Wireless Communications with Matlab and Simulink: IEEE802.

16 (WiMax) Physical Layer

by Roberto Cristi Professor Dept of Electrical and Computer Engineering Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943 August 2009

Table of Content: 1. Introduction: WiMax, Matlab and Simulink 2. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing and Matlab 2.1 Discrete time Signals and Systems 2.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT) 2.3 Convolution and Correlation Lab 1: Matlab/Simulink Code 3. Digital Communications Fundamentals 3.1 General Structure of a Digital Communication System 3.2 Channel Losses and Noise 3.3 Complex Baseband Representation 3.4 Bit Error Probabilities 3.5 Simulink Implementation Lab 2: Matlab/Simulink Code 4. Channel Models 4.1 Introduction and Channel Losses 4.2 Models of Fading Channels 4.3 Channel Parameterization 4.4 Estimation of Channel Parameters from Data Lab 3: Matlab/Simulink Code 5. Multi Carrier Modulation and OFDM 5.1 Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation 5.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 5.3 Example: basics of IEEE 802.11a (WiFi) Lab 4: Matlab/Simulink Code 6. Error Correction Coding 6.1 Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding 6.2 Block Codes 6.3 Convolutional Codes 6.4 Code Shortening and Puncturing 6.5 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16 coding schemes Simulink/Matlab Code: Error Correction

7. IEEE802.16 Implementation 7.1 Time Synchronization and Channel Estimation using the Preamble 7.2 Channel Tracking for Mobile Applications 7.3 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16-2004 (Fixed) 7.4 Simulink Implementation of IEEE802.16e-2005 (Mobile) Simulink/Matlab Code: IEEE802.16 Implementation 8. Multi Antennas 8.1 Receive Diversity 8.2 Transmit Diversity 8.3 Space Time Coding 8.4 Transmit Diversity with Space Coding in IEEE802.16 9. Issues in OFDM Systems Implementations 9.1 Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) 9.2 IQ Imbalance 9.3 Frequency Offset

Introduction to IEEE 802.16 and WiMax

Existing Area Networks for wireless communications:

Personal (PAN), up to a few meters. It requires simple thumb like transmitters receivers. Typical: Bluetooth. Local (LAN), up to 300m. It requires simple box like devices. Typical: WiFi (IEEE802.11) Wide (WAN), up to a few miles. It requires towers and cellular technology. Typical: WCDMA, CDMA 2000, UMTS

IEEE 802.16 (WiMax) are possible future technologies for WAN.

IEEE 802.16 and WiMax

IEEE802.16 is a standard for Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) Air Interface. It is purely technical (not commercial); The WiMAX Forum is an industry-led, not-for-profit organization formed to certify and promote the compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless products based upon the harmonized IEEE 802.16/ETSI HiperMAN standard. A WiMAX Forum goal is to accelerate the introduction of these systems into the marketplace. WiMAX Forum Certified products are fully interoperable and support broadband fixed, portable and mobile services. Along these lines, the WiMAX Forum works closely with service providers and regulators to ensure that WiMAX Forum Certified systems meet customer and government requirements (from the WiMax website www.wimaxforum.org)

Current WAN Technologies for Voice and Data

3G: CDMA2000 and UMTS. All based on Spread Spectrum 3.5G: increased capacity by combining CDMA with TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). Voice and Data on separate channels. Current technology; 4G : to provide voice, data, multimedia services at low cost on an all IP (packets) network. IEEE802.16 (WiMax) is one of the technologies considered.

TODAY: voice and data on separate networks; TOMORROW: voice and data on the same network. Data using Voice Over IP (VoIP). Advantages: flexibility, control of QoS, scalable.

Evolution of IEEE802.16:

802.16 802.16-2004

Dec 2001 June 2004

10-66GHz 2-11GHz

Fixed, LOS Fixed, NOLOS

Single Carrier SC, 256 OFDM, 2048 OFDMA SC, 256OFDM, 128, 512, 1024, 2048 OFDMA

802.16e-2005

Dec 2005

2-6GHz

Fixed, Mobile, NOLOS

In addition, IEEE802.16-2004 and 2005 have options based on Multi Antennas techniques.

Introduction to Simulink
Matlab based Both Continuous Time and Discrete Time Simulation Based on Blocksets Model Based Design: a software model of the environment can be developed and the design can be tested by simulation Transition between ideal algorithms (infinite precision, floating point) to real world algorithms (finite precision, fixed point); Automatic Code Generation: once the design is tested and validated, real time code can be automatically generated for the target platform Continuous Test and Verification

Advantages (from the MathWorks slide)

Innovation Rapid design iterations What-if studies Unique features and differentiators Quality Reduce design errors Minimize hand coding errors Unambiguous communication internally and externally Cost Reduce expensive physical prototypes Reduce re-work Reduce testing Time-to-market Get it right the first time

Simulink
Hierarchical block diagram design and simulation tool
Built-in notions of time and concurrency

Digital, analog/mixed signal and event driven Visualize Signals Co-develop with C code Integrated with MATLAB

Example Simulink Model

Digital Mod

TX

Wireless Channel

RX

Digital Dem

Design Test Automatically Generate Code

00010101011101010100101111 0010101010010010101001001001.

Compute Errors Modulator Demodulator

Fading channel

Display signals

Simulink has a very rich library of blocksets:

1. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing and Matlab

1. Discrete time Signals and Systems 2. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT) 3. Convolution and Correlation

1. Discrete Time Signals

1. Continuous Time to Discrete Time 2. Fundamental Signals: Delta Function, Sinusoid, Complex Exponential

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

x[n]
nTs

Sampling

x(t )
t

x[n] = x ( nTs )
Fs = 1 / Ts

Fs Ts

Sampling frequency (Hz=1/sec) Sampling interval (sec)

Fundamental Discrete Time Signals

[n]
1. Delta or Impulse

2. Sinusoid phase

x[n] = A cos(2F0t + ) t = nT = A cos(0 n + )

s

amplitude Frequency (Hz)

F0 0 = 2 Fs
Digital Frequency (radians)

Example: F = 10kHz s

x[n] = 10 cos ( 4, 000 t + 0.1) t = nT = 10 cos (0 n + 0.1)

s

Digital frequency:

F0 = 2kHz Fs = 10kHz

0 = 2

2, 000 Hz 2 = rad 10, 000 Hz 5

Generate it in matlab: plot_a_sinusoid.m n=0:100; A=10; w0=2*pi/5; alpha=0.1; x=A*cos(w0*n+alpha); plot(x); x=[10*cos(0.1), , 10*cos((2*pi/5)*100+0.1)] n=[0,1,2,,100]

3. Complex Exponentials

y[n] = Ae j (0 n + ) = Ae j e j0 n = A cos(0 n + ) + j A sin(0 n + ) 14 244 4 3 14 244 4 3

Real Part Imaginary Part

where

j = 1

imaginary basis

Then a sinusoid becomes the real part of a complex signal

A cos(0 n + ) = Re Ae

j (0 n + )

Sinusoids and Frequency Spectrum Complex exponentials are the building blocks of signals and systems. Reasons: all operations of interest boil down to multiplications or divisions A sinusoid in terms of complex exponentials can also be written as

A j (0 n + ) A j (0 n + ) A cos(0 n + ) = e + e 2 2

with two frequencies: positive and negative

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its Inverse (IFFT)

1. Definitions 2. Examples 3. Computation in Matlab 4. Symmetry

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

Given a finite sequence of data

x n

x[n], n = 0,..., N 1
1. Define the FFT

N 1

X = FFT {x}
where

X [k ] = x[n]e
n =0

N 1

jk

2 n N

k = 0,..., N 1

2. and the IFFT (Inverse FFT)

x = IFFT { X }
where

1 x[n] = N

X [k ]e
k =0

N 1

jk

2 n N

n = 0,..., N 1

Meaning:

X [k ], k = 0,..., N 1
is the component of the spectrum due to frequency

F F =k s N

sampling frequency data length

Example: Let

| X [k ] |

Fs = 10kHz N = 1024
0

220

1023

F = 220

10 kHz = 2.15kHz 1024

Example: example_of_fft.m Data length N=1024; Sampling Frequency Fs=10kHz X=fft(x); k=0:1023; f=k*Fs/N; % frequency axis plot(f,abs(X))
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 FFT of cosine

This corresponds to the negative frequency (disregard)

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000 Hz

6000

7000

8000

9000 10000

Freq. = 1kHz

Convolution and Correlation

1. Convolution as system response 2. Autocorrelation of data 3. Crosscorrelation between data sets 4. Estimation of Impulse Response using Crosscorrelation

Operations of Interest

1. Convolution. To compute the output of a Linear Time Invariant system Impulse response

x[n] h[n]
Input signal

y[n]
output signal

Definition of Convolution:
+

y[n] = h[n] * x[n] =

l =

h[l]x[n l]

In general you deal with sequences of finite length

y[n] = h[0]x[n] + h[1]x[n 1] + h[2]x[n 2] + ... + h[ M 1]x[n M + 1]

Impulse response

Input data

convolution

x
0

N 1

h
0

M 1

Output data

=
0

y
N +M 2

In matlab: Let 1. h be the vector of impulse response; 2. x be the input vector Then the output vector y=conv(h,x);

Example: convolution_of_finite_sequences.m h=[1,0,0,0.5,0,-0.2,0,0.1]; n=0:200; x=2*cos(0.1*pi*n); y=conv(h,x); plot(y) % impulse response % input signal % output signal

2. Auto Correlation. For a signal with zero mean, to see if the samples are correlated with each other Definition of Auto Correlation:

rx [m] =

n =

x[n]x*[n m]

Again, you deal with signals of finite length

x[n], n = 0,..., N 1

1 rx [m] = N

x[n]x*[n m], m = N + 1,..., N 1

n =0

N 1

Example: White Noise with standard deviation x

2 1 x = rx [m] = N 0,

| x[n] |2 , if m = 0
n =0

N 1

rx [m]

otherwise

white noise sequence

Example: xcorr_of_white_noise.m

4 3 2

% data sigx=sqrt(2) x=sigx*randn(1,1000); plot(x);

1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

% autocorrelation N=length(x); rx=xcorr(x)/N; max_lag=length(x)-1; m=-max_lag:max_lag; plot(m,rx)

autocorrelation of x 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -1000

-800

-600

-400

-200

0 200 time lag

400

600

800

1000

2. Cross Correlation. To see if two signals are correlated with each other

ryx [m] =
With finite length signals:

n =

y[n]x*[n m]

x[n], n = 0,..., N 1 y[n], n = 0,..., M 1

1 ryx [m] = M

M 1 n =0

y[n]x*[n m], m = max( N , M ) + 1,..., max( N , M ) 1

Case of Interest: estimation of the impulse response of a Linear Time Invariant system from input-output data

x[n] h[n]

y[n]

If

x[n] is white noise, then h[n] = ryx [n] / rx [0]

Example: impulse_response_with_xcorr.m h=[1, 0, 0.2, -0.5, 2, -0.1]; % impulse response y=conv(h,x); ryx=xcorr(y,x) /length(y) h_est=ryx/ryx(length(x));

2.5

1.5

0.5

-0.5 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5 x 10
4

2.5

1.5

zoom in
0.5 0

-0.5 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

Lab 1: Introduction to DSP and Matlab

A. Sinusoids and the FFT: 1. Generate a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency 2. Check its frequency spectrum B. White Noise, Convolution, Correlation: 1. Generate a white noise signal with a given covariance 2. Determine the output of a given Linear Time Invariant System 3. From the input-output data, estimate the impulse response of the system

A. Sinusoids and the FFT: A.1 Generate a sinusoid with the following parameters and plot it vs time: Amplitude Frequency Sampling Frequency Phase Length

A = 5. 0

F0 = 5.0 kHz FS = 15.0 kHz

= 30 0 128 samples

Reference: plot_a_sinusoid.m

A.2 Take the FFT of the sinusoid you generated, plot its magnitude (absolute value), and verify that you obtain the frequency you expect.

Reference: example_of_fft.m

B. White Noise, Convolution, Correlation: 1. Generate a gaussian white noise signal with the following parameters:

Standard Deviation Length

x = 5
N = 10,000 data points

Plot its autocorrelation and verify that it is as expected. 2. This signal is the input to a system with impulse response

h = [1,0,2,0.5,0,0,0,0.3]
Determine the output sequence and verify that the crosscorrelation between input and output is a good estimate of the impulse response of the system.

