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7HRUHPD2ULFDUHDUILSXQFWXO7 [\ ∈3úLUXO 0 Q I  7 Q≥ DUHOLPLW úL

 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2
OLP 0 Q I  7 = S [ ⋅ H − \  GDF 7 ∈& 2   
  

Q→∞
∞ GDF 7 ∈ ([W& 2

[ \
 S  U 
 'HPRQVWUD LH1RWkQG YQ =  Q+  ⋅  Q+   Q ≥  RE LQHPF 
 SQ   UQ 
Y −
0 Q I  7 = SQ[ ⋅ UQ\ ⋅ YQ −  = SQ[ ⋅ UQ\ ⋅ Q ⋅ OQ YQ = 
   

OQ YQ

 S  U  YQ − 
[ \
  Q  ⋅ Q  ⋅ Q[ + \  −
⋅ OQ YQQ  ∀ Q≥∀7∈3  


 Q  Q OQ YQ

YQ − 
&RQIRUP  úL  UH]XOW F  OLP YQ =  úL OLP =  
Q →∞ Q→∞ OQ Y
Q

GHDVHPHQHDFRQIRUPFX  úL  DYHP OLP YQQ = H [ ⋅ H \ = H [ + \


  
  

Q→∞
'DF vQ  WUHFHPODOLPLW FXQ→∞úL LQHPVHDPDGH      úL  RE L
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⋅ OLP Q [ + \  −
=
   

Q→∞ Q→∞

 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2


 = S [ ⋅ H \ ⋅ [  + \  OLP Q [ + \ − = S [ ⋅ H − \  GDF 7 ∈& 2 
   
  

Q→∞
∞ GDF 7 ∈ ([W& 2

 &XDFHDVWDWHRUHPDHVWHGHPRQVWUDW 

7HRUHPD2ULFDUHDUILSXQFWXO7 [\ ∈3úLUXO %Q I  7 Q≥ DUHOLPLW úL
 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2
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   

Q→∞
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

 
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 TQ   V Q 
Z −
%Q I  7 = TQ[ ⋅ VQ\ ⋅ ZQ −  = TQ[ ⋅ VQ\ ⋅ Q ⋅ OQ ZQ = 
   

OQ ZQ

T  V  ZQ − 
[ \
⋅ OQ ZQQ ⋅ Q [ + \ −  ∀ Q≥∀7∈3  
 
=  Q  ⋅ Q 
 Q  Q OQ ZQ

ZQ − 
&RQIRUP  úL  UH]XOW F  OLP ZQ =  úL OLP =   
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GHDVHPHQHDFRQIRUPFX  úL  DYHP OLP ZQQ = H [ ⋅ H \ = H [ + \
  
  

Q→∞
'DF vQ  WUHFHPODOLPLW FXQ→∞úL LQHPVHDPDGH      úL  RE L
QHPF  OLP %Q I  7 = T [ ⋅  \ ⋅ H − \ ⋅  ⋅ OQ H [ + \
⋅ OLP Q [ + \  −
= 
    

Q→∞ Q→∞

 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2


= T [ ⋅  \ ⋅ H − \  GDF 7 ∈& 2 
   

∞ GDF 7 ∈ ([W& 2



 &XDFHDVWDWHRUHPDHVWHGHPRQVWUDW 

7HRUHPD2ULFDUHDUILSXQFWXO7 [\ ∈3úLUXO *Q I  7 Q≥ DUHOLPLW úL
 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2
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 
Q→∞
∞ GDF 7 ∈ ([W& 2

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 UQ   VQ 
] −
*Q I  7 = UQ[ ⋅ VQ\ ⋅ ] Q −  = UQ[ ⋅ VQ\ ⋅ Q ⋅ OQ ]Q = 
OQ ]Q

U  V  ]Q − 
[ \
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Q Q OQ ]Q

] −
&RQIRUP  úL  GHGXFHPF  OLP ] Q =  úL OLP Q =   
Q→∞ Q→∞ OQ ]
Q

GHDVHPHQHDFRQIRUPFX  úL  DYHP OLP ] QQ = H [ ⋅ H \ = H [ + \


  
  

