety, Tnxman307, Tofutwitch11, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Lougheed, Tombomp, Totlmstr, Toxic Spade, Transcendence, Travelbird, Travi1994, Trevor MacInnis, Trevor Marron, Truthnlove, Tseulik, Tyomitch, UberScienceNerd, Ubiq, Uksam88, Uncle Dick, Unmerklich, Urhixidur, Urmammasfat, Valandil211, VashiDonsk, Venfranc, Versus22, Vgm3985, Vipinhari, Vivers, VolatileChemical, Voyajer, Vsmith, Waggers, WarthogDemon, Wayne Slam, Wenli, WereSpielChequers, Wesino, Wienwei, Wiki alf, WikiParker, Wikieditor06, Wikipelli, Wilowisp, Wimt, Wolfkeeper, Wragge, Wsvlqc, Wwoods, X42bn6, Xaven, Xcxcxc5k, Xxanthippe, Xykon, Yamamoto Ichiro, YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Yiya91, Yngvadottir, Yossiea, Yoyoyow, Yuksing, Yurigerhard, Yurik, Yuyudevil, Yzha519, Zadeez, Zenzic, Zephyr9, Zginder, Zhou Yu, Zsinj, Zzyzx11, , 2369 anonymous edits 173 Article Sources and Contributors Weight Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404253771 Contributors: 11chaserz, 203.109.250.xxx, A. di M., AdjustShift, Aeolyn5601, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, AlanBarrett, Alansohn, Alanyst, Ale jrb, Alex.tan, AlexiusHoratius, Altenmann, Alteripse, AnakngAraw, Anclation, Angela, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony, Army1987, Avant Guard, Avoided, AxelBoldt, Az7997, Babakathy, Badanedwa, Bapaveza, Bcbell, Bcrowell, Bensaccount, Berolina, Beta16, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borbrav, BorgQueen, BruceRD, Bryan Derksen, C6541, CYD, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carowinds, Carter, Casull, Ch'marr, Chapium, Charles Matthews, Chenzw, Chetvorno, Chris K, Chris the speller, Chun-hian, Closedmouth, Conversion script, Cool Blue, CoolGuy, Correogsk, Cpeditorial, Crissov, Cst17, DMacks, DVdm, Da monster under your bed, Death 136 1, Decltype, DerHexer, Devley, Dfe6543, Disco Medusa, Discospinster, Dobo101, Dogatdog, Donarreiskoffer, DreamsReign, Dreamyshade, Drmies, Duncan, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, EJVargas, Ed Poor, Emx, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Enuja, Epbr123, Esanchez7587, Evercat, Everyguy, Excirial, Femto, FireAarro, Fodio, FreplySpang, Fresheneesz, Fuhghettaboutit, Fyyer, G716, Gabriel Kielland, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Girl Scout cookie, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greg L, Gscshoyru, HamburgerRadio, Hans Adler, Headbomb, Henning Makholm, Hermanoere, Heron, Hiddenfromview, Hihi234, Hillgentleman, Hiroe, IRP, IW.HG, Icairns, Ideal gas equation, Ihackpoopys, Indefatigable, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Isaac Dupree, J.delanoy, JAn Dudk, JForget, JHMM13, JMMuller, JRSpriggs, JaGa, JamesAM, Jarry1250, Jauhienij, Java13690, Jenevastorme, Jesusismetopotepec, Jimp, Jmh649, Jmorgan, Joel7687, Johannes H.-Larsen, John, JorgeGG, Josh Grosse, Joshua BishopRoby, Jossi, JuJube, Juliancolton, Jrgen Friis Bak, K. Annoyomous, KamikazeArchon, Kandar, Katieh5584, Kbrose, KnowledgeOfSelf, Lacerta, Lambiam, Lanky, Lasunncty, Llort, LodeRunner, Longhairandabeard, Luckyluke, MC10, MEMcNeil, MJCdetroit, MK8, Macy, MadameArsenic, Madmardigan53, MarXidad, Marcasireland, Mark Richards, Martinvl, Mckaysalisbury, Meisterkoch, Meske, Mhking, MichaelMaggs, Micru, Modulatum, Mojska, Monedula, Monkeyman, Mr. Military, Muhammed.Science, Mvjs, Naudefj, NeilFraser, Nicop (Usurp), Nikola Smolenski, Nisham99, NoIdeaNick, Novangelis, Nunh-huh, Nuno Tavares, Oda Mari, Odie5533, OllieFury, Opintial, Orion11M87, Overlord359, OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, PS4FA, Passportguy, Patrick, PatrickandBrenda, Paul August, Peter L, Peterlin, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Phys,

Physicstchr, Pinethicket, Pingveno, Pinkadelica, Pmb phy, Rajkiandris, Raven4x4x, Reach Out to the Truth, Red Director, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rexparry sydney, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rob Hooft, RobertAustin, Robertvan1, Rracecarr, Ruby.red.roses, S0m3b0d4, SV Resolution, SaltyPig, SameOldSameOld, Sbharris, Schutz, SciberDoc, SeanMack, Sempersoph, Senator Palpatine, Shadowjams, Shalom Yechiel, Shereth, Shrew, SimonP, Skippy le Grand Gourou, Slashme, Smallie11, Soliloquial, Sophia, Spoon!, StaticGull, StefanPernar, SteveSims, Stickee, SunCreator, SuperTycoon, Symane, Syndaryl, Tangent747, Tarquin, Tercer, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thehelpfulone, Timb66, Timmypower2335, TimothyRias, Tiptoety, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, TravelinSista, TrippingTroubadour, UkPaolo, VASANTH S.N., Vdm, Versus22, Vicarious, Vicenarian, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vina, Virtualphtn, Vivo78, Vlopac, Vrenator, WLU, Wavelength, Werefrog, Wiki alf, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, William M. Connolley, Winston365, Wizard191, Wolfkeeper, Wuddog, Wwoods, Xnuala, Yath, Yevgeny Kats, Ynhockey, Yourfatadmitit, Zaidpjd, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, , 702 anonymous edits Hooke's law Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403519081 Contributors: 2over0, ABV, Aaron Brenneman, Acather96, AdamSiska, AdmaJonse, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex Bakharev, Amatulic, Andre Engels, Andrea105, Appraiser, Archeryguru2000, Argon40k, Arvindn, Backslash Forwardslash, Baldeahle, Barak Sh, Barkeep, Basar, Bbanerje, Bdesham, Beetstra, BenFrantzDale, Berland, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Boof.lehmann, Bookofjude, Bookworm15, Bosoxjoel24, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cbfraser, Cdang, Cf. Hay, Cfp, Charles Matthews, Charum, Chetvorno, Chizy5, Chowells, Chtit draco, Chuunen Baka, Closedmouth, Colonies Chris, Constructive editor, Courcelles, Crazz bug 5, Cuddlyable3, Cyberdiablo, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da Joe, Daniel.Cardenas, David Martland, Dbachmann, Deadcorpse, DerHexer, Diego pmc, DraxusD, Drmies, Duk, Dv3, Ebakunin, EconoPhysicist, EdBever, Edgar181, Elwikipedista, Emilio Juanatey, EndingPop, Enochlau, Enormousdude, ErkDemon, Esmhead, Esrever, Evand, Evercat, Fableheroesguild, Fayte, Felyza, Fergie12356, Fibonacci, Frankenpuppy, FrenchIsAwesome, Fresheneesz, Fryed-peach, Fusionmix, Fuzheado, Gabrielsleitao, Gene Nygaard, Gertlex, Giftlite, Goingstuckey, GregorB, Hans Adler, HappyCamper, Headbomb, Heero Kirashami, Heliomance, Hemmingsen, Hike395, Hooked4life, IRP, IVAN3MAN, Inter, Itub, Izno, J.delanoy, JLD, JaGa, JabberWok, Janek Kozicki, Jd027, Jeff G., Jh51681, Jmb, Jtkiefer, Juanzober, Jwrosenzweig, Kaldosh, KrakatoaKatie, Larry V, Lemontea, Leonard^Bloom, Lesnail, LiDaobing, Liempt, Lightmouse, Lmoding, LorenzoB, Ludraman, M-le-mot-dit, Madhero88, Mark s daviesuk, Markaci, Masgatotkaca, Mattcain, Mazin07, Mech.akshay, Melvin Pao, Mentifisto, Michael Hardy, MichaelHaeckel, Moondoggy, Mr.Z-man, MrOllie, Muriel Gottrop, Mykar15, Nav92, Naveenfarey, Nbarth, Nhandler, Nickpowerz, Nish81, O, Odie5533, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, OllieFury, Omegatron, Oxymoron83, PAR, Pablo Alcayaga, Papa November, Patrick, Pedant543, Pelago, Perl, Philip Trueman, Phinnaeus, PhySusie, Pinethicket, Pol098, Quantpole, RG2, RUL3R, Ray Van De Walker, Razorflame, Redneonfish, Redvers, Renystro, RexNL, Ribeiro.rob, Rpf, RuM, RyanTMulligan, Sam Hocevar, Sanpaz, SheepNotGoats, Shreen2008, Shujaid, SimpsonDG, Sina2, Slashme, SlayerX 91, Slinky Puppet, Sonett72, SpaceFlight89, SpuriousQ, Srnec, Stannered, Stevage, Steve Quinn, Steven Weston, Stone, Stormscape, StradivariusTV, Straker, Streona, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TVBZ28, Tagishsimon, Tarquin, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, Thiseye, ThorFreyaSaturn, Thumperward, Thunderbird2, Toiyabe, Tom harrison, Trakesht, Trevormoorehouse, Tygrrr, Uncle Dick, User A1, Velella, Vincent de Ruijter, Vreezkid, W0lfie, Wapcaplet, WikiUserPedia, Wisdom89, Woohookitty, Xaven, YK Times, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yyy, Zayzya, Zigozago72, 487 anonymous edits Spring (device) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405873134 Contributors: Abtract, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Andre Engels, Andrewa, Anthony, Appraiser, Arpingstone, Atlant, Bachcell, Ben pcc, Bovlb, Burrfree, Buster2058, Capricorn42, Cavrdg, Chetvorno, Darrendeng, DeFacto, Deano73, Dekimasu, Diderot, Dlohcierekim, Dtgriscom, Duk, Dvdman09, Dysprosia, EdBever, Edcolins, Edgar181, Editor at Large, Ellmist, Emijrp, Enormousdude, Evil saltine,

Ewlyahoocom, Falcon8765, Favonian, Galloping Moses, Galoubet, Gene Nygaard, Gertlex, Giftlite, Glenn, Glogger, Grafen, Greenleaves1027, Greglocock, Haggen Kennedy, Hakeem.gadi, Ham Pastrami, Hateme666, Heron, Hike395, Hongooi, Infovarius, Isnow, J.delanoy, JabberWok, Jagged 85, Jhartman007, Jimp, Jorge Stolfi, Kat Malone, Keilana, Kitkatkatkit, La Pianista, Lapinmies, Largoplazo, Leafy Green 2, Lg king, LightAnkh, LilHelpa, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Magister Mathematicae, Mani1, Marquez, Martin Kozk, Maximus Rex, Meggar, Michael Hardy, Midgrid, Mikiemike, Mintleaf, Moonriddengirl, Musser, Nabokov, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Michael, Old Moonraker, Palica, Patrick, Paul August, Pdkauffmann, Penubag, Perl, Plrk, Pne, Polyparadigm, Prakharbirla, Rabogliatti, Radiojon, Radon210, Redgwan, Renard, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rich951, Ritchy, Rjwilmsi, Roudaut, Sam Korn, Sanpaz, Scott Ritchie, SeventyThree, Shai-kun, SheepNotGoats, ShelfSkewed, Sjakkalle, Skorpion87, SlayerK, Smartse, Solipsist, Spacepotato, Stannered, StarChasm, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, Thunderflame, Tide rolls, Tom harrison, Uikku, Waldir, Western Spring Manufacturing, Wirespring, Wizard191, Wolfmankurd, Wsiegmund, Yevgeny Kats, Yjwong, Yonidebest, Yvwv, ZBrisk, Zanimum, Zeimusu, Zlacroix, 248 anonymous edits Tension (physics) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405893897 Contributors: 5 albert square, A bit iffy, AKB10, Abdullah Krolu, Alansohn, Alexknight12, Anonymous Dissident, AntoniusJ, Archelon, Avoided, BenFrantzDale, Blake-, Boznia, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Coshoi, DVD R W, Dappawit, Dliu144144144, Dureo, El Belga, Elm-39, ErikNY, Everyking, EvilTeeth, Extransit, Fuhghettaboutit, Gcrowell, Geopgeop, Ideal gas equation, Indon, Inwind, Iratheclimber, J.delanoy, J04n, Jake freestone, Janek Kozicki, Karol Langner, LOL, Marshallofmackillop, Metropolitan90, Mgnbar, Michael Hardy, Michaelw000, Mogbog, Nnh, Old m, Ophion, Philip Trueman, Prashanthns, Rikaryaansh, Sionus, Sklei0106, Syko, The Thing That Should Not Be, The sock that should not be, Tom007, Ulric1313, Versus22, Wizard191, Yevgeny Kats, 155 anonymous edits Normal force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405638670 Contributors: Adam Field, Ammatsun, AndrewDressel, Anonymous Dissident, Awesomestpersonintheworld42, Aki, BenFrantzDale, BiT, Carultch, Charles Matthews, Daniel.Cardenas, EagleFan, El C, Email4mobile, Freestylefrappe, Gary King, Gene Nygaard, Ideal gas equation, J.delanoy, JP Godfrey, JacobBramley, KuroiShiroi, Kymacpherson, Lucky 6.9, Mxn, Patrick, Persian Poet Gal, QVanillaQ, R'n'B, Ray9x, Sabate, Shoefly, Shoemaker's Holiday, Stannered, StuTheSheep, Tilin, Vsmith, Wikijens, Wizard191, Wolfkeeper, XduOv3r, Xopar, Zachlipton, Zephyr9, 79 anonymous edits Rope Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403431748 Contributors: AComrade, AJim, Alansohn, Alexanderhaxton, Almw113, Amcbride, Angela, Anna Frodesiak, ArnoldReinhold, Art LaPella, Asbestos, Atlant, AxelBoldt, Barek, Bearings, BenFrantzDale, Bensin, Berchin, Bevo, Big Bob the Finder, Bletch, Boardgames, Bobo The Ninja, Bontenbal, Books09, Brianga, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Bucketman23, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Canthusus, Capricorn42, Catsmeat, Cbdorsett, Cecilbadlands, Chathamh, Chris huh, Christian List, Chuckiesdad, Chuunen Baka, Closedmouth, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, Daniel Quinlan, Danski14, Darrell Greenwood, Davehi1, DavidH, Dcljr, Dfred, Dfrg.msc, Dino, Dm01, Dorvaq, DoubleBlue, Dpmuk, Dreadstar, E090, ENeville, EddieBuckley, Edward, Eiland, Eirik, EliasAlucard, EncycloPetey, Evercat, Evil saltine, Excesses, Exert, Eyrian, Fastifex, Favonian, Fayenatic london, Furrykef, F, Galoubet, Gambit36094, Geary, Gene Nygaard, Gnangarra, GraemeL, Greg1512, Grstain, Grszny, H.W., Hasanbay, Hayk, Haymaker, Heron, HexaChord, Hmains, Hyacinth, I dream of horses, Iammaxus, Inkling, Inwind, Ioscius, Irish Souffle, J.delanoy, JDMIZED, JIP, JNW, Jackfork, Jamesgdunne, Jbarta, Jipre, Joanjoc, JohJak2, John.james, John254, JonHarder, Josh-starr101, Jusdafax, Justanotherelite, KCaf, KK24, Kasperolsen, Katalaveno, Klh52, Kosebamse, Kostisl, Kwharris, LOL, La goutte de pluie, Lambtron,

LeaveSleaves, LeeHunter, Leonard G., Loggie, Mageba, Maias, Maizeam, Mandarax, Mani1, Maniac18, MarB4, Maximuskite, Mbvanleeuwen, McSly, Melwalk, Metodicar, MightyWarrior, Mikeblas, Mintleaf, Mr.Z-man, Mstroeck, Mwanner, Mysidia, Natural fibre, Netalarm, Niccicroucamp, Nigelj, Nlitement, Noctibus, Nsaa, OAC, Oda Mari, Oliver Trask, Opryshok, Orgullomoore, Paigeycat, Party, Patrick, Persian Poet Gal, Peter Isotalo, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhilHibbs, Phillip J, Pietrow, Pinkadelica, Pjbflynn, Poiuyt721, Pollinator, Possum, Postrach, Pretzelpaws, Prof Wrong, Public Menace, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, Ragzouken, Rajkiandris, Rama, Razwww, Reddi, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rkstafford, Rnb, Ronhjones, Rossami, RoyBoy, Rror, Rtdrury, Ryomaandres, Safemariner, Sango123, SciAndTech, Seav, Shawn in Montreal, Shoeofdeath, Siberian Husky, Sionnach1, Sir, Skapur, Skunkboy74, Smokizzy, Solipsist, Stephenb, Stewartadcock, Stnqb, Supermankiller, Sverdrup, Syeht, SyphonfilterE, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tabby, Tad Lincoln, Tempestz, Tertiar, The RedBurn, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, TheKaplan, Thingg, Thumperward, Tiggerjay, Timo Honkasalo, Timwi, Toepoaster, Tommy2010, TruantUnit, Tsiaojian lee, Tyw7, Ulric1313, VMS Mosaic, VirtualDelight, WadeSimMiser, Walldj45, Wayland, Weefolk29, Wiki Mod Kliner, Wikipelli, Wizard191, Wkautter, Work permit, Yosri, Zargulon, Zerida, Zonk43, 311 anonymous edits Pulley Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405950058 Contributors: (:Julien:), -Ozone-, 16@r, 1pezguy, 21655, AJR, Abrech, Ace Frahm, Addshore, Adrian Teh, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alexf, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, AnakngAraw, AndrewDressel, Angela, Annabanana1235, Archanamiya, Arjun01, Ashleigh tech n9ne, Atshields0, AuburnPilot, Audriusa, Avenged Eightfold, Avogadro94, Avoided, Axeman89, Az1568, B62316, Bachrach44, Bart133, Benbest, Benc, BillFlis, Bisonspawn, Bobo192, Bondj007bond, Bongwarrior, Brian0918, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, Buster2058, Butterscotch, CINEGroup, CWii, Cacophony, Calvin 1998, Cameron Dewe, CameronG6, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CapitalR, Carders, Carmichael95, Carolyn sutton9, Cdang, Channy is sexi, Chetvorno, Choppingmall, Chowbok, Ciacchi, Circeus, Clarince63, CliffC, Coma28, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Complex (de), Conversion script, Courcelles, Cureden, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DC, DJ Clayworth, DVD R W, Da Joe, DanielDeibler, Danielrgunther, Darkwind, Darth Panda, Darty004, Ddcampayo, Decltype, Delldot, DerHexer, Dirkbb, Dirke, Discospinster, Donarreiskoffer, Dpaajones, Drappel, Drestros power, Duk, Eh kia, Epbr123, Evercat, Everyking, Fabullus, Foobaz, Friviere, Fxer, Fyyer, F, GDonato, Gabbe, Gabs033, Gail, Galwhaa, GeeKaa, Geneb1955, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gogo Dodo, GorillaWarfare, Grey Shadow, Grunt, Gtg204y, Gwernol, Gwguffey, Harald Hansen, HeckXX, Helix pomatia, Heron, Hilaryduffjen, HolIgor, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hutcher, I do not exist, Ilyushka88, Imarock, ImperatorExercitus, Imperfection, Ipatrol, It Is Me Here, Iune, IvanLanin, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jarbon, Jas.b96, Jason Quinn, JavierMC, Jaxl, Jenna123456789, Jhinman, JinJ, Jmb, JohJak2, Johnalden, Jossi, Juliancolton, Junglecat, Jna runn, KCinDC, KJS77, KLWhitehead, KabouchKid, Kakofonous, Katieh5584, Kbdank71, Keegan, Keilana, Kesac, Kieff, King of Hearts, Klemen Kocjancic, Knuckles, Kuru, Kyle1278, LOL, Legrand68, Lesnail, Lhmathies, Lights, Lilac Soul, Little Mountain 5, Lskydell, Luk, Luna Santin, MBisanz, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, Malcolma, Mani1, Manop, MarkLeavenworth, MarkMLl, Masterchiefkarthi, Mauler90, Mayooranathan, Merovingian, Miaow Miaow, Micki, Midnightblaze, Mike Dill, Mindbuilder, NawlinWiki, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Chiasson, 174 Article Sources and Contributors Nihiltres, Nk, Nn123645, Nnh, Novaswimgrl29, Nsaa, Nubiatech, Ohranj, Onevalefan, Opie, Ornil, Oxymoron83, PAR, Persian Poet Gal, PeteVerdon, Peter Horn, Petri Krohn, Philip Trueman, Pozel, Prolineserver, Prolog, Pugster, Purplerulez, Quaeler, RadicalBender, RedWolf, RepublicanJacobite, RexNL, Rfl, Rich257, Rmosler2100, Rokfaith, Rossami, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Rubbrbndmn, S3000, SWAdair, Scohoust, Sean D Martin, SemperBlotto, Sergey371, Shanes, Showtyme11, Silentspoon, Simetrical, Simian, Sintaku, Sionus, Skier Dude, Slakr, Slashme, Sn7789, Snowolf, Soosed, Spellcast, Sue Rangell, Szlam, Tabletop, Tehsnyder, Tejanosoccer13, The

Fifth Horseman, The Man in Question, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheThingy, Themightyquill, Thingg, Three-quarter-ten, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Tomia, Tommy2010, Trebor27trebor, Treisijs, VanBurenen, Velho, Vikrant A Phadkay, Vipinhari, Vivacissamamente, Vsmith, WTGDMan1986, Wags1959, Wayne Riddock, Wayward, Wenli, Whomp, Wiki alf, Winhunter, Wisco, Wizard191, Wj32, WolfmanSF, Xfcdfxhcvbfgtjgch, Xiahou, Xymmax, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, YanA, Yevgeny Kats, Yvesnimmo, 906 anonymous edits Inclined plane Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406082176 Contributors: 2D, Acroterion, Afaz, Ajm81, Amalthea, Amcfreely, Andrea105, AndrewDressel, Ariel., Baiji, BananaFiend, Basketball110, Beaumont, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Bender2k14, Bigblue08, Bobet, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, Brian the Editor, Bubba hotep, Buster2058, Bwrs, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Capricorn42, Carnildo, Catgut, Cbrown1023, CesarB, Charles Matthews, Ched Davis, Chrislk02, Christy747, Clayoquot, Cmdrjameson, Coopkev2, Corpx, Courcelles, Crazycomputers, D V S, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVdm, Daniel.Cardenas, Danielrgunther, Dannyou, DarkAudit, Darth Panda, David Shankbone, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim's sock, Docu, Doulos Christos, Dpryan, Dreadstar, Dust Filter, Dv82matt, Eggsyntax, Elockid, EnSamulili, Enauspeaker, Eouw0o83hf, Fell Collar, Ferritecore, Fetofs, Flowersofnight, Friviere, G-Man, Gabbe, Glenn, GraemeL, Graham87, Gurubrahma, Guy Peters, Gwernol, Hello98764321, HexaChord, HolIgor, Hutcher, Hydrogen Iodide, Ibbn, Icep, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, J04n, JNW, JamesBurns, Jerzy, Jusdafax, Jvr725, Katalaveno, Katieh5584, Keilana, Kgrr, Kieff, KingTT, Klemen Kocjancic, Knuckles, LAX, La goutte de pluie, Lasta, Law, Life of Riley, Little Mountain 5, Littlealien182, Lommer, Macaddct1984, Matdrodes, Materialscientist, Matt Deres, Meggar, Merovingian, Mets501, Miquonranger03, Mirwin, Monkeydevil2, Montrealais, Moonraker12, Mrphil1969, Mwtoews, N5iln, NHRHS2010, NawlinWiki, Nfleming, Nsider, NuclearWarfare, Occono, Ospalh, OverlordQ, P199, Palmiped, Patrick, Pearle, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Ptrpro, RL0919, Radon210, Ray9x, Raymondwinn, Rbj, Reach Out to the Truth, Reddi, Reyk, Rich Farmbrough, Ron yugioh, Rossami, Rrburke, Ryan, Sanchit89, Sanfranman59, Sarrus, Satori Son, Scarlet Lioness, Senator Palpatine, Sephiroth BCR, Shadowjams, Shoefly, Showtyme11, Smalljim, Snowolf, Someguy1221, SpookyMulder, SteveBaker, Sverdrup, Svick, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tarquin, Tcncv, The Thing That Should Not Be, Themightyquill, Theodolite, Thiago R Ramos, Three white leopards, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tiptoety, Tlim7882, Tom.k, Touroftheworld, Tricky Victoria, Ugha, Una Smith, Uncle Dick, Vald, VanBurenen, Vanished User 1004, Versus22, Vsmith, Wassup99, WaysToEscape, Whiskey in the Jar, Wknight94, Wolfkeeper, Wonder al, Xchbla423, Yhr, Yvesnimmo, Zundark, , 584 anonymous edits Lever Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406006386 Contributors: - ), .:Ajvol:., 1 drinkwiped for everyone, 100110100, 16@r, 21655, 2help, A More Perfect Onion, ALGHRV, Admiral Norton, Aetheling, Aitias, Ajk91, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Aleenf1, Alessandrorubini, Alfred Centauri, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Amire80, AnakngAraw, Andrew Levine, Andy M. Wang, Andyjsmith, Anetode, Angela, Animum, Antandrus, Apple, Applejuicefool, Aragupta, Ark'ay, Askari Mark, AstroNomer, B62316, BGOATDoughnut, BRUTE, Baa, Bakabaka, Bastion21, Beefpelican, Bento00, Bidgee, Big iron, BillC, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Boris Barowski, Bratsche, Brian Tenitil, Brian0918, Brianga, Brianonn, Brionyrose, Bryt, Bsadowski1, Bubba hotep, Burntsauce, Buster2058, CWY2190, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Cardamon, CardinalDan, Cattus, Cbustapeck, Cfpops, Chris 73, Cimon Avaro, Closedmouth, Cometstyles, Cotoco, Courcelles, Crazycomputers, Crazydude21, Creatoroftheworld22, Ctbolt, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DRosenbach, DVD R W, DVdm, DaL33T, Daen, Davepape, Dbachmann, Dcooper, DeadEyeArrow, Deankx, Deerhunter7m, Delirium, DerHexer, DerrickOswald, Diagonalfish, Digitalme, Dillon12345, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmcc, Doc glasgow, DocWatson42, Dolphin20, Domanator1, Dori, Dougmc, Doyley, Dreadstar, DrewJ, Dreyton Smith, Dtgriscom, Duk, Dysprosia, ERcheck, Ec5618,

EdJogg, EdTrist, Edcolins, Editindude, Edwy, Elassint, Eliazar, Engunneer, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Errickfoxy, Ettrig, Everyking, FaerieInGrey, Fingerz, Flowersofnight, Fraggle81, Frank, Frankenpuppy, FredMSloniker, Frencheigh, Frodet, Fti74, Gabs033, Galwhaa, Garion96, Ged UK, Geniac, Giftlite, Glane23, Glenn, Gogo Dodo, Gracenotes, GraemeL, Gregorydavid, Griffinofwales, Groyolo, Gsc67, Gtg204y, Gtstricky, Gunnar Hendrich, Gurch, Gwernol, Hairchrm, Halflifer20, HamburgerRadio, Hdgcfcf, HenryLi, Hephaestos, HexaChord, Himannn, Horselover Frost, HorsemansWiki, Hutcher, Hydrogen Iodide, I dream of horses, IGeMiNix, Iain, Igoldste, Imanoob69, ImperatorExercitus, Infrogmation, Inwind, Isnow, Itai, Ixfd64, Ixsprocketxi, Izzyfizzy123, J.delanoy, JForget, Jacek Kendysz, Jack james11, JackZhou, Jackol, Jackwyncoll, Jaknouse, Jammie, Jane huahua, Janisterzaj, JavierMC, Jennavecia, Jj137, Jnuzzo, JoanneB, Joedinglechannel, John254, JohnCD, Jomasecu, Jons63, Jossi, Joyous!, Julian I Do Stuff, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Karch, Karlhahn, Keilana, Kelly Martin, Kieff, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, Kinipopo, Kipala, Kiran Gopi, Kiwi8, Klingoncowboy4, Knuckles, Koopook, Krish Dulal, Kukini, Kuru, KyraVixen, LFaraone, LOL, Lamb99, Lambtron, Leafyplant, Lear's Fool, LeaveSleaves, Leonard G., Lesnail, Levineps, Light current, Loonymonkey, LordK, Luckas Blade, Luna Santin, Lunch, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MONGO, MSGJ, Maashatra11, Madhero88, Majorly, Mandeep777, Marasama, Mark Chung, MarsRover, Maxim, Maxis ftw, Mayooranathan, Meaghan, Mechasheherezada, Merovingian, Michael Hardy, Midnightspellweaver, Mitched, Momma's Little Helper, Mumia-w-18, Myanw, Mzchry, N419BH, NMChico24, Nabla, Nakon, NawlinWiki, NeilDespres, Neurolysis, Nicholas pun, Nick Wilson, Nivix, Noah Salzman, Nuvitauy07, Nv8200p, OlEnglish, Old Moonraker, Omicronpersei8, OrbitOne, Orionus, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Pacaman, Pakaran, Patrick, Pegasus1138, Peter Horn, Petrb, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Planetary Chaos, Pleasantville, Politepunk, Professor Calculus, Provophys, Ptrpro, Pyreforge, Qn iff23, Quintote, R9tgokunks, RMFan1, RUL3R, Rand0m011, RazorICE, Rbakker99, Rcouto, Reddi, RegentsPark, RelentlessRecusant, Remag Kee, RexNL, Rmosler2100, Roland2, Rossami, Rrburke, Ryulong, SD5, SJP, Saketh, Salgueiro, SaltyBoatr, Sceptre, Schzmo, Scientizzle, Sciurin, Sebleblanc, Selket, Sesshomaru, Shadowjams, Shanel, Simon Shek, Skyezx, Slakr, Smallducks, Smalljim, SmartGuy, Smarticleist333, Smmcppp, Snookumz, Soadbstband, Sonett72, Sonic3KMaster, SpecMode, SpikeTorontoRCP, SpuriousQ, Srtxg, Staka, StaticGull, StaticVision, SteinbDJ, Stephenb, Stifynsemons, Stupid Corn, Sunderland06, SuperHamster, Supertant, Sushiflinger, Suwa, Swatjester, T - 4000, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Taranet, Tawker, Tbhotch, Techman224, Tempodivalse, Tenbergen, Ternit, Thatguyflint, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheThingy, Thedjatclubrock, Themightyquill, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Titoxd, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tommy2010, Torivm, Tsanth, Tsaylor, Tsinoyboi, Tsinoyman, Ttony21, Una Smith, Uncle Dick, Useight, Utcursch, VBGFscJUn3, Van helsing, VanBurenen, Vegaswikian, Versus22, Vssun, Wags1959, Waiwaifan, Wavelength, Weiswu, Werdan7, Westtm, Wikifan798, William Avery, Willking1979, Wimt, Wisco, Wizard191, Wknight94, Wolfnix, Wtruttschel, Wwilly, Wysprgr2005, Xompanthy, Yuckfoo, Yvesnimmo, Zachlipton, Zhou Yu, Ziounclesi, Zzuuzz, 1503 ,anonymous edits Wedge (mechanical device) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405687852 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., ABF, AThing, Aaron north, Addshore, Alansohn, Aldaron, Allstarecho, Anabus, Andrejj, AndrewDressel, AnnaP, Avogadro94, Batteriesnotincluded, BirdValiant, Bookofjude, Borowski, CQui, Cambrasa, Carders, Cayafas, Chiefwaterfall, Conscious, DMacks, Darry2385, David Edgar, Debresser, Delirium, Delldot, Dhollm, DocSigma, Fritzpoll, Gauge, Geometry guy, Glenn, Gmo1997, Gospelben, GraemeL, Guoguo12, Halmstad, Harald Hansen, Henningklevjer, HolIgor, Horsebrutality, Horselover Frost, Hutcher, HybridBoy, Iain, Iameukarya, IronGargoyle, Isnow, J.delanoy, JPD, Jagged 85, Jamesontai, Jan1nad, Javit, Jesseluo711, Jimbowley, JoePeartree, JustAddPeter, Kakofonous, Kkmurray, Kross, Kukini, Lasta, Leafy Green 2, Lemontea, LietKynes, Lordthees, MarsRover, Mashman92, Mayooranathan, Meno25, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mr Bound, Mr Stephen, Nabla, Newageetzio, P0per, PTSE, Pethr, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Pjbflynn, Ptrpro, Purodha, Purple Saturn (sailormoon), Quentar, RJP, Rasbak, Rdrs, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rickjpelleg, Rico402, Rj1020, Rorro, Rossami, Seahorseruler, Sean

William, Seaphoto, Sk8tr4010, Skwinch, Snailwalker, Snowolf, Soccergirlsam, Socrates2008, Strait, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Terrana, That can't be right?, The Thing That Should Not Be, Themightyquill, This acccount is 4 vandalism, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Touretzky, Ugha, Uncle Milty, Van helsing, VanBurenen, Venu62, Versus22, WacoJacko, Wangi, Wayne Slam, Wces423, William Avery, Wizard191, WolfgangFaber, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yvesnimmo, Zealot archon, 310 , anonymous edits Wheel and axle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401542265 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 5 albert square, 7, ABF, Acroterion, Addshore, Airescsanski, Aitias, Alansohn, Allstarecho, Antandrus, ArielGold, Arthena, Avnjay, AxiomShell, Benwildeboer, BillC, BinaryTed, Blacklegendx, Blackrider55555, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, Bovineone, Burnedthru, CIreland, Caeruleancentaur, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Christian75, Clayoquot, Cornellrockey, Cucacaro, DDerby, Dbachmann, DeadEyeArrow, Decltype, Discospinster, Dj ansi, Djr32, E Wing, Eekerz, Elockid, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric Wester, Erik9, Excirial, FactoidCow, FastLizard4, Feezo, GLaDOS, Gabs033, Gatewaycat, Gestrin, Gilliam, Glenn, Gmo1997, GoingBatty, Grayshi, Gregorydavid, Gwernol, Gkhan, Hadal, Hdt83, HexaChord, Horselover Frost, HorsemansWiki, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hutcher, Hydrogen Iodide, Indiealtphreak, Ioeth, Ixfd64, JSpung, JayEsJay, Jimbowley, JohJak2, Johnalden, Jonlin718, Jons63, JustAGal, K2762063, Kay1218, Kbh3rd, Khaldei, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, KowDude, Kvdveer, Lear's Fool, LeaveSleaves, Legoland12342, MK8, Macaddct1984, Majorly, Mandarax, Marek69, Michael Hardy, Monkeydevil2, Moop stick, MuZemike, Nagy, NawlinWiki, NewEnglandYankee, Nigholith, Noah Salzman, NotJackhorkheimer, NuclearWarfare, Nyttend, Ojay123, Orangutan, Pacaman, Peruvianllama, Peter Horn, Pewwer42, Possum, Professor Calculus, Pyrospirit, R'n'B, Redmarkviolinist, RexNL, Rfc1394, Rfts, Rjwilmsi, Ronhjones, Rossami, RxS, Samwb123, Sander123, Seaphoto, Shoeofdeath, Slaviboy, Splat, StaticGull, Stepa, The Thing That Should Not Be, The sock that should not be, Themightyquill, Thingg, Tide rolls, Ultimus, Van helsing, VanBurenen, Vmadeira, Voyagerfan5761, WODUP, Weregerbil, White Shadows, Wiki alf, Wikipe-tan, Wimt, Wizard191, Wolfgang1018, Xndr, Yvesnimmo, Zazou, Zenchi, Ziusudra, 496 anonymous edits Momentum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403961335 Contributors: (jarbarf), -Midorihana-, 2over0, Abce2, Abmcdonald, Afa86, AgentCDE, Airplaneman, Alansohn, Albertod4, AlexPlank, Alison, Allen 124, Anarchic Fox, AndersFeder, Andonic, Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, AndyZ, Andywall, Anetode, AngelOfSadness, Ap, ArchonMagnus, ArcticWind88, Army1987, AstroNox, Aveekbh, Az1568, BD2412, Bagatelle, Banes, Bart133, Basketofkittens, Battoe19, Ben pcc, BiT, Bidabadi, Bigdottawa, Billlion, Billybob1023, Bishflop, Black and White, Blanchette, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, BozMo, Bromskloss, Brotherbobby, Bryan H Bell, Bullzeye, C-randles, C0h3n, CWenger, Call me Bubba, Calvinchankf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cenarium, Chaos, Chipmaster32, Christian List, Christopher Thomas, Chun-hian, Chzz, Coco0305, Coldplasma, Comte0, Conversion script, Corkgkagj, CptCutLess, Cwrong10, Cybercobra, Cybertiberius, D4g0thur, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DTR, DVD R W, DVdm, Dacxjo, Damasta2221, Dan O'Malley, Darth Panda, Dave6, David Woolley, DavidJJJ, Db099221, Dcljr, Dd254, Debresser, Delldot, DemonStar55, Deor, Deylen tau, Df747jet, Dfrg.msc, Dhollm, Digemedi, Discospinster, Download, Dreadstar, Duping Man, E2eamon, ESkog, Edwardgraef, El C, Eliyak, Elkman, Enixer, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Eponymous-Archon, Epsoul, Equendil, Eric-Wester, Ericmelse, Ezhuttukari, F. Cosoleto, Faradayplank, Favonian, FelisLeo, Fibonacci, Fiziker, Fl, Forevereternalmike, Fredrik, Fresheneesz, Fritz Saalfeld, Frosted14, Frdrick Lacasse, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, Glenn, GoingBatty, Gracenotes, Greatwalk, Grimey109, Grimlock, Gsp, Gtg204y, Gurch, Guycalledryan, Guz, Gkhan, HMNavy, Hagedis, Hairy Dude, HamburgerRadio, Hamletpride, Hamtechperson, Haonhien, Harley peters, Headbomb, Henning Makholm, Heron,

Herr apa, Herrmario, Hmrox, Hongooi, Honza Zruba, Hu12, IRP, Icairns, Iridescent, Isis, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J8079s, JForget, JPMcGrath, JabberWok, Jagged 85, Janek Kozicki, Janus Shadowsong, Jason Leach, Jauerback, Jauhienij, Jdpipe, Jeepien, Jennavecia, JenyaTsoy, Jeppesn, Jimp, Jitse Niesen, Jj137, Jmcc150, John1114, JohnCD, Jonathan Drain, Jorunn, Josh Sosby, Joshua P. Schroeder, JuJube, JustinWick, Juswill3, Karinsteinbock, Karol Langner, Katalaveno, Keilana, Kenny56, Keta, Kevin Ryde, Khaosworks, Kisfox, Kjkatusc, Klinfran, Knight1993, Knownot, Kprateek88, Kwalke8, Kyesac, Kyrisch, LOTRrules, Langphysics, LarryUHouston, Laurascudder, LeaveSleaves, LessHeard vanU, Lgauthie, Light current, Lightmouse, Lolcatslolhard, LonelyMarble, Lookang, Looxix, Lradrama, Lseixas, Luna Santin, Lyctc, MER-C, Macpherson123, Manop, 175 Article Sources and Contributors Mark, MarkSutton, Markgriz, Matassasa, Materialscientist, Mathwhiz 29, MattieTK, Matusz, Maurice Carbonaro, Mdebets, Mejor Los Indios, Merlion444, Mernst, Mgnbar, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mordemur, Mozzie, Mpatel, My76Strat, Myhmamin, NS Zakeruga, Nagle, Naidevinci, Nakos2208, Natalandus, Naurmacil, Neverquick, NightBlade151, Nikai, Nikzbitz, Niout, Nk, NoPetrol, Nobrow, Noodle snacks, Nozo, Ntmatter, Oda Mari, Okulov99, Omegatron, Ophion, Opspin, Orbst, PAR, Pabreetzio, Pak21, Paolo.dL, Parasmani6, Patrick, Paul August, Paul Erik, PaulTanenbaum, Pentasyllabic, Persian Poet Gal, Pfalstad, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Phys, Physicsdoc, Piano non troppo, Pineapples911, Pkbharti, Pmetzger, Potnugget, Psyche825, Puggel, Pvkampen, Quantling, Quantumstream, Qxz, RG2, RUL3R, Reconsider the static, Reddi, Reedy, Rhetth, Rkr1991, Roadrunner, Rocastelo, Rogper, Romanm, Rossami, Salvio giuliano, Samw, Sanders muc, Sango123, Sanpaz, SarekOfVulcan, Scetoaux, Securiger, Shia4isam, Shoeofdeath, Silly rabbit, SirBob42, Skunkboy74, Snaxe920, Snoopy874, Snowolf, SomariX, Sorsanmetsastaja, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Specter01010, SpeedyGonsales, Spencer, SpookyMulder, Spoon!, Srr712, Stannered, Stephenb, SteveBaker, Steven Zhang, StradivariusTV, Sturmde, Swarm, Swashplate, Syncategoremata, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TK-925, TZGreat, Tamfang, Tantalate, Temporary1139, Tesi1700, That Guy, From That Show!, The Original Wildbear, The Rhymesmith, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, Thermochap, Think777, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timepass wiki, Timmo999, Tobby72, Tobias Hoevekamp, TomPhil, Tombomp, Treisijs, Truthnlove, Tsuite, Turms, Tweesdad, UberCryxic, Uncle G, Unksnogan, User A1, VMS Mosaic, Vaibhavsaccountforwikipedia, Van helsing, Vary, Viridae, Voltorb, Vrenator, Vuerqex, WAS 4.250, WadeSimMiser, WaiteDavid137, WatermelonPotion, Waycool27, Weirdy, Wikiborg, WillowW, Wmahan, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Wordsmith, Wwoods, Xiroth, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yansa, Yuhuach, Zaidpjd, Zmcneish, 990 anonymous edits Friction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404447353 Contributors: 1234567890123, 1exec1, 8056alt, A3RO, ABF, ABHISHEKARORA, Abeg92, Abrech, Acdx, Acroterion, Adashiel, Adawson88, Addshore, Agamennon, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Joe Skarda, Ale jrb, Alksub, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Alrino, Ammatsun, Anakata, Anders Torlind, Andrevan, Andrew153, AndrewDressel, Andycjp, Animum, Annax3, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Another Stickler, Antandrus, Apparition11, AquaDTRS, Aravindet, Arch dude, Ashley Y, Atlantima, Avant Guard, Avenged Eightfold, AvicAWB, Aznskill101, BCube, Babajobu, Barak181, Barneca, Basawala, Baygenz, Bbatsell, Beast of traal, BenFrantzDale, Benplowman, Bernfarr, Blah3, Bleachgangsta, Blue520, Blues-harp, Bmicomp, Bobianite, Bobo192, Boffy b, Bongwarrior, Borb, Brandmeister, Brian0918, BrotherFlounder, Brownan, BrucetonCATS, Bsimmons666, C Rockefeller, CUSENZA Mario, Cacaisgood, Caco de vidro, Cactus.man, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CardinalDan, CharlotteWebb, Chickyfuzz14, Chris 73, Chrislk02, Chych, Closedmouth, Conversion script, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Cunard, D, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHeyward, DJ Clayworth, DVD R W, DWLink, Da monster under your bed, DaGizza, DanMS, Danesaw, Danlina, Darth Panda, Dauto, DaveJ7, Davehi1, Db099221,

DeadEyeArrow, Deanos, Deathwing23, Dellarb, DerHexer, Des1974, Dgrant, Dhollm, Diberri, Diderot, Dina, Discospinster, Djinn112, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dorftrottel, DragonflySixtyseven, Dreftymac, Dspradau, Dusti, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, ERcheck, ESkog, EconoPhysicist, EdsGodma, Ellywa, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Equendil, Escalona, Evercat, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, Ewlyahoocom, FF2010, Falcon8765, Fasdewx, Feezo, FengRail, Fieldday-sunday, Finlay McWalter, Firestonetireguy, Fjhs, Fleiger, Fltchr, Fly by Night, Freakofnurture, Fresheneesz, Friction child, FrozenUmbrella, GB fan, Gary King, Geoff Plourde, George The Dragon, Gfoley4, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, GoZags, Goingstuckey, GraemeL, Graham87, Gregcohen79, Gregfitzy, Gregzore, Grm wnr, Gtstricky, Gurch, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hammer1980, Hao2lian, Happy-melon, Haraldwallin, Headbomb, Herbee, Heron, Herr apa, Hraefen, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hyuu, IRP, IW.HG, Icairns, Igit, Ilyaroz, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Isis, Isnow, Ivan tambuk, J Di, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, J.delanoy, J8079s, JForget, JFreeman, JHMM13, JLaTondre, JYi, JaGa, JabberWok, Jagged 85, JamieS93, JavierMC, Jbergquist, Jcw69, Jeepday, Jeff G., Jimqode, Jj137, Jmbrock, Jni, Johnbobkins, Jonathanrcoxhead, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh3580, JoshHolloway, Joshschr, Jossi, Jschwa1, Jtknowles, Jtwhetten, Juliancolton, JunKen, Kafka Liz, Kafziel, Kaisershatner, Kalivd, Karol Langner, Katalaveno, Keilana, Keta, KieferSkunk, King of Hearts, Kku, Knight1993, KnowledgeOfSelf, Krubo, Kubigula, Kungfuadam, Kuru, LAAFan, LOL, LOLDSFAN, LaMenta3, Lawilkin, Lazulilasher, Lcarsdata, Leflyman, Legare, Lindmere, Little cistheman, Ljhappy1201, LostTemplar, Ludwigs2, Luna Santin, MER-C, MONGO, Macintosh User, Malcohol, Martial75, Master188, Materialscientist, McVities, Mechj, Megaboz, Mel Etitis, Melab-1, Melsaran, Mercury, Meredithm33, Michael Hardy, Michael L. Hall, Michaelas10, Mike Dill, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minghong, Mo0, Motorneuron, MrOllie, Muhends, Mwaxman11, NHRHS2010, Nagy, Nakon, NapoliRoma, Ndenison, Neonblak, Nihiltres, Nivix, Nk, Nolafolk, Nskillen, Nuno Tavares, Octane, Oda Mari, Ojigiri, Onixman, Orphic, Oxymoron83, Paolo.dL, Paranormal Skeptic, Patstuart, Paul August, Pedicabo ego vos et irrumabo, Penubag, Persian Poet Gal, Petergress, Peterlewis, Peterlin, Phil Boswell, Philcohen, Philip Trueman, PhilippWeissenbacher, Physicistjedi, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Pip2andahalf, Pixeltoo, PlatinumX, Player 03, Porridgebowl, Psb777, Psyche825, Pursey, Pyrospirit, Qe2eqe, QuadrivialMind, Quamaretto, Quintote, RJaguar3, Rabidanimals, Raggiante, RainbowOfLight, Ram-Man, Randy Johnston, Rat at WikiFur, Raul654, Raymondwinn, Rdsmith4, Reaper Eternal, RedHillian, Rehman faiz11, Retired username, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Stephens, Rick MILLER, Rigadoun, Rjwilmsi, Rockoprem, Romain.guises, Rory096, Rotje66, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Rror, Rtdrury, RyanCross, Sajt, Sampson, Samtheboy, Sanpaz, Scientizzle, Sdman923, Seanjp8329, Sentriclecub, Sgstarling, Shakejunt420, Shamilton, Shanes, SheikYerBooty, Shellreef, Shoefly, Shoeofdeath, SieG KilleR, Silly rabbit, Sir Lewk, Sir Stig, Sirex98, Sketchee, Skittleskittle, Smalljim, Smurrayinchester, Snigbrook, Soliloquial, Some fat dude, Spiel496, Spoon!, Squiddy, Srikeit, Starwiz, Stephen J. Brooks, Stephenb, Stevertigo, Strikehold, Strongbad1982, StuRat, StuTheSheep, Subversive.sound, SuperColbertFan, Sverdrup, Swamp Ig, Swerdnaneb, Swpb, Syedrazahabbasjilani, Synergy, Syrthiss, T-borg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tasc, Tatari-kun, Tawker, Tbhotch, TenPoundHammer, Thatkiwiboy, The Anome, The Firewall, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheDoctor10, TheKMan, Thedjatclubrock, Thingg, Thu, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Titoxd, Tivedshambo, TomasBat, Tombomp, TotoBaggins, Traveler100, Trevor MacInnis, Tslocum, Tylerni7, Tyrol5, Ukexpat, UniEmpPime, User A1, VDZ, Vary, Verethor, Viskonsas, VivaEmilyDavies, Voyagerfan5761, Vrenator, Vsmith, Waggers, Waninge, Ward20, WatermelonPotion, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, WaysToEscape, Wayward, Wazzzup7up, Where, Whiskey in the Jar, Wimt, Wingman358, Winstonio, Wisdom89, Wizard191, Wk muriithi, Wolfkeeper, Wolfmankurd, Wtfily, XB-70, Xakuzzah, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yelyos, Yettie0711, Youngrod123, Zachplaysguitar5, Zanhsieh, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Zayzya,

Zephyr9, Zetawoof, Zgystardst, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, 1513 , anonymous edits Drag (physics) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405202985 Contributors: 5 albert square, ACBest, AGToth, Aaron north, Aerokiwi, Agateller, Airplanenerd, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Allen McC., Ann Stouter, Another Stickler, Arch dude, Arpingstone, Arrgh406, Ashley Pomeroy, Asterion, Avoided, Awickert, Baa, Beano, Bobblewik, Bookofjude, CanadianLinuxUser, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, CatherineMunro, Chetvorno, Chewie, Chompa123, ChrisCork, Constructive editor, Courcelles, Crowsnest, DH85868993, Darthjt, Daytonduck, DeadEyeArrow, Dedede224, DigitallyCrazy, Dolphin51, Donreed, Dpwkbw, Drmies, EagleFan, Eatabullet, Edw400, Eliz81, Email4mobile, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Estudiarme, Eyas, F l a n k e r, Fredwood, Fresheneesz, Frdrick Lacasse, Gef756, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gildos, Gogo Dodo, GregorB, Hammersbach, Happysailor, Headbomb, Heron, Hogghogg, Icairns, Ikhmelin, Innv, Insanity Incarnate, Inwind, Iridescent, JFreeman, Ja 62, JabberWok, Jennavecia, Jenssss, Jj137, Jodi.a.schneider, JoeSmack, John, Jopsen, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joseph.slater, Jovianeye, Kaybet, Killerhhh, Kingpin13, Kku, Kungfuadam, Laurascudder, Lawler, LeheckaG, Lightmouse, Llort, Luckas Blade, MER-C, Malfita, Mandarax, Matthewslf, Mechanical Rose, Meggar, Melamed katz, Mets501, MiShogun, Michael Belisle, Michael Hardy, Miernik, Mikeo, Mion, Moink, Morning277, Mustafarox, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Neonumbers, Notafish, Nunquam Dormio, Ohanian, Optakeover, Oxymoron83, Palmiped, Paolo.dL, Peregrine Fisher, Persian Poet Gal, Pgj98r, Philip Trueman, Phoenix-wiki, PigFlu Oink, Planetscared, Plenumchamber, Polluxian, Primarscources, Quercus basaseachicensis, Raven4x4x, RedCure, Reedy, Rich257, Robin S, Ronhjones, Rtdrury, Safalra, Sammybat, Sceptre, Sean Whitton, Slakr, SoCalSuperEagle, Spoon!, StevenWarren, Stevertigo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Thunderboltz, Tim1357, Vsmith, WaysToEscape, Whitepaw, Wiki alf, WikiJon, Wikipelli, Wolfkeeper, Z.E.R.O., 374 anonymous edits Centripetal force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401851758 Contributors: 165.123.179.xxx, 16@r, 209.75.42.xxx, 62.6.213.xxx, 7, A3RO, AAA!, Aceawh979, Addasc, Alansohn, Aly89, AndrewDressel, Ap, AstroNomer, Atif.t2, Attilios, AugPi, Aki, Ballz4kidz, Belinrahs, BenKovitz, Bennetto, Bobo192, Booyabazooka, Bowlhover, Brews ohare, Bryan Derksen, Bucephalus, CTZMSC3, Caknuck, CanadianLinuxUser, Catgut, Cburnett, Choihei, Chrislk02, Cleonis, Conversion script, Crazycomputers, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVdm, Danielleb32, David Tombe, DeadEyeArrow, Dgies, DiabloDan, Diagramma Della Verita, Dicklyon, Djr32, Dr.K., Drw25, Dustimagic, Dutch chatty, ERcheck, Ency, Euicho, Ewlyahoocom, Exp HP, Favonian, Fryed-peach, Fuhghettaboutit, Fuzzywallaby, FyzixFighter, Gary King, Gclink, Ggsgas, Gpd209, Grilo-TC, Gutza, Haein45, Harald88, Harland1, Headbomb, Hede2000, Henning Makholm, Hoof Hearted, Hotsaucekd, Ian Pitchford, Igoldste, Inklein, Inluminetuovidebimuslumen, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Ironpole, J.delanoy, JabberWok, Jauhienij, Jhylands, JoanneB, John254, Jpc4031, Karol Langner, Kendrick7, Kerrio, Kine, King of Hearts, Krawi, Kurykh, Kyle1278, L Kensington, Larry V, Laurifer, LeFrog, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Letmebefell, Lifeeth, Lilac Soul, Looxix, Luke13f, MaxLupton, Maxno, McSly, Meadsteve, Michael Hardy, Michel M Verstraete, Mike Rosoft, Minesweeper, Minglex, Mini-Geek, Mion, MrDrBob, Mrthebeast, Musical Linguist, N5iln, Narayansg, Natural Philosopher, NawlinWiki, Ndenison, Nein, Ocaasi, Oleg Alexandrov, Oxymoron83, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Pezzells, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Pisanidavid, Plvekamp, Principia, Puffin, RDBury, Radon210, Rainmonger, Rfc1394, Rich Farmbrough, Rjstott, Rjwilmsi, Roleplayer, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Sam Hocevar, Sanpaz, Seeleschneider, SendTripItAll, Silly rabbit, Smyth, Snaxe920, Snowolf, Sodium, Stefano85, StephenBuxton, Stwalkerster, Suhel1992, SunCreator, Supernatent, Svick, Tad Lincoln, Tarquin, Tedder, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, The enemies of god, Tobywharne, Trelvis, UnaLaguna, User6854, Utkarsh sinha, Uxorion, Versus22, Vinhtantran, VirEximius, Vuen, Weeclarky, Williamsburgland, WillowW, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell,

Xanzzibar, Xerxes314, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yeokaiwei, Yevgeny Kats, Yummifruitbat, ZakuSage, 339 ,anonymous edits 176 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:SI Brochure Cover.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:SI_Brochure_Cover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: AEMoreira042281, Benhoyt, Coredesat, Diti, Urhixidur, 3 anonymous edits File:Metrication by year map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Metrication_by_year_map.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:AzaToth Image:Non-Metric User.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NonMetric_User.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Ichwan Palongengi File:Dimensional Proof Pythagoras.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Dimensional_Proof_Pythagoras.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:GianniG46 Image:Acceleration components.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Acceleration_components.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare Image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AstronautEVA.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:Lightning in Arlington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Postdlf Image:Pahoeoe fountain original.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jim D. Griggs, HVO (USGS) staff photographer Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Algorithme, Beyond My Ken, Bjankuloski06en, Grenavitar, Infrogmation, Kelson, Kilom691, Porao, Saperaud, Semnoz, Siebrand, Sparkit, Thomas Gun, Wknight94, Wst, Zaphod, 4 anonymous edits Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NIST/JILA/CUBoulder Image:CMS Higgs-event.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Higgsevent.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Lucas Taylor Image:Hubble ultra deep field high rez edit1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:Noodle snacks Image:Modernphysicsfields.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Modernphysicsfields.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: F l a n k e r, Karelj, Mdd, Quibik, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, YassineMrabet, 1 anonymous edits Image:IMG 1729 Gemaal met schroef van Archimedes bij Kinderdijk.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:IMG_1729_Gemaal_met_schroef_van_Archimedes_bij_Kinderdijk.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Abdullah Krolu, Ellywa, Fransvannes, Havang(nl), Juiced lemon, Koba-chan, WikipediaMaster,

2 anonymous edits Image:Feynman'sDiagram.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Feynman'sDiagram.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Ancheta Wis Image:Meissner effect p1390048.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Mai-Linh Doan Image:Avogadro's number in e notation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Avogadro's_number_in_e_notation.jpg License: Creative Commons AttributionSharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:PRHaney File:Distancedisplacement.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Distancedisplacement.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Stannered Image:Rotating body.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Rotating_body.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare Image:Nonuniform circular motion.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Nonuniform_circular_motion.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare, User:Jonas De Kooning File:Force examples.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Force_examples.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Arnaud.ramey, User:Penubag Image:Aristoteles Louvre2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Aristoteles_Louvre2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Interstate295revisited at en.wikipedia Image:Freebodydiagram3 pn.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Freebodydiagram3_pn.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Penubag Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ABF, Alefisico, Alno, Aushulz, David J Wilson, Deadstar, G.dallorto, Gary King, Herbythyme, Kam Solusar, Liberal Freemason, Michael Bednarek, Phrood, Prez, Quadell, Ragesoss, Schaengel89, Semnoz, Shakko, Trelio, Yonatanh, 24 anonymous edits Image:Beta Negative Decay.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Beta_Negative_Decay.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Joelholdsworth Image:Falling ball.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Falling_ball.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:MichaelMaggs Image:Incline.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Incline.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Stannered Image:Spring-mass2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spring-mass2.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:BillC Image:Stokes sphere.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stokes_sphere.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Kraaiennest Image:Torque animation.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Torque_animation.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Yawe Image:Stable unstable pendulum.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Stable_unstable_pendulum.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Booyabazooka,

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File:Cone pulley 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Cone_pulley_001.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Three-quarter-ten Image:Polea-simple-fija.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polea-simplefija.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:CR Image:Polea-simple-movil2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poleasimple-movil2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Johjak, Pieter Kuiper Image:Pulley0.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley0.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper, Slashme Image:Pulley1.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley1.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper, Priwo, Slashme Image:Pulley1a.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley1a.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper, Slashme, 1 anonymous edits Image:Polispasto2B.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polispasto2B.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mindbuilder Image:Crane pulley 4x.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Crane_pulley_4x.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Audriusa Image:Pulley2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper, Slashme Image:Pulley2a.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley2a.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper, Slashme Image:Pulley3a.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulley3a.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: McCormack, Pieter Kuiper, Slashme Image:Polispasto4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polispasto4.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dom, Mdd, Pieter Kuiper, Porao, Tomia Image:Masada Roman Ramp by David Shankbone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masada_Roman_Ramp_by_David_Shankbone.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:DavidShankbone Image:Free body.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Free_body.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Mets501 Image:Palanca-ejemplo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palancaejemplo.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was CR at es.wikipedia File:Wedge-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wedge-1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bryan, Mac, Wizard191 Image:Wedge-diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wedgediagram.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Iainf Image:Wheelaxle quackenbos.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Wheelaxle_quackenbos.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: uploaded to Wikipedia by Jimbowley Image:Newton-Principia-Mathematica 1-500x700.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Newton-Principia-Mathematica_1-500x700.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Isaac Newton Image:Relativity an apple in a lift.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Relativity_an_apple_in_a_lift.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:

User:Malyszkz, User:Superborsuk Image:Equation motion body.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Equation_motion_body.png License: unknown Contributors: Sanpaz Image:Newtons cradle animation book 2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Newtons_cradle_animation_book_2.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:DemonDeLuxe image:Relativistic Dynamics.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Relativistic_Dynamics.svg License: unknown Contributors: User:Stannered File:Friction alt.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Friction_alt.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Keta, User:Pieter Kuiper, User:penubag File:Free Body Diagram.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Free_Body_Diagram.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: AndrewDressel (talk) Original uploader was AndrewDressel at en.wikipedia File:Flow plate.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flow_plate.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BoH File:Flow foil.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flow_foil.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BoH File:Flow sphere.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flow_sphere.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BoH File:Flow plate perpendicular.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Flow_plate_perpendicular.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:BoH Image:Inclinedthrow.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inclinedthrow.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:AllenMcC. Image:Induced drag r.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Induced_drag_r.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:BillC Image:Drag Curve 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drag_Curve_2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was GRAHAMUK at en.wikipedia File:Qualitive variation of cd with mach number.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Qualitive_variation_of_cd_with_mach_number.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Wolfkeeper 178 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Centripetal force diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Centripetal_force_diagram.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Booyabazooka Image:Uniform motion in circle.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Uniform_motion_in_circle.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare, User:Jonas De Kooning Image:Circular motion vectors.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Circular_motion_vectors.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Brews ohare Image:Banked turn.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banked_turn.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare Image:Polar unit vectors.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Polar_unit_vectors.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:

User:Brews ohare Image:Local unit vectors.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Local_unit_vectors.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Brews ohare 179 License License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ 180 Contents Articles Mechanical energy 1 Conservative force 2 Kinetic energy 4 Potential energy 11 Work (physics) 18 Circular motion 21 Pendulum 25 Buoyancy 49 Lift (force) 57 Drag (physics) 67 Weight 74 Momentum 82 Impulse (physics) 94 References Article Sources and Contributors 96 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 99 Article Licenses License 101 Mechanical energy Mechanical energy In physics, mechanical energy describes the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system. Mechanical energy is the energy associated with the motion or position of an object.[1] [2] Conservation of mechanical energy The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that if a body or system is subjected only to conservative forces the total mechanical energy of that body or system remains constant.[3] Distinguished from other types of energy The classification of energy into different "types" often follows the boundaries of the fields of study in the natural sciences. Chemical energy, the kind of potential energy stored in chemical bonds; studied in chemistry Nuclear energy, energy stored in interactions between the particles in the atomic nucleus; studied in nuclear physics