Reference: impulse_response_with_xcorr.m

2. Digital Communications Fundamentals and the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel

1. General Structure of a Digital Communication System 2. Channel Losses and Noise 3. Complex Baseband Representation 4. Bit Error Probabilities 5. Simulink Implementation

References: J. Proakis, M. Salehi, Digital Communications, Prentice Hall, 2007

1. General Structure of a Digital Communications System

1.1 General Overview 1.2 Goals 1.3 Parameters of Interest

1.1 General Overview

source of information
..01010110
Digital Mod bits
I Q

destination
Carrier frequency Carrier frequency

..01010010
Errors! I Q

TX
pulses

channel

RX
pulses

decision symbols
Q

Digital Dem bits

symbols
Q

noise, disturbances, other users Continuous Time

Discrete Time

Discrete Time

1.2 Goals

Bit Error Rate within acceptable values; Stay within the available resources: Channel Bandwidth Noise Interference Variability

Transmitted Power

Receiver Complexity

TX
..01010110

channel

RX
..01010010
Errors!

1.3 Parameters
FS = symbols sec
ES = Joules symbol

bits
a[n]

Nb =

bits symbol

PT = ES FS Watts

symbols
xI [n]
DAC DAC
xI (t )

pulses RF
A= PR PT

Digital Modulator

xQ [n]

xQ (t )

channel

bits
a[n]

symbols
Digital Demodulator

PW = Watts
ADC ADC
y I (t )
yQ (t )

y I [n]
yQ [n]

w(t )

RF pulses
PR = A PT Watts

Bit Error Rate

P SNR = R PW

Bits to Symbols: the Constellation Mapping in 802.16 (Gray Code)

Q (Im) BPSK
[b0 ]
1 +1

I (Re)
b0

N b = 1 bit/symbol

Q
b1 0

4-QAM (QPSK)
[b0 , b1 ]

I
1
b0
1 +1

N b = 2 bits/symbol

Q
01

16-QAM
[b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 ]
b1 , b0

00

I
10

N b = 4 bits/symbol
11
b3 , b2

11

10

00

01

Notice : only one bit difference between close neighbors

Symbols to Pulses: Digital to Analog (DAC) and Analog to Digital (ADC) Conversion
x[n]g (t nTS )

symbol

pulse

x[n] n

x(t )
DAC

gT (t )

nTS

symbol

pulse

y[n] n

y (t )
ADC

g R (t )

n =

x[n]g (t nT )
S

nTS

Bandwidth, Symbol Rate and Transmitted Power

g (t ) G (F )
TS

FS = 1 / TS Symbol Rate

t (sec)

F (Hz )
B

Symbol interval
+

Bandwidth
ES = | g (t ) |2 dt = | G ( F ) |2 dF
+

Energy per symbol Transmitted Power

PT =

ES = ES FS TS

Typical: Raised Cosine

g (t )
1 0.8

G (F )
1.5

0.6 0.4 a=0.0 a=0.3 a=0.6

a=0.6 a=0.3 a=0.0

0.2 0

0.5

-0.2

-0.4 -4

-3

-2

-1

0 t

0 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0
smaller bandwidth more ISI

B 1 = 1 FS

F FS

0 f

0.5

1.5

larger bandwidth less ISI

2. Channel Losses and Noise

2.1 Transmitted Pulses to Received Pulses 2.2 Energy per Symbol, Power Spectral Density 2.3 Signal to Noise Ratio and Eb/N0

2.1 Transmitted Pulses to Received Pulses:

attenuation: free space, obstacles, foliage noise: thermal, interferences from other systems/users multipath: reflections from buildings, structures, hills doppler shift: motion of transmitter, receivers, reflectors

Transmit

Receive

Channel Losses and Noise

Transmitted Power
PT = ES FS Watts

Channel Attenuation channel

A= PR PT

Received Power
PR = A PT Watts
w(t )

Noise Noise Power Spectral Density

B B
N0 2

PW = N 0 B Watts

2.2 Energy per Symbol and Power Spectral Density

Energy per symbol

Symbol Rate

Signal Power ES FS = SNR = Noise Power N 0 B

Bandwidth Noise Power Spectral Density

Thermal Noise

Present in all electronic systems, it is dependent on temperature; It is white, in the sense that it is equally spread in frequency.
Power Spectral Density

N0 / 2

F (Hz )
N 0 = kT = (1.383 10 23 J / K ) T

Boltzmans constant

temperature in kelvin Ambient temperature =290K

In dBm:

N 0 dB = 174dBm / Hz

Example: Temperature = 290K (ambient) Bandwidth = 2.0MHz Noise Power =

(N 0 B )dB = 174dBm / Hz + 10 log10 2 106 = 111dBm

2.3 Signal to Noise Ratio and Eb/N0

FS SNR = B

ES F = Nb S N 0 B

Eb N 0

FS = symbol rate (1/sec) B = bandwidth ( Hz = 1 / sec) FS N 0 = noise power spectral density ES = Energy per symbol (Joules) Eb = Energy per bit (Joules) N b = bits per symbol

3. Complex Baseband Representation

3.1 Complex Signals 3.2 Baseband Channel Representation

3.1 Complex Signals Symbols:

Transmitted Q

A cos(2Fc t )

xI [n]
I

DAC

gT (t ) gT (t )

xI (t ) xQ (t )
A sin (2Fc t ) A cos(2Fc t )

DAC

yT (t )
channel

xQ [n]
Received Q

y I [n]
I
Ts

g R (t ) g R (t )

y I (t ) yQ (t )
A sin (2Fc t )

y R (t )

yQ [n]

Recall: Complex Numbers and Complex Exponentials amplitude phase (angle)

j

j = 1

Ae

= A cos( ) + j A sin( ) 1 24 4 3 1 24 4 3
Real Part Im
A

Imaginary Part

Re

As a consequence:

Ae

j 2FC t

= A cos(2FC t ) + jA sin( 2FC t )

It is easier to define one complex signal which combines In Phase and Quadrature components:
x[n] = xI [n] + jxQ [n]
Im

Ae j 2Fct
DAC

gT (t )

Re{.}

yT (t )
Re

channel
y[n] = y I [n] + jyQ [n]
Im

y R (t )
g R (t )

Re

Ts

Ae j 2Fct

If the carrier frequency is larger than the bandwidth of the filters, then it can be simplified as Baseband Channel
x[n] = xI [n] + jxQ [n]
DAC
Re

A j 2Fct e 2
gT (t )

channel
y[n] = y I [n] + jyQ [n]
Im

g R (t )
Ts

Re

A j 2Fct e 2

3.2 Baseband Channel Representation

A j 2Fct e 2
gT (t )
C (F )

x(t )

x(t )

gT (t )
Complex Baseband channel
A C+ ( F FC ) 2
F

Real channel
FC FC
F

same
y (t )

y (t )

g R (t )

g R (t )

A j 2Fct e 2

Advantage: all signals at lower frequencies, therefore much easier to simulate and analyze.

Digital Transmitter/Receiver with Baseband Channel:

Binary source of information

Complex
x[n]

Encoder

Digital Modulator

complex

Baseband Channel

Received Data Binary

Decoder

Digital Demodulator

y[n]

Complex

4. Bit Error Probabilities for M-QAM Modulation

4.1 Eb/N0 and SNR for MQAM Signals 4.2 Probability of Symbol Error in Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel;

4.1 Eb/N0 and SNR for MQAM Signals M-QAM:

.01001011001010

M-QAM

# of bits per symbol

Energy per bit

ES / TS log 2 ( M ) Eb FS SNR = = B N0 B N0

Therefore, if FS B :

Eb 1 SNR = N 0 log 2 ( M )

Significance: the error probabilities for MQAM are functions of Eb / N 0

Example. Given: Transmitted Power: Bandwidth: 100mW 1.75MHz

Channel Attenuation: -120dB Modulation: QPSK (2 bits/symbol)

Assume: Thermal Noise only at ambient temperature Compute: Eb / N 0

Solution: 1. Energy per Symbol at the transmitter

ES = 100mW / 1.75MHz = 57.14 10 6 mW / Hz = 42.4dBm / Hz

2. Energy per Symbols at the receiver

ES = 42.4 120 = 162.4dBm / Hz

3. SNR at the receiver

ES SNR = N = 162.4 (174) = 11.6dB 0 dB

4. Finally

(Eb / N 0 )dB = 11.6 10 log10 2 = 8.6dB

4.2 Probability of Symbol Error in AWGN

BPSK: 4-QAM: M-QAM:

( ) P 2Q ( 2 )
E PS = Q 2 Nb0 S Eb N0

3 log M 2 PS 4Q M 1

Eb N 0

Probability of Bit Error with Gray Coding:

M-QAM:
where

Pb

1 PS log 2 ( M )
+

1 Q( x) = 2

e t
x

dt

x = 1 erfc 2 2

Symbol Error Rates (Exact Values)

BPSK 4QAM 16QAM 64QAM
10
-1

Symbol Error Rate

10

-2

Prob. bit Error

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

-6

-5

10 Eb/No dB

15

20

Example. Same as previous example Compute: a. Symbol Error Rate, b. Bit Error Rate Solution: 1. From the previous Example Eb / N 0 = 8.6dB 2. Symbol Error Rate: 10 4 errors per symbol (see graphs) 3. Bit Error Rate: 10 4 / 2 = 5 10 5 errors per bit

5. Simulink Implementation

5.1 Fundamentals of Simulink 5.2 Digital Communications in AWGN: Simulink Implementation; 5.3 Example

5.1 Fundamentals of Simulink

Simulink has three classes of blocksets: sources (outputs only) processes (inputs/outputs) sinks (inputs only)

source

process sink

generate data read data import files

display results plots, scopes send data to devices

5.2 Digital Communications in AWGN: Simulink Implementation Generate Complex Data

Compute Bit Error Rate BaseBand Channel Display Received Data

Simulink Model: AWGN_no_coding.mdl

5.3 Example

Lets simulate a Digital Communications System with the following parameters:

M=4; Fs=10^6; SNRdB=20; PT=5; A=1/100; PR=A*PT; % MQAM modulation % symbol rate (1/sec) % SNR in dBs % Transmitted Power in Watts % Channel Attenuation % Received Power

Edit > Model Properties

Enter the parameters

Generate Complex Data

Parameters:
M-QAM Fs symbols/sec

Modulation Communications Sources >Random Data Sources >>Bernoulli >Digital Baseband Mod >>AM >>>Rectangular

Binary

QAM

Baseband Channel
1 PT PT x[n] + w[n] y[n] = A SNR PR

Transmitter Gain

Channels > AWGN Channel

Analysis of Data by Computer Simulation

transmitted error rate errors bits received

Blocks:
Comms Sinks > Error Rates Calculation Simulink > Sinks > Display

Lab2: Digital Communications Fundamentals

Given a digital Communication System defined by the following parameters: M=4; Fs=10^6; PT=2; A=1/50; PR=A*PT; % MQAM modulation % symbol rate (1/sec) % Transmitted Power in Watts % Channel Attenuation % Received Power

1. Simulate the system for the following values of the Signal to Noise Ratio: SNR=5,10,20dB 2. For each case determine the probability of bit error experimentally 3. Compare with the theoretical values References: AWGN_no_coding.mdl bit_error.m

Probability of Symbol Error

BPSK 4QAM 16QAM 64QAM
10
-1

Symbol Error Rate

10

-2

Prob. bit Error

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

-6

-5

10 Eb/No dB

15

20

Probability of Bit Error= Probability of Symbol Error / log2(M)

3. Channel Models

1. Introduction and Channel Losses 2. Models of Fading Channels 3. Channel Parameterization 4. Estimation of Channel Parameters from Data

1. Introduction and Channel Losses

1.1. Large Scale fading: Free Space Losses 1.2. Medium Scale Fading: Shadowing 1.3. Small Scale Fading: Multipath

References: A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005 Chapter 2.

Signal Losses due to three Effects:

2. Medium Scale Fading: due to shadowing and obstacles

3. Small Scale Fading: due to multipath

1. Large Scale Fading: due to distance and multipath

Wireless Channel
Frequencies of Interest: in the UHF (.3GHz 3GHz) and SHF (3GHz 30 GHz) bands; Several Effects: Path Loss due to dissipation of energy: it depends on distance only Shadowing due to obstacles such as buildings, trees, walls. Is caused by absorption, reflection, scattering Self-Interference due to Multipath.

