EAD 861 Final Examination 1 Running head: EAD 861 Final Examination

Lesson 6 Final Examination: A Comprehensive Review and Analysis of the Research and Theory in EAD 861 Christina Mazuca EAD 861 Adult Learning April 30, 2010

EAD 861 Final Examination 2 Question 1: Adult Learning Introduction Using the research and theory we have studied this semester in Adult Learning (EAD861), I will reflect upon my own context as a learner. I will describe a set of beliefs and assumptions that make up my own personal theory of adult learning, attempt to define the adult learner, briefly talk about motivation and recruitment in adult learning, look at barriers for adult learning, and discuss what it means to learn as an adult. Adult Learners Defining what constitutes an adult learner is very complicated. It seems that in order to define the adult learner we must first determine what constitutes being an adult. In the beginning of this semester there were three approaches that were discussed as being accepted as ways to consider what/who constitutes an adult (policy, social role, and developmental stages). There are multiple ways one can define an adult. At age eighteen, I remember that my friends and I believed that we were officially adults. Legally, eighteen is the age society traditionally considers the beginning of adulthood. However at eighteen you still have several limitations. For example, you cant purchase alcohol and you have to be at least twenty-five and a have a major credit card in order to rent a vehicle. One would think that once you truly become an adult these limitations would no longer exist. In defining an adult learner, I like the idea that adult learners are those that have returned to school after some time or are twenty-five years of age or older. I also like the notion that having had some life experience makes you an adult. Perhaps having some work experience, having served in the military or raising children makes you an adult? However, with respect to having a child, there are a lot of children raising children these days! Maybe its a combination

EAD 861 Final Examination 3 of some of these qualifications? I found it interesting to read that certain government programs and policies determine what constitutes an adult and who qualifies for certain assistance programs for adult learning. If I were a policymaker I would think that it would be tough to make that determination. Malcolm Knowles identified a list of characteristics that he felt were particular to adult learners. He believed that 1) as a person matures they become more autonomous and selfdirected in their learning, 2) adults have an accumulation of knowledge and experience from which to draw from, 3) the readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role, and 4) adults are more problem-centered than subject-centered. He later wrote that motivation for adults was more internal than external and that adults want to know why they need to learn something (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 84). I would have to say that for the most part I would agree with Knowles theory. It is has been my experience that I am better able to learn if I can relate a new concept or theory to something that I have experienced in the past. I also strongly believe that adults have to be ready to take on new learning experiences, and depending on where you are in your life, learning experiences may not be beneficial if you were not prepared and open to the experience. I struggled with the thought of going back to school for my masters degree and sometimes wish I would have started sooner. However, I dont believe that I would have been as successful and Im not sure that I would have been as focused. Now that I am a little older and have been in a professional workplace for a few (six) years, I feel that I have set goals for myself and I am ready to learn and pursue my education further. There are several differences in learning that take place from adulthood versus learning that occurs in youth. Particularly, adults may have different relationships with their teachers.

EAD 861 Final Examination 4 When you are a child you look up to your teachers and usually trust what they teach as fact. As a child, you believe every word that your teacher says and trust them almost effortlessly and learn from them. However, as Knowles suggested, as an adult you have a wealth of experiences and knowledge to draw from as well as the ability to question things that you may not have been comfortable doing when you were a child. You have the ability to relate your personal, professional, and life experience to the content being taught and draw from that experience to increase understanding (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). As pointed out by Malcolm Knowles in adults tend to be more self-directed in their learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Children tend to be more dependent on their teacher and have limited experiences to draw from. Based on the theory of andragogy (the methods or techniques used to teach adults) versus pedagogy (the function or work of a teacher; teaching the art or science of teaching; education; instructional methods) we know that children learn differently than adults (Kerka, 2002). It makes sense that adults would be more independent, have higher levels of reasoning and cognitive skills, and for children to need more direction. We also know that adults learn intentionally as well as incidentally in formal and informal settings. Adults are more able to choose the path in which they want to go with respect to their learning. For children, there isnt a lot of choice involved in the learning experience. The curriculum is laid out for you and your learning experience is designed strictly by your teachers. Motivation and Recruitment Adults participate in learning for multiple reasons. It was found that the number one reason that adults participate in learning is job-related motivation. Participants are either preparing for a new job or participating as part of their current job. When I think about my own reasons for participation in the HALE masters program, it is job-related. I want to be able to