 Electromagnetic energy, in the form of electric charges, magnetic fields, and photons; from the study of electromagnetism Various forms of energy in quantum mechanics; for example, the energy levels of electrons in an atom Notes [1] Prentice Hall Science Explorer (motion,forces, and energy) [2] Resnick, Robert and Halliday, David (1966), Physics, Section 8-3 (Vol I and II, Combined edition), Wiley International Edition, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 66-11527 [3] Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 11. ISBN 8-120-33862-6. ., Chapter 1, p. 11 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=DqZlU3RJTywC& pg=PA11) 1 Conservative force 2 Conservative force A conservative force is a force with the property that the work done in moving a particle between two points is independent of the path taken.[1] Equivalently, if a particle travels in a closed loop, the net work done (the sum of the force acting along the path multiplied by the distance travelled) by a conservative force is zero.[2] It is possible to define a numerical value of potential at every point in space for a conservative force. When an object moves from one location to another, the force changes the potential energy of the object by an amount that does not depend on the path taken. Gravity is an example of a conservative force, while friction is an example of a non-conservative force. Informal definition Informally, a conservative force can be thought of as a force that conserves mechanical energy. Suppose a particle starts at point A, and there is a constant force F acting on it. Then the particle is moved around by other forces, and eventually ends up at A again. Though the particle may still be moving, at that instant when it passes point A again, it has traveled a closed path. If the net work done by F at this point is 0, then F passes the closed path test. Any force that passes the closed path test for all possible closed paths is classified as a conservative force. The gravitational force, spring force, magnetic force (according to some definitions, see below) and electric force (at least in a time-independent magnetic field, see Faraday's law of induction for details) are examples of conservative forces, while friction and air drag are classical examples of non-conservative forces (in both cases, the energy is converted to heat and cannot be retrieved). Path independence A direct consequence of the closed path test is that the work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points does not depend on the path taken by the particle. Also the work done by a conservative force is equal to the negative of change in potential

energy during that process. For a proof of that, let's imagine two paths 1 and 2, both going from point A to point B. The variation of energy for the particle, taking path 1 from A to B and then path 2 backwards from B to A, is 0; thus, the work is the same in path 1 and 2, i.e., the work is independent of the path followed, as long as it goes from A to B. For example, if a child slides down a frictionless slide, the work done by the gravitational force on the child from the top of the slide to the bottom will be the same no matter what the shape of the slide; it can be straight or it can be a spiral. The amount of work done only depends on the vertical displacement of the child. Mathematical description A force field F, defined everywhere in space (or within a simply-connected volume of space), is called a conservative force or conservative vector field if it meets any of these three equivalent conditions: 1. The curl of F is zero: The work done by the gravitational force on an object depends only on its change in height because the gravitational force is conservative. Conservative force 3 2. There is zero net work (W) done by the force when moving a particle through a trajectory that starts and ends in the same place: 3. The force can be written as the gradient of a potential, : The term conservative force comes from the fact that when a conservative force exists, it conserves mechanical energy. The most familiar conservative forces are gravity, the electric force (in a time-independent magnetic field, see Faraday's law), and spring force. Many forces (particularly those that depend on velocity) are not force fields. In these cases, the above three conditions are not mathematically equivalent. For example, the magnetic force satisfies condition 2 (since the work done by a magnetic field on a charged particle is always zero), but does not satisfy condition 3, and condition 1 is not even defined (the force is not a vector field, so one cannot evaluate its curl). Accordingly, some authors classify the magnetic force as conservative,[3] while others do not.[4] It should be emphasized that the magnetic force is an unusual case; most velocity-dependent forces, such as friction, do not satisfy any of the three conditions, and therefore are unambiguously nonconservative. Nonconservative forces Nonconservative forces can only arise in classical physics due to neglected degrees of freedom. For instance, friction may be treated without resorting to the use of nonconservative forces by considering the motion of individual molecules; however that means every molecule's motion must be considered rather than handling it through statistical methods. For macroscopic systems the nonconservative approximation is far easier to

deal with than millions of degrees of freedom. Examples of nonconservative forces are friction and non-elastic material stress. However, general relativity is non-conservative, as seen in the anomalous precession of Mercury's orbit. However, general relativity can be shown to conserve a stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor. References [1] HyperPhysics - Conservative force (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pegrav. html#cfor) [2] Louis N. Hand, Janet D. Finch (1998). Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 0521575729. [3] For example, Mechanics, P.K. Srivastava, 2004, page 94: "In general, a force which depends explicitly upon the velocity of the particle is not conservative. (However, the magnetic force (qvB) can be included among conservative forces in the sense that it acts perpendicular to velocity and hence work done is always zero". Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=yCw_Hq53ipsC) [4] For example, The Magnetic Universe: Geophysical and Astrophysical Dynamo Theory, Rdiger and Hollerbach, page 178, Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IRJO9gvkJo8C) Kinetic energy 4 Kinetic energy The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion.[1] It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest. The speed, and thus the kinetic energy of a single object is frame-dependent (relative): it can take any non-negative value, by choosing a suitable inertial frame of reference. For example, a bullet passing an observer has kinetic energy in the reference frame of this observer, but the same bullet is stationary, and so has zero kinetic energy, from the point of view of an observer moving with the same velocity as the bullet.[2] By contrast, the total kinetic energy of a system of objects cannot be reduced to zero by a suitable choice of the inertial reference frame, unless all the objects have the same velocity. In any other case the total kinetic energy has a non-zero minimum, as no inertial reference frame can be chosen in which all the objects are stationary. This minimum kinetic energy contributes to the system's invariant mass, which is independent of the reference frame. The cars of a roller coaster reach their maximum kinetic energy when at the bottom of their path. When they start rising, the kinetic energy begins to be converted to gravitational potential energy. The sum of kinetic and potential energy in the system remains constant, ignoring losses to friction. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v

is mv2/2. In relativistic mechanics, this is only a good approximation when v is much less than the speed of light. History and etymology The adjective kinetic has its roots in the Greek word (kinesis) meaning motion, which is the same root as in the word cinema, referring to motion pictures. The principle in classical mechanics that E mv2 was first developed by Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli, who described kinetic energy as the living force, vis viva. Willem 's Gravesande of the Netherlands provided experimental evidence of this relationship. By dropping weights from different heights into a block of clay, 's Gravesande determined that their penetration depth was proportional to the square of their impact speed. milie du Chtelet recognized the implications of the experiment and published an explanation.[3] The terms kinetic energy and work in their present scientific meanings date back to the mid-19th century. Early understandings of these ideas can be attributed to Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, who in 1829 published the paper titled Du Calcul de l'Effet des Machines outlining the mathematics of kinetic energy. William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, is given the credit for coining the term "kinetic energy" c. 184951.[4] [5] Kinetic energy Introduction Energy occurs in many forms: chemical energy, thermal energy, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational energy, electric energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy, rest energy. These can be categorized in two main classes: potential energy and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy may be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to and from other forms of energy. For example, a cyclist uses chemical energy that was provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. This speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air-resistance and friction. The chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist. The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms. For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top. The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill. Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent. The bicycle would be traveling slower at the bottom of the hill than without the generator

because some of the energy has been diverted into electrical energy. Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as heat. Like any physical quantity which is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object depends on the relationship between the object and the observer's frame of reference. Thus, the kinetic energy of an object is not invariant. Spacecraft use chemical energy to launch and gain considerable kinetic energy to reach orbital velocity. This kinetic energy remains constant while in orbit because there is almost no friction in near-earth space. However it becomes apparent at re-entry when some of the kinetic energy is converted to heat. Kinetic energy can be passed from one object to another. In the game of billiards, the player imposes kinetic energy on the cue ball by striking it with the cue stick. If the cue ball collides with another ball, it slows down dramatically and the ball it collided with accelerates to a speed as the kinetic energy is passed on to it. Collisions in billiards are effectively elastic collisions, in which kinetic energy is preserved. In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is dissipated in various forms of energy, such as heat, sound, binding energy (breaking bound structures). Flywheels have been developed as a method of energy storage. This illustrates that kinetic energy is also stored in rotational motion. Several mathematical description of kinetic energy exist that describe it in the appropriate physical situation. For objects and processes in common human experience, the formula 12mv2 given by Newtonian (classical) mechanics is suitable. However, if the speed of the object is comparable to the speed of light, relativistic effects become significant and the relativistic formula is used. If the object is on the atomic or sub-atomic scale, quantum mechanical effects are significant and a quantum mechanical model must be employed. 5 Kinetic energy 6 Newtonian kinetic energy Kinetic energy of rigid bodies In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a point object (an object so small that its mass can be assumed to exist at one point), or a non-rotating rigid body, is given by the equation where is the mass and is the speed (or the velocity) of the body. In SI units (used for most modern scientific work), mass is measured in kilograms, speed in metres per second, and the resulting kinetic energy is in joules. For example, one would calculate the kinetic energy of an 80 kg mass (about 180 lbs) traveling at 18 metres per second (about 40 mph, or 65 km/h) as Ek = (1/2) 80 182 J = 12.96 kJ Since the kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, an object doubling its speed has four

times as much kinetic energy. For example, a car traveling twice as fast as another requires four times as much distance to stop, assuming a constant braking force. The kinetic energy of an object is related to its momentum by the equation: where: is momentum is mass of the body For the translational kinetic energy, that is the kinetic energy associated with rectilinear motion, of a body with constant mass , whose center of mass is moving in a straight line with speed , as seen above is equal to where: is the mass of the body is the speed of the center of mass of the body. The kinetic energy of any entity depends on the reference frame in which it is measured. However the total energy of an isolated system, i.e. one which energy can neither enter nor leave, does not change in whatever reference frame it is measured. Thus, the chemical energy converted to kinetic energy by a rocket engine is divided differently between the rocket ship and its exhaust stream depending upon the chosen reference frame. This is called the Oberth effect. But the total energy of the system, including kinetic energy, fuel chemical energy, heat, etc., is conserved over time, regardless of the choice of reference frame. Different observers moving with different reference frames disagree on the value of this conserved energy. The kinetic energy of such systems depends on the choice of reference frame: the reference frame that gives the minimum value of that energy is the center of momentum frame, i.e. the reference frame in which the total momentum of the system is zero. This minimum kinetic energy contributes to the invariant mass of the system as a whole. Kinetic energy 7 Derivation The work done accelerating a particle during the infinitesimal time interval dt is given by the dot product of force and displacement: where we have assumed the relation p = m v. (However, also see the special relativistic derivation below.) Applying the product rule we see that: Therefore (assuming constant mass), the following can be seen: Since this is a total differential (that is, it only depends on the final state, not how the particle got there), we can integrate it and call the result kinetic energy: This equation states that the kinetic energy (Ek) is equal to the integral of the dot product of the velocity (v) of a body and the infinitesimal change of the body's momentum (p). It is assumed that the body starts with no kinetic energy

when it is at rest (motionless). Rotating bodies If a rigid body is rotating about any line through the center of mass then it has rotational kinetic energy ( ) which is simply the sum of the kinetic energies of its moving parts, and is thus given by: where: is the body's angular velocity r is the distance of any mass dm from that line is the body's moment of inertia, equal to . (In this equation the moment of inertia must be taken about an axis through the center of mass and the rotation measured by must be around that axis; more general equations exist for systems where the object is subject to wobble due to its eccentric shape). Kinetic energy of systems A system of bodies may have internal kinetic energy due to the relative motion of the bodies in the system. For example, in the Solar System the planets and planetoids are orbiting the Sun. In a tank of gas, the molecules are moving in all directions. The kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies of the bodies it contains. A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's center of momentum) may have various kinds of internal energy at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only. However all internal energies of all types contribute to body's mass, inertia, and total energy. Kinetic energy 8 Frame of reference The total kinetic energy of a system depends on the inertial frame of reference: it is the sum of the total kinetic energy in a center of momentum frame and the kinetic energy the total mass would have if it were concentrated in the center of mass. This may be simply shown: let V be the relative speed of the frame k from the center of mass frame i: However, let the kinetic energy in the center of mass frame, would be simply the total momentum which is by definition zero in the center of mass frame, and let the total mass: . Substituting, we get:[6] Thus the kinetic energy of a system is lowest with respect to center of momentum reference frames,

i.e., frames of reference in which the center of mass is stationary (either the center of mass frame or any other center of momentum frame). In any other frame of reference there is additional kinetic energy corresponding to the total mass moving at the speed of the center of mass. The kinetic energy of the system in the center of momentum frame contributes to the invariant mass of the system, and this total mass is a quantity which is both invariant (all observers see it to be the same) and is conserved (in an isolated system, it cannot change value, no matter what happens inside the system). Rotation in systems It sometimes is convenient to split the total kinetic energy of a body into the sum of the body's center-of-mass translational kinetic energy and the energy of rotation around the center of mass (rotational energy): where: Ek is the total kinetic energy Et is the translational kinetic energy Er is the rotational energy or angular kinetic energy in the rest frame Thus the kinetic energy of a tennis ball in flight is the kinetic energy due to its rotation, plus the kinetic energy due to its translation. Relativistic kinetic energy of rigid bodies In special relativity, we must change the expression for linear momentum. Using m for rest mass, v and v for the object's velocity and speed respectively, and c for the speed of light in vacuum, we assume for linear momentum that , where . Integrating by parts gives Remembering that , we get: Kinetic energy 9 where E0 serves as an integration constant. Thus: The constant of integration E0 is found by observing that, when and , giving and giving the usual formula: If a body's speed is a significant fraction of the speed of light, it is necessary to use relativistic mechanics (the theory of relativity as developed by Albert Einstein) to calculate its kinetic energy. For a relativistic object the momentum p is equal to: . Thus the work expended accelerating an object from rest to a relativistic speed is: . The equation shows that the energy of an object approaches infinity as the velocity v approaches the speed of light c, thus it is impossible to accelerate an object across this boundary. The mathematical by-product of this calculation is the mass-energy equivalence formulathe body at rest must have energy content equal to:

At a low speed (v<<c), the relativistic kinetic energy may be approximated well by the classical kinetic energy. This is done by binomial approximation. Indeed, taking Taylor expansion for the reciprocal square root and keeping first two terms we get: , So, the total energy E can be partitioned into the energy of the rest mass plus the traditional Newtonian kinetic energy at low speeds. When objects move at a speed much slower than light (e.g. in everyday phenomena on Earth), the first two terms of the series predominate. The next term in the approximation is small for low speeds, and can be found by extending the expansion into a Taylor series by one more term: . For example, for a speed of 10 km/s (22000 mph) the correction to the Newtonian kinetic energy is 0.0417 J/kg (on a Newtonian kinetic energy of 50 MJ/kg) and for a speed of 100 km/s it is 417 J/kg (on a Newtonian kinetic energy of 5 GJ/kg), etc. For higher speeds, the formula for the relativistic kinetic energy[7] is derived by simply subtracting the rest mass energy from the total energy: . Kinetic energy 10 The relation between kinetic energy and momentum is more complicated in this case, and is given by the equation: . This can also be expanded as a Taylor series, the first term of which is the simple expression from Newtonian mechanics. What this suggests is that the formulas for energy and momentum are not special and axiomatic, but rather concepts which emerge from the equation of mass with energy and the principles of relativity. Quantum mechanical kinetic energy of rigid bodies In the realm of quantum mechanics, the expectation value of the electron kinetic energy, electrons described by the wavefunction where is the mass of the electron and , for a system of is a sum of 1-electron operator expectation values: is the Laplacian operator acting upon the coordinates of the ith electron and the summation runs over all electrons. Notice that this is the quantized version of the non-relativistic expression for kinetic energy in terms of momentum: The density functional formalism of quantum mechanics requires knowledge of the electron density only, i.e., it formally does not require knowledge of the wavefunction. Given an electron density , the exact N-electron kinetic energy functional is unknown; however, for the specific case of a 1-electron system, the kinetic energy can be

written as where is known as the von Weizscker kinetic energy functional. Notes [1] Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 9. ISBN 8-120-33862-6. ., Chapter 1, p. 9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=DqZlU3RJTywC& pg=PA9) [2] Sears, Francis Weston; Brehme, Robert W. (1968). Introduction to the theory of relativity. Addison-Wesley. p. 127., Snippet view of page 127 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ei=uLlaTKiSF5DuOaqf3JYP& ct=result& id=cpzvAAAAMAAJ& dq="in+ its+ own+ rest+ frame"+ "kinetic+ energy"& q="in+ its+ own+ rest+ frame") [3] Judith P. Zinsser Emilie du Chatelet: Daring Genius of the Enlightenment Penguin, 2007. [4] Crosbie Smith, M. Norton Wise. Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin. Cambridge University Press, 866 pp. [5] John Theodore Merz. A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Blackwood, 1912, p. 139. [6] Physics notes - Kinetic energy in the CM frame (http:/ / www. phy. duke. edu/ ~rgb/ Class/ intro_physics_1/ intro_physics_1/ node64. html). Duke.edu. Accessed 2007-11-24. [7] In Einstein's original ber die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativittstheorie (http:/ / www. uni-kiel. de/ ub/ digiport/ ab1800/ G4378. html) (Zu Seite 41) and in most translations (e.g. Relativity - The Special and General Theory (http:/ / bartleby. com/ 173/ 15. html)) kinetic energy is defined as . Kinetic energy 11 References Oxford Dictionary 1998 School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews (2000). "Biography of GaspardGustave de Coriolis (1792-1843)" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Coriolis.html). Retrieved 2006-03-03. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed. ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed. ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed. ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 07167-4345-0. Potential energy In physics, potential energy is the energy stored in a body or in a system due to its position in a force field or due to its configuration.[1] . The SI unit of measure for energy and work is the Joule (symbol J). The term "potential energy" was coined by the 19th century Scottish engineer and physicist William Rankine.[2] [3] Overview Potential energy exists when a force acts upon an object that tends to restore it to a lower energy

configuration. This force is often called a restoring force. For example, when a spring is stretched to the left, it exerts a force to the right so as to return to its original, unstretched position. Similarly, when a mass is lifted up, the force of gravity will act so as to bring it back down. The action of stretching the spring or lifting the mass requires energy to perform. The energy that went into lifting up the mass is stored in its position in the gravitational field, while similarly, the energy it took to stretch the spring is stored in the metal. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed; hence this energy cannot disappear. Instead, it is stored as potential energy. If the spring is released or the mass is dropped, this stored energy will be converted into kinetic energy by the restoring force, which is elasticity in the case of the spring, and gravity in the case of the mass. Think of a roller coaster. When the coaster climbs a hill it has potential energy. At the very top of the hill is its maximum potential energy. When the car speeds down the hill potential energy turns into kinetic. Kinetic energy is greatest at the bottom. The more formal definition is that potential energy is the energy difference between the energy of an object in a given position and its energy at a reference position. There are various types of potential energy, each associated with a particular type of force. More specifically, every conservative force gives rise to potential energy. For example, the work of an elastic force is called elastic potential energy; work of the gravitational force is called gravitational potential energy; work of the Coulomb force is called electric potential energy; work of the strong nuclear force or weak nuclear force acting on the baryon charge is called nuclear potential energy; work of intermolecular forces is called intermolecular potential energy. Chemical potential energy, such as the energy stored in fossil fuels, is the work of the Coulomb force during rearrangement of mutual positions of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules. Thermal energy usually has two components: the kinetic energy of random motions of particles and the potential energy of their mutual positions. As a general rule, the work done by a conservative force F will be where is the change in the potential energy associated with that particular force. Common notations for potential energy are U, V, Ep, and PE. Potential energy 12 Reference level The potential energy is a function of the state a system is in, and is defined relative to that for a particular state. This reference state is not always a real state, it may also be a limit, such as with the distances between all bodies tending to infinity, provided that the energy involved in tending to that limit is finite, such as in the case of inverse-square law forces. Any arbitrary reference state could be used, therefore it can be chosen based on

convenience. Typically the potential energy of a system depends on the relative positions of its components only, so the reference state can also be expressed in terms of relative positions. Gravitational potential energy Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force. If an object falls from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount. For example, consider a book, placed on top of a table. When the book is raised from the floor to the table, some external force works against the gravitational force. If the book falls back to the floor, the same work will be done by the gravitational force. Thus, if the book falls off the table, this potential energy goes to accelerate the mass of the book (and is converted into kinetic energy). When the book hits the floor this kinetic energy is converted into heat and sound by the impact. The factors that affect an object's gravitational potential energy are its height relative to some reference point, its mass, and the strength of the gravitational field it is in. Thus, a book lying on a table has less gravitational potential energy than the same book on top of a taller cupboard, and less gravitational potential energy than a heavier book lying on the same table. An object at a certain height above the Moon's surface has less gravitational potential energy than at the same height above the Earth's surface because the Moon's gravity is weaker. (This follows from Newton's law of gravitation because the mass of the moon is much smaller than that of the Earth.) It is important to note that "height" in the common sense of the term cannot be used for gravitational potential energy calculations when gravity is not assumed to be a constant. The following sections provide more detail. The gravitational force keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun A trebuchet uses the gravitational potential energy of the counterweight to throw projectiles over long distances Local approximation The strength of a gravitational field varies with location. However, when the change of distance is small in relation to the distances from the center of the source of the gravitational field, this variation in field strength is negligible and we can assume that the force of gravity on a particular object is constant. Near the surface of the Earth, for example, we assume that the acceleration due to gravity is a constant g = 9.81 m/s2 ("standard gravity"). In this case, a simple expression for gravitational potential energy can be derived using the W = Fd equation for work, and the equation When accounting only for mass, gravity, and altitude, the equation is: Potential energy 13 where U is the potential energy of the object relative to its being on the Earth's surface, m is the mass of the object, g

is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the altitude of the object.[4] If m is expressed in kilograms, g in meters per second squared and h in meters then U will be calculated in joules. Hence, the potential difference is General formula However, over large variations in distance, the approximation that g is constant is no longer valid, and we have to use calculus and the general mathematical definition of work to determine gravitational potential energy. For the computation of the potential energy we can integrate the gravitational force (whose magnitude is given by Newton's law of gravitation) with respect to the distance r between the two bodies. Using that definition, the gravitational potential energy of a system of masses m1 and m2 at a distance R using gravitational constant G is , where K is the constant of integration. Choosing the convention that K=0 makes calculations simpler, albeit at the cost of making U negative: for why this is physically reasonable, see below. Given this formula for U, the total potential energy of a system of n bodies is found by summing, for all pairs of two bodies, the potential energy of the system of those two bodies. Considering the system of bodies as the combined set of small particles the bodies consist of, and applying the previous on the particle level we get the negative gravitational binding energy. This potential energy is more strongly negative than the total potential energy of the system of bodies as such since it also includes the negative gravitational binding energy of each body. The potential energy of the system of bodies as such is the negative of the energy needed to separate the bodies from each other to infinity, while the gravitational binding energy is the energy needed to separate all particles from each other to infinity. Why choose a convention where gravitational energy is negative? As with all potential energies, only differences in gravitational potential energy matter for most physical purposes, and the choice of zero point is arbitrary. Given that there is no reasonable criterion for preferring one particular finite r over another, there seem to be only two reasonable choices for the distance at which U becomes zero: and . The choice of at infinity may seem peculiar, and the consequence that gravitational energy is always negative may seem counterintuitive, but allows this choice allows gravitational potential energy values to be finite, albeit negative. The singularity at in the formula for gravitational potential energy means that the only other apparently reasonable alternative choice of convention, with for , would result in potential energy being positive, but infinitely large for all nonzero values of r, and would make calculations involving sums or differences

of potential energies beyond what is possible with the real number system. Since physicists abhor infinities in their calculations, and r is always non-zero in practice, the choice of at infinity is by far the more preferable choice, even if the idea of negative energy appears to be peculiar at first. The negative value for gravitational energy also has deeper implications that make it seem more reasonable in cosmological calculations where the total energy of the universe can meaningfully be considered; see inflation theory for more on this. Potential energy 14 Uses Gravitational potential energy has a number of practical uses, notably the generation of hydroelectricity. For example in Dinorwig, Wales, there are two lakes, one at a higher elevation than the other. At times when surplus electricity is not required (and so is comparatively cheap), water is pumped up to the higher lake, thus converting the electrical energy (running the pump) to gravitational potential energy. At times of peak demand for electricity, the water flows back down through electrical generator turbines, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy and then back into electricity. (The process is not completely efficient and much of the original energy from the surplus electricity is in fact lost to friction.) See also pumped storage. Gravitational potential energy is also used to power clocks in which falling weights operate the mechanism. Elastic potential energy Elastic potential energy is the potential energy of an elastic object (for example a bow or a catapult) that is deformed under tension or compression (or stressed in formal terminology). It arises as a consequence of a force that tries to restore the object to its original shape, which is most often the electromagnetic force between the atoms and molecules that constitute the object. If the stretch is released, the energy is transformed into kinetic energy. Calculation of elastic potential energy Springs are used for storing elastic potential energy The elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be calculated by finding the work necessary to stretch the spring a distance x from its un-stretched length: an ideal spring will follow Hooke's Law: The work done (and therefore the stored potential energy) will then be: The equation is often used in calculations of positions of mechanical equilibrium. More involved calculations can be found at elastic potential energy. Chemical potential energy Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or otherwise. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction. As an

example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy is converted to heat, same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism. Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy through the process known as photosynthesis, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reactions. The similar term chemical potential is used by chemists to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction. Potential energy 15 Electrical potential energy An object can have potential energy by virtue of its electric charge and several forces related to their presence. There are two main types of this kind of potential energy: electrostatic potential energy, electrodynamic potential energy (also sometimes called magnetic potential energy). Electrostatic potential energy In case the electric charge of an object can be assumed to be at rest, it has potential energy due to its position relative to other charged objects. The electrostatic potential energy is the energy of an electrically charged particle (at rest) in an electric field. It is defined as the work that must be done to move it from an infinite distance away to its present location, in the absence of any non-electrical forces on the object. This energy is non-zero if there is another electrically charged object nearby. The simplest example is the case of two point-like objects A1 and A2 with electrical charges q1 and q2. The work W required to move A1 from an infinite distance to a distance r away from A2 is given by: Plasma formed inside a gas filled sphere. where 0 is the electric constant. This equation is obtained by integrating the Coulomb force between the limits of infinity and r. A related quantity called electric potential (commonly denoted with a V for voltage) is equal to the electric potential energy per unit charge. Electrodynamic potential energy In case a charged object or its constituent charged particles are not at rest, it generates a magnetic field giving rise to yet another form of potential energy, often termed as magnetic potential energy. This kind of potential energy is a result of the phenomenon magnetism, whereby an object that is magnetic has the potential to move other similar objects. Magnetic objects are said to have some magnetic moment. Magnetic fields and their effects are best studied under electrodynamics. Potential energy 16 Nuclear potential energy

Nuclear potential energy is the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. The nuclear particles are bound together by the strong nuclear force. Weak nuclear forces provide the potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay. Nuclear particles like protons and neutrons are not destroyed in fission and fusion processes, but collections of them have less mass than if they were individually free, and this mass difference is liberated as heat and radiation in nuclear reactions (the heat and radiation have the missing mass, but it often escapes from the system, where it is not measured). The energy from the Sun is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million tonnes of solar matter per second into electromagnetic energy, which is radiated into space. Relation between potential energy, potential and force Potential energy is closely linked with forces. If the work done moving along a path which starts and ends in the same location is zero, then the force is said to be conservative and it is possible to define a numerical value of potential associated with every point in space. A force field can be re-obtained by taking the negative of the vector gradient of the potential field. For example, gravity is a conservative force. The associated potential is the gravitational potential, often denoted by or , corresponding to the energy per unit mass as a function of position. The gravitational potential energy of two particles of mass M and m separated by a distance r is The gravitational potential (specific energy) of the two bodies is where is the reduced mass. The work done against gravity by moving a infinitesimal mass from point A with is and the work done going back the other way is to point B with so that the total work done in moving from A to B and returning to A is If the potential is redefined at A to be and the potential at B to be , where is a constant (i.e. can be any number, positive or negative, but it must be the same at A as it is at B) then the work done going from A to B is as before. In practical terms, this means that one can set the zero of and anywhere one likes. One may set it to be zero at the surface of the Earth, or may find it more convenient to set zero at infinity (as in the expressions given earlier in

this section). A thing to note about conservative forces is that the work done going from A to B does not depend on the route taken. If it did then it would be pointless to define a potential at each point in space. An example of a non-conservative force is friction. With friction, the route taken does affect the amount of work done, and it makes little sense to define a potential associated with friction. All the examples above are actually force field stored energy (sometimes in disguise). For example in elastic potential energy, stretching an elastic material forces the atoms very slightly further apart. The equilibrium between electromagnetic forces and Pauli repulsion of electrons (they are fermions obeying Fermi statistics) is slightly Potential energy violated resulting in a small returning force. Scientists rarely discuss forces on an atomic scale. Often interactions are described in terms of energy rather than force. One may think of potential energy as being derived from force or think of force as being derived from potential energy (though the latter approach requires a definition of energy that is independent from force which does not currently exist). A conservative force can be expressed in the language of differential geometry as a closed form. As Euclidean space is contractible, its de Rham cohomology vanishes, so every closed form is also an exact form, and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. This gives a mathematical justification of the fact that all conservative forces are gradients of a potential field. Notes [1] Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 10. ISBN 8-120-33862-6. ., Chapter 1, p. 10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=DqZlU3RJTywC& pg=PA10) [2] William John Macquorn Rankine (1853) "On the general law of the transformation of energy," Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, vol. 3, no. 5, pages 276-280; reprinted in: (1) Philosophical Magazine, series 4, vol. 5, no. 30, pages 106-117 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3Ov22-gFMnEC& pg=PA106& lpg=PA106#v=onepage& q& f=false) (February 1853); and (2) W. J. Millar, ed., Miscellaneous Scientific Papers: by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, ... (London, England: Charles Griffin and Co., 1881), part II, pages 203-208 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-kRB9v6KRvsC& pg=PA203& lpg=PA203#v=onepage& q& f=false). [3] Smith, Crosbie (1998). The Science of Energy - a Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76420-6. [4] Hyperphysics - Gravitational Potential Energy (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ gpot. html) References Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole.

ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. 17 Work (physics) 18 Work (physics) Work SI symbol: W SI unit: joule Derivations from other quantities: W = F d W= In physics, mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force acting through a distance. Like energy, it is a scalar quantity, with SI units of joules. The term work was first coined in 1826 by the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis.[1] [2] According to the work-energy theorem if an external force acts upon a rigid object, causing its kinetic energy to change from Ek1 to Ek2, then the mechanical work (W) is given by:[3] where m is the mass of the object and v is the object's velocity. If the resultant force F on an object acts while the object is displaced a distance d, and the force and displacement act parallel to each other, the mechanical work done on the object is the dot product of the vectors F and d:[4] If the force and the displacement are parallel and in the same direction ( = 0), the mechanical work is positive. If the force and the displacement are parallel but in opposite directions (i.e. antiparallel, work is negative. If a force F is applied at an angle displacement ( = 1800), the mechanical , only the component of the force in the same direction as the ) does work. Thus, if the force acts perpendicular to the displacement ( = 900 or 2700), [4] zero work is done by the force. Units The SI unit of work is the joule (J), which is defined as the work done by a force of one newton acting over a distance of one meter. This definition is based on Sadi Carnot's 1824 definition of work as "weight lifted through a height", which is based on the fact that early steam engines were principally used to lift buckets of water, through a gravitational height, out of flooded ore mines. The dimensionally equivalent newton-meter (Nm) is sometimes used instead; however, it is also sometimes reserved for torque to distinguish its units from work or energy. Non-SI units of work include the erg, the foot-pound, the foot-poundal, and the liter-atmosphere. Heat conduction is not considered to be a form of work, since the energy is transferred into atomic vibration rather

than a macroscopic displacement. Work (physics) 19 Zero work Work can be zero even when there is a force. The centripetal force in a uniform circular motion, for example, does zero work since the kinetic energy of the moving object doesn't change. This is because the force is always perpendicular to the motion of the object; only the component of a force A baseball pitcher does positive work on the ball by transferring energy into it. parallel to the velocity vector of an object can do work on that object. Likewise when a book sits on a table, the table does no work on the book despite exerting a force equivalent to mg upwards, because no energy is transferred into or out of the book. Mathematical calculation Force and displacement Force and displacement are both vector quantities and they are combined using the dot product to evaluate the mechanical work, a scalar quantity: (1) where is the angle between the force and the displacement vector. In order for this formula to be valid, the force and angle must remain constant. The object's path must always remain on a single, straight line, though it may change directions while moving along the line. In situations where the force changes over time, or the path deviates from a straight line, equation (1) is not generally applicable although it is possible to divide the motion into small steps, such that the force and motion are well approximated as being constant for each step, and then to express the overall work as the sum over these steps. The general definition of mechanical work is given by the following line integral: (2) where: is the path or curve traversed by the object; is the force vector; and is the position vector. The expression is an inexact differential which means that the calculation of path-dependent and cannot be differentiated to give is . Equation (2) explains how a non-zero force can do zero work. The simplest case is where the force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion, making the integrand always zero. This is what happens during circular motion. However, even if the integrand sometimes takes nonzero values, it can still integrate to zero if it is sometimes negative and sometimes positive.

The possibility of a nonzero force doing zero work illustrates the difference between work and a related quantity, impulse, which is the integral of force over time. Impulse measures change in a body's momentum, a vector quantity sensitive to direction, whereas work considers only the magnitude of the velocity. For instance, as an object in uniform circular motion traverses half of a revolution, its centripetal force does no work, but it transfers a nonzero impulse. Work (physics) 20 Torque and rotation Work done by a torque can be calculated in a similar manner. A torque applied through a revolution of , expressed in radians, does work as follows: Frame of reference The work done by a force acting on an object depends on the inertial frame of reference, because the distance covered while applying the force does. Due to Newton's law of reciprocal actions there is a reaction force; it does work depending on the inertial frame of reference in an opposite way. The total work done is independent of the inertial frame of reference. References [1] [2] [3] [4] Jammer, Max (1957). Concepts of Force. Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 0-486-40689-X. Sur une nouvelle dnomination et sur une nouvelle unit introduire dans la dynamique, Acadmie des sciences, August 1826 Tipler (1991), page 138. Resnick, Robert and Halliday, David (1966), Physics, Section 7-2 (Vol I and II, Combined edition), Wiley International Edition, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 66-11527 Bibliography Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed. ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (1991). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics (3rd ed., extended version ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-87901-432-6. External links Work (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch03/ch03.html) a chapter from an online textbook Work and Energy (http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Work.htm) Java Applet Circular motion 21 Circular motion In physics, circular motion is rotation along a circle: a circular path or a circular orbit. It can be uniform, that is,

with constant angular rate of rotation, or non-uniform, that is, with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations describing circular motion of an object do not take size or geometry into account, rather, the motion of a point mass in a plane is assumed. In practice, the center of mass of a body can be considered to undergo circular motion. Examples of circular motion include: an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth in geosynchronous orbit, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles (cf. hammer throw), a racecar turning through a curve in a race track, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and a gear turning inside a mechanism. Circular motion is accelerated even if the angular rate of rotation is constant, because the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction. Such change in direction of velocity involves acceleration of the moving object by a centripetal force, which pulls the moving object toward the center of the circular orbit. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion. Formulas for uniform circular motion For motion in a circle of radius R, the circumference of the circle is C = 2 R. If the period for one rotation is T, the angular rate of rotation, also known as angular velocity, is: Figure 1: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; vector representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit. The speed of the object traveling the circle is: The angle swept out in a time t is: The acceleration due to change in the direction is a=V^2/r The vector relationships are shown in Figure 1. The axis of rotation is shown as a vector perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and with a magnitude = d / dt. The direction of is chosen using the righthand rule. With this convention for depicting rotation, the velocity is given by a vector cross product as which is a vector perpendicular to both and r ( t ), tangential to the orbit, and of magnitude R. Likewise, the acceleration is given by Circular motion which is a vector perpendicular to both and v ( t ) of magnitude |v| = 2 R and directed exactly opposite to r ( t ).[1] Constant speed In the simplest case the speed, mass and radius are constant. Consider a body of one kilogram, moving in a circle of radius one metre, with an angular velocity of one radian per second.

 The speed is one meter per second The inward acceleration is one metre per square second. It is subject to a centripetal force of one kilogram metre per square second, which is one newton. The momentum of the body is one kgms1. The moment of inertia is one kgm2. The angular momentum is one kgm2s1. The kinetic energy is 1/2 joule. The circumference of the orbit is 2 (~ 6.283) metres. The period of the motion is 2 seconds per turn. The frequency is (2)1 hertz. From the point of view of quantum mechanics, the system is in an excited state having quantum number ~ 9.481035. Then consider a body of mass m, moving in a circle of radius r, with an angular velocity of . The speed is v = r. The centripetal (inward) acceleration is a = r 2 = r 1v 2. The centripetal force is F = ma = rm 2 = r1mv 2. The momentum of the body is p = mv = rm. The moment of inertia is I = r 2m. The angular momentum is L = rmv = r 2m = I. The kinetic energy is E = 21mv 2 = 21r 2m 2 = (2m)1p 2 = 21I 2 = (2I)1L 2 . The circumference of the orbit is 2r. The period of the motion is T = 2 1. The frequency is f = T 1 . (Frequency is also often denoted by the Greek letter , which however is almost indistinguishable from the letter v used here for velocity). The quantum number is J = 2L h1 Variable speed In the general case, circular motion requires that the total force can be decomposed into the centripetal force required to keep the orbit circular and a force tangent to the circle, causing a change of speed. The magnitude of the centripetal force depends on the instantaneous speed. In the case of an object at the end of a rope, subjected to a force, we can decompose the force into a radial and a lateral component. The radial is either outward or inward. 22 Circular motion 23

Description of circular motion using polar coordinates Figure 2: Polar coordinates for circular trajectory. On the left is a unit circle showing the changes and in the unit vectors and for a small increment in angle . During circular motion the body moves on a curve that can be described in polar coordinate system as a fixed distance R from the center of the orbit taken as origin, oriented at an angle (t) from some reference direction. See Figure 2. The displacement vector is the radial vector from the origin to the particle location: where is the unit vector parallel to the radius vector at time t and pointing away from the origin. It is handy to introduce the unit vector orthogonal to as well, namely . It is customary to orient to point in the direction of travel along the orbit. The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement: Because the radius of the circle is constant, the radial component of the velocity is zero. The unit vector has a time-invariant magnitude of unity, so as time varies its tip always lies on a circle of unit radius, with an angle the same as the angle of . If the particle displacement rotates through an angle d in time dt, so does , describing an arc on the unit circle of magnitude d. See the unit circle at the left of Figure 2. Hence: where the direction of the change must be perpendicular to d in the direction of the object and would change the size of have moved in the direction of (or, in other words, along ) because any change . The sign is positive, because an increase in d implies . Hence the velocity becomes: The acceleration of the body can also be broken into radial and tangential components. The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity: Circular motion 24 The time derivative of is found the same way as for . Again, circle with an angle that is /2 + . Hence, an increase in angle d by

d, and as is orthogonal to is a unit vector and its tip traces a unit implies traces an arc of magnitude , we have: where a negative sign is necessary to keep orthogonal to . (Otherwise, the angle between and would decrease with increase in d.) See the unit circle at the left of Figure 2. Consequently the acceleration is: The centripetal acceleration is the radial component, which is directed radially inward: while the tangential component changes the magnitude of the velocity: Description of circular motion using complex numbers Circular motion can be described using complex numbers. Let the imaginary axis. The position of the body can then be given as where axis be the real axis and the axis be the , a complex "vector": is the imaginary unit, and is the angle of the complex vector with the real axis and is a function of time t. Since the radius is constant: where a dot indicates time differentiation. With this notation the velocity becomes: and the acceleration becomes: The first term is opposite to the direction of the displacement vector and the second is perpendicular to it, just like the earlier results shown before. Circular motion References [1] Knudsen, Jens M.; Hjorth, Poul G. (2000). Elements of Newtonian mechanics: including nonlinear dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Urumwws_lWUC) (3 ed.). Springer. p. 96. ISBN 3-540-67652-X. ., Chapter 5 page 96 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Urumwws_lWUC& pg=PA96) External links Circular Motion (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/1np/ch09/ch09.html) - a chapter from an online textbook Circular Motion Lecture (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01PhysicsIFall1999/VideoLectures/detail/ embed05.htm) - a video lecture on CM Pendulum A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely.[1] When a pendulum is displaced from its resting equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force combined with the pendulum's mass causes

it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. A pendulum swings with a specific period which depends (mainly) on its length. From its discovery around 1602 by Galileo Galilei the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world's most accurate timekeeping technology until the "Simple gravity pendulum" assumes no air resistance and no friction. 1930s.[2] Pendulums are used to regulate pendulum clocks, and are used in scientific instruments such as accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity in geophysical surveys, and even as a standard of length. The word 'pendulum' is new Latin, from the Latin pendulus, meaning 'hanging'.[3] The simple gravity pendulum[4] is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum.[5] [6] [7] This is a weight (or bob) 25 Pendulum 26 on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines. An animation of a pendulum showing the velocity and acceleration vectors (v and A). Period of oscillation The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, 0, called the amplitude.[8] It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:[9] where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity. For small swings, the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is, the period is independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for timekeeping.[10] Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time. This formula is strictly accurate only for tiny infinitesimal swings. For larger amplitudes, the period increases gradually with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of 0 = 23 it is 1% larger than given by (1). The true period cannot be represented by a closed formula but is given by an infinite series:[11] [12] The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the

circular error. Mathematically, for small swings the pendulum approximates a harmonic oscillator, and its motion approximates to simple harmonic motion:[5] Compound pendulum The length L of the ideal simple pendulum above, used for calculating the period, is the distance from the pivot point to the center of mass of the bob. For a real pendulum consisting of a swinging rigid body, called a compound pendulum, the length is more difficult to define. A real pendulum swings with the same period as a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in the pendulum called the center of oscillation.[13] This is located under the center of mass, at a distance called the radius of gyration, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. However, for the usual sort of pendulum in which most of the mass is Pendulum concentrated in the bob, the center of oscillation is close to the center of mass.[14] Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable.[15] This means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot at the center of oscillation, it will have the same period as before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point. History One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was in the 1st century seismometer device of Han Dynasty Chinese scientist Zhang Heng.[16] Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the tremor of an earthquake far away.[17] Released by a lever, a small ball would fall out of the urnshaped device into one of eight metal toad's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake was located.[17] Many sources[18] [19] [20] [21] claim that the 10th century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus used a pendulum for time measurement, however this was an error that originated in 1684 with the British historian Edward Bernard.[22] [23] [24] During the Renaissance, large pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as saws, bellows, and pumps.[25] Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without realizing its value for timekeeping. 1602: Galileo's research Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602.[26] His biographer and student, Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging motion of a chandelier in the Pisa cathedral.[27] Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful as timekeepers, called isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the

amplitude or width of the swing.[28] He also found that the period is independent of the mass of the bob, and proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications, such as a metronome for musicians. A physician friend used it as a timer to take patients' pulse, the pulsilogium.[26] In 1641 Galileo also conceived a design for a pendulum clock.[28] [29] The pendulum was the first harmonic oscillator used by man.[28] 27 Pendulum 28 1656: The pendulum clock In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens built the first pendulum clock.[30] This was a great improvement over existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was increased from around 15 minutes a day to around 15 seconds a day.[31] Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.[32] The English scientist Robert Hooke studied the conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse.[33] He used the motions of this device as a model to analyze the orbital motions of the planets.[34] Hooke suggested to Isaac Newton in 1679 that the components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the radial direction. This played a part in Newton's formulation of the law of universal gravitation.[35] [36] Robert Hooke was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of gravity.[33] The second pendulum clock, built by Christiaan Huygens in 1673. Pendulums dramatically increased the accuracy of clocks. During his expedition to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1671, Jean Richer found that a pendulum clock was 2 12 minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at Cayenne.[37] [38] In 1687, Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed that this was because the Earth was not a true sphere but slightly oblate (flattened at the poles) from the effect of centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing gravity to increase with latitude.[39] Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate models of the shape of the Earth.[40] 1673: Huygens' Horologium Oscillatorium In 1673, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum.[41] [42] He demonstrated that for an object to descend down a curve under gravity in the same time interval, regardless of the starting point, it must follow a cycloid curve rather than the circular arc of a pendulum.[43] This confirmed the earlier observation by Marin Mersenne that the period of a pendulum does vary with its

amplitude, and that Galileo's observation of isochronism was accurate only for small swings.[44] Huygens also solved the issue of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a compound pendulum), discovering the center of oscillation, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.[45] The existing clock movement, the verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100.[46] Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small unavoidable variations in the clock's drive force.[47] To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted cycloidal-shaped metal 'cheeks' next to the pivot in his 1673 clock, that constrained the suspension cord and forced the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc.[48] This solution didn't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum's swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were isochronous motivated the development of the anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 46.[46] [49] Pendulum 29 1721: Temperature compensated pendulums During the 18th and 19th century, the pendulum clock's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing.[8] [50] This was solved with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721[51] and the gridiron pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.[48] The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of their center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot,[15] and the distance between the two points was equal to the length of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period.[13] In 1818 British Captain Henry Kater invented the reversible Kater's pendulum[52] which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration. The Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first demonstration of the Earth's rotation that did not involve celestial observations, and it created a "pendulum mania". In this animation the rate of precession is greatly exaggerated. 1851:Foucault pendulum In 1851, Jean Bernard Lon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a gyroscope, tends to stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the rotation of the

Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the Foucault pendulum) from the dome of the Panthon in Paris. The length of the cord was 67 meters (220 ft). Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of swing was observed to precess or rotate 360 clockwise in about 32 hours.[53] This was the first demonstration of the Earth's rotation that didn't depend on celestial observations,[54] and a "pendulum mania" broke out, as Foucault pendula were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.[55] [56] 1930: Decline in use Around 1900 low-thermal-expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks and other instruments, first invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later fused quartz, which made temperature compensation trivial.[57] Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent changes in the period due to changes in buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing atmospheric pressure.[57] The accuracy of the best pendulum clocks topped out at around a second per year.[58] [59] The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world's best timekeepers.[2] Pendulum clocks were used as time standards until World War 2, although the French Time Service continued using them in their official time standard ensemble until 1954.[60] Pendulum gravimeters were superseded by "free fall" gravimeters in the 1950s,[61] but pendulum instruments continued to be used into the 1970s. Pendulum 30 Grandfather clock pendulum Mercury pendulum Gridiron pendulum Ellicott pendulum, another temperature compensated type Pendulum 31 Invar pendulum in low pressure tank in Riefler regulator clock, used as the US time standard from 1909 to 1929 Use for time measurement For 300 years, from its discovery around 1602 until development of the quartz clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was the world's standard for accurate timekeeping.[2] [62] In addition to clock pendulums, freeswinging seconds pendulums were widely used as precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pendulums require great mechanical stability: a length change of only 0.02%, 0.2 millimeters in a grandfather clock pendulum, will cause an error of a minute per week.[63] Clock pendulums Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or bob (b) suspended by a rod of wood or metal (a).[8] [64] To reduce air resistance (which accounts for most of the energy loss in clocks)[65] the bob is traditionally

a smooth disk with a lens-shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see Accuracy below). A common weight for seconds pendulum bobs is 15 pounds. (6.8 kg). Instead of hanging from a pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight spring (d) of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and 'play' caused by a pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum's restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of 'knife' blades resting on agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an arm hanging behind the pendulum called the crutch, (e), which ends in a fork, (f) whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth by the clock's escapement, (g,h). Each time the pendulum swings through its center position, it releases one tooth of the escape wheel (g). The force of the clock's mainspring or a driving weight hanging from a pulley, transmitted through the clock's gear train, causes the wheel to turn, and a tooth presses against one of the pallets (h), giving the pendulum a short push. The clock's wheels, geared to the escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing, advancing the clock's hands at a steady rate. Pendulum and anchor escapement from a grandfather clock Pendulum 32 The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an adjustment nut (c) under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod.[8] [66] Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum's length, causing the pendulum to swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some tower clocks use a tray attached to the pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed, to allow the rate to be adjusted without stopping the clock.[67] [68] The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support.[8] [69] During operation, any elasticity will allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock's period, resulting in error. Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall. The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in grandfather clocks, is the seconds pendulum, about 1 meter (39 inches) long. In mantel clocks, half-second pendulums, 25 cm (10 in) long, or shorter, are used. Only a few large tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7 ft) long, or occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft).[8] [70] Temperature compensation The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature.[71] This was discovered when people noticed that pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week[50] [72] (one of the first

was Godefroy Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658)[73] and was first studied by Jean Picard in 1669.[74] A pendulum with a steel rod will expand by about 11.3 parts per million with each degree Celsius increase (6.3 ppm/F), causing it to lose about 0.27 seconds per day, or 16 seconds per day for a 60 F (33 C) change. Wood rods expand less, losing only about 6 seconds per day for a 60 F change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods. Mercury pendulum The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented by George Graham[51] in 1721.[8] [72] The liquid metal mercury expands in volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum's weight (bob) is made of a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the container, moving its center of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving the pendulum's center of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time.[75] To improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision regulator clocks into the 20th century.[76] Gridiron pendulum The most widely used compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum, invented in 1726 by John Harrison.[8] [72] [75] This consists of alternating rods of two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (CTE), steel, and one with higher thermal expansion, zinc or brass. The rods are connected by a frame as shown, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening Mercury pendulum in Howard astronomical regulator clock, 1887 Pendulum the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and the pendulum stays the same length with temperature. Zinc-steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so brass-steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums to adjust in a series of tiny jumps.[75] In high precision clocks this caused the clock's rate to change suddenly with each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks. They became so associated with quality

that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative 'fake' gridirons that don't actually have any temperature compensation function. Invar and fused quartz Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials were developed which, when used as pendulum rods, made elaborate temperature compensation unnecessary.[8] [72] These were only used in a few of the highest precision clocks before the pendulum became obsolete as a time standard. In 1896 Charles Edouard Guillaume invented the nickel steel alloy Invar. This has a CTE of around 0.5 in/(inF), resulting in pendulum temperature errors over 71 F of only 1.3 seconds per day, and this residual error could be compensated to zero with a few centimeters of aluminum under the pendulum bob[2] [75] (this can be seen in the Riefler clock image above). Invar pendulums were first used in 1898 in the Riefler regulator clock[77] which achieved accuracy of 15 milliseconds per day. Suspension springs of Elinvar were used to eliminate temperature variation of the spring's restoring force on the pendulum. Later fused quartz was used which had even lower CTE. These materials are the choice for modern high accuracy pendulums.[78] Atmospheric pressure The presence of air around the pendulum has three effects on the period:[57] [79] By Archimedes principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the pendulum's acceleration during its swing and increasing the period. This depends on the density but not the shape of the pendulum. The pendulum carries an amount of air with it as it swings, and the mass of this air increases the inertia of the pendulum, again reducing the acceleration and increasing the period. Viscous air resistance slows the pendulum's velocity. This has a negligible effect on the period, but dissipates energy, reducing the amplitude. This reduces the pendulum's Q factor, requiring a stronger drive force from the clock's mechanism to keep it moving, which causes increased disturbance to the period. So increases in barometric pressure increase a pendulum's period slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.11 seconds per day per kilopascal (0.37 seconds per day per inch of mercury or 0.015 seconds per day per torr).[57] Researchers using pendulums to measure the acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first operated in a constant-pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the Berlin Observatory, [80] [81] and by 1900 the highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in atmospheric pressure. Alternately, in some a small aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum compensated for this effect.

33 Pendulum Gravity Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5% at different locations on Earth, so pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity. Accuracy of pendulums as timekeepers The timekeeping elements in all clocks, which include pendulums, balance wheels, the quartz crystals used in quartz watches, and even the vibrating atoms in atomic clocks, are in physics called harmonic oscillators. The reason harmonic oscillators are used in clocks is that they vibrate or oscillate at a specific resonant frequency or period and resist oscillating at other rates. However the resonant frequency is not infinitely 'sharp'. Around the resonant frequency there is a narrow natural band of frequencies (or periods), called the resonance width or bandwidth, where the harmonic oscillator will oscillate.[82] [83] In a clock, the actual frequency of the pendulum may vary randomly within this bandwidth in response to disturbances, but at frequencies outside this band, the clock will not function at all. Q factor The measure of a harmonic oscillator's resistance to disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless parameter called the Q factor equal to the resonant frequency divided by the bandwidth.[83] [84] The higher the Q, the smaller the bandwidth, and the more constant the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given disturbance.[85] The reciprocal of the Q is roughly proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a harmonic oscillator as a time standard.[86] The Q is related to how long it takes for the oscillations of an oscillator to die out. The Q of a pendulum can be measured by counting the number of oscillations it takes for the amplitude of the pendulum's swing to decay to 1/e = 36.8% of its initial swing, and multiplying by 2. In a clock, the pendulum must receive pushes from the clock's movement to keep it swinging, to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction. These pushes, applied by a mechanism called the escapement, are the A Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, the most accurate main source of disturbance to the pendulum's motion. pendulum clock ever made, at the NIST museum, Gaithersburg, MD, The Q is equal to 2 times the energy stored in the USA. It kept time with two synchronized pendulums. The master pendulum in the vacuum tank (left) swung free of virtually any pendulum, divided by the energy lost to friction during disturbance, and controlled the slave pendulum in the clock case

each oscillation period, which is the same as the energy (right) which performed the impulsing and timekeeping tasks. Its added by the escapement each period. It can be seen accuracy was about a second per year. that the smaller the fraction of the pendulum's energy that is lost to friction, the less energy needs to be added, the less the disturbance from the escapement, the more 'independent' the pendulum is of the clock's mechanism, and the more constant its period is. The Q of a pendulum is given by: 34 Pendulum where M is the mass of the bob, = 2/T is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and is the frictional damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity. is fixed by the pendulum's period, and M is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus the accuracy, by a factor of 100.[87] The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum.[88] A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was the Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921.[2] [58] [89] [90] [91] Its Invar master pendulum swinging in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000[88] and an error rate of around a second per year.[58] This explains why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than balance wheels, with Q around 100-300, but less accurate than quartz crystals with Q of 105106.[2] [88] Escapement Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore the design of the escapement, the mechanism that provides these impulses, has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period would be constant. However this is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock's pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock's power source as it runs down, mean that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies. If these variations in the escapement's force cause changes in the pendulum's width of swing

(amplitude), this will cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile, and at the correct point in the pendulum's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum's amplitude. This is called an isochronous escapement. The Airy condition In 1826 British astronomer George Airy proved what clockmakers had known for centuries; that the disturbing effect of a drive force on the period of a pendulum is smallest if given as a short impulse as the pendulum passes through its bottom equilibrium position.[2] Specifically, he proved that if a pendulum is driven by an impulse that is symmetrical about its bottom equilibrium position, the pendulum's amplitude will be unaffected by changes in the drive force; that is it will be isochronous.[92] The most accurate escapements, such as the deadbeat, approximately satisfy this condition.[93] 35 Pendulum Gravity measurement The presence of the acceleration of gravity g in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which varies by about 0.5% at different points on the surface of the Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of gravimetry up to the 1930s. The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum's length as well as its period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the cord was measured. From the length and the period, g could be calculated from (1). The seconds pendulum The seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second, was widely used to measure gravity, because most precision clocks had seconds pendulums. By the late 17th century, the length of the seconds pendulum became the standard measure of the strength of gravitational acceleration at a location. By 1700 its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at several cities in Europe. For a seconds pendulum, g is

proportional to its length: Early observations 1620: British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity, suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude.[94] 1644: Even before the pendulum clock, French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds pendulum was 39.1 inches (993 mm), by comparing the swing of a pendulum to the time it took a weight to fall a measured distance. 1669: Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, using a 1-inch (25 mm) copper ball suspended by an aloe fiber, obtaining 39.09 inches (993 mm).[95] 1672: The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer, who took a pendulum clock to Cayenne, French Guiana and found that it lost 2 12 minutes per day; its seconds pendulum had to be shortened by 1 14 lignes (2.6 mm) shorter than at Paris, to keep correct time. [96] [97] In 1687 Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape (flattened at the poles) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation, so gravity increased with latitude.[97] From this time on, pendulums began to be taken to distant lands to measure gravity, and tables were compiled of the length of the seconds pendulum at different locations on Earth. In 1743 Alexis Claude Clairaut created the first hydrostatic model of the Earth, Clairaut's formula,[95] which allowed the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from gravity measurements. Progressively more accurate models of the shape of the Earth followed. 1687: Newton experimented with pendulums (described in Principia) and found that equal length pendulums with bobs made of different materials had the same period, proving that the gravitational force on different substances was exactly proportional to their mass (inertia). 36 Pendulum 1737: French mathematician Pierre Bouguer made a sophisticated series of pendulum observations in the Andes mountains, Peru.[98] He used a copper pendulum bob in the shape of a double pointed cone suspended by a thread; the bob could be reversed to eliminate the effects of nonuniform density. He calculated the length to the center of oscillation of thread and bob combined, instead of using the center of the bob. He corrected for thermal expansion of the measuring rod and barometric pressure, giving his results for a pendulum swinging in vacuum. Bouguer swung the same pendulum at three different elevations, from sea level to the top of the high Peruvian altiplano. Gravity should fall with the inverse square of the distance from the center of the Earth. Bouguer found that it fell off slower, and correctly attributed the 'extra' gravity to the gravitational field of the huge Peruvian plateau. From the density of rock samples he calculated an

estimate of the effect of the altiplano on the pendulum, and comparing this with the gravity of the Earth was able to make the first rough estimate of the density of the Earth. 37 Borda & Cassini's 1792 measurement of the length of the seconds pendulum 1747: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening of the period due to a finite angle of swing 0 by using the first order correction 02/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an infinitesimal swing.[98] 1792: To define a pendulum standard of length for use with the new metric system, in 1792 JeanCharles de Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini made a precise measurement of the seconds pendulum at Paris. They used a 1 12-inch (14 mm) platinum ball suspended by a 12-foot (3.7 m) iron wire. Their main innovation was a technique called the "method of coincidences" which allowed the period of pendulums to be compared with great precision. (Bouguer had also used this method). The time interval T between the recurring instants when the two pendulums swung in synchronism was timed. From this the difference between the periods of the pendulums, T1 and T2, could be calculated: 1821: Francesco Carlini made pendulum observations on top of Mount Cenis, Italy, from which, using methods similar to Bouguer's, he calculated the density of the Earth.[99] He compared his measurements to an estimate of the gravity at his location assuming the mountain wasn't there, calculated from previous nearby pendulum measurements at sea level. His measurements showed 'excess' gravity, which he allocated to the effect of the mountain. Modeling the mountain as a segment of a sphere 11 miles (18 km) in diameter and 1 mile (1.6 km) high, from rock samples he calculated its gravitational field, and estimated the density of the Earth at 4.39 times that of water. Later recalculations by others gave values of 4.77 and 4.95, illustrating the uncertainties in these geographical methods Pendulum 38 Kater's pendulum A Kater's pendulum Measuring gravity with Kater's reversible pendulum, from Kater's 1818 paper The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the pendulum, L . L was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a real pendulum (called a compound pendulum) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the

pivot point and a point called the center of oscillation, located under the center of gravity, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real pendulum. To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire" type of pendulum wasn't very accurate, because it didn't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length to change slightly as the pendulum swung. However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were interchangeable.[15] That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation. British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens' principle could be used to find the length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum.[52] If a pendulum was built with a second adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the distance between the two pivots would be the length of a simple pendulum with the same period. Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short triangular "knife" blades (a) near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod (b,c). In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration g very accurately. Pendulum Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "method of coincidences" and measured the distance between the two pivots with a microscope. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob, the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929 inches for the seconds pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62 F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations was 0.00028 in.[100] representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7106 (7 mGal or 70

m/s2). Kater's measurement was used as Britain's official standard of length (see below) from 1824 to 1855. Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible" pendulums) employing Kater's principle were used for absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s. Later pendulum gravimeters The increased accuracy made possible by Kater's pendulum helped make gravimetry a standard part of geodesy. Since the exact location (latitude and longitude) of the 'station' where the gravity measurement was made was necessary, gravity measurements became part of surveying, and pendulums were taken on the great geodetic surveys of the 18th century, particularly the Great Trigonometric Survey of India. Invariable pendulums: Kater introduced the idea of relative gravity measurements, to supplement the absolute measurements made by a Kater's pendulum.[101] Comparing the gravity at two different points was an easier process than measuring it absolutely by the Kater method. All that was necessary was to time the period of an ordinary (single pivot) pendulum at the first point, then transport the pendulum to the other point and time its period there. Since the pendulum's length was constant, from (1) the ratio of the gravitational accelerations was equal to the square root of the Measuring gravity with an invariable pendulum, Madras, India, 1821 ratio of the periods, and no precision length measurements were necessary. So once the gravity had been measured absolutely at some central station, by the Kater or other accurate method, the gravity at other points could be found by swinging pendulums at the central station and then taking them to the nearby point. Kater made up a set of "invariable" pendulums, with only one knife edge pivot, which were taken to many countries after first being swung at a central station at Kew Observatory, UK. Airy's coal pit experiments: Starting in 1826, using methods similar to Bouguer, British astronomer George Airy attempted to determine the density of the Earth by pendulum gravity measurements at the top and bottom of a coal mine.[102] [103] The gravitational force below the surface of the Earth decreases rather than increasing with depth, because by Gauss's law the mass of the spherical shell of crust above the subsurface point does not contribute to the gravity. The 1826 experiment was aborted by the flooding of the mine, but in 1854 he conducted an improved experiment at the Harton coal mine, using seconds pendulums swinging on agate plates, timed by precision chronometers synchronized by an electrical circuit. He found the lower pendulum was slower by 2.24 seconds per day. This meant that the gravitational acceleration at the bottom of the mine, 1250 ft below the

surface, was 1/14,000 less than it should have been from the inverse square law; that is the attraction of the spherical shell was 1/14,000 of the attraction of the Earth. From samples of surface rock he estimated the mass of the spherical shell of crust, and from this estimated that the density of the Earth was 6.565 times that of water. Von Sterneck attempted to repeat the experiment in 1882 but found inconsistent results. 39 Pendulum 40 Repsold-Bessel pendulum: It was time-consuming and error-prone to repeatedly swing the Kater's pendulum and adjust the weights until the periods were equal. Friedrich Bessel showed in 1835 that this was unnecessary.[104] As long as the periods were close together, the gravity could be calculated from the two periods and the center of gravity of the pendulum.[105] So the reversible pendulum didn't need to be adjustable, it could just be a bar with two pivots. Bessel also showed that if the pendulum was made symmetrical in form about its center, but was weighted internally at one end, the errors due to air drag would cancel out. Further, another error due to the finite diameter of the knife edges could be made to cancel out if they were interchanged between measurements. Bessel didn't construct such a pendulum, but in 1864 Adolf Repsold, under contract by the Swiss Geodetic Commission made a pendulum along these lines. The Repsold pendulum was about 56 cm long and had a period of about 34 second. It was used extensively by European geodetic agencies, and with the Kater pendulum in the Survey of India. Similar pendulums of this type were designed by Charles Pierce and C. Defforges. Repsold pendulum, 1864 Von Sterneck and Mendenhall gravimeters: In 1887 Austro-Hungarian scientist Robert von Sterneck developed a small gravimeter pendulum mounted in a temperature-controlled vacuum tank to eliminate the effects of temperature and air pressure. The pendulum had a half-second period, and was about 25 cm long. It was nonreversible, so it was used for relative gravity measurements, but its small size made the apparatus small and portable. The period of the pendulum was picked off by reflecting the image of an electrical spark created by a precision chronometer off a mirror mounted at the top of the pendulum rod. The Von Sterneck instrument, and a similar instrument developed by Thomas C. Mendenhall of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1890,[106] were used extensively for surveys into the 1920s. Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter, 1890 The Mendenhall pendulum was actually a more accurate timekeeper than the highest precision clocks of the time, and as the 'world's best clock' it was used by A. A. Michelson in his 1924 measurements of the speed of light on Mt. Wilson, California.[106] Double pendulum gravimeters: Starting in 1875, the increasing accuracy of pendulum measurements revealed another source of error in existing instruments: the swing of the pendulum caused a slight swaying

of the tripod stand used to support portable pendulums, introducing error. In 1875 Charles S Peirce calculated that measurements of the length of the seconds pendulum made with the Repsold instrument required a correction of 0.2 mm due to this error.[107] In 1880 C. Defforges used a Michelson interferometer to measure the sway of the Pendulum stand dynamically, and interferometers were added to the standard Mendenhall apparatus to calculate sway corrections.[108] A method of preventing this error was first suggested in 1877 by Herv Faye and advocated by Peirce, Cellrier and Furtwangler: mount two identical pendulums on the same support, swinging with the same amplitude, 180 out of phase. The opposite motion of the pendulums would cancel out any sideways forces on the support. The idea was opposed due to its complexity, but by the turn of the century the Von Sterneck device and other instruments were modified to swing multiple pendulums simultaneously. Gulf gravimeter: One of the last and most accurate pendulum gravimeters was the apparatus developed in 1929 by the Gulf Research and Development Co.[109] [110] It used two pendulums made of fused quartz, each 10.7 inches (272 mm) in length with a period of 0.89 second, swinging on pyrex knife edge pivots, 180 out of phase. They were mounted in a permanently sealed temperature and humidity controlled vacuum chamber. Stray electrostatic charges on the quartz pendulums had to be discharged by exposing them to a radioactive salt before use. The period was detected by reflecting a light beam from a mirror at the top of the pendulum, Quartz pendulums used in Gulf gravimeter, 1929 recorded by a chart recorder and compared to a precision crystal oscillator calibrated against the WWV radio time signal. This instrument was accurate to within (0.30.5)107 (3050 microgals or 35 nm/s2).[109] It was used into the 1960s. Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero-length spring gravimeter, invented in 1934 by Lucien LaCoste.[106] Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and its acceleration is measured by an optical interferometer.[61] Standard of length Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given

period as a standard of length. Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard toise in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud.[111] Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length. Virtually all proposals were based on the seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half period) takes one second, which is about a meter (39 inches) long, because by the late 17th century it had become a standard for measuring gravity (see previous section). By the 18th century its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at a 41 Pendulum 42 number of cities in Europe and around the world. The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point on Earth.[111] So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth. So at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. So the unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point at that latitude. For example, a pendulum standard defined at 45 north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, the United States and Canada. In

addition, it could be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured. By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by Edward Sabine and Thomas Young revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks.[112] So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt pendulum standards were abandoned. Early proposals One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist Isaac Beeckman[113] who in 1631 recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places".[114] Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for a pendulum standard was made by the British Royal Society in 1660, advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Ole Rmer, basing it on Mersenne's work,[115] and Huygens in Horologium Oscillatorum proposed a "horary foot" defined as 1/3 of the seconds pendulum. Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because Samuel Butler satirizes it in Hudibras:[116] Upon the bench I will so handle em That the vibration of this pendulum Shall make all taylors yards of one Unanimous opinion In 1671 Jean Picard proposed a pendulum defined 'universal foot' in his influential Mesure de la Terre.[117] Gabriel Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the toise either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds pendulum at the equator; since at this location a pendulum's swing wouldn't be distorted by the Earth's rotation. British politicians James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters. By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their weight and measure systems, the seconds pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized US 'metric system' based on the seconds pendulum at 38 North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States.[118] No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician John Riggs