Prec 10 log10 Ptransm

log10 distance

Line of Sight and Frequencies

Frequencies: 30GHz SHF Line of Sight (LOS) only

6GHz

Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) 3GHz

UHF

300MHz

1.1. Large Scale Propagation: Free Space

Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation: For isotropic antennas:
Transmit antenna

Receive antenna

Prec = Ptransm 4 d c wavelength = F

2

Path Loss in dB:

Ptransm L = 10log10 = 20log10 ( F ( MHz )) + 20log10 (d (km )) + 32.45 Prec

Free Space Attenuation

Lp L p = 20dB

20dB / dec

d0

10d 0

log10 ( d )
distance

L p1 L p 2 = 20dB Prec1 = Prec 2 / 100

Valid for: Satellite Communicationss Point to Point LOS Microwave Reference for Path Loss Models

Multipath Models: Two Ray Reflection

Typical of open environments such as rural roads Small to medium distances constructive/distructive interference

l
hT
xT xR

1 + e j
hR

= 2
Large distances

xT + xR l

l
hT
xT xR

d
hR

monotonic

Two Ray Model Power Received

-20

f=0.3GHz f=3GHz f=30GHz

Prec/Ptran s in dB

-40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 -200 -220 0 10
1 2 3 4 5

40dB / dec
independent of frequency
2 Prec hT2 hR 4 Ptrans d
10 10 10 d in meters 10 10

Prec Ptrans

Assume: reflecting surface a pure dielectric

Compare the two: Free Space:

L p = 20 log10 ( / 4) + 20 log10 (d )
40dB

Lp
Two Ray Approximation:
20dB

L p = 20 log10 (hT hR ) + 40 log10 (d )

102 101 100 10

log10 ( d )

hT

hR

2. Medium Scale Fading: Losses due to Buildings, Trees, Hills, Walls

The Power Loss in dB is random:

L p = E {L p }+
expected value

random, zero mean approximately gaussian with

6 12 dB

Average Loss
Free space loss at reference distance

d E{L p } = 10 log10 + L0 d 0
Path loss exponent

dB

Reference distance indoor 1-10m

Values for Exponent Free Space Urban

outdoor 10-100m : 2 2.7-3.5 1.6-1.8 4-6

Indoors (LOS) Indoors(NLOS)

Empirical Models for Propagation Losses to Environment

Okumura: urban macrocells 1-100km, frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz,

BS antenna 30-100m high; Hata: similar to Okumura, but simplified COST 231: Hata model extended by European study to 2GHz

Typical: Hata Models (1980) Frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz

Lp

Propagation Loss

Lp = + log10 ( d )
log10 ( d )

= 44.9 6.55log10 (h )
urban

= 0 = 69.55 + 26.16log10 ( f ) 13.82 log10 (hT ) a (hR )

2 2 = 0 4.78log10 ( f ) + 18.33log10 ( f ) 40.94

suburban = 0 2 log10 ( f / 28) 5.4 rural where

f = frequency in MHz hT, hR = transmitter antenna elevation over average terrain (in meters)
a ( hR ) corrective factor for receiver antenna

Receiver antenna correcting factor Small to medium city

a ( hR ) = (1.1 log10 ( f ) 0.7 ) hR (1.56log10 ( f ) 0.8) dB

Large city

a ( hR ) = 3.2 ( log10 (11.75hR ) ) 4.97 dB

2

COST 231 Model: Urban Model

Propagation Loss

Lp = + log10 (d ) + CM
= 44.9 6.55log10 (h ) = 0 = 46.3 + 33.9 log10 ( f ) 13.82 log10 (hT ) a (hR )

where

0 dB medium sized city and suburbs CM = 3 dB metropolitan area

1.5GHz < f < 2GHz 30m < hT < 200m 1m < hR < 10m 1km < d < 20km

Restrictions:

Example:

PT

PR = ?

Base Station

d = 500m

Subscriber

Given:

d Channel: L p = 10 log10 d + L0 + 0 d = 1m
0

L0 = 45dB

=3 = 6dB

Transmitted Power:

1.0 Watt = 30dBm

Bandwidth: 10MHz Noise: Then: Received Power:

N 0 = 174dBm / Hz thermal

PR = 30 L p = 30 (10 3 log10 500 + 45) + = 96dBm +

Noise at the Receiver: SNR at the receiver:

PNoise = 174 + 10 log10 107 = 104dBm

SNR = 96 + (104) = 8 + dB
random

Probability that the SNR is sufficiently large

P ( > a ) =
Where we define

1 2

+ 1 x 2

e
a

dx =
t 2

x a 8 1 P(SNR > a ) = P(8 + > a ) = erfc 2 6 2

(1/2)erfc(x) 1 0.9

erfc( x) =

1 a erfc 2 2

dt

BPSK 75% of the time

0.75

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

16QAM 10% of the time

0.10

0.1 0 -1

-0.5

0.5 x

1.5

Required for low BER:

BPSK: a=3dB

16QAM: a=14.7dB

3. Small Scale Fading due to Multipath. a. Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;

Transmit
x (t ) = (t t0 )

Receive
y (t ) = L + hk (t t0 k ) + ...

t0

time

t0 1 2

Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay

100 102 = = = 1 sec 3 c 3 108

Typical values channel time spread:

x (t ) = (t t0 )
t0 1 2 MAX

t0

channel

Indoor Suburbs Urban Hilly

10 50 n sec 2 10 1 2 sec 1 3 sec 3-10 sec

b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)

x ( t ) = X T e j 2 f c t

Transmit
time

Receive
y (t ) = YR e
j 2 ( f c +f )t

v
for each path time

Doppler Shift

fc

f c + f

Frequency (Hz)

Put everything together

x(t )

Transmit
time

Receive

y (t )

time

Each path has

attenuation

shift in time

j 2 ( Fc + Fk )( t k ) y (t ) = Re ak x (t k )e k
paths

shift in frequency (this causes small scale time variations)

2. Models of Fading Channels

2.1. Statistical Models of Fading Channels 2.2. Non Line of Sight (Rayleigh) and Line of Sight (Rice) Channels 2.3. Simulink Example

2.1 Statistical Models of Fading Channels each reflector has several paths all with different time delays and doppler shifts

Several Reflectors:

x (t )
Transmit Receive

y ( t ) = yl (t )
l

For each path with NO Line Of Sight (NOLOS):

r v

average time delay

yl ( t )

each time delay

l + k
v

each doppler shift Fk =

cos( k )

j 2 ( Fc + Fk )( t l k ) yl (t ) = Re ak e x (t l k ) k

Some mathematical manipulation

j 2 Fct j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc + Fk ) k y (t ) = Re ak e e x (t k ) e k

= Re {r (t )e j 2 Fct } = rI (t ) cos(2 Fct ) rQ (t )sin(2 Fct )

In Phase and Quadrature Components

r (t ) = rI (t ) + jrQ (t ) ak e
k

j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc +Fk )( l + k )

x (t l )

leading to this:

Assume

x (t ) x (t k )

r (t ) = cl (t ) x (t l )
with

cl (t ) = ak e
k

j 2Fk t j 2 ( Fc +Fk )( l + k )

random, time varying

Statistical Model for the time varying coefficients v v M j 2 cos k t j 2 ( Fc + cos k )( l + k )

cl (t ) = ak e
k =1

By the CLT cl (t ) is gaussian with:

random

random

E{cl (t )} = 0
* l

since

k
M

random uniformly distributed in [0, 2 ]

2 j 2 v

E {cl (t )c (t + t )} = E{| ak | }e
k =1

cos k t

Assume Then

Pl E{| ak | } = M
2

1 * E {cl (t )cl (t + t )} = Pl M

e
k =1

j 2

cos k t

v j 2 cos t = Pl E e

1 = Pl 2

e
0

j 2

cos t

d = Pl J 0 (2 FD t )

Each coefficient cl (t ) is complex, gaussian, WSS with autocorrelation

* E {cl (t )cl (t + t )} = Pl J 0 (2 FD t )

And PSD

1 2 Pl F Sl ( F ) = D 1 ( F / FD ) 2 0

if | F |< FD otherwise

with

FD

maximum Doppler frequency.

S l (F )

This is called Jakes spectrum.

FD

Bottom Line. This:

x(t )
time

y (t )

time

v
1
time

can be modeled as:

L
x(t )
time

c1 (t )

L
N
delays

cl (t )

y (t )

time

cN (t )

For each path

cl (t ) = Pl g (t )
unit power time invariant from power distribution time varying (from autocorrelation)

Parameters for a Multipath Channel (No Line of Sight):

Time delays: Power Attenuations: Doppler Shift:

[ 1 [P1
FD

2 L L]

sec dB Hz

P2 L PL ]

Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) and Line of Sight (LOS) Fading Channels
1. Rayleigh (No Line of Sight). Specified by: Time delays

E{cl (t )} = 0

T = [ 1 , 2 ,..., N ] P = [ P , P2 ,..., PN ] 1

Power distribution Maximum Doppler

FD

2. Ricean (Line of Sight)

E{cl (t )} 0
K
PLOS = K PTotal 1+ K

Same as Rayleigh, plus Ricean Factor

Power through LOS

Power through NOLOS

PNOLOS =

1 PTotal 1+ K

Simulink Example
M-QAM Modulation

Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator

Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband

-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-

Rayleigh Fading Channel Parameters

Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel

Rayleigh Fading

-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain

Bit Rate

Set Numerical Values:

velocity carrier freq.

Recall the Doppler Frequency:

v FD = FC c

3 108 m / sec

Easy to show that:

(FD )Hz (v )km / h (FC )GHz

modulation power

channel

Typical Received Power Spectrum

Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator

Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband

-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-

Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel

Rayleigh Fading

-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain

Doppler freq:

FD = 70 Hz

Symbol rate: FS = 10 MHz Bit rate:

Fb = 20MHz

Bits/Symbol: 2 (QPSK)
FS / 2 FS / 2

Similar Example, different parameters

Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator

Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband

-KChannel Transmitter Attenuation Gain -K-

Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel

Rayleigh Fading

-KB-FFT Spectrum Scope Receiver Gain

Doppler freq:

FD = 2 Hz

Symbol rate: FS = 10 MHz Bit rate:

Fb = 20MHz

Bits/Symbol: 2 (QPSK)
FS / 2 FS / 2

Channel Parameterization

1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth 2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading 3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence 4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading

1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth Recall that the Channel Spreads in Time (due to Multipath): Received Power

x (t ) = (t t0 )

0 10

t0

channel

20

MAX RMS

time

FT

Channel Flat up to the Coherence Bandwidth

Coherence Bandwidth

Bc =

1 5 RMS

frequency

2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading Based on Channel Time Spread:

Bc =

1 5 RMS

F
Signal Bandwidth

Frequency coherence

Flat Fading

Just attenuation, no distortion

Signal Bandwidth

< >

Frequency Coherence
Distortion!!!

Frequency Selective Fading

Example: Flat Fading Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB Symbol Rate Fs=10kHz Doppler Fd=0.1Hz Modulation QPSK

Very low Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

Spectrum: fairly uniform

Example: Frequency Selective Fading Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB Symbol Rate Fs=1MHz Doppler Fd=0.1Hz Modulation QPSK

Very high ISI

Spectrum with deep variations

3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence

y (t ) = cl (t ) x(t l )
l =1

c l (t ) c l (t + t )

if

| t | TC < 1 / F D
same response
different response

x (t )

y (t )

TC
Coherence Time:

TC

9 16 FD
Max Doppler

4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading

Based on Doppler Spread Delay and Time Coherence:

TC

9 16 FD

t
Symbol period

Time coherence

Slow Fading

Channel almost time invariant

Symbol period

< >

Time Coherence
Channel quickly changing

Fast Fading

Summary of Time/Frequency spread of the channel

Frequency Spread Time Coherence

S (t , F )

F
FD

TC

9 16 FD

mean

Time Spread

RMS
Frequency Coherence

Bc =

1 5 RMS

Channel Estimation from Data

1. Recall Impulse Response Identification from Correlation 2. Estimation of Time Spread and Doppler Shift 3. Simulink/Matlab Example 4. Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models

Estimation of Channel Characteristics from Input - Output data. 1. For Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:

x[n]

y[n]

h[n]

y[n] = h[n] * x[n] =

m =

h[k ]x[n k ]

Excite the system with white noise and unit variance

Rxx [m] = E x[n]x*[n m] = [m]

m
and compute the crosscorrelation between input and output

R yx [m] = E y[n]x*[n m] =
+ k =

}
+ * k =

h[k ]E{x[n k ]x [n m]} = h[k ] [m k ] = h[m]

In matlab:

x[n]

y[n]

1. Get data (same length for simplicity):

x
2. Compute crosscorrelation between input and output:

h=xcorr(x,y);

If

x[n] is white noise,

h[n]

is the impulse response.

