.





( )

, 2009

1 . . .
1
2 .
2.1
2.2
2.3

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3
3.1
3.2
3.3

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4 . .
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

. .
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e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

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6
6.1
6.2

II

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4
6
9

14

14
15
17

20

20
22
23
26

27

27
28
30
31

33
33

36

40

42

49

7.1
7.2
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.3

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- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42
43
45
49
50
52

III

55

9 .

56

10

60

11 (-)

65

12

70

IV

74

13 ,

75

14

82

9.1
9.2
9.3

. . 56
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

15.1 .
15.2 . . .
15.3 .
15.3.1 . . .
15.3.2 . .
15.4 . . . .

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60
61
63
65
67
68

70
71
72

75
76
78
82
84
85

87

87
88
91
91
92
92

16

95

17

98

16.1 Jeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 . . . . . . . . . .
17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95
96
97
98
99

18
18.1
18.1.1 .
18.1.2
18.2 . . . . . . . .
18.3 . . . . . . .

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101

101
101
102
104
105

19

107

111

20 . .

112

19.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

21 .
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4

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115

115
116
118
119

119

122

123


1.1
1.2
1.3

. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
3
3

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
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6
8
10
11
12
13

3.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.1

. . . . . . . .

22

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

UBV . . . . . . . . . .
B R
BC(V) Tef f
. . . .

6.1
6.2
6.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: . . . . . . . .

34
38
39

8.1

, . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

13.1 HR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 HR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 HR Hipparcos. . . . . . . . . .

79
80
81

14.1 R - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4

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HR . . . . . . . .
() .
I II . .
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. 29
. 30
. 31
. 32

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103
104
105
106

19.1 HR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.2
. . . . . . . 110
20.1 .113
21.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
21.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119


2.1
2.2
2.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, . . . . . . . . . . . .
(SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
7
13

7.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

8.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

9.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

14.1 - -, . .

84

17.1 1 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
17.2 20 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

 1

. .
.

1 . ( ,
2 .) , ,
,
. ,
,   ( )
, . ,
, (. 1.1).
 , , .
, ( )
.
.

,
, .
, .
XVI-XVII 
,
. ( .)
. - ,

.  ,
,
.
,
(. 1.2).
.. . (Johannes Kepler, 1571
- 1630),
. , -,
1
2

, .
, .

1.1:
.

, , (Isaac Newton,
1643 - 1728). , , 3 .  .

. , (
XVII ) . XVIII
, XIX - . , -
. XIX ,
. . XIX
, ,
, .
. , ,
, , .
,
, (. 1.3). .

-
() (),


: -, ..

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687.

1.2:

1.3: .

 2

.
, ,
( ). ,
( ).

2.1 . .
. ,
.
, (,
, ):

hc
(2.1)

(1 
A= 1010 m), (UV)
- (eV , . 2.1).
[
A] [eV ],
(2.1):
= h =

12425
(2.2)

2.1 . 2.1.
(. 2.2). , , :
(0.3 1.5 2 m) (1 mm 15 30 m),
(NIR) (MIR) . , 
.
(FUV) (O3 ), 20 60 km,

2.1: . :
10-310 
A EUV (Extreme UltraViolet).

()

( )

< 0, 1 
A

> 124 keV

N2 , P2

(HX)

0.1 1 
A

124 keV - 12.4 keV

N, O, N2 , O2

(SX)

1 100 
A

12.4 keV - 124 eV

N, O, N2 , O2

(FUV)

100 2000 
A

124 - 6 eV

O3

(NUV)

2000 3900 
A

6 - 3 eV

()

3900 7600 
A

3 - 1,6 eV

(NIR)

0, 76 5 m

1,6-0.25 eV

H2 O, CO2

(MIR)

5 (25 40) m

< 0.25 - 1.24 meV

H2 O, CO2 , O3

(FIR)

(25 40) 350 m

< 0.25 - 1.24 meV

H2 O, CO2 , O2

> 1mm

. , 15 20 km
. - (g/cm2 ) h,
h > 30 40 km > 20 keV . MIR-
10 m 20 m;
. . (FIR)
( > 100 m) H2 O, CO2 , O2 .
,
,
. ( - NUV .)
.

, .

.
- ( ) : ( ,
, ); (.
, 0 -)
.
( 20 M eV ) - . - > 10 GeV
.
.
(X-).
:
( ); ( );

2.2 , .

;
( ). - , , ,
.

2.1:
-
.
( NUV) .
. , (
) (), CO, N H3 , OH , SiO.
; - . .
( , ), -
.

2.2 , .
,
, 2.2. - (< 5 M eV ) , (AGN), ,
, . - (50 M eV 10 GeV )
, - .
, .
. , AGN .

2.2 , .

2.2: , .
/ : - ; - ; -
.

AGN; ; ;
- (GRB)
; ; ; AGN;
,
,
, ( ), HII

;

, , ( ), ,
( )
; ;
; AGN

MAGIC,

X-
FUV
NUV

NIR
MIR
FIR

Swift
GRBM, GLAST
ROSAT, Chandra,

RXTE
UIT,

USE,

GALEX
UIT, HST, GALEX
HST, VLT
2MASS, SST
IRAS, SST
IRAS, COBE, HSO

NRAO,
WMAP

EVN,

2.2 , .

2.2: . z0
( ) I(z0 , )/I(, ).
10.

() UV , UV
: OB , , .
.
, IR
. , ,
. NIR 60-
, MIR FIR , . (Ge)
, . IR , -
. MIR - .
,
. 53 573 K
MIR. (, 10 m.) , ,
MIR, 10 m. 0.1m .
: ..  , ; ; ;
. FIR , -
(T < 140 K ), .
.
FIR, ,

2.3

.
- ( Cas A), : ,
. ,
,
1035 1037 W .

2.3
, .
. ( 5),
.

, . O ()
I : , .
, F,
:

I=

F = I

[cd]

(2.3)

[lm]

(2.4)

,
. , S , , E:

F
I
I
lm
=
= 2 [lx = 2 ]
(2.5)
S
S
r
m
S 0 , i
, , (. 2.3). << 1, S S 0 = S/cos i
:
E=

F
I cos i
=
(2.6)
0
S
r2
- , , (cos i = 1.). ,
(. , )
, , :
X
Ik
E=

(2.7)
r2

- - .
. .

E=

2.3

10

2.3: .

B. B 1

dE , dt d
d d
(. . 2.4a):

dE = B cos d d d dt

(2.8)

() ,
, :

I = B () cos

(2.9)

- . B () = B0, = const, op
. (2.9) ,
Lambert (I cos ).
. (2.9) (2.6)
E F :

E=
F =

B0 cos cos i
r2

B0 S cos cos i
,
r2

S , (. 2.4).

(specic intensity) I ,
B (. 4).
,
, I . ~n
, J ,
( I ):
1

,
.

2.3

11

2.4: : )  ; )
S

Z
J =

I (~n)
d
4

(2.10)

u .
dE = I d dt d d , dt
d , , dV = c dt d , :

Z
dE =

I d d dt d = 4J

dV
d := u dV d
c

Z
u =

I (~n)
d
c

(2.11)

F :

Z
F =

I cos d

(2.12)

-,
(),
. .. :
,
. ,
,
, F + ( , 0 /2)
F ( , /2 ):

Z
I (cos ) cos sin d = F + + F

F = 2
0

(2.13)

2.3

12

F + = F F = 0, F = 0.
.
(. ( 7.2).)
(. . 2.5) ,
F :
ZR
1
I (p) 2p dp,
p = R sin
F = hI i =
R2
0

1
hI i =
R2

Z/2
I (cos ) 2R2 cos sin d =

F+
= F

2.5: .
, f , ,
D (. 2.6):

f = hI i d = hI i

R2
R2
R2
=
F
=
F

D2
D2
D2

(2.14)

, , P :
Z
I
P =
cos2 d
(2.15)
c
4

2.3
SI (MKS).

2.3

13

2.6: .

2.3: SI.
.
: - ; -
( )

(intensity)
I
cd, W/sr
W/sr.m2
(ux)
F
lm = cd.sr, W
W/m2
(incidence)
E
lx = lm/m2 , W/m2
W/m2
. (surface brightness), - B , I

W/sr.m2 .Hz
(specic intensity)
(mean intensity)
J

W/m2 .Hz
. (radiation
u

J/m3 .Hz
density)
(radiation ux)
F

W/m2 .Hz
(astrophysical ux)
F

W/m2 .Hz
,
f

W/m2 .Hz

 3

3.1
, , .
P u
:

P = P (, T )
u = u(, T )
:

Pgas = nkT =

<
T

(3.1)

3
3
(3.2)
ugas = nkT = Pgas ,
2
2
k , < - , -
, - , n - . ,
.
,
. e
: . ( )
1 105 cm3 . ( 10
-.) , r 1010 m,
nr3 1 .
, -
( ) .
. ( ,
.)
,
.
L3 , N , ..