Miller.[119] When his efforts to promote a joint BritishFrenchAmerican metric system fell through in 1790, he proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in Pendulum 1824 (below). The metre In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the definition of the new unit of length, the metre, was the seconds pendulum at 45 North latitude. It was advocated by a group led by French politician Talleyrand and mathematician Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one of the three final options considered by the French Academy of Sciences committee. However on March 19, 1791 the committee instead chose to base the metre on the length of the meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time. (Ironically, since 1983 the metre has been officially defined in terms of the length of the second and the speed of light.) A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy didn't want to base their new system on the second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the ancien regime. Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the metre, 107 of the pole-toequator meridian arc, was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63%. Although no reason for this particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world's standard unit of length is certainly closely linked historically with the seconds pendulum. Britain and Denmark Britain and Denmark appear to be the only nations that (for a short time) based their units of length on the pendulum. In 1821 the Danish inch was defined as 1/38 of the length of the mean solar seconds pendulum at 45 latitude at the meridian of Skagen, at sea level, in vacuum.[120] [121] The British parliament passed the Imperial Weights and Measures Act in 1824, a reform of the British standard system which declared that if the prototype standard yard was destroyed, it would be recovered by defining the inch so that the length of the solar seconds pendulum at London, at sea level, in a vacuum, at 62 F was 39.1393 inches.[122] This also became the US standard, since at the time the US used British measures. However, when the prototype yard was lost in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate it accurately from the pendulum definition, and in 1855 Britain repealed the pendulum standard and returned to prototype standards. Other uses

Seismometers A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements is recorded on a drum chart. Schuler tuning As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used, but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the curved surface of the Earth. 43 Pendulum Coupled pendulums In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in unison but in the opposite direction; 180 out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a coupled oscillator.[123] The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as coupled oscillation. Under certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate chaotic motion. Religious practice Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging incense burner called a censer, also known as a thurible, is an example of a pendulum.[124] Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also pendulums for divination and dowsing. Execution Using the basic principle of the pendulum, the weight (bob) is replaced by an axe head. The victim is strapped to a table below, the device is activated, and the axe begins to swing back and forth through the air. With each pass, or return, the pendulum drops, gradually coming closer to the victim's torso, until finally cleaved. Because of the time required before the mortal action of the axe is complete, the pendulum is considered a method of

torturing the victim before his or her demise.[125] External links NAWCC National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum [126] Graphical derivation of the time period for a simple pendulum [127] A more general explanation of pendula [128] Web-based calculator of pendulum properties from numerical inputs [129] FORTRAN code for a numerical model of a simple pendulum [130] FORTRAN code for modeling of a simple pendulum using the Euler and Euler-Cromer methods [131] Further reading Michael R. Matthews, Arthur Stinner, Colin F. Gauld (2005)The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical and Educational Perspectives, Springer Michael R. Matthews, Colin Gauld and Arthur Stinner (2005) The Pendulum: Its Place in Science, Culture and Pedagogy. Science & Education, 13, 261-277. Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks [132]. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0198529716. Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" [133]. American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112121. doi:10.1119/1.14703. Retrieved 2008-10-29. 44 Pendulum References Note: most of the sources below, including books, are viewable online through the links given. [1] "Pendulum". Miriam Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Miriam Webster. 2000. pp. 1241. ISBN 0877790175. [2] Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock" (http:/ / www. ieee-uffc. org/ main/ history. asp?file=marrison). Bell System Technical Journal 27: 510588. . [3] Morris, William, Ed. (1979). The American Heritage Dictionary, New College Ed.. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. pp. 969. ISBN 0395203600. [4] defined by Christiaan Huygens: Huygens, Christian (1673). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygens/ horologiumpart4a. pdf) (PDF). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Definition 3, translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce [5] Nave, Carl R. (2006). "Simple pendulum" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pend. html). Hyperphysics (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ hph. html). Georgia State Univ.. . Retrieved 2008-12-10. [6] Xue, Linwei (2008). "Pendulum Systems" (http:/ / www. mace. manchester. ac. uk/ project/ teaching/ civil/ structuralconcepts/ Dynamics/ pendulum/ pendulum_con. php). Seeing and Touching Structural Concepts. Civil Engineering

Dept., Univ. of Manchester, UK. . Retrieved 2008-12-10. [7] Weisstein, Eric W. (2007). "Simple Pendulum" (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ SimplePendulum. html). Eric Weisstein's world of science. Wolfram Research (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-09. [8] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. MacMillan., p.188-194 [9] Halliday, David; Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker (1997). Fundamentals of Physics, 5th Ed.. New York: John Wiley & Sons.. pp. 381. ISBN 0471148547. [10] Cooper, Herbert J. (2007). Scientific Instruments (http:/ / www. google. com/ books? id=t7OoPLzXwiQC& pg=PA162). New York: Hutchinson's. pp. 162. ISBN 1406768790. . [11] Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" (http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf). American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112121. doi:10.1119/1.14703. . Retrieved 2008-10-29. [12] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA538). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp. 538. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. includes a derivation [13] Huygens, Christian; translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce (1673). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Proposition 5 [14] Glasgow, David (1885). Watch and Clock Making (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA124). London: Cassel & Co.. pp. 278. . [15] Huygens (1673) Horologium Oscillatorium (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html), Part 4, Proposition 20 [16] Morton, 70. [17] Needham, Volume 3, 627-629 [18] Good, Gregory (1998). Sciences of the Earth: An Encyclopedia of Events, People, and Phenomena (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vdqXVddh0hUC& printsec=frontcover). Routledge. pp. 394. ISBN 081530062X. . [19] "Pendulum" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=icRWAAAAMAAJ& dq="Ibn+ Yunis"+ pendulum& client=opera). Encyclopedia Americana. 21. The Americana Corp.. 1967. pp. 502. . Retrieved 2009-02-20. [20] Baker, Cyril Clarence Thomas (1961). Dictionary of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RlkYAAAAMAAJ& q=Ibn+ Yunis+ pendulum& dq=Ibn+ Yunis+ pendulum). G. Newnes. pp. 176. . [21] Newton, Roger G. (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LWqwNY3qUfwC& pg=PA52). US: Harvard University Press. pp. 52. ISBN 067401331X. . [22] King, D. A. (1979). "Ibn Yunus and the pendulum: a history of errors". Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences 29 (104): 3552. [23] Hall, Bert S. (September 1978). "The scholastic pendulum" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~db=all?content=10. 1080/ 00033797800200371). Annals of Science (Taylor & Francis) 35 (5): 441462. doi:10.1080/00033797800200371. ISSN 0003-3790. . Retrieved 2010-04-22. [24] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1999). "Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn

Yunus" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Yunus. html). University of St Andrews. . Retrieved 2007-05-29. [25] Matthews, Michael R. (2000). Time for science education (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=vCtYnEuW7TIC& pg=PR14& lpg=PR14). Springer. pp. 87. ISBN 0306458802. . [26] Drake, Stillman (2003). Galileo at Work: His scientific biography (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=OwOlRPbrZeQC& pg=PA20). USA: Courier Dover. pp. 2021. ISBN 0486495426. . [27] Murdin, Paul (2008). Full Meridian of Glory: Perilous Adventures in the Competition to Measure the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=YUHyhL8MyIQC& pg=PA41). Springer. pp. 41. ISBN 0387755330. . [28] Van Helden, Albert (1995). "Pendulum Clock" (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ instruments/ pendulum. html). The Galileo Project (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ index. html). Rice Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-02-25. [29] Drake 2003 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OwOlRPbrZeQC& pg=PA20), p.420 45 Pendulum [30] although there are unsubstantiated references to prior pendulum clocks made by others: Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA312). Courier Dover. pp. 310311. ISBN 048625593X. . [31] Eidson, John C. (2006). Measurement, Control, and Communication using IEEE 1588 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jmfkJYdEANEC& pg=PA11& lpg=PA11& dq="accuracy+ of+ clocks"). Burkhausen. pp. 11. ISBN 1846282500. . [32] Milham 1945, p.145 [33] O'Connor, J.J.; E.F. Robertson (August 2002). "Robert Hooke" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. stand. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Hooke. html). Biographies, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ ). School of Mathematics and Statistics, Univ. of St. Andrews, Scotland. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [34] Nauenberg, Michael (2006). "Robert Hooke's seminal contribution to orbital dynamics". Robert Hooke: Tercentennial Studies. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 1719. ISBN 075465365X. [35] Nauenberg, Michael (2004). "Hooke and Newton: Divining Planetary Motions" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_57/ iss_2/ 13_1. shtml). Physics Today 57 (2): 13. doi:10.1063/1.1688052. . Retrieved 2007-0530. [36] The KGM Group, Inc. (2004). "Heliocentric Models" (http:/ / www. sciencemaster. com/ space/ item/ helio_4. php). Science Master. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [37] Lenzen, Victor F.; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 307. . Retrieved 2009-01-28. [38] Richer, Jean (1679). Observations astronomiques et physiques faites en l'isle de Caenne. Mmoires de l'Acadmie Royale des Sciences. cited in Lenzen & Multauf, 1964 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307), p.307 [39] Lenzen & Multauf, 1964 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ&

pg=RA2-PA307), p.307 [40] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 2022. . [41] Huygens, Christian; translated by Ian Bruce (July 2007). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html) (PDF). Some mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ ). 17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01. [42] The constellation of Horologium was later named in honor of this book. [43] Huygens, Horologium Oscillatorium (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygens/ horologiumpart2b. pdf), Part 2, Proposition 25 [44] Mahoney, Michael S. (March 19, 2007). "Christian Huygens: The Measurement of Time and of Longitude at Sea" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071204152637/ http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~mike/ articles/ huygens/ timelong/ timelong. html). Princeton University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~mike/ articles/ huygens/ timelong/ timelong. html) on 2007-12-04. . Retrieved 2007-05-27. [45] Bevilaqua, Fabio; Lidia Falomo, Lucio Fregonese, Enrico Gianetto, Franco Giudise, Paolo Mascheretti (2005). "The pendulum: From constrained fall to the concept of potential" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=3GV2NgDwtjMC& pg=PA195). The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical, and Educational Perspectives. Springer. pp. 195200. ISBN 140203525X. . Retrieved 2008-02-26. gives a detailed description of Huygen's methods [46] Headrick, Michael (2002). "Origin and Evolution of the Anchor Clock Escapement" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091025120920/ http:/ / geocities. com/ mvhw/ anchor. html). Control Systems magazine, Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers 22 (2). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ mvhw/ anchor. html) on 2009-10-25. . Retrieved 2007-06-06. [47] "...it is affected by either the intemperance of the air or any faults in the mechanism so the crutch QR is not always activated by the same force... With large arcs the swings take longer, in the way I have explained, therefore some inequalities in the motion of the timepiece exist from this cause...", Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf). The Hague: Adrian Vlaqc. ., translation by Ernest L. Edwardes (December 1970) Antiquarian Horology, Vol.7, No.1 [48] Andrewes, W.J.H. Clocks and Watches: The leap to precision (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=F7wNQk219KMC& pg=PA126& sig=v3OGcBZ9yAuEx-hfdTfUWnBfiFQ) in Macey, Samuel (1994). Encyclopedia of Time. Taylor & Francis. pp. 123125. ISBN 0815306156. [49] Usher, 1988 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC& pg=PA312& sig=J5ajZWdvRQER-CD4CFSHP2mXu6s), p.312 [50] Beckett, Edmund (Lord Grimsthorpe) (1874). A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks and Watches and Bells, 6th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA50). London: Lockwood & Co.. p. 50. . [51] Graham, George (1726). "A contrivance to avoid irregularities in a clock's motion occasion'd by the action of heat and cold upon the rod of the pendulum". Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. 34: 4044. doi:10.1098/rstl.1726.0006. cited in Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1996). Biographical

Dictionary of the History of Technology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UuigWMLVriMC& pg=PA300& lpg=PA300). Taylor & Francis. pp. 300. ISBN 0415060427. . [52] Kater, Henry (1818). "An account of experiments for determining the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in the latitude of London" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=uaQOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA83& lpg=PA83& dq="Henry+ Kater"+ kater+ pendulum). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London) 104 (33): 109. . Retrieved 2008-11-25. [53] Rubin, Julian (September 2007). "The Invention of the Foucault Pendulum" (http:/ / www. juliantrubin. com/ bigten/ foucaultpendulum. html). Following the Path of Discovery. . Retrieved 2007-10-31. [54] Amir Aczel (2003) Leon Foucault: His life, times and achievements, in Matthews,, Michael R.; Colin F. Gauld, Arthur Stinner (2005). The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Educational, and Philosophical Perspectives (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3GV2NgDwtjMC& 46 Pendulum pg=PA177). Springer. pp. 177. ISBN 140203525X. . [55] Giovannangeli, Franoise (November 1996). "Spinning Foucault's Pendulum at the Panthon" (http:/ / www. paris. org/ Kiosque/ nov96/ foucault. html). The Paris Pages. . Retrieved 2007-05-25. [56] Tobin, William (2003). The Life and Science of Leon Foucault: The man who proved the Earth rotates (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=UbMRmyxCZmYC& pg=PA148). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 148149. ISBN 0521808553. . [57] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA540). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp. 540541. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [58] Jones, Tony (2000). Splitting the Second: The Story of Atomic Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=krZBQbnHTY0C& pg=PA30). CRC Press. pp. 30. ISBN 0750306408. . [59] Kaler, James B. (2002). Ever-changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=KYLSMsduNqcC& pg=PA183). UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 183. ISBN 0521499186. . [60] Audoin, Claude; Bernard Guinot, Stephen Lyle (2001). The Measurement of Time: Time, Frequency, and the Atomic Clock (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LqdgUcm03A8C). UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 83. ISBN 0521003970. . [61] Torge, Wolfgang (2001). Geodesy: An Introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=pFO6VB_czRYC& pg=PA177& lpg=PA177). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 177. ISBN 3110170728. . [62] Milham 1945, p.334 [63] calculated from equation (1) [64] Glasgow, David (1885). Watch and Clock Making (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA279). London: Cassel & Co.. pp. 279284. . [65] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA4). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 4. ISBN 0198529716. . [66] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA91), p.91-92 [67] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA48), p.48 [68] "Regulation" (http:/ / www. oldandsold. com/ articles02/ clocks-r. shtml). Encyclopedia of Clocks and Watches. Old and Sold antiques

marketplace. 2006. . Retrieved 2009-03-09. [69] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA43), p.43 [70] Glasgow 1885 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA282), p.282 [71] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA3& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.3 [72] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA539). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp. 539540. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [73] Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf). The Hague: Adrian Vlaqc. ., translation by Ernest L. Edwardes (December 1970) Antiquarian Horology, Vol.7, No.1 [74] Zupko, Ronald Edward (1990). Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures since the Age of Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover#PPA131,M1). Diane Publishing. pp. 131. ISBN 0871691868. . [75] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA7& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.7-12 [76] Milham 1945, p.335 [77] Milham 1945, p.331-332 [78] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA153& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), Part 3, p.153-179 [79] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.13-14 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA13#) [80] Updegraff, Milton (February 7, 1902). "On the measurement of time" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=O44CAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA219& lpg=RA1-PA219& dq=tiede+ clock+ observatory). Science (American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science) 15 (371): 218219. doi:10.1126/science.ns-15.374.218-a. PMID 17793345. . Retrieved 2009-07-13. [81] Dunwoody, Halsey (1917). Notes, Problems, and Laboratory Exercises in Mechanics, Sound, Light, Thermo-Mechanics and Hydraulics, 1st Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZDe5XCIug_0C& pg=PA87). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 87. . [82] "Resonance Width" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-re. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [83] Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane; Robb, John (1999). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA42& dq=clock+ resonance+ pendulum). New York: Courier Dover. pp. 4150. ISBN 0486409139. . p.39 [84] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 2736. ISBN 0198529716. . has an excellent comprehensive discussion of the controversy over the applicability of Q to the accuracy of pendulums. [85] "Quality Factor, Q" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [86] Matthys, 2004, p.32, fig. 7.2 and text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA32&

sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk) [87] Matthys, 2004, p.81 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA81& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk) 47 Pendulum [88] "Q, Quality Factor" (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ magazine/ magazine4. htm). Watch and clock magazine. Antica Orologeria Lamberlin website (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ index. htm). . Retrieved 2009-02-21. [89] Milham 1945, p.615 [90] "The Reifler and Shortt clocks" (http:/ / www. clockvault. com/ heritage/ index. htm). JagAir Institute of Time and Technology (http:/ / www. clockvault. com/ index. html). . Retrieved 2009-12-29. [91] Betts, Jonathan (May 22, 2008). "Expert's Statement, Case 6 (2008-09) William Hamilton Shortt regulator" (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/ what/ cultural/ export/ reviewing_cttee/ ~/ media/ Files/ word/ 2009/ RCEWA/ Cases 2008-09/ Case 6 2008-09 Regulator/ internet experts statement shortt. ashx) (DOC). Export licensing hearing, Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art and Objects of Cultural Interest. UK Museums, Libraries, and Archives Council (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/ ). . Retrieved 2009-1229. [92] Airy, George Biddle (November 26, 1826). "On the Disturbances of Pendulums and Balances and on the Theory of Escapements" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xQEBAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA105). Trans. of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (University Press) 3 (Part 1): 105. . Retrieved 2008-04-25. [93] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA75), p.75-79 [94] Baker, Lyman A. (Spring 2000). "Chancellor Bacon" (http:/ / www-personal. ksu. edu/ ~lyman/ english233/ Voltaire-Bacon. htm). English 233 - Introduction to Western Humanities. English Dept., Kansas State Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-0220. [95] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA9) [96] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 20. . [97] Victor F., Lenzen; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 307. . Retrieved 2009-01-28. [98] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA10) [99] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23). London: Charles Griffin. pp. 2224. . [100] Cox, John (1904). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EXQLAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA311). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 311312. . [101] Poynting & Thomson 1904, p.23 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23)

[102] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA24). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 2429. . [103] "Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DgTALFa3sa4C& pg=PA386). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 7. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co.. 1910. pp. 386. . Retrieved 2009-05-28. [104] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.320 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA320) [105] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.18 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA18) [106] "The downs and ups of gravity surveys" (http:/ / celebrating200years. noaa. gov/ foundations/ gravity_surveys/ welcome. html#at). NOAA Celebrates 200 Years. US NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration) (http:/ / noaa. gov). 2007-07-09. . [107] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.324 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA324) [108] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.329 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA329) [109] Woolard, George P. (June 2829, 1957). "Gravity observations during the IGY" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dUIrAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA200). Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the symposium at the opening of the International Geophysical Year. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, Nat'l Academy of Sciences. pp. 200. . Retrieved 2009-05-27. [110] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.336, fig.28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA336) [111] Michael R., Matthews (2001). "Methodology and Politics in Science: The fate of Huygens 1673 proposal of the pendulum as an international standard of length and some educational suggestions" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6Mk3YwBe5L4C& pg=PA296). Science, Education, and Culture: The contribution of history and philosophy of science. Springer. pp. 296. ISBN 0792369726. . [112] Renwick, James (1832). The Elements of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=gOEJAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA286). Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. pp. 286287. . [113] Alder, Ken (2003). The measure of all things: The seven-year odyssey and hidden error that transformed the world (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jwsDERPMPhsC& pg=RA1-PT27& dq=marin+ mersenne+ second+ pendulum). US: Simon and Schuster. pp. 88. ISBN 0743216768. . [114] cited in Jourdan, Louis (Mon, 22 Oct 2001 06:59:02). "Re: SI and dictionaries" (http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ usma@colostate. edu/ msg07023. html). USMA mailing list. . Retrieved 2009-01-27. [115] Agnoli, Paolo; Giulio D'Agostini (December 2004). "Why does the meter beat the second?" (http:/ / www. citebase. org/ fulltext?format=application/ pdf& identifier=oai:arXiv. org:physics/ 0412078). Arxiv database. . Retrieved 2009-01-27., p.6 [116] quoted in LeConte, John (August 1885). "The Metric System" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=sFQ4AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA178). The Overland Monthly (San Francisco: Bacon and Co.) 6 (2): 178. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [117] Zupko, 1990, p.131 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)

[118] Zupko, 1990, p.140-141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1) [119] Zupko, 1990, p.93 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1) 48 Pendulum 49 [120] Schumacher, Heinrich (1821). "Danish standard of length" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ? id=KwEXAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA184). The Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts (London: The Royal Institution of Great Britain) 11 (21): 184185. . Retrieved 2009-02-17. [121] "Schumacher, Heinrich Christian" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books? id=OlJMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA686& lpg=PA686). The American Cyclopedia. 14. D. Appleton & Co., London. 1883. pp. 686. . Retrieved 2009-02-17. [122] Trautwine, John Cresson (1907). The Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book, 18th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=qg41AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA216). New York: John Wiley. pp. 216. . [123] Toon, John (September 8, 2000). "Out of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment to Gain Insights into Modern Synchronized Oscillators" (http:/ / gtresearchnews. gatech. edu/ newsrelease/ PENDULUM. html). Georgia Tech. . Retrieved 2007-05-31. [124] An interesting simulation of thurible motion can be found at this site (http:/ / www. sciences. univ-nantes. fr/ physique/ perso/ gtulloue/ Meca/ Oscillateurs/ botafumeiro. html#manip). [125] R.D. Melville (1905), "The Use and Forms of Judicial Torture in England and Scotland", The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 2, p. 228; Geoffrey Abbott (2006) Execution: the guillotine, the Pendulum, the Thousand Cuts, the Spanish Donkey, and 66 Other Ways of Putting Someone to Death, MacMillan, ISBN 0312352220, p. 213. Both refer to the use of the pendulum (pendola) by inquisitorial tribunals. Melville, however, refers only to its use as a torture method, while Abbott suggests that the device was purposely allowed to kill the victim if he refused to confess. [126] http:/ / www. nawcc. org [127] http:/ / www. sque. co. uk/ physics/ simple-pendulum/ [128] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ Pendulum. html [129] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ newtonian/ pendulum [130] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ CL-2. txt [131] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ Cl-3. txt [132] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27 [133] http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf Buoyancy In physics, buoyancy (pronounced /b.nsi/) is an upward acting force exerted by a fluid , that opposes an object's weight. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction (that is, a non-inertial reference frame). In a situation of fluid statics, the net

upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body [1] This is the force that enables the object to float. Archimedes' principle Archimedes' principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law.[2] His treatise, On floating bodies, proposition 5 states: Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid. Archimedes of Syracuse The forces at work in buoyancy [3] For more general objects, floating and sunken, and in gases as well as liquids (i.e. a fluid), Archimedes' principle may be stated thus in terms of forces: Buoyancy 50 Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Archimedes of Syracuse with the clarifications that for a sunken object the volume of displaced fluid is the volume of the object, and for a floating object on a liquid, the weight of the displaced liquid is the weight of the object. More tersely: Buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid. Archimedes' principle does not consider the surface tension (capillarity) acting on the body.[4] The weight of the displaced fluid is directly proportional to the fluid is of uniform density). In simple terms, the principle states equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object, or the volume. Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal buoyancy. volume of the displaced fluid (if the surrounding that the buoyant force on an object is going to be density of the fluid multiplied by the submerged masses, objects with greater volume have greater Suppose a rock's weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum with gravity acting upon it. Suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it then exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyant force: 10 3 = 7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor. It is generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water. Assuming Archimedes' principle to be reformulated as follows, then inserted into the quotient of weights, which has been expanded by the mutual volume , yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes: (This formula is used for example in describing the measuring principle of a dasymeter and of hydrostatic weighing.)

Example: If you drop wood into water buoyancy will keep it afloat. Example: A helium balloon in a moving car. In increasing speed or driving a curve, the air moves in the opposite direction of the car's acceleration. The balloon however, is pushed due to buoyancy "out of the way" by the air, and will actually drift in the same direction as the car's acceleration. Forces and equilibrium This is the equation to calculate the pressure inside a fluid in equilibrium. The corresponding equilibrium equation is: where f is the force density exerted by some outer field on the fluid, and is the stress tensor. In this case the stress tensor is proportional to the identity tensor: Here is the Kronecker delta. Using this the above equation becomes: Assuming the outer force field is conservative, that is it can be written as the negative gradient of some scalar valued function: Buoyancy Then: Therefore, the shape of the open surface of a fluid equals the equipotential plane of the applied outer conservative force field. Let the z-axis point downward. In this case the field is gravity, so = fgz where g is the gravitational acceleration, f is the mass density of the fluid. Taking the pressure as zero at the surface, where z is zero, the constant will be zero, so the pressure inside the fluid, when it is subject to gravity, is So pressure increases with depth below the surface of a liquid, as z denotes the distance from the surface of the liquid into it. Any object with a non-zero vertical depth will have different pressures on its top and bottom, with the pressure on the bottom being greater. This difference in pressure causes the upward buoyancy forces. The buoyant force exerted on a body can now be calculated easily, since the internal pressure of the fluid is known. The force exerted on the body can be calculated by integrating the stress tensor over the surface of the body which is in contact with the fluid: The surface integral can be transformed into a volume integral with the help of the Gauss Ostrogradsky theorem: where V is the measure of the volume in contact with the fluid, that is the volume of the submerged part of the body. Since the fluid doesn't exert force on the part of the body which is outside of it. The magnitude of buoyant force may be appreciated a bit more from the following argument. Consider any object of arbitrary shape and volume V surrounded by a liquid. The force the liquid exerts on an object within the liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid with a volume equal to that of the object. This force is applied in a direction opposite to gravitational force, that is of magnitude: where f is the density of the fluid, Vdisp is the volume of the displaced body of liquid, and g is the gravitational

acceleration at the location in question. If this volume of liquid is replaced by a solid body of exactly the same shape, the force the liquid exerts on it must be exactly the same as above. In other words the "buoyant force" on a submerged body is directed in the opposite direction to gravity and is equal in magnitude to The net force on the object must be zero if it is to be a situation of fluid statics such that Archimedes principle is applicable, and is thus the sum of the buoyant force and the object's weight If the buoyancy of an (unrestrained and unpowered) object exceeds its weight, it tends to rise. An object whose weight exceeds its buoyancy tends to sink. Calculation of the upwards force on a submerged object during its accelerating period cannot be done by the Archimedes principle alone; it is necessary to consider dynamics of an object involving buoyancy. Once it fully sinks to the floor of the fluid or rises to the surface and settles, Archimedes principle can be applied alone. For a floating object, only the submerged volume displaces water. For a sunken object, the entire volume displaces water, and there will be an additional force of reaction from the solid floor. In order for Archimedes' principle to be used alone, the object in question must be in equilibrium (the sum of the forces on the object must be zero), therefore; 51 Buoyancy 52 and therefore showing that the depth to which a floating object will sink, and the volume of fluid it will displace, is independent of the gravitational field regardless of geographic location. (Note: If the fluid in question is seawater, it will not have the same density () at every location. For this reason, a ship may display a Plimsoll line.) It can be the case that forces other than just buoyancy and gravity come into play. This is the case if the object is restrained or if the object sinks to the solid floor. An object which tends to float requires a tension restraint force in order to remain fully submerged. An object which tends to sink will eventually have a normal force of constraint exerted upon it by the solid floor. The constraint force can be tension in a spring scale measuring its weight in the fluid, and is how apparent weight is defined. If the object would otherwise float, the tension to restrain it fully submerged is: When a sinking object settles on the solid floor, it experiences a normal force of: It is common to define a buoyant mass mb that represents the effective mass of the object as can be measured by a gravitational method. If an object which usually sinks is submerged suspended via a cord from a balance pan, the reference object on the other dry-land pan of the balance will have mass: where is the true (vacuum) mass of the object, and o and f are the average densities of the object and the

surrounding fluid, respectively. Thus, if the two densities are equal, o = f, the object is seemingly weightless, and is said to be neutrally buoyant. If the fluid density is greater than the average density of the object, the object floats; if less, the object sinks. Another possible formula for calculating buoyancy of an object is by finding the apparent weight of that particular object in the air (calculated in Newtons), and apparent weight of that object in the water (in Newtons). To find the force of buoyancy acting on the object when in air, using this particular information, this formula applies: 'Buoyancy force = weight of object in empty space - weight of object immersed in fluid' The final result would be measured in Newtons. Air's density is very small compared to most solids and liquids. For this reason, the weight of an object in air is approximately the same as its true weight in a vacuum. The buoyancy of air is neglected for most objects during a measurement in air because the error is usually insignificant (typically less than 0.1% except for objects of very low average density such as a balloon or light foam). Stability A floating object is stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a small displacement. For example, floating objects will generally have vertical stability, as if the object is pushed down slightly, this will create a greater buoyant force, which, unbalanced by the weight force, will push the object back up. Rotational stability is of great importance to floating vessels. Given a small angular displacement, the vessel may return to its original position (stable), move away from its original position (unstable), or remain where it is (neutral). Rotational stability depends on the relative lines of action of forces on an object. The upward buoyant force on an object acts through the center of buoyancy, being the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid. The weight force on the object acts through its center of gravity. A buoyant object will be stable if the center of gravity is beneath the center of buoyancy because any angular displacement will then produce a 'righting moment'. Buoyancy Compressible fluids and objects The atmosphere's density depends upon altitude. As an airship rises in the atmosphere, its buoyancy decreases as the density of the surrounding air decreases. In contrast, as a submarine expels water from its buoyancy tanks, it rises because its volume is constant (the volume of water it displaces if it is fully submerged) while its mass is decreased. Compressible objects As a floating object rises or falls, the forces external to it change and, as all objects are compressible to some extent or another, so does the object's volume. Buoyancy depends on volume and so an object's buoyancy reduces if it is compressed and increases if it expands. If an object at equilibrium has a compressibility less than that of the surrounding fluid, the object's

equilibrium is stable and it remains at rest. If, however, its compressibility is greater, its equilibrium is then unstable, and it rises and expands on the slightest upward perturbation, or falls and compresses on the slightest downward perturbation. Submarines rise and dive by filling large tanks with seawater. To dive, the tanks are opened to allow air to exhaust out the top of the tanks, while the water flows in from the bottom. Once the weight has been balanced so the overall density of the submarine is equal to the water around it, it has neutral buoyancy and will remain at that depth. The height of a balloon tends to be stable. As a balloon rises it tends to increase in volume with reducing atmospheric pressure, but the balloon's cargo does not expand. The average density of the balloon decreases less, therefore, than that of the surrounding air. The balloon's buoyancy decreases because the weight of the displaced air is reduced. A rising balloon tends to stop rising. Similarly, a sinking balloon tends to stop sinking. Density If the weight of an object is less than the weight of the displaced fluid when fully submerged, then the object has an average density that is less than the fluid and when fully submerged will experience a force buoyancy greater than its own weight. If the fluid has a surface, such as water in a lake or the sea, the object will float and settle at a level where it displaces the same weight of fluid as the weight of the object. If the object is immersed in the fluid, such as a submerged submarine or air in a balloon, it will tend to rise. If the object has exactly the same density as the fluid, then its buoyancy equals its weight. It will remain A pound coin floats in mercury due to the submerged in the fluid, but it will neither sink nor float, although a buoyant force upon it. disturbance in either direction will cause it to drift away from its position. An object with a higher average density than the fluid will never experience more buoyancy than weight and it will sink. A ship will float even though it may be made of steel (which is much denser than water), because it encloses a volume of air (which is much less dense than water), and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water. Beyond Archimedes' Principle Archimedes' principle is a fluid statics concept. In its simple form, it applies when the object is not accelerating relative to the fluid. To 53 Buoyancy 54 examine the case when the object is accelerated by buoyancy and gravity, the fact that the displaced fluid itself has inertia as well must be considered.[5] This means that both the buoyant object and a parcel of fluid (equal in volume to

the object) will experience the same magnitude of buoyant force because of Newton's third law, and will experience the same acceleration, but in opposite directions, since the total volume of the system is unchanged. In each case, the difference between magnitudes of the buoyant force and the force of gravity is the net force, and when divided by the relevant mass, it will yield the respective acceleration through Newton's second law. All acceleration measures are relative to the reference frame of the undisturbed background fluid. A density column containing some common liquids and solids. From top: baby oil, rubbing alcohol, vegetable oil, wax, water, and aluminum. Food coloring was added to rubbing alcohol and water for visibility. Buoyancy 55 Atwood's machine analogy The system can be understood by analogy with a suitable modification of Atwood's machine, to represent the mechanical coupling of the displaced fluid and the buoyant object, as shown in the diagram right. The solid object is represented by the gray object The fluid being displaced is represented by dark blue object Undisturbed background fluid is analogous to the inextensible massless cord The force of buoyancy is analogous to the tension in the cord The solid floor of the body of fluid is analogous to the pulley, and reverses the direction of the buoyancy force, such that both the solid object and the displaced fluid experience their buoyancy force upward. Results It is important to note that this simplification of the situation completely ignores drag and viscosity, both of which come in to play to a greater extent as speed increases, when considering the dynamics of buoyant objects. The following simple formulation makes the assumption of slow speeds such that drag and viscosity are not significant. It is difficult to carry out such an experiment in practice with speeds close to zero, but if measurements of acceleration are made as quickly as possible after release from rest, the equations below give a good approximation to the acceleration and the buoyancy force. Atwood's Machine Analogy for dynamics of buoyant objects in vertical motion. The displaced parcel of fluid is indicated as the dark blue rectangle, and the buoyant solid object is indicated as the gray object. The acceleration vectors (a) in this visual depict a positively buoyant object which naturally accelerates upward, and upward acceleration of the object is our sign convention. A system consists of a well-sealed object of mass m and volume V which is fully submerged in a uniform fluid body of density f and in an environment of a uniform gravitational field g. Under the forces of buoyancy and gravity alone, the "dynamic buoyant force" B acting on the object and

its upward acceleration a are given by: Buoyant force Upward acceleration Derivations of both of these equations originates from constructing a system of equations by means of Newton's second law for both the solid object and the displaced parcel of fluid. An equation for upward acceleration of the object is constructed by dividing the net force on the object (B mg) by its mass m. Due to the mechanical coupling, the object's upward acceleration is equal in magnitude to the downward acceleration of the displaced fluid, an equation constructed by dividing the net force on the displaced fluid (B fVg) by its mass fV. Should other forces come in to play in a different situation (such as spring forces, human forces, thrust, drag, or lift), it is necessary for the solver of problem to re-consider the construction of Newton's second law and the mechanical Buoyancy coupling conditions for both bodies, now involving these other forces. In many situations turbulence will introduce other forces that are much more complex to calculate. In the case of neutral buoyancy, m is equal to fV. Thus B reduces to mg and the acceleration is zero. If the object is much denser than the fluid, then B approaches zero and the object's upward acceleration is approximately g, i.e. it is accelerated downward due to gravity as if the fluid were not present. Similarly, if the fluid is much denser than the object, then B approaches 2mg and the upward acceleration is approximately g. References [1] Note: In the absence of surface tension, the mass of fluid displaced is equal to the submerged volume multiplied by the fluid density. High repulsive surface tension will cause the body to float higher than expected, though the same total volume will be displaced, but at a greater distance from the object. Where there is doubt about the meaning of "volume of fluid displaced", this should be interpreted as the overflow from a full container when the object is floated in it, or as the volume of the object below the average level of the fluid. [2] Acott, Chris (1999). "The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives." (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 5990). South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society journal 29 (1). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. . Retrieved 200906-13.. [3] "The works of Archimedes" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ worksofarchimede00arch#page/ 256/ mode/ 2up). p. 257. . Retrieved 11 March 2010. "Any solid lighter than a fluid will, if placed in the fluid, be so far immersed that the weight of the solid will be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced." [4] "Floater clustering in a standing wave: Capillarity effects drive hydrophilic or hydrophobic particles to congregate at specific points on a wave" (http:/ / www. weizmann. ac. il/ home/ fnfal/ papers/ Natfloat. pdf) (PDF). 2005-06-23. . [5] Smid, Thomas: "The Dynamics of Buoyant Objects" (http:/ / www. physicsmyths. org. uk/ buoyancy. htm) Physicsmyths.org.uk External links

 Falling in Water (http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy99/phy99x88.htm) Archimedes' Principle (http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/archimedesprinciple.html) background and experiment 56 Lift (force) 57 Lift (force) A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a surface force on it. Lift is defined to be the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction.[1] It contrasts with the drag force, which is defined to be the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. Airbus A380 taking off during the Paris Air Show in 2007. Overview If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force. An airfoil is a streamlined shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag.[2] Aerodynamic lift is commonly associated with the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft, although lift is also generated by propellers; kites; helicopter rotors; rudders, sails and keels on sailboats; hydrofoils; wings on auto racing cars; wind turbines and other Forces on an airfoil. streamlined objects. While the common meaning of the word "lift" assumes that lift opposes gravity, lift in its specialized technical sense obviously can be in any direction with respect to gravity, since it is defined with respect to the direction of flow, rather than to the direction of gravity. When an aircraft is flying straight and level (cruise) most[3] of the lift opposes gravity. However, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn, for example, the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical.[4] Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car. In this last case, the term downforce is often used. Lift may also be horizontal, for instance on a sail on a sailboat. Non-streamlined objects such as bluff bodies and plates (not parallel to the flow) may also generate lift when moving relative to the fluid. This lift may be steady, or it may oscillate due to vortex shedding. Interaction of the object's flexibility with the vortex shedding may enhance the effects of fluctuating lift and cause vortexinduced vibrations.[5] Lift (force) 58 Description of lift on an airfoil There are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift. Some are more complicated or more mathematically rigorous than others; some have been shown to be incorrect.[6] This article will start with the simplest explanation; more complicated and alternative explanations will follow. Newton's laws: lift and the deflection of the flow

Deflection One way to understand the generation of lift is to observe that the air is deflected as it passes the airfoil. Since the airfoil must exert a force on the air to change its direction, the air must exert an equal but opposite force on the airfoil. In the case of an airplane wing, the wing exerts a downward force on the air and the air exerts an upward force on the wing.[7] [8] [9] This explanation relies on the second and third of Newton's laws of motion: The net force on an object is equal to its rate of momentum change, and: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.[10] Airstreams around an airfoil in a wind tunnel. Note the curved streamlines and the overall downward deflection of the air. Flow turning Another way to describe deflection is to say that the air "turns" as it passes the airfoil and follows a path that is curved. When airflow changes direction, a force is generated.[11] Pressure differences It may also be described in terms of air pressure: pressure is just force per unit area perpendicular to that area. So, wherever there is force there is also a pressure difference.[12] Since deflection/flow turning tells us that there is a force, it also tells us there is a pressure difference.[13] [14] This pressure difference implies higher pressure on the underside of the wing and lower pressure on the upper side. Criticisms of deflection/turning While the theory correctly reasons that deflection implies that there must be a force on the wing, it does not explain why the air is deflected. Intuitively, one can say that the air follows the curve of the foil,[15] but this is not very rigorous or precise. The theory, while correct in as far as it goes, is not sufficient to allow one to do engineering. Fluid stresses including pressure need to be related to the fluid motion (e.g. through constitutive equations). Thus, textbooks on aerodynamics use more complex models to provide a full description of lift. Lift (force) 59 A more rigorous physical description Lift is generated in accordance with the fundamental principles of physics. The most relevant physics reduce to three principles: Newton's laws of motion, especially Newton's second law which relates the net force on an element of air to its rate of momentum change, conservation of mass, including the common assumption that the airfoil's surface is impermeable for the air flowing around, and an expression relating the fluid stresses (consisting of pressure and shear stress components) to the properties of the flow.[16] Flow around an airfoil: the dots move with the flow. Note that the velocities are much higher at the upper surface than at the lower surface. The black dots are on timelines, which split into two

 an upper and lower part at the leading edge. The part of a timeline below the airfoil does not catch up with the one above. Colors of the dots indicate streamlines. The airfoil is a KrmnTrefftz airfoil, with parameters x = 0.08, y = +0.08 and n = 1.94. The angle of attack is 8, and the flow is a potential flow. In the last principle, the pressure depends on the other flow properties, such as its mass density, through the (thermodynamic) equation of state, while the shear stresses are related to the flow through the air's viscosity.[16] Application of the viscous shear stresses to Newton's second law for an airflow results in the NavierStokes equations. But in many instances approximations suffice for a good description of lifting airfoils: in large parts of the flow viscosity may be neglected. Such an inviscid flow can be described mathematically through the Euler equations, resulting from the Navier-Stokes equations when the viscosity is neglected. The Euler equations for a steady and inviscid flow can be integrated along a streamline, resulting in Bernoulli's equation. The particular form of Bernoulli's equation found depends on the equation of state used. [17] At low Mach numbers, compressibility effects may be neglected, resulting in an incompressible flow approximation. In incompressible and inviscid flow the Bernoulli equation is just an integration of Newton's second lawin the form of the description of momentum evolution by the Euler equationsalong a streamline.[17] Explaining lift while considering all of the principles involved is a complex task and is not easily simplified.[] [18] As a result, there are numerous different explanations of lift with different levels of rigour and complexity. For example, there is an explanation based directly on Newtons laws of motion; and an explanation based on Bernoullis principle. Neither of these explanations is incorrect, but each appeals to a different audience.[19] In order to explain lift as it applies to an airplane wing, consider the incompressible flow around a 2-D, symmetric airfoil at positive angle of attack in a uniform freestream. Instead of considering the case where an airfoil moves through a fluid as seen by a stationary observer, it is equivalent and simpler to consider the picture when the observer follows the airfoil and the fluid moves past it. Lift in an established flow If one takes the experimentally observed flow around an airfoil as a starting point, then lift can be explained in terms of pressures using Bernoulli's principle (which can be derived from Newton's second law) and conservation of mass.[] The image to the right shows the streamlines over a NACA 0012 airfoil computed using potential flow theory, a simplified model of the real flow. The flow approaching an airfoil can be divided into two streamtubes, which are defined based on the area between two streamlines. By definition, fluid never crosses a streamline in a steady Streamlines around a NACA 0012 airfoil at moderate angle of attack.

Lift (force) flow; hence mass is conserved within each streamtube. One streamtube travels over the upper surface, while the other travels over the lower surface; dividing these two tubes is a dividing line (the stagnation streamline) that intersects the airfoil on the lower surface, typically near to the leading edge. The stagnation streamline leaves the airfoil at the sharp trailing edge, a feature of the flow known as the Kutta condition. In calculating the flow shown, the Kutta condition was imposed as an initial assumption; the justification for this assumption is explained below. The upper stream tube constricts as it flows up and around the airfoil, a part of the so-called upwash. From the conservation of mass, the flow speed must increase as the stream tube area decreases.[] The area of the lower stream tube increases, causing the flow inside the tube to slow down. It is typically the case that the air parcels traveling over the upper surface will reach the trailing edge before those traveling over the bottom. From Bernoulli's principle, the pressure on the upper surface where the flow is moving faster is lower than the pressure on the lower surface. The pressure difference thus creates a net aerodynamic force, pointing upward and downstream to the flow direction. The component of the force normal to the freestream is considered to be lift; the component parallel to the freestream is drag. In conjunction with this force by the air on the airfoil, by Newton's third law, the airfoil imparts an equal-and-opposite force on the surrounding air that creates the downwash. Measuring the momentum transferred to the downwash is another way to determine the amount of lift on the airfoil.[20] Flowfield formation In attempting to explain why the flow follows the upper surface of the airfoil, the situation gets considerably more complex. It is here that many simplifications are made in presenting lift to various audiences, some of which are explained after this section. Consider the case of an airfoil accelerating from rest in a viscous flow. Lift depends entirely on the nature of viscous flow past certain bodies[21] : in inviscid flow (i.e. assuming that viscous forces are negligible in comparison to inertial forces), there is no lift without imposing a net circulation, the proper amount of which can be determined by applying the Kutta condition. In a viscous flow like in the physical world, however, the lift and other properties arise naturally as described here. When there is no flow, there is no lift and the forces acting on the airfoil are zero. At the instant when the flow is turned on, the flow is undeflected downstream of the airfoil and there are two stagnation points on the airfoil (where the flow velocity is zero): one near the leading edge on the bottom surface, and another on the upper surface

near the trailing edge. The dividing line between the upper and lower streamtubes mentioned above intersects the body at the stagnation points. Since the flow speed is zero at these points, by Bernoulli's principle the static pressure at these points is at a maximum. As long as the second stagnation point is at its initial location on the upper surface of the wing, the circulation around the airfoil is zero and, in accordance with the KuttaJoukowski theorem, there is no lift. The net pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces is zero. The effects of viscosity are contained within a thin layer of fluid called the boundary layer, close to the body. As flow over the airfoil commences, the flow along the lower surface turns at the sharp trailing edge and flows along the upper surface towards the upper stagnation point. The flow in the vicinity of the sharp trailing edge is very fast and the resulting viscous forces cause the boundary layer to accumulate into a vortex on the upper side of the airfoil between the trailing edge and the upper stagnation point.[22] This is called the starting vortex. The starting vortex and the bound vortex around the surface of the wing are two halves of a closed loop. As the starting vortex increases in strength the bound vortex also strengthens, causing the flow over the upper surface of the airfoil to accelerate and drive the upper stagnation point towards the sharp trailing edge. As this happens, the starting vortex is shed into the wake,[23] and is a necessary condition to produce lift on an airfoil. If the flow were stopped, there would be a corresponding "stopping vortex".[24] Despite being an idealization of the real world, the vortex system set up around a wing is both real and observable; the trailing vortex sheet most noticeably rolls up into wing-tip vortices. 60 Lift (force) 61 The upper stagnation point continues moving downstream until it is coincident with the sharp trailing edge (as stated by the Kutta condition). The flow downstream of the airfoil is deflected downward from the freestream direction and, from the reasoning above in the basic explanation, there is now a net pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces and an aerodynamic force is generated. Other alternative explanations for the generation of lift It is amazing that today, almost 100 years after the first flight of the Wright Flyer, groups of engineers, scientists, pilots, and others can gather together and have a spirited debate on how an airplane wing generates lift. Various explanations are put forth, and the debate centers on which explanation is the most fundamental. John D. Anderson[] Many other alternative explanations for the generation of lift by an airfoil have been put forward, of which a few are presented here. Most of them are intended to explain the phenomenon of lift to a general audience.

Although the explanations may share features in common with the explanation above, additional assumptions and simplifications may be introduced. This can reduce the validity of an alternative explanation to a limited sub-class of lift generating conditions, or might not allow a quantitative analysis. Several theories introduce assumptions which proved to be wrong, like the equal transit-time theory. "Popular" explanation based on equal transit-time An explanation of lift frequently encountered in basic or popular sources is the equal transit-time theory. Equal transit-time states that because of the longer path of the upper surface of an airfoil, the air going over the top must go faster in order to catch up with the air flowing around the bottom,[25] i.e. the parcels of air that are divided at the leading edge and An illustration of the (incorrect) equal transit-time theory. travel above and below an airfoil must rejoin when they reach the trailing edge. Bernoulli's Principle is then cited to conclude that since the air moves faster on the top of the wing the air pressure must be lower. This pressure difference pushes the wing up. However, equal transit time is not accurate[26] and the fact that this is not generally the case can be readily observed.[27] Although it is true that the air moving over the top of a wing generating lift does move faster, there is no requirement for equal transit time. In fact the air moving over the top of an airfoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply.[6] The assertion that the air must arrive simultaneously at the trailing edge is sometimes referred to as the "Equal Transit-Time Fallacy".[28] [29] [30] [31] Note that while this theory depends on Bernoulli's principle, the fact that this theory has been discredited does not imply that Bernoulli's principle is incorrect. Lift (force) Coand effect In a limited sense, the Coand effect refers to the tendency of a fluid jet to stay attached to an adjacent surface that curves away from the flow, and the resultant entrainment of ambient air into the flow. The effect is named for Henri Coand, the Romanian aerodynamicist who exploited it in many of his patents. One of the first known uses was in his patent for a high-lift device[32] that used a fan of gas exiting at high speed from an internal compressor. This circular spray was directed radially over the top of a curved surface shaped like a lens to decrease the pressure on that surface. The total lift for the device was caused by the difference between this pressure and that on the bottom of the craft. Two aircraft, the Antonov An-72 and An-74 "Coaler", use the exhaust

from top-mounted jet engines flowing over the wing to enhance lift,[33] as did the Boeing YC-14 and the McDonnell Douglas YC-15.[34] [35] The effect is also used in high-lift devices such as a blown flap.[36] More broadly, some consider the effect to include the tendency of any fluid boundary layer to adhere to a curved surface, not just the boundary layer accompanying a fluid jet. It is in this broader sense that the Coand effect is used by some to explain lift.[37] Jef Raskin[38] , for example, describes a simple demonstration, using a straw to blow over the upper surface of a wing. The wing deflects upwards, thus supposedly demonstrating that the Coand effect creates lift. This demonstration correctly demonstrates the Coand effect as a fluid jet (the exhaust from a straw) adhering to a curved surface (the wing). However, the upper surface in this flow is a complicated, vortex-laden mixing layer, while on the lower surface the flow is quiescent. The physics of this demonstration are very different from that of the general flow over the wing.[39] The usage in this sense is encountered in some popular references on aerodynamics.[37] [38] In the aerodynamics field, the Coand effect is commonly defined in the more limited sense above[39] [40] [41] and viscosity is used to explain why the boundary layer attaches to the surface of a wing.[24] In terms of a difference in areas When a fluid flows relative to a solid body, the body obstructs the flow, causing some of the fluid to change its speed and direction in order to flow around the body. The obstructive nature of the solid body causes the streamlines to move closer together in some places, and further apart in others.[] [42] [43] When fluid flows past a 2-D cambered airfoil at zero angle of attack, the upper surface has a greater area (that is, the interior area of the airfoil above the chordline) than the lower surface and hence presents a greater obstruction to the fluid than the lower surface.[42] This asymmetry causes the streamlines in the fluid flowing over the upper surface to move closer together than the streamlines over the lower surface. As a consequence of mass conservation, the reduced area between the streamlines over the upper surface results in a higher velocity than that over the lower surface. The upper streamtube is squashed the most in the nose region ahead of the maximum thickness of the airfoil, causing the maximum velocity to occur ahead of the maximum thickness.[] In accordance with Bernoulli's principle, where the fluid is moving faster the pressure is lower, and where the fluid is moving slower the pressure is greater. The fluid is moving faster over the upper surface, particularly near the leading edge, than over the lower surface so the pressure on the upper surface is lower than the pressure on the lower surface. The difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces results in lift.[] 62 Lift (force)

63 Methods to determine lift on an airfoil Lift coefficient If the lift coefficient for a wing at a specified angle of attack is known (or estimated using a method such as thin-airfoil theory), then the lift produced for specific flow conditions can be determined using the following equation:[44] where L is lift force, is air density v is true airspeed, A is planform area, and is the lift coefficient at the desired angle of attack, Mach number, and Reynolds number[45] This equation is basically the same as the drag equation, only the lift/drag coefficient is different. KuttaJoukowski theorem Lift can be calculated using potential flow theory by imposing a circulation. It is often used by practising aerodynamicists as a convenient quantity in calculations, for example thin-airfoil theory and liftingline theory. The circulation is the line integral of the velocity of the air, in a closed loop around the boundary of an airfoil. It can be understood as the total amount of "spinning" (or vorticity) of air around the airfoil. The section lift/span can be calculated using the KuttaJoukowski theorem:[20] where is the air density, [46] conserved. circulation. is the free-stream airspeed. Kelvin's circulation theorem states that circulation is There is conservation of the air's angular momentum. When an aircraft is at rest, there is no The challenge when using the KuttaJoukowski theorem to determine lift is to determine the appropriate circulation for a particular airfoil. In practice, this is done by applying the Kutta condition, which uniquely prescribes the circulation for a given geometry and free-stream velocity. A physical understanding of the theorem can be observed in the Magnus effect, which is a lift force generated by a spinning cylinder in a freestream. Here the necessary circulation is induced by the mechanical rotation acting on the boundary layer, causing it to induce a faster flow around one side of the cylinder and a slower flow around the other. The asymmetric distribution of airspeed around the cylinder then produces a circulation in the outer inviscid flow.[47] Pressure integration The force on the wing can be examined in terms of the pressure differences above and below the

wing, which can be related to velocity changes by Bernoulli's principle. The total lift force is the integral of vertical pressure forces over the entire wetted surface area of the wing:[48] where: L is the lift, A is the wing surface area p is the value of the pressure, n is the normal unit vector pointing into the wing, and Lift (force) 64 k is the vertical unit vector, normal to the freestream direction. The above lift equation neglects the skin friction forces, which typically have a negligible contribution to the lift compared to the pressure forces. By using the streamwise vector i parallel to the freestream in place of k in the integral, we obtain an expression for the pressure drag Dp (which includes induced drag in a 3D wing). If we use the spanwise vector j, we obtain the side force Y. One method for calculating the pressure is Bernoulli's equation, which is the mathematical expression of Bernoulli's principle. This method ignores the effects of viscosity, which can be important in the boundary layer and to predict friction drag, which is the other component of the total drag in addition to Dp. The Bernoulli principle states that the sum total of energy within a parcel of fluid remains constant as long as no energy is added or removed. It is a statement of the principle of the conservation of energy applied to flowing fluids. A substantial simplification of this proposes that as other forms of energy changes are inconsequential during the flow of air around a wing and that energy transfer in/out of the air is not significant, then the sum of pressure energy and speed energy for any particular parcel of air must be constant. Consequently, an increase in speed must be accompanied by a decrease in pressure and vice-versa. It should be noted that this is not a causational relationship. Rather, it is a coincidental relationship, whatever causes one must also cause the other as energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It is named for the Dutch-Swiss mathematician and scientist Daniel Bernoulli, though it was previously understood by Leonhard Euler and others. Bernoulli's principle provides an explanation of pressure difference in the absence of air density and temperature variation (a common approximation for low-speed aircraft). If the air density and temperature are the same above and below a wing, a naive application of the ideal gas law requires that the pressure also be the same. Bernoulli's principle, by including air velocity, explains this pressure difference. The principle does not, however, specify the air velocity. This must come from another source, e.g., experimental data. In order to solve for the velocity of inviscid flow around a wing, the Kutta condition must be applied to simulate the

effects of viscosity. The Kutta condition allows for the correct choice among an infinite number of flow solutions that otherwise obey the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of momentum. Lift forces on bluff bodies The flow around bluff bodies may also generate lift, besides a strong drag force. For instance, the flow around a circular cylinder generates a Krmn vortex street: vortices being shed in an alternating fashion from each side of the cylinder. The oscillatory nature of the flow is reflected in the fluctuating lift force on the cylinder, whereas the mean lift force is negligible. The lift force frequency is characterised by the dimensionless Strouhal number, which depends (among others) on the Reynolds number of the flow.[49] [50] Flow separation and a Von Krmn vortex street behind a circular cylinder. The flow is from the right to the left. Part of the cylinder can be seen at the right edge of the image. Two locations of flow separation from the cylinder are clearly visible. Lift (force) For a flexible structure, this oscillatory lift force may induce vortex-induced vibrations. Under certain conditions for instance resonance or strong spanwise correlation of the lift force the resulting motion of the structure due to the lift fluctuations may be strongly enhanced. Such vibrations may pose problems, even collapse, in man-made tall structures like for instance industrial chimneys, if not properly taken care of in the design.[5] References and notes [1] "What is Lift?" (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ lift1. html). NASA Glenn Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-03-04. [2] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.2 [3] The amount of lift will be (usually slightly) more or less than gravity depending on the thrust level and vertical alignment of the thrust line. A side thrust line will result in some lift opposing side thrust as well. [4] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 14.6 [5] Williamson, C.H.K.; Govardhan, R. (2004), "Vortex-induced vibrations", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 36: 413455, doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122128 [6] Glenn Research Center (2006-03-15). "Incorrect Lift Theory" (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ wrong1. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2010-08-12. [7] "The wing deflects the airflow such that the mean velocity vector behind the wing is canted slightly downward (...). Hence, the wing imparts a downward component of momentum to the air; that is, the wing exerts a force on the air, pushing the flow downward. From Newton's third law, the equal and opposite reaction produces a lift." Anderson, John D. (2004), Introduction to Flight (5th ed.), McGraw-Hill, pp. 352361, 5.19, ISBN 0-07-282569-3 [8] "The cause of the aerodynamic lifting force is the downward acceleration of air by the airfoil... " Weltner, Klaus; Ingelman-Sundberg, Martin, Physics of Flight - reviewed (http:/ / user. uni-frankfurt. de/ ~weltner/ Flight/ PHYSIC4. htm), [9] "The main fact of all heaver-than-air flight is this: the wing keeps the airplane up by pushing the air down." In: Langewiesche, Wolfgang

(1990), Stick and Rudder: An Explanation of the Art of Flying, McGraw-Hill, pp. 610, ISBN 0070362408 [10] Feynman, RichardP.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-02116-1, Vol. 1, 101 and 102. [11] "Lift from Flow Turning" (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ right2. html). NASA Glenn Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-07-07. [12] A constant pressure surrounding a body does not create a net force (see e.g. buoyancy). Therefore pressure differences are needed to exert a force on a body immersed in a fluid (like air). See e.g.: Batchelor, G.K. (1967), An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1415, ISBN 0521663962 [13] The Bernoulli Conundrum (http:/ / www. introphysics. info/ Papers/ BernoulliConundrumWS. pdf), February 2007, [14] "...if a streamline is curved, there must be a pressure gradient across the streamline..."Babinsky, Holger (November 2003), "How do wings work?" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0031-9120/ 38/ 6/ 001/ pe3_6_001. pdf), Physics Education, [15] Most students will be happy with the streamline pattern around a lifting wing ... because it intuitively looks right Babinsky, Holger (November 2003), "How do wings work?" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0031-9120/ 38/ 6/ 001/ pe3_6_001. pdf), Physics Education, [16] Batchelor, G.K. (1967), An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 141151, ISBN 0521663962 [17] Batchelor, G.K. (1967), An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 156164, 265266, 382383, 507509, ISBN 0521663962 [18] NASA Glenn Research Center, Bernoulli and Newton (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K12/ airplane/ bernnew. html), NASA, , retrieved 2008-04-19 [19] Ison, David, "Bernoulli Or Newton: Who's Right About Lift?" (http:/ / www. planeandpilotmag. com/ aircraft/ specifications/ diamond/ 2007-diamond-star-da40-xl/ 289. html), Plane & Pilot, , retrieved 2008-04-21 [20] Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1987), Fluid mechanics, Course of Theoretical Physics, 6 (2nd revised ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN 0 08 033932 8, OCLC 15017127, pp. 6869 and pp. 153155. [21] Karamacheti, Krishnamurty (1980), Principles of Ideal-Fluid Aerodynamics (Reprint ed.), Robert E. Krieger [22] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Figure 4.7 [23] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Figure 4.8 [24] White, Frank M. (2002), "Fluid Mechanics" (5th ed.), McGraw Hill [25] Anderson, David (2001), Understanding Flight, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 1516, ISBN 0071363777, "The first thing that is wrong is that the principle of equal transit times is not true for a wing with lift." [26] "This is simply not true." Anderson, John D. Jr, Introduction to Flight, p.355 (5th edition), McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-282569-3 [27] Flow Visualization (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ hml/ ncfmf. html). National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films/Educational Development Center. . Retrieved 2009-01-21. A visualization of the typical retarded flow over the lower surface of the wing and the accelerated flow over the upper surface starts at 5:29 in the video.