2. For a Linear Time Varying Channel:

x[n]
Known:

y[n]

h[m, n]
Fs

y[n] =

k =

h[k , n]x[n k ]

1. Sampling frequency

2. Upper bound on max Doppler Frequency FD max

1. Collect Data and partition in blocks of length N <<

n=0 n=N n = 2N

Fs FD max

:
n = NB N

x y
N Ts << TD min
xN=reshape(x,N,length(x)/N); yN=reshape(x,N,length(y)/N);

L L

n = lN

L L

xN,yN=

[
l

NB
2. Estimate impulse response in each block
m

hN=xcorr(xN,yN); hN=

NB
h[m, n] n =lN

3. Compute Power Spectrum on each row, to determine time variability of the channel (If the channel is Time Invariant all columns of hN are the same):
l
m

hN=

[ ]
L L

h[m, n] n =lN
m (time)

k (freq.)

S=fft(hN); S=S.*conj(S);

S=

[ ]
S [m, k ]
NB

4. Take the sum over rows for Doppler Spread and sum over columns for Time Spread (fftshift each vector to have zero term (sec or Hz) in the middle Sf St

t = m / Fs

f =k

( Fs / N ) NB

Time Resolution:

t = 1 / FS
F = FS 1 Hz = N N B total data length(sec)

Frequency Resolution:

Therefore if we want to a resolution in the doppler spread of (say) 1Hz, we need to collect at least 1 sec of data.

Example:

% channel Fs=10^6; P=[0,-2,-3]; T=[0, 10, 15]*10^(-6); fd=70;

% sampling freq. In Hz % attenuations in dB % time delays in sec %doppler shift in Hz

Bernoulli Binary Bernoulli Binary Generator

Rectangular QAM Rectangular QAM Modulator Baseband

Rayleigh Fading Multipath Rayleigh Fading Channel

y To Workspace1

x To Workspace

test_scattering.mdl

Channel Freq. Response:

Tmax=10^(-4) sec; FDmax=150Hz;

9 x 10
-3

[St, Sf,t,f]=scattering(x,y,Fs,Tmax, FDmax);

Time Spread

St(t)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1.2 x 10
-3

Time Spread

Frequency Spread

0 -1.5

-1

-0.5 time (sec)

0.5 x 10

1
-4

Sf(f)
1 0.8

15 sec

Frequency Spread
0.6 0.4

0.2

0 -1000

-800

-600

-400

-200 0 200 frequency (Hz)

400

600

800

1000

70 Hz

+ 70 Hz

Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models

Extension of Work done at AT&T Wireless and Erceg etal. Three terrain types: Category A: Hilly/Moderate to Heavy Tree density; Category B: Hilly/ Light Tree density or Flat/Moderate to Heavy Tree density Category C: Flat/Light Tree density

Six different Scenarios (SUI-1 SUI-6). Found in IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r4, Channel Models for Wireless Applications, http://wirelessman.org/tg3/contrib/802163c-01_29r4.pdf V. Erceg etal, An Empirical Based Path Loss Model for Wireless Channels in Suburban Environments, IEEE Selected Areas in Communications, Vol 17, no 7, July 1999

Lab 3
In this project you want to identify the time and frequency spreads of a channel. Refer to the simulink model Lab3.mdl for the setup. You know that the mobile channel you are trying to model has a maximum doppler frequency not exceeding 50Hz and a maximum time spread smaller than 20 microseconds. In order to have a clear picture of the channel spread in time and frequency we want a time resolution of 1 microsecond and a frequency resolution of 1Hz; 1. Based on the time and frequency resolutions, determine a suitable symbol rate of the transmitted sequence and an adequate data length in time; 2. With the above parameters, run the model Lab3.mdl to collect the transmitted and received data. Use the program scattering.m to estimate the time and frequency spreads of the channel. Compare the result with the parameters of the channel in the simulink block; 3. Just to compare, try different values of symbol rate and data length and see how the resolutions in time and frequency are affected.

4. Multi Carrier Modulation and OFDM

1. 2. 3.

Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Example: basics of IEEE 802.11a (WiFi)

Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Transmission of Data through Frequency Selective and Time Varying Channels Single Carrier Modulation in Flat Fading Channels Single Carrier Modulation in Frequency Selective Channels Simulink Example of Single Carrier Modulation The Multi Carrier Approach

1. Transmission of Data Through Frequency Selective Time Varying Channels

We have seen a wireless channel is characterized by time spread and frequency spread.

Frequency Spread

S (t , F )

F FMAX

t
t MAX

Time Spread

2. Single Carrier Modulation in Flat Fading Channels:

if symbol duration >> time spread then there is almost no Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). channel

TS

time

1 0 phase still recognizable

Problem with this: Low Data Rate!!!

 this corresponds to Flat Fading

channel
1 / TS

Frequency
Flat Freq. Response

Frequency

Frequency

3. Single Carrier Modulation in Frequency Selective Channels:

if symbol duration ~ time spread then there is considerable Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). channel

time

? ? phase not recognizable

One Solution: we need equalization channel equalizer

time

time

Channel and Equalizer

Problems with equalization: it might require training data (thus loss of bandwidth) if blind, it can be expensive in terms computational effort always a problem when the channel is time varying

4. The Multi Carrier Approach:

let symbol duration >> time spread so there is almost no Inter Symbol Interference (ISI); send a block of data using a number of carriers (Multi Carrier)
symbol
1

symbol
0

time
0 1

channel

time
1 0

time

Compare Single Carrier and Multi Carrier Modulation SC

Frequency
1

Frequency
1 0 1 1

One symbol

Flat Fading Channel: Easy Demod

channel
L
Frequency
0 1 0 1 1 1

MC

subcarriers

Frequency
Each subcarrier sees a Flat Fading Channel: Easy Demod

0 1 0 1 1 1

Block of symbols

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

1. Basic Structure of Multi Carrier Modulation 2. Orthogonal Subcarriers and OFDM 3. Generating the OFDM Symbol using the IFFT

In MC modulation each MC symbol is defined on a time interval and it contains a block of data
OFDM Symbol

data

data

data

data

time

TSymbol

data t
Tg
guard interval

Tb
data interval

data

NF N2F 2 j 2FC t j 2 ( FC + kF )t j 2kFt s (t ) = Re A ck e A ck e = Re e N k = N F k = F 2 2

0 t TSymbol

Each data point

ck

is modulated by a subcarrier

NF NF Fk = FC + kF , k = ,..., , k 0 2 2
Subcarrier k = 0 is not used since its magnitude and phase would be influenced by the carrier FC

| S (F ) |

Fk = FC + kF

Fc

BW 2

Fc

Fc +

BW 2

Fc

BW 2

Fc
carrier

Fc +

BW 2

BW = N F F

We leave a guard time between blocks to allow multipath

Guard Time Tg
Data Block Data Block

TX

RX

Tb

L
TSymbol data+guard

the guard time is long enough, so the multipath in one block does not affect the next block

RX TX

L
NO Inter Symbol Interference!

Modulated Signal:

s (t ) = Re e j 2Fct x(t )
FT

FC = carrier frequency

FC

FC

Baseband Complex Signal:

k=

FT
j 2kF ( t Tg )

x(t ) = A
just a gain

k = k 0

ce
k
NF 2

NF 2

0 t TSymbol

kF = subcarrier frequency offset

ck = data

Limitations of OFDM

Overhead (no data)

TSymbol

data t
Tguard Tb

The Guard Time (or Cyclic Prefix) does not carry data and therefore it represents a loss of power
Pdata Tb = Psymbol = Tb + Tguard 1 Tguard 1+ T b Psymbol

To minimize overhead

Tguard << Tb

ie the longer the data frame the better!

However, as expected, the channel (not the sky!) is the limit.

Frequency Spread

S (t , F )

F FMAX < kHz

t
t MAX sec
OFDM Symbol Duration: OFDM Freq. Spacing: Are these two compatible? Since
FS 1 1 = = N NTS Tb

Time Spread

Tb >> t MAX
F = FS >> FMAX N

to minimize CP overhead to ensure orthogonality

we have:

t MAX << Tb << 1 / FMAX

10 6 sec 10 3 sec roughly!!!

2. Orthogonal Subcarriers and OFDM

t
guard interval Tg

Tb data interval

1 Choose: F = Tb

FC

F
Fk = FC + kF

Orthogonality:
1 Tb
t 0 +Tb

t0

j 2Fk t j 2Fl t

1 dt = Tb

t 0 +Tb

t0

j 2 ( k l ) Ft

1 if k = l dt = 0 if k l

Since the channel is Linear and Time Invariant (at least for the duration of the frame), the exponentials e j 2Fk t are still orthogonal at the receiver in steady state, ie after the transient has died.
Transmitted subcarrier j 2Fk t

channel

Received subcarrier

t
0
Tg + Tb

h(t )
0
Tg
Tg + Tb

transient steady state response response

H ( Fk )e j 2Fk t
Tg t Tg + Tb

still orthogonal at the receiver!!!

Each OFDM symbol is generated in discrete time. Let FS be the sampling frequency; N > N F be the number of data samples in each symbol; F = 1 / (N TS ) = FS / N A=1/N Then:
NF 2 NF 2

the subcarriers spacing

1 x(nTS ) = N

c e
k k = NF 2

j 2k F ( n L ) F
s

1 = N

c e
k k = NF 2

jk 2N ( n L )

n = 0,.., L + N 1

With Tg = L TS the guard time.

4. Generating the OFDM symbol using the IFFT OFDM Symbol: discrete time
# samples # subcarriers
guard

data

N > NF

TIME:
0

Tg

Tb

Sampling Interval TS = 1 / FS Sampling Frequency FS > Bandwidth

Freq spacing F = FS / N

FREQUENCY:

FS / 2
N F F S 2 N

N F FS 2 N

FS / 2

This can be written as

1 x[n + L] = N 1 = N 1 = N
NF 2

c e
k k = NF 2 k

NF 2

jk 2N n

c e
k =1 N 1 k =0

jk 2N n

1 + N

c e
k k = NF 2

j ( N + k ) 2N n

X [k ]e

jk 2N n

=IFFT {X [k ]}

Where:
X [ k ] = ck , X [ N + k ] = ck , X [k ] = 0, k = 1,..., N F / 2 k = 1,..., N F / 2 otherwise
positive subcarriers negative subcarriers

Guard Time with Cyclic Prefix (CP)

x[ L],..., x[ L + N 1] = IFFT {X [k ], k = 0,..., N 1}
0

L + N 1

CP
14 4 2 3

IFFT{ X }
N
14243

CP from the periodicity:

x[n] = x[ N + n]

x[0] = x[ N ] x[1] = x[ N + 1] ... x[ L 1] = x[ L + N 1]

OFDM Symbol

Cyclic Prefix
k
0

x[0] = x[ N ]
x[ L 1] = x[ N + L 1]

n
0

c1
cN F / 2
0

x[L]

M
0

(N F / 2 )

M
IFFT

data
c N F / 2 c1

M M

N (N F / 2)

M
N 1

N 1 N 1

x[ L + N 1]

Summary of OFDM and relevant parameters Channel (given parameters):

1. Max Time Spread 2. Doppler Spread 3. Bandwidth

t_MAX in sec F_D in Hz BW in Hz

OFDM (design parameters):

1. Sampling Frequency 2. Cyclic Prefix 3. FFT size (power of 2) 4. Number of Carriers

Fs>BW in Hz L > t_MAX * Fs, integer

4*L<N<<Fs/F_D, integer
NF=[N*BW/Fs], integer

Test in Simulation:

w[n]
m-th data block (data, pilots and nulls)

X m [0] X [k ] M m M X m [ N 1]

OFDM TX

h[n]

OFDM RX

M M

Ym [0] Ym [k ]
Ym [ N 1]

Recall that for every transmitted block of data we receive

Ym [k ] = H m [k ] X m [k ] + Wm [k ]
With H m [ k ] the frequency response of the channel within the time block In order to estimate X m [k ] we need to know the channel.

A way to avoid it is to use differential encoding:

Data:

d m [k ]

X m [k ] = d m [k ] X m 1[k ]

X m1[k ]

Delay one frame

With QPSK it is equivalent to accumulating the phase

X m [k ] = X m 1[k ] + d m [k ]

At the receiver

Y [k ] H m [k ] X m [k ] + Wm [k ] d m [k ] = m = d m [k ] Ym 1[k ] H m 1[k ] X m 1[k ] + Wm 1[k ]

Provided: a. The channel changes slowly H m [ k ] H m 1[ k ] 0 b. High SNR

Ym [k ]
div
Delay one frame

d m [k ]

Ym1[k ]

Lab 4: Single Carrier vs. OFDM Modulation Goal: In this Lab we want to compare Single Carrier (SC) modulation with Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), with Differential Modulation . 1. Using the Simulink model test_SC.mdl see the received signal for various values of the symbol rate
FS = 2.0, 20.0, 200.0, 2000.0 kHz

As the symbol rate increases, notice the effect of Inter Symbol Interference in the scattering plot.
2. Repeat the same with the Simulink model test_OFDM.mdl and see the received signal for the same values of the symbol rate. Notice how you can increase the data rate and still be able to demodulate the received signal.