3.2

15

n0 = N/L3 . n(p) , n0
:
Z+

Z+
n(p) d3 p =

n0 =

n(p) 4p2 dp

(3.3)

d
p,
dt L2 :

F
1 d
p
=
L2
L2 dt

P =

(3.4)

Z+ Z+ Z+
d
p=
2px vx dtL2 n(px , py , pz ) dpx dpy dpz

(3.5)

2px , vx dt L2 n
- vx , dt.
, (px = p sin cos,
vx = v(p) sin cos, d3 p = p2 sin dp d d) :

p
1 d
=
P = 2
L dt

Z Z2 +/2
Z

1
2pv p n(p) sin cos dp d d =
3
2

0 /2

p v(p) n(p) 4p2 dp

(3.6)

Z
(p) n(p) 4p2 dp ,

ukin =

(3.7)

(p) p.
= p2 /2m, ( m0 ) :

s
m c 2 m c
0
0
(p) = p.c
1+

p
p

3.2
-, - .
.
() .
- ()
- ().
.
( )
.
,

3.2

16

dN =

dg
1
d3 x d3 p
=
,
exp( + /kT ) 1
exp( + /kT ) 1
h3

(3.8)

dN dg
(, + d), -, = /kT ..
( ).
, - . 1, ,
1 . exp( + /kT ) 1
:

dN =

exp() exp(/kT )d3 x d3 p

h3

(3.9)

V :

N=

exp()V (2mkT )3/2 ,

h3

(3.10)

m ( ) . - (3.10)
(3.9) exp().
(Maxwell) :

N
1
p2
dN =
exp
d3 p dV ,
(3.11)
V (2mkT )3/2
2mkT

1
p2
n(p) =
exp
(2mkT )3/2
2mkT
(p~ = m~v ),
:

3/2

m(vx2 + vy2 + vz2 )

N
m
dN =
exp
d3 v dV ,
(3.12)
V 2kT
2kT
, (. (3.6))

. N V , v
v + dv :

3/2

mv 2 2
m
exp
v dv
(3.13)
dN = 4N
2kT
2kT
.3.1,

p T . - vmp = 2kT /m, - .p

< v >= 8kT /m
p

2
vrms := < v > = 3kT /m,
.
, n(p) (. (3.11)
(. (3.1),

3.3

17

3.1:
. T = 273 K -,
.

(3.2)):

1
P =
3

Z
pv n(p) 4p2 dp = nkT
0

Z
ukin =

3
3
(p) n(p) 4p2 dp = nkT = P
2
2

3.3
- - ( ),
. ()
. ,
- ( ) ( ).
i. A
= p2A /2m + i ,
(, + d) :
d3 x d3 pA
,
dgA = gi
h3

3.3

18

gi . (3.11) i- :

Z
Ni =

dNi = V

ni =

(2mA kT )3/2
exp(A ) gi exp(i /kT )
h3

Ni
(2mA kT )3/2
=
exp(A ) gi exp(i /kT )
V
h3

(3.14)

(3.15)

ni nj i- j - (
i j ) (Boltzmann):

gj
nj
j i
= exp
ni
gi
kT

(3.16)

, A i- ,
:

ZA (T ) =

X
i=0

A,i
gA,i exp
kT

nA,i
gA,i
A,i
=
exp
nA
ZA (T )
kT

(3.17)

- (- ).
A , i e
(ion , mI mA ) :

A = p2A /2mA ,

I = p2I /2mA + ion ,

e = p2e /2me

dgA = gA

d3 pA d3 x
,
h3

dgI = gI

d3 pI d3 x
,
h3

dge = ge

d3 pe d3 x
h3

,
(ge = 2 ):

nA = gA
nI = gI

(2mA kT )3/2
exp(A )
h3

(2mA kT )3/2
ion
exp(
)
exp

I
h3
kT

(2me kT )3/2
exp(e )
h3
, I + e A = 0
ne = 2

3.3

19

I .e /A . (Saha), A:

nI ne
2gi (2me kT )3/2
ion
=
exp
nA
gA
h3
kT

(3.18)

, , , - .
, .
,
, ().
, ,
.
. , ,
,
.

 4
.
.
4.1 . .

() ,
, . , ..
(
).
(, ).
, .
, , .
(
) T .
,
, T . ,
,
B (T ) = const . , , .
, -, ,
.
(Planck), (. , 3.1).
( = 0)
(. (3.8)):

dN =

dg
exp(/kT ) 1

,
, ,

4.1 . .

dg = 2dV

21

d3 p
2dV
= 3 4 p2 dp
3
h
h

, p = h/c (dp = h : d/c) ,

, dn
u (, + d):

dn =

dN
4 2 2
1
=
d
2
dV
c c exp(h/kT ) 1

u d =

4 2h 3
1
d
2
c c exp(h/kT ) 1

(4.1)

(2.11) :

1
u =
c

Z
B d =

4
B ,
c

B ( )
T . (4.1)
:

B d =

2h 3
1
d
2
c exp(h/kT ) 1

(4.2)

, (, + d)
( = c/, dv = (c/2 ) d):

B d =

2hc2
1
d
5
exp(hc/kT ) 1

(4.3)

B (T ) T max , . x := hc/kT ,
(B )0 = 0 x = 4.9651.... :

max =

2.898 106
hc 1

kx T
T [K]

[nm]

(4.4)

- ( ), (Wien) 1893 . .
.4.1, - .

4.2

22

4.1: .
- T .

4.2
(4.2) 1900 . T . ,
1896 . ,
. ( , ,
1911 .) ,
- ,
(Rayleigh) (Jeans)
(..  ).
, - ,
.

hc/kT 1, :
BW

2hc2
1
= 5
exp(hc/kT )

(4.5)

, hc/kT 1 ( , exp(x)
1 + x, x 1) -:
BRJ =

2ckT
4

(4.6)

4.3 e

23

-. ,
( - ), - . .
:

hc
B (T )
5max
= exp
exp
,
B (T )
kT

- :
RJ

hc
5max
B (T )
=

B (T )
2kT
2

max ( 1%) < 2max 10%. , - 10% = 25max ,
 . , - ,
max . ,
, .

4.3 e

. , , .
 , .

( !). ()
. ,
 ( )
. -,
, . .
: ) ; )
( ): ,
.
, ,
I ( ),
.
CGS [cm2 /g]
.
. ds
, I :

dI = I ds

(4.7)

,
.
( , - III.) j
.
I :
(4.8)
dI+ = j ds

4.3 e

24

I ds :

dI = dI + dI+ = I ds + j ds
dI
= I + j
(4.9)
ds
.
,
, j ,
I 1 .
:
Zs
d = ds

ds0

=
0

dI
j
= I +
= I + S ,
d

(4.10)

S = j / .
exp( ), :

dI
+ I
d

exp( ) =

d
I exp( ) = S exp( )
d

Z
S exp(0 ) d0

I exp( ) I ( = 0) =
0

I0 := I ( = 0) ,
,
:

Z
I =

I0

S exp( ( 0 )) d0

exp( ) +

(4.11)

, - () .
0 . ,
1, e .
:
( 1).

( 
), 1.
, 1,
1

4.3 e

25

1 .
.

, :
. dI /ds = 0,
(. (4.9)), .. :

I = S = B (T )
, .

. ,
, ,
:

,
, .
-
.
.
.
(4.2, 4.3). (I = B (T ))
(. (2.10-13)):

J = B
u =

4
B
c

F = 0

(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)

4
u
B =
(4.15)
3c
3

T (I 6= B (T )), :
P =

0 6=

dI
= I B (T (s))
ds

. ,

,
.

4.4

26

4.4

I F . (2.13)
( ) :

Z/2
F = 2

Z1
I cos sin d = 2 B

sin d(sin ) = B
0

Ftot ( t := hc/kT ):

Z
Ftot =

B d = 2

(kT )4
hc2
(hc)4

x3
2 5 k 4 4
dx
=
T = T4 ,
ex 1
15 c2 h3

(4.16)

- (Stefan-Boltzmann).
- , . ,
. , Ftot
, Tef f :

Tef f =

Ftot

1/4
(4.17)

,

- - .
L Tef f
R:
4
L = 4 R2 Tef
(4.18)
f
,
.
- .
:

, , Tef f . : , ,
.
, .
- 6.

5.1 .
,
.
. .
, ,
, .
(II . ..) . : - (1m ),
- - 2m ..; -, 6m . I .
, ,
-, . ,
.
- (Weber - Fechner)1 , I , m ( )
:
dI
dm = K
I
,
E :
dE
dm = K
E
,
,
. K
. ,
2.5 (
) . , ,
.

. , 1856 . (Pogson) m = 5
1

, .

5.2 .

28

, .e. K = 2.5:

m2 m1 = 2.5 lg

E2
E1

(5.1)

.. , .  ,
, ,
. ;
(m = 50m ), ..
: , .