[28] A false explanation for lift has been put forward in mainstream books, and even in scientific exhibitions. Known as the "equal transit-time" explanation, it states that the parcels of air which are divided by an airfoil must rejoin again; because of the greater curvature (and hence longer path) of the upper surface of an aerofoil, the air going over the top must go faster in order to "catch up" with the air flowing around the 65 Lift (force) bottom. Therefore, because of its higher speed the pressure of the air above the airfoil must be lower. Despite the fact that this "explanation" is probably the most common of all, it is false. It has recently been dubbed the "Equal transit-time fallacy." "FIXED WING AIRCRAFT FACTS AND HOW AIRCRAFT FLY" (http://www.aviationexplorer.com/fixed_wing_aircraft.htm). . Retrieved 200907-07. [29] ...it leaves the impression that Professor Bernoulli is somehow to blame for the "equal transit time" fallacy... John S. Denker (1999). "Critique of "How Airplanes Fly"" (http:/ / www. av8n. com/ fly/ lift. htm). . Retrieved 2009-07-07. [30] The fallacy of equal transit time can be deduced from consideration of a flat plate, which will indeed produce lift, as anyone who has handled a sheet of plywood in the wind can testify.Gale M. Craig. "PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF WINGED FLIGHT" (http:/ / regenpress. com/ ). . Retrieved 2009-07-07. [31] Fallacy 1: Air takes the same time to move across the top of an aerofoil as across the bottom.Peter Eastwell (2007), "Bernoulli? Perhaps, but What About Viscosity?" (http:/ / www. scienceeducationreview. com/ open_access/ eastwellbernoulli. pdf), The Science Education Review 6 (1), , retrieved 2009-07-14. [32] US 2108652 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US2108652) [33] Antonov, Oleg Konstantinovich (24-May), http:/ / www. aviation. ru/ An [34] Neely, Mike (2008), http:/ / www. theaviationzone. com/ factsheets/ amst. asp, retrieved 21July-2008 [35] Pike, John (2008), GlobalSecurity.org, http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ systems/ aircraft/ c-14. htm, retrieved 23-July-2008 [36] Englar, Robert J. (June 2005), "Overview of Circulation Control Pneumatic Aerodynamics: Blown Force and Moment Augmentation and Modification as Applied Primarily to Fixed-Wing Aircraft", Proceedings of the 2004 NASA/ONR Circulation Control Workshop, Part 1, NASA/ONR, pp. 3799 [37] Anderson, David; Eberhart, Scott (1999), How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift (http:/ / www. allstar. fiu. edu/ AERO/ airflylvl3. htm), , retrieved 2008-06-04 [38] Raskin, Jef (1994), Coanda Effect: Understanding Why Wings Work (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928072421/ http:/ / jef. raskincenter. org/ published/ coanda_effect. html), [39] Auerbach, David (2000), "Why Aircraft Fly", Eur. J. Phys. 21: 289296, doi:10.1088/01430807/21/4/302 [40] Denker, JS, Fallacious Model of Lift Production (http:/ / www. av8n. com/ how/ htm/ spins. html#sec-coanda-fallacy), , retrieved 2008-08-18 [41] Wille, R; Fernholz, H (1965), "Report on the first European Mechanics Colloquium, on the Coanda effect" (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/

action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=370712), J. Fluid Mech. 23: 801819, doi:10.1017/S0022112065001702, [42] Smith, Hubert (1992), Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill Professional, pp. 17 23, ISBN 0830639012 [43] Brandt, Steven A.; Stiles, Randall J. (2004), Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective, AIAA, p. 74, ISBN 1563477017 [44] Anderson, John D. (2004), Introduction to Flight (5th ed.), McGraw-Hill, pp. 257261, ISBN 0-07-282569-3 [45] Yoon, Joe (2003-12-28), Mach Number & Similarity Parameters (http:/ / www. aerospaceweb. org/ question/ aerodynamics/ q0156. shtml), Aerospaceweb.org, , retrieved 2009-02-11 [46] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 7.27 [47] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Sections 4.5 and 4.6 [48] Anderson, John D. (2004), Introduction to Flight, Section 5.7 (5th edition), McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-282569-3 [49] Sumer, B. Mutlu; Fredse, Jrgen (2006), Hydrodynamics around cylindrical structures (revised ed.), World Scientific, pp. 613, 4245 & 5052, ISBN 9812700390 [50] Zdravkovich, M.M. (2003), Flow around circular cylinders, 2, Oxford University Press, pp. 850855, ISBN 0198565615 Further reading Introduction to Flight, John D. Anderson, Jr., McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-299071-6 The author is the Curator of Aerodynamics at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air & Space Museum and Professor Emeritus at the University of Maryland. Understanding Flight, by David Anderson and Scott Eberhardt, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-1363777 The authors are a physicist and an aeronautical engineer. They explain flight in non-technical terms and specifically address the equal-transit-time myth. Turning of the flow around the wing is attributed to the Coanda effect, which is quite controversial. Aerodynamics, Clancy, L.J. (1975), Section 4.8, Pitman Publishing Limited, London ISBN 0 273 01120 0. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics, McCormick, Barnes W., (1979), Chapter 3, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York ISBN 0-471-03032-5. Fundamentals of Flight, Richard S. Shevell, Prentice-Hall International Editions, ISBN 0-13332917-8 This book is primarily intended as a text for a one semester undergraduate course in mechanical or aeronautical 66 Lift (force) 67 engineering, although its sections on theory of flight are understandable with a passing knowledge of calculus and physics. "Observation of Perfect Potential Flow in Superfluid", Paul P. Craig and John R. Pellam (1957) Physics Review 108(5), pp. 11091112, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.108.1109 Experiments under superfluidity conditions, resulting

in the vanishing of lift in inviscid flow since the Kutta condition no longer is satisfied. External links Discussion of the apparent "conflict" between the various explanations of lift (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/ WWW/K-12/airplane/bernnew.html) NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K12/airplane/lift1.html) Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil (http://www.diam.unige.it/~irro/) A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure. (http://www.av8n.com/how/) Physics of Flight - reviewed. Online paper by Prof. Dr. Klaus Weltner. (http://user.unifrankfurt.de/~weltner/) Explanation of Lift with animation of flow around an airfoil. (http://weblab.open.ac.uk/) How do Wings Work? - Holger Babinsky (http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00319120/38/6/001/pe3_6_001. pdf) Drag (physics) Shape and flow Form Skin drag friction 0% 100% ~10% ~90% ~90% ~10% 100% 0% In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) refers to forces that oppose the relative motion of an object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag forces act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow velocity.[1] Unlike other resistive forces such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.[2] For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement. The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust. In astrodynamics, and depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an inefficiency requiring expense of additional energy during launch of the space object or as a bonus simplifying return from orbit. Drag (physics) 68 Types of drag Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories: parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag, and wave drag (aerodynamics) or wave resistance (ship hydrodynamics). The phrase parasitic drag is mainly used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag is in general small compared

to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, drag is most often dominating, and then the qualifier "parasitic" is meaningless. Form drag, skin friction and interference drag on bluff bodies are not coined as being elements of parasitic drag, but directly as elements of drag. Further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in the aviation perspective of drag, or in the design of either semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs when a solid object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound in that fluid or in case there is a freely-moving fluid surface with surface waves radiating from the object, e.g. from a ship. Also, the amount of drag experienced by the ship is decided upon by the amount of surface area showing in the direction the ship is heading and the speed it is going up. For high velocities or more precisely, at high Reynolds numbers the overall drag of an object is characterized by a dimensionless number called the drag coefficient, and is calculated using the drag equation. Assuming a more-or-less constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity. Thus, the resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity. The standard equation for drag is one half the coefficient of drag multiplied by the fluid mass density, the cross sectional area of the specified item, and the square of the velocity. Wind resistance is a layman's term used to describe drag. Its use is often vague, and is usually used in a relative sense (e.g., a badminton shuttlecock has more wind resistance than a squash ball). Drag at high velocity The drag equation calculates the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity (i.e. high Reynolds number, Re > ~1000), also called quadratic drag. The equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A (L being some length). The force on a moving object due to a fluid is: see derivation where is the force vector of drag, is the density of the fluid,[3] is the velocity of the object relative to the fluid, is the reference area, is the drag coefficient (a dimensionless parameter, e.g. 0.25 to 0.45 for a car) The reference area A is often defined as the area of the orthographic projection of the object on a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion e.g. for objects with a simple shape, such as a sphere, this is the cross sectional area. Sometimes different reference areas are given for the same object in which case a drag coefficient corresponding to each of these different areas must be given. Drag (physics)

69 In case of a wing, comparison of the drag to the lift force is easiest when the reference areas are the same, since then the ratio of drag to lift force is just the ratio of drag to lift coefficient.[4] Therefore, the reference for a wing often is the planform (or wing) area rather than the frontal area.[5] For an object with a smooth surface, and non-fixed separation points like a sphere or circular cylinder the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re, even up to very high values (Re of the order 107). [6] [7] For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a circular disk with its plane normal to the flow direction, the drag coefficient is constant for Re > 3,500.[7] Further the drag coefficient Cd is, in general, a function of the orientation of the flow with respect to the object (apart from symmetrical objects like a sphere). Power The power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by: Note that the power needed to push an object through a fluid increases as the cube of the velocity. A car cruising on a highway at 50 mph (80 km/h) may require only 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to overcome air drag, but that same car at 100 mph (160 km/h) requires 80 hp (60 kW). With a doubling of speed the drag (force) quadruples per the formula. Exerting four times the force over a fixed distance produces four times as much work. At twice the speed the work (resulting in displacement over a fixed distance) is done twice as fast. Since power is the rate of doing work, four times the work done in half the time requires eight times the power. Velocity of a falling object The velocity as a function of time for an object falling through a non-dense medium, and released at zero relative-velocity v = 0 at time t = 0, is roughly given by a function involving a hyperbolic tangent (tanh): The hyperbolic tangent has a limit value of one, for large time t. In other words, velocity asymptotically approaches a maximum value called the terminal velocity vt: For a potato-shaped object of average diameter d and of density obj, terminal velocity is about For objects of water-like density (raindrops, hail, live objects animals, birds, insects, etc.) falling in air near the surface of the Earth at sea level, terminal velocity is roughly equal to with d in metre and vt in m/s. For example, for a human body ( ( ~ 0.2 m) ~ 40 m/s, for a small bird ( ~ 0.05 m) ~ 0.6 m) ~ 70 m/s, for a small animal like a cat ~ 20 m/s, for an insect ( ~ 0.01 m) ~ 9 m/s, and so on. Terminal velocity for very small objects (pollen, etc.) at low Reynolds numbers is determined by Stokes law.

Terminal velocity is higher for larger creatures, and thus potentially more deadly. A creature such as a mouse falling at its terminal velocity is much more likely to survive impact with the ground than a human falling at its terminal velocity. A small animal such as a cricket impacting at its terminal velocity will probably be unharmed. This, combined with the relative ratio of limb cross-sectional area vs. body mass, (commonly referred to as the Square-cube law) explains why small animals can fall from a large height and not be harmed.[8] Drag (physics) 70 Very low Reynolds numbers Stokes' drag The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for objects or particles moving through a fluid at relatively slow speeds where there is no turbulence (i.e. low Reynolds number, ).[9] In this case, the force of drag is approximately proportional to velocity, but opposite in direction. The equation for viscous resistance is:[10] Trajectories of three objects thrown at the same angle (70). The black object does not experience any form of drag and moves along a parabola. The blue object experiences Stokes' drag, and the green object Newton drag. where: is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object, and is the velocity of the object When an object falls from rest, its velocity will be which asymptotically approaches the terminal velocity . For a given , heavier objects fall faster. For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid (and thus at small Reynolds number), George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the drag constant, where: is the Stokes radius of the particle, and is the fluid viscosity. For example, consider a small sphere with radius = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 m) moving through water at a velocity of 10 m/s. Using 103 Pas as the dynamic viscosity of water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.09 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium experiences as it swims through water.. Drag (physics) 71 Drag in aerodynamics

Lift induced drag Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag) is drag which occurs as the result of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or fuselage of an airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components, including drag due to the creation of vortices (vortex drag) and the presence of additional viscous drag (lift-induced viscous drag). The vortices in the flow-field, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive from the turbulent mixing of air of varying pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the body, which is a necessary condition for the creation of lift. With other parameters remaining the same, as the lift generated by a body increases, so does the lift-induced drag. For an aircraft in flight, this means that as the angle of attack, and therefore the lift coefficient, increases to the Induced drag vs. lift point of stall, so does the lift-induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, increases due to the formation of turbulent unattached flow on the surface of the body. Parasitic drag Parasitic drag (also called parasite drag) is drag caused by moving a solid object through a fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components including viscous pressure drag (form drag), and drag due to surface roughness (skin friction drag). Additionally, the presence of multiple bodies in relative proximity may incur so called interference drag, which is sometimes described as a component of parasitic drag. In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the induced drag becomes much less, but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds in the transonic, wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximise gliding range in the event of an engine failure. Power curve in aviation The interaction of parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed can be plotted as a characteristic curve, illustrated here. In aviation, this is often referred to as the power curve, and is important to pilots because it shows that, below a certain airspeed, maintaining airspeed counterintuitively requires more thrust as speed decreases, rather than less. The consequences of being "behind the curve" in flight are important and are taught as part of pilot training. At the subsonic airspeeds where the "U" shape of this curve is significant, wave drag has not yet become a factor, and so it is not shown in the curve. The power curve: parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed Drag (physics)

Wave drag in transonic and supersonic flow Wave drag (also called compressibility drag) is drag which is created by the presence of a body moving at high speed through a compressible fluid. In aerodynamics, Wave drag consists of multiple components depending on the speed regime of the flight. In transonic flight (Mach numbers greater than about 0.8 and less than about 1.4), wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves on the body, formed when areas of local supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0) flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs Qualitative variation in Cd factor with Mach on bodies traveling well below the speed of sound, as the local speed number for aircraft of air on a body increases when it accelerates over the body, in this case above Mach 1.0. However, full supersonic flow over the vehicle will not develop until well past Mach 1.0. Aircraft flying at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag at these speeds. In supersonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 1.0), wave drag is the result of shockwaves present on the body, typically oblique shockwaves formed at the leading and trailing edges of the body. In highly supersonic flows, or in bodies with turning angles sufficiently large, unattached shockwaves, or bow waves will instead form. Additionally, local areas of transonic flow behind the initial shockwave may occur at lower supersonic speeds, and can lead to the development of additional, smaller shockwaves present on the surfaces of other lifting bodies, similar to those found in transonic flows. In supersonic flow regimes, wave drag is commonly separated into two components, supersonic lift-dependent wave drag and supersonic volume-dependent wave drag. The closed form solution for the minimum wave drag of a body of revolution with a fixed length was found by Sears and Haack, and is known as the Sears-Haack Distribution. Similarly, for a fixed volume, the shape for minimum wave drag is the Von Karman Ogive. Busemann's Biplane is not, in principle, subject to wave drag at all when operated at its design speed, but is incapable of generating lift. d'Alembert's paradox In 1752 d'Alembert proved that potential flow, the 18th century state-of-the-art inviscid flow theory amenable to mathematical solutions, resulted in the prediction of zero drag. This was in contradiction with experimental evidence, and became known as d'Alembert's paradox. In the 19th century the NavierStokes equations for the description of viscous flow were developed by Saint-Venant, Navier and Stokes. Stokes derived the drag around a sphere at very low Reynolds numbers, the result of which is called Stokes law.[11]

In the limit of high-Reynolds numbers the NavierStokes equations approach the inviscid Euler equations; of which the potential-flow solutions considered by d'Alembert are solutions. However, at high Reynolds numbers all experiments showed there is drag. Attempts to construct inviscid steady flow solutions to the Euler equations, other than the potential flow solutions, did not result in realistic results.[11] The notion of boundary layers introduced by Prandtl in 1904, founded on both theory and experiments explained the causes of drag at high Reynolds numbers. The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid close to the object's boundary, where viscous effects remain important when the viscosity becomes very small (or equivalently the Reynolds number becomes very large).[11] 72 Drag (physics) See also Added mass Aerodynamic force Angle of attack Boundary layer Coand effect Drag crisis Drag coefficient Drag equation Drag-resistant aerospike Gravity drag KeuleganCarpenter number Morison equation Parasitic drag Ram pressure Reynolds number Stall (flight) Stokes' law Terminal velocity Notes

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] French (1970), p. 210 French (1970), p. 211, Eq. 7-20 Note that for the Earth's atmosphere, the air density can be found using the barometric formula. It is 1.293 kg/m3 at 0 C and 1 atmosphere. Size effects on drag (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ sized. html), from NASA Glenn Research Center. Wing geometry definitions (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ geom. html), from NASA Glenn Research Center. Roshko, Anatol (1961). "Experiments on the flow past a circular cylinder at very high Reynolds number". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 10 (3): 345356. doi:10.1017/S0022112061000950. [7] Batchelor (1967), p. 341. [8] Haldane, J.B.S., "On Being the Right Size" (http:/ / irl. cs. ucla. edu/ papers/ right-size. html) [9] Drag Force (http:/ / www. ac. wwu. edu/ ~vawter/ PhysicsNet/ Topics/ Dynamics/ Forces/ DragForce. html) [10] Air friction (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ airfri. html), from Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University [11] Batchelor (2000), pp. 337343. References French, A. P. (1970). Newtonian Mechanics (The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series) (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company Inc., New York. ISBN 393-09958-X. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. Huntley, H. E. (1967). Dimensional Analysis. Dover. LOC 67-17978. Batchelor, George (2000). An introduction to fluid dynamics. Cambridge Mathematical Library (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. MR1744638. ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0. 73 Drag (physics) 74 External links Educational materials on air resistance (http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0609156) Aerodynamic Drag (http://craig.backfire.ca/pages/autos/drag) and its effect on the acceleration and top speed of a vehicle. Vehicle Aerodynamic Drag calculator (http://www.apexgarage.com/tech/horsepower_calc.shtml) based on drag coefficient, frontal area and speed. Weight Weight is a name for the reactive half of a repulsive force exerted on a body with a

particular mass, by contact with, or support from, another body (e.g. the Earth, and specifically the Earth's surface). The force between the bodies prevents them from entering free-fall, which they would otherwise do, due to gravity.[1] . This repulsive force, which acts equally between gravitating objects whose natural motion has been stopped or slowed it, is called "weight." Weight is not directly caused by the "force of gravity," for whenever gravity operates alone and unopposed, there is no force that corresponds to weight. Weight is rather a name for any mechanical forces (or other types of forces) that oppose the natural free-fall motion of objects caused by gravity, when gravity acts alone. Sometimes weight is defined in operational terms of the weighing process, as the force exerted by an object upon its support against gravity.[2] . This is equivalent to the above definition. Strictly speaking, a weighing scale measures the force exerted by an object on its support, which is defined as the weight. For example, standing at rest on a weighing scale on Earth, a person's weight equals the person's mass multiplied by the gravitational acceleration produced by the Earth. However, the direction of weight is downwards, whereas the acceleration from the force of the support is upwards. On the surface of the Moon, an object's weight is approximately one sixth of the weight at rest on Earth, as the gravitational force exerted by the Moon is much smaller than that of Earth. In a free falling elevator, a scale indicates a zero weight, as no net force is exerted by the body on the support; the person experiences weightlessness. Similarly, and for similar reasons, in a space craft in orbit around the Earth, the weight is also zero, as orbital motion also represents a type of free fall in which the only force acting, is that of gravity. A spring scale measures the weight of an object The weight of an object when supported against gravity, often denoted W, is often defined as the "gravitational force" exerted on it, but this is the same as the opposite of the force that supports it (the real cause of weight). The object's weight is thus the product of the mass m of the object and the local gravitational acceleration g:[3] W = m g. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement for weight is that of force, the newton. On the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is approximately constant; this means that the magnitude of an object's weight on the surface of the Earth is proportional to its mass. In situations other than that of a constant position on the Earth, so long as the acceleration does not change, the force it exerts against support in any accelerated frame is proportional to its mass, also. In everyday practical use, therefore, including commercial use, the term weight is commonly used to mean mass.[4] In technical terms which also cover accelerating frames and scales (such as the case of an an elevator which is accelerating upward or downward, but is not in free-fall), the weight is given by: Where the vector-g is the g-force. Weight 75 The g-force is the proper acceleration which causes the object to deviate from a free-fall or inertial trajectory. A non-gravitational mechanical accelerating force must provide this proper acceleration, since gravitation does not cause proper acceleration (this is the basic reason that an object free-falling in a gravity field feels

no weight, and is weightless). An example of a force that produces proper acceleration would be the mechanical force exerted by a scale, or the floor of an elevator. The reaction force resulting from the inertia of the mass, that resists the mechanical accelerating force, must be equal to the mechanical accelerating force, but acting in the opposite direction, according to Newton's third law of motion. This reaction force (with direction denoted by the minus sign) is what is defined by the ISO as "weight." The ISO standard ISO 80000-4 (2006) defines weight as follows: "The weight of a body in a particular reference frame is the force that gives the body an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in that reference frame."[5] When the accelerating force is provided by a simple support on the surface of the Earth, then the mechanical force from the support provides the proper acceleration equal to and thus the weight of the object against the support is . Definitions Several definitions exist for weight, not all of which are equivalent.[3] [2] [6] [7] The main differences in these definitions are: whether the definition is based on the standard gravity of the Earth, or is based on any other proper acceleration, for example, Moon's gravity for an object on the moon; whether the quantity is determined directly and is thus weighing-instrument-dependent (see apparent weight), or is determined indirectly, from other measurements of mass and acceleration; whether the quantity is a vector or a scalar. Gravitational definition One of the most common definitions of weight found in introductory physics textbooks defines weight as the force exerted on a body by gravity.[7] This is often expressed in the formula W = m g, where W is the weight, m the mass of the object, and g gravitational acceleration. This definition was established in Resolution 2 of the 3rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) of 1901: "The word weight denotes a quantity of the same nature[8] as a force: the weight of a body is the product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity."[1] This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining: "The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body."[9] The gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to a have a standard value of 9.80665 m/s2, which gives the standard weight.[10] Operational definition In the operational definition, the weight of an object is the force measured by the operation of weighing it, which is the force it exerts on its support.[2] This can make a considerable difference, depending on the details; for example,

an object in free fall exerts little force on its support, if any, a situation that is commonly referred to as weightlessness. However, being in free fall does not affect the weight according to the gravitational definition. Therefore, the operational definition is sometimes refined by requiring that the object be at rest. However, this raises the issue of defining "at rest" (usually being at rest with respect to the Earth is implied by using standard gravity. Weight 76 A minor issue with the formulation is that the operational definition, as usually given, does not take buoyancy into account. However, this is an instrument-dependent problem (since in theory, an object will always be weighed in a vacuum, with the correct instrument).[7] ISO definition In the ISO International standard ISO 80000-4(2006), which is a part of the International standard ISO/IEC 80000, the definition of weight and remarks concerning that definition are given as , where m is mass and g is local acceleration of free fall. It should be noted that, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity comprises not only the local gravitational force, but also the local centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth. The effect of atmospheric buoyancy is excluded in the weight. In common parlance, the name "weight" continues to be used where "mass" is meant, but this practice is deprecated. " The following points are emphasized in this definition of "weight": this quantity depends on the specified reference frame; when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity includes the gravitational force and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth, but excludes the effect of the atmospheric buoyancy. It implicitly contains the fact that the local acceleration g differs from point to point on the Earth surface and is equal to measured values obtained by observing locally the free fall in vacuum. More generally, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity excludes the effect of buoyancy of any fluid in which the body might be immersed. The international standard ISO 80000-4(2006), describing the basic physical quantities and units in mechanics, cancels and replaces the second edition of ISO 31-3:1992. The major technical changes introduced in comparison with the previous standards were the following: the presentation of numerical statements has been changed; the normative references have been changed; quantities from analytical mechanics have been added to the list of quantities. The new standard ISO 80000-4(2006) stresses some details concerning the definition of weight which were not clearly stated in the previous standard ISO 31-3:1992. The definition of the weight in the cancelled standard ISO 31-3:1992, with commentaries, is given in the following text.

The ISO standard ISO 31-3 (1992) defines weight as follows: The weight of a body in a specified reference system is that force which, when applied to the body, would give it an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in that reference system.[11] This definition allows use of the formula W = m g, with g interpreted as the local acceleration of free fall in the specified frame.[12] The definition is dependent on the chosen frame of reference. When the chosen frame is co-moving with the object in question then this definition precisely agrees with the operational definition.[6] If however the specified frame is the one of the surface of the Earth, then the definition agrees with the gravitational definition. Weight here is the force necessary to put an object in an "particular reference frame," (which must be an accelerated frame if the body is to have any weight at all) into a free-fall frame, instead. If such a body is not already in free fall, and yet is stationary (as it must be in its particular reference frame, where it has weight) this requires that the body already is being acted upon by a force, which acts against its weight. This force, a supporting force, is responsible for its acceleration (which is also the acceleration of its frame). This force causes a measurable proper acceleration which is measurable by an accelerometer. This acceleration is, by definition, the acceleration of an object away from Weight the acceleration of free fall. The object's weight must be exactly equal to this supporting force, but in the opposite direction, in order to keep the object motionless in its "particular reference frame." For example, an object sitting on a spring-scale on a table on the surface of the Earth (an accelerated frame) is subject to a supporting-force from the scale and table, which is exactly enough to keep it from going into free fall, in the scale and table's gravitationally accelerated reference frame. This force causes the object's 1-g proper acceleration, which is in a direction upward. This acceleration can be directly measured as a 1-g acceleration upward, by an accelerometer affixed to the object, or to its reference frame (see the article on g-force). In the object and table's frame, this force is balanced, by Newton's third law, by the counter-force of the object's weight, which is measured as a downward force, by the scale. If the table and scale are removed, however, the force of the object's weight is exactly enough to put it into free-fall, by the ISO definition, and it will therefore go into free-fall. At that time, an accelerometer placed on it will read zero, and it will have no weight. (Objects in a free-fall, obeying Newton's first law in an inertial frame, are weightless). In a similar situation where an object is on a scale on-board a rocket accelerating at 1-g in deepspace, the weight of the object will be measured as the same as on the Earth by the scale, and an accelerometer will show the same 1-g

upward proper acceleration. However, in this case the acceleration is produced by the rocket engine, and the weight of the object is provided by the fictitious force (inertial force) associated with it being in the accelerated rocket-frame, rather than the similar gravitational force which causes positionally stationary frames near a mass to appear accelerated (these frames have a proper acceleration, even if they have no coordinate acceleration). In a centrifuge, or other similar accelerated frame system, weight is due to a similar fictitious inertial force (centrifugal force), and is a function of the system's proper acceleration, which is its difference in acceleration from a free-fall reference frame. The identical operational and the ISO definitions for weight do in themselves take into consideration the practical fact that a scale under an object cannot be expected to measure its full weight, if the object is supported, in part or in whole, by some other means which does not transfer downward weight-force to the scale. Such unmeasured support detracts from an object's weight and may give it a false apparent weight. For example, an object might be suspended over a scale by a rope from a stand, and the scale would read an apparent weight of zero. This does not mean the object's weight is zero, but merely that the scale mechanism has been circumvented, by being placed somewhere other than the structures that supply the supporting force for the object; in this case, the object's weight would be correctly reported if the scales were placed under the stand. Similarly, an object undergoing levitation in a magnetic field does not actually lose its weight; rather the full weight would be shown if the scale were placed under the structures that supply the levitating field. In a similar fashion, the apparent weight of objects immersed in a fluid may be reported incorrectly by a scale placed immediately under the object, but this is only because the fluid, like the rope in the example above, has transferred some of the support for the object, to a surface supporting the fluid, where the scale does not measure the increase in weight. This does not happen if the entire fluid mass is supported by the scale: for example, if a beaker of water is placed upon a scale and an object dropped into the beaker, the entire weight of the object will be is shown by the scale, no matter to what extent it is supported locally by buoyancy. In a similar fashion, objects immersed in air show a slightly smaller apparent weight, but this is only because scales do not measure the increased pressure and thus weight of the entire atmosphere (which would show the weight difference from true weight, directly). Such measurements are impractical, and therefore to correct for the buoyancy of air, the apparent weight of objects weighed by a spring-scale in air must have an additional calculated measure added, using the product of the density

of air and the object's volume, as described in Archimedes' principle. However, the true weight of the object in such circumstances is unchanged, just as in the other "unmeasured support" examples. 77 Weight 78 Vector or scalar The definitions of the physical concept of weight given above define it as a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. For an object at rest on the surface of the Earth, its weight is a force that points down, approximately towards the centre of the Earth. In spite of this, the vector aspect is usually ignored in common scientific discourse, and "the weight" is used to denote a scalar quantity, where, according to the definition employed, "the magnitude of the weight" would be more appropriate. Some physics textbooks define weight outright as a scalar quantity, as in the following definition: "The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body."[9] Weight and mass In modern scientific usage, weight and mass are fundamentally different quantities: mass is an intrinsic property of matter, whereas weight is a force that results from the action of gravity on matter: it measures how strongly the force of gravity pulls on that matter. However, in most practical everyday situations the word "weight" is used when, strictly, "mass" is meant.[4] [5] For example, most people would say that an object "weighs one kilogram", even though the kilogram is a unit of mass. The scientific distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity is almost constant everywhere on the surface of the Earth. In a constant gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is directly proportional to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, weighing (using a weighing scale) is an entirely acceptable way of measuring mass. Conversely, a balance actually measures mass, not weight (in the scientific sense), but the quantity thus determined is still called "weight" in everyday use. The Earth's gravitational field is not actually constant but can vary by as much as 0.5%[13] at different locations on Earth (see Earth's gravity). These variations alter the relationship between weight and mass, and must be taken into account in high precision weight measurements that are intended to indirectly measure mass. Spring scales, which measure local weight, must be calibrated at the location at which the objects will be used to show this standard weight, to be legal for commerce.

This table shows the variation of acceleration due to gravity (and hence the variation of weight) at various locations on the Earth's surface.[14] Location Latitude Equator 0 9.7803 Sydney 33 52 S 9.7968 Aberdeen 57 9 N 9.8168 North Pole 90 N m/s2 9.8322 The historic use of "weight" for "mass" also persists in some scientific terminology for example, the chemical terms "atomic weight", "molecular weight", and "formula weight", can still be found rather than the preferred "atomic mass" etc. In a different gravitational field, for example, on the surface of the Moon, an object can have a significantly different weight than on Earth. The gravity on the surface of the Moon is only about one-sixth as strong as on the surface of the Earth. A one-kilogram mass is still a one-kilogram mass (as mass is an intrinsic property of the object) but the downward force due to gravity, and therefore its weight, is only one-sixth of what the object would have on Earth. So a 180-pound man on Earth weighs only about 30 pounds when visiting the Moon. Weight 79 Units Four examples of mass and force units System FPS Engineering FPS Gravitational FPS Absolute Metric Force (F) F = ma F = ma/gc = wa/g F = ma F = ma Weight (w) w = mg w = mg/gc m w = mg ft/s2 ft/s2 m/s2 Units Acceleration (a) ft/s2 Mass (m) slug pound-mass pound kilogram Force (F) pound pound-force poundal newton SI units In most modern scientific work, physical quantities are measured in SI units. The SI unit of force (and hence weight in the mechanics sense) is the same as that of force: the newton (N) a derived unit which can also be expressed in SI base units as kgm/s2 (kilograms times meters per second squared).[5] In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" is usually used to mean mass, and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of". Used in this sense, the proper SI unit is the kilogram (kg).[5] The pound and other non-SI units In United States customary units, the pound can be either a unit of force or a unit of mass. Related units used in some distinct, separate subsystems of units include the poundal and the slug. The poundal is defined as the force necessary

to accelerate an object of one-pound mass at 1 ft/s2, and is equivalent to about 1/32.2 of a poundforce. The slug is defined as the amount of mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when one pound-force is exerted on it, and is equivalent to about 32.2 pounds (mass). The kilogram-force is a non-SI unit of force, defined as the force exerted by a one kilogram mass in standard Earth gravity (equal to 9.80665 newtons exactly). The dyne is the cgs unit of force and is not a part of SI, while weights measured in the cgs unit of mass, the gram, remain a part of SI. Weight Sensation of weight The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the vestibular system, a threedimensional set of tubes in the inner ear. It is actually the sensation of g-force, regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply. Measuring weight Weight is commonly measured using one of two methods. A spring scale or hydraulic or pneumatic scale measures local weight, the local force of gravity on the object (strictly apparent weight force). Since the local force of gravity can vary by up to 0.5% at different locations, spring scales will measure slightly different weights for the same object (the same mass) at different locations. To standardize weights, scales are always calibrated to read the weight an object would have at a nominal standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2 (approx. 32.174 ft/s2). However, this calibration is done at the factory. When the scale is A weighbridge, used for weighing trucks moved to another location on Earth, the force of gravity will be different, causing a slight error. So to be highly accurate, and legal for commerce, spring scales must be re-calibrated at the location at which they will be used. A balance on the other hand, compares the weight of an unknown object in one scale pan to the weight of standard masses in the other, using a lever mechanism a lever-balance. The standard masses are often referred to, non-technically, as "weights". Since any variations in gravity will act equally on the unknown and the known weights, a lever-balance will indicate the same value at any location on Earth. Therefore, balance "weights" are usually calibrated and marked in mass units, so the lever-balance measures mass by comparing the Earth's attraction on the unknown object and standard masses in the scale pans. In the absence of a gravitational field, away from planetary bodies (e.g. space), a lever-balance would not work, but on the Moon, for example, it would give the same reading as on Earth. Some balances can be marked in weight units, but since the weights are calibrated at the factory for standard gravity, the balance will measure standard weight, i.e. what the object would weigh at standard gravity, not the actual local force of gravity on the object.

If the actual force of gravity on the object is needed, this can be calculated by multiplying the mass measured by the balance by the acceleration due to gravity either standard gravity (for everyday work) or the precise local gravity (for precision work). Tables of the gravitational acceleration at different locations can be found on the web. Gross weight is a term that generally is found in commerce or trade applications, and refers to the total weight of a product and its packaging. Conversely, net weight refers to the weight of the product alone, discounting the weight of its container or packaging; and tare weight is the weight of the packaging alone. Relative weights on the Earth, other celestial bodies and the Moon The table below shows comparative gravitational accelerations at the surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, each of the planets in the solar system. The surface is taken to mean the cloud tops of the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). For the Sun, the surface is taken to mean the photosphere. The values in the table have not been de-rated for the centrifugal effect of planet rotation (and cloud-top wind speeds for the gas giants) and therefore, generally speaking, are similar to the actual gravity that would be experienced near the poles. 80 Weight 81 Body Sun Multiple of Earth gravity 27.90 m/s2 274.1 Mercury 0.3770 3.703 Venus 0.9032 8.872 Earth 1 (by definition) 9.8226[15] Moon 0.1655 1.625 Mars 0.3895 3.728 Jupiter 2.640 25.93 Saturn 1.139 11.19 Uranus 0.917 9.01 Neptune 1.148 11.28 Notes [1] Barry N. Taylor and Ambler Thompson, ed (2008). The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330.

pdf). NIST Special Publication 330 (2008 ed.). NIST. p. 52. . [2] Allen L. King (1963). "Weight and weightlessness". American Journal of Physics 30: 387. doi:10.1119/1.1942032. [3] Gat, Uri (1988). "The weight of mass and the mess of weight" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=CoB5w9Km0mUC& oi=fnd& pg=PA45). In Richard Alan Strehlow. Standardization of Technical Terminology: Principles and Practice second volume. ASTM International. pp. 4548. ISBN 978-0-8031-1183-7. . [4] The National Standard of Canada, CAN/CSA-Z234.1-89 Canadian Metric Practice Guide, January 1989: 5.7.3 Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term "weight." In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" nearly always means mass. In science and technology "weight" has primarily meant a force due to gravity. In scientific and technical work, the term "weight" should be replaced by the term "mass" or "force," depending on the application. 5.7.4 The use of the verb "to weigh" meaning "to determine the mass o f," e.g., "I weighed this object and determined its mass to be 5 kg," is correct. [5] A. Thompson and B. N. Taylor (July 2, 2009 (last updated: March 3, 2010)). "The NIST Guide for the use of the International System of Units, Section 8: Comments on Some Quantities and Their Units" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ sec08. html#8. 3). Special Publication 811. NIST. . Retrieved 2010-05-22. [6] A. P. French (1995). "On weightlessness". American Journal of Physics 63: 105106. doi:10.1119/1.17990. [7] Galili, I.; Lehavi, Y. (2003). "The importance of weightlessness and tides in teaching gravitation" (http:/ / sites. huji. ac. il/ science/ stc/ staff_h/ Igal/ Research Articles/ Weight-AJP. pdf). American Journal of Physics 71 (11): 11271135. doi:10.1119/1.1607336. . [8] The phrase "quantity of the same nature" is a literal translation of the French phrase grandeur de la mme nature. Although this is an authorized translation, VIM 3 of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures recommends translating grandeurs de mme nature as quantities of the same kind. [9] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (2007). Fundamentals of Physics, Volume 1 (8th ed.). Wiley. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-470-04473-5. [10] Working Group 2 of the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM/WG 2) (2008) (in English and French). International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM) Vocabulaire international de mtrologie Concepts fondamentaux et gnraux et termes associs (VIM) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ documents/ jcgm/ JCGM_200_2008. pdf) (JCGM 200:2008) (3rd ed.). BIPM. Note 3 to Section 1.2. . [11] Technical committee 12 (1992). Quantities and units -- Part 3: Mechanics. International Standards Organization. [12] Wong Chee Leong, Yap Kueh Chin (November 2009). "The Semantics Problems on the Definitions of Weight" (http:/ / www. eras. org. sg/ papers/ 2-4-34. doc). ERAS Conference 2009. Educational Research Association of Singapore. . Retrieved 2010-06-09. [13] Hodgeman, Charles, Ed. (1961). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed.. Cleveland,

USA: Chemical Rubber Publishing Co.. p.3480-3485 [14] Clark, John B (1964). Physical and Mathematical Tables. Oliver and Boyd. [15] This value excludes the adjustment for centrifugal force due to Earths rotation and is therefore greater than the 9.80665 m/s2 value of standard gravity. Weight 82 References Momentum Momentum SI symbol: p SI unit: kg m/s Conserved: yes Derivations from other quantities: p = mv p = m0v In classical mechanics, momentum (pl. momenta; SI unit kgm/s, or, equivalently, Ns) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object (p = mv). In relativistic mechanics, this quantity is multiplied by the Lorentz factor. Momentum is sometimes referred to as linear momentum to distinguish it from the related subject of angular momentum. Linear momentum is a vector quantity, since it has a direction as well as a magnitude. Angular momentum is a pseudovector quantity because it gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation. The total momentum of any group of objects remains the same unless outside forces act on the objects (law of conservation of momentum). Momentum is a conserved quantity, meaning that the total momentum of any closed system (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. Although originally expressed in Newton's Second Law, it also holds in special relativity, and with appropriate definitions a (generalized) momentum conservation law holds in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and general relativity. Title page of the 1st edition of Isaac Newton's Principia defining the laws of motion. History of the concept Mmentum was not merely the motion, which was mtus, but was the power residing in a moving object, captured by today's mathematical definitions. A mtus, "movement", was a stage in any sort of change,[1] while velocitas, "swiftness", captured only speed. The concept of momentum in classical mechanics was originated by a number of great thinkers and experimentalists. The first of these was Byzantine philosopher John Philoponus, in his commentary to Aristotle s Physics. As regards the natural motion of bodies falling through a medium, Aristotle's verdict that the speed is proportional to the weight of the moving bodies and indirectly proportional to the density of the medium is disproved by Philoponus through appeal to the same kind of experiment that Galileo was to carry out centuries later.[2] This idea was refined by the European philosophers Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan.

Buridan referred to impetus being proportional to the weight times the speed.[3] [4] Moreover, Buridan s theory was different to his predecessor s in that he did not consider impetus to be self dissipating, asserting that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus.[5] Momentum 83 Ren Descartes believed that the total "quantity of motion" in the universe is conserved, where the quantity of motion is understood as the product of size and speed. This should not be read as a statement of the modern law of momentum, since he had no concept of mass as distinct from weight and size, and more importantly he believed that it is speed rather than velocity that is conserved. So for Descartes if a moving object were to bounce off a surface, changing its direction but not its speed, there would be no change in its quantity of motion.[6] Galileo, later, in his Two New Sciences, used the Italian word "impeto." The question has been much debated as to what Isaac Newton contributed to the concept. The answer is apparently nothing, except to state more fully and with better mathematics what was already known. Yet for scientists, this was the death knell for Aristotelian physics and supported other progressive scientific theories (i.e., Kepler's laws of planetary motion). Conceptually, the first and second of Newton's Laws of Motion had already been stated by John Wallis in his 1670 work, Mechanica sive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: "the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist" and "If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result".[7] Wallis uses momentum and vis for force. Newton's Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, when it was first published in 1687, showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II[8] defines quantitas motus, "quantity of motion", as "arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly", which identifies it as momentum.[9] Thus when in Law II he refers to mutatio motus, "change of motion", being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to mean momentum and not motion.[10] It remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of "momentum" in its proper mathematical sense is not clear but by the time of Jenning's Miscellanea in 1721, four years before the final edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica, momentum M or "quantity of motion" was being defined for students as "a rectangle", the product of Q and V, where Q is "quantity of material" and V is "velocity", s/t.[11] Some languages, such as French still lack a single term for momentum, and use a phrase such as the literal translation of "quantity of motion". Linear momentum of a particle

If an object is moving in any reference frame, then it has momentum in that frame. It is important to note that momentum is frame dependent. That is, the same object may have a certain momentum in one frame of reference, but a different amount in another frame. For example, a moving object has momentum in a reference frame fixed to a spot on the ground, while at the same time having 0 momentum in a reference frame attached to the object's center of mass. The amount of momentum that an object has depends on two physical quantities: the mass and the velocity of the moving object in the frame of reference. In physics, the usual symbol for momentum is a bold p (bold because it is a vector); so this can be written Newton's apple in Einstein's elevator. In person A's frame of reference, the apple has non-zero velocity and momentum. In the elevator's and person B's frames of reference, it has zero velocity and momentum. where p is the momentum, m is the mass and v is the velocity. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg traveling due north at 1 m/s in straight and level flight has a momentum of 1 kg m/s due north measured from the ground. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit it has a velocity and momentum of zero. Momentum According to Newton's second law, the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the direction of that force. The derivation of force from momentum is given below, however because mass is constant the second term of the derivative is 0 so it is ignored. (if mass is constant) or just simply where F is understood to be the resultant. Example: a model airplane of 1 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 1 m/s due north in 1 s. The thrust required to produce this acceleration is 1 newton. The change in momentum is 1 kg m/s. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit there is no change of momentum. Its pressing backward in the seat is a reaction to the unbalanced thrust, shortly to be balanced by the drag. Linear momentum of a system of particles Relating to mass and velocity The linear momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the momenta of all the individual objects in the system: where P is the total momentum of the particle system, mi and vi are the mass and the velocity vector of the i-th object, and n is the number of objects in the system. It can be shown that, in the center of mass frame the momentum of a system is zero. Additionally, the momentum in a frame of reference that is moving at a velocity vcm with respect to that frame is simply: where: This is known as Euler's first law.[12] [13] 84 Momentum

85 Relating to force - General equations of motion Motion of a material body The linear momentum of a system of particles can also be defined as the product of the total mass of the system times the velocity of the center of mass This is a special case of Newton's second law. (If mass is constant) For a more general derivation using tensors, we consider a moving body (see Figure), assumed as a continuum, occupying a volume at a time , having a surface area , with defined traction or surface forces per unit area represented by the stress vector acting on every point of every body surface (external and internal), body forces per unit of volume on every point within the volume , and a velocity field prescribed throughout the body. Following the previous equation, the linear momentum of the system is: By definition the stress vector is defined as , then Using the Gauss's divergence theorem to convert a surface integral to a volume integral gives (we denote as the differential operator): Now we only need to take care of the right side of the equation. We have to be careful, since we cannot just take the differential operator under the integral. This is because while the motion of the continuum body is taking place (the body is not necessarily solid), the volume we are integrating on can change with time too. So the above integral will be: Performing the differentiation in the first part, and applying the divergence theorem on the second part we obtain: Momentum Now the second term inside the integral is: 86 Plugging this into the previous equation, and rearranging the terms, we get: We can easily recognize the two integral terms in the above equation. The first integral contains the Convective derivative of the velocity vector, and the second integral contains the change and flow of mass in time. Now lets assume that there are no sinks and sources in the system, that is mass is conserved, so this term is zero. Hence we obtain: putting this back into the original equation: For an arbitrary volume the integrand itself must be zero, and we have the Cauchy's equation of motion As we see the only extra assumption we made is that the system doesn't contain any mass sources or sinks, which means that mass is conserved. So this equation is valid for the motion of any continuum, even for that of fluids. If we are examining elastic continuums only then the second term of the convective derivative operator can be neglected,

and we are left with the usual time derivative, of the velocity field. If a system is in equilibrium, the change in momentum with respect to time is equal to 0, as there is no acceleration or using tensors, These are the equilibrium equations which are used in solid mechanics for solving problems of linear elasticity. In engineering notation, the equilibrium equations are expressed in Cartesian coordinates as Momentum Conservation of linear momentum The law of conservation of linear momentum is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions with external agents) is constant. One of the consequences of this is that the center of mass of any system of objects will always continue with the same velocity unless acted on by a force from outside the system. Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). So, momentum conservation can be philosophically stated as "nothing depends on location per se". In analytical mechanics the conservation of momentum is a consequence of translational invariance of Lagrangian in the absence of external forces. It can be proven that the total momentum is a constant of motion by making an infinitesimal translation of Lagrangian and then equating it with non translated Lagrangian. This is a special case of Noether's theorem [14] . In an isolated system (one where external forces are absent) the total momentum will be constant: this is implied by Newton's first law of motion. Newton's third law of motion, the law of reciprocal actions, which dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, is due to the conservation of momentum. Since position in space is a vector quantity, momentum (being the canonical conjugate of position) is a vector quantity as wellit has direction. Thus, when a gun is fired, the final total momentum of the system (the gun and the bullet) is the vector sum of the momenta of these two objects. Assuming that the gun and bullet were at rest prior to firing (meaning the initial momentum of the system was zero), the final total momentum must also equal 0. In an isolated system with only two objects, the change in momentum of one object must be equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the other object. Mathematically, Momentum has the special property that, in a closed system, it is always conserved, even in collisions and separations caused by explosive forces. Kinetic energy, on the other hand, is not conserved in collisions if they are inelastic. Since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate an unknown velocity following a collision or a separation if all the other masses and velocities are known.

A common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles. Since momentum is always conserved, the sum of the momenta before the collision must equal the sum of the momenta after the collision: where u1 and u2 are the velocities before collision, and v1 and v2 are the velocities after collision. Determining the final velocities from the initial velocities (and vice versa) depend on the type of collision. There are two types of collisions that conserve momentum: elastic collisions, which also conserve kinetic energy, and inelastic collisions, which do not. 87 Momentum 88 Elastic collisions A collision between two pool balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision, due to their high rigidity; a totally elastic collision exists only in theory, occurring between bodies with mathematically infinite rigidity. In addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide, the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after: In one dimension When the initial velocities are known, the final velocities for a head-on collision are given by When the first body is much more massive than the other (that is, m1 m2), the final velocities are approximately given by Thus the more massive body does not change its velocity, and the less massive body travels at twice the velocity of the more massive body less its own original velocity. Assuming both masses were heading towards each other on impact, the less massive body is now therefore moving in the opposite direction at twice the speed of the more massive body plus its own original speed. In a head-on collision between two bodies of equal mass (that is, m1 = m2), the final velocities are given by A Newton's cradle demonstrates conservation of momentum. Thus the bodies simply exchange velocities. If the first body has nonzero initial velocity u1 and the second body is at rest, then after collision the first body will be at rest and the second body will travel with velocity u1. This phenomenon is demonstrated by Newton's cradle. Momentum 89 In multiple dimensions In the case of objects colliding in more than one dimension, as in oblique collisions, the velocity is resolved into orthogonal components with one component perpendicular to the plane of collision and the other component or components in the plane of collision. The velocity components in the plane of collision remain unchanged, while the

velocity perpendicular to the plane of collision is calculated in the same way as the one-dimensional case. For example, in a two-dimensional collision, the momenta can be resolved into x and y components. We can then calculate each component separately, and combine them to produce a vector result. The magnitude of this vector is the final momentum of the isolated system. Perfectly inelastic collisions A common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two snowballs collide and then stick together afterwards. This equation describes the conservation of momentum: It can be shown that a perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the maximum amount of kinetic energy is converted into other forms. For instance, if both objects stick together after the collision and move with a final common velocity, one can always find a reference frame in which the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted. This is true even in the relativistic case and utilized in particle accelerators to efficiently convert kinetic energy into new forms of mass-energy (i.e. to create massive particles). Coefficient of Restitution The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. It is a ratio hence it is a dimensionless quantity. The coefficient of restitution is given by: for two colliding objects, where is the scalar final velocity of the first object after impact is the scalar final velocity of the second object after impact is the scalar initial velocity of the first object before impact is the scalar initial velocity of the second object before impact. A perfectly elastic collision implies that CR is 1. So the relative velocity of approach is same as the relative velocity of separation of the colliding bodies. Inelastic collisions have (CR < 1). In case of a perfectly inelastic collision the relative velocity of separation of the centre of masses of the colliding bodies is 0. Hence the bodies stick together after collision. Momentum 90 Explosions An explosion occurs when an object is divided into two or more fragments due to a release of energy. Note that kinetic energy in a system of explosion is not conserved because it involves energy transformation (i.e. kinetic energy changes into heat and acoustic energy). See the inelastic collision page for more details. Modern definitions of momentum Momentum in relativistic mechanics In relativistic mechanics, in order to be conserved, the momentum of an object must be defined as where m0 is the invariant mass of the object and is the Lorentz factor, given by where v is the speed of the object and c is the speed of light. Relativistic momentum can also be written as invariant mass times the object's proper velocity, defined as the rate of change of object position in the observer frame with respect to time elapsed on object clocks (i.e.

object proper time). Within the domain of classical mechanics, relativistic momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum: at low velocity, m0v is approximately equal to m0v, the Newtonian expression for momentum. The total energy E of a body is related to the relativistic momentum p by A graphical representation of the interrelation of relativistic energy E, invariant mass m0, relativistic momentum p, and relativistic mass m = m0. where p denotes the magnitude of p. This relativistic energy-momentum relationship holds even for massless particles such as photons; by setting m0 = 0 it follows that For both massive and massless objects, relativistic momentum is related to the de Broglie wavelength by where h is the Planck constant. Momentum Four-vector formulation Relativistic four-momentum as proposed by Albert Einstein arises from the invariance of fourvectors under Lorentzian translation. The four-momentum P is defined as: where E = m0c2 is the total relativistic energy of the system, and px, py, and pz represent the x-, y-, and z-components of the relativistic momentum, respectively. The magnitude ||P|| of the momentum four-vector is equal to m0c, since which is invariant across all reference frames. For a closed system, the total four-momentum is conserved, which effectively combines the conservation of both momentum and energy into a single equation. For example, in the radiationless collision of two particles with rest masses and with initial velocities and , the respective final velocities and may be found from the conservation of four-momentum which states that: where For elastic collisions, the rest masses remain the same ( and ), while for inelastic collisions, the rest masses will increase after collision due to an increase in their heat energy content. The conservation of four-momentum can be shown to be the result of the homogeneity of spacetime. Generalization of momentum Momentum is the Noether charge of translational invariance. As such, not just particles, but fields and other things can have momentum. However, where spacetime is curved there is no Noether charge for translational invariance. Momentum in quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as an operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable

system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables. For a single particle described in the position basis the momentum operator can be written as where is the gradient operator, is the reduced Planck constant, and i is the imaginary unit. This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though the momentum operator in other bases can take other forms, for example in the momentum basis the momentum operator is represented as where the operator p acting on a wave function (p) yields that wave function multiplied by the value p, in an analogous fashion to the way that the position operator acting on a wave function (x) yields that wave function multiplied by the value x. 91 Momentum 92 Momentum in electromagnetism Electric and magnetic fields possess momentum regardless of whether they are static or they change in time. The pressure, P, of an electrostatic (magnetostatic) field upon a metal sphere, cylindrical capacitor or ferromagnetic bar is: where , , , are the electromagnetic energy density, electric field, and magnetic field respectively. The electromagnetic pressure may be sufficiently high to explode the capacitor. Thus electric and magnetic fields do carry momentum. Light (visible, UV, radio) is an electromagnetic wave and also has momentum. Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This leads to applications such as the solar sail. The calculation of the momentum of light within dielectric media is somewhat controversial (see AbrahamMinkowski controversy [15]). Momentum is conserved in an electrodynamic system (it may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum of moving parts). The treatment of the momentum of a field is usually accomplished by considering the so-called energy-momentum tensor and the change in time of the Poynting vector integrated over some volume. This is a tensor field which has components related to the energy density and the momentum density. The definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the principle of least coupling: , instead of the customary where: is the electromagnetic vector potential the charged particle's invariant mass its velocity

its charge. Analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer There are some notable similarities in equations for momentum, heat, and mass transfer[16] . The molecular transfer equations of Newton's law for fluid momentum, Fourier's law for heat, and Fick's law for mass are very similar. A great deal of effort has been devoted to developing analogies among these three transport processes so as to allow prediction of one from any of the others. Notes [1] Lewis, Charleton T.; Charles Short. "mtus" (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=#29780). A Latin Dictionary. Tufts University: The Perseus Project. . Retrieved 200802-15. [2] Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,John Philoponus (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ philoponus/ #2. 1) [3] Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Mehdi Amin Razavi (1996). The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 0700703144 [4] Aydin Sayili (1987). "Ibn Sn and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1): 477482. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x. "Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of momentum of Newtonian mechanics.". [5] T.F.Glick,S.J.Livesay,F.Wallis, Medieval Science,Technology and Medicine:an Encyclopedia,p.107 (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC& pg=PA107& dq=after+ leaving+ the+ arm+ of+ the+ thrower,+ the+ projectile+ would+ be+ moved+ by+ an+ impetus+ given+ to+ it+ by+ the+ thrower+ and+ would+ continue+ to+ be+ moved+ as+ long+ as+ the+ impetus+ remained+ stronger+ Momentum than+ the+ resistance,+ and+ would+ be+ of+ infinite+ duration+ were+ it+ not+ diminish& cd=1#v=onepage& q=buridan& f=false) [6] Daniel Garber (1992). "Descartes' Physics" (http:/ / www. cup. es/ us/ catalogue/ catalogue. asp? isbn=9780521366960). In John Cottingham. The Cambridge Companion to Descartes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310319. ISBN 0-521-36696-8. . [7] Scott, J.F. (1981). The Mathematical Work of John Wallis, D.D., F.R.S.. Chelsea Publishing Company. pp. 111. ISBN 0828403147. [8] Newton placed his definitions up front as did Wallis, with whom Newton can hardly fail to have been familiar. [9] Grimsehl, Ernst; Leonard Ary Woodward, Translator (1932). A Textbook of Physics. London, Glasgow: Blackie & Son limited. pp. 78. [10] Rescigno, Aldo (2003). Foundation of Pharmacokinetics. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 19. [11] Jennings, John (1721). Miscellanea in Usum Juventutis Academicae. Northampton: R. Aikes & G. Dicey. pp. 67. [12] "Euler's Laws of Motion" (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ research/ eulers-laws-of-motion-wom/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-30. [13] McGill and King (1995). Engineering Mechanics, An Introduction to Dynamics (3rd ed.). PWS Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-93399-8. [14] Hand, Louis N.; Finch, Janet D.. Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 4.

