3.

Micromanometer (measurement of very small pressure changes)

Note that in all of the equations above for all three manometers, we have identified all interfaces with a point. This is always necessary when analyzing a manometer.

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Problem 2.2 Water and oil flow in horizontal pipelines. A double U-tube manometer is connected between the pipelines, as shown. Calculate the pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil pipe. Use

SGoil = 0.86 ,

SGHg = 13.6

and

H2O = 1000 kg m3 .

FORCES ON PLANE AREAS

In engineering designs where a liquid is contained by surfaces, such as a dam, the side of a ship or a water tank, it is necessary to calculate the magnitude and location of forces that act both on plane and curved surfaces. Consider the plane surface of general shape shown in the figure below.

Force on an inclined plane area

MAGNITUDE OF RESULTANT FORCE

The total force of the liquid on the plane surface is found by integrating the pressure over the area:

F = p dA
A

Assuming that p=0 at h=0, we know that

p = h = y sin
The force may then be expressed as ...

The expression for the force then becomes ...

From the above equation, we see that

The magnitude of the force on a plane surface is equal to the pressure at the centroid multiplied by the area.
The force does not, in general, act at the centroid.
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LOCATION OF THE RESULTANT FORCE F

Note that the sum of the moments of all the infinitesimal pressure forces acting on the area A must equal the moment of the resultant force. Let the force F act at the point (xp, yp), the center of pressure (c.p.). The value of yp can be obtained by equating moments about the x-axis:

where Ix is the second moment of area of the surface w.r.t the x-axis.

2nd moment of area and the parallel axis theorem

Ix = y 2 dA Iy = x2 dA
Ix = I + Ay 2

Iy = I + Ax2

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Ixy = xy dA Ixy = I xy + Axy

Using a) the expression of the force b) the balance equation for the moments c) the parallel axis theorem, derive an expression for the location of the y-coordinate of the centre of pressure in terms of the location of the centroid.

Similarly, to locate the x-coordinate xp of the centre of pressure, we write the moment balance about the y-axis. (...)

where Ixy is the product moment of inertia.

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Problem 2.3 A plane area of 80cm 80cm acts as an escape hatch on a submersible. If it is on a 45 angle with the horizontal, what force P, applied normal to the hatch at the bottom edge is needed to just open the hatch, if it is hinged at the top edge when the top edge is 10 m below the surface? The pressure inside the submersible is assumed to be atmospheric.

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FORCES ON CURVED AREAS

The resultant fluid force acting on a curved surface can be determined by integration, as was done for the plane surfaces. It is generally a rather tedious process and no simple, general formulas can be developed. As an alternative approach we consider the equilibrium of the fluid volume enclosed by the curved surface of interest and the horizontal and vertical projections of this surface

1) The horizontal component of pressure force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to the component. 2) The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface equals in magnitude and direction the weight of the

entire column of fluid, both liquid and atmosphere, above the curved surface.

Problem 2.4 Calculate the force P necessary to hold the 4-m-wide gate in the position shown in the diagram below. Neglect the weight of the gate.

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Problem 2.5 Find the force P needed to hold the gate in the position shown in the diagram if P acts 3 m from the y-axis. The parabolic gate is 150 cm wide.

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