. ..

. I

-
,
010101 ,

010100 ,

010200

2010

 512.54
22.144
-15
-15. . I. : .., .., .., ..: . -
: , 2010. - 23.

: ..-.., .. .

( "") :
, , , . .
- - .

512.54
22.144


1 .

13

4 .

18

M
: M M M .
a, b M a b.
M ,
a, b, c M (a b) c = a (b c).
M ,
a, b M a b = b a.
. G
: G G G ,
1) ;
2) G , .. e G,
e g = g e = g g G;
3) g G g 1 G, ..
, g g 1 = g 1 g = e.
, G
, (G, ).
+, , 0 ,
g g g.
,
. .
, G . G
|G|.
. .
, (a b)1 = b1 a1 ( ).
. (G, ) - . H G
, H
. , H ,
:
1) H ( a b H
a, b H);

2) H (a1 H
a H).
a H, 1), 2), aa1 =
e H. . G.
1), 2) : a b1 H a, b H.
H = {e} G
G.
.
1.1. ,
M ,
) M = N, x y = xy ;
) M = N, x y = (x, y);
) M = N, x y = 2xy;
) M = Z, x y = x y;
) M = Z, x y = x2 + y 2 ;
) M = R, x y = sin(x) sin(y);
) M = R , x y = xy , R = R\{0};
) M = R R, (x, y) (a, b) = (x, b).
1.2.
:
) (G, +), G = N, Z, Q, R, C;
) (G, ), G = N, Z, Q, R, C;
) (G , ), G = N, Z, Q, R, C ( G = G\{0});
) (nZ, +), n N;
) ({1, 1}, );
) ({an |n Z}, ), a R a 6= 0;
) (T 1 , ), T 1 = {z C| |z| = 1};
) ({z C| |z| > 1}, ).
1.3. , [0, 1) , a b = {a + b} -
a + b, .
1.4. , (a, b) , a 6= 0,
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac, ad + b).
1.5. (G, ) . , G , a b = b a.
1.6.
:
a) () ;
5

) () ;
) ;
) ;
) d
;
) ;
) ;
) ,
, ;
) ;


x y
)
(x, y R)
y x
;


x y
)
(x, y R), y x
, ;
)
 







1 0
i 0
0 1
0 i
Q8 =
,
,
,
0 1
0 i
1 0
i 0
?
1.7. , y = ax+b
cx+d , a, b, c, d R
adbc 6= 0, .
1.8. , x2 = e G, G
.
1.9. 1.2. 1.6. .
1.10. , .
1.11. 1.4.
1.12. ) ; ) S3 ; )
A4 .

(G, ) , g G, n Z. n-
. n > 0, g n = gg g . n = 0, g n = e. n < 0,
| {z }
n

 g n = g 1 g 1 g 1 .
|
{z
}
n

G , ,
. n > 0, ng = g + g + + g . n = 0,
|
{z
}
n

ng = 0. n < 0, ng = (g) + (g) + + (g).

|
{z
}
n

:
g m g n = g m+n ,
(g m )n = g mn .
g:
< g >= {g n |n Z}.
< g > G
, g. g .
G , g:
< g >= {ng | n Z}.
.
1) C = C \ {0} c .
i2 = 1, i3 = i, i4 = 1, , < i >= {1, 1, i, i}, .. < i >
4- . (1)2 = 1, < 1 >= {1, 1}
2- .
2) GL2 (R)

 1 0
, A =
GLn (R).
0 1

 



1 0
1 0
1
0
< A >=
,
, .. A2 =
= E.
0 1
0 1
0 1

2.
 ,


 A,




1 1
1
2
1
3
1
n
B =
, B 2 =
, B3 =
,. . . , B n =
.
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
B , .. < B > .
G , g G
, G =< g >.
, , .
7

 ,
:
g m g n = g m+n = g n g m m, n Z.
.
1) G = (Z, +) - .
G .
1 1. ,
n Z n = n 1 = (n) (1). , G =< 1 >=< 1 >.
Z
Z. , Z =< t >, , , 1 = nt
n. , n = t = 1.
2) G n- . G = {k =
2k
cos 2k
G n + i sin n | k = 0, n 1} n. ,


k
2k
2
2
: k = cos 2k
= k1 . n + i sin n = cos n + i sin n
, G =< 1 > .
3) Zm = {0, 1, , m 1} -
m. t = 1| + {z
+ 1} = t1, Zm =< 1 > - .
t

G , g G.
g n,
g n = e.
: ord g = n.
, , g
.
g
n, ng = 0.
1.
.
1) G = Z, ord 0 = 1, G ,

nm = 0 
n 6= 0, m = 0.
1 2 3 4
2) G = S4 , g =
, g 4 = id, 4 3 1 2

, , ord g = 4.