[15] http:/ / prl. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v104/ i7/ e070401 [16] Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass transfer (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hZxRAAAAMAAJ& cd=3) (2 ed.). Wiley. . References Halliday, David; Robert Resnick (1960-2007). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 9. Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7 Stenger, Victor J. (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 in particular. Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6 Hand, Louis N.; Finch, Janet D.. Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 4. External links Conservation of momentum (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch04/ch04.html) - A chapter from an online textbook 93 Impulse (physics) 94 Impulse (physics) In classical mechanics, an impulse is defined as the integral of a force with respect to time. When a force is applied to a rigid body it changes the momentum of that body. A small force applied for a long time can produce the same momentum change as a large force applied briefly, because it is the product of the force and the time for which it is applied that is important. The impulse is equal to the change of momentum. Mathematical derivation Impulse I produced from time t1 to t2 is defined to be[1] where F is the force applied from to . From Newton's second law, force is related to momentum p by Therefore where p is the change in momentum from time t1 to t2. This is often called the impulsemomentum theorem.[2] As a result, an impulse may also be regarded as the change in momentum of an object to which a force is applied. The impulse may be expressed in a simpler form when both the force and the mass are constant: where F is the constant total net force applied, t is the time interval over which the force is applied, m is the constant mass of the object, v is the change in velocity produced by the force in the considered time interval, and m v = (mv) is the change in linear momentum. It is often the case that not just one but both of these two quantities vary. In the technical sense, impulse is a physical quantity, not an event or force. The term "impulse" is

also used to refer to a fast-acting force. This type of impulse is often idealized so that the change in momentum produced by the force happens with no change in time. This sort of change is a step change, and is not physically possible. This is a useful model for computing the effects of ideal collisions (such as in game physics engines). Impulse has the same units (in the International System of Units, kgm/s = Ns) and dimensions (M L T1) as momentum. Impulse can be calculated using the equation where Impulse (physics) F is the constant total net force applied, t is the time interval over which the force is applied, m is the constant mass of the object, v1 is the final velocity of the object at the end of the time interval, and v0 is the initial velocity of the object when the time interval begins. Notes [1] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 222, ISBN 0-13-607791-9 [2] See, for example, section 9.2, page 257, of Serway (2004). Bibliography Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed. ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. Tippler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed. ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. External links Dynamics (http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/2c.html) 95 Article Sources and Contributors Article Sources and Contributors Mechanical energy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402232535 Contributors: A8UDI, ABF, Afdshuta, Aitias, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Angry german kid, Aranel, Archimerged, Awsome101202101, Balfa, Beeblebrox, Beland, Big Bird, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bootstoots, Burnaby123, Capricorn42, Catgut, Conscious, Corruptcopper, Crowsnest, D, DMacks, Dadude3320, DanielCD, Dark Lord of the Sith, DerHexer, Discospinster, Djradon, Dolphin51, DoriSmith, EPM, Epbr123, Esanchez7587, Escape Orbit, Excirial, Farosdaughter, Firsfron, Flying Jazz, Fnoop Dogg, Fru1tbat, GeoffreyClemm, Gimme danger, Glenn, Gokugohan382, Gz33, Heracles31, Hi878, Icairns, Igoldste, Ihaveadisease, Inluminetuovidebimuslumen, Instinct, Iridescent, J Milburn, J.delanoy, Jacottier, Jamyricks, Jebus989, Jmilner1278, Jusdafax, Justinmeister, Karenjc, Katalaveno, Kickincheeze, Kukini, Little Mountain 5, LizardJr8, Lradrama, MER-C, Makeemlighter, Marek69, Matt Deres, MaxEspinho, Minimac, Mlpearc, Mnmngb, Monobi, Nakon, Nickrds09, Nikopav, OlEnglish, Old Moonraker, Oli Filth, Orionus, Paste, Paul August, PeaceNT, Philip Trueman, Pmlineditor, Postmodern Beatnik, Proofreader77, R'n'B, RainbowOfLight, Reindra, Riana, Rror, RyanCross, S3000, Salsb, Sam Korn, ScottJ, Scoutersig, SebastianHelm, Shadowjams, Shoeofdeath, Sillybilly, Simonbamboo, Skizzik, Smack, Smokizzy, Snowolf, StephenBuxton, Steve Pucci, Synchronism, Taweetham, The Anonymous One, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thechamelon, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tin Whistle Man, Tommy2010,

Tpoore1, Ukexpat, Uncle Dick, Versus22, Vespristiano, Vivio Testarossa, WadeSimMiser, Werdan7, WikiDao, X!, XJamRastafire, Xyb, Yesiam2113, Zapvet, Zidane tribal, 444 anonymous edits Conservative force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404583580 Contributors: AlexPlank, Arthena, Bambaiah, BrokenSegue, CompuChip, Conscious, DVdm, Diberri, Djr32, Eigenlambda, Enormousdude, Falcon8765, Falcorian, Firsfron, GermanX, Hoziron, Icairns, Iridescent, JabberWok, Joelam, Laurascudder, Logan, MFNickster, NawlinWiki, Neomagus00, Odysseus1479, Peterlin, Rckrone, Rracecarr, Salsb, Sbyrnes321, Smeuuh, Tardis, Tejasvreddy, Theresa knott, Thurth, TimBentley, Vinograd19, Wolfkeeper, 56 anonymous edits Kinetic energy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406068130 Contributors: -5-, .:Ajvol:., 121a0012, 28bytes, 2tonlord, A. di M., A8UDI, ABF, AOL account, Aarktica, Abrech, Academic Challenger, Academicigbo, Acather96, Actmusic3, Aitias, Alansohn, Albi90, Aleenf1, AlexiusHoratius, Alfie66, Alsandro, Alucard (Dr.), Ancheta Wis, Andres, Andries, Anskas, Antonio Lopez, Aragorn2, Aravagantos, Arthas932, Arthena, Artichoker, Asterion, Austinky, Avant Guard, Avenged Eightfold, BRUTE, Baa, Babygirl111, Bcartolo, Bdesham, Beland, Ben-Zin, Bensaccount, Betterusername, Bgpaulus, Bhavesh.Chauhan, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, BoomerAB, Bromskloss, Bryan Derksen, Bunnyhop11, Burzmali, Buster2058, CBM, Calmer Waters, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CapitalR, Capt JPD, Captain panda, Captain-tucker, Car199889, CardinalDan, Caster23, Chamal N, Cheesecheesedog, Closedmouth, Cnwb, Cnz, Coffee, Cometstyles, Complexica, Conversion script, Corpx, Courcelles, Cronholm144, Crowsnest, Ctbolt, DS1000, DVD R W, DVdm, Da monster under your bed, DaDrought3, Daniel.Cardenas, Daranz, Darth Panda, Dashn98, Daviis, Dbfirs, Dbratland, DeadEyeArrow, December21st2012Freak, Dedtr9, Delta1989, Der Falke, Derek Ross, Dgbeecher, Diagonalfish, Dinocheese, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Dogswin, Dolphin51, Dougofborg, Doyley, DrF, Dragokiller, Dravick, Dreadstar, Dureo, Dycedarg, Dynabee, Earwax09, Ed-it, Eeekster, Egg, Ehrenkater, El C, Em3ryguy, Emmikitty, Energee5, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Erpbridge, Excirial, Falcon8765, Fama Clamosa, Fatbian, Feezo, Filmakr, Flewis, Fredrik, Frehley, Fresheneesz, Frokor, Gaff, Galorr, Galoubet, Gatemansgc, Gc3, Ged UK, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gimmetrow, Glane23, Gnowor, Goodwin-Brent, Gracenotes, Gralo, Greg Glover, Gurch, Gutza, Gwernol, H.M.S Me, HalfShadow, Hallenrm, Hamibetc, Hardyplants, Hatpins, Hayabusa future, Headbomb, Hectorian, Heracles31, Heron, Hotcrocodile, HustlaShanks, Hut 8.5, Huwr, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperbola, IRP, IW.HG, Ibbn, Icairns, Illegal604, Imran, Inwind, Iridescent, Isnow, Isomorphic, Itub, Ixfd64, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, J.delanoy, JForget, JRSpriggs, JabberWok, Jack who built the house, Jackollie, Jaganath, JamesBWatson, Jan eissfeldt, Jason12345, Java13690, JavierMC, JawsBrody, Jay Gatsby, Jaz720848, Jclemens, Jdm64, Jeff G., Jltvnff, Jmcc150, Joebengo, John, John254, JosiShewellBrockway, Jovianeye, Joyous!, Jtle515, Juliancolton, KChiu7, KFP, Kahriman, Karada, Karl Dickman, Karol Langner, Kartano, Kbh3rd, Kbrose, Keilana, Kelvinite, Kesac, Kku, Koffieyahoo, KonradG, Konstable, Kpufferfish, KrakatoaKatie, Kubigula, L Kensington, LAHI23, Lambiam, Landon1980, Laslovarga, Laurascudder, Leafyplant, Leandrod, Lear's Fool, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Lethe, Leuko, Light current, Lights, Loafman, Lucinos, Lugnuts, MITBeaverRocks, MOBle, Mac Davis, Madhero88, Marek69, Martarius, Mathfan, Matusz, Maurice Carbonaro, Meni Rosenfeld, Mentifisto, Metropolitan90, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Mikeo, Mistercow, Mizzcutieyyy, Mohammad Sami, Mot13, Mpatel, Mpfiz, Muu-karhu, My wan, N5iln, NJA, Naerii, Nagy, NellieBly, New Thought, Nickwalker, NightFalcon90909, Noah Salzman, Noommos, Nuno Tavares, Nydhogg, Oleg Alexandrov, Oli Filth, OllieFury, Orion11M87, Oxymoron83, Parkjd08, Patrick, Pengrate, Penguinstar19, Peterlin, Petowl, Phantomsteve, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Philippe, PhySusie, Piano non troppo, PieManJoe, Pip2andahalf, Pkbharti, Polyparadigm, Porqin, PrestonH, Proquence, Pschemp, Psicorps, Quantling, Qutezuce, Qxz, R'n'B, RJN, Radon210, RainbowOfLight, Rankiri, Razimantv, Reach Out to the Truth,

Recognizance, RedHillian, Rigby27, Robert K S, RobertG, RobertMfromLI, Robinator336, Rogerzilla, Rogper, Ronhjones, Rpeh, Rracecarr, Rrburke, Rror, Runewiki777, Ryulong, S h i v a (Visnu), SCZenz, Sam Korn, Sanpaz, Sbharris, Scott Roy Atwood, Scott14, SebastianHelm, Sectori, Sephiroth BCR, Seqsea, Shadowjams, Shalom Yechiel, Shshr, Shubinator, Simetrical, Sionus, Sirtingle, Sitethief, Sk8rboy11494, Skoot69, Slicky, Slon02, Snowolf, Sopoforic, SpuriousQ, Srikeit, Sry85, Starwiz, Staxringold, Steven Weston, Steven Zhang, StuRat, SunCreator, Superbeecat, Synergy, TJClark, TSRibeye, Takometer, Tarquin, Tdadamemd, TexasAndroid, The Evil Spartan, The Thing That Should Not Be, The horse, TheDoctor77, Thljcl, Tide rolls, Tigga en, TimGillespie, Titoxd, Tmopkisn, Tnxman307, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TrygveFlathen, Twang, UberCryxic, Uncle Dick, User A1, UserDoe, Usermtt6928, Uxorion, Valley2city, Vanished User 1004, VernoWhitney, Versus22, Vignaux, Vipinhari, Vrenator, WAS 4.250, WJBscribe, WebCobra, Weirdy, Whatall2, Who then was a gentleman?, Whpq, Wik, WikHead, WikiLaurent, Wikipe-tan, WikipedianMarlith, Will2green, Wise Sage150, Wolfkeeper, Wsmitchell3, Wwoods, X!, Xecide, Xihix, Xinit, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, Z.E.R.O., Zachlipton, Zaidpjd, Zeamays, Zgystardst, Zunaid, Zven, 1192 anonymous edits Potential energy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405420116 Contributors: 10metreh, 1reg1, ABF, Aarktica, Access Denied, Addshore, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Ajk91, AlanD, Alansohn, Alfie66, Amorymeltzer, Andrea105, Andres, Andrius.v, Animum, Anoko moonlight, Antandrus, Ap, Arbitrarily0, ArglebargleIV, Arthas932, Asterion, Atrer, Austin512, Avoided, Awolf002, Axyjo, AzaToth, Backslash Forwardslash, Banjo dannie, BenFrantzDale, Bensaccount, Bigbluefish, Bluerasberry, Bobo192, Bobogun, Boeman, Bou, Brambleclawx, Brianberns, Brs6480, Bsadowski1, Burner0718, Butane Goddess, CIreland, CS42, CWY2190, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Catgut, CharlotteWebb, ChemGardener, Cherlene96, Chinese3126, ChrisChiasson, Christopher Thomas, ChristopherHealy, Chronulator, Chuchunezumi, Complexica, Conversion script, Corpx, Courcelles, Covington, Craig Pemberton, Cremepuff222, Crohnie, Crowsnest, Crystallina, Cwkmail, D, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVdm, Da monster under your bed, Damian Yerrick, Danaman5, Daniel.Cardenas, Darth Panda, DavidWTalmage, Davius, Decltype, Delldot, DerHexer, Discospinster, Djr32, Doczilla, Dolphin51, DolphinL, Dprules, Droog Andrey, Dysepsion, E2eamon, Eeekster, El C, El Mueco Shakes It Up, Baby, Elephantini4, Elliotthedunk, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eponymous, Eras-mus, Erik9, Everyking, Excirial, Faradayplank, Fatbian, Favonian, Firsfron, Flewis, Fresheneesz, Funandtrvl, Fyyer, Gaff, Gaolbird, Gene Nygaard, George2001hi, Giftlite, Gjshisha, Glenn, Gracenotes, Gralo, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gykdrocket, Haemo, Hagerman, Hallenrm, Halmstad, Haxwell, Headbomb, Hectorian, Henning Makholm, Heron, Hiberniantears, Hierophantasmagoria, Hut 8.5, Ibbn, Icairns, Idk my bff jill, Igoldste, Ilario, Immunize, ImperatorExercitus, Inflector, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Isis, IvanLanin, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JCO312, JNW, JRSpriggs, JSpung, JabberWok, Jacottier, Jake Wartenberg, January, Jatkins, Jauhienij, Jeff G., Jeffrey Mall, Jersey emt, Jhopkins, Jimbobthethird, Jmanigold, Jmcc150, JoJan, Joelr31, Joeycharles, John mait, John254, JohnOwens, JohnnyMrNinja, Jon the Geek, Jonathanstray, Jorfer, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Jutiphan, Jw depew, KChiu7, Kahriman, Kalan, Kanatonian, Karl Dickman, Katanada, Kbrose, Keegan, Keilana, Kendrick7, Kieff, Kilo-Lima, Kku, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kozuch, Krazycev13, Kri, Kurykh, Kwake20, Lahiru k, Laurascudder, LeaveSleaves, Light current, Ligulem, LindsayH, Littlet889, Looxix, Luciopaiva, Luckas Blade, Luk, LukeSurl, Lyonisis, M.thoriyan, MER-C, MMS2013, Mac, Madyhot101, MagnInd, Manocheese, Marek69, Markpipe, Matt.T, Mccassidy420, Meaghan, Mego'brien, Mentifisto, Michaelbusch, Mini-Geek, Mizzou9807, Mnmngb, Mrshaba, Muhammed.Science, Musiphil, MystRivenExile, NOrbeck, NawlinWiki, Nburden, NeilN, NellieBly, Neparis, Nepenthes, Nickptar, Nivedh, Nivix, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Oblivious, Olaf Davis, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Onevalefan, Oxymoron83, Pagw, ParticleMan, Passw0rd, Patrick, Paulbalegend, Pb30, Pde, Penguinstar19,

Penubag, Persian Poet Gal, Peterlin, Petiatil, Pfalstad, PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Piano non troppo, Pikiwyn, Pinethicket, Pkbharti, Player 03, Pokipsy76, Pomte, Postmodern Beatnik, Pwhitwor, Quintote, Qwerty Binary, Qzex, RSido, Rainbowofknowledge, Raven4x4x, Ray Van De Walker, RetiredUser2, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard Mellor, Roadahead, Robert K S, Romanskolduns, Ronhjones, Rracecarr, Rrburke, Ruadhai, Ryan Postlethwaite, Ryguasu, S, S h i v a (Visnu), SCZenz, Sadi Carnot, Salvio giuliano, Sam Korn, San Diablo, Sangak, Sanpaz, Saran T., Sbyrnes321, Scientizzle, SebastianHelm, Shadowjams, Shalom Yechiel, Shenme, Sietse Snel, Sifaka, Sinblox, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Smalljim, Smjg, Soccerguy12093, Srleffler, Starwiz, Stevenj, StradivariusTV, Suffusion of Yellow, SwordSmurf, THERESA KNOTT, Tangent747, Teles, Tellyaddict, That Guy, From That Show!, The Firewall, The Thing That Should Not Be, The sock that should not be, Thingg, Thumperward, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tjlafave, Tkd 2000, Tobias Hoevekamp, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TomStar81, Tong, Tuxthepenguin6, UberCryxic, Unyoyega, User A1, UserMaatRe, VasilievVV, Vees, Versus22, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, WAvegetarian, Whitehat, Widdma, Wifione, Wiwr, Wj32, Wolfeye90, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Wtachi, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Xcramx, Xjwiki, Xp54321, Xxglennxx, Xyb, Yakeyglee, Yamaguchi , Yamamoto Ichiro, Yelloeyes, Yummifruitbat, Zaereth, Zaidpjd, Zocky, ZooFari, 1081 , anonymous edits Work (physics) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404586986 Contributors: 10metreh, 42omle, 5 albert square, Abi79, Abtract, Addere, Alex Bakharev, Alrasheedan, Altenmann, Andeggs, Andre Engels, Andredizzy, Andres, Angadude, Army1987, AshPseud, Ashtead Tutor, Asphatasawhale, Aymatth2, Bcrowell, Bdesham, BearTrueFaith, BenC7, Benbest, Bensaccount, BlastOButter42, Bongwarrior, CALR, CONFIQ, Calmer Waters, Cardamon, Cataphract, Cdnc, CheddarMan, Cleonis, Cobaltcigs, Coffee2theorems, Collegebookworm, Cookie4869, Crowsnest, Cybercobra, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMacks, DRosenbach, DVdm, Daniel.Cardenas, Daviis, DeadEyeArrow, DerHexer, Dolphin51, Dr Dec, Dsaff, Duk, EconoPhysicist, Egil, Eigenlambda, Elcobbola, Emperorbma, Enormousdude, EntityGM, EurekaLott, Fayenatic london, Fences and windows, Fieldday-sunday, Finalius, Foxjwill, Fredrik, Fuhghettaboutit, GMAN IOM, GSlicer, Gabrielleitao, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gregbard, Guoguo12, H falcon, Haham hanuka, Headbomb, Hi878, Ibgeek, Icairns, Imarock, Instinct, Iorsh, Irishguy, J.delanoy, JabberWok, Jaganath, Jauerback, Jeepday, Jeff3000, Jheald, Jimp, Jj137, Johantheghost, Jsd, Karol Langner, KnowledgeOfSelf, KoRnholio8, Kozuch, L33th4x0rguy, Larry V, Laurascudder, Lenarius614, Levineps, LiDaobing, Ligulem, Lseixas, Luolimao, Lus Felipe Braga, MarkSweep, Melchoir, Meni Rosenfeld, Merovingian, Michael Hardy, Milez, Mkweise, Mulp, Mrten Berglund, Naderer, Nakon, NeoJustin, Neurolysis, Nk, No Guru, Nonsuch, Numbo3, Oblivious, Octahedron80, Ojigiri, OwenX, Paolo.dL, Patrick, PaulTanenbaum, Pb30, Peterlin, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Pip2andahalf, Pkbharti, Pmetzger, Ppntori, PrestonH, QYV, Ragingpanda, Reaper Eternal, Red Act, Rich257, RichMac, Rocketdp9, Rogper, Ronhjones, Rrten00, SENNMAN1, SFC9394, Sadi Carnot, Salgueiro, SamuraiJack, Sanpaz, Sanscrit1234, SebastianHelm, Sexsexsexy, Shshr, Skittleys, Smack, Smooth O, Somoza, Spoon!, SpuriousQ, Ssd, Starwiz, Stjeanp, StradivariusTV, Sullevon, Tanthalas39, Tarquin, The Anome, Thechamelon, Tommy2010, User A1, Viriditas, Vsmith, WhiteHatLurker, WikiLaurent, Wikieditor06, Wikipelli, Willemhenskens, Wisnuops, Wwoods, Xp54321, YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Youandme, Zaidpjd, 344 ,anonymous edits 96 Article Sources and Contributors Circular motion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403452640 Contributors: Algae, Alksub, Allstarecho, Anakha Pandion, AugPi, BearTrueFaith, Bo Jacoby, Brews ohare, C.Bluck, Cleonis, Crazychris2704, DVdm, Dbfirs, Djr32, Djradon, Doniago, Drilnoth, Dwype, Feyrauth, Foxjwill, Fuhghettaboutit, Gabrielleitao, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite, Grayshi, H2g2bob,

Harp, Headbomb, Hermgenes Teixeira Pinto Filho, Hgabor, Jackol, Jaecen, Jannex, Jauhienij, Jmeneg, Joegrumbly, KJS77, Karol Langner, Khunglongcon, Kisfox, Kubakocoj, LairepoNite, Levineps, Mean as custard, Michael Hardy, MikeJ9919, Mmh-duke, Mr.Brook2009, Nein, Oleg Alexandrov, Owen, Paolo.dL, PasabaPorAqui, Patrick, Prettycool penelope, Puffin, Rayleung2709, RekishiEJ, Rracecarr, SFC9394, SamMohdx, Sanpaz, SchfiftyThree, Schmalx, Siddhant, Silly rabbit, Smartyepp, Someguy1221, StradivariusTV, Sverdrup, T-rex, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, TrekCaptainUSA, Trinibones, Vanzandtj, Whitepaw, Wikipelli, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Zeyn1, Zurishaddai, Zzedar, , 151 anonymous edits Pendulum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401817358 Contributors: -- April, 0, 19.7, 2D, A3RO, Abeg92, AdjustShift, Afterguide, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aitias, Alansohn, Alasdair, Alberto Orlandini, Aleenf1, Alex Bakharev, Alexf, Allen3, Alternately, Amitch, AnakngAraw, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andrea ying, Ant895, Arse765, Art LaPella, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Ascidian, Astroview120mm, Atif.t2, Atlant, AugPi, Aunt Entropy, BD2412, Babygene52, BadSeed, Bahy amir, Bartledan, Batmanand, Benplowman, Berland, Big Bird, Bjaco18, Bobguy7, Bobo192, Bobwama, Bonadea, Booyabazooka, Brianjd, Bringitonhome, Brougham96, Bruunklaus, Bryan Derksen, Bscazz, Burn, CTZMSC3, CWY2190, Cactus.man, Caesarsgrunt, Caiaffa, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carlainz, Cburnett, Cctoide, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Chhe, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrisbarrett6, Chrisjohnson, Cleonis, Closedmouth, Coffee, Commit charge, Connelly, Conscious, Corvus cornix, CosineKitty, CrossoverManiac, Crowsnest, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCLXVI, DVD R W, DVdm, Da Joe, Dafatman11, DanielLC, Dannyboy3, Darkwind, Dave3457, DavidOaks, Dawn Bard, Db099221, Dbfirs, DeNoel, Deconstructhis, Decumanus, Deeptrivia, Diablo890, Dil0001, Discospinster, Djinn112, Doprendek, Dr. Sunglasses, Duke toaster, Dupz, Dust Filter, Echoez71, Ejurgaite, Ellywa, Emilytwhon7, EnJx, Enigmatic Affliction, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Eric45, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evildictaitor, FR3AKofANiME, Faradayplank, FatalError, Favonian, Filll, Fingerz, FinnZoltan, Fintelia, Footwarrior, Frankenpuppy, Freakonaleash752, FreddoMan, Freiddie, Fresheneesz, Friendly Neighbour, Fuenfundachtzig, Fweebee, Gateway1, Gelo71, Gene Nygaard, Geodyde, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Glenn, Goldom, GrahamColm, Greenguy1090, Guardian, Gwernol, HLewis, Haakon, Habashia, Hanacy, Hannahsarah, Hmains, Hooperbloob, IL7Soulhunter, INeedSpoons, Icairns, Ifingh8u, Ikanreed, IndulgentReader, Institute, IronGargoyle, Ironfistedmonkey, Itub, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JFreeman, JSpung, Jagged 85, JakeParker, James JK, James086, Jidan, JimVC3, Jimp, Jimwox, Jjron, Jklin, Jnb, Johnteslade, Jtelliott, Julia Rossi, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Kaiba, Kanonkas, Karn, Katieh5584, Kesuari, Kevinmalana, Killerheartburn, Killiondude, Kimyu12, Kjkolb, Krod, Kungfuadam, Kurykh, Lefty bidder, Leonard G., Lindes, Lithium81, M-le-mot-dit, MER-C, Mani1, MarioLuigiBros, Markco1, Marsen, MarshallKe, Martin451, Masgatotkaca, Mattgirling, McSly, Mduvigneaud, Mellibere, Michael Hardy, Michael Kuter, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mnshahri, Mommyima, Morrowulf, Mr.hotkeys, MrOllie, Msn26586, Mumiemonstret, Mygerardromance, Ndrules5673, Nefreat, NellieBly, Neonblak, Netizen, Neurolysis, NewEnglandYankee, Nick363, Nigelj, Niteowlneils, Noerdosnum, Novacatz, Nsaa, Obnoxin, Oda Mari, Odedee, Oleg Alexandrov, Olivier, Onevalefan, Orioane, Oxymoron83, Paintman, Paladin2005, Papipaul, Patdreams, Patrick, Pearle, Pedro, Peetvanschalkwyk, PericlesofAthens, Peter R Hastings, Peterlin, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phe, Pigsonthewing, PlusMinus, Pol098, Pooplove, Poorsod, Porqin, Prashanth338, Prashanthns, Psmith, Pstuart, Puddles Water, Puffin, Qtoktok, Qwerta4, R'n'B, RJASE1, RJHall, RandomP, Recognizance, RedHillian, Redgolpe, Reeveorama, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RobertG, Robinh, Ronhjones, Ronz, Rracecarr, SJP, SUPRATIM DEY, Sagaciousuk, Sainsf, Scientizzle, Scribblesinmindscapes, Shadoku, Shadow11572, Shigityboombopbam, Sidmow, SilasW, Singularity, Sionus, Sir Isaac, Sky Attacker, Slakr, Smarterchild 13, Snottywong, Snowmanradio, Soliloquial, Spir, Spitfire, SquidSK, Steel, Steven Weston, Steven Zhang, Storm Rider, StuffOfInterest, Sublime50lbc,

Sverdrup, Svetsveti, Swpb, Symane, Symplectic Map, Syncategoremata, T.J.V., Tcncv, Teknic, Tellyaddict, Teradon, Ternit, Terry1944, The Thing That Should Not Be, The ed17, The sock that should not be, TheBendster, TheRanger, Thingg, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timc, Tivedshambo, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tslocum, Ufim, Ukexpat, Ummit, Unc.hbar, UninvitedCompany, Unrulyevil, Vald, VanBurenen, Velella, Vicarious, Viper426, Vivio Testarossa, Vsmith, Vssun, Waggers, Well, girl, look at you!, WereSpielChequers, WikHead, Wikieditor06, WingkeeLEE, Winston365, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, XJamRastafire, XaosBits, Xompanthy, Youandme, Zaidpjd, Zamphuor, Zayzya, Zidane tribal, Zocky, , , 928 anonymous edits Buoyancy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405988693 Contributors: !jim, 5 albert square, ABF, Aaron Schulz, Aaronschendel, Abd, Acdx, Adambro, Addshore, Adhominem, Adimovk5, Adjusting, Agarthx2, Ahasuerus, Ahoerstemeier, Al B. Free, Alansohn, Alby, Aldis90, Alex LaPointe, Alex.muller, Alexselkirk1704, Allstarecho, Alokgoel121, Alsandro, Amalas, Amber48, Amhantar, Anilocra, Animum, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Antiuser, Art Carlson, Artaxiad, Asdf96, Avono, Ayo123456, BKalesti, Barf73, BarretBonden, Bathosrex, Bemba, Betacommand, Bevo, Bibliomaniac15, Blimpguy, Bobo192, Bouycanfloat, Bowlhover, Bradtcordeiro, Brian Crawford, Bugsi, CP\M, Cachedio, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Cantus, Captain Disdain, CaptainVindaloo, Captyounguscg, Carbondalesiuflight, Carultch, Cfsenel, Chamal N, Charles Matthews, Chasingsol, Chris G, Christian Storm, Chunky Rice, CiTrusD, Ciaccona, Clark89, Coley123, Collegebookworm, ConstantLearner, Courcelles, Crystallina, Cuminator4000, Curps, Cutler, Cyberstrike3000X, DVD R W, DVdm, Dan100, DarkPaladin4ever, Daven200520, David Eppstein, Davidslindsey, Db099221, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow, December21st2012Freak, DeltaQuad, Devper94, Diligent Terrier, Dilip rajeev, Discospinster, Donarreiskoffer, Dontunoeme, DoomsDay349, DoubleBlue, Dougalc, Drmies, Dungodung, Dylan Lake, Dysepsion, E. Fokker, E. Wayne, Echuck215, EdTrist, Editor122, Eepalmer, EnemyDone, Enigmaman, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Equendil, Eroica, Errickfoxy, Escape Orbit, Eurion, Evil Monkey, Exairetos, Excirial, Fang 23, Farosdaughter, Fayenatic london, Finalius, Fivetwelve, Flewis, Floydian, Fnfal, FoxInShoes, Freiddie, FrigateEmpire, Friginator, Frokor, From-cary, Fuhghettaboutit, Furrykef, Fuzheado, F, GTBacchus, GWatson, Gene Hobbs, Gene Nygaard, Ghanarhea, Ghepeu, Gianluigi, Giftlite, Glenn, GoingBatty, GorillaWarfare, GotaForce, Grafen, Grunt, Guy Peters, Gzuckier, Haemo, HarryHenryGebel, Hdt83, Headbomb, Heracles31, Heron, Hu, Hydrogen Iodide, IRP, IdreamofJeanie, Infovarius, Into The Fray, Inwind, Iridescent, Iron Engineer, It Is Me Here, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JNW, JaGa, Jab843, Jagged 85, Jan1nad, JaquiB, Jeff G., Jetru, Jhbdel, JoJan, John254, JohnCD, Johnwalton, Jonathan Kovaciny, Jopsen, Joseph Solis in Australia, Juggler4rent, Juliancolton, Junglecat, Jusdafax, KM1496, Kablammo, Kafziel, Katalaveno, Kbh3rd, Keegan, Keilana, Kenyon, Kfsung, Khukri, Kikos, Kingpin13, Kipala, Kisfox, Kmg90, Knag, Krashlandon, Krawi, Kris Schnee, Kwamikagami, Ladiesman2270, Laurascudder, Lee S. Svoboda, LegitimateAndEvenCompelling, Leifisme, Lesnail, Lessthanadam, Leuko, LibLord, Life of Riley, Light current, Lillingen, Lilmama187, LinDrug, Linas, Lio, Lmp883, Lollipop Lady, Luna Santin, Lupin, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MJ94, Mac, Macy, Magister Mathematicae, MagneticFlux, Majorly, Makemi, Mario1oewirtoiwjro, Mark Renier, Mark.murphy, Mato, Maury Markowitz, McSly, Melchoir, Mentifisto, Mets501, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Michellealger, Mike2vil, MikeMalak, Mikemoral, Mikeo, Mikev0914, Mion, Mmaze91, Mmmcrew101, Moberg, MoritzH, Moron902v2, Mr Chuckles, Mr0t1633, Mschel, Msrkiran, Muslimer12, Mwtoews, Myhairisgreenandonfire, Nacnudus, Nakon, NawlinWiki, NerdyScienceDude, NewEnglandYankee, Newkai, Nick, Nicop (Usurp), Nivix, Nneonneo, NortyNort, NrDg, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Nunh-huh, Od Mishehu, OlEnglish, Oneilius, Onorem, Orbst, Oxymoron83, PCHS-NJROTC, PJM, PRHaney, Paste, Patrick, Paulaanddon, Pbroks13, Pcirrus2, Pdn, Pengo, PericlesofAthens, PetaRZ, Peter Horn, Peter bergquist, Peterlin, Pgk, Philip Trueman, Phoenixgk, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Pinktulip,

Pip2andahalf, Pivren, Postglock, Pranavsharma67, PrincessofLlyr, Prprp, Psb777, Quidproquo2004, Quintote, Qwe, Qwesome, RB972, RP459, Raeky, Ranveig, Redvers, Regancy42, Remag Kee, Rettetast, RexNL, RexxS, Rgrg, Rich257, Rogper, Ronhjones, Rosarinagazo, RoyBoy, Ryusage, Rv, S Schaffter, SIientxxScream89, SallyForth123, Sarenne, Saulopro, Saxbryn, Scchan, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Schmloof, Schzmo, Seancron, Securiger, Seddon, Shoeofdeath, Silly rabbit, Simongar, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sir Vicious, Skarebo, Skorkmaz, Skrivande, Snowolf, Sonett72, SpeedyGonsales, Sphivo, Spitfire, SpookyMulder, Srleffler, Ssmith888, Stanley011, Steel, Stefan, Stephenb, Stevenj, Storm Rider, Stuart White, Sunshine4921, Swpb, Synchronism, Syphondu, TKFMPardus, Tarantinof, Tarret, Tddog959, Tempodivalse, The Anome, The Fiddly Leprechaun, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, Theryguy512, Thezookeeper, Thljcl, Thue, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Tom harrison, TransUtopian, Trevor MacInnis, Trickster24, Triwbe, Troy 07, Tsemii, TutterMouse, Twi20Pi, Twin Hills student, Uncle Milty, Urmom'sarmhairisonfire, UserDoe, UserXresu, VCleemput, VMS Mosaic, Venny85, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Waldir, Warut, Wayne Slam, Wbrameld, Welsh, WillowW, Wimt, Wkdewey, Wolfkeeper, Wtmitchell, Wyatt915, Xezbeth, Yinchongding, Yoni662, Yuckfoo, Yupi666, Z.E.R.O., Zaidpjd, Zee14, Zeeber donkey, Zoicon5, ZooFari, 1455 anonymous edits Lift (force) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406080592 Contributors: 0, 4C, Agiau, A8UDI, Aaggrreenn, Agateller, Airashby, Akradecki, Alansohn, Aleksas, Altenmann, Andrzejmat, Andy Dingley, AnthonyChessick, Arado, Bearian, Benandorsqueaks, Bf2fan333, Bidabadi, Blazotron, Blimpguy, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boeman, Bryan Derksen, Causa sui, Ccrummer, Cefoskey, Celarnor, Charles Matthews, Closedmouth, Cokepe, Comrade009, Conversion script, Crowsnest, CyrilleDunant, D4g0thur, Daleh, Daverocks, Dhaluza, Discospinster, Divispivi, Dmitry Brant, Dolphin51, Doradus, Dysprosia, Ericg, Farosdaughter, FastLizard4, Fl295, Footyfanatic3000, Fresheneesz, FrozenUmbrella, Fudoreaper, GRAHAMUK, GVP Webmaster, Gang65, GanjaManja, Gene Nygaard, Giants27, Giftlite, Gilgamesh he, Glenn, GoingBatty, Gummer85, Haham hanuka, Halidecyphon, Headbomb, Henristosch, Hess88, HistoryStudent113, Hongooi, Hooperbloob, Hu Totya, Icairns, Igoldste, Iridescent, JForget, JaGa, Jmcc150, Joefaust, John, John Broughton, John Palkovic, John Reaves, Johntex, Jsd, Kaihsu, Kalivd, Kate, Katielin97, Keta, Kjoonlee, Knotnic, L Kensington, LAgurl, Leandrod, LilHelpa, Linuxlad, Locon57, Maddbiker, Mark.camp, Markgriz, Markosvincios, Marsian, Masher oz, Matthammer, Mausy5043, Mbelisle, McDuff, McSly, Meggar, Meisam.fa, Michael Belisle, Mike Dill, Mikeross, Minhtung91, Mintz l, Mion, Mlpearc, Moink, Mormegil, Mostly water, Mr swordfish, MrWhistler, Mythealias, Natalie Erin, NathanHurst, Noca2plus, Oliver Pereira, OnePt618, Paolo.dL, Patar knight, Phyllis1753, Plenumchamber, Profero, Psycano, PuzzletChung, Qmwne235, Qxz, Rejectwater, Remi0o, Richie Rocks, Rjwilmsi, Rolo Tamasi, Rracecarr, Rrburke, Rrius, Salgueiro, Scarlet Lioness, Schweiwikist, Shoeofdeath, Sigurgj, Simone, Sliceofmiami, Slipstream, Sonicsuns, SpaceFlight89, SpookyMulder, Srleffler, Stork612, Sukisuki, SuperTycoon, Tac2z, Tarret, TestPilot, The Death8895, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheDJ, Theon, Tim1357, Tkircher, TomViza, Tommy2010, Torst, Trevor MacInnis, Try0yrt, Versageek, Vitall, Vocem, WIMIA, WJBscribe, Wayne Slam, Willemo, Wjbeaty, Wolfkeeper, Wudafu, Xanzzibar, ZeroOne, Zinger0, Zotel, 327 anonymous edits Drag (physics) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405202985 Contributors: 5 albert square, ACBest, AGToth, Aaron north, Aerokiwi, Agateller, Airplanenerd, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Allen McC., Ann Stouter, Another Stickler, Arch dude, Arpingstone, Arrgh406, Ashley Pomeroy, Asterion, Avoided, Awickert, Baa, Beano, Bobblewik, Bookofjude, CanadianLinuxUser, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, CatherineMunro, Chetvorno, Chewie, Chompa123, ChrisCork, Constructive editor, Courcelles, Crowsnest, DH85868993, Darthjt, Daytonduck, DeadEyeArrow, Dedede224, DigitallyCrazy, Dolphin51, Donreed, Dpwkbw, Drmies, EagleFan, Eatabullet, Edw400, Eliz81, Email4mobile, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Estudiarme, Eyas, F l a n k e r, Fredwood, Fresheneesz, Frdrick Lacasse, Gef756, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gildos, Gogo Dodo, GregorB, Hammersbach, Happysailor, Headbomb, Heron, Hogghogg, Icairns, Ikhmelin, Innv, Insanity

Incarnate, Inwind, Iridescent, JFreeman, Ja 62, JabberWok, Jennavecia, Jenssss, Jj137, Jodi.a.schneider, JoeSmack, John, Jopsen, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joseph.slater, Jovianeye, Kaybet, Killerhhh, Kingpin13, Kku, Kungfuadam, Laurascudder, Lawler, LeheckaG, Lightmouse, Llort, Luckas Blade, MER-C, Malfita, Mandarax, Matthewslf, Mechanical Rose, Meggar, Melamed katz, Mets501, MiShogun, Michael Belisle, Michael Hardy, Miernik, Mikeo, Mion, Moink, Morning277, Mustafarox, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Neonumbers, Notafish, Nunquam Dormio, Ohanian, Optakeover, Oxymoron83, Palmiped, Paolo.dL, Peregrine Fisher, Persian Poet Gal, Pgj98r, Philip Trueman, Phoenix-wiki, PigFlu Oink, Planetscared, Plenumchamber, Polluxian, Primarscources, Quercus basaseachicensis, Raven4x4x, RedCure, Reedy, Rich257, Robin S, Ronhjones, Rtdrury, Safalra, Sammybat, Sceptre, Sean Whitton, Slakr, SoCalSuperEagle, Spoon!, StevenWarren, Stevertigo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Thunderboltz, Tim1357, Vsmith, WaysToEscape, Whitepaw, Wiki alf, WikiJon, Wikipelli, Wolfkeeper, Z.E.R.O., 374 anonymous edits 97 Article Sources and Contributors Weight Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404253771 Contributors: 11chaserz, 203.109.250.xxx, A. di M., AdjustShift, Aeolyn5601, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, AlanBarrett, Alansohn, Alanyst, Ale jrb, Alex.tan, AlexiusHoratius, Altenmann, Alteripse, AnakngAraw, Anclation, Angela, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony, Army1987, Avant Guard, Avoided, AxelBoldt, Az7997, Babakathy, Badanedwa, Bapaveza, Bcbell, Bcrowell, Bensaccount, Berolina, Beta16, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borbrav, BorgQueen, BruceRD, Bryan Derksen, C6541, CYD, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carowinds, Carter, Casull, Ch'marr, Chapium, Charles Matthews, Chenzw, Chetvorno, Chris K, Chris the speller, Chun-hian, Closedmouth, Conversion script, Cool Blue, CoolGuy, Correogsk, Cpeditorial, Crissov, Cst17, DMacks, DVdm, Da monster under your bed, Death 136 1, Decltype, DerHexer, Devley, Dfe6543, Disco Medusa, Discospinster, Dobo101, Dogatdog, Donarreiskoffer, DreamsReign, Dreamyshade, Drmies, Duncan, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, EJVargas, Ed Poor, Emx, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Enuja, Epbr123, Esanchez7587, Evercat, Everyguy, Excirial, Femto, FireAarro, Fodio, FreplySpang, Fresheneesz, Fuhghettaboutit, Fyyer, G716, Gabriel Kielland, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Girl Scout cookie, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greg L, Gscshoyru, HamburgerRadio, Hans Adler, Headbomb, Henning Makholm, Hermanoere, Heron, Hiddenfromview, Hihi234, Hillgentleman, Hiroe, IRP, IW.HG, Icairns, Ideal gas equation, Ihackpoopys, Indefatigable, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Isaac Dupree, J.delanoy, JAn Dudk, JForget, JHMM13, JMMuller, JRSpriggs, JaGa, JamesAM, Jarry1250, Jauhienij, Java13690, Jenevastorme, Jesusismetopotepec, Jimp, Jmh649, Jmorgan, Joel7687, Johannes H.-Larsen, John, JorgeGG, Josh Grosse, Joshua BishopRoby, Jossi, JuJube, Juliancolton, Jrgen Friis Bak, K. Annoyomous, KamikazeArchon, Kandar, Katieh5584, Kbrose, KnowledgeOfSelf, Lacerta, Lambiam, Lanky, Lasunncty, Llort, LodeRunner, Longhairandabeard, Luckyluke, MC10, MEMcNeil, MJCdetroit, MK8, Macy, MadameArsenic, Madmardigan53, MarXidad, Marcasireland, Mark Richards, Martinvl, Mckaysalisbury, Meisterkoch, Meske, Mhking, MichaelMaggs, Micru, Modulatum, Mojska, Monedula, Monkeyman, Mr. Military, Muhammed.Science, Mvjs, Naudefj, NeilFraser, Nicop (Usurp), Nikola Smolenski, Nisham99, NoIdeaNick, Novangelis, Nunh-huh, Nuno Tavares, Oda Mari, Odie5533, OllieFury, Opintial, Orion11M87, Overlord359, OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, PS4FA, Passportguy, Patrick, PatrickandBrenda, Paul August, Peter L, Peterlin, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Phys, Physicstchr, Pinethicket, Pingveno, Pinkadelica, Pmb phy, Rajkiandris, Raven4x4x, Reach Out to the Truth, Red Director, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rexparry sydney, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rob Hooft, RobertAustin, Robertvan1, Rracecarr, Ruby.red.roses, S0m3b0d4, SV Resolution, SaltyPig, SameOldSameOld, Sbharris, Schutz, SciberDoc, SeanMack, Sempersoph, Senator Palpatine, Shadowjams, Shalom Yechiel, Shereth, Shrew, SimonP, Skippy le Grand Gourou, Slashme, Smallie11, Soliloquial, Sophia, Spoon!, StaticGull, StefanPernar, SteveSims, Stickee, SunCreator,

SuperTycoon, Symane, Syndaryl, Tangent747, Tarquin, Tercer, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thehelpfulone, Timb66, Timmypower2335, TimothyRias, Tiptoety, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, TravelinSista, TrippingTroubadour, UkPaolo, VASANTH S.N., Vdm, Versus22, Vicarious, Vicenarian, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vina, Virtualphtn, Vivo78, Vlopac, Vrenator, WLU, Wavelength, Werefrog, Wiki alf, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, William M. Connolley, Winston365, Wizard191, Wolfkeeper, Wuddog, Wwoods, Xnuala, Yath, Yevgeny Kats, Ynhockey, Yourfatadmitit, Zaidpjd, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, , 702 anonymous edits Momentum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403961335 Contributors: (jarbarf), -Midorihana-, 2over0, Abce2, Abmcdonald, Afa86, AgentCDE, Airplaneman, Alansohn, Albertod4, AlexPlank, Alison, Allen 124, Anarchic Fox, AndersFeder, Andonic, Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, AndyZ, Andywall, Anetode, AngelOfSadness, Ap, ArchonMagnus, ArcticWind88, Army1987, AstroNox, Aveekbh, Az1568, BD2412, Bagatelle, Banes, Bart133, Basketofkittens, Battoe19, Ben pcc, BiT, Bidabadi, Bigdottawa, Billlion, Billybob1023, Bishflop, Black and White, Blanchette, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, BozMo, Bromskloss, Brotherbobby, Bryan H Bell, Bullzeye, C-randles, C0h3n, CWenger, Call me Bubba, Calvinchankf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cenarium, Chaos, Chipmaster32, Christian List, Christopher Thomas, Chun-hian, Chzz, Coco0305, Coldplasma, Comte0, Conversion script, Corkgkagj, CptCutLess, Cwrong10, Cybercobra, Cybertiberius, D4g0thur, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DTR, DVD R W, DVdm, Dacxjo, Damasta2221, Dan O'Malley, Darth Panda, Dave6, David Woolley, DavidJJJ, Db099221, Dcljr, Dd254, Debresser, Delldot, DemonStar55, Deor, Deylen tau, Df747jet, Dfrg.msc, Dhollm, Digemedi, Discospinster, Download, Dreadstar, Duping Man, E2eamon, ESkog, Edwardgraef, El C, Eliyak, Elkman, Enixer, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Eponymous-Archon, Epsoul, Equendil, Eric-Wester, Ericmelse, Ezhuttukari, F. Cosoleto, Faradayplank, Favonian, FelisLeo, Fibonacci, Fiziker, Fl, Forevereternalmike, Fredrik, Fresheneesz, Fritz Saalfeld, Frosted14, Frdrick Lacasse, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, Glenn, GoingBatty, Gracenotes, Greatwalk, Grimey109, Grimlock, Gsp, Gtg204y, Gurch, Guycalledryan, Guz, Gkhan, HMNavy, Hagedis, Hairy Dude, HamburgerRadio, Hamletpride, Hamtechperson, Haonhien, Harley peters, Headbomb, Henning Makholm, Heron, Herr apa, Herrmario, Hmrox, Hongooi, Honza Zruba, Hu12, IRP, Icairns, Iridescent, Isis, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J8079s, JForget, JPMcGrath, JabberWok, Jagged 85, Janek Kozicki, Janus Shadowsong, Jason Leach, Jauerback, Jauhienij, Jdpipe, Jeepien, Jennavecia, JenyaTsoy, Jeppesn, Jimp, Jitse Niesen, Jj137, Jmcc150, John1114, JohnCD, Jonathan Drain, Jorunn, Josh Sosby, Joshua P. Schroeder, JuJube, JustinWick, Juswill3, Karinsteinbock, Karol Langner, Katalaveno, Keilana, Kenny56, Keta, Kevin Ryde, Khaosworks, Kisfox, Kjkatusc, Klinfran, Knight1993, Knownot, Kprateek88, Kwalke8, Kyesac, Kyrisch, LOTRrules, Langphysics, LarryUHouston, Laurascudder, LeaveSleaves, LessHeard vanU, Lgauthie, Light current, Lightmouse, Lolcatslolhard, LonelyMarble, Lookang, Looxix, Lradrama, Lseixas, Luna Santin, Lyctc, MER-C, Macpherson123, Manop, Mark, MarkSutton, Markgriz, Matassasa, Materialscientist, Mathwhiz 29, MattieTK, Matusz, Maurice Carbonaro, Mdebets, Mejor Los Indios, Merlion444, Mernst, Mgnbar, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mordemur, Mozzie, Mpatel, My76Strat, Myhmamin, NS Zakeruga, Nagle, Naidevinci, Nakos2208, Natalandus, Naurmacil, Neverquick, NightBlade151, Nikai, Nikzbitz, Niout, Nk, NoPetrol, Nobrow, Noodle snacks, Nozo, Ntmatter, Oda Mari, Okulov99, Omegatron, Ophion, Opspin, Orbst, PAR, Pabreetzio, Pak21, Paolo.dL, Parasmani6, Patrick, Paul August, Paul Erik, PaulTanenbaum, Pentasyllabic, Persian Poet Gal, Pfalstad, Philip Trueman, PhySusie, Phys, Physicsdoc, Piano non troppo, Pineapples911, Pkbharti, Pmetzger, Potnugget, Psyche825, Puggel, Pvkampen, Quantling, Quantumstream, Qxz, RG2, RUL3R, Reconsider the static, Reddi, Reedy, Rhetth, Rkr1991, Roadrunner, Rocastelo, Rogper, Romanm, Rossami, Salvio giuliano, Samw, Sanders muc, Sango123, Sanpaz, SarekOfVulcan, Scetoaux, Securiger, Shia4isam, Shoeofdeath, Silly rabbit, SirBob42, Skunkboy74, Snaxe920, Snoopy874, Snowolf, SomariX, Sorsanmetsastaja, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Specter01010, SpeedyGonsales, Spencer,

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Esta pgina precisa ser reciclada de acordo com o livro de estilo (desde Dezembro
de 2008).

Sinta-se livre para edit-la para que esta possa atingir um nvel de qualidade superior. Energia mecnica , resumidamente, a capacidade de um corpo produzir trabalho. Energia mecnica a energia que pode ser transferida por meio de fora. A energia mecnica total de um sistema a soma da energia potencial com a energia cintica. Se o sistema for conservativo, ou seja, apenas foras conservativas atuam nele, a energia mecnica total conserva-se e uma constante de movimento. A energia mecnica "E" que um corpo possui a soma da sua energia cintica "c" mais energia potencial "p". Uma fora classificada como sendo conservativa quando um trabalho realizado por ela para mov-lo de um lugar a outro independentemente do

percurso, isto , do caminho escolhido. Esclarecendo: para carregar um saco de batatas e transport-lo morro acima, o caminho escolhido pode ser mais longo, caminhando circularmente ou um caminho mais curto e reto, mas atravs de uma ladeira ngreme. A fora gravitacional um tipo de fora conservativa. Um exemplo de fora no consevativa a fora de atrito que tambm chamada fora dissipativa. H uma lei fundamental da Fsica que a da conservao da energia mecnica de um corpo: E = K + U = constante, se um corpo est sob a ao somente de foras conservativas. Isso equivale a dizer que se a energia cintica de um corpo aumenta, a energia potencial deve diminuir e vice-versa de modo a manter E constante. Considere que uma bola com massa m = 0,6 kg, na mo de uma pessoa est a uma altura h = 4 m do cho. Sua energia potencial U = mgh = 24 joules sendo g = 10 m/s, a acelerao da gravidade. Nesse lugar, como a bola est parada, sua velocidade = 0 e portanto sua energia cintica tambm igual a zero:K = 1/2(mv) = 0. Assim sua energia mecnica total E = 24 J. Ao ser lanada, essa bola atinge o solo e sua altura ficar igual a 0, e sua U = 0. Como h consevao de energia mecnica, sua energia cinetca ficar sendo K = 24 J. Deste valor podemos obter o valor da velocidade instantes antes de atingir o solo: v = 8,94 m/s. Quanto maior a altura de onde lanada a bola, maior a velocidade atingida ao atingir o cho. Vale o contrrio, isto , quanto maior a velocidade, maior a altura atingida. Assim, se um atleta quer saltar uma boa altura h, preciso correr muito para atingir uma velocidade alta. isso que fazem os atletas que praticam salto em altura, salto trplice, saltos com evolues em ginstica olmpica. Tambm pode ser dividida em: Energia Cintica, Energia Potencial Gravitacional e Energia Potencial Elstica. A energia mecnica a energia de movimento.
[editar]Equaes

Energia Mecnica = Ec+ Ep Para

Energia Cintica = mv Energia Potencial Gravitacional(Epg) = mgh Energia Potencial Elstica(Epe) = kx Ateno: podem ocorrer as duas energias potenciais, ento a frmula ser: Energia Mecnica = Ec+ Epe+ Epg
[editar]Legenda

K=constante elstica g=acelerao da gravidade (~9.8m/s) (constante) Ec=energia cintica m=massa (kg) EPg=energia potencial gravitacional EPe=energia potencial elstica

 h=altura(m) v=velocidade(metros por segundo) Momento angular

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Mecnica Clssica

Movimento Energia For a [Expandir]Cinemtica

[Expandir]Dinmica

[Expandir]Trabalho e Energia Mecnica

[Expandir]Sistema de Partculas

[Expandir]Colises [Expandir]Rotao [Expandir]Gravitao [Expandir]Cientistas

Esta caixa: ver editar Momento angular (tambm chamada de ou momentum angular ou quantidade de movimento angular) de um corpo agrandeza fsica associada rotao e translao desse corpo. No caso especfico de um corpo rodando em torno de um eixo, acaba por relacionar sua distribuio da massa com sua velocidade angular. Deve-se dizer que, com o advento da mecnica quntica (MQ), o status da grandeza fsica quantidade de movimento angular sofreu uma severa modificao. A grandeza no pode, no contexto da MQ, ser definida em termos de duas grandezas que so relacionadas pelo princpio da incerteza como o raio vetor e a velocidade angular. Tais grandezas so complementares e no podem ser, simultanea e de forma

totalmente precisa, determinadas. A pares de grandezas assim relacionadas d-se o nome de grandezas complementares (apud Bohr). Assim sendo, a quantidade de movimento angular passou a ser entendida como a grandeza conservada sob rotaes no espao tridimensional, em decorrncia da isotropia do mesmo. A deduo de todas as grandezas que decorrem de simetrias geomtricas (quantidade de movimento linear, energia e quantidade de movimento angular) do espao-tempo (no contexto mais geral dateoria da relatividade) feita atravs do formalismo dos geradores dos movimentos.

n di ce
[ es co nd er ]

1 M o m e n t o a n g u l a r d e u m a p a rt c u l a 2 M o m e n t o a n g u l a r d e u

[editar]Momento

angular de uma partcula

O momento angular de uma partcula definido pelo produto vetorial do vetor-posio da partcula (em relao a um ponto .

de referncia) pelo seu momento linear

O momento angular depende do ponto de referncia escolhido. Se a referncia for o ponto ocupado pela partcula (e a funo que define o momento for contnua) ento o momento angular nulo. H tambm outras condies para que o momento angular se anule. So elas: a massa da partcula seja nula. a velocidade da partcula seja nula. a velocidade da partcula seja paralela sua posio em relao ao ponto de referncia. Da definio, tem-se que sua magnitude : Onde r o mdulo do vetor-posio, p o mdulo do momento linear, v o mdulo da velocidade e o ngulo entre esses dois vetores.

[editar]Momento

angular de um sistema de partculas

O momento angular de um conjunto de partculas em relao a um ponto de referncia definido como a soma do momento angular de todas as partculas em relao a esse ponto. Assim:

Onde o momento angular da partcula i, e N o nmero total de partculas. Quando estamos tratando do momento angular total de qualquer corpo, a definio acima se transforma no limite da soma, com N tendendo a infinito:

Onde, para que o limite exista, cada deve tender a 0. Isso intuitivo j que estamos considerando pedaos de matria cada vez menores, o que implica massas e momentos angulares menores. Ou seja, o momento angular de um corpo E, definido por:

[editar]Simplificaes

O momento angular de um corpo girando em torno de um eixo fixo, em relao a esse eixo, pode ser calculado atravs do seu momento de inrcia J e sua velocidade angular , da forma a seguir: L = J

[editar]Usos

O momento angular excepcionalmente til na resoluo de sistemas rotacionais, sejam eles formados por corpos rgidos ou por sistemas de partculas. Na verdade ele til em todos os casos em que constante no intevalo estudado, pois pode-se demonstrar que o torque resultante sobre um sistema igual taxa de variao temporal, a derivada no tempo, do momentum angular. Conclui-se que sempre que o torque total for zero o momento angular manter-se- constante. Essa situao mais comum do que parece, pois usualmente, nos sistemas isolados, as foras que agem internamente entre os corpos geram torques que se anulam, pois tais foras so usualmente centrais (sua linha de ao passa pelo centro geomtrico do corpo) o que faz com que os pares ao-reao anulem os torques. Esse "ataque" to importante que com ele possvel demonstrar as leis de Kepler, se usado em conjunto com a Lei da gravitao universal. Essa demonstrao foi feita pelo prprioNewton, facto que deu uma importncia ainda maior hiptese de Newton da fora gravitacional ser proporcional ao inverso do quadrado da distncia.

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tambm

Esttica
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Exemplo de uma barra em equilbrio esttico. A soma das foras e dos momentos zero.

 A esttica a parte da fsica que estuda sistemas sob a ao de foras que se equilibram. De acordo com a segunda lei de Newton, aacelerao destes sistemas nula. De acordo com a primeira lei de Newton, todas as partes de um sistema em equilbrio tambm esto em equilbrio. Este fato permite determinar as foras internas de um corpo, a partir do valor das foras externas.

[editar]Fora

Ver artigo principal: fora

O princpio fundamental da dinmica (segundo princpio ou segunda lei de Newton) mescla a massa e a velocidade de um corpo com uma grandeza vetorial, a fora. Supondo que m a massa de um corpo e F o vetor resultante da soma de todas as foras aplicadas ao mesmo (fora resultante), ento, para um corpo entrar em equilbrio, a resultante das foras tem que ser nula, ou seja, R=P, nula. "

Onde m no , necessariamente, independente de t. Por exemplo, um foguete expulsa gases, diminuindo a massa de combustvel e, portanto, a sua massa total, que decresce em funo do tempo. A quantidade mv denomina-se momento linear ou quantidade de movimento. Quando m independente do tempo t (o que ocorre geralmente), a equao anterior transforma-se em: A forma exata de F obtm-se a partir de consideraes sobre a circunstncia do objeto. A terceira lei de Newton d uma indicao particular sobre F: se um corpo A exerce uma fora Fsobre outro corpo B, ento B exerce uma fora (de reao), de igual direo e sentido oposto, sobre A, -F (terceira lei de Newton ou princpio de ao e reao). Exemplo de uma fora a frico ou deslizamento em pequenas pores de gases, que funo da velocidade das partculas gasosas (desprezando-se pequenas velocidades). Por exemplo: onde k uma constante positiva. Se temos uma relao para F, semelhante j exposta, esta relao pode substituir F na segunda lei de Newton, de modo a obter uma equao diferencial, a equao do movimento. Se o deslizamento a nica fora que atua sobre o objeto, a equao do movimento :

 O que pode ser integrado para obter: onde v0 a velocidade inicial (uma condio de limite na integrao). Isto nos diz que a velocidade deste corpo decresce de forma exponencial at zero. Esta expresso pode ser de novo integrada, para obter r. A inexistncia de foras para aplicar a segunda lei de Newton nos leva a concluir que a acelerao nula (primeira lei de Newton ou Princpio de Inrcia). Foras importantes so a fora gravitacional (a fora que resulta do campo gravitacional), ou a fora de Lorentz, no campo eletromagntico. Em Esttica, a soma das foras aplicadas a um corpo deve ser igual a zero.

[editar]Momento

de Fora

Ver artigo principal: momento (fsica)

O momento de fora (ou simplesmente momento) uma grandeza que representa a magnitude da fora aplicada a um sistema rotacional a uma determinada distncia de um eixo de rotao. Momento = magnitude da fora x distncia perpendicular ao piv (f x d) Em Esttica, a soma dos momentos aplicados a um corpo deve ser igual a zero.

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tambm

Outros projetos Wikimedia tambm contm material sobre este tema: Livros e manuais no Wikilivros Categoria no Commons

Categoria: Esttica Mechanical equilibrium


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A pendulum in a stable equilibrium (left) and unstable equilibrium (right).

A standard definition of static equilibrium is: A system of particles is in static equilibrium when all the particles of the system are at rest and the total force on each particle is permanently zero.[1] This is a strict definition, and often the term "static equilibrium" is used in a more relaxed manner interchangeably with "mechanical equilibrium", as defined next.[2] A standard definition of mechanical equilibrium for a particle is: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a particle to be in mechanical equilibrium is that the net force acting upon the particle is zero.[3] The necessary conditions for mechanical equilibrium for a system of particles are: (i)The vector sum of all external forces is zero; (ii) The sum of the moments of all external forces about any line is zero.[3] As applied to a rigid body, the necessary and sufficient conditions become: A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium when the sum of all forces on all particles of the system is zero, and also the sum of all torques on all particles of the system is zero.[4][5] A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is undergoing neither linear nor rotational acceleration; however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity. However, this definition is of little use in continuum mechanics, for which the idea of a particle is foreign. In addition, this definition gives no information as to one of the most important and interesting aspects of equilibrium states their stability.

 An alternative definition of equilibrium that applies to conservative systems and often proves more useful is:[6] A system is in mechanical equilibrium if its position in configuration space is a point at which the gradient with respect to the generalized coordinates of the potential energy is zero. Because of the fundamental relationship between force and energy, this definition is equivalent to the first definition. However, the definition involving energy can be readily extended to yield information about the stability of the equilibrium state. For example, from elementary calculus, we know that a necessary condition for a local minimum or a maximum of a differentiable function is a vanishing first derivative (that is, the first derivative is becoming zero). To determine whether a point is a minimum or maximum, one may be able to use the second derivative test. The consequences to the stability of the equilibrium state are as follows: Second derivative < 0 : The potential energy is at a local maximum, which means that the system is in an unstable equilibrium state. If the system is displaced an arbitrarily small distance from the equilibrium state, the forces of the system cause it to move even farther away. Second derivative > 0 : The potential energy is at a local minimum. This is a stable equilibrium. The response to a small perturbation is forces that tend to restore the equilibrium. If more than one stable equilibrium state is possible for a system, any equilibria whose potential energy is higher than the absolute minimum represent metastable states. Second derivative = 0 or does not exist: The second derivative test fails, and one must typically resort to using the first derivative test. Both of the previous results are still possible, as is a third: this could be a region in which the energy does not vary, in which case the equilibrium is called neutral or indifferent or marginally stable. To lowest order, if the system is displaced a small amount, it will stay in the new state. In more than one dimension, it is possible to get different results in different directions, for example stability with respect to displacements in the x-direction but instability in the y-direction, a case known as a saddle point. Without further qualification, an equilibrium is stable only if it is stable in all directions. The special case of mechanical equilibrium of a stationary object is static equilibrium. A paperweight on a desk would be in static equilibrium. The minimal number of static equilibria of homogeneous, convex bodies (when resting under gravity on a horizontal surface) is of special interest. In the planar case, the minimal number is 4, while in three dimensions one can build an object with just one stable and one unstable balance point, this is called Gomboc. A child sliding down a slide at constant speed would be in mechanical equilibrium, but not in static equilibrium. An example of mechanical equilibrium will be a person trying to press a spring, he can push it up to a point after which it reaches a state where the force trying to compress it and the resistive force from the spring are equal, so the person can not further press it, at this state the system will

be in mechanical equilibrium. When the pressing force is removed the spring attains its original state.

[edit]See

also

Movimento circular
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Na Mecnica clssica, movimento circular aquele em que o objeto ou ponto material se desloca numa trajectria circular. Uma fora centrpeta muda de direo o vetor velocidade, sendo continuamente aplicada para o centro do crculo. Esta fora responsvel pela chamada acelerao centrpeta, orientada para o centro da circunferncia-trajectria. Pode haver ainda uma acelerao tangencial, que obviamente deve ser compensada por um incremento na intensidade da acelerao centrpeta a fim de que no deixe de ser circular a trajectria. O movimento circular classifica-se, de acordo com a ausncia ou a presena de acelerao tangencial, em movimento circular uniforme (MCU) e movimento circular uniformemente variado (MCUV).

n di ce
[ es co nd er ]

1 P r o p ri e d a d e s e e q u a e s 2 T r a n s m is s o d o m o v i m e n t o c ir c

[editar]Propriedades

e equaes

Movimento da Circunferncia

Uma vez que preciso analisarmos propriedades angulares mais do que as lineares, no movimento circular so introduzidas propriedades angulares como o deslocamento angular, a velocidade angular e a acelerao angular e centrpeta. No caso do MCU existe ainda o perodo, que propriedade tambm utilizada no estudo dos movimentos peridicos. O deslocamento angular (indicado por ) se define de modo similar ao deslocamento linear. Porm, ao invs de considerarmos um vector deslocamento, consideramos um ngulo de deslocamento. H um ngulo de referncia, adotado de acordo como problema. O deslocamento angular no precisa se limitar a uma medida de circunferncia ( ); para quantificar as outras propriedades do movimento circular, ser preciso muitas vezes um dado sobre o deslocamento completo do mvel, independentemente de quantas vezes ele deu voltas em uma circunferncia. Se em radianos, temos a relao for expresso

, onde o raio da circunferncia e o deslocamento linear.

Pegue-se a velocidade angular (indicada por ), por exemplo, que a derivada do deslocamento angular pelo intervalo de tempo que dura esse deslocamento: A unidade o radiano por segundo. Novamente h uma relao entre propriedades lineares e angulares: , onde a velocidade linear.

 Por fim a acelerao angular (indicada por ), somente no MCUV, definida como a derivada da velocidade angular pelo intervalo tempo em que a velocidade varia: A unidade o radiano por segundo, ou radiano por segundo ao quadrado. A acelerao angular guarda relao somente com a acelerao tangencial e no com a acelerao centrpeta: , onde a acelerao tangencial.

