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The most notable pressure in human body is the blood pressure in the major arteries.
Bladder Pressure
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One of the most noticeable of bodily pressures, bladder pressure varies over a quite large range. It is zero when bladder is empty and climbs steadily to about 25 mmHg when the bladder reaches it normal capacity of some 500 cm3. The micturition reflex is triggered by a bladder pressure of about b25 mmHg. That reflex stimulates the feeling of urinating, and it further triggers muscle contractions around the bladder that can raise bladder pressure to 110 mmHg, accentuating the sensation.
Students studying for exams and authors striving to meet deadlines make many trips to the toilet. Pregnant women experience increased bladder pressure due to the weight of the fetus resting on the bladder and find it necessary to urinate frequently. Bladder pressure while urinating is normally 15-30 mmHg, but an obstruction of the urinary tract, such as from a swollen prostate gland, can necessitate pressures as large as 70 mmHg.
The larger the resistance of a tube, the larger the pressure difference needed to cause the same flow rate. Bladder pressure can be measured by catheterization through the urinary tract or by insertion of a needle through the abdominal wall into a bladder (called direct cystometry). The normal range is from 0-30 cm of water rising to 150 cm of water during the micturition reflex.
Cerebrospinal Pressure
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The skull and spinal column contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The CSF supports the weight of the brain with buoyant force, acts as a protective cushion and supplies nutrients filtered from the blood. Normally CSF is absorbed in the spinal column as fast as it is generated in the skull. However, the narrow ventricle called the cerebral aqueduct can be blocked, causing pressure
to build inside the skull. This is a moderately common problem in infants called hydrocephalus. When detected early, the pressure and its effects can be minimized surgically. Spinal taps are performed for many reasons: to introduce dye for contrast on an x ray, or to withdraw CSF for density measurements. One side effect of spinal tap is severe headache. The CSF is slowly replenished over a period of four and five day, and in the meantime lying down distributes the remaining CSF evenly.
The shape of the eye is maintained by fluid pressure. This pressure is called the intraocular pressure; its normal range is 1224mmHg. The eye has two fluid-filled chambers. The front chamber contains aqueous humor and the rear chamber contains vitreous humor.
About 5 cm3 of aqueous humor is produced daily in the eye. Excess fluid flows out through a canal and is absorbed into the bloodstream. Aqueous humor is similar in character to cerebrospinal fluid and carries nutrients to the lens and cornea. Pressure created by the aqueous humor is transmitted throughout the vitreous humor. Vitreous humor is a jellylike substance that does not circulate and is not replenished. Pressure in the vitreous humor
holds the retina flush against the interior parts of the eyeball and helps to maintain the shape of the eye. Partial blockage of the drainage canal for the aqueous humor results in pressure buildup in the entire eye. Intraocular pressure can rise to as much as 85 mmHg, the average arterial blood pressure. Excessive intraocular pressure is a symptom of glaucoma and can result in blindness due to deterioration of the retina.
Glaucoma is most common in people over 40, who consequently are routinely tested for high intraocular pressure. Intraocular pressure is measured by number of techniques, most of which involve exerting a force on the eye over a certain area (pressure) and observing its resulting deformation and rebound. Glaucoma is treated with drugs that suppresses the production of aqueous humor or by surgery to supply a drainage path.
Food, drink and waste products moving through the 6-m-long digestive tract are fluid or fluidlike in character. Their flow is regulated by pressure and especially by the valves and sphincter muscles in the system. Thoracic cavity pressure is sometimes monitored by measuring pressure in the esophagus.
A sphincter is needed at the junction of the esophagus and stomach to prevent backflow of stomach fluids, the most common cause of heartburn. During swallowing, muscle action in the esophagus forces fluids into the stomach. y Pressures in the GI system are increased by swallowed air or by flatus produced by bacterial action, causing cramps. This is very common in infants, who often swallow air while eating. Blockages in the GI system also cause pressure to increase, even to the point of rupture, due to buildup of fluids.