5.2 .
,
. -
( = 5550
A), I - . ,


,
/
. ()
( ) T ()
ef f :

R
ef f =

T () d

0
R

T () d

R
=

T () d

T ()(ef f )

,
(Tx () (x = 1, 2, ...), .
hi :

: hi > 300
A
: 100 hi 300
A
: hi < 100
A
: , ,
. (. HST)
,
.
, -
.

5.2 .

29

( Lyr), 0m .
x
(5.1) f,V ega f ,
:

R
f Tx () d
mx = 2.5 lg R
(5.2)
f,V ega Tx () d
- Johnson & Morgan (1953),
U BV : Ultraviolet (ef f = 3580
A),
Blue (ef f = 4390
A) Visual (ef f = 5450
A). , ,
, , .. mU := U , mB := B ,
mV := V . -, U BV R
IJKLM N .
. 5.1.
:

UV ega = BV ega = VV ega = RV ega = IV ega = ... = 0

5.1:
UBVRIJKLM Bessell (1990).

2 . . 5.2,
, . ,
(B V )
:

BV =
2

7900
0.72
T

(5.3)

5.3 .

30

T , , .
Tef f , , B V ,
.

5.2: () ()
B R.

5.3 .

, .

Mx : , ,
D0 = 10 pc. mx Mx :

mx Mx = 2.5 lg

E
I/D2
102
= 2.5 lg
=
2.5
lg
E0
I/D02
D2

mx Mx = 5 lg D 5

(5.4)

, .. .
D ( pc) (DM).
DM ( ).
Mx
.
.. Mbol :

Mbol,x = Mx + BC(x) ,

(5.5)

BC(x) .

5.4

31

. , BC, - V ,
(. . 5.3). (5.5) :

Mbol = MV + BC(V )

5.3: BC(V) Tef f . Flower (1996) .

L, 4. , 106 (L/L ) 106 .
  3 , .. .
:

Mbol Mbol,

L
= 2.5 lg
;
L

Mbol, = 4.74.

(5.6)

5.4
,
, ..
. ,
, . (
, - .)
.

. - .
..
3

5.4

32

Galactic Infrared Cirrus, . 1 m , -

, .  (reddening) . ,
(U B) (B V )
4 . .. (U B)/(B V )
(B V )
(B V )0 (. 5.4),
E(B V ):
E(B V ) = (B V ) (B V )0
(5.7)

5.4:
(B-V)/(U-B).
.

AV V :

AV = RV E(B V ) ,

(5.8)

- ,
: RV = 3.1.

. (, V ), (5.4), :
V MV = 5 lg r 5 + AV
(5.9)
, AV , ..
.
.
- Schlegel et al. (1998)
FIR.
4

. IV, 13.

 6


, .
/ ().
( E > 0), - (E < 0) ..
- . , .
- (-) () . -
1 .

6.1 .
() () -
. -
:
, , .
-
; - , 90%
.
k , .. .
:

En =

e2 Z 2
,
2a0 n2

n = 1, 2, 3, ... , a0 = 0.529
A (Bohr),
Z , .
:

1
= RM Z 2
k
1

1
1
2
2
n
k

Bremsstrahlung.

(6.1)

6.1 .

34

k = n+1, n+2, ..., RM = RH /(1+me /M ), me M

, RH (Rydberg).
:

1
1

eV
nk = 13.56
n2 k 2

1
1
1
1
=

n2 k 2
k
912 A
n = 1 k
1 = 13.56 eV , = 912
A -
FUV - .
(,
) , k : k = n+1,
k = n + 2 .. n = 1
(Lyman) FUV. n = 2
(Balmer). : H = 6563
A,
H H H , NUV. NIR
(Paschen, n = 3) (Brackett, n = 4).
. 6.1.

6.1: .
n
(3.16, 3.17). - ( , )
n. ,
, .
  , -
(n + 1 n). n 27 1 mm.

6.1 .

35

,
, .. 
- n = ,
, n , -
(Inglis-Teller):
103
(6.2)
n = 2/15
N
N 1015 cm3 ,
, 10, 1 cm3 n 1000, ..
n = 101 n = 100.

,
:

C(T ) =

13

Ci 4 10

i=1

104
T

1/2
cm3 /s

, ,
Ne e :

rec =

1
,
C(T )Ne

(6.3)

. , T 10 000 K Ne 1014 cm3 , rec 0.025 s. ,

40% , 20% -
.

k - n- ,
Akn [s1 ]. , , A21 108 s1 , A31 , A32 107 s1 .. k -
-
k - k :

k =

k1
X

Akn

n=1

k =

1
,
k

(6.4)

(n = 2) 2 109 s,
n = 100, , : 0.01 s. ,
. , , .
, . ,
, . ,
, , -

6.2 .
.

36

, .
, (. 106 cm3 ), ,
, -
.
.
, , : [O III] .
: [O II]
, [O III] , [N II] , - : [Fe XIV] , [Fe XIII] ,
[Ni XV] , [Ni XIII] .
2p2 , 2p3 3p2 , 3p4 , 3p5 .

.
-,
.
= 21.1 cm ( = 1420.4 M Hz ).
1951 .
.

6.2 . .
.
T ,
I0 . (4.11),
( s)
S :

I = I0 exp( ) + S (T ) (1 exp( ))

(6.5)

( 1), ,
(I0 0):
I = B (T ) (1 exp( )) B (T ) = sB (T )
() .
, ,
.
: , ,
(AGN).

( 1), ,
(I0 0):
I = S (T ) = B (T )
.
: .

( 1) (I 6= 0):
I = I0 (1 ) + S (T ) = I0 s(I0 S (T ))

6.2 .
.

37

, I0 > S (T ), - .
,
, :

 I0 > S (T ),

: , , .
 I0 < S (T ),
: ( , )

( 1) (I 6= 0). ,
- :
I = B (T )
, ; 104 
A. ,
0
- .
.. r :

r =

I
,
I0

I0 , . r
R = 1 r . , - ,
,

0.5 R0 , - (
, FWHM).
,
r FWHM .
, e W :

Z
W =

Z
R d =

(1 r ) d

, W ,
, I0 (. 6.2).

: , , .
1.
- 0 , , . v , 0 (v/c)0 ,
:
r
0 2kT
D =
c
m
2. -

6.2 .
.

38

6.2: .

(Heisenberg):

k k

h
2

(6.6)

- k k -
(. (6.4)), - k .
- - 0 .
3.
. :

: , .
(Stark):
.
(Zeeman):
.
() , , D :

() =

2
1
0
exp
,
D
D

(6.7)

() =

1
/2
2 ( 0 )2 + (/2)2

(6.8)

6.2 .
.
= 1/natural + 1/pressure ;

39

pressure 1/n ,

n .
(6.7) (6.8), .. (Voigt):

() =
D
=

1
;
4 D

Z+

exp(y)2 dy
2 + (x y)2

(6.9)

x=

c
D

. 6.3.


T - ,
.

6.3: :
. ,
- .

 II

41
- , , . , - - .
, , , .
-, ,
; - .

7.1
.
, ,
. (1610 .)
, . -
P 25.d 4. ,
:
- :

= 13. 7 2. 7 sin2

[ d1 ]

= 75 32d .
, ,
. -
27.27 , = 8 .
, 1 .
,
1. , ( = 0 1) 300 km,
1.5 108 km 0.00 4. ( 10 ) ,
.
7.1.
- (X ), (Y ) - 2
(Z ) : X = 0.70, Y = 0.28, Z = 0.02.
1

:  .
, - He, .
2

7.2

43

7.1:

R = 6.9599 108 m
M = 1.989 1030 kg
= 1.41 g/cm3
g = 2.74 104 cm/s2
Tef f, = 5785 K
L = 3.826 1026 W
Mbol, = 4.74
MV, = 4.77

7.2
(..
). .
(4.11).

Z
I =

I0

S exp( ( 0 )) d0

exp( ) +
0

 , . ,

( 0 ) : ( 0 )/cos (. . ??).

S = B .

( = 0) :

Z
B exp( 0 /cos ) d(0 /cos )

I (0, ) =

(7.1)

, - . (
.) (7.1) B , I (0, )
. B ( ) T = T (r),
, ,
.
, ,
- .

- .

7.2

44

Z
exp( 0 )/cos ) d(0 /cos ) = 1 ,
0

R
I (0, ) =

B exp( 0 /cos ) d(0 /cos )

R
0

(7.2)

exp(

0 /cos ) d(0 /cos )

, I (0, )
B (0 ), . /2, 0 /cos exp(0 /cos ) 0. ,

T0 :

I (0, /2) B (T0 )

, ( = 0)
. ,
I (0, 0) = B (T0 ) .
. - ,
:

B S a + b
(7.1) t := 0 /cos , :

Z
I (0, ) = (a + b t cos ) exp(t ) dt = a + b cos

(7.3)

I(0, )
a + b cos
=
I(0, 0)
a + b
K = b /(a + b ) .
; FIR
. K ( ) -
. :

I (0, ) = I (0, 0)(1 K + K cos)

(7.4)

, .. :

I (0, ) = I (0, 0) cos

7.3 . ,
.