Como fica evidente pelas converses, esses valores angulares no so mais do que maneiras de se expressar as propriedades lineares de forma conveniente ao movimento circular. Uma vez quer a direo dos vectores deslocamento, velocidade e acelerao modifica-se a cada instante, mais fcil trabalhar com ngulos. Tal no o caso da acelerao centrpeta, que no encontra nenhum correspondente no movimento linear. Surge a necessidade de uma fora que produza essa acelerao centrpeta, fora que chamada analogamente de fora centrpeta, dirigida tambm ao centro da trajetria. A fora centrpeta aquela que mantm o objecto em movimento circular, provocando a constante mudana da direco do vector velocidade. A acelerao centrpeta proporcional ao quadrado da velocidade angular e ao raio da trajectria: f

(A demonstrao desta frmula encontra-se no artigo acelerao centrpeta.) A funo horria de posio para movimentos circulares, e usando propriedades angulares, assume a forma: , onde movimento. o deslocamento angular no incio do

possvel obter a velocidade angular a qualquer instante MCUV, a partir da frmula:

, no

Para o MCU define-se perodo T como o intervalo de tempo gasto para que o mvel complete um deslocamento angular em volta de uma

circunferncia completa ( ). Tambm define-se frequncia (indicada por f) como o nmero de vezes que essa volta completada em determinado intervalo de tempo (geralmente 1 segundo, o que leva a definir a unidade de frequncia como ciclos por segundo ou hertz). Assim, o perodo o inverso da frequncia: Por exemplo, um objecto que tenha velocidade angular de 3,14 radianos por segundo tem perodo aproximadamente igual a 2 segundos, e frequncia igual a 0,5 hertz.

[editar]Transmisso

do movimento circular

Muitos mecanismos utilizam a transmisso de um cilindro ou anel em movimento circular uniforme para outro cilindro ou anel. o caso tpico de engrenagens e correias acopladas aspolias. Nessa transmisso mantida sempre a velocidade linear, mas nem sempre a velocidade angular. A velocidade do elemento movido em relao ao motor cresce em proporo inversa a seu tamanho. Se os dois elementos tiverem o mesmo dimetro, a velocidade angular ser igual; no entanto, se o elemento movido for menor que o motor, vai ter velocidade angular maior. Como a velocidade linear mantida, e , ento:

[editar]Exemplos

O movimento circular ocorre quando em diversas situaes que podem ser tomadas como exemplo: Uma pedra fixada a um barbante e colocada a girar por uma pessoa descrever um movimento circular uniforme. Discos de vinil rodam nas vitrolas a uma frequncia de 33 ou 45 rotaes por minuto, em MCU. Engrenagens de um relgio de ponteiros devem rodar em MCU com grande preciso, a fim de que no se atrase ou adiante o horrio mostrado. Uma ventoinha em movimento. Satlites artificiais descrevem uma trajetria aproximadamente circular em volta do nosso planeta. A translao aproximada, para clculos muito pouco precisos, da Lua em torno do planeta Terra (a excentricidade orbital da Lua de 0,0549). O movimento de corpos quando da rotao da Terra, como por exemplo, um ponto no equador, movendo-se ao redor do eixo da Terra aproximadamente a cada 24 horas.

[editar]Ver

tambm

 Newton's law of universal gravitation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Classical mechanics
Newton's Second Law

History of classical mechanics Timeline of classical mechanics [show]Branches

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[show]Fundamental concepts

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[show]Scientists
vde

The mechanisms of Newton's law of universal gravitation; a point mass m1 attracts another point mass m2 by a force F2which is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them. Regardless of masses or distance, the magnitudes of |F1| and |F2| will always be equal. G is thegravitational constant.

Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every massive particle in the universe attracts every other massive particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Separately it was shown that large spherically-symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called induction.[1] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's workPhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to theRoyal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him see History section below.) In modern language, the law states the following:

 Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is directlyproportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses:[2]

where:

F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two point masses, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of the first point mass, m2 is the mass of the second point mass, and r is the distance between the two point masses. Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.6741011 N m2 kg2.[3] The value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G[4]. This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force. Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, in which force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's Law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and theelectrostatic constant in place of the gravitational constant. Newton's law has since been superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity. Relativity is only required when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with gravitation for extremely massive and dense objects.

C o n t e n t s
[ h i d e ]

1 H i s t o r y 2 B o d i e s w i t h s p a t i a l e x t e n t 3 V e c t o

[edit]History

This article may need to be wikified to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please help by adding relevant internal links, or by improving the article's layout. (November 2009)

This section of the article is too long to read comfortably, and needs subsections. Please format the article according to the guidelines laid out at Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings) (June 2010) In 1686, when the first book of Newton's 'Principia' was presented to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke claimed that Newton had from him the "notion" of "the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the same time (according to Edmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that "the Demonstration of the Curves generated thereby" was wholly Newton's.[5] In this way arose the question what, if anything, did Newton owe to Hooke? a subject extensively discussed since that time, and on which some points still excite some controversy. Robert Hooke published his ideas about the "System of the World" in the 1660s, when he read to the Royal Society on 21 March 1666 a paper "On gravity", "concerning the inflection of a direct motion into a curve by a supervening attractive principle", and he published them again in somewhat developed form in 1674, as an addition to "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations".[6] Hooke announced in 1674 that he planned to "explain a System of the World differing in many particulars from any yet known", based on three "Suppositions": that "all Coelestial Bodies whatsoever, have an attraction or gravitating power towards their own Centers" [and] "they do also attract all the other Coelestial Bodies that are within the sphere of their activity";[7] that "all bodies whatsoever that are put into a direct and simple motion, will so continue to move forward in a straight line, till they are by some other effectual powers deflected and bent..."; and that "these attractive powers are so much the more powerful in operating, by how much the nearer the body wrought upon is to their own Centers". Thus Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, together with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses.[8] He also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On the latter two aspects, Hooke himself stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified"; and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry").[6] It was later on, in writing on 6 January 1679|80 to Newton, that Hooke communicated his "supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the

Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance."[9] (The inference about the velocity was incorrect.[10]) Hooke's correspondence of 1679-1680 with Newton mentioned not only this inverse square supposition for the decline of attraction with increasing distance, but also, in Hooke's opening letter to Newton, of 24 November 1679, an approach of "compounding the celestiall motions of the planetts of a direct motion by the tangent & an attractive motion towards the centrall body".[11] A recent assessment (by Ofer Gal) about the early history of the inverse square law is that "by the late 1660s," the assumption of an "inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons".[12] (The same author does credit Hooke with a significant and even seminal contribution, but he treats Hooke's claim of priority on the inverse square point as uninteresting since several individuals besides Newton and Hooke had at least suggested it, and he points instead to the idea of "compounding the celestiall motions" and the conversion of Newton's thinking away from 'centrifugal' and towards 'centripetal' force as Hooke's significant contributions.) Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons. Among these, Newton recalled that the idea had been known to and discussed with Sir Christopher Wren previous to Hooke's 1679 letter. [13] Newton also pointed out and acknowledged prior work of others, [14] includingBullialdus,[15] (who suggested, but without demonstration, that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance), and Borelli[16] (who suggested, also without demonstration, that there was a centrifugal tendency in counterbalance with a gravitational attraction towards the Sun so as to make the planets move in ellipses). D T Whiteside has described the contribution to Newton's thinking that came from Borelli's book (a copy of which was in Newton's library at his death).[17] Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his demonstrations of its accuracy, because Hooke, without evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess that it was approximately valid "at great distances from the center": According to Newton, writing while the 'Principia' was still at pre-publication stage, there were so many a-priori reasons to doubt the accuracy of the inverse-square law (especially close to an attracting sphere) that "without my" (Newton's) "Demonstrations, to which Mr Hook is yet a stranger, it cannot be beleived by a judicious Philosopher to be any where accurate."[18] (This remark refers among other things to Newton's finding, supported by mathematical demonstration, that if the inverse square law applies to tiny particles, then even a large spherically symmetrical mass also attracts masses external to its surface, even close up, exactly as if all its own mass were concentrated at its center. Thus Newton gave a justification, otherwise lacking, for applying the inverse

square law to large spherical planetary masses as if they were tiny particles.[19] In addition, Newton had formulated in Propositions 43-45 of Book 1,[20] and associated sections of Book 3, a sensitive test of the accuracy of the inverse square law, in which he showed that only where the law of force is accurately as the inverse square of the distance will the directions of orientation of the planets' orbital ellipses stay constant as they are observed to do apart from small effects attributable to interplanetary perturbations.) In regard to evidence that still survives of the earlier history, manuscripts written by Newton in the 1660s show that Newton himself had arrived by 1669 at proofs that in a circular case of planetary motion, 'endeavour to recede' (centrifugal force by another name) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.[21] At that time, Newton was thinking and writing in terms of 'endeavour to recede' from a center, i.e. what was later called centrifugal force. After his 1679-1680 correspondence with Hooke, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The lesson offered by Hooke to Newton here, although significant, was one of perspective and did not change the analysis.[22] This background shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke. Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia long before his correspondence with Hooke: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published in 1644.[23] On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of the 'Principia', that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1.[24] Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679-80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: "yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ...".[14]) Since the time of Newton and Hooke, scholarly discussion has also touched on the question whether Hooke's 1679 mention of 'compounding the motions' gave Newton with something new and valuable, even though that was not a claim actually voiced by Hooke at the time. As described above, Newton's manuscripts of the 1660s do show him actually combining tangential motion with the effects of radially directed force or endeavour, for example in his derivation of the inverse square relation for the circular case. They also show Newton clearly expressing the concept of linear inertiafor which he was indebted to Descartes'

work published 1644 (as Hooke probably was).[23] These matters do not appear to have been learned by Newton from Hooke. Nevertheless, a number of authors have had more to say about what Newton gained from Hooke and some aspects remain controversial. [25] The fact that most of Hooke's private papers had been destroyed or disappeared does not help to establish the truth. Newton's role in relation to the inverse square law was not as it has sometimes been represented, he did not claim to think it up as a bare idea. What Newton did was to show how the inverse-square law of attraction had many necessary mathematical connections with observable features of the motions of bodies in the solar system; and that they were related in such a way that the observational evidence and the mathematical demonstrations, taken together, gave reason to believe that the inverse square law was not just approximately true but exactly true (to the accuracy achievable in Newton's time and for about two centuries afterwards and with some loose ends of points that could not yet be certainly examined, where the implications of the theory had not yet been adequately identified or calculated).[26][27] In the light of the background described above, it becomes understandable how, about thirty years after Newton's death in 1727, Alexis Clairaut, a mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, wrote after reviewing what Hooke published, that "One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory"; and that "the example of Hooke" serves "to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".[28][29]

[edit]Bodies

with spatial extent

If the bodies of question have spatial extent (rather than being theoretical point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies. In this way it can be shown that an object with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its centre.[2] (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.) For points inside a spherically-symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's Shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r0 from the center of the mass distribution:[30] The portion of the mass that is located at radii r < r0 causes the same force at r0 as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r0 was concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above).

 The portion of the mass that is located at radii r > r0 exerts no net gravitational force at the distance r0 from the center. That is, the individual gravitational forces exerted by the elements of the sphere out there, on the point at r0, cancel each other out. As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere.

Gravitational field strength within the Earth

Furthermore, inside a uniform sphere the gravity increases linearly with the distance to the center; the increase due to the additional mass is 1.5 times the decrease due to the larger distance to the center. Thus, if a spherically symmetric body has a uniform core and a uniform mantle with a density that is less than 2/3 of that of the core, then the gravity initially decreases outwardly beyond the boundary, and if the sphere is large enough, further outward the gravity increases again, and eventually it exceeds the gravity at the core/mantle boundary. The gravity of the Earth may be highest at the core/mantle boundary.

[edit]Vector

form

Gravity on Earth from a macroscopic perspective.


Gravity in a room: the curvature of the Earth is negligible at this scale, and the force lines can be approximated as being paralleland pointing straight down to the center of the Earth

Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors. where F12 is the force applied on object 2 due to object 1, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2, |r12| = |r2 r1| is the distance between objects 1 and 2, and is the unit vector from object 1 to 2.

It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F12 = F21.

[edit]Gravitational

field

The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point. It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r) as: so that we can write:

 This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2. Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such that If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that case

[edit]Problems

with Newton's theory

Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities /c2 and(v/c)2 are both much less than one, where is the gravitational potential, v is the velocity of the objects being studied, and c is the speed of light.[31] For example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, since where rorbit is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then general relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity.

[edit]Theoretical

concerns with Newton's theory

There is no immediate prospect of identifying the mediator of gravity. Attempts by physicists to identify the relationship between the gravitational force and other known fundamental forces are not yet resolved, although considerable headway has been made over the last 50 years (See: Theory of everything and Standard Model). Newton himself felt that the concept of an inexplicable action at a distance was unsatisfactory (see "Newton's reservations" below), but that there was nothing more that he could do at the time. Newton's Theory of Gravitation requires that the gravitational force be transmitted instantaneously. Given the classical assumptions of the nature of space and time before the development of General Relativity, a significant propagation delay in gravity leads to unstable planetary and stellar orbits.

[edit]Observations

conflicting with Newton's theory

Newton's Theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets, especially of planet Mercury, which was detected long after the life of Newton.[32]There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian calculation, which arises only from the gravitational attractions from the other planets, and the observed precession, made with advanced telescopes during the 19th Century. The predicted angular deflection of light rays by gravity that is calculated by using Newton's Theory is only one-half of the deflection that is actually observed by astronomers. Calculations using General Relativity are in much closer agreement with the astronomical observations. The observed fact that the gravitational mass and the inertial mass is the same for all objects is unexplained within Newton's Theories. General Relativity takes this as a basic principle. See the Equivalence Principle. In point of fact, the experiments of Galileo Galilei, decades before Newton, established that objects that have the same air or fluid resistance are accelerated by the force of the Earth's gravity equally, regardless of their different inertial masses. Yet, the forces and energies that are required to accelerate various masses is completely dependent upon their different inertial masses, as can be see from Newton's Second Law of Motion, F = ma. The problem is that Newton's Theories and his mathematical formulas explain and permit the (inaccurate) calculation of the effects of the precession of the perihelions of the orbits and the deflection of light rays. However, they did not and do not explain the equivalence of the behavior of various masses under the influence of gravity, independent of the quantities of matter involved.

[edit]Newton's

reservations

While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" which his equations implied. In 1692, in his third letter to Bentley, he wrote: "That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it." He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity (although he invented two mechanical hypotheses in 1675 and 1717). Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science. He lamented that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown"

that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer has yet to be found. And in Newton's 1713General Scholium in the second edition of Principia: "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies."[33]

[edit]Einstein's

solution

These objections were rendered moot by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, masses distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime. Kepler's laws of planetary motion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Laws of Kepler)

Figure 1: Illustration of Kepler's three laws with two planetary orbits. (1) The orbits are ellipses, with focal points 1and 2 for the first planet and 1 and 3 for the second planet. The Sun is placed in focal point 1. (2) The two shaded sectors A1 and A2 have the same surface area and the time for planet 1 to cover segment A1 is equal to the time to cover segment A2. (3) The total orbit times for planet 1 and planet 2 have a ratio a13/2 : a23/2.

In astronomy, Kepler's laws give a description of the motion of planets around the Sun. Kepler's laws are:

 The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.[1] The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

C o n t e n t s
[ h i d e ]

1 H i s t o r y 2 G e n e r a l i t y 3 Z e r o e c c e n t r i c i t y 4

[edit]History

Johannes Kepler published his first two laws in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.[2] Kepler did not discover his third law until many years later, and it was published in 1619.[2] Almost a century later, Isaac Newton proved that relationships like Kepler's would apply exactly under certain ideal conditions approximately fulfilled in the solar system, as consequences of Newton's own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.[3][4] Because of the nonzero planetary masses and resulting perturbations, Kepler's laws apply only approximately and not exactly to the motions in the solar system.[3][5] Voltaire's Elments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy) was in 1738 the first publication to call Kepler's Laws "laws". [6] Kepler's laws and his analysis of the observations on which they were based, the assertion that the Earth orbited the Sun, proof that the planets' speeds varied, and use of elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycleschallenged the long-accepted geocentric models of Aristotle and Ptolemy, and generally supported the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (although Kepler's ellipses likewise did away with Copernicus's circular orbits and epicycles).[2] Together with Newton's mathematical theories, they are part of the foundation of modern astronomy and physics. [3]

[edit]Generality

These laws approximately describe the motion of any two bodies in orbit around each other. (The statement in the first law about the focus becomes closer to exactitude as one of the masses becomes closer to zero mass. Where there are more than two masses, all of the statements in the laws become closer to exactitude as all except one of the masses become closer to zero mass and as the perturbations then also tend towards zero).[4]The masses of the two bodies can be nearly equal, e.g. CharonPluto (~1:10), in a small proportion, e.g.Moon Earth (~1:100), or in a great proportion, e.g. Mercury Sun (~1:10,000,000). In all cases of two-body motion, rotation is about the barycenter of the two bodies, with neither one having its center of mass exactly at one focus of an ellipse. However, both orbits are ellipses with one focus at the barycenter. When the ratio of masses is large, the barycenter may be deep within the larger object, close to its center of mass. In such a case it may require sophisticated precision measurements to detect the separation of the barycenter from the center of mass of the larger object. But in the case of the planets orbiting the Sun, the largest of them are in mass as much as 1/1047.3486 (Jupiter) and 1/3497.898 (Saturn) of the solar mass,[7] and so it has long been known that the solar system barycenter can sometimes be outside the body of the Sun, up to about a

solar diameter from its center.[8] Thus Kepler's first law, though not far off as an approximation, does not quite accurately describe the orbits of the planets around the Sun under classical physics. Since Kepler stated his results with reference to the Sun and the planets, and did not know of their wider applicability, this article also discusses them with reference to the Sun and its planets. At the time, Kepler's laws were radical claims; the prevailing belief (particularly in epicycle-based theories) was that orbits should be based on perfect circles. Kepler's observation was significant support for the Copernican view of the Universe, and still has relevance in a modern context. A circle is a form of ellipse, and most of the planets follow orbits of loweccentricity, which can be rather closely approximated as circles, so it is not immediately evident that the orbits are elliptical. Detailed calculations for the orbit of the planet Mars first indicated to Kepler its elliptical shape, and he inferred that other heavenly bodies, including those farther away from the Sun, have elliptical orbits too. That allows also for highly eccentric orbits (like very long, stretched out circles). Bodies with highly eccentric orbits have been identified, among them the comets and many asteroids, discovered after Kepler's time. The dwarf planet Pluto was discovered as late as 1929, the delay mostly due to its small size, far distance, and optical faintness. Heavenly bodies such as comets with parabolicor even hyperbolic orbits are possible under the Newtonian theory and have been observed.[9] To understand the second law let us suppose a planet takes one day to travel from point A to point B. The lines from the Sun to points A and B, together with the planet orbit, will define an (roughly triangular) area. This same area will be covered every day regardless of where in its orbit the planet is. Now as the first law states that the planet follows an ellipse, the planet is at different distances from the Sun at different parts in its orbit. So the planet has to move faster when it is closer to the Sun so that it sweeps an equal area. Kepler's second law is equivalent to the fact that the force perpendicular to the radius vector is zero. The "areal velocity" is proportional to angular momentum, and so for the same reasons, Kepler's second law is also in effect a statement of the conservation of angular momentum. The third law, published by Kepler in 1619 [1] captures the relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods. For example, suppose planet A is 4 times as far from the Sun as planet B. Then planet A must traverse 4 times the distance of Planet B each orbit, and moreover it turns out that planet A travels at half the speed of planet B, in order to maintain equilibrium with the reduced gravitational centripetal force due to being 4 times further from the Sun. In total it takes 42=8 times as long for planet A to travel an orbit, in agreement with the law (82=43). This third law used to be known as the harmonic law,[10] because Kepler enunciated it in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as "the music of the spheres" according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical notation.[11]

 This third law currently receives additional attention as it can be used to estimate the distance from an exoplanet to its central star, and help to decide if this distance is inside thehabitable zone of that star.[12]

[edit]Zero

eccentricity

Kepler's laws refine the model of Copernicus. If the eccentricity of a planetary orbit is zero, then Kepler's laws state: The planetary orbit is a circle The Sun is in the center The speed of the planet in the orbit is constant The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the distance from the Sun.

Actually the eccentricities of the orbits of the six planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are quite small, so this gives excellent approximations to the planetary motions, but Kepler's laws give even better fit to the observations. Because the uniform circular motion was considered to be normal, a deviation from this motion was considered an anomaly. Kepler's corrections to the Copernican model are not at all obvious: The planetary orbit is not a circle, but an ellipse The Sun is not in the center but in a focal point Neither the linear speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the area speed is constant. The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the mean between the maximum and minimum distances from the Sun.

[edit]Estimating

the eccentricity of earth orbit

The time from the March equinox to the September equinox is around 186 days, while the time from the September equinox to the March equinox is only around 179 days. This elementary observation shows that the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth is not exactly zero. The equator cuts the orbit into two parts having areas in the proportion 186 to 179, while a diameter cuts the orbit into equal parts. So the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately close to the correct value (0.016710219). (See Earth's orbit). The accuracy of this approximation depends on the date of the perihelion, the date that the Earth is closest to the Sun. When the perihelion occurs on an equinox, the equation above gives a value of zero. When the date is on a solstice, the value will be at a maximum. The current perihelion, near January 4, is fairly close to the Winter Solstice on December 21 or 22.

[edit]Nonzero

planetary mass

Isaac Newton computed in his Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second law. The direction of the acceleration is towards the Sun. The magnitude of the acceleration is in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun. This suggests that the Sun may be the physical cause of the acceleration of planets. Newton defined the force on a planet to be the product of its mass and the acceleration. (See Newton's laws of motion). So: Every planet is attracted towards the Sun. The force on a planet is in direct proportion to the mass of the planet and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun. Here the Sun plays an unsymmetrical part which is unjustified. So he assumed Newton's law of universal gravitation: All bodies in the solar system attract one another. The force between two bodies is in direct proportion to their masses and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance between them. As the planets have small masses compared to that of the Sun, the orbits conform to Kepler's laws approximately. Newton's model improves Kepler's model and gives better fit to the observations. See two-body problem. The deviation of the motion of a planet from Kepler's laws due to attraction from other planets is called a perturbation.

[edit]Mathematics [edit]First

of the three laws

law

Figure 2: Kepler's first law placing the Sun at the focus of an elliptical orbit

"The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci." Symbolically:

 where (r, ) are heliocentric polar coordinates for the planet, p is the semi-latus rectum, and is the eccentricity.

Figure 4: Heliocentric coordinate system (r, )for ellipse. Also shown are: semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b and semi-latus rectum p; center of ellipse and its two foci marked by large dots. For = 0, r = rmin and for = 180, r = rmax.

At = 0, perihelion, the distance is minimum At = 90, the distance is At = 180, aphelion, the distance is maximum The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax: so The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax: so

 The semi-latus rectum p is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax: The eccentricity is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax: The area of the ellipse is The special case of a circle is = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A = r2.

[edit]Second

law

Figure 3: Illustration of Kepler's second law. The planet moves faster near the Sun, so the same area is swept out in a given time as at larger distances, where the planet moves more slowly.

"A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time."[1] Symbolically: where is the "areal velocity".

This is also known as the law of equal areas. It also applies for parabolic trajectories and hyperbolic trajectories.

[edit]Third

law

"The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit." Symbolically:

 where P is the orbital period of planet and a is the semimajor axis of the orbit. The proportionality constant is the same for any planet around the Sun. So the constant is 1 (sidereal year)2(astronomical unit)3 or 2.974725051019 s2m3. See the actual figures: attributes of major planets. For primary bodies other than the Sun, the proportionality constant can be calculated as follows: where M is the mass of the primary body (assumed to be much larger than that of the secondary,) and G is the gravitational constant. See also scaling in gravity.

[edit]Position

as a function of time

Kepler used these three laws for computing the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation. The procedure for calculating the heliocentric polar coordinates (r,) to a planetary position as a function of the time t since perihelion, and the orbital period P, is the following four steps. 1. Compute the mean anomaly M from the formula 2. Compute the eccentric anomaly E by solving Kepler's equation: 3. Compute the true anomaly by the equation: 4. Compute the heliocentric distance r from the first law: The important special case of circular orbit, = 0, gives simply = E = M. The proof of this procedure is shown below.

[edit]Mean

anomaly

FIgure 5: Geometric construction for Kepler's calculation of . The Sun (located at the focus) is labeled S and the planet P. The auxiliary circle is an aid to calculation. Line xd is perpendicular to the base and through the planet P. The shaded sectors are arranged to have equal areas by positioning of point y.

The Keplerian problem assumes an elliptical orbit and the four points: and axis, the eccentricity, the semiminor axis, the distance between Sun and planet. the direction to the planet as seen from the Sun, the true anomaly. distance between center and perihelion, the semimajor s the Sun (at one focus of ellipse); z the perihelion c the center of the ellipse p the planet

The problem is to compute the polar coordinates (r,) of the planet from the time since perihelion, t. It is solved in steps. Kepler considered the circle with the major axis as a diameter, and the projection of the planet to the auxiliary circle the point on the circle such that the sector areas | zcy| and |zsx| are equal, the mean anomaly.

The sector areas are related by

 The circular sector area The area swept since perihelion, ,

is by Kepler's second law proportional to time since perihelion. So the mean anomaly, M, is proportional to time since perihelion, t. where P is the orbital period.

[edit]Eccentric

anomaly

When the mean anomaly M is computed, the goal is to compute the true anomaly . The function =f(M) is, however, not elementary. Kepler's solution is to use , x as seen from the centre, the eccentric anomaly

as an intermediate variable, and first compute E as a function of M by solving Kepler's equation below, and then compute the true anomaly from the eccentric anomaly E. Here are the details.

Division by a2/2 gives Kepler's equation This equation gives M as a function of E. Determining E for a given M is the inverse problem. Iterative numerical algorithms are commonly used. Series are also used; they must be truncated, reducing accuracy. Having computed the eccentric anomaly E, the next step is to calculate the true anomaly .

[edit]True

anomaly

Note from the figure that so that

 Dividing by a and inserting from Kepler's first law to get

The result is a usable relationship between the eccentric anomaly E and the true anomaly . A computationally more convenient form follows by substituting into the trigonometric identity: Get

Multiplying by (1+)/(1) and taking the square root gives the result

We have now completed the third step in the connection between time and position in the orbit. One could even develop a series computing directly from M. [2]
[edit]Distance

The fourth step is to compute the heliocentric distance r from the true anomaly by Kepler's first law:

[edit]Derivation

from Newton's laws

It has been suggested that Orbit#Analysis of orbital motion be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Kepler's laws are concerned with the motion of the planets around the Sun. They are expressed as equations connecting the coordinates of the planet, and the time variable, with the parameters describing the position, size and shape of the orbit, the socalled orbital elements. Newton's laws of motion are concerned with the motion of objects subject to impressed forces. Newton's law of universal gravitation specifies these forces. Together these laws constitute differential equations satisfied by

planetary motions. Solving these equations constitute the n-body problem. The solutions to the two-body problem, where there are only two particles involved, say, the sun and one planet, can be expressed analytically. These solutions include the elliptical Kepler orbits, but motions along other conic section (parabolas, hyperbolas and straight lines) also satisfy Newton's differential equations. The solutions deviate from Kepler's laws in that the focus of the conic section is at the center of mass of the two bodies, rather than at the center of the Sun itself. the period of the orbit depends a little on the mass of the planet. The language of Kepler's laws also applies when the motion of a planet is affected by the attraction from the other planets, as the orbits are described as Kepler orbits with slowly varying orbital elements. And in the case of the two-body problem in general relativity. The derivations below involve the art of solving differential equations. The derivations below use heliocentric polar coordinates, see Figure 4. Kepler's second law is derived first, as the derivation of the first law depends on the derivation of the second law. They can also be formulated and derived using Cartesian coordinates.[13] [14]

[edit]Acceleration

vector

See also: Polar coordinate#Vector calculus and Mechanics of planar particle motion From the heliocentric point of view consider the vector to the planet where r is the distance to the planet and the direction is a unit vector. When the planet moves the direction vector changes: where is the tangential (azimuthal) unit vector orthogonal to and pointing in the direction of rotation, and is the polar angle, and where a dot on top of the variable signifies differentiation with respect to time. So differentiating the position vector twice to obtain the velocity and the acceleration vectors: .

Note that for constant distance, the centripetal acceleration,

, the planet is subject to , and for constant angular

speed, acceleration,

, the planet is subject to the Coriolis .

[edit]Equations

of motion

Main article: Kepler orbit See also: Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) and Planetary motion Assume that the planet is so much lighter than the Sun that the acceleration of the Sun can be neglected. Newton's law of gravitation says that "every object in the universe attracts every other object along a line of the centers of the objects, proportional to each object's mass, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects," and his second law of motion says that "the mass times the acceleration is equal to the force." So the mass of the planet ( planet ( ) times the acceleration vector of the ) times the mass

) equals the mass of the Sun (

of the planet ( ), divided by the square of the distance ( ), times minus the radial unit vector ( ), times a constant of proportionality ( ). This is written: Dividing by and inserting the acceleration vector gives the vector equation of motion Equating components, we get the two ordinary differential equations of motion, one for the acceleration in the the radial acceleration direction,

and one for the acceleration in the the tangential or azimuthal acceleration:

direction,

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's second law

Only the tangential acceleration equation is needed to derive Kepler's second law. The magnitude of the specific angular momentum

is a constant of motion, even if both the distance the angular speed because , and the tangential velocity

, and , vary,

where the expression in the last parentheses vanishes due to the tangential acceleration equation. The area swept out from time t1 to time t2,

depends only on the duration t2t1. This is Kepler's second law.

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's first law

To derive Kepler's first law, define: where the constant has the dimension of length. Then and Differentiation with respect to time is transformed into differentiation with respect to angle:

 Differentiate twice:

Substitute into the radial equation of motion and get Divide by the right hand side to get a simple non-homogeneous linear differential equation for the orbit of the planet: An obvious solution to this equation is the circular orbit Other solutions are obtained by adding solutions to the homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients These solutions are

where the result is

and

are arbitrary constants of integration. So

 Choosing the axis of the coordinate system such that inserting , gives:

, and

If law.

this is the equation of an ellipse and illustrates Kepler's first

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's third law

In the special case of circular orbits, which are ellipses with zero eccentricity, the relation between the radius a of the orbit and its period P can be derived relatively easily. Thecentripetal force of circular motion is proportional to a/P2, and it is provided by the gravitational force, which is proportional to 1/a2. Hence, which is Kepler's third law for the special case. In the general case of elliptical orbits, the derivation is more complicated. The area of the planetary orbit ellipse is The areal speed of the radius vector sweeping the orbit area is where The period of the orbit is satisfying implying Kepler's third law

Euclidean vector

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the vectors mainly used in physics and engineering to represent directed quantities. For mathematical vectors in general, see Vector (mathematics and physics). For other uses, see vector.

Illustration of a vector

A vector going from A to B

In elementary mathematics, physics, and engineering, a Euclidean vector (sometimes called a geometric[1] or spatial vector,[2] or as here simply a vector) is a geometric object that has both a magnitude (or length) and direction. A Euclidean vector is frequently represented by aline segment with a definite direction, or graphically as an arrow, connecting an initial point A with a terminal point B,[3] and denoted by More formally, a Euclidean vector is any element of a Euclidean vector space, i.e. a vector space that has a Euclidean norm. A Euclidean vector space is automatically a type of normed linear space and a type of inner product space. A vector is what is needed to "carry" the point A to the point B; the Latin word vector means "carrier".[4] The magnitude of the vector is the distance between the two points and the direction refers to the direction of displacement from A to B. Many algebraic operations on real numbers such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and negation have close analogues for vectors, operations which obey the familiar algebraic laws of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity. These operations and associated laws qualify Euclidean vectors as an example of the more

generalized concept of vectors defined simply as elements of a vector space. Vectors play an important role in physics: velocity and acceleration of a moving object and forces acting on it are all described by vectors. Many other physical quantities can be usefully thought of as vectors. Although most of them do not represent distances (such as position ordisplacement), their magnitude and direction can be still represented by the length and direction of an arrow. The mathematical representation of a physical vector depends on the coordinate system used to describe it. Other vector-like objects that describe physical quantities and transform in a similar way under changes of the coordinate system include pseudovectors and tensors.

C o n t e n t s
[ h i d e ]

1 O v e r v i e w

[edit]Overview

A vector is a geometric entity characterized by a magnitude (in mathematics a number, in physics a number times a unit) and a direction. In rigorous mathematical treatments,[5] a vector is defined as a directed line segment, or arrow, in a Euclidean space. When it becomes necessary to distinguish it from vectors as defined elsewhere, this is sometimes referred to as a geometric, spatial, or Euclidean vector. In some contexts, one thinks of a vector as possessing a definite initial point and terminal point. For disambiguation, this is called a bound vector. In contrast, if one is interested only in the magnitude and direction of the vectorand does not think of it as situated at any particular locationthen it is called a free vector. Thus two arrows and in space represent the same free vector if they have the same magnitude and direction: they are equivalent if the quadrilateral ABBA is a parallelogram. If the Euclidean space is equipped with a choice of origin, then a free vector may be considered informally as equivalent to the bound vector of the same magnitude and direction whose initial point is the origin. The term vector also has generalizations to higher dimensions and to more formal approaches with much wider applications.

[edit]Examples

in one dimension

Since the physicist's concept of force has a direction and a magnitude, it may be seen as a vector. As an example, consider a rightward force F of 15 newtons. If the positive axis is also directed rightward, then F is represented by the vector 15 N, and if positive points leftward, then the vector for F is 15 N. In either case, the magnitude of the vector is 15 N. Likewise, the vector representation of a displacement s of 4 meters to the right would be 4 m or 4 m, and its magnitude would be 4 m regardless.

[edit]In

physics and engineering

Vectors are fundamental in the physical sciences. They can be used to represent any quantity that has both a magnitude and direction, such as velocity, the magnitude of which isspeed. For example, the velocity 5 meters per second upward could be represented by the vector (0,5) (in 2 dimensions with the positive y axis as 'up'). Another quantity represented by a vector is force, since it has a magnitude and direction. Vectors also describe many other physical quantities, such as displacement, acceleration, momentum, and angular momentum. Other physical vectors, such as the electric and magnetic field, are represented as a system of vectors at each point of a physical space; that is, a vector field.

[edit]In

Cartesian space

In the Cartesian coordinate system, a vector can be represented by identifying the coordinates of its initial and terminal point. For instance, the points A = (1,0,0) and B = (0,1,0) in space determine the free

vector pointing from the point x=1 on the x-axis to the point y=1 on the y-axis. Typically in Cartesian coordinates, one considers primarily bound vectors. A bound vector is determined by the coordinates of the terminal point, its initial point always having the coordinates of the origin O = (0,0,0). Thus the bound vector represented by (1,0,0) is a vector of unit length pointing from the origin up the positive x-axis. The coordinate representation of vectors allows the algebraic features of vectors to be expressed in a convenient numerical fashion. For example, the sum of the vectors (1,2,3) and (2,0,4) is the vector (1, 2, 3) + (2, 0, 4) = (1 2, 2 + 0, 3 + 4) = (1, 2, 7).

[edit]Euclidean

and affine vectors

In the geometrical and physical settings, sometimes it is possible to associate, in a natural way, a length or magnitude and a direction to vectors. In turn, the notion of direction is strictly associated with the notion of an angle between two vectors. When the length of vectors is defined, it is possible to also define a dot product a scalar-valued product of two vectors which gives a convenient algebraic characterization of both length (the square root of the dot product of a vector by itself) and angle (a function of the dot product between any two vectors). In three dimensions, it is further possible to define a cross product which supplies an algebraic characterization of the area and orientation in space of the parallelogram defined by two vectors (used as sides of the parallelogram). However, it is not always possible or desirable to define the length of a vector in a natural way. This more general type of spatial vector is the subject of vector spaces (for bound vectors) and affine spaces (for free vectors).

[edit]Generalizations

In physics, as well as mathematics, a vector is often identified with a tuple, or list of numbers, which depend on some auxiliary coordinate system or reference frame. When the coordinates are transformed, for example by rotation or stretching, then the components of the vector also transform. The vector itself has not changed, but the reference frame has, so the components of the vector (or measurements taken with respect to the reference frame) must change to compensate. The vector is called covariant or contravariant depending on how the transformation of the vector's components is related to the transformation of coordinates. In general, contravariant vectors are "regular vectors" with units of distance (such as a displacement) or distance times some other unit (such as velocity or acceleration); covariant vectors, on the other hand, have units of one-over-distance such as gradient. If you change units (a special case of a change of coordinates) from meters to milimeters, a scale factor of 1/1000, a displacement of 1 m becomes 1000 mma contravariant change in numerical value. In contrast, a

gradient of 1 K/m becomes 0.001 K/mma covariant change in value. See covariance and contravariance of vectors. Tensors are another type of quantity that behave in this way; in fact a vector is a special type of tensor. In pure mathematics, a vector is any element of a vector space over some field and is often represented as a coordinate vector. The vectors described in this article are a very special case of this general definition because they are contravariant with respect to the ambient space. Contravariance captures the physical intuition behind the idea that a vector has "magnitude and direction".

[edit]History

The concept of vector, as we know it today, evolved gradually over a period of more than 200 years. About a dozen people made significant contributions.[6]

[edit]Representations

Vectors are usually denoted in lowercase boldface, as a or lowercase italic boldface, as a. (Uppercase letters are typically used to representmatrices.) Other conventions include or a, especially in handwriting. Alternately, some use a tilde (~) or a wavy underline drawn beneath the symbol, which is a convention for indicating boldface type. If the vector represents a directed distance or displacement from a point A to a point B(see figure), it can also be denoted as or AB.

Vectors are usually shown in graphs or other diagrams as arrows (directed line segments), as illustrated in the figure. Here the point A is called the origin, tail, base, or initial point; pointB is called the head, tip, endpoint, terminal point or final point. The length of the arrow is proportional to the vector's magnitude, while the direction in which the arrow points indicates the vector's direction.

On a two-dimensional diagram, sometimes a vector perpendicular to the plane of the diagram is desired. These vectors are commonly shown as small circles. A circle with a dot at its centre (Unicode U+2299 ) indicates a vector pointing out of the front of the diagram, toward the viewer. A circle with a cross inscribed in it (Unicode U+2297 ) indicates a vector pointing into and behind the diagram. These can be thought of

as viewing the tip of an arrow head on and viewing the vanes of an arrow from the back.

A vector in the Cartesian plane, showing the position of a point A with coordinates (2,3).

In order to calculate with vectors, the graphical representation may be too cumbersome. Vectors in an n-dimensional Euclidean space can be represented in a Cartesian coordinate system. The endpoint of a vector can be identified with an ordered list of n real numbers (n-tuple). As an example in two dimensions (see figure), the vector from the origin O = (0,0) to the point A = (2,3) is simply written as The notion that the tail of the vector coincides with the origin is implicit and easily understood. Thus, the more explicit notation usually not deemed necessary and very rarely used. is

In three dimensional Euclidean space (or ), vectors are identified with triples of numbers corresponding to the Cartesian coordinates of the endpoint (a,b,c):

 These numbers are often arranged into a column vector or row vector, particularly when dealing with matrices, as follows: Another way to express a vector in three dimensions is to introduce the three standard basis vectors: These have the intuitive interpretation as vectors of unit length pointing up the x, y, and z axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, respectively, and they are sometimes referred to as versors of those axes. In terms of these, any vector in In introductory physics classes, these three special vectors are often instead denoted (or ), the versors of the three dimensional space, in which the hat symbol (^) typically denotes unit vectors (vectors with unit length). The notation ei is compatible with the index notation and the summation convention commonly used in higher level mathematics, physics, and engineering. The use of Cartesian versors such as as a basis in which to represent a vector is not mandated. Vectors can also be expressed in terms of cylindrical unit vectors or spherical unit can be expressed in the form:

vectors . The latter two choices are more convenient for solving problems which possess cylindrical or spherical symmetry respectively.

[edit]Basic

properties

The following section uses the Cartesian coordinate system with basis vectors and assume that all vectors have the origin as a common base point. A vector a will be written as

[edit]Equality

Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. Equivalently they will be equal if their coordinates are equal. So two vectors and are equal if

[edit]Addition

and subtraction

Assume now that a and b are not necessarily equal vectors, but that they may have different magnitudes and directions. The sum of a and b is The addition may be represented graphically by placing the start of the arrow b at the tip of the arrow a, and then drawing an arrow from the start of a to the tip of b. The new arrow drawn represents the vector a + b, as illustrated below:

This addition method is sometimes called the parallelogram rule because a and b form the sides of a parallelogram and a + b is one of the diagonals. If a and b are bound vectors that have the same base point, it will also be the base point of a + b. One can check geometrically that a + b = b + a and (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). The difference of a and b is Subtraction of two vectors can be geometrically defined as follows: to subtract b from a, place the end points of a and b at the same point, and then draw an arrow from the tip of b to the tip of a. That arrow represents the vector a b, as illustrated below:

[edit]Scalar

multiplication

Scalar multiplication of a vector by a factor of 3 stretches the vector out.

The scalar multiplications 2a and a of a vector a

A vector may also be multiplied, or re-scaled, by a real number r. In the context of conventional vector algebra, these real numbers are often called scalars (from scale) to distinguish them from vectors. The operation of multiplying a vector by a scalar is called scalar multiplication. The resulting vector is Intuitively, multiplying by a scalar r stretches a vector out by a factor of r. Geometrically, this can be visualized (at least in the case when r is an integer) as placing r copies of the vector in a line where the endpoint of one vector is the initial point of the next vector. If r is negative, then the vector changes direction: it flips around by an angle of 180. Two examples (r = 1 and r = 2) are given below: Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition in the following sense: r(a + b) = ra + rb for all vectors a and b and all scalars r. One can also show that a b = a + (1)b.

[edit]Length

The length or magnitude or norm of the vector a is denoted by ||a|| or, less commonly, |a|, which is not to be confused with the absolute value (a scalar "norm"). The length of the vector a can be computed with the Euclidean norm

 which is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem since the basis vectors e1, e2, e3 are orthogonal unit vectors. This happens to be equal to the square root of the dot product, discussed below, of the vector with itself: Unit vector

The normalization of a vector a into a unit vector

Main article: Unit vector A unit vector is any vector with a length of one; normally unit vectors are used simply to indicate direction. A vector of arbitrary length can be divided by its length to create a unit vector. This is known as normalizing a vector. A unit vector is often indicated with a hat as in . To normalize a vector a = [a1, a2, a3], scale the vector by the reciprocal of its length ||a||. That is: Null vector Main article: Null vector The null vector (or zero vector) is the vector with length zero. Written out in coordinates, the vector is (0,0,0), and it is commonly denoted , or 0, or simply 0. Unlike any other vector, it does not have a direction, and cannot be normalized (that is, there is no unit vector which is a multiple of the null vector). The sum of the null vector with any vector a is a (that is, 0+a=a).

[edit]Dot

product

Main article: dot product

 The dot product of two vectors a and b (sometimes called the inner product, or, since its result is a scalar, the scalar product) is denoted by a b and is defined as: where is the measure of the angle between a and b (see trigonometric function for an explanation of cosine). Geometrically, this means that a and b are drawn with a common start point and then the length of a is multiplied with the length of that component of b that points in the same direction as a. The dot product can also be defined as the sum of the products of the components of each vector as

[edit]Cross

product

Main article: Cross product The cross product (also called the vector product or outer product) is only meaningful in three or seven dimensions. The cross product differs from the dot product primarily in that the result of the cross product of two vectors is a vector. The cross product, denoted a b, is a vector perpendicular to both a and b and is defined as where is the measure of the angle between a and b, and n is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b which completes a righthanded system. The right-handedness constraint is necessary because there exist two unit vectors that are perpendicular to both a and b, namely, n and (n).


An illustration of the cross product

The cross product a b is defined so that a, b, and a b also becomes a right-handed system (but note that a and b are not necessarilyorthogonal). This is the right-hand rule. The length of a b can be interpreted as the area of the parallelogram having a and b as sides. The cross product can be written as For arbitrary choices of spatial orientation (that is, allowing for lefthanded as well as right-handed coordinate systems) the cross product of two vectors is a pseudovector instead of a vector (see below).

[edit]Scalar

triple product

Main article: Scalar triple product The scalar triple product (also called the box product or mixed triple product) is not really a new operator, but a way of applying the other two multiplication operators to three vectors. The scalar triple product is sometimes denoted by (a b c) and defined as: It has three primary uses. First, the absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped which has edges that are defined by the three vectors. Second, the scalar triple product is zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent, which can be easily proved by considering that in order for the three vectors to not make a volume, they must all lie in the same plane. Third, the box product is positive if and only if the three vectors a, b and c are right-handed.

 In components (with respect to a right-handed orthonormal basis), if the three vectors are thought of as rows (or columns, but in the same order), the scalar triple product is simply thedeterminant of the 3-by3 matrix having the three vectors as rows The scalar triple product is linear in all three entries and anti-symmetric in the following sense:

[edit]Multiple

Cartesian bases

All examples thus far have dealt with vectors expressed in terms of the same basis, namely, e1,e2,e3. However, a vector can be expressed in terms of any number of different bases that are not necessarily aligned with each other, and still remain the same vector. For example, using the vector a from above, where n1,n2,n3 form another orthonormal basis not aligned with e1,e2,e3. The values of u, v, and w are such that the resulting vector sum is exactly a. It is not uncommon to encounter vectors known in terms of different bases (for example, one basis fixed to the Earth and a second basis fixed to a moving vehicle). In order to perform many of the operations defined above, it is necessary to know the vectors in terms of the same basis. One simple way to express a vector known in one basis in terms of another uses column matrices that represent the vector in each basis along with a third matrix containing the information that relates the two bases. For example, in order to find the values of u, v, and w that define a in the n1,n2,n3 basis, a matrix multiplication may be employed in the form where each matrix element cjk is the direction cosine relating nj to ek. [7] The term direction cosine refers to the cosine of the angle between two unit vectors, which is also equal to theirdot product.[7] By referring collectively to e1,e2,e3 as the e basis and to n1,n2,n3 as the n basis, the matrix containing all the cjk is known as the "transformation matrix from e to n", or the "rotation matrix from e to n" (because it can be imagined as the "rotation" of a vector from one basis to another), or the "direction cosine matrix from e to n"[7] (because it contains direction cosines).

 The properties of a rotation matrix are such that its inverse is equal to its transpose. This means that the "rotation matrix from e to n" is the transpose of "rotation matrix from n to e". By applying several matrix multiplications in succession, any vector can be expressed in any basis so long as the set of direction cosines is known relating the successive bases.[7]

[edit]Other

dimensions

With the exception of the cross and triple products, the above formula generalise to two dimensions and higher dimensions. For example, addition generalises to two dimensions the addition of and in four dimension The cross product generalises to the exterior product, whose result is a bivector, which in general is not a vector. In two dimensions this is simply a scalar The seven-dimensional cross product is similar to the cross product in that its result is a seven-dimensional vector orthogonal to the two arguments.

[edit]Physics

Vectors have many uses in physics and other sciences.

[edit]Length

and units

In abstract vector spaces, the length of the arrow depends on a dimensionless scale. If it represents, for example, a force, the "scale" is of physical dimension length/force. Thus there is typically consistency in scale among quantities of the same dimension, but otherwise scale ratios may vary; for example, if "1 newton" and "5 m" are both represented with an arrow of 2 cm, the scales are 1:250 and 1 m:50 N respectively. Equal length of vectors of different dimension has no particular significance unless there is some proportionality constantinherent in the system that the diagram represents. Also length of a unit vector (of dimension length, not length/force, etc.) has no coordinate-systeminvariant significance.

[edit]Vector-valued

functions

Main article: Vector-valued function

 Often in areas of physics and mathematics, a vector evolves in time, meaning that it depends on a time parameter t. For instance, if r represents the position vector of a particle, thenr(t) gives a parametric representation of the trajectory of the particle. Vectorvalued functions can differentiated and integrated by differentiating or integrating the components of the vector, and many of the familiar rules from calculus continue to hold for the derivative and integral of vectorvalued functions.

[edit]Position,

velocity and acceleration

The position of a point x=(x1, x2, x3) in three dimensional space can be represented as a position vector whose base point is the origin The position vectors has dimensions of length. Given two points x=(x1, x2, x3), y=(y1, y2, y3) their displacement is a vector which specifies the position of y relative to x. The length of this vector gives the straight line distance from x to y. Displacement has the dimensions of length. The velocity v of a point or particle is a vector, its length gives the speed. For constant velocity the position at time t will be where x0 is the position at time t=0. Velocity is the time derivative of position. Its dimensions are length/time. Acceleration a of a point is vector which is the time derivative of velocity. Its dimensions are length/time2.

[edit]Force,

energy, work

Force is a vector with dimensions of masslength/time2 and Newton's second law is the scalar multiplication Work is the dot product of force and displacement

[edit]Vector

components

Illustration of tangential and normal components of a vector to a surface.

A vector is often described by a set of components that are mutually perpendicular and add up to form the given vector. The decomposition of a vector into components is not unique, because it depends on the choice of basis set. Basis sets are often derived from coordinate systems such as Cartesian coordinates, spherical coordinates or polar coordinates. For example, an axial component of a vector is a component whose direction is determined by a projection onto one of the Cartesian coordinate axes, whereas radial and tangential components relate to the radiusof rotation of an object as their direction of reference. The former is parallel to the radius and the latter is orthogonal to it.[8] Both remain orthogonal to the axis of rotation at all times. (In two dimensions this requirement becomes redundant as the axis degenerates to a point of rotation.) The choice of a coordinate system doesn't affect properties of a vector or its behaviour under transformations.

[edit]Vectors

as directional derivatives

A vector may also be defined as a directional derivative: consider a function f(x) and a curve x(). Then the directional derivative of f is a scalar defined as

where the index is summed over the appropriate number of dimensions (for example, from 1 to 3 in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, from 0 to 3 in 4-dimensional spacetime, etc.). Then consider a vector tangent to x(): The directional derivative can be rewritten in differential form (without a given function f) as

 Therefore any directional derivative can be identified with a corresponding vector, and any vector can be identified with a corresponding directional derivative. A vector can therefore be defined precisely as

[edit]Vectors,

pseudovectors, and transformations

An alternative characterization of Euclidean vectors, especially in physics, describes them as lists of quantities which behave in a certain way under a coordinate transformation. Acontravariant vector is required to have components that "transform like the coordinates" under changes of coordinates such as rotation and dilation. The vector itself does not change under these operations; instead, the components of the vector make a change that cancels the change in the spatial axes, in the same way that co-ordinates change. In other words, if the reference axes were rotated in one direction, the component representation of the vector would rotate in exactly the opposite way. Similarly, if the reference axes were stretched in one direction, the components of the vector, like the co-ordinates, would reduce in an exactly compensating way. Mathematically, if the coordinate system undergoes a transformation described by an invertible matrix M, so that a coordinate vector x is transformed to x = Mx, then a contravariant vector v must be similarly transformed via v = Mv. This important requirement is what distinguishes a contravariant vector from any other triple of physically meaningful quantities. For example, if v consists of the x, y, and zcomponents of velocity, then v is a contravariant vector: if the coordinates of space are stretched, rotated, or twisted, then the components of the velocity transform in the same way. On the other hand, for instance, a triple consisting of the length, width, and height of a rectangular box could make up the three components of an abstract vector, but this vector would not be contravariant, since rotating the box does not change the box's length, width, and height. Examples of contravariant vectors include displacement, velocity, electric field, momentum, force, andacceleration. In the language of differential geometry, the requirement that the components of a vector transform according to the same matrix of the coordinate transition is equivalent to defining acontravariant vector to be a tensor of contravariant rank one. Alternatively, a contravariant vector is defined to be a tangent vector, and the rules for transforming a contravariant vector follow from the chain rule. Some vectors transform like contravariant vectors, except that when they are reflected through a mirror, they flip and gain a minus sign. A transformation that switches right-handedness to left-handedness and vice versa like a mirror does is said to change the orientation of space. A

vector which gains a minus sign when the orientation of space changes is called apseudovector or an axial vector. Ordinary vectors are sometimes called true vectors or polar vectors to distinguish them from pseudovectors. Pseudovectors occur most frequently as thecross product of two ordinary vectors. One example of a pseudovector is angular velocity. Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular velocity vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right side of the car, the reflection of this angular velocity vector points to the right, but the actual angular velocity vector of the wheel still points to the left, corresponding to the minus sign. Other examples of pseudovectors include magnetic field, torque, or more generally any cross product of two (true) vectors. This distinction between vectors and pseudovectors is often ignored, but it becomes important in studying symmetry properties. See parity (physics).

[edit]Non-Euclidean

vectors

Not all vectors are Euclidean. Not all vector spaces have a Euclidean norm. An important example is Minkowski space, a seminormed vector space which is central to our understanding of special relativity. The vectors in Minkowski space are called 4-vectors. The dot product in this space is distinctly non-Euclidean. Additional important examples come from thermodynamics, where many of the quantities of interest can be considered vectors in a space with no norm, no dot product, and no notion of lengths or angles.[9] Such a space has a topology but no geometry.

[edit]See

also

Power (physics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In physics, power is the rate at which work is performed or energy is converted[1][2] If W is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration t, the average power Pavg over that period is given by the formula It is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is often simply called "power" when the context makes it clear.

 The instantaneous power is then the limiting value of the average power as the time interval t approaches zero. In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by: In the context of energy conversion it is more customary to use the symbol E rather than W. Movimento retilneo
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

A Wikipdia possui o portal: Portal de Fsica Movimento retilneo, em Mecnica, aquele movimento em que o corpo ou ponto material se desloca apenas em trajetrias retas. Para tanto, ou a velocidade se mantm constante ou a variao da velocidade d-se somente em mdulo, nunca em direo. A acelerao, se variar, tambm variar apenas em mdulo e nunca em direo, e dever orientar-se sempre em paralelo com a velocidade.

Tipos de movimento retilneo

Os movimentos retilneos mais comumente estudados so o movimento retilneo uniforme e o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado.

[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniforme (MRU)

No movimento retilneo uniforme(MRU), o vetor velocidade constante no decorrer do

tempo (no varia em mdulo, sentido ou direo), e portanto a acelerao nula. O corpo ou ponto material se desloca distncias iguais em intervalos de tempo iguais, vale lembrar que, uma vez que no se tem acelerao, sobre qualquer corpo ou ponto material em MRU a resultante das foras aplicadas nula (primeira lei de Newton - Lei da Inrcia). Uma das caractersticas dele que sua velocidade em qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia.

[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniformemente variado (MRUV)

J o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado(MRUV), tambm encontrado

como movimento uniformemente variado (MUV), aquele em que o corpo sofre acelerao constante, mudando de velocidade num dado incremento ou decremento conhecido. Para que o movimento ainda seja retilneo, a acelerao deve ter a mesma direo da velocidade. Caso a acelerao tenha o mesmo sentido da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Acelerado. Caso a acelerao tenha sentido contrrio da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Retardado. uniformemente variado. Uma vez que nas proximidades da Terra o campo gravitacional

A queda livre dos corpos, em regies prxima Terra, um movimento retilneo

pode ser considerado uniforme. O movimento retilneo pode ainda variar sem uma ordem muito clara, quando a acelerao no for constante. importante salientar que no MCU (movimento circular uniforme) a fora resultante no nula. A fora centrpeta d a acelerao necessria para que o mvel mude sua direo sem mudar o mdulo de sua velocidade. Porm, o vetor velocidade est constantemente mudando.

[editar]Equaes

dos movimentos retilneos

Em qualquer movimento retilneo a velocidade mdia :

E a acelerao mdia :

Para as equaes, usa-se geralmente os smbolos to,so e vo para o tempo, a posio e a velocidade iniciais respectivamente. O smbolo a representa a acelerao, t a varivel tempo,s e v representam a posio e a velocidade em um determinado instante.

[editar]Equaes

do MRU

Como v constante no MRU a velocidade a qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia:

v = vm
Ou seja:

Como s = s so podemos transformar a equao acima em uma funo da posio

em relao ao tempo:

s = so + vt
Note que a equao acima assume que to = 0, se o valor inicial do tempo no for zero basta trocar t por t. Essa uma funo linear, portanto o grfico posio versus tempo seria uma reta, e a tangente do ngulo de inclinao dessa em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da velocidade.

[editar]Equaes

do MRUV

No caso do MRUV a acelerao constante, portanto: a = am

Assim:

De forma similar ao que foi feito com o MRU, como funo da velocidade em relao ao tempo:

v = v vo podemos escrever a

v = vo + at

Essa uma funo linear, portanto sua representao num grfico velocidade versus tempo uma reta. A rea entre essa reta e o eixo do tempo, em um intervalo temporal o valor da distncia percorrida nesse intervalo (a figura formada ser um tringulo ou um trapzio). O coeficiente angular dessa reta em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da acelerao. Para se encontrar a funo da posio em relao ao tempo pode-se integrar a funo acima, feito isso temos:

Essa nova funo quadrtica representando uma parbola no grfico espao versus tempo. A velocidade no instante t igual ao coeficiente angular da reta tangente parbola no ponto correspondente a t.

Manipulando-se as equaes possvel encontrar a velocidade em funo do deslocamento, a chamada Equao de Torricelli: Essa equao particularmente til quando se quer evitar a varivel tempo.

[editar]Ver

tambm

Movimento parablico
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Movimento parablico

O movimento parablico caracterizado por dois movimentos simultneos em direes perpendiculares, mais especificamente um deles um Movimento Retilneo Uniforme e outro um Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Variado. Dadas essas circunstncias o mvel se desloca segundo uma parbola. Tais circunstncias podem ser observadas num simples lanamento oblquo, onde, desprezando o atrito do ar e demais efeitos o objeto se desloca verticalmente acelerado pela ao da gravidade local, e, horizontalmente se desloca seguindo velocidade constante.

[editar]Demonstrao

Atravs de ferramentas do Clculo Diferencial e Integral possvel descrever com exatido as situaes em que a trajetria um dado projtil parablico. Inicialmente, razovel considerar que um corpo quando arremessado tem sua trajetria descrita num plano. Consideraremos ento que o projtil se desloca no plano cartesiano x0y. Assim, sabendo a velocidade e a posio (aqui especificamente expressadas nabase cannica) no instante inicial t = 0:

Considerando que o corpo no sofre nenhum tipo de influncia externa, com exceo da gravidade local, possvel concluir que:

 Onde, g a constante de acelerao da gravidade. Usando a definio de acelerao:

De maneira semelhante, usando a definio de velocidade possvel encontrar a funo da trajetria do mvel de acordo com o tempo, e consequentemente, a equao da trajetria:

, supondo que o movimento comea no ponto de cordenadas

Substituindo em y, temos que:

Que facilmente reconhecida como uma equao de segundo grau.

 Para os casos particulares de queda livre ou lanamento vertical, onde , seria necessria outra deduo com certas consideraes que fogem do escopo deste artigo, afinal a trajetria de tais movimentos no seria uma parbola.

[editar]Frmulas

do Movimento Parablico

Sem as ferramentas do Clculo Diferencial e Integral ainda assim possvel construir equaes que modelam esse tipo de situao. Por exemplo, se um projtil disparado a partir do solo com uma velocidade inicial , formando um ngulo com o solo, em um local com acelerao da gravidade constante . A partir das frmulas de movimento da cinemtica, possvel construir frmulas diretas, nas quais o alcance do projtil e o tempo que o projtil leva para atingir o solo.

No topo do vo, s existir a componente horizontal da velocidade, que durante toda a trajetria mantm-se constante, desde que os atritos com o ar sejam desprezveis. Essa componente vx tal que: A gravidade atuar, na primeira metade do movimento, como fora antimovimento no eixo y referente ao movimento. Logo aps o ponto mais alto do vo, a gravidade comea a atuar como fora a favor do movimento (em y), e vy comea a aumentar. Pela frmula do alcance, possvel notar que ele ser mximo quando o ngulo de lanamento for de 45, pois:

Como

 Qualquer outro valor para resultaria em um seno menor que 1.

[editar]Ver

tambm

n di ce
[ es co nd er ]

1 T i p o s d e m o v i m e n t o r e ti l n e o

[editar]Tipos

de movimento retilneo

Os movimentos retilneos mais comumente estudados so o movimento retilneo uniforme e o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado.

[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniforme (MRU)

No movimento retilneo uniforme(MRU), o vetor velocidade constante no decorrer do tempo (no varia em mdulo, sentido ou direo), e portanto a acelerao nula. O corpo ou ponto material se desloca distncias iguais em intervalos de tempo iguais, vale lembrar que, uma vez que no se tem acelerao, sobre qualquer corpo ou ponto material em MRU a resultante das foras aplicadas nula (primeira lei de Newton - Lei da Inrcia). Uma das caractersticas dele que sua velocidade em qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia.

[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniformemente variado (MRUV)

J o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado(MRUV), tambm encontrado como movimento uniformemente variado (MUV), aquele em que o corpo sofre acelerao constante, mudando de velocidade num dado incremento ou decremento conhecido. Para que o movimento ainda seja retilneo, a acelerao deve ter a mesma direo da velocidade. Caso a acelerao tenha o mesmo sentido da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Acelerado. Caso a acelerao tenha sentido contrrio da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Retardado. A queda livre dos corpos, em regies prxima Terra, um movimento retilneo uniformemente variado. Uma vez que nas proximidades da Terra o campo gravitacional pode ser considerado uniforme. O movimento retilneo pode ainda variar sem uma ordem muito clara, quando a acelerao no for constante. importante salientar que no MCU (movimento circular uniforme) a fora resultante no nula. A fora centrpeta d a acelerao necessria para que o mvel mude sua direo sem mudar o mdulo de sua velocidade. Porm, o vetor velocidade est constantemente mudando.

[editar]Equaes

dos movimentos retilneos

Em qualquer movimento retilneo a velocidade mdia :

E a acelerao mdia :

Para as equaes, usa-se geralmente os smbolos to,so e vo para o tempo, a posio e a velocidade iniciais respectivamente. O smbolo a representa a acelerao, t a varivel tempo,s e v representam a posio e a velocidade em um determinado instante.