Example: IEEE 802.11a (WiFi)

1. Parameters 2. Simulink Example 3. Frame based and Sample based signals

Parameters of IEEE802.11a: Channel (given parameters):

1. Max Time Spread 2. Doppler Spread 3. Bandwidth

t_MAX=0.5 microsec F_D=50Hz BW=16MHz

OFDM (design parameters):

1. Sampling Frequency 2. Cyclic Prefix 3. FFT size (power of 2) 4. Number of Carriers

Fs=20MHz L=16 > 0.5*20=10 N=64<<20e06/50 NF=52=[64*16/20]

Sub-carriers: (48 data + 4 pilots) + (12 nulls) = 64

NULL

c1

0 1

c26
N F = 52
NULL

M M

M M M M
63

x0
N = 64

26

c 26

38

c1
Frequency
Pilots at: -21, -7, 7, 21

M
63

x63
Time

IFFT

Frequencies:
F = 20 MHz / 64 = 312.5kHz

L
( 64 26 )

L
63 1

38

26
8.125

Subcarriers index

8.125

F ( MHz )

16.25MHz
DATA
F (MHz )
FCARRIER 10

FCARRIER
20 MHz = 1 / Ts

FCARRIER + 10

Time Block:

Ts = TFFT / 64 = 50 10 9 sec

TG = 0.8 sec

TFFT = 3.2 sec

time

TFRAME = 4.0 sec

Overall Implementation (IEEE 802.11a with 16QAM). 1. Map encoded data into blocks of 192 bits and 48 symbols: data
Encode Buffer Interleave (192 bits) 010011010101 1110 0111 1000 1101 Map to 16QAM

al
+1+j3 -1+j +3-j3 +1-j

48

48

4
4x48=192 bits

Overall Implementation (IEEE 802.11a with 16QAM). 2. Map each block of 48 symbols into 64 samples time domain frequency domain xm [0] null 0 0
+1+j3 -3-j +3-j3 +1-j

24 data 2 pilots

M
null

1
26 27 27 + 64 26 + 64 1+ 64

1 2

xm [1]

24 data 2 pilots

MM
62 63

xm [62] xm [63]

am [ l ]
l = 1: 48

X m [k ]

IFFT

xm [ n ]
n = 0 : 63

k = 0 : 63

L
26
1 1

L
26

Simulink Example

To make it simpler: 1. let the number of carrier be the same as the FFT length, ie N=NF; 2. Use Differential QPSK Encoding and Decoding, so that we do not need to estimate the channels frequency response.

Initial Callback function:

% OFDM parameters (IEEE802.11a) Fs=20e6; % symbol data rate (uncoded) in Hz N=64; % FFT sample size L=16; % Cyclic Prefix sample length % Channel Parameters % 1. Doppler Spread FC=5.0; % carrier freq. in GHz v=50; % speed in km/h FD=v*FC; % doppler freq in Hz %2. Time Spread tau=[0, 0.1, 0.4]*1e-6; % time delays in seconds P=[0, -2, -4]; % attenuations in dB % Additive Noise SNRdB=20; % dB

Simulink Implementation of OFDM IEEE802.11a Recall how we compute the IFFT at the Modulator IN: Block of 52 data points (data + pilots)
NULL
Recall: vectors in Matlab begin at n=1

OUT: Block of 80 samples

x(49)

d1

0 1 26

x(1)

x(64) x(1)

d 26
NULL

M M M M
63

CP

d 27 d 52

M
38

M M
x(64)

M
63

x(64)

IFFT

Vector operations. OFDM Modulator:

Concatenate in a vector
0

Transmitted Frame

52 data points (include the pilots)

52

26 0 26

1 26 11 26

64

80

Split Data

IFFT

ADD CP

OFDM Modulator:

Simulink > Signal Routing > Selector

Simulink > Commonly Used Blocks > demux Simulink > Math Operations > Matrix Concatenate

repeat last 16 entries [49:64, 1:64]

OFDM Demodulator:

Received Frame
80 64 1 26 11 26 26 52 26

Received Data

Remove CP

FFT

Concatenate in a vector

Signal Processing > Signal Management > Signal Attributes

Simulink > Commonly Used Blocks > Terminator

Simulink > Signal Routing > Selector

demux

Simulink > Math Operations > Matrix Concatenate

Put Everything Together:

M=4 (QPSK) f_D=doppler freq.

Differential enc/dec

3. Frame based and Sample based

In Simulink a signal can be Frame based Sample based

This is particularly important when the signals are vectors. Some blocks want the input to be Frame based, others want it Sample based, others dont care When you have to process a large number of data, it is more efficient to process blocks of samples, using Frames, rather than one sample at a time.

Frame based

Frame Based [Nx1]

Each vector is part (a frame) of the same signal

Sample based

Sample Based [Nx1]

There are N different signals. Each element of the vector belongs to a different signal.
N

Typical Example: the FFT block

[Nx1] FFT frame

[Nx1]
To Frame

[Nx1]

sample

frame

IEEE 802.16 Standard

IEEE 802.16 2004: Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems
From the Abstract: It specifies air interface for fixed Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) systems supporting multimedia services; MAC supports point to multipoint with optional mesh topology; multiple physical layer (PHY) each suited to a particular operational environment:

IEEE 802.16-2004 Standard

Table 1 (Section 1.3.4) Air Interface Nomenclature:

WirelessMAN-SC, Single Carrier (SC), Line of Sight (LOS), 10-66GHz, TDD/FDD WirelessMAN-SCa, SC, 2-11GHz licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessMAN OFDM, 2-11GHZ licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessMAN-OFDMA, 2-11GHz licensed bands,TDD/FDD WirelessHUMAN 2-11GHz, unlicensed,TDD

MAN: Metropolitan Area Network HUMAN: High Speed Unlicensed MAN

IEEE 802.16e 2005: Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 2: Physical and Medium Access Control Layers for Combined Fixed and Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands and Corrigendum 1
Scope (Section 1.1): it enhances IEEE 802.16-2004 to support mobility at vehicular speed, for combined fixed and mobile Broadband Wireless Access; higher level handover between base stations; licensed bands below 6GHz.

IEEE 802.16-2004: Reference Model (Section 1.4), Figure 1 External Data SAP=Service Access Point Section 5

By Layers:

CS-SAP Service Specific Convergence Sublayer (CS) MAC-SAP

MAC

MAC Common Part Convergence Sublayer (CS)

Section 6

Security Sublayer PHY-SAP PHY Physical Layer

Section 7

Section 8

Parameters for IEEE 802.16 (OFDM only)

802.16-2004
Frequency Band OFDM carriers 2GHz-11GHz OFDM: 256 OFDMA: 2048 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM 1Mbps-75Mbps TDD or FDD (1,2,4,8)x1.75MHz (1,4,8,12)x1.25MHz 8.75MHz

802.16e-2005
2GHz-11GHz fixed 2GHz-6GHz mobile OFDM: 256 OFDMA: 128, 256, 512,1024, 2048 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM 1Mbps-75Mbps TDD or FDD (1,2,4,8)x1.75MHz (1,4,8,12)x1.25MHz 8.75MHz

Modulation Transmission Rate Duplexing Channel Bandwidth

IEEE802.16 Structure
data
randomization Error Correction Coding

M-QAM mod

OFDM mod

TX

data
De-rand.

Error Correction Decoding

M-QAM dem

OFDM dem

RX

Choices: Coding rates 1/2 2/3 3/4 5/6 M-QAM 2 4 16 64 OFDM carriers 256 512 1024 2048 Channel B/width 1.25 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz

OFDM and OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)

Mobile WiMax is based on OFDMA; OFDMA allows for subchannellization of data in both uplink and downlink; Subchannels are just subsets of the OFDM carriers: they can use contiguous or randomly allocated frequencies; FUSC: Full Use of Subcarriers. Each subchannel has up to 48 subcarriers evenly distributed through the entire band; PUSC: Partial Use of Subcarriers. Each subchannel has subcarriers randomly allocated within clusters (14 subcarriers per cluster) .

Section 8.3.2: OFDM Symbol Parameters and Transmitted Signal OFDM Symbol

Ts

Tg
guard (CP)

Tb
data

Tg

1 1 1 1 = , , , Tb 4 8 16 32

Cyclic Prefix has a variable length. It represents a loss of

LCP = 10 log(Tb /(Tb + Tg ) )

An OFDM Symbol is made of Data Carriers: data Pilot Carriers: synchronization and estimation Null Carriers: guard frequency bands and DC (at the modulating carrier) pilots data

frequency Guard band channel Guard band

N guards = to provide frequency guards between channels N nulls = N guards + 1 (DC subcarrier is always zero) N pilots = pilots for channel tracking and synchronization N data = data subcarriers N used = N pilots + N data

Recall the OFDM symbol is of the form

N k = used 2 j 2f ct j 2kf ( t Tg ) s (t ) = Ree used ck e N k = 2 k 0

| S( f ) |

f c BW 2

fc

f c + BW 2

f c BW 2

fc
carrier

f c + BW 2

OFDM Subcarrier Parameters:

FFT size N_used N_nulls N_pilots N_data

256 200 56 8 192

128 108 20 12 96

512 426 86 42 384

1024 850 174 82 768

2048 1702 346 166 1536

1444444 444444 2 3
Fixed WiMax Fixed and Mobile WiMax

In 802.16 2004 we have

N FFT = 256 N used = 200

Fs BW 2 2
Frequency Spacing f = 1 / data_symbol_length = 1 / Tb Sampling frequency Bandwidth

BW 2

Fs 2

Fs = N FFT f
BW = N used f = N used Fs N FFT

Since we want the sampling rate to be integer multiple of a fixed rate (say 8kHz), the formula for the sampling rate is

Fs = floor (n BW / 8,000) 8,000

With n a factor (Table 213) of the order 8 86 144 316 57 256 n= , , , , , 7 75 125 275 50 200

IEEE 802.16, with N=256 data pilots nulls

X [k ]
12 24 38 24 24 12 63 88 100 101
M

x[n + L]

0 13

IFFT

12 24 24

155 156 168 193 218

24 12 243 255 255

Implementation of WiMax 2004 in Simulink

Data in 192x1

NFFT=256 NCP=64

5. Error Correcting Coding

1. Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding 2. Block Coding 3. Code Shortening and Puncturing 4. Simulink Implementation of Block Codes 5. Convolutional Codes 6. Simulink Implementation of Convolutional Codes 7. Concatenated Codes in IEEE802.16

1. Channel Capacity and Error Correction Coding

1.1 Channel Capacity 1.2 Error Correction Coding 1.3 Minimum SNR Requirement and Shannon Limit

1. Channel Capacity Problem: given a AWGN Channel, defined in terms of

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) Bandwidth B and a desired Bit Error Rate (BER), what is the maximum data rate we can transmit?
noise

..01010110

MOD

channel

DEM

..01010010
Errors!

Transmitted

Received

Define the Channel Capacity:

C = B log 2 (1 + SNR )

bits/sec

Significance: if the transmitted data rate R<C then we can always find a coding scheme to make the bit error rate arbitrarily small.
Example:

SNRdB=20dB B=10MHz

C = 10 7 log 2 1 + 10 20 /10 = 66.5Mbits / sec

Problem: How do we encode the data to obtain an acceptable error rate?

Use Error Correction Coding!

2. Error Correction Coding

Purpose: detect and Correct Errors by adding redundant information. How to Define an Encoder: code rate
rc = Ru <1 Re
rc

Ru
data rate

encoder

Re > Ru
Encoded data rate

number of errors corrected

# bits in error BER = total # of bits

Relation to Channel Capacity

SNR

rc encoder

channel
C
C

rc decoder

Ru < C

Ru
BER

Given a data rate Ru < C a desired Bit Error Rate (BER) arbitrarily small you can always find a code with coding rate

Ru rc <1 C
with desired BER.

Clearly the Complexity goes up with the coding rate. Example: see two situations with the same BER = 10 5 and
Eb / N 0 4dB

A. Convolutional Encoder with rate

rc = 1 / 2

B. Block Code (65520, 61425) low density parity check, with coding rate r = 61425 = 15
c

65520

16

Code Complexity $$$

1/ 2

15 / 16

rc

code rate

3. Minimum SNR Requirements

For a given Coding Rate, what is the minimum Eb / N 0 we can have?

Shannon Limit 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 coding rate 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -2

-1

3 EbN0 dB

1.6dB

Notice:

Eb > 1.6dB N0

always!!!