45

7.3 . , .
,
.. , .. : const, = . ,
H . ,
,
.
1.2 1012 erg (2.2) ,
< 16650
A - .
H . (Eddington)
:

S( ) =

3
2
+
Ftot
4
3

R , ,
S ( ) = B (T ( )) S( ) = B d = T 4 / . Ftot
- (4.16),
:
4
Tef
3
f
T =
1+
(7.5)
2
2
, = 2/3, ( = 0) T0 = 0.811 Tef f .
, P
,
g . -,
:
,
:
dP = g dr
4

,
(3.1),
:
g
P = P0 exp
h
(7.6)
<T
g
= 0 exp
h
(7.7)
<T

<T
H=
(7.8)
g
, = 0 = const P P0 h = H . H
, , e . ,
(7.5),
. ,

7.3 . ,
.

46

.
.
() 1, = 5000
A,
5 . , ,
, T = Tef f ( = 2/3). h
, - . (7.6),
(7.7) (7.5). Tef f = 5785 K ,
H = 175 km. ,
h = 560 km 3H 0.
.
, . -

: 3 ,
, .
7001500 km 12'00 , .
7 min,

40 % - , 350 400 K - .
- .
, , 0.4 km/s ( ), ( ).
, 1 km/s
2 km/s - .
. , , ,
v = 0.25 km/s. , 30 000 km
1d - .
5 000 . ,
. . . .

, .
2 000 Gs ,
200 km , Ca II .

, .
( ) , -.
, ( ) ,
1 1.5 s , , .. . .. ,
.
10 1200 ( 8 000 km),  4 .
;  
. h 100 200 km
,
, Ca II , ., h 10 000 km. ,


- H , - .
0.1 % ,
-. , 3
4

. .
:  .

7.3 . ,
.

47

, ( 104 K ).
, H
. . H - ,
He ( FUV) -
5 , - - .
K2 (Ca II ) . , ,
. , , ,
. - -
1000 , - . 6
- , . , ,
. , ,
. h 2000 km
.. , T 20 000 K , (20 km/s) -, - .
,
. , 700 .
.
10 12 000 km, .
- . 2-3 10 R ,
,
.


, .


106 .
:

L-: ,
, : [Fe XI] (), [Ca XV] () [Fe XIV]
(). 90 ( 400 000 km), .
K-: ,
L-.
,
.
F-: (F) ,
- 30 .
,
- . 200
F-,
.

(. (7.8).
-. , ,
,
- -,
- . , -
5
6

.
. occus: , .

7.3 . ,
.

48

H K ( Ca II ) , (): ,
7500 km/s. ,
107 K , .. . H
( ) -
. L-.
, . ,
[Fe XIII] , [Fe XIV] , [Ca XV] , [Ni XV] ., . ,
,
.
, ,
7 . ,
, , ,
1.5 106 K .
, . ,
, .
,
.
. ,
. - , cs :

s
cs =

<T
,

(7.9)

= cP /cV .

; u, cs . , ,
:

F = u2 cs const
:

r
u

1
cs

, u cs ,  - . .
.

 8


. , . , ,
.. . 1 .
, .
(MHD).

8.1 .
- , . ,
. 10 ( 43 000 km),
, 60 000 km ( , ). -
, ,
( ). : 4500 K .
.
, ( 1 ) , , ,
0.1 R . , ..
. , ;
.
. ,
, .
, -. ,
, , ;
, . . kin
mag , kin mag . ,
, ,
. ( , 1

, .

8.2

50

.)
( s) ( ph), :
2
Bph
Bs2
+ nkTs =
+ nkTph = const
8
8

B ( ,
) mag , kin .
:

Ts

2
Bs2 Bph
8nk

.
, .
,
(preceeding) p,
(following) f . ,
,
.
10 , - .
(Wolf):

W = k(10g + f ) ,

(8.1)

f - , g 2 , k ,
. k := 1. W
: 11 (. 8.1).
11 . b 3040 ,
, W , b 15 .
(Spoerer)   (Mounder). 22 , .
22- .
, 22 .
W F ( 106
) ,
:
F = 16.7W
(8.2)

8.2
- . ,
, H K ,
( ).
H , . (v 0.5c),
2

 .

8.2

51

8.1: , .

100 keV . 10 000 km. 1022 1025 J , 0.1 L

.
(HX), o -
ve 0.3c.
ne . ne ,
, III .
( 104 ) -

8.3 -

52

; - ,
, ,
106 K , (SX).
, . 1013 kg
a, , ,
.
, H , Ca II K , : T 104 K , -
. ,
,
.
( > 60 ), .. . R ,
100-150 , 1 .
.
-. - - - 3
.
102 km/s; 500 km/s . ( 2 R )
, ,
.
,
. ,
, - , : 99.8 %
30 % .

8.3 -
, ,
. , ( ),
, . , 109
.
- ,
( q ) ( Q)
:
FQ
(1 e)2
=
0.94 ,
Fq
(1 + e)2
e .
,
.
- . -
, , .
3

8.3 -

53

8.1: .

8m. 3

(0.1 10 m)

< 1d

17 48h

UV X

E:

- H
Ca II K

-
- , ,

8 min,
, ,
(10 60 m) .
, :
, , , .
, , 11- (),
27- .
,
. - , - (7. 2) - .
. 11-
.

, .
109 eV 10 min, - 108 eV - 10 .
,
- .
. 8.1
.
..
. ,
250 500 km/s. 1 a.u.
2 108 cm2 .s1 . , . ( ), -
.
, . -

8.3 -

54

,
() , . , 
, .
. -, ,
- . , ,
.
, - 3 - 5 - . ,
-
. .
.

 III

 9
.
9.1 .
.

: , ( , 166), -
(, 4 ) : ,
.. (Kuiper), .
1
, .
. ,
2 2006 ., , :

, .
, .
 .
 
.

(. 12), ,
. , ,
3 ,  , ,

.
, - 1 km.
, -
, -, , , ,
4 . . 1930 . ,
- . 1978 .,
1
2
3
4

, .
International Astronomical Union, IAU.
From dust to planetesimals, Workshop at Ringberg Castle, Grmany, September 2006.
Small solar system body, SSSB.

9.2 -

57

, , - - , - -
, . 90-
( ), ,
. , ,
. 2000 3 ,
: , , -.
- . 5 . ,
- ,
. 2006
. ,
.
,
( r):
- (. 1.5 AU ): , ,
- (2.33.3 AU ): - ()

- - ( 5 30 AU ): , ,
- (> 30 AU ) - ;
:

(30 . r . 50 AU ): , , , - ()
.
(scattered disc):
, 150 AU . .
(Oort) (r 50 000 AU ): ,
,
-.
,
2003 . -.

9.2 -
ai , -
, - ai ai ai1 .
VIII , . , ..
- (Titius-Bode), 1772 :

a = 0.4 + 0.3 2n , n = , 0, 1, 2, ..., 8

(9.1)

.
5

9.3

58

1781 . (n = 3).
I - -
(1801 .), (1802 .) 228- ,
1891 . ,
.
(Kirkwood) , 1/3,
2/5, 3/7 1/2 .
, , .
.  . ,
 .
- , -
. ;
. , , ,
(9.1) . , . - ,
, . () -, , ,
, -6 .
.

9.3
169 70 .
:
, , - ( ),
 ,
(63) (60). -
: 3 , -
( ).
15 % .
,
, .
, / , , . -
- , ,
.
, ..
. ,


.
, (, ),
6

-
.

9.3

59

9.1: .

.
[ AU ]

.
[ yr ]

[M ]

.
[ km ]

.
[ g/cm3 ]

0.387
0.723
1.000
1.524
5.203
9.539
19.18
30.06

0.241
0.615
1.000
1.881
11.86
29.46
84.02
164.8

0.206
0.007
0.017
0.093
0.048
0.056
0.047
0.009

0.056
0.815
1.000
0.108
317.8
95.11
14.52
17.23

2 430
6 052
6 378
3 395
70 850
60 400
24 600
23 500

5.44
5.22
5.52
3.97
1.30
0.71
1.47
2.27

487
1 195
1 300 (150)

2.08
1.70
2.30

2.765
39.75
67.67

4.599
250.6
557

0.008
0.253
0.442

0.0002
0.005
0.003

 - .
,
. , , ,
 -  7 ,
1:1. ,
2:3.
- . , ,
10
.

.. - .

 10


, ,
(4-5 - ) 1 , .
-, ,
, . ,
: , - ,
, 2 .
, , , .
, , .
. ,
,
.

10.1
- , ,

- .