EAD 861 Final Examination 5 advance in my career; therefore I feel I need more education. Other reasons for participation include personal interest, life transitions (such as birth of a child, marriage, retirement, etc.), and learning for the sake of learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 63). Over the passing of time so many things have happened to make education accessible to everyone: the starting of community colleges, night programs, community-based learning, and more importantly and most recently, technology and the Internet. The opportunities for adults to continue their education are endless. More and more adults are either going back to school to obtain their GEDs, obtain higher education degrees, and/or learning incidentally through Internet exploration or self-led learning. For some people that dont do well in formal learning settings, these additional opportunities are helping them to learn and grow in ways that might not have been possible previously. It seems that some of the ways that these new arenas of learning are successful for adult learning is because they take into consideration all of the different needs and goals or adult learners. According to Malhorta, Sizoo, and Chorvat (1999) there are six factors that contribute to reasons why adults dont participate: (1) bad experience, (2) institutional reasons, (3) lack of resources, (4) course offerings, (5) cost/benefit ratio, and (6) childcare. Research done by Johnstone and Rivera (as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) concludes that there are two main reasons for nonparticipation or potential barriers and they are external or situational and internal or dispositional. External are those factors that are outside of ones control and internal are indicative of ones attitude, for example not believing in ones self. According to McGivney (1993) there are situational (lack of money, lack of time, lack of transportation), institutional (inconvenient schedules, lack of relevant programs, and too much emphasis on full-time study) and dispositional (feeling too old, lack of confidence, and being

EAD 861 Final Examination 6 tired of school) barriers. I can honestly say that for myself I dont think that I would be able to participate if I had to pay for these classes. I am overwhelmingly grateful that as an MSU employee I am able to participate in my courses free of charge. There are many potential barriers that could keep adults from participating. As adults there are many ways in which we can and do learn. In order to get adults to participate there are few needs that must be met. Jane Vella (2002) talks a lot about this in her book Learning to Listen Learning to Teach. She has a multitude of experiences working with adult learners in several different programs. One of the ideas I like most is the idea of the needs assessment. I think it is extremely important to get to know your students and what it is that they hope to gain from a course. This will help determine if the class or program is of interest and aligns with what the learner intends to gain. This also allows for the dialogue to begin. Students can communicate and feel safe talking with the instructor about ideas and learning goals. It is also imperative that the environment in which a program is introduced and taught felt safe for the students involved. There needs to be a mutual feeling of respect and communication. Defining Learning Learning is commonly defined as a change in behavior (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) but there are several theories that exist and I find it difficult to completely identify with only one. However, I seem to be drawn to the social cognitive theory which claims that learning occurs from social interaction and observation of others in a social context as well as the constructivist meaning which maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; its how people make sense of their experiences. I think that we certainly do learn a lot from those around us and those in our social settings. Had it not been for the fact that I work in an academic setting with people who are pursuing degrees in higher education, I dont know that I

EAD 861 Final Examination 7 would be so inspired to work toward my masters degree. I also think that as an individual I have to work through this experience of higher education to find the path that works well for me. I have to really make sense of what it is that I want to study and what I want to do. I think that many of us learn by figuring out for ourselves and fighting through experiences and problems to make meaning for ourselves. Conclusion I believe that in Learning to Listen Learning to Teach Jane Vella (2002) really gets it right. While I dont agree with all of her steps and advice I do think that she has shown that these criterion when effectively put into place allow for maximum learning. If I were teaching a course I would try to incorporate many of her twelve steps. Conducting a needs assessment, creating a safe environment for learning, building sound relationships between teacher and learner and among learners, sequencing your content, allowing reflection by learning and doing (praxis), having respect for learners, setting clear roles and role development, engaging your learners and being accountable to each other (teacher and learners) are all in my opinion great ways to build a true learning environment and create the ultimate learning experience. Fostering an atmosphere where students can draw from their own experiences and have some ability to structure their own learning is what I think learning should be.

EAD 861 Final Examination 8 Question 3: Age-Related Changes and Learning Introduction There are four areas that we have studied this semester that illustrate biological, intellectual, cognitive, and psychosocial differences. I will briefly: a) identify a form of difference for each of these categories that I feel are important to consider in adult learning, b) briefly describe the overarching theory and theorists which have been used to help develop my understanding of this form of difference, c) identify defining attributes of each form of difference, and d) describe why it is significant in why adults learn and how. Biology Biologically as adults we go through changes via the aging process that unfortunately we cannot stop. Millions of dollars are spent each year on anti-aging products and while they may mask the effects of aging, the process still occurs. I know as I have tried many of these kinds of products and none of them have seemed to stop the aging process. Some of the changes that take place effect vision, hearing, and changes in the central nervous system. With vision in adults in their forties and fifties eyesight tends to decline. I am in my thirties and even I have noticed that I have started to squint at my computer screen. However, other changes include peripheral, depth, and color vision. Depending on what you are learning your vision loss can be detrimental to the learning process. One of the most notable changes is in the ability to perceive small detail on the printed page and computer screen. For some adults this can be a problem in a classroom and possibly deter them from participating in learning. As people age their pupils become smaller and allow less light to enter the eye (Stuen & Faye, 2003). This would mean that people would need more light in order to see. I could see that being a problem especially since a lot of classes on campus use PPT slides and often turn down the lights. Hearing loss tends to be more gradual