[editar]Equaes

do MRU

Como v constante no MRU a velocidade a qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia: v = vm Ou seja:

Como s = s so podemos transformar a equao acima em uma funo da posio em relao ao tempo: s = so + vt Note que a equao acima assume que to = 0, se o valor inicial do tempo no for zero basta trocar t por t. Essa uma funo linear, portanto o grfico posio versus tempo seria uma reta, e a tangente do ngulo de inclinao dessa em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da velocidade.

[editar]Equaes

do MRUV

No caso do MRUV a acelerao constante, portanto: a = am Assim:

De forma similar ao que foi feito com o MRU, como v = v vo podemos escrever a funo da velocidade em relao ao tempo: v = vo + at Essa uma funo linear, portanto sua representao num grfico velocidade versus tempo uma reta. A rea entre essa reta e o eixo do tempo, em um intervalo temporal o valor da distncia percorrida nesse intervalo (a figura formada ser um tringulo ou um trapzio). O coeficiente angular dessa reta em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da acelerao. Para se encontrar a funo da posio em relao ao tempo pode-se integrar a funo acima, feito isso temos:

Essa nova funo quadrtica representando uma parbola no grfico espao versus tempo. A velocidade no instante t igual ao coeficiente angular da reta tangente parbola no ponto correspondente a t. Manipulando-se as equaes possvel encontrar a velocidade em funo do deslocamento, a chamada Equao de Torricelli: Essa equao particularmente

C o n t e n t s
[ h i d e ]

1 U n i t s 2 M e c h a n i c a l p o w e r 3 E l e c t r i c a l p o w e r

[edit]Units

The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The unit of power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Other units of power include ergs per second (erg/s),horsepower (hp), metric horsepower (Pferdestrke (PS) or cheval vapeur, CV), and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the power required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second, and is equivalent to about 746 watts. Other units include dBm, a relative logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference; (food)calories per hour (often referred to as kilocalories per hour); Btu per hour (Btu/h); and tons of refrigeration (12,000 Btu/h).

[edit]Mechanical

power

In mechanics, the work done on an object is related to the forces acting on it by where F is force d is the displacement of the object. This is often summarized by saying that work is equal to the force acting on an object times its displacement (how far the object moves while the force acts on it). Note that only motion that is along the same axis as the force "counts", however; a force in the same direction as motion produces positive work, and a force in an opposing direction of motion provides negative work, while motion perpendicular to the force yields zero work. Differentiating by time gives that the instantaneous power is equal to the force times the object's velocity v(t): .

The average power is then .

This formula is important in characterizing enginesthe power output of an engine is equal to the force it exerts multiplied by its velocity. In rotational systems, power is related to the torque () and angular velocity (): Or .

 The average power is therefore .

In systems with fluid flow, power is related to pressure, p and volumetric flow rate, Q: where p is pressure (in pascals, or N/m2 in SI units) Q is volumetric flow rate (in m3/s in SI units)

[edit]Electrical

power
electrical power

Main article: Electric power

[edit]Instantaneous

The instantaneous electrical power P delivered to a component is given by where P(t) is the instantaneous power, measured in watts (joules per second) V(t) is the potential difference (or voltage drop) across the component, measured in volts I(t) is the current through it, measured in amperes If the component is a resistor with time-invariant voltage to current ratio, then: where is the resistance, measured in ohms.

[edit]Peak

power and duty cycle

In a train of identical pulses, the instantaneous power is a periodic function of time. The ratio of the pulse duration to the period is equal to the ratio of the average power to the peak power. It is also called the duty cycle (see text for definitions).

In the case of a periodic signal s(t) of period T, like a train of identical pulses, the instantaneous powerp(t) = | s(t) | 2 is also a periodic function of period T. The peak power is simply defined by: P0 = max[p(t)]. The peak power is not always readily measurable, however, and the measurement of the average power Pavgis more commonly performed by an instrument. If one defines the energy per pulse as:

then the average power is:

One may define the pulse length such that P0 = pulse so that the ratios are equal. These ratios are called the duty cycle of the pulse train.

[edit]Power

in optics

Main article: Optical power In optics, or radiometry, the term power sometimes refers to radiant flux, the average rate of energy transport by electromagnetic radiation, measured in watts. The term "power" is also, however, used to express the ability of a lens or other optical device to focus light. It is measured in dioptres (inverse metres), and equals the inverse of the focal length of the optical device.

Hidrosttica

Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Esta pgina ou seco no cita nenhuma fonte ou referncia.

Editor, considere adicionar ms e ano na marcao. Isso pode ser feito automaticamente, substituindo essa predefinio por {{subst:s-fontes}}

Por favor, melhore este artigo providenciando fontes fiveis e independentes, inserindo-as no corpo do texto por meio de notas de rodap. Encontre fontes: Google notcias, livros, acadmico Scirus A hidrosttica, tambm chamada esttica dos fluidos ou fluidosttica (hidrosttica refere-se a gua, que foi o primeiro fluido a ser estudado, assim por razes histricas mantm-se o nome) a parte da fsica que estuda as foras exercidas por e sobre fluidos em repouso.

n di ce
[ es co nd er ]

1 F o r a s d e c o rr e n t e s d a p r e s s o 2 P r e s s o h i d r o st ti c a 3 P

[editar]Foras

decorrentes da presso

A presso, que uma fora exercida pela gua ou qualquer outro fluido numa superfcie qualquer, por exemplo, numa barragem ou numa comporta, determina-se pelas leis da hidrosttica. A presso exercida pela gua sempre perpendicular superfcie ( da barragem ou da comporta ) e varia com a profundidade

[editar]Presso

hidrosttica

A presso hidrosttica em um ponto

Considere um volume cbico de gua. Estando este em repouso, o peso da gua acima dele necessariamente estar contra-balanado pela presso interna neste cubo. Para um cubo cujo volume tende para zero, ou seja um ponto, esta presso pode ser expressa por em que, usando unidades no sistema SI, P a presso hidrosttica (em pascals); a massa especfica da gua, ou densidade (em quilogramas por metro cbico); g ou a a acelerao da gravidade (em metros por segundo quadrado); h a altura do lquido por cima do trao (em metros). No caso de a presso atmosfrica no ser desprezvel, necessrio acrescentar o valor da sua presso, tomando a equao o seguinte aspecto

[editar]Princpio

de Arquimedes

Ver artigo principal: Princpio de Arquimedes


A diferena de presso a origem da fora de empuxo

Um corpo slido imerso num fluido sofre a ao de uma fora dirigida para cima igual ao peso do fluido deslocado. FE = Wfluido = fluido . Vdeslocado . g Isto devido presso hidrosttica no fluido. No caso de um navio, o seu peso contra-balanado por uma fora de impulso igual ao volume de gua que desloca, que corresponder ao volume submerso do navio. Se lhe for acrescentada mais carga, esse volume submerso vai aumentar, e, com ele, a fora de impulso, permitindo ao barco flutuar. No Brasil, d-se o nome de empuxo a esta fora. A descoberta do princpio da impulso atribuda a Arquimedes.

[editar]Presso

atmosfrica

Experincia de Torricelli: na parte superior do tubo h quase-vcuo.

Ver artigo principal: Presso atmosfrica

A presso atmosfrica a presso hidrosttica causada pelo peso do ar acima do ponto de medio. reas de baixa presso tm menos massa atmosfrica acima do local, enquanto que as reas de alta presso tm mais massa atmosfrica acima do local. Da mesma forma, quanto maior

for a elevao, menos massa atmosfrica acima haver, por isso que a presso diminui com o aumento da altitude.

[editar]Princpio

de Pascal

Ver artigo principal: Princpio de Pascal

O Princpio de Pascal enuncia-se da seguinte forma: Uma variao de presso provocada num ponto de um fluido em equilbrio transmite-se a todos os pontos do fluido e s paredes que o contm. Uma aplicao prtica a prensa hidrulica. Para um mbolo de 10m e outro de 1m, uma fora equivalente a 70 kg ser suficiente para levantar um veculo que pese 700 kg, no outro mbolo.

Prensa hidrulica: O aumento da fora hidrulica

Considerando a presso num ponto 1 com uma altura h como p1, se variarmos a sua presso em p, a sua presso passar a ser Como 1 um ponto genrico, todos os pontos do fluido sero acrescidos de p Mas, Ento para dois pontos distintos no fluido, 1 e 2 p1 = p2 Logo,

 ou, Assim, o peso possvel de ser levantado no ponto 2 proporcional rea do mbolo em 2, mesmo que pequenas foras e reas existam em 1.

Teorema de Stevin

Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

(Redirecionado de Teorema de stevin)

Esta pgina ou seco foi marcada para reviso, devido a inconsistncias e/ou dados de confiabilidade duvidosa.Se tem algum conhecimento sobre o tema, por favor verifique e melhore a consistncia e o rigor deste artigo. Pode encontrar ajuda nos WikiProjetos Ambiente e Fsica. Se existir um WikiProjeto mais adequado, por favor corrija esta predefinio. Este artigo
est para reviso desde Fevereiro de 2008.

O Teorema de Stevin diz que a presso absoluta num ponto de um lquido homogneo e incompressvel, de densidade d e profundidade h, igual presso atmosfrica (exercida sobre a superfcie desse lquido) mais a presso efetiva, e no depende da forma do recipiente: ou seja, onde, no SI, Pabs corresponde presso hidrosttica (em pascals), d a densidade do lquido (em quilogramas por metro cbico), g a acelerao da gravidade (em metros por segundo ao quadrado), h a medida da coluna de lquido acima do ponto ou seja, a profundidade na qual o lquido se encontra (em metros) , e Patm corresponde presso atmosfrica (em pascals). Simon Stevin foi um fsico e matemtico belga que concentrou suas pesquisas nos campos da esttica e da hidrosttica, no final do sculo 16, e desenvolveu estudos tambm no campo da geometria vetorial. Entre outras coisas, ele demonstrou, experimentalmente, que a presso exercida por um fluido depende exclusivamente da sua altura. A lei de Stevin est relacionada com verificaes que podemos fazer sobre a presso atmosfrica e a presso nos lquidos. Como sabemos, dos estudos no campo da hidrosttica, quando consideramos um lquido qualquer que est em equilbrio, temos grandezas importantes a observar, tais como: massa especfica (densidade), acelerao gravitacional local (g) e altura da coluna de lquido (h).

 possvel escrever a presso para dois pontos distintos da seguinte forma: PA = d g hA PB = d g hB Nesse caso, podemos observar que a presso do ponto B certamente superior presso no ponto A. Isso ocorre porque o ponto B est numa profundidade maior e, portanto, deve suportar uma coluna maior de lquido. Podemos utilizar um artifcio matemtico para obter uma expresso que relacione a presso de B em funo da presso do ponto A (diferena entre as presses), observando: PB - PA = dghB - dghA PB - PA = dg (hB - hA) PB - PA = dgh PB = PA + dgh Utilizando essa constatao, para um lquido em equilbrio cuja superfcie est sob ao da presso atmosfrica, a presso absoluta (P) exercida em um ponto submerso qualquer do lquido seria: P = Patm + Phidrost = Patm + d g h Vasos comunicantes Uma das aplicaes do Teorema de Stevin so os vasos comunicantes. Num lquido que est em recipientes interligados, cada um deles com formas e capacidades diversas, observaremos que a altura do lquido ser igual em todos eles depois de estabelecido o equilbrio. Isso ocorre porque a presso exercida pelo lquido depende apenas da altura da coluna. As demais grandezas so constantes para uma situao desse tipo (presso atmosfrica, densidade e acelerao da gravidade). As caixas e reservatrios de gua, por exemplo, aproveitam-se desse princpio para receberem ou distriburem gua sem precisar de bombas para auxiliar esse deslocamento do lquido. Este artigo sobre fsica um esboo. Voc pode ajudar a Wikipdia expandindo-o.

Presso

Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

A presso ou tenso mecnica (smbolo: p) a fora normal (perpendicular rea) exercida por unidade de rea. Formalmente,

 Onde p a presso, F a fora, e A a rea da presso atmosfrica. A presso relativa define-se como a diferena entre a presso absoluta e a presso atmosfrica. Os aparelhos destinados a medir a presso relativa so o manmetro e tambm opiezmetro. A presso atmosfrica mede-se com um barmetro, inventado por Torricelli. O termo presso hidrulica (embora na origem relacionado com sistemas utilizando-se ou baseados em gua) refere-se a presses transmitidas por fluidos, como leos, em especial, em mquinas hidrulicas, em cilindros hidrulicos (como nos macacos hidrulicos e freios hidrulicos de veculos), em fenmenos relacionados com o princpio de Pascal, etc., em que variaes de presso sofridos por um volume de um lquido so transmitidos integralmente a todos os pontos deste lquido e s paredes do recipiente onde este est contido. Para informaes sobre a presso interna exercida pelo sangue no organismo humano, veja presso arterial. Tanto na presso arterial como na presso sobre as vias areas (cm de gua) temos uma simplificao para facilitar a leitura, pois de uma unidade complexa temos uma mais simples e linear de fcil interpretao.

n di ce
[ es co nd er ]

1 U n i d a d e s d e p r e s s o

2 V e r t a m b

[editar]Unidades

de presso

Ver artigo principal: Unidades de presso

A unidade no SI para medir a presso o Pascal (Pa). A presso exercida pela atmosfera ao nvel do mar corresponde a aproximadamente 101 325 Pa (presso normal), e esse valor normalmente associado a uma unidade chamada atmosfera padro (smbolo atm)

[editar]Outras

unidades

Atmosfera a presso correspondente a 0,760 m (760 mm) de Hg de densidade 13,5951 g/cm e numa acelerao da gravidade de 9,80665 m/s Bria a unidade de presso no sistema c,g,s e vale uma dyn/cm Bar um mltiplo da Bria: 1 bar = 106 brias PSI (pound per square inch), libra por polegada quadrada, a unidade de presso no sistema ingls/americano: 1 psi = 0,07 bar ;1 bar = 14,5 psi

A tabela apresenta os valores para as transformaes das unidades: Por exemplo: 1 atm = 1,013105 Pa m m H g m H 2 O k g f / c m 1 , 0 3 3 1 , 0 1 9 1 0 5 1 , 0

At mo sfer a

Pa sca l

B ria

B a r

mil ibar ou hPa

At mo sfe ra

1,0 13 25 1 05

1,0 13 25 1 06

1 , 0 1 3 2 5

101 3,2 5

7 6 0 , 0 7 , 5 0 1 1 0 3 7 , 5

1 0 , 3 3 1 , 0 2 0 1 0 4 1 , 0

Pas cal

9,8 69 1 0-6

10

1 0 5

0,0 1

B ria

9,8 69 1

0,1

1 0 -

0,0 01

0-7

0 1 1 0 4 100 0 7 5 0 , 1

2 0 1 0 5 1 0 , 2 0 1 , 0 2 0 1 0 2 1 , 3 6 0 1 0 2

2 0 1 0 2 1 , 0 2 0

Ba r

0,9 869

10 00 00

10 00 00 0

mil iba r

9,8 69 1 0-4

10 0

10 00

0 , 0 0 1

0 , 7 5 0 1

1 0 , 2 0

m m Hg

1,3 16 1 0-3

13 3,3

13 33

1 , 3 3 3 1 0 3 9 , 8 0 7 1 0 2 0 , 9 8 1 0

1,3 33

1 3 , 6 0

m H2 O

9,6 78 1 0-2

98 07

9,8 07 1 04

98, 06

7 3 , 5 6

0 , 1 0 0

kgf /c m

0,9 68

9,8 10 1 04

9,8 10 1 05

981 ,0

7 3 5 , 8

1 0 , 0 0

[editar]Ver

tambm

Fluido
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Este artigo ou seco contm uma lista de fontes ou uma nica fonte no fim do texto, mas estas no so citadasno corpo do artigo, o que compromete a verificabilidade. (desde dezembro de 2009)
Por favor, melhore este artigo introduzindo notas de rodap citando as fontes, inserindoas no corpo do texto quando necessrio.

Um fluido uma substncia que se deforma continuamente quando submetida a uma tenso de cisalhamento, no importando o quo pequena possa ser essa tenso. Um subconjunto das fases da matria, os fluidos incluem os lquidos, os gases, os plasmas e, de certa maneira, os slidos plsticos Os fluidos compartilham a propriedade de no resistir a deformao e apresentam a capacidade de fluir (tambm descrita como a habilidade de tomar a forma de seus recipientes). Estas propriedade so tipicamente em decorrncia da sua incapacidade de suportar uma tenso de cisalhamento em equilbrio esttico. Enquanto em um slido, a resistncia funo da deformao, em um fluido a resistncia uma funo da razo de deformao. Uma consequncia deste comportamento o Princpio de Pascal o qual caracteriza o importante papel da presso na caracterizao do estado fluido. Fluidos podem ser classificados como fluidos newtonianos ou fluidos nonewtonianos, uma classificao associada caracterizao da tenso, como linear ou no-linear no que diz respeito dependncia desta tenso com relao deformao e sua derivada. O comportamento dos fluidos descrito por um conjunto de equaes diferenciais parciais, incluindo as equaes de Navier-Stokes Os fluidos tambm so divididos em lquidos e gases. Lquidos formam uma superfcie livre, isto , quando em repouso apresentam uma superfcie estacionria no determinada pelo recipiente que contm o lquido. Os gases apresentam a propriedade de se expandirem livremente quando no confinados (ou contidos) por um recipiente, no formando portanto uma superfcie livre. A superfcie livre caracterstica dos lquidos uma propriedade da presena de tenso interna e atrao/repulso entre as molculas do fluido, bem como da relao entre as tenses internas do lquido com o fluido ou slido que o limita. A presso capilar est associada com esta relao. Um fluido que apresenta resistncia reduo de volume prprio denominado fluido incompressvel, enquanto o fluido que responde com uma reduo de seu volume prprio ao ser submetido a ao de uma fora denominado fluido compressvel.

 A distino entre slidos e fluidos no to obvia quanto parece. A distino feita pela comparao da viscosidade da matria: por exemplo asfalto, mel, lama so substncias que podem ser consideradas ou no como um fluido, dependendo do perodo das condies e do perodo de tempo no qual so observadas. O estudo de um fluidos feito pela mecnica dos fluidos a qual esta subdividida em dinmica dos fluidos e esttica dos fluidos dependendo se o fluido esta ou no em movimento.

[editar]Ver

tambm

Fluid mechanics
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Continuum mechanics

[show]Laws

[show]Solid mechanics

[show]Fluid mechanics

[show]Rheology

[show]Scientists vde Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids, gases, and plasmas.) Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, which can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid kinetics, the study of fluids in motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms, that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many unsolved or partly solved problems.

Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex. Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems. Also taking advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow is particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow.

C o n t e n t s
[ h i d e ]

1 B r i e f h i s t o r y 2 R e l a t i o n s h i p t o c o n t i n u u m

[edit]Brief

history

Main article: History of fluid mechanics The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known now as the Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da Vinci (observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli (barometer), Isaac Newton (viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics), and was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in Hydrodynamica (1738). Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Leonhard Euler, d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a multitude of engineers including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen. Further mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in the NavierStokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig Prandtl), while various scientists (Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, Geoffrey Ingram Taylor) advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.

[edit]Relationship

to continuum mechanics

Fluid mechanics is a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the following table. Elasticity Solid mechanics Continuum mechanics
The study of the physics of continuous materials The study of the physics of continuous materials with a defined rest shape. Describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied stress.

Plasticity
Describes materials that permanently deform after a sufficient applied stress.

Rheology
The study of materials with both solid and fluid characteristics.

Fluid mechanics
The study of the physics of continuous materials which take the shape of their container.

Non-Newtonian fluids Newtonian fluids

In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support shear stress; that is why a fluid at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.

[edit]Assumptions

Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true. For example, consider an incompressible fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means that for any fixed closed surface (such as a sphere) the rate of mass passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as rate of

mass passing the other way. (Alternatively, the massinside remains constant, as does the mass outside). This can be turned into an integral equation over the surface. Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following: Conservation of mass Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum The continuum hypothesis, detailed below.

Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible that is, the density of the fluid does not change. Liquids can often be modelled as incompressible fluids, whereas gases cannot. Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is inviscid). Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not porous, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and Joseph condition).

[edit]The

continuum hypothesis

Main article: Continuum mechanics Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. The continuum assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at "infinitely" small points, defining a REV (Reference Element of Volume), at the geometric order of the distance between two adjacent molecules of fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, and are averaged values in the REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored. The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets are approximated by point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and therefore results in approximate solutions. Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to results which are not of desired accuracy. That said, under the right circumstances, the continuum hypothesis produces extremely accurate results. Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of desired accuracy are solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not to use conventional fluid dynamics or statistical mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated for the problem. The Knudsen number is defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free pathlength to a certain representative physical length scale. This length

scale could be, for example, the radius of a body in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is how many times its own diameter a particle will travel on average before hitting another particle). Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above unity are best evaluated using statistical mechanics for reliable solutions.

[edit]NavierStokes

equations

Main article: NavierStokes equations The NavierStokes equations (named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes) are the set of equations that describe the motion of fluid substances such as liquids and gases. These equations state that changes in momentum (force) of fluid particles depend only on the external pressure and internal viscous forces (similar to friction) acting on the fluid. Thus, the NavierStokes equations describe the balance of forces acting at any given region of the fluid. The NavierStokes equations are differential equations which describe the motion of a fluid. Such equations establish relations among the rates of change of the variables of interest. For example, the NavierStokes equations for an ideal fluid with zero viscosity states that acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) is proportional to the derivative of internal pressure. This means that solutions of the NavierStokes equations for a given physical problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow (flow does not change with time) in which the Reynolds number is small. For more complex situations, such as global weather systems like El Nio or lift in a wing, solutions of the NavierStokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This is a field of sciences by its own called computational fluid dynamics.

[edit]General

form of the equation

The general form of the NavierStokes equations for the conservation of momentum is: where is the fluid density, is the substantive derivative (also called the material derivative), is the velocity vector, is the body force vector, and is a tensor that represents the surface forces applied on a fluid particle (the stress tensor).

 Unless the fluid is made up of spinning degrees of freedom like vortices, is a symmetric tensor. In general, (in three dimensions) the form:

has

where are normal stresses, are tangential stresses (shear stresses).

The above is actually a set of three equations, one per dimension. By themselves, these aren't sufficient to produce a solution. However, adding conservation of mass and appropriate boundary conditions to the system of equations produces a solvable set of equations.

[edit]Newtonian

versus non-Newtonian fluids

A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the plane of shear. This definition means regardless of the forces acting on a fluid, it continues to flow. For example, water is a Newtonian fluid, because it continues to display fluid properties no matter how much it is stirred or mixed. A slightly less rigorous definition is that the drag of a small object being moved slowly through the fluid is proportional to the force applied to the object. (Compare friction). Important fluids, like water as well as most gases, behave to good approximation as a Newtonian fluid under normal conditions on Earth.[1] By contrast, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can leave a "hole" behind. This will gradually fill up over time this behaviour is seen in materials such as pudding, oobleck, or sand (although sand isn't strictly a fluid). Alternatively, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can cause the viscosity to decrease, so the fluid appears "thinner" (this is seen in non-drip paints). There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids, as they are defined to be something that fails to obey a particular property for example, most fluids with long molecular chains can react in a non-Newtonian manner. [1]

[edit]Equations

for a Newtonian fluid

Main article: Newtonian fluid The constant of proportionality between the shear stress and the velocity gradient is known as the viscosity. A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behaviour is where

 is the shear stress exerted by the fluid ("drag") is the fluid viscosity a constant of proportionality shear. For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature and pressure, not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible and viscosity is constant across the fluid, the equation governing the shear stress (in Cartesian coordinates) is where ij is the shear stress on the ith face of a fluid element in the jth direction vi is the velocity in the ith direction xj is the jth direction coordinate. If a fluid does not obey this relation, it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there are several types. Among fluids, two rough broad divisions can be made: ideal and non-ideal fluids. An ideal fluid really does not exist, but in some calculations, the assumption is justifiable. An Ideal fluid is non viscous- offers no resistance whatsoever to a shearing force. One can group real fluids into Newtonian and non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids agree with Newton's law of viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids can be either plastic, bingham plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic, viscoelatic. delta T e delta S tambm servem para resolver frmulas de energia mecnica e potencial x=elongao ou deformao da mola [editar]Ver tambMomento angular
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is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of

Mecnica Clssica

Movimento Energia Fora

[Expandir]Cinemtica [Expandir]Dinmica [Expandir]Trabalho e Energia Mecnica [Expandir]Sistema de Partculas [Expandir]Colises [Expandir]Rotao [Expandir]Gravitao [Expandir]Cientistas
Esta caixa: ver editar

Momento angular (tambm chamada de ou momentum angular ou quantidade de movimento angular) de um corpo agrandeza fsica associada rotao e translao desse corpo. No caso especfico de um corpo rodando em torno de um eixo, acaba por relacionar sua distribuio da massa com sua velocidade angular. Deve-se dizer que, com o advento da mecnica quntica (MQ), o status da grandeza fsica quantidade de movimento angular sofreu uma severa modificao. A grandeza no pode, no contexto da MQ, ser definida em termos de duas grandezas que so relacionadas pelo princpio da incerteza como o raio vetor e a velocidade angular. Tais grandezas so complementares e no podem ser, simultanea e de forma totalmente precisa, determinadas. A pares de grandezas assim relacionadas d-se o nome de grandezas complementares (apud Bohr). Assim sendo, a quantidade de movimento angular passou a ser entendida como a grandeza conservada sob rotaes no espao tridimensional, em decorrncia da isotropia do mesmo. A deduo de todas as grandezas que decorrem de simetrias geomtricas (quantidade de movimento linear, energia e quantidade de movimento angular) do espao-tempo (no contexto mais geral dateoria da relatividade) feita atravs do formalismo dos geradores dos movimentos.

ndice
[esconder]

1 Mome nto angular de uma partcula 2 Mome nto angular de um sistema de partcula s 3 Simpli ficaes 4 Usos 5 Ver tambm
[editar]Momento

angular de uma partcula

O momento angular de uma partcula definido pelo produto vetorial do vetorposio da partcula (em relao a um ponto de referncia) pelo .

seu momento linear

O momento angular depende do ponto de referncia escolhido. Se a referncia for o ponto ocupado pela partcula (e a funo que define o momento for contnua) ento o momento angular nulo. H tambm outras condies para que o momento angular se anule. So elas: 1. a massa da partcula seja nula. 2. a velocidade da partcula seja nula. 3. a velocidade da partcula seja paralela sua posio em relao ao ponto de referncia. Da definio, tem-se que sua magnitude :

Onde r o mdulo do vetor-posio, p o mdulo do momento linear, v o mdulo da velocidade e o ngulo entre esses dois vetores.
[editar]Momento

angular de um sistema de partculas

O momento angular de um conjunto de partculas em relao a um ponto de referncia definido como a soma do momento angular de todas as partculas em relao a esse ponto. Assim:

Onde

o momento angular da partcula i, e N o nmero total de partculas.

Quando estamos tratando do momento angular total de qualquer corpo, a definio acima se transforma no limite da soma, com N tendendo a infinito:

Onde, para que o limite exista, cada deve tender a 0. Isso intuitivo j que estamos considerando pedaos de matria cada vez menores, o que implica massas e momentos angulares menores. Ou seja, o momento angular de um corpo E, definido por:

[editar]Simplificaes

O momento angular de um corpo girando em torno de um eixo fixo, em relao a esse eixo, pode ser calculado atravs do seu momento de inrcia J e sua velocidade angular , da forma a seguir: L = J
[editar]Usos

O momento angular excepcionalmente til na resoluo de sistemas rotacionais, sejam eles formados por corpos rgidos ou por sistemas de partculas. Na verdade ele til em todos os casos em que constante no intevalo estudado, pois pode-se demonstrar que o torque resultante sobre um sistema igual taxa de variao temporal, a derivada no tempo, do momentum angular. Conclui-se que sempre que o torque total for zero o momento angular manter-se- constante. Essa situao mais comum do que parece, pois usualmente, nos sistemas isolados, as foras que agem internamente entre os corpos geram torques que se anulam, pois tais foras so usualmente centrais (sua linha de ao passa pelo centro geomtrico do corpo) o que faz com que os pares ao-reao anulem os torques. Esse "ataque" to importante que com ele possvel demonstrar as leis de Kepler, se usado em conjunto com a Lei da gravitao universal. Essa demonstrao foi feita pelo prprioNewton, facto que deu uma importncia ainda maior hiptese de Newton da fora gravitacional ser proporcional ao inverso do quadrado da distncia.
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tambm

Esttica
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Exemplo de uma barra em equilbrio esttico. A soma das foras e dos momentos zero.

A esttica a parte da fsica que estuda sistemas sob a ao de foras que se equilibram. De acordo com a segunda lei de Newton, aacelerao destes sistemas nula. De acordo com a primeira lei de Newton, todas as partes de um sistema em equilbrio tambm esto em equilbrio. Este fato permite determinar as foras internas de um corpo, a partir do valor das foras externas.
[editar]Fora

Ver artigo principal: fora O princpio fundamental da dinmica (segundo princpio ou segunda lei de Newton) mescla a massa e a velocidade de um corpo com uma grandeza vetorial, a fora. Supondo que m a massa de um corpo e F o vetor resultante da soma de todas as foras aplicadas ao mesmo (fora resultante), ento, para um corpo entrar em equilbrio, a resultante das foras tem que ser nula, ou seja, R=P, nula. " Onde m no , necessariamente, independente de t. Por exemplo, um foguete expulsa gases, diminuindo a massa de combustvel e, portanto, a sua massa total, que decresce em funo do tempo. A quantidade mv denomina-se momento linear ou quantidade de movimento. Quando m independente do tempo t (o que ocorre geralmente), a equao anterior transforma-se em:

A forma exata de F obtm-se a partir de consideraes sobre a circunstncia do objeto. A terceira lei de Newton d uma indicao particular sobre F: se um corpo A exerce uma fora Fsobre outro corpo B, ento B exerce uma fora (de reao), de igual direo e sentido oposto, sobre A, -F (terceira lei de Newton ou princpio de ao e reao).

Exemplo de uma fora a frico ou deslizamento em pequenas pores de gases, que funo da velocidade das partculas gasosas (desprezando-se pequenas velocidades). Por exemplo:

onde k uma constante positiva. Se temos uma relao para F, semelhante j exposta, esta relao pode substituir F na segunda lei de Newton, de modo a obter uma equao diferencial, a equao do movimento. Se o deslizamento a nica fora que atua sobre o objeto, a equao do movimento :

O que pode ser integrado para obter:

onde v0 a velocidade inicial (uma condio de limite na integrao). Isto nos diz que a velocidade deste corpo decresce de forma exponencial at zero. Esta expresso pode ser de novo integrada, para obter r. A inexistncia de foras para aplicar a segunda lei de Newton nos leva a concluir que a acelerao nula (primeira lei de Newton ou Princpio de Inrcia). Foras importantes so a fora gravitacional (a fora que resulta do campo gravitacional), ou a fora de Lorentz, no campo eletromagntico. Em Esttica, a soma das foras aplicadas a um corpo deve ser igual a zero.

[editar]Momento

de Fora

Ver artigo principal: momento (fsica) O momento de fora (ou simplesmente momento) uma grandeza que representa a magnitude da fora aplicada a um sistema rotacional a uma determinada distncia de um eixo de rotao. Momento = magnitude da fora x distncia perpendicular ao piv (f x d) Em Esttica, a soma dos momentos aplicados a um corpo deve ser igual a zero.

[editar]Ver

tambm

Outros projetos Wikimedia tambm contm material sobre este tema: Livros e manuais no Wikilivros

Categoria no Commons

Categoria: Esttica Mechanical equilibrium

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A pendulum in a stable equilibrium (left) and unstable equilibrium (right).

A standard definition of static equilibrium is: A system of particles is in static equilibrium when all the particles of the system are at rest and the total force on each particle is permanently zero. [1] This is a strict definition, and often the term "static equilibrium" is used in a more relaxed manner interchangeably with "mechanical equilibrium", as defined next.[2] A standard definition of mechanical equilibrium for a particle is: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a particle to be in mechanical equilibrium is that the net force acting upon the particle is zero.[3] The necessary conditions for mechanical equilibrium for a system of particles are: (i)The vector sum of all external forces is zero; (ii) The sum of the moments of all external forces about any line is zero.[3] As applied to a rigid body, the necessary and sufficient conditions become: A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium when the sum of all forces on all particles of the system is zero, and also the sum of all torques on all particles of the system is zero.[4][5] A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is undergoing neither linear nor rotational acceleration; however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity. However, this definition is of little use in continuum mechanics, for which the idea of a particle is foreign. In addition, this definition gives no information as

to one of the most important and interesting aspects of equilibrium states their stability. An alternative definition of equilibrium that applies to conservative systems and often proves more useful is:[6] A system is in mechanical equilibrium if its position in configuration space is a point at which the gradient with respect to the generalized coordinates of the potential energy is zero. Because of the fundamental relationship between force and energy, this definition is equivalent to the first definition. However, the definition involving energy can be readily extended to yield information about the stability of the equilibrium state. For example, from elementary calculus, we know that a necessary condition for a local minimum or a maximum of a differentiable function is a vanishing first derivative (that is, the first derivative is becoming zero). To determine whether a point is a minimum or maximum, one may be able to use the second derivative test. The consequences to the stability of the equilibrium state are as follows: Second derivative < 0 : The potential energy is at a local maximum, which means that the system is in an unstable equilibrium state. If the system is displaced an arbitrarily small distance from the equilibrium state, the forces of the system cause it to move even farther away. Second derivative > 0 : The potential energy is at a local minimum. This is a stable equilibrium. The response to a small perturbation is forces that tend to restore the equilibrium. If more than one stable equilibrium state is possible for a system, any equilibria whose potential energy is higher than the absolute minimum represent metastable states. Second derivative = 0 or does not exist: The second derivative test fails, and one must typically resort to using the first derivative test. Both of the previous results are still possible, as is a third: this could be a region in which the energy does not vary, in which case the equilibrium is called neutral or indifferent or marginally stable. To lowest order, if the system is displaced a small amount, it will stay in the new state. In more than one dimension, it is possible to get different results in different directions, for example stability with respect to displacements in the x-direction but instability in the y-direction, a case known as a saddle point. Without further qualification, an equilibrium is stable only if it is stable in all directions. The special case of mechanical equilibrium of a stationary object is static equilibrium. A paperweight on a desk would be in static equilibrium. The minimal number of static equilibria of homogeneous, convex bodies (when resting under gravity on a horizontal surface) is of special interest. In the planar case, the minimal number is 4, while in three dimensions one can build an object with just one stable and one unstable balance point, this is called Gomboc. A child sliding down a slide at constant speed would be in mechanical equilibrium, but not in static equilibrium. An example of mechanical equilibrium will be a person trying to press a spring, he can push it up to a point after which it reaches a state where the force trying to compress it and the resistive force from the spring are equal, so the

person can not further press it, at this state the system will be in mechanical equilibrium. When the pressing force is removed the spring attains its original state.
[edit]See

also

Movimento circular
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Na Mecnica clssica, movimento circular aquele em que o objeto ou ponto material se desloca numa trajectria circular. Uma fora centrpeta muda de direo o vetor velocidade, sendo continuamente aplicada para o centro do crculo. Esta fora responsvel pela chamada acelerao centrpeta, orientada para o centro da circunferncia-trajectria. Pode haver ainda uma acelerao tangencial, que obviamente deve ser compensada por um incremento na intensidade da acelerao centrpeta a fim de que no deixe de ser circular a trajectria. O movimento circular classifica-se, de acordo com a ausncia ou a presena de acelerao tangencial, em movimento circular uniforme (MCU) e movimento circular uniformemente variado (MCUV).
ndice
[esconder]

1 Propri edades e equaes 2 Trans misso do movime nto circular 3 Exemp los 4 Ver tambm
[editar]Propriedades

e equaes

Movimento da Circunferncia

Uma vez que preciso analisarmos propriedades angulares mais do que as lineares, no movimento circular so introduzidas propriedades angulares como o deslocamento angular, a velocidade angular e a acelerao angular e centrpeta. No caso do MCU existe ainda o perodo, que propriedade tambm utilizada no estudo dos movimentos peridicos. O deslocamento angular (indicado por ) se define de modo similar ao deslocamento linear. Porm, ao invs de considerarmos um vector deslocamento, consideramos um ngulo de deslocamento. H um ngulo de referncia, adotado de acordo como problema. O deslocamento angular no precisa se limitar a uma medida de circunferncia ( ); para quantificar as outras propriedades do movimento circular, ser preciso muitas vezes um dado sobre o deslocamento completo do mvel, independentemente de quantas vezes ele deu voltas em uma circunferncia. Se em radianos, temos a relao , onde deslocamento linear. o raio da circunferncia e for expresso

Pegue-se a velocidade angular (indicada por ), por exemplo, que a derivada do deslocamento angular pelo intervalo de tempo que dura esse deslocamento:

A unidade o radiano por segundo. Novamente h uma relao entre propriedades lineares e angulares: , onde a velocidade linear.

Por fim a acelerao angular (indicada por ), somente no MCUV, definida como a derivada da velocidade angular pelo intervalo tempo em que a velocidade varia:

A unidade o radiano por segundo, ou radiano por segundo ao quadrado. A acelerao angular guarda relao somente com a acelerao tangencial e no com a acelerao centrpeta: , onde a acelerao tangencial.

Como fica evidente pelas converses, esses valores angulares no so mais do que maneiras de se expressar as propriedades lineares de forma conveniente ao movimento circular. Uma vez quer a direo dos vectores deslocamento, velocidade e acelerao modifica-se a cada instante, mais fcil trabalhar com ngulos. Tal no o caso da acelerao centrpeta, que no encontra nenhum correspondente no movimento linear. Surge a necessidade de uma fora que produza essa acelerao centrpeta, fora que chamada analogamente de fora centrpeta, dirigida tambm ao centro da trajetria. A fora centrpeta aquela que mantm o objecto em movimento circular, provocando a constante mudana da direco do vector velocidade. A acelerao centrpeta proporcional ao quadrado da velocidade angular e ao raio da trajectria: f (A demonstrao desta frmula encontra-se no artigo acelerao centrpeta.) A funo horria de posio para movimentos circulares, e usando propriedades angulares, assume a forma: , onde movimento. o deslocamento angular no incio do

possvel obter a velocidade angular a qualquer instante a partir da frmula:

, no MCUV,

Para o MCU define-se perodo T como o intervalo de tempo gasto para que o mvel complete um deslocamento angular em volta de uma circunferncia completa ( ). Tambm define-se frequncia (indicada por f) como o nmero de vezes que essa volta completada em determinado intervalo de tempo (geralmente 1 segundo, o que leva a definir a unidade de frequncia como ciclos por segundo ou hertz). Assim, o perodo o inverso da frequncia:

Por exemplo, um objecto que tenha velocidade angular de 3,14 radianos por segundo tem perodo aproximadamente igual a 2 segundos, e frequncia igual a 0,5 hertz.
[editar]Transmisso

do movimento circular

Muitos mecanismos utilizam a transmisso de um cilindro ou anel em movimento circular uniforme para outro cilindro ou anel. o caso tpico de engrenagens e correias acopladas aspolias.

Nessa transmisso mantida sempre a velocidade linear, mas nem sempre a velocidade angular. A velocidade do elemento movido em relao ao motor cresce em proporo inversa a seu tamanho. Se os dois elementos tiverem o mesmo dimetro, a velocidade angular ser igual; no entanto, se o elemento movido for menor que o motor, vai ter velocidade angular maior. Como a velocidade linear mantida, e , ento:

[editar]Exemplos

O movimento circular ocorre quando em diversas situaes que podem ser tomadas como exemplo: Uma pedra fixada a um barbante e colocada a girar por uma pessoa descrever um movimento circular uniforme. Discos de vinil rodam nas vitrolas a uma frequncia de 33 ou 45 rotaes por minuto, em MCU. Engrenagens de um relgio de ponteiros devem rodar em MCU com grande preciso, a fim de que no se atrase ou adiante o horrio mostrado. Uma ventoinha em movimento. Satlites artificiais descrevem uma trajetria aproximadamente circular em volta do nosso planeta. A translao aproximada, para clculos muito pouco precisos, da Lua em torno do planeta Terra (a excentricidade orbital da Lua de 0,0549). O movimento de corpos quando da rotao da Terra, como por exemplo, um ponto no equador, movendo-se ao redor do eixo da Terra aproximadamente a cada 24 horas.
[editar]Ver

tambm

Newton's law of universal gravitation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Classical mechanics

Newton's Second Law

History of classical mechanics Timeline of classical mechanics [show]Branches [show]Formulations [show]Fundamental concepts [show]Core topics [show]Scientists
vde

The mechanisms of Newton's law of universal gravitation; a point mass m1 attracts another point mass m2 by a force F2which is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them. Regardless of masses or distance, the magnitudes of |F1| and |F2| will always be equal. G is thegravitational constant.

Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every massive particle in the universe attracts every other massive particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Separately it was shown that large spherically-symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called induction.[1] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's workPhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to theRoyal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him see History section below.) In modern language, the law states the following: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is directlyproportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses: [2]

, where: F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two point masses, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of the first point mass, m2 is the mass of the second point mass, and r is the distance between the two point masses. Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.6741011 N m2 kg2.[3] The value of the constant G was first accurately determined

from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G[4]. This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force. Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, in which force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's Law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and theelectrostatic constant in place of the gravitational constant. Newton's law has since been superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity. Relativity is only required when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with gravitation for extremely massive and dense objects.

Contents
[hide]

1 Histor y 2 Bodie s with spatial extent 3 Vecto r form 4 Gravit ational field 5 Probl ems with Newton 's theory 5 . 1 T h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e r n s w i t h N e w t o n

[edit]History

This article may need to be wikified to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please help by adding relevant internal links, or by improving the article's layout. (November
2009)

This section of the article is too long to read comfortably, and needs subsections. Please format the article according to the guidelines laid out at Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings) (June 2010) In 1686, when the first book of Newton's 'Principia' was presented to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke claimed that Newton had from him the "notion" of "the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the same time (according to Edmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that "the Demonstration of the Curves generated thereby" was wholly Newton's.[5] In this way arose the question what, if anything, did Newton owe to Hooke? a subject extensively discussed since that time, and on which some points still excite some controversy. Robert Hooke published his ideas about the "System of the World" in the 1660s, when he read to the Royal Society on 21 March 1666 a paper "On gravity", "concerning the inflection of a direct motion into a curve by a supervening attractive principle", and he published them again in somewhat developed form in 1674, as an addition to "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations".[6] Hooke announced in 1674 that he planned to "explain a System of the World differing in many particulars from any yet known", based on three "Suppositions": that "all Coelestial Bodies whatsoever, have an attraction or gravitating power towards their own Centers" [and] "they do also attract all the other Coelestial Bodies that are within the sphere of their activity";[7] that "all bodies whatsoever that are put into a direct and simple motion, will so continue to move forward in a straight line, till they are by some other effectual powers deflected and bent..."; and that "these attractive powers are so much the more powerful in operating, by how much the nearer the body wrought upon is to their own Centers". Thus Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, together with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses.[8] He also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On the latter two aspects, Hooke himself stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified"; and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry").[6] It was later on, in writing on 6 January 1679|80 to Newton, that Hooke communicated his "supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance."[9] (The inference about the velocity was incorrect.[10])

Hooke's correspondence of 1679-1680 with Newton mentioned not only this inverse square supposition for the decline of attraction with increasing distance, but also, in Hooke's opening letter to Newton, of 24 November 1679, an approach of "compounding the celestiall motions of the planetts of a direct motion by the tangent & an attractive motion towards the centrall body".[11] A recent assessment (by Ofer Gal) about the early history of the inverse square law is that "by the late 1660s," the assumption of an "inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons".[12] (The same author does credit Hooke with a significant and even seminal contribution, but he treats Hooke's claim of priority on the inverse square point as uninteresting since several individuals besides Newton and Hooke had at least suggested it, and he points instead to the idea of "compounding the celestiall motions" and the conversion of Newton's thinking away from 'centrifugal' and towards 'centripetal' force as Hooke's significant contributions.) Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons. Among these, Newton recalled that the idea had been known to and discussed with Sir Christopher Wren previous to Hooke's 1679 letter.[13] Newton also pointed out and acknowledged prior work of others,[14] includingBullialdus, [15] (who suggested, but without demonstration, that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance), and Borelli[16] (who suggested, also without demonstration, that there was a centrifugal tendency in counterbalance with a gravitational attraction towards the Sun so as to make the planets move in ellipses). D T Whiteside has described the contribution to Newton's thinking that came from Borelli's book (a copy of which was in Newton's library at his death).[17] Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his demonstrations of its accuracy, because Hooke, without evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess that it was approximately valid "at great distances from the center": According to Newton, writing while the 'Principia' was still at pre-publication stage, there were so many a-priori reasons to doubt the accuracy of the inverse-square law (especially close to an attracting sphere) that "without my" (Newton's) "Demonstrations, to which Mr Hook is yet a stranger, it cannot be beleived by a judicious Philosopher to be any where accurate."[18] (This remark refers among other things to Newton's finding, supported by mathematical demonstration, that if the inverse square law applies to tiny particles, then even a large spherically symmetrical mass also attracts masses external to its surface, even close up, exactly as if all its own mass were concentrated at its center. Thus Newton gave a justification, otherwise lacking, for applying the inverse square law to large spherical planetary masses as if they were tiny particles.[19] In addition, Newton had formulated in Propositions 43-45 of Book 1,[20] and associated sections of Book 3, a sensitive test of the accuracy of the inverse square law, in which he showed that only where the law of force is accurately as the inverse square of the distance will the directions of orientation of the planets' orbital ellipses stay constant as they are observed to do apart from small effects attributable to inter-planetary perturbations.)

In regard to evidence that still survives of the earlier history, manuscripts written by Newton in the 1660s show that Newton himself had arrived by 1669 at proofs that in a circular case of planetary motion, 'endeavour to recede' (centrifugal force by another name) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.[21] At that time, Newton was thinking and writing in terms of 'endeavour to recede' from a center, i.e. what was later called centrifugal force. After his 1679-1680 correspondence with Hooke, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The lesson offered by Hooke to Newton here, although significant, was one of perspective and did not change the analysis. [22] This background shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke. Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia long before his correspondence with Hooke: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published in 1644.[23] On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of the 'Principia', that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1. [24] Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679-80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: "yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ...".[14]) Since the time of Newton and Hooke, scholarly discussion has also touched on the question whether Hooke's 1679 mention of 'compounding the motions' gave Newton with something new and valuable, even though that was not a claim actually voiced by Hooke at the time. As described above, Newton's manuscripts of the 1660s do show him actually combining tangential motion with the effects of radially directed force or endeavour, for example in his derivation of the inverse square relation for the circular case. They also show Newton clearly expressing the concept of linear inertiafor which he was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644 (as Hooke probably was). [23] These matters do not appear to have been learned by Newton from Hooke. Nevertheless, a number of authors have had more to say about what Newton gained from Hooke and some aspects remain controversial.[25] The fact that most of Hooke's private papers had been destroyed or disappeared does not help to establish the truth. Newton's role in relation to the inverse square law was not as it has sometimes been represented, he did not claim to think it up as a bare idea. What Newton did was to show how the inverse-square law of attraction had many necessary mathematical connections with observable features of the motions of bodies in the solar system; and that they were related in such a way that the

observational evidence and the mathematical demonstrations, taken together, gave reason to believe that the inverse square law was not just approximately true but exactly true (to the accuracy achievable in Newton's time and for about two centuries afterwards and with some loose ends of points that could not yet be certainly examined, where the implications of the theory had not yet been adequately identified or calculated).[26][27] In the light of the background described above, it becomes understandable how, about thirty years after Newton's death in 1727, Alexis Clairaut, a mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, wrote after reviewing what Hooke published, that "One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory"; and that "the example of Hooke" serves "to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".[28][29]
[edit]Bodies

with spatial extent

If the bodies of question have spatial extent (rather than being theoretical point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies. In this way it can be shown that an object with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its centre.[2] (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.) For points inside a spherically-symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's Shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r0 from the center of the mass distribution:[30] The portion of the mass that is located at radii r < r0 causes the same force at r0 as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r0 was concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above). The portion of the mass that is located at radii r > r0 exerts no net gravitational force at the distance r0 from the center. That is, the individual gravitational forces exerted by the elements of the sphere out there, on the point at r0, cancel each other out. As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration anywhere within the hollow sphere.

Gravitational field strength within the Earth

Furthermore, inside a uniform sphere the gravity increases linearly with the distance to the center; the increase due to the additional mass is 1.5 times the decrease due to the larger distance to the center. Thus, if a spherically symmetric body has a uniform core and a uniform mantle with a density that is less than 2/3 of that of the core, then the gravity initially decreases outwardly beyond the boundary, and if the sphere is large enough, further outward the gravity increases again, and eventually it exceeds the gravity at the core/mantle boundary. The gravity of the Earth may be highest at the core/mantle boundary.
[edit]Vector

form

Gravity on Earth from a macroscopic perspective.

Gravity in a room: the curvature of the Earth is negligible at this scale, and the force lines can be approximated as being paralleland pointing straight down to the center of the Earth

Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors.

where F12 is the force applied on object 2 due to object 1, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2, |r12| = |r2 r1| is the distance between objects 1 and 2, and is the unit vector from object 1 to 2.

It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F12 = F21.
[edit]Gravitational

field

The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point. It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r) as:

so that we can write:

This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2. Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such that

If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that case

[edit]Problems

with Newton's theory

Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities /c2 and(v/c)2 are both much less than one, where is the gravitational potential, v is the velocity of the objects being studied, and c is the speed of light.[31] For example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, since

where rorbit is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then general relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity.
[edit]Theoretical

concerns with Newton's theory

There is no immediate prospect of identifying the mediator of gravity. Attempts by physicists to identify the relationship between the gravitational force and other known fundamental forces are not yet resolved, although considerable headway has been made over the last 50 years (See: Theory of everything and Standard Model). Newton himself felt that the concept of an inexplicable action at a distance was unsatisfactory (see "Newton's reservations" below), but that there was nothing more that he could do at the time. Newton's Theory of Gravitation requires that the gravitational force be transmitted instantaneously. Given the classical assumptions of the nature of space and time before the development of General Relativity, a significant propagation delay in gravity leads to unstable planetary and stellar orbits.
[edit]Observations

conflicting with Newton's theory

Newton's Theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets, especially of planet Mercury, which was detected long after the life of Newton.[32]There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian calculation, which arises only from the gravitational attractions from the other planets, and the observed precession, made with advanced telescopes during the 19th Century. The predicted angular deflection of light rays by gravity that is calculated by using Newton's Theory is only one-half of the deflection that is actually observed by astronomers. Calculations using General Relativity are in much closer agreement with the astronomical observations. The observed fact that the gravitational mass and the inertial mass is the same for all objects is unexplained within Newton's Theories. General Relativity takes this as a basic principle. See the Equivalence Principle. In point of fact, the experiments of Galileo Galilei, decades before Newton, established that objects that have the same air or fluid resistance are accelerated by the force of the Earth's gravity equally, regardless of their different inertial masses. Yet, the forces and energies that are required to accelerate various masses is completely dependent upon their different inertial masses, as can be see from Newton's Second Law of Motion, F = ma. The problem is that Newton's Theories and his mathematical formulas explain and permit the (inaccurate) calculation of the effects of the precession of the perihelions of the orbits and the deflection of light rays. However, they did not and do not explain the equivalence of the behavior of various masses under the influence of gravity, independent of the quantities of matter involved.
[edit]Newton's

reservations

While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" which his

equations implied. In 1692, in his third letter to Bentley, he wrote: "That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it." He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity (although he invented two mechanical hypotheses in 1675 and 1717). Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science. He lamented that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown" that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer has yet to be found. And in Newton's 1713General Scholium in the second edition of Principia: "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies."[33]
[edit]Einstein's

solution

These objections were rendered moot by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, masses distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime. Kepler's laws of planetary motion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Laws of Kepler)

Figure 1: Illustration of Kepler's three laws with two planetary orbits. (1) The orbits are ellipses, with focal points 1and 2 for the first planet and 1 and 3 for the second planet. The Sun is placed in focal point 1. (2) The two shaded sectors A1 and A2 have the same surface area and the time for planet 1 to cover segment A1 is equal to the time to cover segment A2. (3) The total orbit times for planet 1 and planet 2 have a ratio a13/2 : a23/2.

In astronomy, Kepler's laws give a description of the motion of planets around the Sun. Kepler's laws are: 1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. 2. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.[1] 3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

Contents
[hide]

1 Histor y 2 Gener ality 3 Zero eccentri city 4 Estim ating the eccentri city of earth orbit 5 Nonz ero planetar y mass 6 Mathe matics of the three laws 6 . 1 F i r s t l a w 6 . 2 S e c o n d l a w 6 .

[edit]History

Johannes Kepler published his first two laws in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.[2] Kepler did not discover his third law until many years later, and it was published in 1619.[2] Almost a century later, Isaac Newton proved that relationships like Kepler's would apply exactly under certain ideal conditions approximately fulfilled in the solar system, as consequences of Newton's own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.[3][4] Because of the nonzero planetary masses and resulting perturbations, Kepler's laws apply only approximately and not exactly to the motions in the solar system.[3][5] Voltaire's Elments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy) was in 1738 the first publication to call Kepler's Laws "laws".[6] Kepler's laws and his analysis of the observations on which they were based, the assertion that the Earth orbited the Sun, proof that the planets' speeds varied, and use of elliptical orbits rather than circular orbits with epicycles challenged the long-accepted geocentric models of Aristotle and Ptolemy, and generally supported the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (although Kepler's ellipses likewise did away with Copernicus's circular orbits and epicycles).[2] Together with Newton's mathematical theories, they are part of the foundation of modern astronomy and physics. [3]
[edit]Generality

These laws approximately describe the motion of any two bodies in orbit around each other. (The statement in the first law about the focus becomes closer to exactitude as one of the masses becomes closer to zero mass. Where there are more than two masses, all of the statements in the laws become closer to exactitude as all except one of the masses become closer to zero mass and as the perturbations then also tend towards zero).[4]The masses of the two bodies can be nearly equal, e.g. CharonPluto (~1:10), in a small proportion, e.g.MoonEarth (~1:100), or in a great proportion, e.g. Mercury Sun (~1:10,000,000). In all cases of two-body motion, rotation is about the barycenter of the two bodies, with neither one having its center of mass exactly at one focus of an ellipse. However, both orbits are ellipses with one focus at the barycenter. When the ratio of masses is large, the barycenter may be deep within the larger object, close to its center of mass. In such a case it may require sophisticated precision measurements to detect the separation of the barycenter from the center of mass of the larger object. But in the case of the planets orbiting the Sun, the largest of them are in mass as much as 1/1047.3486 (Jupiter) and 1/3497.898 (Saturn) of the solar mass,[7] and so it has long been known that the solar system barycenter can sometimes be outside the body of the Sun, up to about a solar diameter from its center. [8] Thus Kepler's first law, though not far off as an approximation, does not quite accurately describe the orbits of the planets around the Sun under classical physics.

Since Kepler stated his results with reference to the Sun and the planets, and did not know of their wider applicability, this article also discusses them with reference to the Sun and its planets. At the time, Kepler's laws were radical claims; the prevailing belief (particularly in epicycle-based theories) was that orbits should be based on perfect circles. Kepler's observation was significant support for the Copernican view of the Universe, and still has relevance in a modern context. A circle is a form of ellipse, and most of the planets follow orbits of loweccentricity, which can be rather closely approximated as circles, so it is not immediately evident that the orbits are elliptical. Detailed calculations for the orbit of the planet Mars first indicated to Kepler its elliptical shape, and he inferred that other heavenly bodies, including those farther away from the Sun, have elliptical orbits too. That allows also for highly eccentric orbits (like very long, stretched out circles). Bodies with highly eccentric orbits have been identified, among them the comets and many asteroids, discovered after Kepler's time. The dwarf planet Pluto was discovered as late as 1929, the delay mostly due to its small size, far distance, and optical faintness. Heavenly bodies such as comets with parabolicor even hyperbolic orbits are possible under the Newtonian theory and have been observed.[9] To understand the second law let us suppose a planet takes one day to travel from point A to point B. The lines from the Sun to points A and B, together with the planet orbit, will define an (roughly triangular) area. This same area will be covered every day regardless of where in its orbit the planet is. Now as the first law states that the planet follows an ellipse, the planet is at different distances from the Sun at different parts in its orbit. So the planet has to move faster when it is closer to the Sun so that it sweeps an equal area. Kepler's second law is equivalent to the fact that the force perpendicular to the radius vector is zero. The "areal velocity" is proportional to angular momentum, and so for the same reasons, Kepler's second law is also in effect a statement of the conservation of angular momentum. The third law, published by Kepler in 1619 [1] captures the relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods. For example, suppose planet A is 4 times as far from the Sun as planet B. Then planet A must traverse 4 times the distance of Planet B each orbit, and moreover it turns out that planet A travels at half the speed of planet B, in order to maintain equilibrium with the reduced gravitational centripetal force due to being 4 times further from the Sun. In total it takes 42=8 times as long for planet A to travel an orbit, in agreement with the law (82=43). This third law used to be known as the harmonic law,[10] because Kepler enunciated it in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as "the music of the spheres" according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical notation.[11] This third law currently receives additional attention as it can be used to estimate the distance from an exoplanet to its central star, and help to decide if this distance is inside thehabitable zone of that star.[12]
[edit]Zero

eccentricity

Kepler's laws refine the model of Copernicus. If the eccentricity of a planetary orbit is zero, then Kepler's laws state:

1. The planetary orbit is a circle 2. The Sun is in the center 3. The speed of the planet in the orbit is constant 4. The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the distance from the Sun. Actually the eccentricities of the orbits of the six planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are quite small, so this gives excellent approximations to the planetary motions, but Kepler's laws give even better fit to the observations. Because the uniform circular motion was considered to be normal, a deviation from this motion was considered an anomaly. Kepler's corrections to the Copernican model are not at all obvious: 1. The planetary orbit is not a circle, but an ellipse 2. The Sun is not in the center but in a focal point 3. Neither the linear speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the area speed is constant. 4. The square of the sidereal period is proportionate to the cube of the mean between the maximum and minimum distances from the Sun.
[edit]Estimating

the eccentricity of earth orbit

The time from the March equinox to the September equinox is around 186 days, while the time from the September equinox to the March equinox is only around 179 days. This elementary observation shows that the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth is not exactly zero. The equator cuts the orbit into two parts having areas in the proportion 186 to 179, while a diameter cuts the orbit into equal parts. So the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately

close to the correct value (0.016710219). (See Earth's orbit). The accuracy of this approximation depends on the date of the perihelion, the date that the Earth is closest to the Sun. When the perihelion occurs on an equinox, the equation above gives a value of zero. When the date is on a solstice, the value will be at a maximum. The current perihelion, near January 4, is fairly close to the Winter Solstice on December 21 or 22.
[edit]Nonzero

planetary mass

Isaac Newton computed in his Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second law. 1. The direction of the acceleration is towards the Sun. 2. The magnitude of the acceleration is in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun. This suggests that the Sun may be the physical cause of the acceleration of planets. Newton defined the force on a planet to be the product of its mass and the acceleration. (See Newton's laws of motion). So: 1. Every planet is attracted towards the Sun.

2. The force on a planet is in direct proportion to the mass of the planet and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the Sun. Here the Sun plays an unsymmetrical part which is unjustified. So he assumed Newton's law of universal gravitation: 1. All bodies in the solar system attract one another. 2. The force between two bodies is in direct proportion to their masses and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance between them. As the planets have small masses compared to that of the Sun, the orbits conform to Kepler's laws approximately. Newton's model improves Kepler's model and gives better fit to the observations. See two-body problem. The deviation of the motion of a planet from Kepler's laws due to attraction from other planets is called a perturbation.
[edit]Mathematics [edit]First

of the three laws

law

Figure 2: Kepler's first law placing the Sun at the focus of an elliptical orbit

"The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci." Symbolically:

where (r, ) are heliocentric polar coordinates for the planet, p is the semi-latus rectum, and is the eccentricity.

Figure 4: Heliocentric coordinate system (r, )for ellipse. Also shown are: semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b and semi-latus rectum p; center of ellipse and its two foci marked by large dots. For = 0, r = rmin and for = 180, r = rmax.

At = 0, perihelion, the distance is minimum

At = 90, the distance is At = 180, aphelion, the distance is maximum

The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax:

so

The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax:

so

The semi-latus rectum p is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax:

The eccentricity is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax:

The area of the ellipse is

The special case of a circle is = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A = r2.

[edit]Second

law

Figure 3: Illustration of Kepler's second law. The planet moves faster near the Sun, so the same area is swept out in a given time as at larger distances, where the planet moves more slowly.

"A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time."[1] Symbolically:

where

is the "areal velocity".

This is also known as the law of equal areas. It also applies for parabolic trajectories and hyperbolic trajectories.
[edit]Third

law

"The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit." Symbolically:

where P is the orbital period of planet and a is the semimajor axis of the orbit. The proportionality constant is the same for any planet around the Sun.

So the constant is 1 (sidereal year)2(astronomical unit)3 or 2.974725051019 s2m3. See the actual figures: attributes of major planets. For primary bodies other than the Sun, the proportionality constant can be calculated as follows:

where M is the mass of the primary body (assumed to be much larger than that of the secondary,) and G is the gravitational constant. See also scaling in gravity.

[edit]Position

as a function of time

Kepler used these three laws for computing the position of a planet as a function of time. His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation. The procedure for calculating the heliocentric polar coordinates (r,) to a planetary position as a function of the time t since perihelion, and the orbital period P, is the following four steps. 1. Compute the mean anomaly M from the formula

2. Compute the eccentric anomaly E by solving Kepler's equation: 3. Compute the true anomaly by the equation:

4. Compute the heliocentric distance r from the first law:

The important special case of circular orbit, = 0, gives simply = E = M. The proof of this procedure is shown below.
[edit]Mean

anomaly

FIgure 5: Geometric construction for Kepler's calculation of . The Sun (located at the focus) is labeled S and the planet P. The auxiliary circle is an aid to calculation. Line xd is perpendicular to the base and through the planet P. The shaded sectors are arranged to have equal areas by positioning of point y.