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⋅ OLP Q [ + \  −
= 
    

Q→∞ Q→∞

 GDF 7 ∈ ,QW& 2


=  \ ⋅ H − [ + \ ⋅ [  + \  ⋅ OLP Q [ + \ − = S [ ⋅ H − \  GDF 7 ∈& 2 
    
 

Q→∞
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
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DWXQFL OLP 0 Q I  7 = OLP /Q = H − 
Q→∞ Q→∞
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 
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= = = λ  ⋅ T T
Q + Q Q + Q

DQS+ DQS+
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Q→∞ D T − D T Q→∞ D T − D T
=
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= λO S / 
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 −  Q 
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D
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Q
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&D]XOF 
DQ +
 1RWkQG ε Q = DQ+ − DQ UH]XOW F  =  + Q FX OLP Q =  
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Q

 D 
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 DQ+ 
S −T

DQS−T  + Q 
 ε 

/ = − OLP
DQ + ε Q S − T
= − OLP  DQ  = OLP
DQS−T
=
Q→∞ XQ Q→∞ DQ  + XQ Q→∞
D 
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OQ Q+ 
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 'DF  vQ SDUWLFXODU DQ + − DQ =   FW  GHFL QXPHUHOH DQ VXQW WHUPHQLL XQHL
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SHQWUXúLUXO [Q FHULQ D OLP [Q+ − [Q = OG 
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 ∞ SHQWUX T < S + 
 ÌQDFHVWFD]OLPLWD/GHYLQH / = OLP DQS − T + =  
GT Q → ∞  SHQWUX T > S + 

 3HQWUXT SUH]XOW  / = LDUOLPLWDSURSXV GHYLQH
G S + 
Q
∑ ) [N λO S
OLP N =

DQS+ G S + 
=
Q→∞


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α
 α  α + 

 [  [ [ 
OXkQG λ D ⋅F úL S = α +  VHRE LQHUH]XOWDWXOFDUHFRQVWLWXLHRELHFWXOJHQHUDOL
α

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 $WXQFLF!úL / = OLP 
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Q →∞ T
−  
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3HQWUXT SRE LQHP / = úL OLP N =
= λO S 
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&DDSOLFD LHVHSRDWHFRQVLGHUDGHSLOG úLUXO
     
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     Q −

&D]XOF f
D
 &D]XOVHSRDWHWUDWD LQkQGVHDPDF  OLP Q =  VDXWUHFkQGODOLPLW SHQWUX
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∞ SHQWUX T < S
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Q→∞
 SHQWUX T > S
Q
∑ ) [N
 OLP N =
= λO S 
Q→∞ DQS
&DDSOLFD LHVHSRDWHFRQVLGHUDGHSLOG úLUXO DQ = Q 

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+ \ \  − \[ − ]\ + ][ + ] ]  − ]\ − [] + [\ ≥  ⇔ [  + \  + ]  +  [\] ≥ 
≥ [  \ + ] + \  [ + ] + ]  \ + [ 

&RURODU'DF [\]VXQWQXPHUHUHDOHSR]LWLYHDWXQFLDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD
[  + \  + ]  + [\] [ + \ + ] ≥ [\ [  + \  + \] \  + ]  + [] [  + ]  
'HPRQVWUD LH$SOLF PLQHJDOLWDWHDOXL6FKXUSHQWUXFD]XOU 

$SOLFD LL
'DF DEFVXQWODWXULOHXQXLWULXQJKLDWXQFLDUHORFLQHJDOLWDWHD


D  E + F − D + E  D + E − E + F  D + E − F ≤ DEF 
2,0 


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[ [ − ]  + \ \ − ]  ≥ [ − ] \ − ] [ + \ − ] 
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URODUXO

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W L
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 F   [\] +  ≥  [\ + \] + ][ FXFRQGL LD [ + \ + ] =  
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 +  [\] 
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 +  ⋅  [\]  +  [\]
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*0SDJ 

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