2/3
- .. 176d (
, ).
, , ,
59 km/s .
(!).
, (610 670 K ),
150 K . -
. 1/5,
0 0.47.
(1.7 - ) .
1

, .
2 , .

10.2

61

, . , 5.3 g/cm3 ,
( 42% ) . ,
. , 600 km. ,

1/6 .
(100 200 km). ,
.
: () , .
1974-75 . Mariner-10
. ,
km, .
.
O, Na, Ca, 500 - ,
200 .
, ,
3.54.5109 3 .
, - . , 
. ( 1300
km) ( 1600 km). , 2 km
.
4 ( 1/2000 ),

7 . , .

.

10.2
, ;
 .

, 243d
5
,
116.d 8. ,
, .
1761 - , 6 .
4d 100 m/s,
. ,
: 240 K .
- .
600 K
350 K .
: 97 % CO2 , 2% N, O 0.1 % H2 O N H3 .
NIR MIR (. 2.1),
3

- , ,
.
4 .
5 ,
.
6 , .

10.2

62

- , - .
- . ,
,
CO2 . CO2 ,
, .
,
1800 K 450 km.
, - ,
CO2
.
48 68 km. h = 20 km
, , .
: 92 .
, . . , F Cl, ,
. -
87 . . , 1995 .,
, -
, .
, - .
- ,
.  .
: , . (11 km). - ,
16 000 2 000 km
. .
400
.
: ,
(3200 km) . , ,
- - . ( 1000 )
, -.
85% - , 500 , .

, :
; , ;
.
SO2 , Pioneer-Venus Orbiter
1978 ., , . 80-
, (
- ).
, - 10 .
a .
Pioneer Venus Orbiter 1980 .,
- - ( - ),
. ,
.

10.3

63

, 7 ,
.

10.3
- , 1/9

. : 24d 37m 22.s 7.

25 ,
-
, . 80 C
+30 C , 143 C. 2/3
, 1/3 - .  3
-, .
- .
3.8 , , , .
:
- , (, )
- ,
- (Pyrrae Regio)
. Mariner-9,
1971 ., -
Olympus, 24 ( -
). .. : ,
. ,
, . , .
.
21% Si, 13% Fe Mg, Ca, Al, S. ,
. , 1/160
(6.1 mbars). CO2 (95%), H2 O 
, (2.7%) (1.6%).
, , , .
100 120 km/s
.
NIR
. , ,

, .
, , -
. 4 .
: ? .
, CO2
, .
, . , N () ,
CO2 .
7

, .

10.3

64

CO2 . 1 000 , O2 . CO2 e

,
. CO2 -
.
, .
5 km/s,
.
, CO2
. .
. - .
,
.
.
, - .
, , , 11 m. -



.
Vallis Marineris Elysium Planitia.
. ,
, Fe

.
1 480 km (
1517%). - ,
. ,
, .
50 km, ( ) 3 - .

 11

(-)
- .
, , . ,
 , .
: ,
- , (N H3 ) (CH4 ). ,
, - , . ,
.

11.1
, 2.5 -
, .
: 9h 50m 9h 55m .
- 2500 km
- .
: 80% , 20% , , 1 (N H4 SH ).

:
, , , 13 000 40 000 km,
250 . (
), 6 , . ,
. .
Pioneer (1973), Voyager-1 Voyager2 (1979) ,
, . ,
. - 2 - .
2 cm . , 1

- .

11.1

66

75 - ,




. -
,
. . (
, .)
:
20 000 km, 3-15 %
.

(40 000 km 78% ) .

. : (de Broglie).
, .
,
- .
(1 000 km) H2 , .
.
50 km .
- - :
19 000 . 3 107 km,
.
.
- .
, 3 4 108 K . - , ,
, (n 100 cm3 ). Voyager ,
, .
, .
N H4 SH , 25 km .
,
. , , ,
. ,
- . - .
, ,
- . , - ,
.
, : (), 
. , , - .
. ,  
.

11.2

67

11.2
-
: ,
- . ,
(P & 10h 32m ) , , 10 % - . P
- -. , - ,
- .
25 % , - 4 %.
- , - .
: , - ;
;
1 000 km. 9 22 -
, 11 500 K .
2.5 -
- 2
, .
-
, - , - .
( ) .
96 % , 3 % .
-

10 km 23 C .
50 km
93 C . 80 km , 153 C .
-
. , , . (..
30 ) .
-
Voyager 500 m/s (1, 800 km/h).
- . 1655
. (Huygens)  
, ,
. 1675 . (Cassini)
5000 km, - (B)
(A);  . 1800 . , (),  .
1980-81 . Voyager-1 Voyager-2
3 A. , 1 .. -
-. - . 28 ,
.
, - .
- 2 km,
100 000 km: 6 630 120 700 km .
1857 . , ,
, .
2
3

.. -.
(Encke), , 1838

11.3

68

( ) 1895 . , ; 1 mm 10 m,
10 cm. ,
, - (Roche)
. Voyager-1 Voyager-2 : D, E G.
D - . G+ -; .
, 4 . - Pioneer 11
F, - , .
Voyager-1 , 5 ,
10 km.

. ,
- , - , .
10 cm,
,
. .
, F, : 1 m.

11.3
- - -, - - -. , -
. (Herschel) 1781 . -
, ,
. 1843-1846 .
(Adams) (Le Verrier) ,


. (Galle)
23.I.1846 .

. : 
 . ,
(, , ) , . -; ,
. , 90 50 K , ,
. ,
, : , , . -
: , - - .
- , .
600 
A
.
5 ,
, .. 42 . , : 14.2 , - 16.5 .
Voyager-2 , 17.24 ,
4
5

.
97 .

11.3

69

, . ,
. ,
,


, .
. ,
;
. - , Voyager-2 (1986) 11, 2005 .
HST .
, , 10 km. 1 m
( 1%), .
.
, Voyager-1 Voyager-2, ,
, .
1986 . 12 000 8 000 km:
, 2400 km/h - -
. HST, 1994 ,
. , , .
, , .
- - , ,
. .
, .
. ,
-, .
100 .
,
- , 59 47 .
, ; , ,
!   . Voyager-2
.
.
, . ,
,
- .

 12

  (SSSB) 2006
IAU, , , . :

- :

 ,

-.
  .
 - .

( SSSB .)

12.1
,
5000 ! 160 000
, 14 000
. ,
1 km 1.1 1.9 . .
 , L4 L5
( 60 ).   ,
.
, - .
. , , , :

C (): 75 % ;
; ,
.
S (): 17 % ;
.

12.2 ,

71

L (): 8 % ; ; .
, .
= 10 m = 20 m
:
F10
B=10 (T )
=
F20
B=20 (T )
200 250 K .
, ( 2m ).
.

12.2 ,
, , -

. IAU, ... - . ,
, 100 m 10 m. , 130 80 km ,
. , vG v (
) :
2
2
vG
= v
+

2GM
,
R

M R .

. .
, -
(42 km/s) , , ,
30 km/s
72 km/s, vG,max 73 km/s. -
, . vG -
, .
,
, , .
,
N2 .
m R = 100 km:

M = m 5 lgR K ,
K . - ,
4 12m ,
. - .
, ,
. 2 1010 . 30 ,
- .. -

12.3

72

, .
, ..  .
, , . 3000
: (), - () ().

95 %
3.5 g/cm3 . , .
. , .. , () FeMgSiO4 . 1 cm,
. ,
. , .
1 % 4.7
5.6 g/cm3 .
4 %
7.7 g/cm3 . ( 10 % 20 %).
,
: .

12.3
- ,

.
. ,
.
200 , : 3 10 (
).
,  -,
106 3 107 . 1/5
- , Cen, 50 000 AU.
, - ..
.

: 1011 108 M . ,
, .
(), .
, ,
. 1 R ,
- 1 AU,
. (Whipple),
(1 10 km) , . (H2 O, CO2 , CH4 , CO, NH3 ) ,
.
, ,
.
. R
,
:
=1R ,

12.3

73

,
. 0 < < 1 ;
= 0 , < 0 . ,
. , 1 , , -, -
R. ,
, R, .
. R ,
.
. I I0 , -
R.
(). - . II II0 ,
R < 2.2, - . , II0 , II
. , ,
.

 IV

 13
,

13.1
, .
,
Tef f . , - LTE
, - .
.
, . ,


(Draper) HD, 1918-1924 .
225 330 . . -
A, - - Q. , .
13.1. -
() , : 09. , A0 -, A9 - - A.
O, , A  , K M -   1 .
: N R ( )
S ( ). ,
, , :
- An: .
- Ann: .
- As: , .
- Av: .
- Am: .
1

(
).