2. Block Coding

2.1 Parameters of Block Codes 2.2 Probability of Error 2.3 Reed Solomon Codes (non binary data) 2.3 Simulink Implementation

1. Parameters of Block Codes

It encodes k blocks of data symbols into n blocks of encoded symbols:

raw data encoder encoded data

(n, k , t )
k symbols Code Rate n> k symbols

k rc = n

Parameters:

(n, k , t )
d min 1 t floor 2
Max. number of errors corrected Minimum distance between codewords

where

d min n k + 1

L
D B

t
A

d min

L
codewords non -codewords

receive transmit C A
channel decoder

decode A B Error !!!

D where
d (C , A) t d ( D, A) > t

2. Probability of Error If the code corrects up to t errors, the probability that the wrong codeword is decoded is given by

n j d /2 p (1 p ) n j (2 k 1)(4 p (1 p ) ) min Pe j =t +1 j
n

n-j bits right

j bits wrong with p the probability of error for one bit. For BPSK, QPSK:

p = Q 2 Ec / N 0

Ec = Energy of Coded Bit =

k Eb n

Bit Error Probability for HDD

n j Pe n j Pb j p (1 p ) j k j =t +1
n

codeword error

bits per codeword

Some Probabilities of Error for BPSK:

Probability of Error: BPSK coded and uncoded -2 -2.5 -3 -3.5 log10(Prob of error) -4 -4.5 -5 -5.5 -6 -6.5 -7

Uncoded Golay (24,12,3) BCH (127,64,10)

7 8 Eb/N0 dB

10

11

3. Reed Solomon Codes (non Binary Data)

(n, k , t )

n = 2m 1

2m k t = floor 2

coded symbols

k<n uncoded symbols

errors corrected

1 symbol = m bits
Good for Burst Error Correction at relatively high SNR

Example: (255,239,8)
239 symbols

RS
=

255 symbols 239 symbols

data

16
parity

Based on polynomials:
uncoded block

coded block

RS
u[0],..., u[k 1]
u ( X ) = u[0] + u[1] X + ... + u[k 1] X k 1

c[0],..., c[n 1]
c( X ) = c[0] + c[1] X + ... + c[n 1] X n 1

encoder

c( X ) = g ( X )u ( X )
u( X )
errors

g( X )
quotient

e( X )

u( X ) e( X )

remainder

y( X ) g(X )

y ( X ) = c ( X ) + e( X ) = g ( X )u ( X ) + e( X )

3. Code Shortening and Puncturing

3.1 Code Shortening 3.2 Code Puncturing 3.3 RS Coding in IEEE802.16

1. Code Shortening

Start with a block code, say RS (n=255, k=239, t=8). We can generate a different code by Shortening: 1. Shortened to k data bytes by adding 239-k null symbols 2. At the output eliminate the corresponding 239-k terms
k (k+16,k,8) k 16

00000

(255, 239,8)

00000 255 symbols

16

239 symbols

By shortening Reed Solomon (255,239,8) we obtain codes

(k '+16, k ' ,8),

0 < k ' 239

All these codes correct up to 8 errors (bytes).

(k+16,k,8)

16

2. Code Puncturing

By puncturing we eliminate L parity bytes to obtain a code correcting 8-T errors. Therefore we determine L from

parity bytes

(N k ) = 8 T
2

16 L = 8T 2

L = 2T

Puncturing Reed Solomon Codes (k '+16, k ' ,8), 1. The last 16 bytes are parity bytes

0 < k ' 239

Code:

(k+16,k,8)

16

(k '+16, k ' ,8)

2. For a (k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T ) code, correcting 8-T errors, just eliminate the first 2T bytes of the parity check.

(k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T )

(k+16,k,8-T)

k 16-2T parity

RS codes used in IEEE802.16: (32,24,4) (40,36,2) (64,48,8) (80,72,4) (108,96,6) (120,108,6)

(k '+16 2T , k ' ,8 T )

k=24, T=4 k=36, T=6 k=48, T=0 k=72, T=4 k=96, T=2 k=108, T=2

4. Simulink Implementation of Block Codes

4.1 Shortened Codes 4.2 Punctured Codes

Simulink Implementation of Shortened RS Codes

Lets implement the code (52,36,8) by shortening 1. Shortened to k=36 data bytes (=36x8=288 bits) by adding 239-k null symbols at the beginning of the block 2. At the output eliminate the first 239-k terms

239 36 = 203

203 239 255

416 bits

288 bits

bits to symbols 8 bits/symbol

36

RS

52

symbols to bits 8 bits/symbol

RS Encoder
Raw data 288 bits Encoded data 416 bits

RS Decoder
Raw data 288 bits Received data 416 bits

Put Everything together:

It is easier to create subsystems:

RS encoder MQAM Mod

RS decoder

Channel MQAM Demod

Select each group of blocks and use Edit > Create Subsystem It cannot be undone!

Masked Subsystems In Simulink we can create customized blocks, where we can enter parameters values. Example: Reed Solomon Encoder and Decoder

datablock data

RS Encoder RS Decoder

n'

encoded data

RS Encoder: 1. edit

[239-k+1:255]

2. right click on subsystem and select Mask Subsystem 3. Edit Mask:

add parameters

You can customize the icon

When you click on the icon, you get the following:

the two parameters from previous slide

RS Decoder:

2. right click on subsystem and select Mask Subsystem 3. Edit Mask:

Simulink Implementation of (40,36,2).

1. Start with the previous code (52,36,8); 2. Puncture it by eliminating 2T=12 (ie T=6) bytes in the parity

RS (40,36,2) encoder

Sequence Operations>Puncture

Eliminate last 12 bytes

same vector

RS (40,36,2) decoder

Sequence Operations>Insert Zero

Insert 12 zeros

Convolutional Encoders

1. Definition of Convolutional Encoders 2. Puncturing 3. Simulink Implementation

Convolutional Encoders

raw data

L
k

L
M

CC
k n

Rate

L
Coded data

It continuously updates k data symbols into n>k coded symbols.

Example: a 2/3 encoder

y1

x1

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

y2

x2

z 1

z 1

z 1

y3

Polynomial description:

[ y1

y2

y3 ] = [x1

a11 x2 ] a21

a12 a22

a13 a23

y1

x1

1
z 1

0
z 1

0
z 1

1
z 1

1 1

a11 = (10)8 (011)8 = 23 a12 = (11)8 (101)8 = 35

y2

x2

0
z 1

1
z 1

0
z 1

a22 = (0)8 (101)8 = 5 a23 = (1)8 (011)8 = 13

y3

Therefore the code is described by the matrix (all entries are octal)
no connection x1 y3

[ y1

y2

y3 ] = [x1

23 35 0 x2 ] 0 5 13
no connection

x2 y1

The parameters are then: CONSTRAINED_LENGTH = [4,3] CODEGENERATOR=[23,35,0; 0,5,13] which call the function poly2trellis

In IEEE802.16e the Convolutinal Code has rate and constrained length 7:

y1

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

[ y1 , y2 ] = x[a1 , a2 ]
a1 = (1)8 (111)8 (001)8 = 171 a2 = (1)8 (011)8 (011)8 = 133 constrained length = 7

y2

Note: in some books (as in [Costello]) the binary coefficients are determined in reverse order. Example: the code in the previous page is defined by he polynomials (begin counting from the right) as

g1 = (1)8 (001)8 (111)8 = 117

g 2 = (1)8 (011)8 (011)8 = 155

Punctured Codes

From an (k,n) convolutional code make a code with higher rate (less correcting capabilities), by periodically eliminating output bits. Example in IEEE 802.16e: The code [171,133] seen before is a (1,2) code:

K, x[n],K

encoder

K , y1[n], y2 [n],K

Rate 2/3:
K, x[n 1], x[n],K K , y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

encoder

We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:

1 0 P= 1 1

Since:
K , y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

Rate 3/4:
K, x[n 2], x[n 1], x[n],K K , y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

encoder

We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:

1 0 1 P= 1 1 0

Since:
1 1
K , y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

1 1
0

Rate 5/6:
K, x[n 4], x[n 3], x[n 2], x[n 1], x[n],K

encoder
K , y1[n 4], y2 [n 4], y1[n 3], y2 [n 3], y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

We can represent it as a matrix with 2 rows:

1 0 1 0 1 P= 1 1 0 1 0

Since:
1 1

0 1

1 0

0
1

1 0

K , y1[n 4], y2 [n 4], y1[n 3], y2 [n 3], y1[n 2], y2 [n 2], y1[n 1], y2 [n 1], y1[n], y2 [n],K

Simulink Implementation

Implementation of Concatenated Codes using Simulink

AWGN_RSCC_masked.mdl

Variable DataRates with Concatenated Codes in IEEE802.16

It is highly desirable to be able to set the system to a number of different data and coding rates to adapt to channel conditions; IEEE802.16 achieves variable data rates by a combination of mechanisms: coding (shortening, puncturing) data block length (subchannelization) different rates have to be easily achieved by changing appropriate parameters without major reconfigurations.

Recall from previous units:

k
Raw Data in

RS encoder

nRS

CC encoder

n
Encoded Data out

RS parameters

CC parameters

encoder/decoder reduction puncturing

RS Encoder

(k + 16 2T , k ,8 T )
239 255
RS (255,239,8) select

k + 16
puncture

Zero Pad

nRS = k + 16 2T

pRS = [1,...,1,1 30] 0,..., 2 13 2

k + 16 2T

2T

Convolutional Encoder with coding rate rCC

nRS

CC [171,133]

2nRS
puncture

nRS n= rCC

rCC = 1 / 2, P = [1,1] rCC = 2 / 3, P = [1,1,0,1] rCC = 3 / 4, P = [1,1,0,1,1,0] rCC = 5 / 6, P = [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]

By combining the two codes we obtain a number of data rates (section 8.3.3.2 of the standard):

Rate ID

MQAM 2 4 4 16 16 64 64

Data block k (bytes) 12 24 36 48 72 96 108

Coded block n (bytes) 24 48 48 96 96 144 144

Coding rate k/n 1/2 1/2 3/4 1/2 3/4 2/3 3/4

RS Code

CC coding rate 1/2 2/3 5/6 2/3 5/6 3/4 5/6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

(12,12,0) (32,24,4) (40,36,2) (64,48,8) (80,72,4) (108,96,6) (120,108,6)

Example: take Rate_ID=2

Rate ID M-QAM Data block k (bytes) Coded block n (bytes) Coding rate k/n RS Code CC coding rate

36

48

3/4

(40,36,2)

5/6

36
Raw Data in

RS encoder

40

CC encoder

40 = 48 5/6
Encoded Data out

RS parameters

CC parameters

k = 36

pRS = [1,...,1,1 30] 0,..., 2 13 2

36 + 16 2 6 = 40 2 6 = 12

pCC = [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]

This yields a table of parameters for each Rate_ID:

Rate ID

MQAM

Data block k
(bytes)

pRS
No RS [ones(1,32),zeros(1,8)] [ones(1,40),zeros(1,12)] 1 [ones(1,80),zeros(1,8)] [ones(1,108),zeros(1,4)] [ones(1,120),zeros(1,4)]

pCC
[1,1] [1,1,0,1] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1,1,0] [1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,1,0]

Coded block n (bytes) 24 48 48 96 96 144 144

CC
coding rate

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 4 4 16 16 64 64

12 24 36 48 72 96 108

1/2 2/3 5/6 2/3 5/6 3/4 5/6

All parameters can be computed from the matlab program coding.m

The Coding Rates and the MQAM modulation parameters are designed in such a way that, in all cases

8* n = 192 symbols log 2( M )

From Data Source RS CC

Symbol Block

To IFFT MQAM

bytes:

k
Row Data Block

nRS
Coded Data Block

n
Coded Data Block

In all cases of NFFT=256,512,1024,2048 the number of data symbols transmitted is a multiple of 192.