The Keplerian problem assumes an elliptical orbit and the four points: s the Sun (at one focus of ellipse); z the perihelion c the center of the ellipse p the planet and distance between center and perihelion, the semimajor axis, the eccentricity,

the semiminor axis, the distance between Sun and planet. the direction to the planet as seen from the Sun, the true anomaly. The problem is to compute the polar coordinates (r,) of the planet from the time since perihelion, t. It is solved in steps. Kepler considered the circle with the major axis as a diameter, and the projection of the planet to the auxiliary circle the point on the circle such that the sector areas |zcy| and | zsx| are equal, the mean anomaly.

The sector areas are related by The circular sector area The area swept since perihelion, ,

is by Kepler's second law proportional to time since perihelion. So the mean anomaly, M, is proportional to time since perihelion, t.

where P is the orbital period.

[edit]Eccentric

anomaly

When the mean anomaly M is computed, the goal is to compute the true anomaly . The function =f(M) is, however, not elementary. Kepler's solution is to use , x as seen from the centre, the eccentric anomaly as an intermediate variable, and first compute E as a function of M by solving Kepler's equation below, and then compute the true anomaly from the eccentric anomaly E. Here are the details.

Division by a2/2 gives Kepler's equation

This equation gives M as a function of E. Determining E for a given M is the inverse problem. Iterative numerical algorithms are commonly used. Series are also used; they must be truncated, reducing accuracy. Having computed the eccentric anomaly E, the next step is to calculate the true anomaly .
[edit]True

anomaly

Note from the figure that

so that

Dividing by a and inserting from Kepler's first law

to get

The result is a usable relationship between the eccentric anomaly E and the true anomaly . A computationally more convenient form follows by substituting into the trigonometric identity:

Get

Multiplying by (1+)/(1) and taking the square root gives the result

We have now completed the third step in the connection between time and position in the orbit.

One could even develop a series computing directly from M. [2]

[edit]Distance

The fourth step is to compute the heliocentric distance r from the true anomaly by Kepler's first law:

[edit]Derivation

from Newton's laws

It has been suggested that Orbit#Analysis of orbital motion be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Kepler's laws are concerned with the motion of the planets around the Sun. They are expressed as equations connecting the coordinates of the planet, and the time variable, with the parameters describing the position, size and shape of the orbit, the socalled orbital elements. Newton's laws of motion are concerned with the motion of objects subject to impressed forces. Newton's law of universal gravitation specifies these forces. Together these laws constitute differential equations satisfied by planetary motions. Solving these equations constitute the n-body problem. The solutions to the two-body problem, where there are only two particles involved, say, the sun and one planet, can be expressed analytically. These solutions include the elliptical Kepler orbits, but motions along other conic section (parabolas, hyperbolas and straight lines) also satisfy Newton's differential equations. The solutions deviate from Kepler's laws in that 1. the focus of the conic section is at the center of mass of the two bodies, rather than at the center of the Sun itself. 2. the period of the orbit depends a little on the mass of the planet. The language of Kepler's laws also applies when the motion of a planet is affected by the attraction from the other planets, as the orbits are described as Kepler orbits with slowly varying orbital elements. And in the case of the twobody problem in general relativity. The derivations below involve the art of solving differential equations. The derivations below use heliocentric polar coordinates, see Figure 4. Kepler's second law is derived first, as the derivation of the first law depends on the derivation of the second law. They can also be formulated and derived using Cartesian coordinates.[13][14]
[edit]Acceleration

vector

See also: Polar coordinate#Vector calculus and Mechanics of planar particle motion From the heliocentric point of view consider the vector to the planet where r is the distance to the planet and the direction is a unit vector. When the planet moves the direction vector changes:

where is the tangential (azimuthal) unit vector orthogonal to and pointing in the direction of rotation, and is the polar angle, and where a dot on top of the variable signifies differentiation with respect to time. So differentiating the position vector twice to obtain the velocity and the acceleration vectors:

Note that for constant distance, the centripetal acceleration, speed,

, the planet is subject to , and for constant angular .

, the planet is subject to the Coriolis acceleration,

[edit]Equations

of motion

Main article: Kepler orbit See also: Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) and Planetary motion Assume that the planet is so much lighter than the Sun that the acceleration of the Sun can be neglected. Newton's law of gravitation says that "every object in the universe attracts every other object along a line of the centers of the objects, proportional to each object's mass, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects," and his second law of motion says that "the mass times the acceleration is equal to the force." So the mass of the planet ( times the acceleration vector of the planet ( )

) equals the mass of the

Sun ( ) times the mass of the planet ( ), divided by the square of the distance ( ), times minus the radial unit vector ( ), times a constant of proportionality ( ). This is written:

Dividing by motion

and inserting the acceleration vector gives the vector equation of

Equating components, we get the two ordinary differential equations of motion, one for the acceleration in the direction, the radial acceleration

and one for the acceleration in the the tangential or azimuthal acceleration:

direction,

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's second law

Only the tangential acceleration equation is needed to derive Kepler's second law. The magnitude of the specific angular momentum

is a constant of motion, even if both the distance speed , and the tangential velocity

, and the angular , vary, because

where the expression in the last parentheses vanishes due to the tangential acceleration equation. The area swept out from time t1 to time t2,

depends only on the duration t2t1. This is Kepler's second law.

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's first law

To derive Kepler's first law, define:

where the constant

has the dimension of length. Then

and

Differentiation with respect to time is transformed into differentiation with respect to angle:

Differentiate

twice:

Substitute into the radial equation of motion

and get

Divide by the right hand side to get a simple non-homogeneous linear differential equation for the orbit of the planet:

An obvious solution to this equation is the circular orbit

Other solutions are obtained by adding solutions to the homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients

These solutions are

where result is

and

are arbitrary constants of integration. So the

Choosing the axis of the coordinate system such that inserting , gives:

, and

If

this is the equation of an ellipse and illustrates Kepler's first law.

[edit]Deriving

Kepler's third law

In the special case of circular orbits, which are ellipses with zero eccentricity, the relation between the radius a of the orbit and its period P can be derived relatively easily. Thecentripetal force of circular motion is proportional to a/P2, and it is provided by the gravitational force, which is proportional to 1/a2. Hence,

which is Kepler's third law for the special case. In the general case of elliptical orbits, the derivation is more complicated. The area of the planetary orbit ellipse is

The areal speed of the radius vector sweeping the orbit area is

where

The period of the orbit is

satisfying

implying Kepler's third law

Euclidean vector

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the vectors mainly used in physics and engineering to represent directed quantities. For mathematical vectors in general, see Vector (mathematics and physics). For other uses, see vector.

Illustration of a vector

A vector going from A to B

In elementary mathematics, physics, and engineering, a Euclidean vector (sometimes called a geometric[1] or spatial vector,[2] or as here simply a vector) is a geometric object that has both a magnitude (or length) and direction. A Euclidean vector is frequently represented by aline segment with a definite direction, or graphically as an arrow, connecting an initial point A with a terminal point B,[3] and denoted by More formally, a Euclidean vector is any element of a Euclidean vector space, i.e. a vector space that has a Euclidean norm. A Euclidean vector space is automatically a type of normed linear space and a type of inner product space. A vector is what is needed to "carry" the point A to the point B; the Latin word vector means "carrier".[4] The magnitude of the vector is the distance between the two points and the direction refers to the direction of displacement from A to B. Many algebraic operations on real numbers such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and negation have close analogues for vectors, operations which obey the familiar algebraic laws of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity. These operations and associated laws qualify Euclidean vectors as an example of the more generalized concept of vectors defined simply as elements of a vector space. Vectors play an important role in physics: velocity and acceleration of a moving object and forces acting on it are all described by vectors. Many other physical quantities can be usefully thought of as vectors. Although most of them do not represent distances (such as position ordisplacement), their magnitude and direction can be still represented by the length and direction of an arrow. The

mathematical representation of a physical vector depends on the coordinate system used to describe it. Other vector-like objects that describe physical quantities and transform in a similar way under changes of the coordinate system include pseudovectors and tensors.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overv iew 1 . 1 E x a m p l e s i n o n e d i m e n s i o n 1 . 2 I n p h y s i c s a n d e n g

[edit]Overview

A vector is a geometric entity characterized by a magnitude (in mathematics a number, in physics a number times a unit) and a direction. In rigorous mathematical treatments,[5] a vector is defined as a directed line segment, or arrow, in a Euclidean space. When it becomes necessary to distinguish it from vectors as defined elsewhere, this is sometimes referred to as a geometric, spatial, or Euclidean vector. In some contexts, one thinks of a vector as possessing a definite initial point and terminal point. For disambiguation, this is called a bound vector. In contrast, if one is interested only in the magnitude and direction of the vector and does not think of it as situated at any particular locationthen it is called a free vector. Thus two arrows and in space represent the same free vector if they have the same magnitude and direction: they are equivalent if the quadrilateral ABBA is a parallelogram. If the Euclidean space is equipped with a choice of origin, then a free vector may be considered informally as equivalent to the bound vector of the same magnitude and direction whose initial point is the origin. The term vector also has generalizations to higher dimensions and to more formal approaches with much wider applications.
[edit]Examples

in one dimension

Since the physicist's concept of force has a direction and a magnitude, it may be seen as a vector. As an example, consider a rightward force F of 15 newtons. If the positive axis is also directed rightward, then F is represented by the vector 15 N, and if positive points leftward, then the vector for F is 15 N. In either case, the magnitude of the vector is 15 N. Likewise, the vector representation of a displacement s of 4 meters to the right would be 4 m or 4 m, and its magnitude would be 4 m regardless.
[edit]In

physics and engineering

Vectors are fundamental in the physical sciences. They can be used to represent any quantity that has both a magnitude and direction, such as velocity, the magnitude of which isspeed. For example, the velocity 5 meters per second upward could be represented by the vector (0,5) (in 2 dimensions with the positive y axis as 'up'). Another quantity represented by a vector is force, since it has a magnitude and direction. Vectors also describe many other physical quantities, such as displacement, acceleration, momentum, and angular momentum. Other physical vectors, such as the electric and magnetic field, are represented as a system of vectors at each point of a physical space; that is, a vector field.
[edit]In

Cartesian space

In the Cartesian coordinate system, a vector can be represented by identifying the coordinates of its initial and terminal point. For instance, the points A = (1,0,0) and B = (0,1,0) in space determine the free vector from the point x=1 on the x-axis to the point y=1 on the y-axis. pointing

Typically in Cartesian coordinates, one considers primarily bound vectors. A bound vector is determined by the coordinates of the terminal point, its initial point always having the coordinates of the origin O = (0,0,0). Thus the bound vector represented by (1,0,0) is a vector of unit length pointing from the origin up the positive x-axis. The coordinate representation of vectors allows the algebraic features of vectors to be expressed in a convenient numerical fashion. For example, the sum of the vectors (1,2,3) and (2,0,4) is the vector (1, 2, 3) + (2, 0, 4) = (1 2, 2 + 0, 3 + 4) = (1, 2, 7).
[edit]Euclidean

and affine vectors

In the geometrical and physical settings, sometimes it is possible to associate, in a natural way, a length or magnitude and a direction to vectors. In turn, the notion of direction is strictly associated with the notion of an angle between two vectors. When the length of vectors is defined, it is possible to also define a dot product a scalar-valued product of two vectors which gives a convenient algebraic characterization of both length (the square root of the dot product of a vector by itself) and angle (a function of the dot product between any two vectors). In three dimensions, it is further possible to define a cross product which supplies an algebraic characterization of the area and orientation in space of the parallelogram defined by two vectors (used as sides of the parallelogram). However, it is not always possible or desirable to define the length of a vector in a natural way. This more general type of spatial vector is the subject of vector spaces (for bound vectors) and affine spaces (for free vectors).
[edit]Generalizations

In physics, as well as mathematics, a vector is often identified with a tuple, or list of numbers, which depend on some auxiliary coordinate system or reference frame. When the coordinates are transformed, for example by rotation or stretching, then the components of the vector also transform. The vector itself has not changed, but the reference frame has, so the components of the vector (or measurements taken with respect to the reference frame) must change to compensate. The vector is called covariant or contravariant depending on how the transformation of the vector's components is related to the transformation of coordinates. In general, contravariant vectors are "regular vectors" with units of distance (such as a displacement) or distance times some other unit (such as velocity or acceleration); covariant vectors, on the other hand, have units of one-overdistance such as gradient. If you change units (a special case of a change of coordinates) from meters to milimeters, a scale factor of 1/1000, a displacement of 1 m becomes 1000 mma contravariant change in numerical value. In contrast, a gradient of 1 K/m becomes 0.001 K/mma covariant change in value. See covariance and contravariance of vectors. Tensors are another type of quantity that behave in this way; in fact a vector is a special type of tensor. In pure mathematics, a vector is any element of a vector space over some field and is often represented as a coordinate vector. The vectors described in this article are a very special case of this general definition

because they are contravariant with respect to the ambient space. Contravariance captures the physical intuition behind the idea that a vector has "magnitude and direction".
[edit]History

The concept of vector, as we know it today, evolved gradually over a period of more than 200 years. About a dozen people made significant contributions.[6]
[edit]Representations

Vectors are usually denoted in lowercase boldface, as a or lowercase italic boldface, as a. (Uppercase letters are typically used to representmatrices.) Other conventions include or a, especially in handwriting. Alternately, some use a tilde (~) or a wavy underline drawn beneath the symbol, which is a convention for indicating boldface type. If the vector represents a directed distance or displacement from a point A to a point B(see figure), it can also be denoted as or AB.

Vectors are usually shown in graphs or other diagrams as arrows (directed line segments), as illustrated in the figure. Here the point A is called the origin, tail, base, or initial point; pointB is called the head, tip, endpoint, terminal point or final point. The length of the arrow is proportional to the vector's magnitude, while the direction in which the arrow points indicates the vector's direction.

On a two-dimensional diagram, sometimes a vector perpendicular to the plane of the diagram is desired. These vectors are commonly shown as small circles. A circle with a dot at its centre (Unicode U+2299 ) indicates a vector pointing out of the front of the diagram, toward the viewer. A circle with a cross inscribed in it (Unicode U+2297 ) indicates a vector pointing into and behind the diagram. These can be thought of as viewing the tip of an arrow head on and viewing the vanes of an arrow from the back.

A vector in the Cartesian plane, showing the position of a point A with coordinates (2,3).

In order to calculate with vectors, the graphical representation may be too cumbersome. Vectors in an n-dimensional Euclidean space can be represented in a Cartesian coordinate system. The endpoint of a vector can be identified with an ordered list of n real numbers (n-tuple). As an example in two dimensions (see figure), the vector from the origin O = (0,0) to the point A = (2,3) is simply written as

The notion that the tail of the vector coincides with the origin is implicit and easily understood. Thus, the more explicit notation deemed necessary and very rarely used. is usually not

In three dimensional Euclidean space (or ), vectors are identified with triples of numbers corresponding to the Cartesian coordinates of the endpoint (a,b,c):

These numbers are often arranged into a column vector or row vector, particularly when dealing with matrices, as follows:

Another way to express a vector in three dimensions is to introduce the three standard basis vectors:

These have the intuitive interpretation as vectors of unit length pointing up the x, y, and z axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, respectively, and they are sometimes referred to as versors of those axes. In terms of these, any vector in can be expressed in the form:

In introductory physics classes, these three special vectors are often instead denoted (or ), the versors of the three dimensional space, in which the hat symbol (^) typically denotes unit vectors (vectors with unit length). The notation ei is compatible with the index notation and the summation convention commonly used in higher level mathematics, physics, and engineering. The use of Cartesian versors such as as a basis in which to represent a vector is not mandated. Vectors can also be expressed in terms of cylindrical unit vectors or spherical unit vectors . The latter two choices are more convenient for solving problems which possess cylindrical or spherical symmetry respectively.
[edit]Basic

properties

The following section uses the Cartesian coordinate system with basis vectors

and assume that all vectors have the origin as a common base point. A vector a will be written as

[edit]Equality

Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. Equivalently they will be equal if their coordinates are equal. So two vectors

and

are equal if

[edit]Addition

and subtraction

Assume now that a and b are not necessarily equal vectors, but that they may have different magnitudes and directions. The sum of a and b is

The addition may be represented graphically by placing the start of the arrow b at the tip of the arrow a, and then drawing an arrow from the start of a to the tip of b. The new arrow drawn represents the vector a + b, as illustrated below:

This addition method is sometimes called the parallelogram rule because a and b form the sides of a parallelogram and a + b is one of the diagonals. If a and b are bound vectors that have the same base point, it will also be the base point of a + b. One can check geometrically that a + b = b + a and (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). The difference of a and b is

Subtraction of two vectors can be geometrically defined as follows: to subtract b from a, place the end points of a and b at the same point, and then draw an arrow from the tip of b to the tip of a. That arrow represents the vector a b, as illustrated below:

[edit]Scalar

multiplication

Scalar multiplication of a vector by a factor of 3 stretches the vector out.

The scalar multiplications 2a and a of a vector a

A vector may also be multiplied, or re-scaled, by a real number r. In the context of conventional vector algebra, these real numbers are often called scalars (from scale) to distinguish them from vectors. The operation of multiplying a vector by a scalar is called scalar multiplication. The resulting vector is

Intuitively, multiplying by a scalar r stretches a vector out by a factor of r. Geometrically, this can be visualized (at least in the case when r is an integer) as placing r copies of the vector in a line where the endpoint of one vector is the initial point of the next vector. If r is negative, then the vector changes direction: it flips around by an angle of 180. Two examples (r = 1 and r = 2) are given below: Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition in the following sense: r(a + b) = ra + rb for all vectors a and b and all scalars r. One can also show that a b = a + (1)b.
[edit]Length

The length or magnitude or norm of the vector a is denoted by ||a|| or, less commonly, |a|, which is not to be confused with the absolute value (a scalar "norm"). The length of the vector a can be computed with the Euclidean norm

which is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem since the basis vectors e1, e2, e3 are orthogonal unit vectors. This happens to be equal to the square root of the dot product, discussed below, of the vector with itself:

Unit vector

The normalization of a vector a into a unit vector

Main article: Unit vector A unit vector is any vector with a length of one; normally unit vectors are used simply to indicate direction. A vector of arbitrary length can be divided by its length to create a unit vector. This is known as normalizing a vector. A unit vector is often indicated with a hat as in . To normalize a vector a = [a1, a2, a3], scale the vector by the reciprocal of its length ||a||. That is:

Null vector Main article: Null vector The null vector (or zero vector) is the vector with length zero. Written out in coordinates, the vector is (0,0,0), and it is commonly denoted , or 0, or simply 0. Unlike any other vector, it does not have a direction, and cannot be normalized (that is, there is no unit vector which is a multiple of the null vector). The sum of the null vector with any vector a is a (that is, 0+a=a).
[edit]Dot

product

Main article: dot product The dot product of two vectors a and b (sometimes called the inner product, or, since its result is a scalar, the scalar product) is denoted by a b and is defined as:

where is the measure of the angle between a and b (see trigonometric function for an explanation of cosine). Geometrically, this means that a and b are drawn with a common start point and then the length of a is multiplied with the length of that component of b that points in the same direction as a.

The dot product can also be defined as the sum of the products of the components of each vector as

[edit]Cross

product

Main article: Cross product The cross product (also called the vector product or outer product) is only meaningful in three or seven dimensions. The cross product differs from the dot product primarily in that the result of the cross product of two vectors is a vector. The cross product, denoted a b, is a vector perpendicular to both a and b and is defined as

where is the measure of the angle between a and b, and n is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b which completes a right-handed system. The right-handedness constraint is necessary because there exist two unit vectors that are perpendicular to both a and b, namely, n and (n).

An illustration of the cross product

The cross product a b is defined so that a, b, and a b also becomes a right-handed system (but note that a and b are not necessarilyorthogonal). This is the right-hand rule. The length of a b can be interpreted as the area of the parallelogram having a and b as sides. The cross product can be written as

For arbitrary choices of spatial orientation (that is, allowing for left-handed as well as right-handed coordinate systems) the cross product of two vectors is a pseudovector instead of a vector (see below).
[edit]Scalar

triple product

Main article: Scalar triple product The scalar triple product (also called the box product or mixed triple product) is not really a new operator, but a way of applying the other two multiplication operators to three vectors. The scalar triple product is sometimes denoted by (a b c) and defined as:

It has three primary uses. First, the absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped which has edges that are defined by the three vectors. Second, the scalar triple product is zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent, which can be easily proved by considering that in order for the three vectors to not make a volume, they must all lie in the same plane. Third, the box product is positive if and only if the three vectors a, b and c are right-handed. In components (with respect to a right-handed orthonormal basis), if the three vectors are thought of as rows (or columns, but in the same order), the scalar triple product is simply thedeterminant of the 3-by-3 matrix having the three vectors as rows

The scalar triple product is linear in all three entries and anti-symmetric in the following sense:

[edit]Multiple

Cartesian bases

All examples thus far have dealt with vectors expressed in terms of the same basis, namely, e1,e2,e3. However, a vector can be expressed in terms of any number of different bases that are not necessarily aligned with each other, and still remain the same vector. For example, using the vector a from above,

where n1,n2,n3 form another orthonormal basis not aligned with e1,e2,e3. The values of u, v, and w are such that the resulting vector sum is exactly a. It is not uncommon to encounter vectors known in terms of different bases (for example, one basis fixed to the Earth and a second basis fixed to a moving vehicle). In order to perform many of the operations defined above, it is necessary to know the vectors in terms of the same basis. One simple way to express a vector known in one basis in terms of another uses column matrices that represent the vector in each basis along with a third matrix containing the information that relates the two bases. For example, in order to find the values

of u, v, and w that define a in the n1,n2,n3 basis, a matrix multiplication may be employed in the form

where each matrix element cjk is the direction cosine relating nj to ek.[7] The term direction cosine refers to the cosine of the angle between two unit vectors, which is also equal to theirdot product.[7] By referring collectively to e1,e2,e3 as the e basis and to n1,n2,n3 as the n basis, the matrix containing all the cjk is known as the "transformation matrix from e to n", or the "rotation matrix from e to n" (because it can be imagined as the "rotation" of a vector from one basis to another), or the "direction cosine matrix from e to n"[7] (because it contains direction cosines). The properties of a rotation matrix are such that its inverse is equal to its transpose. This means that the "rotation matrix from e to n" is the transpose of "rotation matrix from n to e". By applying several matrix multiplications in succession, any vector can be expressed in any basis so long as the set of direction cosines is known relating the successive bases.[7]
[edit]Other

dimensions

With the exception of the cross and triple products, the above formula generalise to two dimensions and higher dimensions. For example, addition generalises to two dimensions the addition of

and in four dimension

The cross product generalises to the exterior product, whose result is a bivector, which in general is not a vector. In two dimensions this is simply a scalar

The seven-dimensional cross product is similar to the cross product in that its result is a seven-dimensional vector orthogonal to the two arguments.
[edit]Physics

Vectors have many uses in physics and other sciences.

[edit]Length

and units

In abstract vector spaces, the length of the arrow depends on a dimensionless scale. If it represents, for example, a force, the "scale" is of physical dimension length/force. Thus there is typically consistency in scale among quantities of the same dimension, but otherwise scale ratios may vary;

for example, if "1 newton" and "5 m" are both represented with an arrow of 2 cm, the scales are 1:250 and 1 m:50 N respectively. Equal length of vectors of different dimension has no particular significance unless there is some proportionality constantinherent in the system that the diagram represents. Also length of a unit vector (of dimension length, not length/force, etc.) has no coordinate-system-invariant significance.
[edit]Vector-valued

functions

Main article: Vector-valued function Often in areas of physics and mathematics, a vector evolves in time, meaning that it depends on a time parameter t. For instance, if r represents the position vector of a particle, thenr(t) gives a parametric representation of the trajectory of the particle. Vector-valued functions can differentiated and integrated by differentiating or integrating the components of the vector, and many of the familiar rules from calculus continue to hold for the derivative and integral of vector-valued functions.
[edit]Position,

velocity and acceleration

The position of a point x=(x1, x2, x3) in three dimensional space can be represented as a position vector whose base point is the origin

The position vectors has dimensions of length. Given two points x=(x1, x2, x3), y=(y1, y2, y3) their displacement is a vector

which specifies the position of y relative to x. The length of this vector gives the straight line distance from x to y. Displacement has the dimensions of length. The velocity v of a point or particle is a vector, its length gives the speed. For constant velocity the position at time t will be

where x0 is the position at time t=0. Velocity is the time derivative of position. Its dimensions are length/time. Acceleration a of a point is vector which is the time derivative of velocity. Its dimensions are length/time2.
[edit]Force,

energy, work

Force is a vector with dimensions of masslength/time2 and Newton's second law is the scalar multiplication

Work is the dot product of force and displacement

[edit]Vector

components

Illustration of tangential and normal components of a vector to a surface.

A vector is often described by a set of components that are mutually perpendicular and add up to form the given vector. The decomposition of a vector into components is not unique, because it depends on the choice of basis set. Basis sets are often derived from coordinate systems such as Cartesian coordinates, spherical coordinates or polar coordinates. For example, an axial component of a vector is a component whose direction is determined by a projection onto one of the Cartesian coordinate axes, whereas radial and tangential components relate to the radiusof rotation of an object as their direction of reference. The former is parallel to the radius and the latter is orthogonal to it.[8] Both remain orthogonal to the axis of rotation at all times. (In two dimensions this requirement becomes redundant as the axis degenerates to a point of rotation.) The choice of a coordinate system doesn't affect properties of a vector or its behaviour under transformations.
[edit]Vectors

as directional derivatives

A vector may also be defined as a directional derivative: consider a function f(x) and a curve x(). Then the directional derivative of f is a scalar defined as

where the index is summed over the appropriate number of dimensions (for example, from 1 to 3 in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, from 0 to 3 in 4dimensional spacetime, etc.). Then consider a vector tangent to x():

The directional derivative can be rewritten in differential form (without a given function f) as

Therefore any directional derivative can be identified with a corresponding vector, and any vector can be identified with a corresponding directional derivative. A vector can therefore be defined precisely as

[edit]Vectors,

pseudovectors, and transformations

An alternative characterization of Euclidean vectors, especially in physics, describes them as lists of quantities which behave in a certain way under a coordinate transformation. Acontravariant vector is required to have components that "transform like the coordinates" under changes of coordinates such as rotation and dilation. The vector itself does not change under these operations; instead, the components of the vector make a change that cancels the change in the spatial axes, in the same way that co-ordinates change. In other words, if the reference axes were rotated in one direction, the component representation of the vector would rotate in exactly the opposite way. Similarly, if the reference axes were stretched in one direction, the components of the vector, like the co-ordinates, would reduce in an exactly compensating way. Mathematically, if the coordinate system undergoes a transformation described by an invertible matrix M, so that a coordinate vector x is transformed to x = Mx, then a contravariant vector v must be similarly transformed via v = Mv. This important requirement is what distinguishes a contravariant vector from any other triple of physically meaningful quantities. For example, if v consists of the x, y, and z-components of velocity, then v is a contravariant vector: if the coordinates of space are stretched, rotated, or twisted, then the components of the velocity transform in the same way. On the other hand, for instance, a triple consisting of the length, width, and height of a rectangular box could make up the three components of an abstract vector, but this vector would not be contravariant, since rotating the box does not change the box's length, width, and height. Examples of contravariant vectors include displacement, velocity, electric field, momentum, force, andacceleration. In the language of differential geometry, the requirement that the components of a vector transform according to the same matrix of the coordinate transition is equivalent to defining acontravariant vector to be a tensor of contravariant rank one. Alternatively, a contravariant vector is defined to be a tangent vector, and the rules for transforming a contravariant vector follow from the chain rule. Some vectors transform like contravariant vectors, except that when they are reflected through a mirror, they flip and gain a minus sign. A transformation that switches right-handedness to left-handedness and vice versa like a mirror does is said to change the orientation of space. A vector which gains a minus sign when the orientation of space changes is called apseudovector or an axial vector. Ordinary vectors are sometimes called true vectors or polar vectors to distinguish them from pseudovectors. Pseudovectors occur most frequently as thecross product of two ordinary vectors. One example of a pseudovector is angular velocity. Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular velocity vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right

side of the car, the reflection of this angular velocity vector points to the right, but the actual angular velocity vector of the wheel still points to the left, corresponding to the minus sign. Other examples of pseudovectors include magnetic field, torque, or more generally any cross product of two (true) vectors. This distinction between vectors and pseudovectors is often ignored, but it becomes important in studying symmetry properties. See parity (physics).
[edit]Non-Euclidean

vectors

Not all vectors are Euclidean. Not all vector spaces have a Euclidean norm. An important example is Minkowski space, a seminormed vector space which is central to our understanding of special relativity. The vectors in Minkowski space are called 4-vectors. The dot product in this space is distinctly nonEuclidean. Additional important examples come from thermodynamics, where many of the quantities of interest can be considered vectors in a space with no norm, no dot product, and no notion of lengths or angles.[9] Such a space has a topology but no geometry.
[edit]See

also

Power (physics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In physics, power is the rate at which work is performed or energy is converted[1][2] If W is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration t, the average power Pavg over that period is given by the formula

It is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is often simply called "power" when the context makes it clear. The instantaneous power is then the limiting value of the average power as the time interval t approaches zero.

In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by:

In the context of energy conversion it is more customary to use the symbol E rather than W.

Movimento retilneo
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

A Wikipdia possui o portal: Portal de Fsica Movimento retilneo, em Mecnica, aquele movimento em que o corpo ou ponto material se desloca apenas em trajetrias retas. Para tanto, ou a velocidade se mantm constante ou a variao da velocidade d-se somente em mdulo, nunca em direo. A acelerao, se variar, tambm variar apenas em mdulo e nunca em direo, e dever orientar-se sempre em paralelo com a velocidade.

Tipos de movimento retilneo

[editar]Movimento

Os movimentos retilneos mais comumente estudados so o movimento retilneo uniforme e o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado.

retilneo uniforme (MRU)

No movimento retilneo uniforme(MRU), o vetor velocidade constante no decorrer do tempo (no varia em mdulo, sentido ou direo), e portanto a acelerao nula. O corpo ou ponto material se desloca distncias iguais em intervalos de tempo iguais, vale lembrar que, uma vez que no se tem acelerao, sobre qualquer corpo ou ponto material em MRU a resultante das foras aplicadas nula (primeira lei de Newton - Lei da Inrcia). Uma das caractersticas dele que sua velocidade em qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia. [editar]Movimento

retilneo uniformemente variado (MRUV)

J o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado(MRUV), tambm encontrado como movimento uniformemente variado (MUV), aquele em que o corpo sofre acelerao constante, mudando de velocidade num dado incremento ou decremento conhecido. Para que o movimento ainda seja retilneo, a acelerao deve ter a mesma direo da velocidade. Caso a acelerao tenha o mesmo sentido da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Acelerado. Caso a acelerao tenha sentido contrrio da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Retardado. A queda livre dos corpos, em regies prxima Terra, um movimento retilneo uniformemente variado. Uma vez que nas proximidades da Terra o campo gravitacional pode ser considerado uniforme. O movimento retilneo pode ainda variar sem uma ordem muito clara, quando a acelerao no for constante. importante salientar que no MCU (movimento circular uniforme) a fora resultante no nula. A fora centrpeta d a acelerao necessria para que o mvel mude sua direo sem mudar o mdulo de sua velocidade. Porm, o vetor velocidade est constantemente mudando. [editar]Equaes

dos movimentos retilneos

Em qualquer movimento retilneo a velocidade mdia :

E a acelerao mdia :

Para as equaes, usa-se geralmente os smbolos to,so e vo para o tempo, a posio e a velocidade iniciais respectivamente. O smbolo a representa a acelerao, t a varivel tempo,s e v representam a posio e a velocidade em um determinado instante.

[editar]Equaes

do MRU

Como v constante no MRU a velocidade a qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia:

v = vm
Ou seja:

Como s = s so podemos transformar a equao acima em uma funo da posio em relao ao tempo:

s = so + vt
Note que a equao acima assume que to = 0, se o valor inicial do tempo no for zero basta trocar t por t. Essa uma funo linear, portanto o grfico posio versus tempo seria uma reta, e a tangente do ngulo de inclinao dessa em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da velocidade. [editar]Equaes

do MRUV

No caso do MRUV a acelerao constante, portanto:

a = am
Assim:

De forma similar ao que foi feito com o MRU, como velocidade em relao ao tempo:

v = v vo podemos escrever a funo da

v = vo + at

Essa uma funo linear, portanto sua representao num grfico velocidade versus tempo uma reta. A rea entre essa reta e o eixo do tempo, em um intervalo temporal o valor da distncia percorrida nesse intervalo (a figura formada ser um tringulo ou um trapzio). O coeficiente angular dessa reta em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da acelerao. Para se encontrar a funo da posio em relao ao tempo pode-se integrar a funo acima, feito isso temos:

Essa nova funo quadrtica representando uma parbola no grfico espao versus tempo. A velocidade no instante t igual ao coeficiente angular da reta tangente parbola no ponto correspondente a t. Manipulando-se as equaes possvel encontrar a velocidade em funo do deslocamento, a chamada Equao de Torricelli: Essa equao particularmente til quando se quer evitar a varivel tempo. [editar]Ver

tambm

Movimento parablico
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Movimento parablico

O movimento parablico caracterizado por dois movimentos simultneos em direes perpendiculares, mais especificamente um deles um Movimento Retilneo Uniforme e outro um Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Variado. Dadas essas circunstncias o mvel se desloca segundo uma parbola. Tais circunstncias podem ser observadas num simples lanamento oblquo, onde, desprezando o atrito do ar e demais efeitos o objeto se desloca verticalmente acelerado pela ao da gravidade local, e, horizontalmente se desloca seguindo velocidade constante.
[editar]Demonstrao

Atravs de ferramentas do Clculo Diferencial e Integral possvel descrever com exatido as situaes em que a trajetria um dado projtil parablico. Inicialmente, razovel considerar que um corpo quando arremessado tem sua trajetria descrita num plano. Consideraremos ento que o projtil se desloca no plano cartesiano x0y. Assim, sabendo a velocidade e a posio (aqui especificamente expressadas nabase cannica) no instante inicial t = 0:

Considerando que o corpo no sofre nenhum tipo de influncia externa, com exceo da gravidade local, possvel concluir que:

Onde, g a constante de acelerao da gravidade. Usando a definio de acelerao:

De maneira semelhante, usando a definio de velocidade possvel encontrar a funo da trajetria do mvel de acordo com o tempo, e consequentemente, a equao da trajetria:

, supondo que o movimento comea no ponto de cordenadas

Substituindo em y, temos que:

Que facilmente reconhecida como uma equao de segundo grau. Para os casos particulares de queda livre ou lanamento vertical, onde seria necessria outra deduo com certas consideraes que fogem do escopo deste artigo, afinal a trajetria de tais movimentos no seria uma parbola.
[editar]Frmulas

do Movimento Parablico

Sem as ferramentas do Clculo Diferencial e Integral ainda assim possvel construir equaes que modelam esse tipo de situao. Por exemplo, se um projtil disparado a partir do solo com uma velocidade inicial , formando um ngulo com o solo, em um local com acelerao da gravidade constante . A partir das frmulas de movimento da cinemtica, possvel construir frmulas diretas, nas quais o alcance do projtil e o tempo que o projtil leva para atingir o solo.

No topo do vo, s existir a componente horizontal da velocidade, que durante toda a trajetria mantm-se constante, desde que os atritos com o ar sejam desprezveis. Essa componente vx tal que:

A gravidade atuar, na primeira metade do movimento, como fora antimovimento no eixo y referente ao movimento. Logo aps o ponto mais alto do vo, a gravidade comea a atuar como fora a favor do movimento (em y), e vy comea a aumentar. Pela frmula do alcance, possvel notar que ele ser mximo quando o ngulo de lanamento for de 45, pois:

Como

Qualquer outro valor para

[editar]Ver

resultaria em um seno menor que 1.

tambm

ndice
[esconder]

1 Tipos de movime nto retilneo 1 . 1 M o v i m e n t o r e ti l n e o u n if o r m e ( M R U ) 1 . 2 M o v i m e n t o r e ti

[editar]Tipos

de movimento retilneo

Os movimentos retilneos mais comumente estudados so o movimento retilneo uniforme e o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado.
[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniforme (MRU)

No movimento retilneo uniforme(MRU), o vetor velocidade constante no decorrer do tempo (no varia em mdulo, sentido ou direo), e portanto a acelerao nula. O corpo ou ponto material se desloca distncias iguais em intervalos de tempo iguais, vale lembrar que, uma vez que no se tem acelerao, sobre qualquer corpo ou ponto material em MRU a resultante das foras aplicadas nula (primeira lei de Newton - Lei da Inrcia). Uma das caractersticas dele que sua velocidade em qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia.
[editar]Movimento

retilneo uniformemente variado (MRUV)

J o movimento retilneo uniformemente variado(MRUV), tambm encontrado como movimento uniformemente variado (MUV), aquele em que o corpo sofre acelerao constante, mudando de velocidade num dado incremento ou decremento conhecido. Para que o movimento ainda seja retilneo, a acelerao deve ter a mesma direo da velocidade. Caso a acelerao tenha o mesmo sentido da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Acelerado. Caso a acelerao tenha sentido contrrio da velocidade, o movimento pode ser chamado de Movimento Retilneo Uniformemente Retardado. A queda livre dos corpos, em regies prxima Terra, um movimento retilneo uniformemente variado. Uma vez que nas proximidades da Terra o campo gravitacional pode ser considerado uniforme. O movimento retilneo pode ainda variar sem uma ordem muito clara, quando a acelerao no for constante. importante salientar que no MCU (movimento circular uniforme) a fora resultante no nula. A fora centrpeta d a acelerao necessria para que o mvel mude sua direo sem mudar o mdulo de sua velocidade. Porm, o vetor velocidade est constantemente mudando.
[editar]Equaes

dos movimentos retilneos

Em qualquer movimento retilneo a velocidade mdia :

E a acelerao mdia :

Para as equaes, usa-se geralmente os smbolos to,so e vo para o tempo, a posio e a velocidade iniciais respectivamente. O smbolo a representa a acelerao, t a varivel tempo,s e v representam a posio e a velocidade em um determinado instante.
[editar]Equaes

do MRU

Como v constante no MRU a velocidade a qualquer instante igual velocidade mdia:

v = vm Ou seja:

Como s = s so podemos transformar a equao acima em uma funo da posio em relao ao tempo: s = so + vt Note que a equao acima assume que to = 0, se o valor inicial do tempo no for zero basta trocar t por t. Essa uma funo linear, portanto o grfico posio versus tempo seria uma reta, e a tangente do ngulo de inclinao dessa em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da velocidade.
[editar]Equaes

do MRUV

No caso do MRUV a acelerao constante, portanto: a = am Assim:

De forma similar ao que foi feito com o MRU, como v = v vo podemos escrever a funo da velocidade em relao ao tempo: v = vo + at Essa uma funo linear, portanto sua representao num grfico velocidade versus tempo uma reta. A rea entre essa reta e o eixo do tempo, em um intervalo temporal o valor da distncia percorrida nesse intervalo (a figura formada ser um tringulo ou um trapzio). O coeficiente angular dessa reta em relao ao eixo do tempo o valor da acelerao. Para se encontrar a funo da posio em relao ao tempo pode-se integrar a funo acima, feito isso temos:

Essa nova funo quadrtica representando uma parbola no grfico espao versus tempo. A velocidade no instante t igual ao coeficiente angular da reta tangente parbola no ponto correspondente a t. Manipulando-se as equaes possvel encontrar a velocidade em funo do deslocamento, a chamada Equao de Torricelli: Essa equao particularmente

Contents
[hide]

1 Units 2 Mech anical power 3 Electr ical power 3 . 1 I n s t a n t a n e o u s e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r 4 Peak power and duty cycle 5 Power in optics 6 See also 7 Refer ences

[edit]Units

The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The unit of power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Other units of power include ergs per second (erg/s),horsepower (hp), metric horsepower (Pferdestrke (PS) or cheval vapeur, CV), and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the power required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second, and is equivalent to about 746 watts. Other units include dBm, a relative logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference; (food)calories per hour (often referred to as kilocalories per hour); Btu per hour (Btu/h); and tons of refrigeration (12,000 Btu/h).
[edit]Mechanical

power

In mechanics, the work done on an object is related to the forces acting on it by

where F is force d is the displacement of the object. This is often summarized by saying that work is equal to the force acting on an object times its displacement (how far the object moves while the force acts on it). Note that only motion that is along the same axis as the force "counts", however; a force in the same direction as motion produces positive work, and a force in an opposing direction of motion provides negative work, while motion perpendicular to the force yields zero work. Differentiating by time gives that the instantaneous power is equal to the force times the object's velocity v(t): . The average power is then . This formula is important in characterizing enginesthe power output of an engine is equal to the force it exerts multiplied by its velocity. In rotational systems, power is related to the torque () and angular velocity (): . Or

The average power is therefore

. In systems with fluid flow, power is related to pressure, p and volumetric flow rate, Q:

where p is pressure (in pascals, or N/m2 in SI units) Q is volumetric flow rate (in m3/s in SI units)
[edit]Electrical

power
electrical power

Main article: Electric power

[edit]Instantaneous

The instantaneous electrical power P delivered to a component is given by

where P(t) is the instantaneous power, measured in watts (joules per second) V(t) is the potential difference (or voltage drop) across the component, measured in volts I(t) is the current through it, measured in amperes If the component is a resistor with time-invariant voltage to current ratio, then:

where

is the resistance, measured in ohms.

[edit]Peak

power and duty cycle

In a train of identical pulses, the instantaneous power is a periodic function of time. The ratio of the pulse duration to the period is equal to the ratio of the average power to the peak power. It is also called the duty cycle (see text for definitions).

In the case of a periodic signal s(t) of period T, like a train of identical pulses, the instantaneous powerp(t) = | s(t) | 2 is also a periodic function of period T. The peak power is simply defined by:
P0 = max[p(t)].

The peak power is not always readily measurable, however, and the measurement of the average power Pavgis more commonly performed by an instrument. If one defines the energy per pulse as:

then the average power is:

. One may define the pulse length such that P0 = pulse so that the ratios

are equal. These ratios are called the duty cycle of the pulse train.
[edit]Power

in optics

Main article: Optical power In optics, or radiometry, the term power sometimes refers to radiant flux, the average rate of energy transport by electromagnetic radiation, measured

in watts. The term "power" is also, however, used to express the ability of a lens or other optical device to focus light. It is measured in dioptres (inverse metres), and equals the inverse of the focal length of the optical device.

Hidrosttica
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Esta pgina ou seco no cita nenhuma fonte ou referncia.

Editor, considere adicionar ms e ano na marcao. Isso pode ser feito automaticamente, substituindo essa predefinio por {{subst:s-fontes}}

Por favor, melhore este artigo providenciando fontes fiveis e independentes, inserindo-as no corpo do texto por meio de notas de rodap. Encontre fontes: Google notcias, livros, acadmico Scirus A hidrosttica, tambm chamada esttica dos fluidos ou fluidosttica (hidrosttica refere-se a gua, que foi o primeiro fluido a ser estudado, assim por razes histricas mantm-se o nome) a parte da fsica que estuda as foras exercidas por e sobre fluidos em repouso.
ndice
[esconder]

1 Foras decorren tes da presso 2 Press o hidrostt ica 3 Princp io de Arquime des 4 Press o atmosfr ica 5 Princp io de Pascal 6 Ver tambm 7 Liga es externas
[editar]Foras

decorrentes da presso

A presso, que uma fora exercida pela gua ou qualquer outro fluido numa superfcie qualquer, por exemplo, numa barragem ou numa comporta, determina-se pelas leis da hidrosttica. A presso exercida pela gua sempre

perpendicular superfcie ( da barragem ou da comporta ) e varia com a profundidade

[editar]Presso

hidrosttica

A presso hidrosttica em um ponto

Considere um volume cbico de gua. Estando este em repouso, o peso da gua acima dele necessariamente estar contra-balanado pela presso interna neste cubo. Para um cubo cujo volume tende para zero, ou seja um ponto, esta presso pode ser expressa por

em que, usando unidades no sistema SI, P a presso hidrosttica (em pascals); a massa especfica da gua, ou densidade (em quilogramas por metro cbico); g ou a a acelerao da gravidade (em metros por segundo quadrado); h a altura do lquido por cima do trao (em metros). No caso de a presso atmosfrica no ser desprezvel, necessrio acrescentar o valor da sua presso, tomando a equao o seguinte aspecto

[editar]Princpio

de Arquimedes

Ver artigo principal: Princpio de Arquimedes

A diferena de presso a origem da fora de empuxo

Um corpo slido imerso num fluido sofre a ao de uma fora dirigida para cima igual ao peso do fluido deslocado. FE = Wfluido = fluido . Vdeslocado . g Isto devido presso hidrosttica no fluido. No caso de um navio, o seu peso contra-balanado por uma fora de impulso igual ao volume de gua que desloca, que corresponder ao volume submerso do navio. Se lhe for acrescentada mais carga, esse volume submerso vai aumentar, e, com ele, a fora de impulso, permitindo ao barco flutuar. No Brasil, d-se o nome de empuxo a esta fora. A descoberta do princpio da impulso atribuda a Arquimedes.
[editar]Presso

atmosfrica

Experincia de Torricelli: na parte superior do tubo h quase-vcuo.

Ver artigo principal: Presso atmosfrica A presso atmosfrica a presso hidrosttica causada pelo peso do ar acima do ponto de medio. reas de baixa presso tm menos massa atmosfrica acima do local, enquanto que as reas de alta presso tm mais massa atmosfrica acima do local. Da mesma forma, quanto maior for a elevao, menos massa atmosfrica acima haver, por isso que a presso diminui com o aumento da altitude.
[editar]Princpio

de Pascal

Ver artigo principal: Princpio de Pascal O Princpio de Pascal enuncia-se da seguinte forma: Uma variao de presso provocada num ponto de um fluido em equilbrio transmite-se a todos os pontos do fluido e s paredes que o contm.

Uma aplicao prtica a prensa hidrulica. Para um mbolo de 10m e outro de 1m, uma fora equivalente a 70 kg ser suficiente para levantar um veculo que pese 700 kg, no outro mbolo.

Prensa hidrulica: O aumento da fora hidrulica

Considerando a presso num ponto 1 com uma altura h como p1, se variarmos a sua presso em p, a sua presso passar a ser

Como 1 um ponto genrico, todos os pontos do fluido sero acrescidos de p Mas,

Ento para dois pontos distintos no fluido, 1 e 2 p1 = p2 Logo, ou,

Assim, o peso possvel de ser levantado no ponto 2 proporcional rea do mbolo em 2, mesmo que pequenas foras e reas existam em 1.

Teorema de Stevin
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.
(Redirecionado de Teorema de stevin)

Esta pgina ou seco foi marcada para reviso, devido a inconsistncias e/ou dados de confiabilidade duvidosa.Se tem algum conhecimento sobre o tema, por favor verifique e melhore a consistncia e o rigor deste artigo. Pode encontrar ajuda nos WikiProjetos Ambiente e Fsica.
Se existir um WikiProjeto mais adequado, por favor corrija esta predefinio. Este artigo est para reviso desde Fevereiro de 2008.

O Teorema de Stevin diz que a presso absoluta num ponto de um lquido homogneo e incompressvel, de densidade d e profundidade h, igual presso atmosfrica (exercida sobre a superfcie desse lquido) mais a presso efetiva, e no depende da forma do recipiente:

ou seja,

onde, no SI, Pabs corresponde presso hidrosttica (em pascals), d a densidade do lquido (em quilogramas por metro cbico), g a acelerao da gravidade (em metros por segundo ao quadrado), h a medida da coluna de lquido acima do ponto ou seja, a profundidade na qual o lquido se encontra (em metros) , e Patm corresponde presso atmosfrica (em pascals). Simon Stevin foi um fsico e matemtico belga que concentrou suas pesquisas nos campos da esttica e da hidrosttica, no final do sculo 16, e desenvolveu estudos tambm no campo da geometria vetorial. Entre outras coisas, ele demonstrou, experimentalmente, que a presso exercida por um fluido depende exclusivamente da sua altura. A lei de Stevin est relacionada com verificaes que podemos fazer sobre a presso atmosfrica e a presso nos lquidos. Como sabemos, dos estudos no campo da hidrosttica, quando consideramos um lquido qualquer que est em equilbrio, temos grandezas importantes a observar, tais como: massa especfica (densidade), acelerao gravitacional local (g) e altura da coluna de lquido (h). possvel escrever a presso para dois pontos distintos da seguinte forma: PA = d g hA PB = d g hB Nesse caso, podemos observar que a presso do ponto B certamente superior presso no ponto A. Isso ocorre porque o ponto B est numa profundidade maior e, portanto, deve suportar uma coluna maior de lquido. Podemos utilizar um artifcio matemtico para obter uma expresso que relacione a presso de B em funo da presso do ponto A (diferena entre as presses), observando: PB - PA = dghB - dghA PB - PA = dg (hB - hA) PB - PA = dgh PB = PA + dgh Utilizando essa constatao, para um lquido em equilbrio cuja superfcie est sob ao da presso atmosfrica, a presso absoluta (P) exercida em um ponto submerso qualquer do lquido seria:

P = Patm + Phidrost = Patm + d g h Vasos comunicantes Uma das aplicaes do Teorema de Stevin so os vasos comunicantes. Num lquido que est em recipientes interligados, cada um deles com formas e capacidades diversas, observaremos que a altura do lquido ser igual em todos eles depois de estabelecido o equilbrio. Isso ocorre porque a presso exercida pelo lquido depende apenas da altura da coluna. As demais grandezas so constantes para uma situao desse tipo (presso atmosfrica, densidade e acelerao da gravidade). As caixas e reservatrios de gua, por exemplo, aproveitam-se desse princpio para receberem ou distriburem gua sem precisar de bombas para auxiliar esse deslocamento do lquido. Este artigo sobre fsica um esboo. Voc pode ajudar a Wikipdia expandindo-o.

Presso
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

A presso ou tenso mecnica (smbolo: p) a fora normal (perpendicular rea) exercida por unidade de rea. Formalmente,

Onde p a presso, F a fora, e A a rea da presso atmosfrica. A presso relativa define-se como a diferena entre a presso absoluta e a presso atmosfrica. Os aparelhos destinados a medir a presso relativa so o manmetro e tambm opiezmetro. A presso atmosfrica mede-se com um barmetro, inventado por Torricelli. O termo presso hidrulica (embora na origem relacionado com sistemas utilizando-se ou baseados em gua) refere-se a presses transmitidas por fluidos, como leos, em especial, em mquinas hidrulicas, em cilindros hidrulicos (como nos macacos hidrulicos e freios hidrulicos de veculos), em fenmenos relacionados com o princpio de Pascal, etc., em que variaes de presso sofridos por um volume de um lquido so transmitidos integralmente a todos os pontos deste lquido e s paredes do recipiente onde este est contido. Para informaes sobre a presso interna exercida pelo sangue no organismo humano, veja presso arterial. Tanto na presso arterial como na presso sobre as vias areas (cm de gua) temos uma simplificao para facilitar a leitura, pois de uma unidade complexa temos uma mais simples e linear de fcil interpretao.

ndice
[esconder]

1 Unida des de presso 1 . 1 O u tr a s u n i d a d e s 2 Ver tambm 3 Liga es externas

[editar]Unidades

de presso

Ver artigo principal: Unidades de presso A unidade no SI para medir a presso o Pascal (Pa). A presso exercida pela atmosfera ao nvel do mar corresponde a aproximadamente 101 325 Pa (presso normal), e esse valor normalmente associado a uma unidade chamada atmosfera padro (smbolo atm)
[editar]Outras

unidades

Atmosfera a presso correspondente a 0,760 m (760 mm) de Hg de densidade 13,5951 g/cm e numa acelerao da gravidade de 9,80665 m/s Bria a unidade de presso no sistema c,g,s e vale uma dyn/cm Bar um mltiplo da Bria: 1 bar = 106 brias PSI (pound per square inch), libra por polegada quadrada, a unidade de presso no sistema ingls/americano: 1 psi = 0,07 bar ;1 bar = 14,5 psi

A tabela apresenta os valores para as transformaes das unidades: Por exemplo: 1 atm = 1,013105 Pa Atmosfera Atmosfera 1 Pascal Bria Bar milibar ou mm Hg m H2O kgf/cm hPa 760,0 10,33 1,033

1,01325 1,01325 1,01325 1013,25

105 Pascal Bria Bar milibar mm Hg m H2O kgf/cm 9,869101 6 9,869100,1 7 0,9869 100000 9,86910100 4 1,31610133,3 3 9,678109807 2 0,968

106 10 1 1000000 1000 1333 10-5 10-6 1 0,001 0,01 0,001 1000 1 7,5011 1,0201 1,0191 0-3 0-4 0-5 7,5011 1,0201 1,0201 0-4 0-5 0-2 750,1 0,7501 1 73,56 735,8 10,20 1,020 1,0201 10,20 0-2 1,3601 13,60 0-2 1 10,00 0,100 1

1,3331 1,333 0-3

9,80710 9,8071 98,06 4 0-2 981,0

9,81010 9,81010 0,9810 4 5

[editar]Ver

tambm

Fluido
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Este artigo ou seco contm uma lista de fontes ou uma nica fonte no fim do texto, mas estas no so citadasno corpo do artigo, o que compromete a verificabilidade. (desde dezembro de 2009)
Por favor, melhore este artigo introduzindo notas de rodap citando as fontes, inserindo-as no corpo do texto quando necessrio.

Um fluido uma substncia que se deforma continuamente quando submetida a uma tenso de cisalhamento, no importando o quo pequena possa ser essa tenso. Um subconjunto das fases da matria, os fluidos incluem os lquidos, os gases, os plasmas e, de certa maneira, os slidos plsticos Os fluidos compartilham a propriedade de no resistir a deformao e apresentam a capacidade de fluir (tambm descrita como a habilidade de tomar a forma de seus recipientes). Estas propriedade so tipicamente em decorrncia da sua incapacidade de suportar uma tenso de cisalhamento em equilbrio esttico. Enquanto em um slido, a resistncia funo da deformao, em um fluido a resistncia uma funo da razo de deformao. Uma consequncia deste comportamento o Princpio de Pascal o qual caracteriza o importante papel da presso na caracterizao do estado fluido. Fluidos podem ser classificados como fluidos newtonianos ou fluidos nonewtonianos, uma classificao associada caracterizao da tenso, como linear ou no-linear no que diz respeito dependncia desta tenso com relao deformao e sua derivada. O comportamento dos fluidos descrito por um conjunto de equaes diferenciais parciais, incluindo as equaes de Navier-Stokes

Os fluidos tambm so divididos em lquidos e gases. Lquidos formam uma superfcie livre, isto , quando em repouso apresentam uma superfcie estacionria no determinada pelo recipiente que contm o lquido. Os gases apresentam a propriedade de se expandirem livremente quando no confinados (ou contidos) por um recipiente, no formando portanto uma superfcie livre. A superfcie livre caracterstica dos lquidos uma propriedade da presena de tenso interna e atrao/repulso entre as molculas do fluido, bem como da relao entre as tenses internas do lquido com o fluido ou slido que o limita. A presso capilar est associada com esta relao. Um fluido que apresenta resistncia reduo de volume prprio denominado fluido incompressvel, enquanto o fluido que responde com uma reduo de seu volume prprio ao ser submetido a ao de uma fora denominado fluido compressvel. A distino entre slidos e fluidos no to obvia quanto parece. A distino feita pela comparao da viscosidade da matria: por exemplo asfalto, mel, lama so substncias que podem ser consideradas ou no como um fluido, dependendo do perodo das condies e do perodo de tempo no qual so observadas. O estudo de um fluidos feito pela mecnica dos fluidos a qual esta subdividida em dinmica dos fluidos e esttica dos fluidos dependendo se o fluido esta ou no em movimento.
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tambm

Fluid mechanics
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Continuum mechanics

[show]Laws [show]Solid mechanics [show]Fluid mechanics [show]Rheology [show]Scientists

vde

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids, gases, and plasmas.) Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, which can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid kinetics, the study of fluids in motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms, that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many unsolved or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex. Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems. Also taking advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow is particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow.

Contents
[hide]

1 Brief history 2 Relati onship to continu um mechan ics 3 Assu mptions 3 . 1 T h e c o n t i n u u m h y p o t h e s i s 4 Navie r Stokes equatio ns 4 . 1 G e n

[edit]Brief

history

Main article: History of fluid mechanics The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known now as the Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da Vinci (observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli (barometer), Isaac Newton (viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics), and was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in Hydrodynamica (1738). Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Leonhard Euler, d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a multitude of engineers including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen. Further mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in the NavierStokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig Prandtl), while various scientists (Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, Geoffrey Ingram Taylor) advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.
[edit]Relationship

to continuum mechanics

Fluid mechanics is a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the following table. Elasticity Solid mechanics Continuum mechanics
The study of the physics of continuous materials The study of the physics of continuous materials with a defined rest shape. Describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied stress.

Plasticity
Describes materials that permanently deform after a sufficient applied stress.

Rheology
The study of materials with both solid and fluid characteristics.

Fluid mechanics
The study of the physics of continuous materials which take the shape of their container.

Non-Newtonian fluids Newtonian fluids

In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support shear stress; that is why a fluid at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.
[edit]Assumptions

Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true. For example, consider an incompressible fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means that for any fixed closed surface (such as a sphere) the rate of mass passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as rate of mass passing the other way. (Alternatively, the massinside remains constant, as does the mass outside). This can be turned into an integral equation over the surface. Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following: Conservation of mass Conservation of energy

 Conservation of momentum The continuum hypothesis, detailed below. Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible that is, the density of the fluid does not change. Liquids can often be modelled as incompressible fluids, whereas gases cannot. Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is inviscid). Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not porous, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and Joseph condition).
[edit]The

continuum hypothesis

Main article: Continuum mechanics Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. The continuum assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at "infinitely" small points, defining a REV (Reference Element of Volume), at the geometric order of the distance between two adjacent molecules of fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, and are averaged values in the REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored. The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets are approximated by point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and therefore results in approximate solutions. Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to results which are not of desired accuracy. That said, under the right circumstances, the continuum hypothesis produces extremely accurate results. Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of desired accuracy are solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not to use conventional fluid dynamics or statistical mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated for the problem. The Knudsen number is defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free pathlength to a certain representative physical length scale. This length scale could be, for example, the radius of a body in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is how many times its own diameter a particle will travel on average before hitting another particle). Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above unity are best evaluated using statistical mechanics for reliable solutions.
[edit]NavierStokes

equations

Main article: NavierStokes equations The NavierStokes equations (named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes) are the set of equations that describe the motion of fluid substances such as liquids and gases. These equations state that changes in momentum (force) of fluid particles depend only on the

external pressure and internal viscous forces (similar to friction) acting on the fluid. Thus, the NavierStokes equations describe the balance of forces acting at any given region of the fluid. The NavierStokes equations are differential equations which describe the motion of a fluid. Such equations establish relations among the rates of change of the variables of interest. For example, the NavierStokes equations for an ideal fluid with zero viscosity states that acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) is proportional to the derivative of internal pressure. This means that solutions of the NavierStokes equations for a given physical problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow (flow does not change with time) in which the Reynolds number is small. For more complex situations, such as global weather systems like El Nio or lift in a wing, solutions of the NavierStokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This is a field of sciences by its own called computational fluid dynamics.
[edit]General

form of the equation

The general form of the NavierStokes equations for the conservation of momentum is:

where is the fluid density, is the substantive derivative (also called the material derivative), is the velocity vector, is the body force vector, and is a tensor that represents the surface forces applied on a fluid particle (the stress tensor). is a

Unless the fluid is made up of spinning degrees of freedom like vortices, symmetric tensor. In general, (in three dimensions) has the form:

where are normal stresses, are tangential stresses (shear stresses).

The above is actually a set of three equations, one per dimension. By themselves, these aren't sufficient to produce a solution. However, adding conservation of mass and appropriate boundary conditions to the system of equations produces a solvable set of equations.

[edit]Newtonian

versus non-Newtonian fluids

A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the plane of shear. This definition means regardless of the forces acting on a fluid, it continues to flow. For example, water is a Newtonian fluid, because it continues to display fluid properties no matter how much it is stirred or mixed. A slightly less rigorous definition is that the drag of a small object being moved slowly through the fluid is proportional to the force applied to the object. (Compare friction). Important fluids, like water as well as most gases, behave to good approximation as a Newtonian fluid under normal conditions on Earth.[1] By contrast, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can leave a "hole" behind. This will gradually fill up over time this behaviour is seen in materials such as pudding, oobleck, or sand (although sand isn't strictly a fluid). Alternatively, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can cause the viscosity to decrease, so the fluid appears "thinner" (this is seen in non-drip paints). There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids, as they are defined to be something that fails to obey a particular property for example, most fluids with long molecular chains can react in a non-Newtonian manner.[1]
[edit]Equations

for a Newtonian fluid

Main article: Newtonian fluid The constant of proportionality between the shear stress and the velocity gradient is known as the viscosity. A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behaviour is

where
is the shear stress exerted by the fluid ("drag") is the fluid viscosity a constant of proportionality

is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear. For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature and pressure, not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible and viscosity is constant across the fluid, the equation governing the shear stress (in Cartesian coordinates) is

where
ij is the shear stress on the ith face of a fluid element in the jth direction vi is the velocity in the ith direction xj is the jth direction coordinate.

If a fluid does not obey this relation, it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there are several types.

Among fluids, two rough broad divisions can be made: ideal and non-ideal fluids. An ideal fluid really does not exist, but in some calculations, the assumption is justifiable. An Ideal fluid is non viscous- offers no resistance whatsoever to a shearing force. One can group real fluids into Newtonian and non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids agree with Newton's law of viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids can be either plastic, bingham plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic, viscoelatic.