13.2

76

- Ae: .
- Ap: ( ).
M, N, R, S - TiO ( M), ZrO ( S), C2 ( N) CH ( R).
3 200 K . (
- , / /.)
K, G, F , - :
F e I, F e II, Ca I, Ca II . F
, . - A -
. B O ,
. ,
B .
, , (He II, Si IV, C III, N III )
, - 25 000 K . -
O.
(3.18), , Pe ( ne ),
P . . ( , n+ /n
- T - , .. -
.) , , -: . (4.18).
, - . g , , H
(. (7.8)). ,
, - .
Pe - -
. ,
, - .
. 1905
g(iant) d(warf), , dG2 gK0.
, ,
.

13.2
D ,
:

M = m 5 lg D + 5
D :

[00 ] =

1
r [pc]

(13.1)

10 pc
10 %, Hipparcos

13.2

77

13.1: :
.   UBV, ,
.

Tef f

> 25 000 K

UV ; He II :

11 000 25 000 K

He I

7 500 11 000 K

A0;

6 000 7 500 K

5 000 6 000 K

.


(. Ca II )

3 500 5 000 K

< 3, 500 K

13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. .

78

1 kpc, .
- , 10 kpc, , , .
- , - , -
. ,
K, G F F e I 4063 Sr II 4077. A B M
; - .
.

13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. .
, ,
: -2 (Hertzsprung-Russell).  mV -  1911 . , , - ,
. ( . 13.1) 1914 .  MV -
.
: Tef f L, ,
. HR

.
HR , , - . -,
, MK 3 . ,
, L (. 13.2):

(I)
(II)
(III)
(IV)
(V)
(VI)
(VII; WD)
,
, L: a, ab, b.
,
/. : G2 I-II ( G2,

13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. .

79

13.1: HR .
.

), M3 IV/V ( M3,
).
Hipparcos 1 kpc,
(V) HR ..
(), 1m (. 13.3). (K,M III),
- .
(I) (V). HR -
. ,
- :
. -
, . ,
( Tef f .
.
- .

2
3

HR .
W. Morgan P. Keenan.

13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. .

13.2: HR .
/ .

80

13.3 Hertzsprung-Russell. .

13.3: HR (. 1 kpc)
Hipparcos.

81

 14


: L ( ),
Tef f ( ) ( ).
L Tef f R (4.18), M
. , L Tef f ,
,
: R M.

14.1

:
1. :

= 1.2

/400 nm
0.00 1
D
D/1 m

2. ,
(.. atmospheric seeing).
:

seeing = 0.00 5 100

- . , ,
.
R1 R2 < R1 , , t1
t4 , t2 t3
(. 14.1). T
, v (
) - . (l = v T )
R1 R2 :

2R1 + 2R2
t4 t1
=
T
l

14.1

83

t3 t2
2R1 2R2
=
T
l
, (4.18)
. ,
.

14.1: .

.
,
, . ()
. , D0 (
), :

max,
min,

=n

D0

1
= (n + )
2 D0

n = 0, 1, 2..., . ,
, , (0max =
max ). D0 , = max, 0 max, 1
- . D0 ,
= /(2D0 ) . ,
: ,
0.41.

14.2 .

84

, .. 0.41 = /2D0 :

= 1.22

2D0

(14.1)

,

. , ESO VLT (,
8.2 m, 200 m ),
. 14.1
- ,
.
(14.3).
14.1: - (V) - (III), . R Tef f , - .

Tef f R/R
M5V

3 100

0.3

M0V

3 800

0.6

G0V

6 000

1.1

A0V

10 000

2.6

B0V

30 000

O5V

45 000

18

M0Ia

3 700

500

G0Ia

5 800

200

A0Ia

9 400

100

B0Ia

27 000

30

O5Ia

40 000

25

14.2 .
, ,
. R,

g = GM/R2 , 50 % .
- . , , .
,
, -. - ,
d 103 104 A.U.
. , , ,

14.3 - -

85

-1 . -
,

,
- - - -


. - ,
, .. i 90 .
, 50 %
(Duquennoy & Mayor 1991, Leinert
et al. 1997). 100
.
.
1. D = 1/ 00 a1
a2 . :

M1 + M2 =

4 2 a3
G T2

(14.2)

M1 M2 , T - , a =
a1 + a2 . :

a1 M1 = a2 M2

(14.3)

.
2. a2 ,
M1 /M2 , a a2
.

14.3 - -
 -  1921
.
, , . - , L r T (
), r P (
).
, r P . ,
M ,
.

-:

Q
M
L
=
,
(14.4)
L
M
1.5 Q 4 ,
- M. ,
Q :
Q = 2, M < 0.6 M
1

: ,
.

14.3 - -
Q = 4,

86

M > 0.6 M

Q 2.8,

M & 10. M

L
, . Tef f ,  - - ,  - Tef f   - Tef f - . HR
,
 -  -:

R
R

5.2
(14.5)

(14.4) (14.5)  - , (4.18)

 -  :

R
Tef f
=
Tef f,

M
M

L/L
2
R2 /R

0.75
(14.6)

0.25

M
M

0.6
(14.7)

. - , , -
,
.

 15

15.1
, , , .
, : 102 . M/M . 102 ,
102 . R/R . 103 . :

:
=

3M
M/M
=
,
3
4 R
(R/R )3

(15.1)

= 1.41 g/cm3 , , 107 . . 106 g/cm3 .

T: , K
U :
U + 2K = 0 ,
U = C GM2 /R (C ), K = 3N k T/2
(. (3.2)), M = N mH
. :

GmH
M
T = C
3k
R

(15.2)

,
, ..
, T 107 K .
,
(X), (Y) - (Z):

4
6X + Y + 2

(15.3)

, 2 kpc, X = 0.715,
Y = 0.265, T 7 106 K .
-, ,

15.2

88

M/M
T ' 7 106
R/R
P : (3.1), T.
CG M2
P = n
k T =
4 R4

(15.4)

(nr3 1; r -
); ,
-. kT
me c2 ,
( ).
18.1.
( , - III)
.
(4.15) :

Prad =

4 4 aT 4
T =
,
3c
3

ac
4

(15.5)

Prad
aT 4 <
a
T3
=
: T =
Pgas
3

3<

, Prad , :

cr = const.
T 3

(15.6)

15.2

. E = 2 104 J/kg.s,
E 106 10 J/kg.s.
. , (, T ) (X, Y, Z).
40- :

: E 5 1010 J/kg.s.
: E 5104 J/kg.s,
.
:

15.2

89

:
U K , (L = dK
), .
dt
:
M2 dR
dK
dU
= CG 2
= 2
dt
R dt
dt
1 dR
2RL
=
R dt
CGM2
t = KH , (R = R)
,
- (Kelvin
- Helmholtz). KH ' 2 107 yr. , - , 
-   -  ((14.4), (14.6)), -
. ,
.

: (1920 .) , 4
. , :
E = mc2 = 26.72 M eV = 4.288 105 erg
Enuc = (mc2 /4) Np
Np
nuc , 1011 yr.
T 107 K
(. (15.2)).
= 3k T/2 1 keV , -!
10434 ,
1057 - .. .

exp(b/ ),

b = 31.28 Z1 Z2

A1 A2
A1 + A2

1/2
(keV )1/2

- (T = 107 K , Z1 = Z2 =
1, A1 = A2 = 1) 1010 ! , -
- - .
, , ,
. , 
. :

: 90% , T > 4 106 K

- - (pp) CNO-. -
- ( 1010 yr),

15.2

90

:
1

H(p, e+ e ) 2 D(p, ) 3 He(3 He, 2p) 4 He + 26.21 M eV

(15.7)

- CNO-,
,
1 :
12

C(p, ) 13 N (e+ e ) 13 C(p, ) 14 N (p, ) 15 O(e+ e ) 15 N (p, ) 12 C + 25.0 M eV

(15.8)

, , , (-).
. 1.2 M 90 % pp-,
- CNO-. - CNO-,
(. 15.2).
:

Epp X 2 T 4
ECN O XZCN T 17
: ,
. , T 108 K
.. 3-:
3 4 He 12 C + 7.28 M eV

(15.9)

,
4 He (> 100 g/cm3 ) . 3- :

E3 2 T 30
:
12

C(, )16 O(, )20 N e(, )24 M g(, )28 Si ,

, - . C O - H He
C O .

: T > 6 108 K
2
ECC ZCC
T 32 :
2 12 C 20 N e + ;
1

2 12 C 24 M g + ;

2 12 C 23 N a +20 N e

, ( ) 1015 m
.

15.3

91

: T 2 109 K
2
EOO ZOO
T 43 :
2 16 O 32 S + ;

2 16 O 31 P +1 H;

2 16 O 28 Si +

: ,
T 4 109 K :
28

Si

56

Ni

56

Co

56

Fe

, 2 , , - .
- . - .

15.3
, .
- , .
. , ,
, .. .

15.3.1
, 4.3.
3
:

dTr
dr

=
rad

3 r r Lr
,
16 Tr3 r2

(15.10)

r .. r .
r
Tr , .
-
, - - -
. , (15.10) ,
( ) Lr /r2
. dTr /dr
.
2

, , , .
3 .