Recall this table:

FFT size N_used N_nulls N_pilots N_data

256 200 56 8 192

128 108 20 12 96

512 426 86 42 384 2x192

1024 850 174 82 768 4x192

2048 1702 346 166 1536 8x192

Put Everything together for IEEE802.16 2004 with AWGN Channel

WiMax256.mdl

IEEE802.16 Implementation
In addition to OFDM Modulator/Demodulator and Coding we need

Time Synchronization: to detect when the packet begins Channel Estimation: needed in OFDM demodulator Channel Tracking: to track the time varying channel (for mobile only)

In addition we need Frequency Offset Estimation: to compensate for phase errors and noise in the oscillators Offset tracking: to track synchronization errors

Basic Structure of the Receiver Channel Estimation: estimate the frequency response of the channel Time Synchronization: detect the beginning of the packet and OFDM symbol

Received Signal Demodulated Data

WiMax Demodulator

Time Synchronization In IEEE802.16 (256 carriers, 64 CP) Time and Frequency Synchronization are performed by the Preamble. Long Preamble: composed of 2 OFDM Symbols Short Preamble: only the Second OFDM Symbol First OFDM Symbol Second OFDM Symbol 320 samples 2 repetitions of a long pulse + CP

320 samples 4 repetitions of a short pulse+CP

64

64

64

64

64

64

128

128

Tg

Td

Tg

Td

The standard specifies the Down Link preamble as QPSK for subcarriers between -100 and +100:

1 j , PALL [k ] = 0,
Using the periodicity of the FFT:

k = 100,...,1,+1,...,+100 otherwise

PALL [k ], k = 1,...,100

PALL [k ] = PALL [256 + k ], k = 100,...,1

100

156

255

 Short Preamble, to obtain the 4 repetitions, choose only subcarriers multiple of 4:

* 2 PALL [k ], if k mod 4 = 0 P4 [k ] = otherwise 0,

P4 [k ]

p4 [ n]

L
0

FFT
64 64 64 64
255

252 255

Add Cyclic Prefix:

p4 [ n]
64
0

64

64

64

64
255 319

 Long Preamble: to obtain the 2 repetitions, choose only subcarriers multiple of 2 :

2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 0 P2 [k ] = otherwise 0,

P2 [k ]

p2 [ n]

L
0

FFT
128 128
255

2 4 6

252 255 254

p2 [ n]
64
0

Add Cyclic Prefix:

128 CP 128
1 4 319 42 3

Several combinations for Up Link, Down Link and Multiple Antennas. We can generate a number of preambles as follows: With 2 Transmitting Antennas:

2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 0 P [k ] = otherwise 0,

0 2

2 PALL [k ], if k mod 2 = 1 P [k ] = otherwise 0,

1 2

With 4 Transmitting Antennas:

m=0

* 2 PALL [k ], if k mod 4 = 0 P40 [k ] = otherwise 0,

m = 1,2,3

* PALL [k + 2 m], if k mod 4 = m P4m [k ] = otherwise 0,

Time Synchronization from Long Preamble

1. Coarse Time Synchronization using Signal Autocorrelation Received signal: preamble 64 128 128 OFDM Symbols

L
n0
y[n l] y *[n 128 l]
l =0 127 2

Compute Crosscorrelation Coefficient:

y[n]

ry2 [n] =

z 128

xcorr

127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0

Time Synchronization from Long Preamble

1. Coarse Time Synchronization using Signal Autocorrelation Received signal: preamble 64 128 128 OFDM Symbols

L
n0
y[n l] y *[n 128 l]
l =0 127 2

Compute Autocorrelation :

y[n]

ry2 [n] =

z 128

xcorr

127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0

Effect of Periodicity on Autocorrelation:

y[n]
64 128 128

L
n0
128

y[n 128]
64 128

Ln
MAX when

ry2 [n]

y[n] = y[n 128]

n0 64

n0

Compute it in Simulink:

y[n l] y *[n 128 l]

l =0

127

y[n]
1 In1 Conj. -128 z Delay u Product Digital Filter DF FIR |u| Abs u 2 Math Function Divide

ry2 [n]
>= 0.8 Compare To Constant 1 Sync

-128 z |u| Abs1 u2 Square DF FIR Delay1 Product1 Digital Filter2 -CConstant MinMax max

127 127 2 2 y[n l] y[n 128 l] l =0 l =0

Example: perfect channel (no spread in time)

ry [n]

The packet begins somewhere in here

64

2. Fine Time Synchronization using Cross Corelation with Preamble

y[n]

xcorr
p[n]

ryp [n] =

y[n l] p *[l]
l =0

127

127 127 2 2 y[n l] p[l] l =0 l =0

Since the preamble is random (almost like white noise), it has a short autocorrelation:

y[n]
64 128 128

L
n0

2 ryp [n]

p[n]
128

127

n0 128

n0

 with dispersive channel

y[n]

xcorr
p[n]

ryp [n] =

y[n l] p *[l]
l =0

127

127 127 2 2 y[n l] p[l] l =0 l =0

Since the preamble is random, almost white, recall that the crosscorrelation yields the impulse response of the channel

y[n]
64 128 128

L
n0

| h[n] |
ryp [n]

p[n]
128

127

n0 128

n0

Compare the two (non dispersive channel):

Autocorrelation of received data

ry

Crosscorrelation with preamble

ryp

Synchronization with Dispersive Channel Let L be the length of the channel impulse response

64 L

Channel impulse response

In order to determine the starting point, compute the energy on a sliding window and choose the point of maximum energy

y[n]

xcorr
p[n]

ryp [n]

c[n] c[n]

Maximum energy

ryp [n] 1

n M +1

n
M=max length of channel = length of CP

c[n] = ryp [n k ]
k =0

M 1

Example

y[n]

xcorr
p[n]

ryp [n]

c[n]

Impulse response of channel

Auto correlation

y[n]
max

Cross correlation

p[n]

c[n]

Autocorrelation (saw previously)

Detect MAX

Cross correlation

Sum

Channel Estimation
Recall that, at the receiver, we need the frequency response of the channel:

m-th data block

X m [0] X [k ] M m M X m [ N 1]

w[n]
OFDM TX

h[n]

OFDM RX

M M

Ym [0] Ym [k ]
Ym [ N 1]

Transmitted:
X m [k ]

Received:
Ym [k ] = H [k ] X m [k ] + W [k ]

H [k ] channel freq. response

W [k ]

From the Preamble: at the beginning of the received packet. The transmitted signal in the preamble is known at the receiver: after time synchronization, we take the FFT of the received preamble Estimated initial time

Received Preamble:

64

128

128

256 samples

L
Y [ 0] Y [k ]

FFT

Y [255]

Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ], k = 0,...,255

Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ], k = 0,...,255
Solve for

H [k ]

using a Wiener Filter (due to noise):

H [k ] =

Y [k ] X * [k ] preamble
2 | X p [k ] |2 + w

noise covariance Problem: when

X p [k ] = 0 frequency response H [k ]

we cannot compute the corresponding

X p [k ] = 1 j
Fact: by definition,

if

k = 2,4,...,100 k = 156,158,...,254

X p [k ] = 0

otherwise (ie DC, odd values, frequency guards)

Two solutions: 1. Compute the channel estimate

H [k ] =
only for the frequencies k such that

Y [k ] X * [k ] preamble
2 | X p [k ] |2 + w

X p [k ] 0
and interpolate for the other frequencies. This might not yield good results and the channel estimate might be unreliable; known

Linterpolate
k

2. Recall the FFT and use the fact that we know the maximum length L of the channel impulse response

Y [k ] = H [k ] X p [k ] + W [k ]
Since the the preamble is such that either For the indices where

| X p [k ] |= 0

or

| X p [k ] |= 2

| X p [k ] |= 2

we can write:

2 jk n L 1 * N Y [k ] X p [k ] = h[n]e 2 + W [k ] X * [k ] p n =0

for

k = 2,4,...,100 k = 156,158,...,254

so that we have 100 equations and L=64 unknowns. This is solved by a matrix multiplication

h = Finv YX * p
64 1 100 1

Simulink Implementation

Trigger when preamble is detected

Channel Estimate out H [k ]

h[n]

Y [k ] Data in y[n] X * [k ] p

Example:

Spectrum of Received Signal

NOT TO SCALE

As expected, it does not match in the Frequency Guards

Estimated Frequency Response of Channel

Start after processing preamble

WiMax-2004 Demodulator WiMax256.mdl

Standard OFDM Demod (256 carriers) data

Error Correction Decoding

Ch.

Channel Tracking
In mobile applications, the channel changes and we need to track it. IEEE802.16-2005 tracks the channel by embedding pilots within the data. In the FUSC (Full Use of Sub Carriers) scheme, the pilots subcarriers are chosen within the non-null subcarriers as

9k + 3m + 1
with

m = [symbol_index ] mod 3 = 0,1,2

0,...,191 for N FFT = 2048 0,...,95 for N FFT = 1024 k = 0,...,47 for N FFT = 512 0,...,11 for N FFT = 128

0 1 4 7L

subcarrier k

OFDM Symbol

nulls DC (null)

pilots data nulls

Expand the Demodulator

Demodulator

Channel tracking

Multiple Antenna Systems (MIMO)

M
TX

M M RX

NT
Transmit Antennas

NR
NT N R
Receive Antennas

Different paths Two cases: 1. Array Gain: if all paths are strongly correlated to which other the SNR can be increased by array processing; 2. Diversity Gain: if all paths are uncorrelated, the effect of channel fading can be attenuated by diversity combining

Receive Diversity:

h1

y1
M RX

TX

s
NT = 1
Transmit Antennas

hN R
yNR
NR
Different paths

NR
Receive Antennas

w1 y1 h1 M = M ES s + N 0 M wN y N hN R R R
Energy per symbol Noise PSD

Assume we know the channels at the receiver. Then we can decode the signal as

y = hi* yi = ES | hi |2 s + N 0 hi* wi
i =1 i =1 i =1

NR

NR

NR

signal
and the Signal to Nose Ratio

noise

NR 2 ES SNR = | hi | N i =1 0

In the Wireless case the channels are random, therefore Now there are two possibilities:

| h |
i =1 i

NR

is a random variable

1. Channels strongly correlated. Assume they are all the same for simplicity

h1 = h2 = ... = hN R = h
Then
2 | hi |2 = N R | h |2 = N R 2 NR

assuming

E | h |2 = 1

{ }

i =1

and

ES 1 2 ES SNR = N R | h | = NR 2 N0 2 N0
2

From the properties of the Chi-Square distribution:

mSNR = E{SNR} = N R

ES N0

better on average

SNR

N R ES = var{SNR} = 2 N0

but with deep fades!

Define the coefficient of variation

var =

SNR
mSNR

1 = 2

In this case we say that there is no diversity.

Recall the Chi-Square distribution: 1. Real Case. Let

y = x + x + ... + x
2 1 2 2

2 n

Then with

2 y = n

xi N (0,1) real , i.i.d .

E{ y} = n var{ y} = 2n

2. Complex Case. Let

y =| x1 |2 + | x2 |2 +...+ | xn |2
xi = ai + jbi CN (0,1) complex gaussian, i.i.d .

Then with

y=

1 2 2n 2 E{ y} = n

1 var{ y} = n 2

2. Channels Completely Uncorrelated.

Since:

NR 2 ES SNR = | hi | N i =1 0 NR 1 2 2 | hi | = 2 2 N R i =1
1 2 ES SNR = 2 N R N0 2

Diversity of order N R

with

E{SNR} = N R
var{SNR} =

ES N0

N R ES 2 N0

var =

SNR
mSNR

1 2 NR

Example: overall receiver gain with receiver diversity.

15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25

N R = 10 NR = 2 NR = 1

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Transmitter Diversity

h1
M

y
RX

TX M

hN R

NT
Transmit Antennas

NR = 1
NT
Different paths Receive Antennas

ES y= N T

hi s + N 0 w i =1
NT

Equivalent to one channel, with no benefit.

Total energy equally distributed on transmit antennas

However there is a gain if we use Space Time Coding. Take the case of Transmitter diversity with two antennas

h1

x1[n]
TX

y[n]

h2

RX

x2 [ n ]
Given two sequences

s1[n], s2 [n]
* 2

code them within the two antennas as follows

x1 x2

s1 s2

* s1

2n 2n + 1

ES (h1s1 + h2 s2 ) + N 0 w1 y[2n] = 2 ES * * h1s2 + h2 s1 + N 0 w2 y[2n + 1] = 2

This can be written as:

y[2n] y *[2n + 1] =
To decode, notice that

ES 2

h1 h* 2

h2 s1 w1 + N0 * * h1 s2 w2

z1 h1* z = * 2 h2

s h2 y[2n] ES 2 1 * = 2 || h || s + h1 y [2n + 1] 2

% w1 N 0 || h || % w2

Use a Wiener Filter to estimate s:

s1 = K h1* y[2n] + h2 y *[2n + 1] s1

* 2 * 1

( ) = K (h y[2n] h y [2n + 1])

with

2 / ES K= | h1 |2 + | h2 |2 +2 N 0 / ES

It is like having two independent channels

s1 s2

ES || h ||2 2

% N 0 || h || w1

z1 z2
% N 0 || h || w2
1 2 || h || =| h1 | + | h2 | = 4 2
2 2 2

ES || h ||2 2

|| h ||2 ES SNR = 2 N0

Apart from the factor , it has the same SNR as the receive diversity of order 2.