EAD 861 Final Examination 9 and isnt as noticeable until much later years (seventies). Other physical changes can include changes to the nervous system (slower reaction times), diseases like Alzheimers and dementia, and other chronic aches and pains. These biological issues can tend to worsen with age. Depending on what you are trying to learn or teach these can be setbacks or detriments in adult learning. Who would want to sit through a class in pain or discomfort? In a group discussion about biological age-related changes some shared the same problems. It seems we are all starting to experience some of the vision loss issues mentioned here. Although none of us have reached our forties, its interesting to me that we are all noticing these kinds of changes in our vision. We also talked about lack of energy and memory loss. While Im sure some of this can be contributed to diets, busy schedules, and heavy workloads, it would be interesting to know how much of it could be attributed to aging. Intellect Do we lose our intellectual abilities as we age? I feel safe to agree with Thorndike, Bregman, Tilton, and Woodyard (1928): in general, teachers of adults of age twenty-five to forty-five should expect to learn at nearly the same rate and in nearly the same manner as they would have learned the same thing at twenty (pp. 178-179). While the jury is still out as to whether or not adults do lose their smarts with age, from the incrementalist standpoint intellectual change is continuous and happens over time. Also associated with this theory is the notion that the mind is like a computer. You take in information (or information is input) and then the information is processed, stored, and retrieved when needed. The problem becomes the ability to retrieve information that is stored or the ability to learn new concepts. The idea is that we have sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory. The theory is that there is minimal impact on sensory but that there is increased time to process (working memory) as we

EAD 861 Final Examination 10 age. The older we get the less effective we become at organizing new information that we receive. It is generally believed that certain memory functions do decline with age (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This could make adult learning difficult. Especially since some theorize that older adults dont have the mental energy or attentional resources that younger people do and their short term memory system becomes overloaded and tasks become more complex (Bee & Bjorklund,2004, p. 143, as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Cognition Jean Piaget is most well-known for the cognitive development approach, which has four basic age-related stages: sensory-motor (birth to two years of age), pre-operational (two years of age to seven years of age), concrete operations (seven to eleven years of age), and formal operations (12 years of age and on). Concrete and formal are the two stages that are most relevant to adult learning. In concrete operational, you can think logically about objects and events; in formal operations you can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically. Piaget operated under the assumption that adulthood is the ability to engage in formal thought. His theory is also most closely related to Problem-Based Learning. The idea is that you identify the problem, recognize possible solutions, and choose the best possible solution. The problem lies within the abstract. Not all people can think in the abstract. I would classify myself as one of those people. I much prefer concrete ideas and events. For adult learners who have trouble with abstract theories and ways of thinking, Piagets theory can be highly problematic. Many argue that his theory is too categorical and that not all people fit nicely

EAD 861 Final Examination 11 into those categories or stages. It is also said that we can operate in concrete and formal in order to work through issues. Psychosociology Ericksons eight stages of man is the theory that I relate to most. I like the idea that we are at different stages at different points in our life with respect to learning. Erickson basically developed the eight stages of development that represent a chain of crises or issues to be dealt with over a life span. In order to make the connection I thought about myself as a learner. When I first graduated high school I wasnt sure what I wanted to do and didnt have a lot of direction as far as what I wanted to do with my life. Therefore, school was not so important to me and I did not put a lot of effort into my course work (as was evidenced by my grades). I worked for a few years probably matured a little along the way and then decided that I thought I would like to be a teacher. I went to school and was definitely much more focused. As a result my grades improved and soon after I earned my teaching certificate. Although I didnt find a job teaching it led me to a position at Michigan State University. Here I am now years later in a job that I am comfortable in but wanting to continue my education and further myself in my career in higher education. The point I am trying to make is that Ericksons eight stages naturally make sense to me and likely for many others. As people we change throughout life and I think it makes sense that we would progress in stages. I think that Kegans Constructive Developmentalism theory is relevant. The idea that we are often between stages makes sense too. The more we know about our stages, where we are, and who we are, the more we can understand how we learn. If you have a better sense of your identity and perhaps the identity of those around you, the more you can decide which learning situations might be beneficial to you and who you might learn from.