15.4

92

15.3.2

.
.
(0 , T 0 ) r r+dr. 0
- ,
- (0 < ),
. , |d0 /dr| > |d/dr|.
, (v csound ),
: P = P 0 .
T = 0 T 0 :

0
dT dT

dr < dr ,

(Schwarzschild):

(15.11)
P dr
T dP

d lnT 0 d lnT

d lnP < d lnP ,

(15.12)

, , .
:

P ,
ln P ln ,

T 1

ln T ( 1) ln ln P

1
ln P

d lnT
1

d lnP = 1
ad

(15.13)

lnT
= cP /cV = 5/3, | dd lnP
|ad = 0.4.
d lnT
| d lnP |rad > 0.4 .
, cP cV = k/mp 1 1/ = k/mp cP , .. -
-. ,
. ,
.
- , .

15.4
, ,

15.4

93

. m(r), L(r), T (r), (r), P (r), r

( ) R ( 4 ). .
, , .. . (
.) ,
, :
1. :
,
(dFgrav (r) = dP (r) = g dr):

dP (r)
m(r)
= G(r) 2
dr
r

(15.14)

2. ( ):

dm(r)
= 4r2 (r)
dr

(15.15)

3. :
:
dL(r)
= 4r2 (r)E((r), T (r))
(15.16)
dr
4. ( ):

dT (r)
3 (r)
(, T ) L(r)
=
dr
16 T (r)3
r2
dT (r)
=
dr

1
1
(, T )

T (r) dP (r)

mp
1
m(r)
=
1
G 2
P (r) dr
k
(, T )
r

(15.17)
(15.18)

,
. ,
:

k
(r)T (r)

mp
E = E0 f1 (X, Y, Z) f2 (T ) ,
P (r) =

(15.19)
(15.20)

f1 (X, Y, Z) f2 (T )
(. -). :

r=0:
m(r) = 0, L(r) = 0, (r) = c , T (r) = Tc
r=R:
m(R) = M, L(R) = L, (R) ' 0, T (R) ' 0
4

 , = 1.

15.4

94

c , Tc , L R.
, , .. m(r) r = r(m). ,
:

m=0:
m=M:

r = 0, L = 0
P = 0, T = 0

, ,
, ,
. ,
.
- (Vogt-Russell), .
, ,


.
, , ,
, . , .
(M, X, Y, Z )
. HR ,
.

 16

16.1 Jeans

T 5 50 K n 103 106 cm3 .
R M ,
.
, (T = const),
(R ' 0) P , :

dP = g dr P = P = | gR|

<
GM
G.4R3
T =
R
=
R

R2
3R2

R M :

1/2 1/2
3<
T
R=
4G

1/2
3/2 3/2
4 3
3
<
T
M=
R =
3
4
G
1/2

(16.1)
(16.2)

0 (0 = const) ,
(Poisson).
:

0 = A exp(i(~k .~r .t))

cs =

2 = k2 c2s 4G0 ,
kT / , k .

16.2

96

1/2

2
=
cs
(16.3)
J =
k J
G0
< J , ,
. ,
( ), . J
:

MJ =

MJ = 1.2 10 M

k
G

1/2
T 3/2 1/2

T
102 K

3/2

24
10
g/cm3

(16.4)

1/2
3/2

(16.5)

, MJ . ()
-
10 km/s, .
. > J :

collapse

=
cs

G0

1/2

10 yr.
8

24
10
g/cm3

1/2

- , ..
.
- .

16.2
,
, T 10 K . n 1011 cm3 ,
IR - ,
(T P 1 = const) ; .
, . . 1000 K
n 1016 cm3 H2 . ,
. 104 K , ; 10
R , 103 M . 106 R 
,
. ,
1000 .

- KH (104 107 yr).


, . ,
. HR ,

16.3

97

.. (Hayashi). ,
, Pc Tc
= (, Tef f ) ,
:

0.2
0.06
M
R
3
Tef f = 2.2 10 K
0.45
(16.6)
M
R
HR ,
Tef f 2000 K .
.
.
UV IR .
,  .
, X-
( T Tauri). -
.
- (Herbig-Haro).

16.3

-, 107 K 1026 cm3

pp- / CNO-. .
() HR .
- . c ,
, .
. He
,
Pc = (</
) c Tc - Tc Epp (. ECN O ).
, ..
 . 1967 . (Sandage)
H :

M S ' 1.1 1010

M/M
L/L

[yr]

(16.7)

, 0.08 70 M , : , 1 M
M S = 9 109 yr, 15 M - 107 yr. ,
Tc (.. ).
, M > 1.4 M - CNO-,
- pp-.
: . -
. ,
, .
- - ,
, .

 17

, . (16.7) - ,
,
. . 
3 M , .

17.1

. 100 % ,
. 2 107 K ,
. ,
. HR - Tef f
. ,
- KH 107 yr.
, Tc 3-, -.
. 5000 K , -
. ,
: . , ,
1 AU 300 L .
,
. Pe .
9-10 -
, HR
(. . 13.3).
(RGB) . < 0.5 M
Pe Tc 108 K . ; -

17.2

99

, .
- Tc 108 K .
( Tc30 ) 3-
,
(..  ): He C O.
, - .

, . ,
- . ..
- - , - Red clump HR .


C O 50:50, , .. .
.
.. , AGB.
AGB C/O ,
He . - , H . He ,
. . He .
.
He, .
. 1 C/O -
AGB 0.6 M .
, .

17.1.
17.1: 1 M .
Vassiliadis & Wood (1993).

[yr]

9 109

3 109

RGB

3 109

Red Clump

1 108

AGB

5 106

1 105

()

> 8 109

17.2
3 M .
, -. , -
1

 .

17.2

100

- .
; H - ,
. 
. 20 M
He .

, .
, III
, , ,
- (15.6).
.
- UV
Fe, C, O, Si.
. O B 4000 km/s
5 10 5 M /yr.
: ,
. 40 M
HR ,
. 25 M Z ,
. .. - (Wolf-Rayet)
C N.
10 M . T 6 108 K ,
. ( - .)
-
(e+ e ), !
. 17.2.
17.2: 20 M . Heger &
Langer (2000).
:
[yr] [ M ]

10 106

10

1 10

4 102

10

1.5

 18

, -
: , - , , .
MZAM S , ,
. , Mf inal
:

MZAM S 8M

Mf inal 1.4M ( )

MZAM S 8M

Mf inal 2.8M ( )
Mf inal 2.8M ( )

, Mf inal 3M , .
. .

18.1
18.1.1
 ( 100pc), :
Mbol 7m 15m . (B-F) Tef f , , .
. ,
: .

: .
,
: 106 108 Gs.
, .
.

18.1

102

(T 108 K ) (T 104 K ),
. , . 17.1.
.
( F n2/3 )
- , . ,
:
Pc Pe = K1 5/3
(18.1)
Pc (15.4)
c (15.1), - :

5/3

M5/3
M2

R5
R4

R M1/3

(18.2)

HR , (. 18.1). F
, - F me c2 . :

Pe = K2 4/3 (1 C2/3 )

(18.3)

Pc (15.4) c (15.1)
(Chandrasekhar) MCh ,
:

MCh 1.44M

(18.4)

, .
- ;
Ia (SN Ia). ,

.
50 % . SN Ia -
!

18.1.2
Si (. 17.2),
, Fe -
. ,
- . , - (p + e
n + e ) .
, - . T 1011 K
, Fe H.
,
. ' 1012 g/cm3 , 1014 g/cm3
.
-
, , .
:
Pn = K3 4/3

18.1

103

18.1: HR , .

100

. (Hewish)
1967 
, 100 ms.
,
.
, - . 100-200
( ) 7-10 ( ). p = p()
: MOV 2.8 M ( , /Oppenheimer-Volkov/). 1.4 M .
(Tef f >
106 K 104 K ), . ,
- . - , .
, .
( 300 m) 56 F e .

. 18.2 
- . , c , .

18.2

104

18.2: ()
 - .

18.2
-, SN Ia
.

. ! ,
,
.
.
8 1010 L ,
. , 1 % .
,
.
!
,
SN II. ( - ),
SN Ib,c.
. 18.3. I ,
0.m 5 , 3m -.
( 1054 . , -
2 .) II ,
, .
. I
, II
,
(.. P Cygni).

18.3

105

18.3: I
II .
. Doggett & Branch (1985).

18.3
,

: ) M , ) 106 109 M
(.. ). ,
, .
.. :

rS =

2GM
c2

(18.5)

r = rS . ( rS = 3 km.) , 2rS , ,
- .
, ,
.
, r , :

,
0 = p
1 rrS
d , ,
, :
d
dt = p
1 rrS

18.3

106

, , ,
. -
, .
, - .
, - .


, . ,
(Kerr). . 18.4.
- , , - - . .. - -

. : -,
.  
1 M .

18.4: . Stuart
Robbins (2001, 2003).