1
3

3) G = C , g = +
i = cos + i sin . ,
2
2
3
3
,
m
m
g m = cos
+ i sin
.
3
3
m
= 2k
, g m = 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 ,
3
8

 k Z, .. m = 6k.
m, 6,
1
3
6. , ord( +
i)=6.
2
2
g 1, , ,
. ,
,
.
1,
1. , |1 + i 3| = 2.
, ord(1 + i 3) =
.
(1) g m = e ordg|m.
ordg
(2) ordg k = (k,ordg)
.
. ordg = n.
(1) m n: m = nt + r, 0 r < n. g m = g nt+r =
(g n )t g r = g r , g n = e . ,
g m = e g r = e ( r < n ) r = 0 n|m.
(2) d = (k, n), n = n1 d, k = k1 d, (n1 , k1 ) = 1. m, (g k )m =
e g km = e ( (1)) n|km n1 |k1 m n1 |m. , (g k )m =
ordg
ordg
e (k,ordg)
|m. , ordg k = (k,ordg)
.
. Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
0 1.
Z6 , , 1. t, t1 = 0 6, , ord1 = 6.
6
(2) ord2 = (6,2)
= 62 = 3,
6
6
6
ord3 = (6,3)
= 63 = 2, ord4 = (6,4)
= 62 = 3, ord5 = (6,5)
= 61 = 6.
, G = Sn
,
.
= 1 s k1 , . . . , ks , . 1 , . . . , s . n = 1n sn . ,
1n , . . . , sn , . , n = id 1n = id, . . . , sn = id.
(1) , [ord 1 , . . . , ord s ] = ord .
, ,
[k1 , . . . , ks ] = ord .
.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
=
.
2 11 4 5 6 7 3 9 8 10 12 1
9

 = (1, 2, 11, 12)(3, 4, 5, 6, 7)(8, 9), ord = [4, 5, 2] = 20.

. 12 C , S7 A7 .
12 , , 12. 7 ,
3 4.
. 3 , 3,
4 ( 3), 4.
C73 = 35.
3, 3!
2 = . , 2, 5, 7
3
(2, 5, 7) = (5, 7, 2) = (7, 2, 5) (7, 5, 2) = (5, 2, 7) = (2, 7, 5). ,
4!

= 6
4
4. , S7 35 2 6 = 420
12.
3 4
, A7 12.
12 C z 12 = 1, ..
12.
, z
1, 12. .. z 1
12.
k
k
+ sin , k = 0, 1, ..., 11
k = cos
12
12
12. k , k 12
. , 1 , 5 , 7 , 11 .
C 4 12.
1. ,
g, g. ord g = n, < g >= {g 0 , g 1 , g 2 , . . . , g n1 }.

1. G G |G|.
1.
, |G|.
|G| , , , G.
2. g k < g > k
ord g.
10

 G =< g >, |G| = ordg = n. 1, , , g k , G, ..

ordg
= n,
n , ordg k = n. , (k,ordg)
n
.. (k,n)
= n. , g k (k, n) = 1.
n
n (n). , n (n).
. G = Z20 . (20) = 8.
Z20 =< 1 >, t = t1 - , ,
(t, 20) = 1. .. 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19.
. 20 a,
a5 = e 5.
G =< g >= {e, g, g 2 , ..., g 19 }. , (g k )5 = e 20|5k, ..
4|k. , k = 0, 4, 8, 12, 16. , ,
, g 0 = e, g 4 , g 8 , g 12 , g 16 .
ordg
20
20
ordg k =
=
, ordg k = 5
=5, ..
(k, ordg)
(k, 20)
(k, 20)
(k, 20) = 4. , k = 4, 8, 12, 16. .. 5 G
g 4 , g 8 , g 12 , g 16 .
2.
(1) .
(2) - . 
G =< g > H - G, H =< g m >,
m = min {k > 0}. G , m
g k H
n
n = |G|. , |H| = .
m
. Z15 .