EAD 861 Final Examination 12 Having a more keen sense of identity would seem to better prepare you for any learning environment. Capps (2004; as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) seeks to realign Ericksons eight stages into a decade-by-decade formulation. Conclusion There are many theories about age-related changes and how adults learn. It seems whats constant in all the theories is that there are a lot of unknowns. Testing intelligence or loss of intelligence or the ability to continue to learn in adulthood is very difficult. Tests that are designed to do so have many biases and it is still not clear that they are accurate. We know that as we age we lose some of our abilities to hear and see and our bodies dont function as well as they did in our more youthful years. Its likely that the aging process does have some effect on learning and certainly can make grasping new concepts more difficult. The question remains: to what extent? I think that its different for each person and that there are many contributing factors such as how we take care of our bodies and staying active in learning. There is a lot of research that says if you dont use it you lose it. Staying engaged and keeping healthy can make a vast difference in how we learn and maintain our learning abilities.

EAD 861 Final Examination 13 Question 4: Self-Directed Learning, Reflection, and Learning Through Experience Introduction Using research and theories that we have studied in this course, I will define what is meant by self-directed learning, reflection, and learning from and though experiences. I will identify models and theories for each that I feel best describe or reflect the process in adult learning. Additionally, I will suggest ways in which these ideas (self-directed learning, reflection, and learning from experience) are theoretically manifest in our understanding of learning as transformative and identify and briefly describe incidents from my experience in this course from this past semester that I feel illustrate these terms and their inter-relationship with transformative learning or perhaps the potential for transformative learning. Self-Directed Learning Self-directed learning is tough to measure and perhaps even more difficult to define. For this reason it has been one of the newer concepts of adult learning because self-directed learning tends to happen outside of what might be considered a formal classroom setting and more in the everyday lives of adults. It has also become one of the more studied topics in adult learning. As adults we learn new things all the time. Knowles proposed that one of the major assumptions in adult learning is that adults become more and more self-directed as they mature (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) there are three main goals of self-directed learning: (1) to enhance the ability of adult learners to be self-directed in their learning, (2) to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed learning (3) to promote emancipation learning and social action as an integral part of selfdirected learning. They combined these goals using theories from multiple schools of research.

EAD 861 Final Examination 14 In order to follow these goals I will attempt to break them down a bit more. Goal one means that if I were teaching a course it would be part of my job to be sure that I help my students become more self-directed learners. For goal two, adults need to critically reflect on their learning and have a complete understanding of their own needs and wants in order for the learning to be transformational. Goal three basically says that one needs to experience a freedom and liberation for the individual and the social group for which that individual belongs. There are other theories that refer to self-directed learning as more of a process. In the instructional model of this theory it is said that self-directed learning can be more task-related. Professor Dirkx uses an example in his online lectures about loading music on his iPod. I found his example to be interesting because for him, adult learning tasks would be easier than loading music on his iPod. I had to chuckle a bit at that example because I would have to say that the opposite would be truer in my case. This entire course has been extremely difficult for me. I have to say that the experience of an online class and all that is associated with completing and participating in this course has been very difficult for me to work though. I have found that in the case of this class I struggled. I like to think of myself as an organized person and this class was very well-organized and laid out, but it was still very difficult for me to navigate. Basically I agree with Kerka (1999) when she says, although the Web has been promoted as accommodating different learning styles (Kerka 1998), hypertext does not suit all types of learners (p. 2). Reflection Early in the semester we learned praxis, action with reflection. So many of the theories we have studied have mentioned the importance of reflection in adult learning. Vella (2002) says that we use praxis in our everyday lives. We do something, reflect on its implications, and

EAD 861 Final Examination 15 change. In my opinion it would be safe to say that many people move throughout life in this way. In fact most of us probably could have benefited at one point or another from thinking before action. There is another theory called reflection-in-action that says that we are thinking about what we are doing while we are doing it a sort of thinking on your feet approach (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). For my own personal philosophy I would probably gravitate toward Jane Vellas school of thought. She demonstrated time after time in her book stories about working with adult learners of many different cultures how each time she began a program she reflected on her experiences from the past. Even in starting a new program throughout the course of a day she would think back and reflect upon her prior experiences in order to create the most effective learning environment for her learners. Reflection was a common thread amongst Group 5 as well. We often talked about the importance of reflection and especially with respect to the problem-based learning work. Learning through Experience In experience-based learning we must first determine what constitutes an experience. Dewey (1938) believed that in order for learning to occur through experience the principle of the continuity of experience means that every experience both takes up something from those which have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after (p. 27). So in order for learning to happen via experience not only must you have an experience, but that experience must change your thought or behavior in some way from how you have thought or behaved in the past. I think this really lends itself to transformative learning. Transformative learning is becoming critically aware of one's own tacit assumptions and expectations and those