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The stomach is elastic, so pressure in it increases gradually, becoming large only when stomach is overfilled. The pressure is dependent on the capacity of stomach, which can change with eating habits. The stomach stretches considerably when a person consistently overeats, and a large stomachs relative emptiness triggers the sensation of hunger before the person really needs more food.
A tube is inserted through the patients nose and down the esophagus into the stomach (called a nasogastric tube). This feeding method is useful for patients who have difficulty swallowing but are not liable to vomit.
The knee joint area reduces the pressure at the joint and prevents its deterioration. The large flat area however reduces pressure on the tissues covering the bone when forces are exerted by the hand.
Molecular Phenomena and Biological Process y A number of biological processes can be explained in terms of the behavior of molecules.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion. y Materials moved by diffusion thus move much more slowly than the average speed of a molecule.
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The direction of diffusion is always from a region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration. The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the difference in concentration between two regions.
The rate of diffusion depends on other factors in addition to concentration differences. Cohesive and adhesive forces also affect the rate of diffusion. y The rate of diffusion increases as the temperature increases. This is because the average molecular speed increases with temperature and the energy available to break cohesive bonds increases.
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Osmosis
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Is usually defined as the transport of water through a semi-permeable membrane due to an imbalance on its concentration on either side of the membrane.
Reverse osmosis
takes place when the pressure opposing osmosis exceeds the osmotic pressure.
If one of the solution is pure water, then the pressure necessary to stop the flow of water from the region of high concentration to the region of lower concentration.
Water intake by Roots and turgor in plants Epsom salts Regulation of fluid between cells (interstitial fluid) Swelling (edema) due to heart failure Effect of electrolyte balance
Swelling edema due to heart failure -if the patient suffers from right heart failure,
then the heart is less effective in taking up the blood sent to it, the pressure at the right capillary rises. EdemaEdema-causes reverse osmosis all along the capillary and the build up of interstitial fluid. Pulmonary Edema-If the patient is experiencing Edemaleft heart failure, the pressure increases in the lungs, causing reverse osmosis. And there is the water build up.
Dialysis
through semi permeable membrane and occurs in kidneys and many other places in biological organisms.
Kidney failure
Can cause high blood pressure. If filtration slows or stops in glomerulus, the kidney emits a hormone called renin that causes blood pressure to rise so that filtration recommences. high blood pressure can even cause capillaries in the glomerulus to burst.
Effects of Diuretics
Diuretics- any substance that increased urine outputs. -the presence of such molecule decreases the concentration of water in the tube and its reabsorption , resulting in a greater production of water in the urine.
Pressures around the system -resistance in the system causes pressure to drop
as blood flows in the system. P1 P2=FR *where P1 is the pressure at the entrance of a tube and P2 at its exit -pressure drop is equal to the resistance and flow rate. The resistance R depends strongly on the radius, so the pressure drop in the aorta is fairly small, while in the capillaries is fairly large.
The velocity of Blood in major arteries = 30cm/sec which is greater then capillaries=0.03cm.sec Average blood velocity are due to changes in the total cross-sectional area of the system during branching
ex) the aorta branches into the major arteries, each of it has a smaller cross-sectional area, but whose combined area is larger than the area of the aorta. Flow rate of aorta = Flow rate of major arteries
Velocity decreases when the total area has increased. y The decrease in velocity going from the aorta to the capillaries is not caused by resistance to flow. It caused pressure to drop but does not affect velocity. y The return of blood to the heart through the veins is aided by the contraction of skeletal muscles(extermeties) with oneway valves
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Body adjusts blood flow by changing vessel radii. y Most vessel dilation and constriction occur in small arteries and arterioles. y Flow is adjusted by changes in arterial blood pressure(P1) while venous blood pressure(P2) remains constant.
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Heart murmurs : the sounds made by leaking heart valves A hole between heart chambers is another cause of turbulent flow. Aneurysm : a ballooning of a vessel due to a weakened wall. Irregular shape of an aneurysms can cause turbulence Turbulence is used to make common blood pressure measurements Two pressures are recorded : the maximum heart pressure(systolic) and the minimum arterial pressure (diastolic). Korotkoff sound : the turbulent sounds make by blood flow in this measurement
The Laplaces Law Tension in the wall =Pressure in the tube x radius of the tube. y This law explain how a thin walls tolerates pressures as large as aorta. y The dependence of wall tension in a tube on pressure, and radius as expressed by Laplace's law shows importance of ramifications I the circulatory system. y The left ventricle has thicker walls and a smaller radius than the right ventricles left ventricles creates pressures several times greater than the right ventricle.
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As the blood circulates through the body, its energy is converted to thermal energy buy resistance to flow fluid friction y For fluids it's convenient to consider the kinetic and potential energies per unit volume y Potential energy per unit volune in a fluid PE/V= hpg + P
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PE= potential energy V= volume h= depth p= density g=gravity P=pressure
hpg is unchanged in the round trip, but pressure is reduces PE is lost it is converted to thermal energy as pressure is reduced by resistance.
PE/V is constant in a static fluid and pressure depends only on depth in a static fluid. y The kinetic energy per unit volume in a fluid KE/V = 1/2pv2 y m/V is just the density p, so the kinetic energy per unit volume in a fluid is KE/V = 1/2pv2 y Adding the kinetic and potential energies per unit volume in as fluid gives the Total Energy per Unit Volume in a Fluid. E/V = KE/V + PE/V
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To find the power supplies by the heart, This equation is solved for the total energy D by heart. E=(1/2pv2+hpg+P)V y This energy divided by time =the power supplied by the heart. Power= E/t=(1/2pv2 hpg+P)V/t y Volume divided by time is flow rate y The power is referred to as the Kinetic power : the power used to increase the speed of the blood and Pressure power(hpg)
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Breathing Mechanism
When the pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the air flows out of the lungs. When the pressure in the lungs is less than the atmospheric pressure, the air flows into the lungs. ( Provided that the passages are unobstructed. ) During inhalation, there is an increase in volume of the lungs, pressure falls. During exhalation, the volume of the lungs decreases, pressure arises.
Ficks Law
Diffusion of gases between air in the lungs and blood proceeds in a direction from high to low concentration. Partial pressure, if a mixture occupies a given volume, it is the pressure that it would exert if it alone occupied the entire volume.
Applied pressure is returned to the atmospheric pressure to allow the patient to exhale. y Done using Bernoullis effect or with nebulizers
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Are typified by the iron lungs y Air pressure is lowered in the lungs and air flows in.
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SPIROMETER
Lung volumes:
Tidal volume volume inhaled in a normal breath. Inspiratory reserve volume additional volume that can still be inhaled. Expiratory reserve volume additional volume that can still be exhaled. Vital capacity maximum amount of air that can be exhaled.
Rotameter
A device for measuring gas flow rates. Designed for one gas due to sensitivity to gas density and must not be used to measure the flow rate of another gas.
Inspiration spirometers
- Similar to rotameters, used to help exercise the lungs of a bed-confined patients. - Goal is to get the patient inflate his lungs fully and prevent oxygen starvation and carbon dioxide buildup and to remove phlegm for the breathing passages.
WATERWATERSEALED DRAINAGE
Used to drain fluids from thoracic cavity while preventing accidental admission of air into the thoracic cavity.
Labor Monitors
- used to indicate the pressure in the fluid surrounding the fetus (amniotic fluid) during labor. labor.
Inserted through the birth canal and placed at the amniotic sac.
Is pushed upward and a transducer converts the movement to an electrical that is recorded.
Reporters
Jannah Antonino y Laurice Bacosa y Irene Lee y Ma. Karen Marmolejo
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