1, : 2, Z15 =< 2 >.
15 1, 3, 5, 15. Z15 H1 =<
15
m1 2 >, H2 =< m2 2 >, H3 =< m3 2 >, H4 =< m4 2 >, m1 =
=
1
15
15
15
15, m2 =
= 5, m3 =
= 3, m4 =
= 1. , H1 = {0},
3
5
15
>=< 10 >= {0,
10, 2(10)} = {0,
5,
10}, H3 = {0,
3,
6,
9,
12},
H2 =< 5(2)
H4 = G.
. Z.
Z - ,
11

 1 -1. .. Z =< 1 >. , 2,

< a >, a - 1, .. a = m1 = m, m N a = 0.
, Z < m >= {..., 2m, m, 0, m, 2m, ...} =
mZ, m N {0}.
.
2.1. , ordxy = ordyx ordx = ordyxy 1 .
2.2.

 :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S10 ;
)
4 3 7 1 2 5 6 10 9 8


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
)
S12 ;
7 5 4 1 6 2 3 9 8 11 12 10

1
3
2
2
) g =
i C ;
) g =

i C ;
2
2
2
2
5
5
) g = 5 + 6i C ;
) g = cos
+ i sin
C ;
12 
12



0 i
1 a
)
GL2 (C);
)
GL2 (C);
1 0
0 1

!
0 1 0
i 3
1
2
2
)
GL2 (C);
) 0 0 1 GL3 (R);
i 3
1
2
2
1 0 0




1 2
1 1
)
GL2 (Z5 );
)
GL2 (Z3 ).
0 1
1 2
2.3. 6 :
) C ;
) S5 ;
) A5 .
2.4. 2 :
) S5 ;
) A5 .
2.5. Z12 , Z8 , Z12 , Z8 , Z7
( K K).
2.6. 24 a,
6
a = e, 6.
2.7. Z14 .
2.8. , : Z, 8Z, Q, Q , Z10 , Z13 , Sn (n 3).
2.9.
C ,
23 + 12 i.
2.10. Z30 , 25; Z42 , 30.
12

2.11. Z14 , 5.
2.12. Z10 , Z24 , Z100 .
2.13. R C .
2.14. , Q8 ,
Q8 , .

2.15. ,
2.
2.16. ,
.
2.17. ,
2.

(G, ) (H, ) - . f : G H
, a, b G
f (a b) = f (a) f (b).
f : G H
Kerf = {g G | f (a) = e},
e - H.
f f (g) :
Imf = {b H | a G, f (a) = b}.
, - , - .
.
1. G = (Rn , +), H = (Rm , +), f : Rn Rm . f .
2. (G, ) (H, ) - . f : G H
: f (g) = e g G.
e H. , f . ,
f (a b) = e = e e = f (a) f (b).
13

 Kerf = G, Imf = {e}.

3. G = (R, +), H = (R , ), f : G H, f (x) = 2x . ,
f . ,
f (x + y) = 2x+y = 2x 2y = f (x) f (y).
2x = 1 x = 0, Kerf = {0} , , f
.
, 2x R+ x R. Imf R+ .
, y y = 2x = f (x),
x = log2 y R. , Imf = R+ .
4. G = (GLn (R), ), H = (R , ), f : G H, f (A) = det A.
, f . ,
f (A B) = det(A B) = det A det B = f (A) f (B).
f :
Kerf = {A GLn (R) | det A = 1} = SLn (R); Imf = R .
, R A , , ,
:

0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0

A=
... ... ... ... .
0 0 ... 1
, f .

(G, ) (H, ) , f : G H .
(1) G H, f (e) = e.
(2) a G : f (a1 ) = (f (a))1 .
(3) a G : f (an ) = (f (a))n .
(4) f , Kerf
, .
(5) G,
H.
(6) .
(7) f : G H , f 1 : H G
( ).

14

 f : G G .
Aut(G) G .
. G . g G g : G G g (x) = gxg 1 .
g G.
.
, G = Sn , Sn , = (i1 , i2 , . . . , ik ) Sn , () =
((i1 ), (i2 ), . . . , (ik )). .. .
, , .
, : GLn (R) GLn (R), (A) = (A1 )t . ,




 1
0
2 0
2
.
(A) =

0 2
0 13
,
GL2 (R)
f : G H, G H
. : G
= H.
.
f : G H . :
1) g G f (g) g;
2) f , g f (g) ;
3) .
. 1) g G.
g k : ord g = k. g k = e, e G. f (g k ). , f (g k ) = f (e) = e
H, (1) . , f (g k ) = f (g)k (3) . ,
f (g)k = e. 2 ord(f (g)) k = ord g.
2) f : G H . h = f (g),
1
f (h) = g. 1) ord h ord g. (7) f 1 : H G
. , 1) ord(f 1 (h)) ord h.
f 1 (h) = g, ord g ord h. , ,
ord h|ord g ord g|ord h. ,
ord g = ord h.
3) G =< g >, H =< h >, |G| = |H|. f : G H, f (g k ) = hk
. 
. Zn Zm .
15

 f : Zn Zm .
Zn , , 1. , f (1) = t Zm . (3) f (k) = kf (1) = kt k Zn .
f 1.
1 Zn n, ordf (1)
m
. , f : Zn Zm
n. 2 ordt = (m,t)
m
f (1) = t, (m,t)
|n.
ordt|n , f :
Zn Zm , f (k) = kt,
. , k = s, n|(k s).
ordt|n, ordt|(k s). 2 (k s)t = 0 ,
, f (k) = f (s). .
f (k1 + k2 ) = f (k1 + k2 ) = (k1 + k2 )t = k1 t + k2 t = f (k1 ) + f (k2 ),
f .
, Z3 Z36 .
36
, f (1) = t, (36,t)
|3. (36, t) = 36 (36, t) = 12,
0 t 35. , t {0, 12, 24}. ,
3 Z3 Z36 : f1 , f2 f3 , f1 0,
f2 (0) = 0, f2 (1) = 12, f2 (2) = 24,
f3 (0) = 0, f3 (1) = 24, f2 (2) = 12.
.
3.1. f : C R
:
1
;
) f (z) = |z|;
) f (z) = 2|z|;
) f (z) = |z|
) f (z) = 1 + |z|;
) f (z) = |z|2 ;
) f (z) = 1;
) f (z) = 2.
3.2. :
) f : R R , f (x) = ex ;
) f : R C , f (x) = cos 2x + i sin 2x;
) f : Mn (R) R , f (A)
= a11 ;

a11 a12 a1n

0 a22 a2n

) f : Tn (R) Dn (R), f (
) =
0
0 ann

a11 0 0
0 a22 0

=
.
0
0 ann
16

3.3. 3.1 3.2.

3.4. 3.1 ?
3.5. G f : G G,
() f (x) = x2 () f (x) = x1 , ?
?
3.6. :
) Z nZ; 

x y
) C G = {
| x, y R} ( ).
y x
3.7. , f : Q Z
.
3.8. , R+
= R Q+  Q. ( R+ = {a R | a > 0}).
3.9. ,
) 4- ,
;
) 6- , S3 .
3.10. ,
< a >, a G, :
1
1
) G = C , a = + i;
2
2
6
6
) G = C , a = cos
+ isin ;
5
5
) G = C , a = 2 i;

0 1
) G = GL2 (C), a =
;
1 0
) G = S6 , a = (3 2 6 5 1);
) G = Z, a = 3;
) G = R , a = 10.
3.11. :
) Z6 Z6 ;
) Z6 Z18 ;
) Z18 Z6 ;
) Z12 Z15 ;
) Z6 Z25 ;
) Z5 S3 ;
) Z6 S3 ;
) S3 Z6 .
3.12. (Z4 , +) (Z5 , ).
3.13. :
) Z5 ;
) Z6 ;
) Z8 ;
) Z9 .
3.14.
Aut(Aut(Aut Z9 )).
3.15. :
) Z;
) Zp ;
) S3 ;
17

) V4 = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)};

) Q8 ( ).

G , H G.
g G gH = {gh| h H} = g.
g Hg = {hg| h H}.
.
, ,
gH = geH , g 1 ge H. G .
G H H.
. G . H
G. H G.
gH 7 Hg 1
, ,

G H. G
H (G : H).
. G . H G, |G| =
(G : H)|H|. 
H G ,
g G
gH = Hg.
H G ,
g G h H ghg 1 H. . .
,
G.
. , SLn (R) GLn (R).
A GLn (R) B SLn (R).
ABA1 .
det ABA1 = det A det B det A1 = det A (det A)1 = 1. ,
ABA1 SLn (R). , SLn (R) .
H G.
: a
b = ab.
, G H
18

G/H.
p : G G/H : a 7 a
.
H.
H = {e} G. Kerp = H = {e}, G
G/{e}. g g H g: g = {g}, G G/{e} . , G/G {e}.
. : G K H = Ker.
: G/H K,
G
p


/
<K
y
yy
yy
y
yy

G/H
p = . . , . 
. , GLn (C)/H
= R+ , H 1.
, H GLn (C). f : GLn (C) R+ , f (A) = | det(A)|. | det(AB)| =
| det(A)|| det(B)|, f . r A GLn (C),
,

r
0 0
0
1 0

,
0
0 1
f (A) = | det(A)| = r. , f .
Kerf = H.
GLn (C)/H
= R+ .
. G , H, K G K G. :
1) HK = KH , K;
2) H K H;
3) HK/K
= H/H K. 
19

. S4 /V4 , V4 = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24),

(14)(23)} .
3 , , , V4
S4 . H S4 , , 4,
H = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} S4 . , S4 = H V4
(|S4 | = 24, |S3 | = 6, |V4 | = 4).
H V4 /V4
= S3 .
= H/H V4 , H V4 = {e}, S4 /V4
=H
. : G K , :
1) : H 7 (H) - G, , K;
2) H G, (H) K;
3) H G, , G/H
=
K/(H). 
. dZ/nZ, n = md.
G = Z, K = dZ.
: Z dZ : (k) = dk . H = mZ, (H) =
dmZ = nZ. dZ/nZ
= Z/mZ
= Zm .
. G , H, K G
K G, K H. :
1) H/K G/K;
2) -
G, K G/K;
3) H G, H/K G/K G/H
= (G/K)/(H/K). 
.
4.1. :
) S3 {e, (12)};
) S4 H = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)};
) C R+ ;
) C R ;
) C T1 = {z C||z| = 1}.
4.2. , H G,
a) G , H ;
) G = Sn , H = An ;
) G , H 2 G;
20

) G = {(a, b) | a, b Z} (a, b)(c, d) = (a + (1)b c, b + d),

H = {(a, 0) | a Z};
) G = GLn (R), H = {A GLn (R)| det(A) > 0};
) G = GLn (C), H = {A GLn (C)| det(A) R+ }.
4.3. , f : G H
G.
4.4. :
) R /R+ ;
) C /R+ ;
) C /T1 , T1 = {z C||z| = 1};
) T1 /Un , Un = {z C|z n = 1};
) C /Hn , Hn = {z C|arg(z) = 2k
n , k Z};

) C /Un ;
) Hn /R+ ;
) Hn /Un .
4.5. ,
a) GLn (R)/SLn (R)
= R ;
)GLn (C)/SLn (C)
= C ;
) GLn (R)/H
= Z2 , H = {A GLn (R)| det(A) > 0};

) GLn (C)/H = T1 , H = {A GLn (C)| det(A) R+ };

) GLn (R)/H
= R+ , H = {A GLn (R)|| det(A)| = 1};
4.6. , f : G H , |H|
|G|.
4.7. : a) 4Z/12Z; ) Z12 3.
4.8. Q/Z :
) 30, 3;
) 47
)1, 25.
) 1, 37;
5;

4.9. , ,
, .
4.10. , Q/Z
) ;
) n N n.

21


[1] . 3./ . .. . .: , 1997.-34 .
[2] ./ . .. . - .: , 2001. - 464 .
[3] . . . - .: , 1977. - 496 .

22

 . I
:


.

"
. .. ".
603950, , . , 23.

. 6084 1/16.
. . .
...
.-..

. 100 .

. ..
603600, . , . , 37
18-0099 14.05.01