WiMax Implementation

h1
h2

Base Station

Subscriber Station

Down Link (DL): BS -> SS Transmit Diversity Uplink (UL): SS->BS Receive Diversity

Down Link: Transmit Diversity Use Alamouti Space Time Coding: Transmitter: Data in

Error Coding

Xn
M-QAM buffer

X 2m
STC

IFFT

TX

IFFT

TX

X 2 m 1
Block to be transmitted Space Time Coding

X 2m X 2 m 1

* X 2 m 1 * X 2m

2m

2m + 1

time

Receiver:

Y2 m
Data out Error Correction

Xn
M-QAM

X 2m
Unbuffer STD

FFT

RX

X 2 m 1
Space Time Decoding: For each subcarrier k compute:

FFT

RX

Y2 m +1
X 2 m [k ] = K H1*[k ]Y2 m [k ] + H 2 [k ]Y2*m +1[k ] X [k ] = K H *[k ]Y [k ] H [k ]Y * [k ]
2 m 1

2m

2 m +1

with

K=

2 / ES | H1[k ] |2 + | H 2 [k ] |2 +2 N 0 / ES

Preamble, Synchronization and Channel Estimation with Transmit Diversity (DL)

The two antennas transmit two preambles at the same time, using different sets of subcarriers

p0 [ n ]
CP 64
0

EVEN subcarriers 128 +

128

+
128

319

n
100

L
0

L
100

p1[n]
CP 64

128
128

+
128

ODD subcarriers

time

frequency

Both preambles have a symmetry:

p0 [n] = p0 [n 128] p1[n] = p1[n 128]

n = 128,...,319

p0 [ n ]

h0 [n]

received signal from the two antennas

y[n]

p1[n]
Problems: time synchronization

h1[n]

estimation of both channels

One possibility: use symmetry of the preambles

y0 [n] = 2h0 [n] * p0 [n]

+
64 128 n0 + 128

y[n]
64 256

z 128

n0

y1[n] = 2h1[n] * p1[n]

64 128 n0 + 128

The two preambles can be easily separated

MIMO Channel Simulation Take the general 2x2 channel

e j 3

e j1
Rayleigh

x1[n]
T T

y1[n]
T T

x2 [ n ]
e j 4

Rayleigh

y 2 [ n]
e j 2

= [ 1 L N ] sec
P = [ P L PN ] dB 1

0 T 1 Correlation at the transmitter 0 R 1 Correlation at the receiver

OFDM Transceiver Power Amp

LPF LPF

IFFT

DAC

I
Q

P/S
DAC

MOD

BPF

MOD

BPF

FIF
oscillator

FC FIF

FIF

oscillator

FC FIF
DEM
BPF

FFT

ADC

I Q

LPF LPF

S/P
ADC

DEM

BPF

Low Noise Amp

Problems!!!

Non Linearities Quantization Errors I/Q Imbalance Power Amp

LPF LPF

IFFT

DAC

I Q

P/S
DAC

MOD

BPF

MOD

BPF

FIF
oscillator Peak to Average Power Ratio Frequency Drift

FC FIF

 Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAR) A Single Carrier QPSK signal has a constant amplitude, since only the phase is modulated. A Multi Carrier OFDM signal has a random amplitude. Example: see an OFDM signal with 1024 subcarriers. Plot 1,000 OFDM symbols
0.015

Pmax=0.014
0.01

0.005

Pave=2e-4
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x 10
5

Pmax/Pave=66.88=18dB

Effects: On the ADC: larger number of bits to accommodate large dynamics On the Power Amplifier: it has to be linear within a wider range

Remedies: the signal needs to be clipped to avoid saturating the amplifier the output power of the signal has to be reduced

Cause of large peaks: OFDM signal is a sum of sinusoids. When all in phase, the sum can be large (peak value) with respect to the average.

1 y[n] = N

Y [k ]e
k =0
N 1 k =0

N 1

jk 2N n

Assume all subcarriers Y[k] are i.i.d.:

Average Power:

1 E | y[n] |2 = 2 N

E | Y [ k ] |2 =

1 E | Y [ k ] |2 N

}
2

Peak Power when all subcarriers are aligned:

E | y[n] | Y [k ] =| Y | Y
2

PPeak N PAve

It increases with the number of subcarriers

How bad is PAR? Probability Distribution of PAR

By the Central Limit Theorem the received signal y[ n] is gaussian The amplitude is Rayleigh distributed and the power is Chi-square. Therefore we can compute the Cumulative Density Function analytically:

Pr {PAR > z} = 1 (1 e
fairly accurate for number of carriers

z 2.8 N

N 64

log10 P(PAR > z ) )

-1

N=128,256,512,1024

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7 2

10

12

14

z dB

Notice: 1. The probability that PAR=N, the number of subcarriers, is almost zero; 2. The probability that PAR>4=12dB is of the order of

10 4.5 10 3.5

Remedies: 1. Data randomizing: if there is an error due to PAR, resend the data and most likely it will be fine 2. Clipping: easy thing to do, at the expenses of introducing errors 3. Coding: potentially the best, but still not reliable solutions (not in the standard) 4. A number of iterative techniques: too complex for real time implementation

Effects of PAR on Digital to Analog Converters (DAC)

For a fixed number of bits, we need to compromise between two sources of errors:

vin [n]

vout (t )
DAC

vin [n]

vout (t )
ZOH

QCL
In the DAC there are two sources of errors: Quantization Error; Saturation error due to clipping

Compromise between Number of Bits in DAC and Clipping Level

VMAX VMAX

Vmin

t
Small clipping error, Large Quantization Noise

Vmin
Large clipping error, Small Quantization Noise

We choose Clipping Level for best compromise between clipping error and quantization noise.

vin [n]

vout (t )
DAC

ideal

vin [n]

vout (t )

ZOH

QCL
Total SNR due to Q and CL: SNR due to Q :

SNRQCL = SNR + SNR 12 2 2b SNRQ = (2 ) 2

CL

1 Q

1 1 CL

SNR due to CL : SNR

3 2 /2

where

= E { x[n] |2 } |
b = number of bits per sample

= ACLIP /

See both combined: MAX around

= ACLIP / = 4 5

65

SNR( dB )

60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

b = 12 b = 11 b = 10 b=9 b=8

number of bits

= ACLIP /

Choose max clipping value:

VMAX 4 E vin [n]

We have seen that the probability that PAR>4=12dB is very small.

Effects of PAR on Power Amplifiers

Rapps model of a Power Amplifier:

x(t )

g
g ( x) =

y (t ) = g ( x(t ) )

(1 + x )
2p

Pout
1 2p

p of the order of 3
Pave PMAX

Pin

Input Back Off (IBO)

Ideally you want the Input Back Off (IBO) to be larger than the PAR.

IBO = 10 log10

PMAX > PAR Pave

PAR 10log10 N
This can be excessive and very inefficient. Example: with N=256 carriers you need a IBO of

IBO = PAR = 256 = 24dB

to guarantee that the amplifier always operates in the linear region.

Remedies: Clipping

x[n]
clip

Ae j x[ n ] if | x[n] |> A xCL [n] = if | x[n] | A x[n]

| x[n] xCL [n] |

| x[n] |

A
FT time wide band noise

time

frequency

~[n] = a e ji [n n ] x i i
i

| x[n] |

A
time

ni

xCL [n] = x[n] ~[n] x

x[n]
clip Filter

X (F )
~ X (F )

xW [n] = x[n] * w[n] ai e ji w[n ni ]

i

x[n] ai e ji w[n ni ]
i

W (F )
F

It has two effects: 1. Additive Noise in the demodulated subcarriers 2. It generates out of band noise, so we need to add a Low Pass Filter The latter is not allowed, since it interferes with neighboring channels.

Example: See one of OFDM symbol with the following parameters (this is not random but chosen with high PAR): FFT length N=256 Data Carriers: Nused=200 Modulation: 4QAM Large peak value

0.4

| x[n] |

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Clip it to 5dB (no filtering): See the Frequency Spectrum: nulls data nulls
f = F FS

1 Nused / 2 N 2
5

0
unfiltered clipped signal

Nused / 2 N

1 2

-5

Large values in the freq. guards

-10

-15

-20

-25 -0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Choose a filter with this characteristics:

1

f pass = Nused / (2 N ) f pass < f stop < 1 / 2

f pass
In matlab: use firpm

f stop

0 .5

h=firpm(M, [0,fpass,fstop,0.5]*2, [1,1,0,0]); filter order, say M=40

window

h[n]

1.2

FT of window

| H( f )|

10

0.8
-10

0.6

-20

0.4

-30

0.2

-40

-50

-0.2 -15

-10

-5

10

15

-60 -0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Clipped and Filtered: Clipped only (no filter)

filtered and unfiltered clipped signal 10 0 -10 -20 -30 dB -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0 F/Fs

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Negative effect on data!!!

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Peak Cancellation Detect and Cancel the peak to reduce out of band noise.

+ Detect peak Generate impulses LPF

| x(t ) |

(x(t ) Ae
0

t0
j x ( t 0 )

) (t t )
0

(x(t ) Ae
0

j x ( t 0 )

)g (t t )
0

It spreads the error to neighboring values. t0 t Larger in band noise

Effects: The LPF completely controls the out of band noise. It can be completely eliminated; It reduced PAR and therefore the Input Back Off. It causes an increase of in band noise and therefore a higher BER.

Effect of I/Q Imbalance

Ideally the received signal is of the form
N 1 k =0

y[n ] = Y [k ]e

jk 2N n

= y I [n ] + jyQ [n ]

In practice the I and Q components have different gains, as

y [n ] = AI e j I y I [n ] + jAQ e

jQ

yQ [n ]

= Ae j ( (1 + )e j y I [n ] + j (1 )e j yQ [n ])
with

A=

AI + AQ 2 I + Q 2

= =

AI AQ AI + AQ

I Q I + Q

The two parameters Assume them small:

express the magnitude and phase of the I/Q imbalance.

(1 + )e j (1 + )(1 + j ) 1 + + j (1 )e j (1 )(1 j ) 1 j
After a bit of algebra:

y [n ] = Ae j ( y[n ] + ( + j ) y *[n ])
Substitute: to obtain:

y[n ] = Y [k ]e
k =0

N 1

jk 2N n

N 1 N 1 jk 2N n jl 2N n * + ( + j ) Y [l]e y [n ] = Ae Y [k ]e l =0 k =0 j
N 1 jk 2N n * = Ae (Y [k ] + ( + j )Y [ N k ]) e k =0

The effect is subcarrier N-k leaking into subcarrier k

Y [k ]

Y [N k ]

N k

+ j
It is as having extra noise added to the signal: I/Q Imbalance

y[n ]

L
noise

The factor | + j | is called Negative Frequency Rejection and it can be modeled as covariance of additive noise.

I/Q Imbalance

w2 [n]
y[n ]

Define:

y[n]

2 y SNRi = 10 log 2 i

w1[n]
noise

Implementation Loss:

2 2 2 y y 2 10 log 2 = 10 log1 + 2 = 10 log 1 + 10 10 log 2 2 1 + 2 1 1

SNR1 SNR2 10

Example: let

SNRnoise = 20dB SNRIQ = 35dB

Implementation Loss

10 log 1 + 10

2035 10

) = 0.135

Total SNR:

SNRnoise + IL = 20 0.135 = 18.65dB

Frequency Synchronization

Drifts and errors in the oscillator frequencies cause a frequency offset, like a doppler shift; This causes loss of subcarriers orthogonality and Inter Carrier Interference (ICI). The effect of ICI can be modeled as additive noise, which can be quantified

30

SNR
25

20 dB 15 10 5 0

0.02

0.04 epsilon

0.06

0.08

0.1

Fact: to maintain satisfactory SNR we need to limit the frequency offset to | F | = 4% FS / N

 Frequency Synchronization from Long Preamble.

x[n]
CP

xP
N = 128

xP
N = 128

n0

If there is a frequency offset (due to oscillator drifts or doppler shift) the received signal has an extra phase term

y[n ] = y0 [n ]e j 2 f n
with f the digital frequency offset. Take the two received parts of the long preamble:

y1[n ] = y0 [n ]e j ( 2 f n + ) + w1[n ] y2 [n ] = y0 [n ]e j(
2 f ( n + N ) + )

+ w2 [n ]

n = 0,..., N 1

Comparing the two in vector form:

y2 = y1e j 2f N + w
where Then:
* * y1 T y2 =|| y1 ||2 e j 2 f N + y1 T w

yi = [ yi [0] L yi [ N 1]]

which yields the estimate of the frequency offset

* Im { y1 T y2 } 1 f = arctan *T Re { y1 y2 } 2 N

Since,

| arctan |< then the frequency offset has to be at the most

f <

1 2N

with N being the FFT length.