 19

19.1
  .
,
.
, -
, . ,
- , (m) - .
: R, S, T, ..., Z, RR, RS, ..., SS, ST, ..., ZZ, AA, ..., AZ, QQ, ..., QZ
V335, V336 .., .
,
:

: ,
.
:

 : -

, .
 : ,
() .

19.2
.. HR ,
.
:

P
M
2r
= G 2 2
r
r
t

(19.1)

, ( )

19.2

108

, :

r0 r(t) = r0 (1 + (t))
:

4r2 r = 0 4r02 r0

= 0 (1 + )3 ,

P = P0

= P = P0 (1 + )3

( << 1):

= 0 (1 3) ,

P = P0 (1 3) ,

r2 = r02 (1 2)

(19.1), , :

GMr0

(4 3) = 2
3
r0
t
r0 = R, = M/(4/3)R3 . (t), (t) =
0 exp(it):

3G

+
(3

4)
=0
t2
4
:

2 = (3 4)

3G

(G)1/2

(19.2)

HR , ..
Tef f , , L R2 (. 19.1). , - 30 .
10 (L M3 ). :

M1/2 R3/2 R3/2 L3/4

(5.6),
- 1 ,
:

M 3 lg + const
1

1917 . 1925 ., ,
.

19.2

109

19.1: HR .

MV 2.7 lg days 1.6

(19.3)

( = 1 70d ) Cep, .
- . MV > 6m
20 M pc. ( )
, ,
. ,
, . , ,
. .
( -).
, .

,

19.2

110

He, T . 104.5 (. 19.2). ,

- , . ,


. , , ,
. .
.
,  -.

19.2:

( lg (g/cm3 ))
. Iglesias & Rogers (1996)

 20
.
.
() ,
. ,
.
; 
 :

, (H I )
- H I - - , ,
. 90 % .
, - ,
. H I - 21 cm
UV .
H2
CO,
H2 . ,
- ,
( 10 kpc). 10 % ,
104 M 104 cm3 .
, CO, HCN, H2 O: - , . 102 106 cm3 .
(H II )
O-B3, UV . H II 104 105 K ,
- H . 4 < rgc < 8 kpc
CO. , , H II - .
.

1:100. ,
. ,

113
a 1 m -
1 g 1000 1 cm2 !
-, a
.
(. 20.1), :

A = K0 + K1 ,

= (), = 2a/

(20.1)

20.1: . Savage & Mathis (1979)

- 0.2m 15 pc, ..
1.55m . ( /Bok/) (d ' 0.5 pc),
( 1021 g/cm3 ) ,
. - 20-100 M .
, -
, . ,
,

.
-
(RGB-). Si, O C . , 
( )
0.01 m. (O+Si
) 1 m. ,
, - , H,
O, C, N, S.  , ,
.
CO H2S. UV

.
,
,
( G).

114
(-) ( ' 1020 eV ), - . 1 eV /cm3
. - ,
. ( > 1014 eV )
(. - ).

 21
.
. ( -
- ) . ,

.

21.1 .
.
.
( 10 eV )
, ..
.
10 80 K 104 K H II - 105 106 K
(SNR). : 102 107 cm3
H II - 1 50 cm3 (H I -) 104 cm3 SNR (
). .
.
.
,
.
, .
. 1 .
, , - - - .
, . , n 1/T .
.
1

21.2

116

,
.
. . . 21.1:
Pc : ( ng nc )
. , -

nc . , - ,
n = ng .

21.1: (H I ) . (nH . ng nH & nc )

.

lg(P/k) ' 3.0

: T = 9000 K, n = 0.1 cm3 ( ) T = 35 K, n = 30 cm3
( ). T = 5000 K .
, ,
, O VI.
.

21.2

Na Ca , . , -,
.. .

21.2

117

UV ,
Z . , Z < Z , .
100 K 500 yr, ,
102 eV . .
. :
p e p e + (6 106 eV )
11 106 yr.
1 cm2 1 pc - 1018 ,
. 21 cm,
,
.
H I - (M = 500 M , R 5 pc) ,
- . , ,
. (H2 )
CO . ,
: T . 3 20 K . -
, . (Larson 1981),
v R:

v 0.8 km/s

R
pc

0.4
(21.1)

102 104 M 1 10 pc, - 105 106 .5 M 10 60 pc. ,

, -
. H I -, .
M R (r) = R/r, (
):
2 GM
3Mv2 =
3 R2

M 1000 M

v2
R
2
(km/s) pc

(21.2)

n R1.2 NH2 = 1.51022 cm2 const(M).

,
NH AV .
:
NH = 1.9 1021 AV cm2 mag 1

UV- - MIR. .
Td . ,
D T R ,

21.3

118

Td = 0.7 T

R
D

1/2
(21.3)

, ,
. , (21.3)
.
, , 280 K .

21.3
H II -,
, .
,
. - ( O) UV , - O, N, S.
> 5 000 K . H II -
, :

: , He II.
F:
() - ( ). UV  
, O III, N III .
,
[O III] 4363, 4959, 5007
A.
,
H II -. [S II] 6716, 6731
, -
[O III] - .
H II - .
- ,
.
OB- N OB ,
(Stromgren):

3NOB
2/3
rS
nH
4

(21.4)

O6 N OB = 1049
. nH 5000 cm3 rS = 0.3 pc.

21.4

119

21.4
,
.
1 pc.
107 K .
, . SN
.

21.2:
.

(Crab nebula).


1000 , - 1100 km/s. : ,

-
: 5 1026 W . 20%
; 80%
, . (
SN . 21.2.) :
( . 1011 eV ) . 50
.
: , 1054 .

2MASS
AGB
AGN
CCD
CM
CMB
COBE
DM
ESO
FWHM
FIR
FUSE
FUV
GALEX
GRB
HH
HR
HSO
HST
IAU
IRAS
MIR
MHD
NED
NIR
NUV
RGB
ROSAT
RXTE
SNR
SSSB
SST
Swift GRBM
UIT
VLT
WR

121

Two Micron All Sky Survey

Asymptotic Giant Branch
Active Galactic Nuclei
Charge-Coupled Device
ColourMagnitude ()
Cosmic Microwave Background
COsmic Background Explorer
Distance Modulus
European Southern Observatory
Full Width on Half Maximum
Far InfraRed
Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer
Far UltraViolet
GALaxy Evolution eXplorer
Gamma-Ray Bursts
Herbig-Haro ()
HertzsprungRussell ( )
Herschel Space Observatory
Hubble Space Telescope
International Astronomical Union
InfraRed Astronomical Satellite
MidInfraRed
MagnetoHydroDynamics
NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
Near InfraRed
Near UltraViolet
Red Giant Branch

ROntgenSATellit
Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer Mission
SuperNova Remnant
Small Solar System Body
Spitzer Space Telescope
Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission
Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope
Very Large Telescope
Wolf-Rayet ()

123

SI (MKS),
, , -
CGS [L] = cm, [M ] = g [T ] = s.
CGS :

1 dyn = 105 N
1 erg = 107 J
: 1
A= 1010 m, , , :

1eV = 1.6022 1012 erg

G = 6.672041 108 cm3 /g.s2
c = 2.997925 1010 cm/s
h = 6.626176 1027 erg.s
mp = 1.672649 1024 g
me (1/1836) mp
k = 1.380662 1016 erg/K
RH = 1.097 105 cm1
= 5.670327 105 erg/cm2 .s.K 4
qe = 4.80325 1010 CGSEq
< = 8.314 103 J/K.kmol

: yr = 365.d 2564
/

: R = 6.378 108 cm
: R = 6.9599 1010 cm
: AU = 1.495979 1013 cm
: pc = 3.085678 1018 cm

: M = 5.9764 1027 g
: MJ = 317.8 M
: M = 1.989 1033 g

: L = 3.8269 1033 erg/s

125

1609-1619

1687

1755

1781

1785
1796
1814
1838
1856
1859
1860-1863

1905

(Astronomia Nova)
(Harmonices Mundi). .
(Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica),
.
(Immanuel Kant)
.
(Charles Messier), ( , ),
.
(Herschel) ,  .
.
(Laplace) ..   .
F (Fraunhofer)
.
(Friedrich Bessell)
61 Cyg. ,
.
(Norman Pogson, 18291891)
.
(Kircho) () .
: Huggins
( Ori) ( T au).
(Albert Einstein, )
On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies.

126

1908

1911-1914

1916

1920

1923
1929
1937-40
1947

1957-1958
12.04.1961
1965
1967

21.VII.1969

(Ejnar Hertzsprung, 1873 - 1967) -.

(Leavitt) -
.
(Russell)
(HR )
(Eddington)

,

-
(Slipher)
.
( )
(Hubble) , .



( Hubble).
(Gamow) .
.
.
.
(. )
(Penzias) (Wilson) ,
.
: .
(Armstrong)
(Aldrin) .