EAD 861 Final Examination 16 of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation" (Mezirow, 2000, p. 4, as cited in Imel, 2000). As a learning adult I am constantly looking for ways to draw from my past experiences and learn as I experience new things. What I think is hardest is the unlearning of old habits and behaviors. In Wanacott (2000) a former manufacturing CEO contends that unlearning the old way old habits, old beliefs, old behaviors is just as critical and often more difficult. However, true transformational learning changes you. I think it is important to mention the reflective piece. If it doesnt force you to take a look at your past or change you in some way it isnt transformational. Experience in learning is also what makes learning for adults different than learning for children. While adults have so much more time to accumulate experiences it would make sense that they would also have the ability to learn from it, reflect upon it, and build upon it. I also think that we can learn from others experiences as well. In participating in this course I was able to learn from some of my group members as they have all had online courses previously and helped me to better navigate this course. They shared their experiences with me and helped me to organize myself and gave me helpful tips on how to stay on top of things. For learners to change their meaning schemes (specific beliefs, attitudes, and emotional reactions), they must engage in critical reflection on their experiences, which in turn leads to a perspective transformation (Mezirow, 1991). There were several stories in Vella that could be considered transformational. She fundamentally changed the many peoples lives that she touched. It seems her ways of teaching have made a huge impact on those that she taught. I think especially for the migrational farmers that she taught to speak English, she really made them think differently, even of each other and

EAD 861 Final Examination 17 of the way they saw her as a person as their teacher. In chapter 4 Vella (2002) implemented and designed a relief and development plan that was totally transformational learning experience for all involved (including Vella herself). What she taught them (with their help) changed how they lived. If that isnt transformational learning, I dont know what is. Another example was when she worked with the Nepali field staff workers on how to become more effective. She fundamentally changed and showed them a different way of teaching. She did all this by showing respect, allowing for reflection and input from her students. She really allowed them to grow and change as people and in many of the stories started a change in the culture (even if they were small changes like simply allowing people with differences to work together). Conclusion Upon reflection of my own learning this semester I believe that this course has taught me a lot about myself as an adult learner. I have learned a little more about the kind of learner that I am and that I may do better in a more traditional in-person classroom setting as opposed to online learning. I have discovered that online courses may be too self-directed for me. Even though the material was highly organized I seemed to struggle with the material. Surprisingly I seemed to do a little better with the group work. Typically I am not a fan of working in groups but I found that when I was working in a group I felt I needed to be more accountable for the learning that I was participating in. Contextually speaking, I think that depending on the subject matter adults can be more selfdirected at times than others. If there is something of interest to me, I tend to have a stronger desire and excitement which can foster self-directed learning. Experience has taught me that I also learn best when learning through experience. I think experiential learning is most transformational for me. In talking with group members we all thought that the problem based

EAD 861 Final Examination 18 units were more powerful and gave us more of a chance to experience and put into practice the theories and concepts that we were studying. One thing that we all agreed upon was the importance of reflection. With increasing technology and increasing global access it opens up a whole new world for adult learning. It is critical that as adult learners we take advantage of all the ways in which we can learn, experience new things, and take the time to reflect upon what we learn.

EAD 861 Final Examination 19 References Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Imel, S. (2000). Contextual learning in adult education (Practice Application Brief No. 12). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse. Kerka, S. (1999). Self-directed learning: Myths and realities (Report No. 3). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse. Kerka, S. (2002). Teaching adults: Is it different? Myths and realities. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Malhotra, N., Sizoo, S., & Chorvat, V. (1999). Barriers to adult participation in undergraduate education. Romeoville, IL: Adult Higher Education Alliance. McGivney, V. (1993). Participation and non-participation: A review of the literature. In R. Edwards, S. Sieminski, & D. Zeldin (eds.), Adult learners, education and training: A reader (pp. 11-30). London: Routledge. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stuen, C., & Faye, E. E. (2003). Vision loss: Normal and not normal changes among older adults. Generations, 27, 8-14. Thorndike, E. L., Bregman, E. O., Tilton, J. W., & Woodyard, E. (1928). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan. Vella, J. (2002). Learning to listen learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wonacott, M. E. (2000). The learning organization: Theory and practice (Myths and Realities ERIC Digest No. 12). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse.