2011-2012 Water-related Disaster Management Course

of Disaster Management Policy Program

Flood Hydraulics and Sediment Transport

[Lecture material]

Course number：DMP381E

Instructor：Shoji FUKUOKA

Term / Time：Fall through Winter

 Subject: Flood Hydraulics and Sediment Transport

Course number：DMP381E
Instructor：Prof. Shoji FUKUOKA
Term / Time：Fall through Winter

１ Course Description
This course provides the basic knowledge necessary for planning and designing the structural measures
for Integrated Flood Risk Management (IFRM). The course first describes the river administration and
planning for application of IFRM. Especially the methodology of comprehensive river management will
be emphasized that includes planning of flood hydraulics, flood control, and sediment movement to
river channels and dam reservoirs. This will be followed by specific technologies of channel control and
channel improvement.

2. Course Outline (Course Topics)

[by Prof. Shoji FUKUOKA]
1. Characteristics and river management of Japanese rivers
2. Prediction method of flow resistance in rivers with compound channels and application to river
course design (1)
3. Prediction method of flow resistance in rivers with compound channels and application to river
course design (2)
4. Steady quasi-two dimensional analysis of flood flows (1)
5. Steady quasi-two dimensional analysis of flood flows (2)
6. Unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis of flood flows (1)
7. Unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis of flood flows (2)
8. To derive a relationship between stable dimensionless width, depth and discharge in natural
rivers - learning from natural rivers
9. How do we make a river cross-section harmonizing flood control and river environment

[by Prof. Yasuharu WATANABE]

10. 1-D bed deformation, computing model
11. 2-D bed deformation, sand waves and bars, meandering
12. Vegetations, flows in vegetated zone
13. River restoration based on sediment transport and vegetation on stabilized bars
14. Re-meandering project for river restoration
15. Bank erosion and drift woods

３ Grading
Reports (20%) Final examination (80%)

４ Textbooks
4-1 Required
4-2 Others
 河川行政の現状と課題

Rivers in Japan and Outline of River

Governance
1. Character of Rivers in Japan
2. Recent Flood Disasters in Japan
3. Outline of Flood Control

0-1
4. Dam Projects
5. River Environment
6. History of the Relation between People and
Water in Japan
7. Measures for Adapting to the Climate Change
due to Global Warming
8. Water Rights
 ３．日本の河川の特性

1. Character of Rivers in Japan

0-2
 Japan has many rivers of sharp gradient
Longitudinal section of rivers The distance from the source to the sea is short,
between Japan and other countries and the current is fast.
Elevation
above
sea level Roire river
(m) Joganji river Colorado river

Koso river カスリーン

Fuji river

0-3
Yoshino Seine river
river
Shinano river
Mekong
Rhône river river

Mogami river
Tone river Nile river
Mississippi
river
Amazon
river

Distance of river (km)

River Bureau revised the data based on “Water and Dam in Japan” by NII.
 The greater part of Tokyo is lower than the water level
in rivers at flood time

Tokyo and rivers of Edo, Arakawa and Sumida

Height
above Keihin- Route
sea level Tohoku 6
line
Musashino line

(m)

river

river
river
Edo
river

river
Ohba

Sumida
Ayase
New Saka river
Joban line

Naka river

Arakawa
Saka river

0-4
Kita
Adachi
Misato

Arakawa
Matsudo

Katsushika

London and Thames river

river
Thames
 Below-sea-level area in the Koto delta region
If any flood damage occurs in a below-sea-level area:
It is necessary to secure the railways and roads in the elevated grounds (red areas) as evacuation and relief routes.
Altitude: Less than 1.0 m
Mean high water spring or
less (below-sea-level area)

Altitude: 1.0 ~ 4.0 m

Altitude: More than 4.0 m

Asakusabashi

Kameido
Kinshi-cho
Ryogoku

0-5
Arakawa Super Bank

T.P. - 2.1 m

T.P. - 1.1 m Source:

L.W.L. The River Bureau, MLIT
prepared this data based
on the GSI Map and
materials of the River
T.P. +0.9 m
Dept., Bureau of
T.P. – 0.1 m
Construction, Tokyo.
 If the Typhoon Catherine hit Tokyo again now and the Tone River bank collapsed
there would be 2.3 million victims and the damages of 34.5 trillion yen
The Tone River bank was broken by the Typhoon Catherine in September, 1947 and the overflowing water
reached Tokyo. It was a terrible disaster showing the number of the fatalities and missing was 1,930.
Simulation of overflow in Ring Road
Inundation area: 530 km2 No. 7 (Katsushika-ku, Tokyo)
The Typhoon Catherine (Sep., 1947)

Broken Point

0-6
Broken Tone River bank 【134.5k】

Katsushika-ku, Tokyo
 Population is concentrated on the inundation area in Japan
: Areas whose altitude is lower than : Other areas
the river water level in flood time

Population

Japan
Area

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Population

0-7
England
Area

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Population

USA
Area

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: Rivers in Japan, Learning to Live with River,

CIA The World Fact book
 過去10年間に全国の9割以上の市町村で、水害・土砂災害が発生
Floods and landslides occurred during the past 10 years
in more than 90% of municipalities in Japan.

10 or more floods and landslides occurred: 1826 municipalities (54.6%)

5 to 9 floods and landslides occurred: 881 municipalities (26.4%)

1 to 4 floods and landslides occurred: 551 municipalities 16.5%)

No flood and landslide occurred: 84 municipalities (2.5%)

(The number of all municipalities in 2003): 3342 (100.0%)

(Source: Flood Damage Statistics)

0-8
The rates of disaster occurrence from 1994 to 2003
 ２．近年の日本の洪水の状況

2. Recent Flood Disasters in Japan

0-9
 Increasing frequency of Local Torrential Rain
Annual total of hourly rainfall instances
(from approx. 1,300 AMeDAS locations across Japan)
1. Number of 50 mm or more rainfall in an hour
500
(instances/year)

400
300
200
1996~2005
1976~1985 1986~1995
100
Average Average 288 instances
Average 209 instances 234 instances

0 - 10
0 1976 ‘77 ‘78 ‘79 ‘80 ‘81 ‘82 ‘83 ‘84 ‘85 ‘86 ‘87 ‘88 ’89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05

2. Number of 100 mm or more rainfall in an hour

10
(instances/year) 1976~1985 1986~1995 1996~2005
Average 4.7 instances
Average 2.2 instances Average 2.2 instances
5

0
1976 ‘77 ‘78 ‘79 ‘80 ‘81 ‘82 ‘83 ‘84 ‘85 ‘86 ‘87 ‘88 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05
Data from the Meteorological Agency
 Flooded area has decreased but the damage per area has increased.
Flood damage density １）
一般資産水害密度 in property1) Property damage (Unit: 100 billion yen)
一般資産被害額(千億円)
(Unit: 10,000 yen / ha)
（万円／ha） Flooded housing area (Unit: 10,000 ha)
宅地等の浸水面積(万ha)
6,000 6.0

Flood damage density in property

一般資産水害密度
5,000 5.0
４，６２２
Flooded housing ４．8
宅地等の
sarea
浸水面積
4,000 4.0

3,000 一般資産
Property 3.0
damage
被害額

0 - 11
2,000 2.0

１．０
1,000 1.0

0 0.0
1977
52 ’78
53 ’79 55 56
54 ’80 ’81 57 58 59
’82 ’83 ’84 60 61 62
’85 ’86 ’87 ’88
63 ’89
1 ’90
2 ’91
3 ’92
4 ’93
5 ’94
6 ’95
7 ’96
8 ’97 10 11
9 ’98 12 13
’99 ’00 ’01 ’02
14 ’03 16
15 ‘04
昭和 平成
Damages (Unit: 10, 000 yen) / flooded area (ha) (Value in 2000)
1)１）被害額（万円）／浸水面積（ｈａ）　（平成１２年価格）
2)２）値は過去５箇年の平均値である
The amount of damages are the average value of past 5 years.
3)３）一般資産被害額及び水害密度には、営業停止損失を含む
The property damage and flood damage density include the loss due to business suspension
4)４）国土交通省河川局「水害統計」より
From “Flood Disaster Statistics” prepared by the River Bureau, MLIT.
 Areas struck by Tokai Heavy Rain in September, 2000
平成12年9月東海豪雨 被災状況

Usual scene

0 - 12
Scene after heavy rain
 Potential flood damages increase as we use highly-developed technologies in daily life

Once heat insulation materials absorb water, they

A large quantity of electronic devices were scrapped.
cannot be used again.

0 - 13
Damages caused by the Tokai Flood in 2000
 The Mikasa river overflowed its banks in July, 2003
平成15年7月の御笠川の氾濫により、福岡市街は機能麻痺

and the downtown of Fukuoka City was at a complete standstill.

□The river overflowed on July 19, 2003

Flooded areas

Overflowed spots

□The river overflowed on June 29, 1999

Investigated flooded areas

Flooded areas

Facilities of above- and under-floor inundation

Facilities of under-floor inundation

Main public buildings

0 - 14
。
Flood damage
Subway underground shaping wall
Houses of above-floor inundation: 2047
Houses of under-floor inundation: 1576
(Tentative data)

Damage on subway

・ In 2003: Service was stopped for 28 hours and

28 minutes (Between July 19, 6:10 and July 20,
10:38)
・ In 1999: Service was stopped for 3 hours and
Underground room 41 minutes
Underground room
 Landslides with fallen trees occurred in various places
- A large number of driftwoods increases the damage -

The occurrence of landslides Damages caused by driftwoods

Landslides occurred in various places.

各所で樹木を巻き込んだ山崩れが発生
ー大量の流木により被害拡大ー

0 - 15
Driftwoods flowed to river channel and farmland.

Trees with many roots flowed out.

Trees flowed into the river as land slid. Damage to a cowshed

北海道提供
 Difference of damages caused by driftwoods with or without a dam
○ The driftwoods struck the Saru river upper stream and the Atsubetsu river which have no dam, causing greater
damages.
○ In the lower reaches of the Saru river, the driftwoods were stored in the Nibutani dam and caused no damage.

“Without” a dam Damage to the Saru river “With” a dam The lower
upper stream and Atsubetsu river reaches of the Saru river

0 - 16
Driftwoods logged under the bridge A house broken by the driftwoods Driftwoods caught in the Nibutani dam.

Driftwoods flowed onto the road

Driftwoods logged under the bridge Driftwoods stored in the Nibutani dam
Photos supplied from Hokkaido
10 typhoons landed main islands of Japan in 2004. (It is the highest
number ever recorded and 4 times as much as the average)

今 年 は 日 本への台風 襲来が非常に 多い

The paths of the typhoons

which hit Japan
Typhoon No. 15

Change in number of typhoons hitting Japan

10
2004
Typhoon No. 16 (Typhoon No. 23)
8

0 - 17
6
Typhoon No. 18
Typhoon No. 21 4

Typhoon No. 6 2

Typhoon No. 4 0

1950
1950 1960
1960 1970
1970 1980
1980 1990
1990 2000
2000
Typhoon No. 10
Typhoon No. 23 【Reference】
Average number of typhoon occurrence : 26.7※
Typhoon No. 22 Average number of landed typhoons : 2.6※
Typhoon No. 11 Max. number of typhoons landed in a year by 2003 : 6
(1990 and 1993)
※The average number between 1971 and 2000
 Great flood disaster caused by the heavy rain in July, 2004 in Niigata and Fukushima
【Ikarashi river / Kariyada river (Niigata)】
〔Legend〕 An extraordinary local heavy rain was caused by a stationary seasonal rain front, which
: Broken banks recorded a total rainfall of 431 mm (Tochio observatory) from the midnight of July 12 to 13
平 成 １ ６ 年７月新潟・
福 島 豪 雨 による 大水
害 【 五 十嵐川・刈谷田
川 等 （ 新 潟県）】

: Flooded area in 2004. This rainfall broke the 11 banks of 6 rivers including Ikarashi, Kariyada and other
rivers in Niigata prefecture, resulting in a terrible disaster of 15 deaths, 1 severely injured
and 4,000 broken houses.
Location
2 days after the bank was broken

Sanjo

Nakanoshima

Broken bank

0 - 18
Mitsuke

Otani dam
2 days after the bank was broken (Controlled by Pref. Completed
in March in 1994)

Data of rainfall かさぼり

Tochio □Daily rain fall at Tochio observatory: 421mm

笠堀ダム
The biggest since observation started（1.2
（県管理・Ｓ４０．３完） times the amount of
the 2nd place in Aug. 1961)
1.7 times the amount of the average rainfall in July (243 mm)
かりやたが
□Two-day rainfall in the Shinano river downstream area in
わ
270mm
average:刈谷田川ダム
Nagaoka The second largest amount since 1945 nexy to June 1978
（県管理・Ｓ５６．３完）
Broken bank Equivalent to 1/150 return period
 Flooding energy caused by the broken banks is enormous
(Nakanoshima, Niigata)

Heavy rainfall in July in Niigata

Before the bank was broken After the bank was broken

0 - 19
Kariyada river
A temple washed out by the flood
 死 者 ・ 行 方不明者の多 くが高 齢者（約６割）
Most of fatalities and missing (60%) are elderly persons
0.8%

38.5%

Less
65歳未満than 65 years old
65 or over
65歳以上
Unknown
年齢不明

0 - 20
60.7%
70 years old or over: 52.6％
65 ~ 70 years old : 8.1％

Notes: 1. The graph above totals the 145 fatalities and missing caused by the flood and landslide disasters out of the 232 fatalities and
missing caused by main typhoons and flood disasters.
2． We classified the victims according to the ages and main causes of death or missing based on the Fire Agency disaster
information. For the unknown parts, we refer to the newspapers and the results of the hearing survey conducted by the
government research group, some explanations are added by the River bureau and classified.
 Nursery school was isolated by the river overflow (Heavy rain in July, 2004 in Niigata)

Source: Niigata Nippo Newspaper on July 14

0 - 21
破 堤 氾 濫で保育 園が孤立（新 潟県 ７月豪雨）
Source: Asahi Shimbun on July 14
 ４．治水対策の基本的枠組み

3. Outline of Flood Control

0 - 22
 Outline of Flood Control
Measures Descriptions (examples) Responsible entity
Flood control ・Widening river widths, flood control by dam and ・River conservation authorities
(Relevant facility retarding basin construction and improvement (national, prefectrual)
development)
Safe housing ・Regulating and Promoting land development, etc. ・River conservation authorities
(Urbanization control areas, hazard maps) ・City planning authorities

Preventing
inundation
Alleviating flood water ・Development permissions ・Prefectural governments, etc.
volume ・Permissions for measures for rainfall infiltration barriers

Flood control ・Quick repair of structures and housing, ・River conservation authorities
providing accurate information ・Flood control brigade
・Fixing scouring and leakages
Evacuations, rescues, etc. ・Guiding evacuations of local residents, rescues, ・Municipal governments

0 - 23
supports, etc. ・Self-Defense Forces and
national governmental

For emergencies
authorities for large-scale floods,
Promoting awareness of ・Providing the residents sufficient information ・Municipal governments
local residents about evacuation shelters and routes ・River conservation authorities
・Providing the residents sufficient information
about danger of floods

Drawing up flood ・Coordinating relevant countermeasures against ・National and local governments
floods ・Designated organizations, etc.
control plans
・Role sharing and clarified responsibilities

Daily precautions
・River conservation authorities

Counter measures against flood

Maintaining proper ・Flood control centered on riverbed fluctuations
functions of facilities ・Constructing evacuation shelters ・Prefectural and municipal
governments
Flood control options to keep water level lower for safe river flow
At the great flood, the river water level rises and overflows.
Flood control principles
Lowering the water level at floods to
maintain safe river flow
A) Keeping down the water level by setting back embankments
A) Keeping down the water level by
setting back embankments (increasing the
river width) to increase the river capacity

B) Keeping down the water level by flood control functions of dams B) Keeping down the water level in the
and retarding basins downstream by storing excess water in
dams and retarding basins to decrease

0 - 24
river flow

C) Keeping down the water level by

C) Keeping down the water level by dredging dredging (digging down the river bed) to
increase the river flow capacity (It may
needs estuary barrages.)
It needs sea walls to prevent
seawater backflow.
D) Keeping down the water level by discharge channels D) Keeping down the water level in the
Discharge channel downstream by discharge channels to
(flood bypass) bypass excess water

Source: Data from MLIT

 Flood safety goal

The Netherlands Completed (1985)

(high tide countermeasures)

U.K. (The Thames) Completed (1983)

U.S. Achieved 89% (2002)

(The Mississippi)

0 - 25
France (The Seine) Completed (1988)

Japan Achieved 59% (2004)

Every 100 yrs Every 500 yrs Every 1000 yrs Every 10000 yrs

(Current target)
Return Period
larger rivers : Safety for Every 30-40 yrs flood
smaller rivers : Safety for Hourly rainfall of 50mm
 High standard embankments (a.k.a. super embankments)

High standard embankments (a.k.a. super embankments) are being constructed for Tone, Edo, Ara and Tama
Rivers (Kanto region), Yodo and Yamato Rivers (Kinki region), which are expected to suffer monstrously
devastating damage at the embankment breach. The super embankments with gentle slopes opposite of rivers are
failure-resistant in case overtop floods the embankment.

Super embankments are being constructed in more urbanized areas than ordinary areas.
The advantages of super embankments are:
1) no collapse at floods,
2) no collapse against inundation, and
3) earthquake-resistant.

0 - 26
Development on river banks is strictly restricted under the River Law. However, the whole slopes at the back of
super embankments are designated as the special areas, for which land development is deregulated.

High standard embankments

Scheme of city development along the super embankment

Embankment height Designated special area: 30h (About 30 times the height of embankment)
River bank area
 Why super embankments should be needed

If the flood is larger than expected, If the flood is larger than expected If an earthquake breaks out, and
water level exceeds the and lasts long, water permeates land bquefaction occurs in soft-
embankment and might result in through the embankment and might ground urban areas, and it might
the failure. result in the failure. result in serious damage.

●Ordinary embankment ●Ordinary embankment ●Ordinary embankment

0 - 27
●Super ●Super
●Super
embankment embankment
embankment

Even if water level exceeds the Even if large flood lasts long and Soft ground should be improved, if
embankment, water smoothly goes water permeates through the necessary. The gentle slope can
over the elevated ground, and the embankment, the embankment is endure liquefaction.
embankment would stay put. wide enough to stay put.
 Waterfront area development combined with super embankments

Perspective of waterfront area development combined with super embankments

②Open landscape of
Ordinary embankment Super embankment the river and greens
Steep slope makes ③Easier access to
the access to the Landscape blocked by the the river ④Area for an evacuation
river challenging. embankment location or park City
Emergency road development
Industrial and residential areas on the riverbed

Emergency road
on the riverbed
Gentle-slope
embankment
Mounding

Ground improvement ①Flood- and earthquake-resistant ground

0 - 28
Example of waterfront area development on the super embankments at Yodo River

Before construction After construction Close-up of the right embankment

 Comprehensive flood control measures and responsible entities

River conservation
River channel improvement (embankments, dredging, etc.) authorities (national,
①River improvement Construction of dams, retarding basins and discharge prefectural, or
channels municipal
governments)

Maintaining urbanization control areas

Conservation of fields
Areas to be Constructing fire reservoirs
capable of Constructing rainwater tanks
retaining water Constructing permeable pavements and seepage pits

Prefectural and
municipal
Maintaining urbanization control areas governments in

Comprehensive 0flood
②Measures for river Areas to be
capable of Less mounding river basins
basins
catching water Improving farming environment

Constructing draining facilities

Lowlands Constructing pools or tanks
Encouraging water-resisting structures

- 29 control measures
Establishing the evacuation warning systems River
③Measures to alleviate Upgrading flood control systems conservation
damage Disclosing inundation damage and the areas that authorities
might be submerged Local
Encouraging water-resisting structures governments in
Promoting awareness of local residents river basins
 Comprehensive flood control measures

Conservation and
recovery of green Urbanization control area
conservation
Mounding control
River improvement

Permeable pavement
Fire reservoir

Pooling and Seepage pit

permeating facilities

0 - 30
Multi-purpose pond for housing
Gauging station
Platform
Rainwater tank structures
Rainwater Collecting information
about rainfalls and
reservoir
water levels

Park reservoir Rainwater tank

Constructing
drainage facilities

River improvement measures

Measures for river basins to encourage pooling
and permeation
Underground rivers
Land development measures for river basins
 Damage reduction by upfront investment
① Tokai heavy rain (September 2000) ② Fukuoka heavy rain (July 2003)
[Shonai and Shin Rivers, Aichi Prefecture] [Mikasa River, Fukuoka Prefecture]

Mikasa River
Shonai River Fukuoka Prefecture

Shin River
Aichi Prefecture
Nagoya Fukuoka
Dazaifu
Serious disaster
control project: Serious disaster control
project: Equivalent to
Equivalent to
about
about
【Damage】 ¥550 billion
($5 billion) ¥460 billion
About Damage: About
($4.2 billion)
¥670 billion ¥463.9 billion
Upfront investment of ¥71.6 ($4.2 billion)
($6.1 billion) (Total of 1999 and 2003) Upfront investment of ¥55.3 billion

0 - 31
billion($0.7billion) will reduce ($0.5 billion) will reduce damage
damage by about ¥550 by about ¥460 billion($4.2 billion)
billion($5 billion)
After the project completed:
Estimated damage
of about Project budget: Project budget:
¥120 billion ¥71.6 billion in total ¥55.3 billion in total
($1.1 billion) ($ 0.7 billion in total) ($0.5 billion in total)
Tokai heavy rain Estimated damage after Costs to prevent the Fukuoka heavy rain Estimated damage after Costs to prevent the
damage the project completed disasters from recurring* damage the project completed disaster from recurring*

*Special emergency measures to deal with monstrously devastating damage at Shonai and Shin Rivers (2000-2004) *Special emergency measures to deal with monstrously devastating damage at Mikasa River (2003-)

③Other examples:
Damage reduction Investment for preventive measures
Nigata-Fukshima heavy rain (July 2004) 【Ikarashi and Kariyata Rivers, Nigata 】 About ¥230 billion ¥123 billion Calculated by
(About $2.1 billion) ($1.1 billion)
Fukui heavy rain (July 2004) About ¥54 billion ¥35.5 billion
¥110 = $1
【Asuwa River, Fukui 】
(About $0.5 billion) ($0.3 billion)
*Estimates are calculated based on damage given by inland water and flood due to similar heavy rains. Some regions might exceed the high-water level (HWL), but no assumption is made about embankment failures.
 4. Dam Projects

0 - 32
Reform in dam projects, meeting current needs and mitigating social criticism
Criticism on dam projects
Criticism on plan descriptions, relevant costs, and
construction timelines
・Questions about and distrust of flood control necessities and
estimated demands of water utilization
・Significant increase of construction costs in the middle of
projects along with extended construction timelines
・Shortest-notice changes in construction costs and timelines
Criticism on deterioration in national and social
environments
・Modification of the environment for habitation and nurturing
of rare species
0 - 33
・Issues such as eutrophication, turbid water, or abnormal rise
or decrease in water temperature
・Seashore setback due to shortage of soil
Changes in socio-economic situations
・Taxpayers and water users are more aware of costs.
・People become more environment-conscious.
・Deteriorated national and local financial status
・Slack growth in water demands
Three focal points in dam project reform
Aiming at sound and transparent business management
○To prevent the projects from lasting long or increasing costs,
parties concerned should share the information about
construction costs and progress.
○Surely gives business performance evaluations at business
quarters along with periodical appraisals so as to catch up with
changes in the socio-economic circumstances.
○The accountability in the middle of the project should be increased
to respond to the questions and suspicions about the dam
projects from the citizens and water users.
Cost reductions at every step (e.g. planning, design, operation)
○ Makes more efforts for cost reduction at all dams so as to make
the best use of limited budgets and reduce the burdens of water
users.
How to meet the social needs and criticism
○ Makes efforts to improve environmental impact assessments and
efficiently use the existing resources so as to meet a variety of
environment-related criticism and cope with a growing awareness
of citizens, especially water users.
 Dam sedimentation ratio (chronological)
(89 dams administrated by the Japan Water Agency)
ダムの堆砂率（経過年数別）　　　（直轄公団９０ダム）

50

Legend
45
：Ratio of sediment volume between the projection and result
40 ：Projection
35

30

25

0 - 34
20

15

volume between the projection and result (%)

計画堆砂容量に対する堆砂率（％）
10

Ratio of sediment
0
0-10 yrs
5 (22) yrs (19)
11-20 15 yrs (21)
21-3025 yrs (17)
31-40 35 41-5045yrs (10)

ダム完成後経過年数
Years after dam construction was completed and the number of dams
 Countermeasures against sedimentation at Yahagi Dam
34 years after its completion, Yahagi Dam now stores 15.24 million m3 of sediment (15 million m3 for the projection),
which influences efficient dam functions for flood control and water supply.
An emergency recovery plan was drawn up to shore up the sedimentation dam while the scouring bypass is to be
constructed as a part of permanent measures.
【Sedimentation 】
Emergency measures: Recovering functions of the sedimentation dam (drainage and shoring up)

For flood control：1.01 million m3

For water supply：7.92 million m3

Sedimentation：6.31 million
m3

[The sedimentation dam with full sediment ] [Digging and shoring up around the dam]

0 - 35
Permanent measures construction of the scouring bypass

【Sedimentation at the dam reservoir upstream 】

 Cooperation between Unazuki Dam and Dashidaira Dam in scouring at Kurobe River
Kurobe River runs fast through rainy regions and its upstream areas are significantly vulnerable to floods, which easily
result in debris avalanche. In the meantime, sedimentation deteriorates dam functions. Taking such circumstances into
account, it was necessary for the river to let sediment flow naturally into the river. Thus, Unazuki Dam and Dashidaira Dam
work together for scouring, making the best use of their abundant water.

[Map] Kurobe River Descriptions Scouring

facility
Dashidaira Dam Unazuki Dam
Unazuki Dam
Location 27.8km from the estuary 20.8km from the estuary

Purpose Power generation Flood control, water supply, power generation

Dashidaira Dam Type / Size Gravity type (Height: 76.6m) Gravity type (Height: 97m)

AdministrationKansai Electric Power Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

Complete in 1985 Jurisdiction transferred in April

First scouring in December 2001
1991
ther informatio June 19-23, 2001 Cooperative scouring
June 30-July 2, 2001 Cooperative scouring
July 13-16, 2002 Cooperative scouring
June 28-July 1, 2003 Joint scouring

0 - 36
Unazuki Dam

Recovering The scouring gate is closed to

To maximize traction The scouring gate is open recover the original water level
Lowering Scouring the water
force, minimizes water to let water flow as well as (sufficient for water supply), and
water level volume right after the level after then discharge the whole incoming
discharge debris remaining scouring
flood. volume for a certain period of time.
in the reservoir.
Water level when Dashidaira Dam Dashidaira Dam
Dashidaira Dam filled Water level
Water level Water recovered
Lowering water Unazuki Dam Water level at Unazuki Dam discharg
Unazuki Dam Scouring when filled
Water level when level scouring (in natural e
Water
filled flow)
discharg Water level
Lowering water Scouring e recovered
level
Kurobe Kurobe Kurobe
River River River
 Efficient use of the existing resources: Connecting adjacent reservoirs by conduit pipes

Connecting existing dams (Kawaji Dam and Ikari Dam) for efficient operations, the
mainstream of Kinu River is appropriately adjusted. Thus, existing dams should be best
utilized, ensuring stable intake and recovering water environment clean enough for fishes.

Ikari Dam
When Ikari Dam has extra water,
Annual flow: Large it is stored in Kawaji Dam.
(Small in summer)
Kawaji
Dam
Annual flow: Small

0 - 37
Storing capacity: Small
Water environment clean
enough for fishes
Storing capacity: Large Fishes dead of drought
Improved conditions
Summer: Water shortage When Ikari Dam needs water, of the Kinu River main
it is transferred from Kawaji stream
At snow melting or heavy rain: Improved storage Dam.
Dead storage capacity More stable intake
Unstable intake
due to drought

Ensures 1m3/s (minimum

amount) at the downstream of
Sanuki weir
Riverbed exposed due to drought
River recovered
 Promoting symbiosis in nature for conservation and recovery of natural environment

・Minimizing development and deforestation,

modifying development areas
・Conservation of species
・Recovery of waterfront vegetation by (e.g. black woodpecker)
indigenous species

・Decrease of bare grounds to reorganize

existing dams

Water level
fluctuations Fixed water ・ Valuable species conservation of
level flora transplantation
Bare grounds Vegetation
recovery

・Recovery of vegetation by indigenous species

0 - 38
・Preventing eutrophication by aeration
Transplantation
After transplantation

有光層 生産層

無光層 分解層
間欠式空気揚水筒

気泡弾
送気管

・Wetland recovery
 5. River Environment

0 - 39
 Implementation of measures for river environment conservation

Improvement of water quality Conservation of favorable natural environment

An example of multifaceted natural river creation at Nuke River
An example of water purification at Matsuehori (Fukuoka Prefecture)
Channeling of water from Lake
RiverShinji <After construction (approx.
and dredging work to revitalize clean two years)> Rapids and deep waters
were formed to provide stagnation and
water of Matsuehori River shaded areas by plants that provide
Tourism vitalization effects by pleasure habitats for fish.
boats
<Before construction>
Levees on both sides were
sealed with cement seawalls,
with almost no habitat for
aquatic lives.

0 - 40
Creation of a cheerful atmosphere along the rivers Environmental conservation measures
An example of “River Town Creation” at Dotonbori River and other locations implemented at dams
Development of the plazas harmonizing with waterside space. Necessary
Open cafes were established after river banks were opened for environmental
private services as a social experiment. conservation
measures were
implemented by
dam projects,
after
environmental
impact
assessment. Water purification utilizing
Boardwalk along Dotonbori River (Osaka City) Open cafe at Hori River (Nagoya City) aeration system
 Improvement of water quality

• Aeration of sludge, maintenance of purification facilities and inducing water for purification to improve water quality.
• In terms of the environmental standard achievement for public waters, improvement has been observed generally with regards to rivers,
whereas water quality at lakes and ponds has not improved that requires continued water quality improvement measures.

Transition of the environmental standard attainment rates (BOD or COD)

100

90 河川87.2％
An example of a water purification project
Rivers: 87.2％
全体83.4
Overall: 83.4
80
海域76.0
Ocean: 76.0
70

60
Lakes &

rate (%)
50 ponds:
湖沼53.4 53.4

40

達成率（％）
Attainment
30 全体
Overall
河川
Rivers
20
Lakes&ponds
湖沼
10 Ocean
海域 Dredging (Ayase River in Plant purification facility
0 Saitama Prefecture) (Hitachi-Tone River in Ibaragi Prefecture)
昭和50 52 54 56 58 60 平成元 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17

0 - 41
FY1975 62FY1989
年度
Source: FY2005 Water Quality Survey Results for Public
出典：平成1７年度公共用水域水質測定結果 (環境省)
Waters (Ministry of the Environment)
Scum Kasumigaura (Ibaragi Prefecture)
Ayase River (Metropolis of Tokyo and Saitama Prefecture)

Image depicting an outbreak Water-bloom collection boat

of water-bloom and collection float
Condition of Ayase River around 1975 Present day Ayase River
when trash and scum were floating on the river with improved water quality
An outbreak of a large amount of water-bloom takes place during the
Slime dredging at Ayase River. The water quality is improving in summer season and causes a foul odor when it rots, significantly
recent years, due to the installation of a river purification facility, deteriorating the surrounding environment and appearance. For this
the maintenance of sewers as well as activities by local reason, water-blooms floating on the surface of the water are
governments and residents. collected by surface skimming boats (water-bloom collecting boats).
 Conservation of favorable natural environment

Creation of multifaceted nature in rivers Recovery of nature

○ The “Creation of a multifaceted nature in rivers” entails the A project intended for the maintenance of river environment is
management of rivers in order to create and maintain a livable, conducted by recovering the nature of the “river system” from
the basin-wide perspective. The nature’s resilience to recover is
nurturing and breeding environment for living organisms in which vitalized, with as little human intervention as possible.
rivers inherently have and diverse river scenery with consideration
for the lifestyles of people in the region, as well as a harmonious
relationship with their history and culture, from the perspective of Recovering meandering stream of Kushiro River (Hokkaido Prefecture)
natural workings of the whole rivers.
○ The “Creation of a multifaceted nature in rivers” is fundamental
Former flow
to all river maintenance with all Class A and Class B, as well as Excavation was pass
law applicable rivers, subject to river management activities, such carried out to
as surveying, planning, design, engineering and construction, straighten the flow
at Sector
including their operation and maintenance.

0 - 42
Current flow
Moizari River (Eniwa City, Hokkaido Prefecture) path
[Kushiro River straightened through river modification work]

Recovery of
meandering stream

(Before
Beforemaintenance)
restoration After
(After restoration
maintenance)
[Recovery of meandering stream by using former river location (an image)]
 6. History of the Relation between People
and Water in Japan

0 - 43
(Fighting the Flood to Overcome Drought)
 History of the Relation between People and Water in Japan
(Fighting the Flood to Overcome Drought)
Population Farmland
(million) The third increase Modern nation development by river improvement About 6 million ha acreage (ha)
120 6 million
Farmland acreage
100 The second increase 5 million
Population
Land development by
80 constructing and 4 million
The first increase Ancient agricultural nation improving great rivers
was established and doneloped rice field About 3 million ha
60 and irrigation canals 3 million
along small rivers
40 2 million
About 600 About 5.5
About 850 thousand ha About 30 million
20 thousand million people 1
people
people About 12 million people million

２００ ４００ ６００ ８００ １０００ １２００ １４００ １６００ １８００ ２０００

0 - 44
Yayoi -- Nara Heian--Muromachi Sengoku--Edo Meiji--

Sources:
●Demographic data: National Institute

Sayama Reservoir
of Population and Social Security Manno Reservoir
Research
●Farmland acreage: Daichi eno
Kokuin (Branding on the Ground),
Agricultural and Civil Engineering
History Study Group, Kokyo Jigyo
Tsushinsha, 1989

The Manda embankment, Japan's oldest

embankment (Emperor Nintoku)
Discharge channel construction for great
rivers (See the attachment for details)

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and

The Shingen embankment at Fuji River (Takeda Shingen)
The Bunroku and Taiko embankments at Yodo River
(Toyotomi Hideyoshi)
Tone River channel modification to east, Ara River
channel modification to west (Tokugawa Ieyasu)
The Chiriku embankment at Chikugo River (Naridomi
Hyogo)
Tamagawa Josui (Tamagawa brothers)
The Hyakken River discharge channel for Asahi River
(Ikeda Mitsumasa)
Minuma irrigation canal (Tokugawa Yoshimune)

Fisheries
Technologies brought Reservoir construction Great river Modern river
by foreigners development management
 The Japan's oldest dam reservoir (Sayama Reservoir, Sayama, Osaka)
History:
◆It was constructed in circa 616 for the purpose of Sayama Reservoir
irrigation.
◆Since the construction, repeated improvements
and renovations had been conducted by Gyoki
and others to elevate embankments and expand
irrigation areas.
◆In the Heisei period (1989-), flood prevention
works were added. Consequently, the reservoir
was upgraded into a flood control dam.

Descriptions:

0 - 45
◆The Japan's oldest dam reservoir 面積
Area 36ha
◆Closely connected to the Japan's oldest land 総貯水容量 2.8million m3
Total capacity 2,800千ｍ３
development policy
◆Construction was conducted by using
branches with leaves to hold soil. １ Embankment
８ ２３
４
cross-section
８
５
６
Current status: ８
７
◆The Heisei constructions transformed
the reservoir into the flood control dam.
Constructions and improvements
◆Good example to learn the civil ①in the Meiji, Taisho, Showa periods (1868 to 1988)
②in the Edo period (about 1603-1867)
engineering history ③in the Keicho period (about1596-1614)
④in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods (about 1185-1573)
⑤in the Tenpyo Hoji period (about 757- 764),
⑥by Gyoki
⑦Sayama Reservoir
⑧Earthquake trace
 Flood control by the Shingen embankment (Kamanashi and Midai Rivers, Nirasaki, Yamanashi)

History: Rock wall

◆Midai River used to sometimes flood over
Kamanashi River into the Kofu Basin.
◆Furious floods of Kamanashi and Midai Rivers in
1542 led to the construction of the Shingen
embankment, which completed in 1560.

Descriptions:
◆Absorbs the impact of floods with the rock wall. Flood current
◆Building the armor-shape embankment to let
water flow while decreasing the impact of
floods.

0 - 46
Current status
◆It still works well as the flood control
embankment even now.
The Shingen
embankment

The shield-shape embankment still The remains of "sixteen

remains in Tatsuoka-machi, rocks" used to support
Nirasaki, Yamanashi. the flood control
embankment.
 Kitakami River improvement by Kawamura Magobe (Kitakami River, Ishinomaki, Miyagi)

History:
◆Ordered by the Aizu clan lord, Kawamura Magobe started the
river improvement works around 1620. Kawamura blocked
Ino River at Yanaizu for flood control and more efficient
vessel transport while merged Kitakami, Hasama, and Eai
Rivers to prevent flooding in Ishinomaki.
◆Completion of the works led to opening the vessel traffic
between Morioka and Ishinomaki as well as beginning of rice
field development. Thus, Ishinomaki at the Kitakami estuary
flourished as the economic hub of the Sendai clan for
forwarding feudal tax rice to Edo (old Tokyo).
Kitakami and Eai River works directed
by Kawamura Magobe Jyukichi
①Blocking Ino River at Yanaizu for

0 - 47
more efficient vessel transport and
Izu Pond expansion of river width

Naga Pond Kawamura Magobe directing the land development works

Kabukuri Pond （Yakumo Shrine, Kanan-cho, Miyagi）
Hasama River Tome
Ishinomaki Port: the hub of
Eai River Oppa River feudal tax rice transport to
Yanaizu

Kitakami River
Oppa bay Edo (old Tokyo)
Wakuya
②Merging Kitakami, Hasama,
and Eai Rivers to increase the 涌谷 Ino River
Kitakami current volume and
ensure vessel transport routes Wabuchi
和渕 Mano River

③Making a S-shape curve to merge the Ishinomaki Bay

Kitakami main stream with Mano River,
maintaining the desired gradient and Ishinomaki Port Oshika Peninsula
width for more efficient vessel traffic
especially bound for Ishinomaki
 Ideas to survive floods (ring levees and shelters) (The Seino region)

History:
◆The Kiso region, where Ibi, Nagara, Kiso Rivers run through,
has a large number of sand-bars as well as ring levees as a
result of rice field development.
◆As ring levees are in the lowland basins and therefore
vulnerable to floods, people built shelters and mounds for
emergency.
Descriptions:
◆A characteristic culture was established among the ring
levee communities.
◆They traditionally call the areas "inside" (Teinai) or
"outside" (Teigai) of the levees, respectively.
Ring Leeve

0 - 48
Current status:
◆Some ring levees were removed after safety level was improved.

Teigaichi Teinaichi Teigaichi

(outside the levee)
(outside the levee) (inside the levee)

The Buddhist altar that can be lifted up

above the ceiling in case of emergency
Current status of ring levees
 Ideas to survive floods (Building mounds) (Kitakawabe-machi, Saitama: Tone River)

History:
◆In the regions suffering frequent flood breakouts, people
store food supply in the warehouse built on the mounds.
◆Also stores the boat in case of emergency.

Descriptions:
◆They are built on the
assumption of flood breakouts.
・ Warehouses are built on higher
ground than housing.
・ Warehouses hold emergency
food supply and boats for
evacuation.

0 - 49
Current status:
◆They are still used as
warehouses, which sometimes
hold food supply, etc.
Elevated two-story
warehouse
Two-story Boat used at a
housing flood

Barn (row house)

18m above sea
level

A boat stored at the warehouse ceiling

Mound of 3-5m

2-3m 1-2m
 7. Measures for Adapting to Climate

0 - 50
Change due to Global Warming
Population and assets concentrated in coastal areas and low-lying areas

Kanto region Kinki region

Ikebukuro Sta.
Ueno Sta.

Kameido Sta.
Shinjuku Sta.
Kinsicyo Sta. Amagasaki Sta. Shin-Osaka Sta.

Tokyo Sta.
Shibuya Sta.

0 - 51
Osaka Sta. Neyagawa River
Yodogawa River

Kyu-Edogawa River
Osaka Castle Hirano River

Arakawa River
Tennoji Sta
Elevation

In Japan, approx. 10% of the land, which lies

lower than river surface level and that could be 0m～
floaded, is densely packed with approx. 50% of ～0m
the population and 75% of the assets.
 Flood disasters that frequently occur in Japan and foreign countries
China (summer in 2007) Heavy rains in July, 2006
Heavy rains caused floods, • Total rainfall
resulting in death and exceeded 1200mm.
• Rivers including the
missing at least 1,300. Sendai and
Komenotsu Rivers
overflowed.
• More than 5,000
houses were
damaged.
Sendai River in Kagoshima Prefecture
United Kingdom (July, 2007)
Due to the heaviest rainfall on
the record, floods occurred
mainly in the central and
southern parts of the country,
0 - 52
swamping 350,000 houses.
Germany, Czech, and Austria
(August, 2002)
A depression that moved from the
North Sea caused severe rains. In
Czech, 220,000 persons evacuated
and 15 persons were killed.
Damage expressed in monetary
terms amounted to 3 billion Euro.
Typhoon No. 23 (September, 2004) New Orleans in the United
• Due to the heavy States (August, 2005)
rains caused by
Typhoon No.23, the Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf Coast
embankments along with its strength remaining at
the Maruyama and Category 4, resulting in no less than
Izushi Rivers were 1,200 people being killed.
broken.
• In the Kinki region,
43 persons were
killed and 157
persons were
injured. Maruyama River in Hyogo Prefecture
Haiti and Dominica (May, 2004)
Heavy rains caused floods and landslide
disasters. Approx. 2,000 persons were
killed.
India (July to August, 2005) Bangladesh (November, 2007)
Due to the heavy rains caused by A large-scale cyclone ‘Sidr’ hit North Korea (August, 2007)
monsoons, floods and landslide
the southern part of Bangladesh, Heavy rains that lasted for one
disasters occurred. This resulted in
no less than 1,000 people being resulting in no less than 4,000 week caused floods, resulting in no
killed or disappearing. people being killed or
less than 600 people being killed or
disappearing, with a total of disappearing.
eight million people being
effected.
 Predictions about changes in temperature and sea level in the subsequent 100 years

• It is predicted that temperature will rise at a rate of approx. 0.2 degree Celsius per decade over the next two decades.
• It is predicted that the global mean temperature 100 years from now will be 1.8 to 4.0 degrees Celsius higher than it is.
• It is predicted that the global mean sea level 100 years from now will be 18 to 59 centimeters higher than it is.
• Even if the amount of GHGs becomes stable, global temperature and sea level will continue to rise for several centuries
thereafter.

• Mean temperature rise • Mean sea level rise

700

600

水 500
maintain a constant level of 20 century
位 Max
4.0 ℃ rise 400
20 century 変
化 300 590mm

(
200
m
100

0 - 53
m
1.8℃rise
)
0

-100

-200
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

World Average temperature rise(℃)

• Amounts of the mean temperature rise and mean sea level rise by
the end of the 21st century

A1. ‘High growth society scenario’

In the case where society
allows compatibility In the case where society
A1FI：Priority is given to fossil energy sources. between environmental achieves high economic
A1T ：Priority is given to non-fossil energy conservation and growth while giving priority to
sources. economic development on fossil energy sources
A1B ：Priority is given to balancing both energy a global scale
sources mentioned above.
A2. ‘Diversified society scenario’ Approx. 1.8 degrees Approx. 4.0 degrees
Temperature Celsius
B1. ‘Sustainable development society scenario’ Celsius
rise (1.1 to 2.9 degrees Celsius) (2.4 to 6.4 degrees Celsius)
B2. ‘Regional coexistence society scenario’

Sea level rise 18 to 38 centimeters 26 to 59 centimeters

 Expansion of zero-meter areas / increase of inundation caused by storm surge

Increase of inundation caused by storm surge * In the present situation, it is not clear whether or not global
warming influences the increase of inundation.
times However, it is thought that global warming may be a cause of
回 such increase.
• Due to the influences of land subsidence and 120
約100回
100
climate change, the number of times St. Mark’s
80
Square in Venice flood in, which was not more 60
than 10 times per year in the early 20th century, 約40回
40
increased to approx. 40 times per year by 1990 20 10回以下
and reached as many as 100 times per year 0
年year
in 1996.

1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000

• In addition, there is information saying that the

Annual number of flood in St Mark’s Square (Venice, Italy)
Square was flooded 250 times per year in 2006.
25 22

The number of flood in the corridor of Itsukushima Shinto Shrine was 20 17

flooded, which was not more than five times per year in the 1990s and 15 12
10 11
approximately 10 times per year in the 2000s, reached as many as 22 10 7
4 Annual number of flood in
times per year in 2006. The number of times the corridor is still on an 5 2 3
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 the corridor of Itsukushima

0 - 54
increasing trend. 0 Shinto Shrine (Hiroshima,
Japan)

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006

Expansion of zero-meter areas on three major bays (Tokyo, Ise, and Osaka Bays)
* Prepared by the River
Bureau on the basis of
digital national land
information.
* Third order grid units
It is predicted that of zero- (1km x 1km) with an
elevation below sea
meter areas and population level are plotted. The
gross area and
inhabiting those areas will both population are calculated
by totalizing third order
increase by 50% if mean sea grid unit data.
level rises by 59 centimeters. * Areas of water surfaces
of lakes, marshes, etc.
are not included.
* The calculated
Present after sea level Rate of
incremental quantities of
現状
value 海面上昇後 rise 倍率
increase the gross area and
population represent
Area (km 60% of the incremental
面積（ k㎡）2) 577 879 １．５ Osaka Tokyo quantities that will be
Population (ten Ise obtained in case the sea
thousand
人口（万人） 404 593 １．５ level rises by one meter.
persons)
 Disappearance of sandy beaches caused by a sea level rise

Present 0
state

Retrogres
sion of a Sea level rise
sandy 0
beach due
to a rise in
sea level

100m

0 - 55
Further
retrogression
of a sandy
θ 1m
beach due to 0
the response θ
of the beach
to a rise in Same gradient
sea level

Sea level rise (m) 0.3 0.65 1

Mean length of
30.55 65.4 101.04
recession Beach erosion in Majero atolls of the Marshall islands
Percentage of erosion
(2001.5)
56.6 81.7 90.3
area

In the event of a sea level rise, a longitudinal beach profile is transformed so that
it may form an equilibrium beach profile matching the sea level reached after the
sea level rise. It is believed that this phenomenon causes sandy beach erosion
the range of which is larger than the range of erosion attributable to static
retrogression arising from a sea level rise, resulting in the retrogression of a
shore line.
 Increasing number of heavily rainy days / increasing strength of tropical cyclones / broadening range of precipitation

Precipitation in summer will The strength of tropical cyclones will increase.

increase over the next 100 years.
Strength of Cyclones Cyclones of category 4 and 5
夏季の豪雨日数の経年予測
（日降水量100mm以上） Period
It has been predicted
Number
of days that the number of N N
days with heavy rain,
S. Pacific
i.e., days with
W. Pacific
precipitation over
100mm, which is N. Pacific
currently 3 days per SW. Pacific
year, will increase N. Indian
up to 10 days per
S. Indian
year over the next
資料）H16.9東京大学など合同研究チームによる記者発表資料 100 years.

0 - 56
• Over the past three decades, the percentage of strong tropical
The range of precipitation will cyclones has become larger.
broaden. • Tropical cyclones of Categories 4 and 5 generated over the
Western Atlantic Ocean as well as those generated over other
Japan’s average rainfall in summer (Jun - Aug) major oceans have increased.
• In addition, it is predicted that the strength of tropical cyclones
will continue to increase.

• With the increase in precipitation, the range of

precipitation will broaden. The number of dry days will
also increase.
• The possibility of the occurrence of floods and a severe
drought will increase over the next several decades.
• In addition, decreasing snowfall and earlier snowmelt
will affect rice crops.
Year
 4. Heavy rains
Decreasing degree of safety against droughts and droughts

 In recent years, precipitation tends to be smaller and the range of annual precipitation is broader
in comparison with the period from 1945 to 1974, during which plans for the construction of dams, etc.
were formulated.
 For this reason, the quantity that can be stably supplied from dams is decreasing.
 Recent years (1979 to 1998): The quantity has decreased by approx. 40% from the period in
which those plans were formulated.
 Severest drought in recent years (in 1994): The quantity has decreased by approx. 70% from the
period in which those plans were formulated.

年降水量
Rainfall
(mm/year)
(㎜/年) Trend Average Water storage development by dam etc
3,000

0 - 57
2,500 40% decrease
70% decrease

2,000

1,500
▲ drought
1,000
51 71
81 91 01 At Sustainable Worst Drought
S21 S26 S31 S36
61 S41 S46 S51 S56 S61 H3 H8 H13 Planning Supply (‘94)
*2/20
Refers to a drought that is presumed to be likely to occur twice every 20 years. (The calculated quantity was based on the assumption that such
drought would occur in FY1987 among 20 years from FY1979 to FY1998.)
For water resource development involving the construction of dams, a plan is formulated in consideration of the occurrence of a drought that is
presumed to be likely to occur once per decade to ensure stable water intake.
 Measures for adapting to climate change (in the field of water-related disasters)

Concerns about the following problems that may occur in coastal areas, low-lying areas, etc. due to the climate
change associated with global warming caused by human activities are pointed out:
• Rise in frequency of heavy rains, Flood disasters and landslide disasters may
intensification of the strength of typhoons, frequently occur and become more devastating.
etc. Storm surge disasters and coastal erosion may
• Sea level rises, intensification of the frequently occur and become more devastating.
strength of typhoons, etc. Droughts may frequently occur and become
• Broadening range of precipitation more severe.

It is important to further reduce risks associated with climate change by combining measures

0 - 58
for reducing CO2 emissions (mitigation measures) and measures for coping with global
negative impacts (adaptation measures).

To ensure safe and carefree society, it is important to implement adaptation measures based on
a long-term perspective at an early stage.
Based on the above understanding,

Subcommittee on Climate Change Adaptation for Flood Control under the River Sector Committee Panel on Infrastructure

In June 2008, the subcommittee published the final report titled

‘Climate Change Adaptation Strategies to cope with Water-related disasters due to Global Warming ‘
 Examples of adaptation measures in overseas countries
In several overseas countries, countermeasures against global warming have already been taken from the viewpoint of national land conservation.

United Kingdom Netherlands

Thames Tide Weir

0 - 59
Provisional protection provided during the period of construction of Thames
Tide Weir
1928 flood and subsequent 1930 Flood Act
Revision of the Flood Act in the late 19th
century

1897 Flood Act Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier

Conventional storm surge protection facilities have been designed and

Protection against storm surges along the Thames is provided in such a manner as to
provide a degree of safety ensuring protection against storm surges of a scale that would
occur once per millennium. However, it is estimated that the degree of safety will become
inadequate for protecting against storm surges of a scale that would occur once per
century. Accordingly, a plan for coping with storm surges is currently being developed,
which will be implemented by the end of October, 2009.
(Source) DAVID RAMSBOTTOM(HR Wallingford Ltd ), SARAH LAVERY(Environment Agency ). 2007.
PAUL SAYERS(HR Wallingford), BEN GOULDBY(HR Wallingford), OWEN TARRENT(Environment Agency ). 2007
Environment Agency. 2005.
constructed in consideration of the disaster in 1953 as well as in
expectation of the sea level rising (15cm over the period of 50 years,
which represents the useful life of those facilities; this value is based on
the assumption made around 1953 that sea level would rise by 30cm over
100 years).
Facilities that will be newly constructed and renovated in the future are
supposed to be designed in expectation of the sea level rising 25 to 50
cm over the next 50 years. (For Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier, the sea
level is expected to rise 50 cm.)
(Source) Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
 How will the change of precipitation over the next 100 years affect the degree of safety against floods?

In expectation of the change of precipitation over the next 100 years, it is reasonable to anticipate the degree of
safety against floods being 1.1 to 1.3 (1.5 at a maximum) times as high as the current one.

1/ 1000
最大
Max
最大
最小 1/200
最小
Min
1/150
1/100 1/100 1/100
100 1/80
1/60 1/60 1/55
1/ 1/70 1/35 1/35
1/35
1/45 1/23 1/40
1/15
1/12 1/23

治水安全度
1/22
10 1/12

0 - 60
1/10
1/
1/6

Flood Safety Level

1

ent 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 ent 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 ent 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5
res × × × × res × × × × res × × × ×
P P P

Flood Safety Level 1/100 Flood Safety Level 1/150 Flood Safety Level 1/200
The change of precipitation over the next 100 years
will cause the a degree of safety against floods that the current plan aims at to become significantly
insufficient.

Inundation and flooding will occur more frequently.

 Countering disasters by community improvements such as regulating/reviewing land utilization

Flood control integrated into town planning / Compact city Facilitating the realization of building
structure resistant to inundation
Constructing a circle levee surrounding a town to improve disaster
protection while existing local community remain unchanged

High-grade road Inundation area

(hazard area)
Disaster prevention network

Disaster
protection
center
School Yokohama Rapport
Living near the Tsurumi River, I
Located in Tsurumi River Multipurpose made use of my past experience
Hospital Retarding Basin, buildings are of piloti to adopt piloti structure to avoid
structure so that the facilities may be damage in the event of a flood.

0 - 61
used in the event of a flood.
Embankment
Imaginary illustration Park

Handling of disaster danger areas under the Building Standards Act Specific examples of restrictions under a
Floor height of the 1st
Prefectural/Municipal Ordinance Nagoya)
１階の床の高さ
story Structural
構　造　制　限 restriction Illustration
図　　　　　解
Class 4 *建築物の建築禁止
*No buildings shall be constructed.
Excerpts from the Building Standards Act (Disaster danger areas) 範囲…海岸線・河岸線から
Scope --- Areas designated by the
zone N・P mayor the distance from which to any
50m以内で市長が指定する区
shore line or riverbank line is not
Class 3 第 市 5 域longer than 50 meters.
Floor
4 1階床高
height of 制限…居住室を有する建築
１ 街 the 1st
Restriction --- Any building having
zone N⋅P (+) 4m Wooden structure is 3 one habitable room or more, hospital,
story 物、病院及び児童福祉施設等
Article 39 Any local government may designate an area being 種 化 Ｎ・Ｐ（+）4m以上 木造禁止
prohibited. welfare facility for children, and the
or more （ｍ） の建築禁止
区 区 like shall not be constructed.
at significantly high risk of being hit by a tsunami, or tidal waves, 域 域 木造以外の構造で、居住室等
Any building of non-wooden
Class 1 zone

construction may be constructed,

の床の高さをN・P（+）5.5m以
provided that the height of the floor of
storm surges, floods, and so forth as a disaster danger area in a 上としたものについては建築
any habitable room, etc. is not less
Urbanization promotion area

Prefectural or Municipal Ordinance. 第 市 Any habitable room shall be
2階以上に居室設置
located on the second story or
２ 街 higher.
緩和：延べ面積が100㎡
N⋅P (+) 1m Relaxation: For a building with a 2
種 化 Ｎ・Ｐ（+）1m以上 total floor area no more than
以内のものは避難
2
100m , the aforementioned
or more restriction may be replaced with
区 区 室、避難設備の設
Urbanization
可能
than N⋅P (+) 5.5m or more.
N・P *公共建築物の制限
*Restriction on public buildings
（第2種～第4種区域）
(Classes 2 to 4 zones)
Floor 範囲…学校、病院、集会場、
1 1階床高
height of
Scope --- Schools, hospitals,
0 the 1st 官公署、児童福祉施設等その

the provision of an evacuation story assembly halls, public offices, welfare

promotion area

2. Any prohibition against the construction of a building used for 域 域 and evacuation equipment.
room 置による代替可 （ｍ） facilities for children, and other public
他これらに類する公共建築物
buildings similar thereto.
第 市 N・P 制限…1階の床の高さN・P（+）
Restriction --- The floor height of the
2mかつN・P（+）3.5m以上の居
residence in a disaster danger area and any other restriction on ３ 街 N⋅P (+) 1m 2 1st story shall be N⋅P (+) 2m and any
種 化 Ｎ・Ｐ（+）1m以上
or more 1 Floor 室設置
1階床高 habitable room shall be located at a
height of height of N⋅P (+) 3.5m or higher.
the construction of a building in the said area that are necessary 区 区 0 the 1st
story
Urbanization
promotion area

Class 3 zone Class 2 zone

域 域 （ｍ）
for the prevention of the occurrence of a disaster shall be Class 2 市
zone 第 街 N・P
provided for in a Prefectural or Municipal Ordinance set forth in ４ 化 Any habitable
N⋅P (+) 1m room shall be 2 Floor
種 調 Ｎ・Ｐ（+）1m以上
or more 2階以上に居室設置 1 height
1階床高 of
the preceding paragraph. located on the the 1st
区 整 second story or 0 story
Class 1
Class 4 zone

域 区 higher. （ｍ）
Urbanization control area

Map of disaster protection zones in the waterfront area of Nagoya zone 域

 Provision of River information by utilizing ICT

Satellite

Control post
Water immersion Hyeto Meter
sensor Water immersion
sensor
Mounds along
Regional FM radio station river

Levee Crevasse Monitoring with CCTV

Satellite
Mass Communications service provider communicatio
n vehicle
communications Radio station
Newspaper

Broadcasting

0 - 62
station/CATV
Internet Sewage treatment plant Communications
Area defense post service
Information Display board provider

River Civic
Flow meter Manager

Use of the internet during disasters

Drainage pumping station For strategies
against Information provided to
disasters
mobile phones
River office CCTV
For public
Water level disclosure
Surveillanc
e camera gauge

H. ADCP-type Informed consent

flow meter

Optical fiber for river

Municipal management
government
Optical fiber
Information provided on the
Provision of river information using optical fiber internet
光ファイバを利用した河川情報の提供
 Major discussions conducted at the Asia-Pacific Water Summit
Under the overall theme of “Water-related Security: Leadership and
Responsibility”, a total of 10 sessions were held to mainly address the
following three priority themes; ‘Development of Water Infrastructure
and Human Resources’, ‘Water-related Disaster Management’,
‘Water for Development and Ecosystems’.
The ‘Message from Beppu’ that summarizes 2-day discussions was
released.
Support will be expanded while giving top priority to water and hygiene,
among the economic issues, development issues, and political issues to
be addressed by the countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
Action shall be taken promptly to prevent and reduce the occurrence of
floods, droughts, and other water-related disasters as well as to timely
rescue and support victims in an effective manner.
Efforts to protect life and property that are being made in island countries
susceptible to climate change shall be promptly supported.
Some countries are already experiencing the influences of climate change,
0 - 63
such as the melting of snowcaps and glaciers in the Himalaya Mountains
and sea level rises. Suggestions were made to the organizer of the U.N.
Climate Change Conference in Bali to discuss the relationship between
water and climate change in addition to other themes.
 Leaders from the participating
countries thoroughly discussed
‘adaptation measures’ to reduce
the risk of climate change.
 The highest-ranked leaders met
and reaffirmed their common
recognition that top priority
ought to be given to solving
water issues in the Asia-Pacific This summit was
region being faced with severe considerably
situation in terms of water. worthwhile.
Crown Prince Naruhito’s statement at a memorial lecture (excerpt)
- All water issues are mutually related. Issues concerning water
supply, hygiene, flood countermeasures, and so forth do not
exist independently. I suppose that it is important for those who
are concerned to put forth efforts adapted to local
circumstances one by one based on their originality and
ingenuity as well as their cooperation while recognizing the
various properties of water as widely as possible and taking a
comprehensive and integrated viewpoint in order to solve those
issues.
Prime Minister Fukuda’s address (summary)
• Like other regions in the world, the Asia-
Pacific region is facing various water-
related issues while enjoying prosperity. It
is recognized that a majority of water issues
in the world are concentrated in this region,
and therefore the situation is deemed to be
serious.
• Flood disasters that seem to be attributable
to climate change are increasing, and it is
expected that the influences of those
disasters will become more significant.
Countering flood disasters is a challenge
that must be promptly addressed.
• Climate change that the world is facing has
a most significant influence on human
beings through water.
From ‘Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet’ H.P.
• There is an urgent need to create an international framework. At
the Hokkaido Toyako Summit, which will be held next year,
environmental and climate change issues are to be discussed in
the form of the main agenda of the Summit.
• Vigorous discussions at Asia-Pacific Water Summit will be
helpful to and offer insight to G8 Summit.
 Major discussions conducted at the G8 Toyako Summit
Climate Change (Leaders Declaration)
Recognizing that poorer countries are among
0 - 64
the most vulnerable to the adverse impacts of
climate change, we will continue and enhance
cooperation with developing countries, in
particular least developed countries (LDCs) and
small island developing states, in their efforts to
adapt to climate change including disaster risk
reduction. To address this issue, we commit to
support urgent actions to mainstream
adaptation into broader development strategies
and encourage developing countries themselves
to integrate adaptation into their development
policies. The early start of activities under the
UNFCCC Adaptation Fund should make an
important contribution in this respect. We call
on the multilateral development banks and other
development agencies to support countries in
this endeavor.
Water and Sanitation (Leaders Declaration)
Good water cycle management is crucial in order to address
the issue of water, which has a cross-sectoral nature. In this
regard, acknowledging the need to accelerate the
achievement of the internationally agreed goals on water and
sanitation, we will reinvigorate our efforts to implement the
Evian Water Action Plan and will review it on the basis of a
progress report prepared by our water experts by the next
Summit. We will discuss with African partners the
development of an enhanced implementation strategy.
Moreover, we will promote integrated water resource
management and the concept of ‘Good Water Governance’,
with particular focus on Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia-Pacific,
by taking necessary actions such as strengthening of trans-
boundary basin organizations, sharing of water-related
expertise and technology with developing countries, support
for capacity building for water-related initiatives, promotion
of data collection and utilization, and adaptation to climate
change. We also acknowledge that ensuring adequate water
supplies for human, industrial and environmental uses while
minimizing the impacts of extreme hydrological variability
are critical to protecting human health, promoting
sustainable economic growth, and ensuring peace and
security.
 8. Water Rights

0 - 65
 History of Water Rights

Ancient Times ～ Edo period

Agricultural use <Agriculture>

Meiji Period～ Prewar Period

Foundation of modern society

0 - 66
<Power Generation>

Postwar Period～Recent Period

Important role in socio-
<Water Resources Development>
Economic development
～Present
Coordination with environment < Water Environment Restoration >
 Framework of river management in Japan

○ Rivers subject to the River Law are classified into Class A and Class B rivers, depending on the importance of
their roles. The roles for managing rivers are tasked to the Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
(Regional Directors of Maintenance Agencies), as well as the governors of prefectures.

○ Management of small-scale rivers that do not fall into the categories of Class A or Class B is delegated to
municipal government mayors in accordance with the rules and regulations for Class B rivers. (Law Applicable
Rivers)

一級河川（直轄管理区間）
Class A river (directly managed segment)
Managed by the governor
of the prefecture or mayor 一級河川（指定区間）
Class A river (designated segment)
of都道府県知事又は政令
a government ordinance ニ級河川
Class B river
designated
指定都市の長が管理 city. (Specified
Law Applicable river
準用河川
Segments)

0 - 67
（指定区間） 都府県境 Ordinary river
普通河川（河川法の対象外の河川）
Boundary between (rivers outside the scope of the River Law)
prefectures

市町村長が管理
Managed by the
国（国土交通大臣） Managed by the governor
National
が管理 Government. of the prefecture or mayor
都道府県知事又は政令
of a government Managed by the mayor of
(Minister of Land,
指定都市の長が管理
ordinance designated city. a municipal government.
Infrastructure and
Transport)
Class一級水系
A river system Class
二級水系B river system r Other
その他
 Framework of river management in Japan
r

○ The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport manages rivers with a particularly high level of importance comprising 7% of the
total length of all rivers within the nation.
○ Responsibility for managing the rivers rests primarily on the National Government, however, management is delegated to local
governments (excluding Law Applicable Rivers).

●Class A rivers
一級河川
Rivers that are part of river systems considered to be particularly important for the
一級河川
国土保全上又は国民経済上特に重要な水系にかかる河川で、
maintenance of the land or national economy. These rivers are designated by the
国土保全上又は国民経済上特に重要な水系にかかる河川で、
国土交通大臣が指定
Minster of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
国土交通大臣が指定

●Direct
直轄管理区間 management segment
Segments
直轄管理区間 of Class A rivers with a particularly high level of importance
一級河川の中でも重要度の高い区間で国土交通大臣が管理
managed by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
一級河川の中でも重要度の高い区間で国土交通大臣が管理
●Designated segments (statutory consignment administration)
指定区間（法定受託事務）
be managed by the governors of prefectures designated by the Minister of
To指定区間（法定受託事務）
国土交通大臣が指定し、都道府県知事等が管理
Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
国土交通大臣が指定し、都道府県知事等が管理

0 - 68
●Class B rivers (statutory consignment administration)
ニ級河川（法定受託事務）
Rivers that are part of river systems, not part of Class A rivers, but considered to be
ニ級河川（法定受託事務）
一級河川以外の公共の利害に重要な関係のある水系にかかる河川
particularly important for the interests of the public. These rivers are designated by the
一級河川以外の公共の利害に重要な関係のある水系にかかる河川
governors of prefectures. Management of these rivers is conducted by the governors of
で都道府県知事が指定。管理は都道府県知事等が行う
で都道府県知事が指定。管理は都道府県知事等が行う
prefectures.

s
●Law Applicable Rivers (local government administration)
準用河川(自治事務）
s s of 準用河川(自治事務）
er er er ts re Rivers designated by the mayors of municipal governments that are not Class A or Class B
riv riv riv t the 一級河川及び二級河川以外の河川の中から市町村長が指定。
of le A 間en en s rivers.
一級河川及び二級河川以外の河川の中から市町村長が指定。
ab s gm nm er
th lic as e区 er riv 管理は市町村長が行う。
ng p Cl s Law applicable Management of these rivers is conducted by the mayors of municipal governments.
管理は市町村長が行う。
Le ap sA
w e理 as
d s al govment
la 管 g u r eg Cl rivers
Class B rivers
of a t s
th 轄an refecaged Class A rivers (designated segments)
ng ym P n
a
Le c lt 直 m Class A rivers (outside designated segments)
re
Di

The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport is managing rivers with particularly high
level of importance comprising 7% of the total length of all rivers within the nation.
Management of other rivers is delegated to local governments (excluding Law Applicable
Rivers) Rivers).
 Present status of Water Use (A class river)
Number of Water rights
permitted water rights 18,384
Customary water rights 80,795
Total 99,179
0 - 69
Maximum quantity of Water Use
permitted water rights 7,576m3/s
Customary water rights 3,094m3/s
Total 10,670m3/s
ermitted for water use,
Permitted for Power Permitted for Industry,
Permitted for water Permitted for Others,
generation, 1,533, 2% 768, 1%
use, 1,367, 1% 1,465, 1%
Permitted for
Customary for agriculture
Agriculture, 13,251,
13% Customary for others
Permitted for Agriculture
Permitted for Power generation
Permitted for water use
Permitted for Industry
Customary for others,
Permitted for Others
991, 1%
Customary for
agriculture, 79,804,
81%
Permitted for Others, 191,
Permitted for Industry, Customary for agriculture,
2%
561, 5% 3,094, 29%
Customary for agriculture
Permitted for Agriculture
615, 6% Permitted for water use
Permitted for Industry
Permitted for Others
Permitted for Agriculture,
6,209, 58%
 Present status of Water Use (B class river)
Permitted for water use, Permitted for Industry,
Permitted for Power Permitted for Others, 473,
623, 1% 268, 1%
generation, 333, 1% 1%
Permitted for Agriculture, Customary for agriculture
4,559, 10% Customary for others
Number of Water rights Customary for others, Permitted for Agriculture
262, 1% Permitted for Power generation
permitted water rights 6,256 Permitted for water use
Permitted for Industry
Customary water rights 37,763
Permitted for Others
Amount 44,019
Customary for agriculture,
37,501, 85%

0 - 70
Maximum quantity of Water Use
Permitted for Industry, Permitted for Others, 31,
154, 7% 1% Customary for agriculture,
permitted water rights 1,306m3/s Permitted for water use, 1,004, 44%
Customary water rights 1,004m3/s 118, 5%
Amount 2,310m3/s
Customary for agriculture
Permitted for Agriculture
Permitted for water use
Permitted for Industry
Permitted for Others
Permitted for Agriculture,
1,003, 43%
 Water Rights
Water Right which states exclusive use of river water by the River
Law is sole and exclusive use of public water including river water.

・Permitted water rights >> Permitted by river administrators

・Customary water rights >> Water had been used before
enactment of the River Law,
Regard the water use as permission
of the River Law.

0 - 71
Contents ①Purpose of water use
②Location of water use
③Method of water use
④Quantity of water use
⑤Quantity of storing river water
⑥Period of permission etc
 Restriction of Water Rights
Internal restriction from characteristics of Water Rights

▼Unusual drought
Water rights are not claims for river administrators but the
rights to control directly over river water
※ River administrators are not responsible for water supply

0 - 72
▼River management（River improvement works etc）
River improvement projects and its management by river
administrators aim for public welfare of water rights
owners and others
※Water users should tolerate minor difficulties such as
muddiness etc. caused by ordinary river management
 Criteria about permission of water use
①Promote public welfare
②Assurance of implementation
・influence on citizen’s life
・Feasibility of plan
and industrial activity
・Capability of project
・Coordination between national
・Reasonable calculation of water intake
and regional plans
・Coordination with other water use
・Substitutability for another
water source

0 - 73
③Relationship between river
flow and water intake ④Obstruction against the public
・Dams and weirs meet standards of the
・Appropriate use of river water River Law
・Maintaining river flow function ・No obstruction against flood control etc.
・Stable water use
 Coordination to mitigate droughts
1 Mutual compromise
・Since river is public property, water users need to coordinate
with each other
・The users should respect other water use

2 Role of river administrator (Article 53)

・River administrators should provide necessary information for

0 - 74
negotiations among the users
・River administrators can mediate water disputes

3 Exception of Water Use During Droughts

・A water user can let the others use its own water right with approval
of water administrators
・To this end, river administrators facilitate the exchange of water rights
by simplifying their approval processes
 Outline of River Law during 100 years

0 - 75
○Introduction of integrated river ○Improvement and conservation of
system management river environment

○Enhancement of water-use ○Introduction of plans reflected by

regulations public opinions
 New System for Planning River Improvement

0 - 76
 Constructing dams and retarding basins,
taking river characteristics into consideration

Ratio between dams and retarding basins at major rivers of the country
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50% 100 100

Ratio

0 - 77
40% 78 82
71 73 74 75 Ratio of dams or retarding
ダム・遊水池の分担率
30% 60 62 63
57 58 basins
47
河道の分担率
Ratio of river channels
20%
10%
0%

The ratio designated for

rivers on respective plans
Kano River (Ohito)

Toyo River (Ishida)

Ibi River (Mangoku)
Ota River (Kumura)

Ara River (Iwabuchi)

Shinano Rive (Ojiya)

Kiso River (Inuyama)

Yodo River (Hirakata)

Chikugo River (Arase)

Tone River (Yattajima)
Yoshino River (Iwatsu)

Kuma River (Hitoyoshi)

Tenryu River (Kashima)
Onga River (Hinodebashi)

Source: MLIT
 Upfront investment to alleviate damage (Hurricane Katrina)
・ Total damage costs about $125 billion1) ($62.3 billion (about ¥6.9 trillion) for recovery on the supplementary budget)

・ About $2 billion2) necessary for preventive measures (to deal with the category 5 hurricane, the same scale as Hurricane Katrina)
※A claim was brought about in 2004 that this amount would efficiently cover the estimated damage of $100 billion and 100 thousand lives2）.
※The Army Corps of Engineers recognizes that the preventive program (for the category 3 disaster, to be completed in 2015) is behind the schedule due to the financial
shortage3).

Damage summary (New Orleans)

Number of the deceased: 1,204 (as of October 3)
Area under water: 80% of the city
Housing under water: For 160 thousand people
Total damage amount: $125 billion (About ¥14 trillion)
Recovery costs: $62.3 billion (About ¥6,850 billion)
Recovery measures: Dispatching more than 50,000 U.S.
Army and Air Force soldiers
Protection of embankments:

0 - 78
Improvement project (constructing the embankments to endure Equivalent to
about $125
Damage: $125
the category 3 hurricanes) Completion: 2015 billion (¥14 trillion) at
Total costs: $738 million billion (About maximum
FY 2004 budget: $4 million ¥1.4 billion)
FY 2005 budget: $5 million
Amount announced in the Budget Message of the President, FY 2006:
$3 million Spending about $2 billion for preventive
Progress: About 70% in Jefferson County About 90% in Orleans County measures will reduce damage by $125
billion.
Project trial calculation (constructing the embankments to
endure the category ５ hurricanes)
Cost: $2 billion （About ¥2.2 billion)1)
About $2 billion
Sources (about ¥220 billion)
1) Press release on January 30, 2006, United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat of
the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR)
2) Riverside, the Army Corps of Engineers periodical, September-October 2004 Total damage caused Estimated damage when the Costs necessary for the
by Hurricane Katrina preventive measures are measures to deal with the
3) The website of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans taken category 5 hurricanes
Chapter III UNSTEADY QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

UNSTEADY QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW ANALYSIS OF

FLOOD FLOWS IN A RIVER WITH VEGETATION

Shoji Fukuoka 1
1Professor of Research and Development Initiative, Chuo University

1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 112-8551, Japan, e-mail:sfuku@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT

The behavior of a flood flow depends on the conditions of rainfall and the channel,
and its properties are represented by hydraulic data observed during flooding, particularly
temporal change in water surface profile. In river planning and management, it is particular
important to quantitatively assess the propagation mechanisms of the water level and
discharge of flood flows in the channel. This paper begins with an overview of computational
research on flood flows up to the present and emphasizes the indispensability of including
unsteadiness in proper river management. Next, the paper stresses the importance of
expanding conventionally used quasi-two-dimensional analysis to unsteady quasi-two-
dimensional analysis in which temporal change in water surface profile is the solution. Lastly,
the paper compares the authors’ unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis method with
unsteady planar two-dimensional flow analysis for flooding in the Edo River, and concludes
with an emphasis on the appropriateness and engineering significance of unsteady quasi-two-
dimensional flow analysis.

Keywords: flood flow, temporal water surface profiles , flood propagation mechanism,
unsteady quasi-2D flow analysis, compound channels, vegetation

1. INTRODUCTION

Modern river improvement in Japan has been based on data in flood-management

plans, such as levee alignment and position and planned high water level. Large populations
living near rivers, as well as extensive investments in social capital located near rivers, makes
it difficult to further increase planned high water levels or change levee alignment.
Consequently, river improvements are forced to assume no fundamental changes in planned
water level or levee alignment.
At the same time, issues affecting discharge capacity and safety have resulted from
recent channel changes, particularly bed lowering, conspicuous gut formation, and channel
vegetation growth. In response, river improvements and vegetation management to increase
discharge capacity are being considered. Vegetation in channels has caused particularly
extensive rises in water level (due to increased channel storage) and changes in the flood
waveform (i.e., delay in flood propagation)1). How a flood flow propagates is highly
important in river management and maintenance, and assessing how channel changes affect
flood water levels and propagation is an important issue.

3-1
2. DEVELOPMENT OF FLOOD FLOW THEORY

2.1 Theory Assuming Quasi-Steadiness in Flood Flows

Today, vast archives of flood data and advanced computational resources have made it
possible to elucidate the hydraulic phenomena of floods to a considerable degree. Two widely
used practical methods of flood analysis are one-dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional
analysis, which focus on peak discharge and treat flood flows as steady flows1). In a large
watershed, a flood flow often achieves a steady state at or near peak discharge, in which case
steady-flow analysis would be appropriate for practical reasons. One-dimensional analysis is
particularly effective for simple channels. Quasi-two-dimensional analysis, although
technically a type of one-dimensional analysis, takes into account the arrangement of
vegetation and lateral mixing due to cross-sectional variation and vegetation and so is
effective for the analysis of flood flows in complex channels and channels with vegetation2),3).
In quasi-two-dimensional analysis, peak discharge is given, and the flow is solved by
determining the roughness coefficient and boundary mixing coefficient so that calculated
longitudinal peak water level distribution agrees with the trace of peak water level believed to
have been reached at the peak of flooding.
Because of this, non-uniform flow analysis was abandoned as the primary technique
for floods in favor of quasi-two-dimensional analysis capable of accounting for cross-
sectional changes in complex channels and the presence of channel vegetation4),5). However, it
gradually became clear that even quasi-two-dimensional analysis was inadequate for some
flood flow problems: Because it does not incorporate the unsteadiness of flood flows,
conventional quasi-two-dimensional analysis cannot adequately explain longitudinal
decreases in flood discharge and water level due to the storage phenomenon that is
characteristic of flood flows. Consequently, differences in storage phenomena from flood to
flood are compensated for with roughness and boundary mixing coefficients. As a result, even
for a single channel, the values for these coefficients, which explain the trace of peak water
level profile, would differ for each flood, presenting problems such as the difficulty of
determining fixed values1).

2.2 Theory Considering Unsteadiness in Flood Flows

Although flood flows propagate slowly over time, flood phenomena in channels
exhibit the important function of channel storage owing to interaction between the temporal
changes in hydraulic quantities and spatial variation in channel properties that arise from a
flood flow’s unsteadiness. These hydraulic phenomenon cannot be explained with
conventional steady-flow analysis. Recent changes in channel conditions due to vegetation
growth and other factors have resulted in non-negligible storage-related transformations in
flood flows6), necessitating that these hydraulic phenomena be incorporated into river
management. However, unsteady one-dimensional analysis often fails to deliver the
mathematical accuracy necessary to handle storage related to complex channels with intricate
planforms, channel vegetation, and unsteadiness.
Then why did analysis skip directly to unsteady planar two-dimensional analysis,
rather than first proceeding to unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis, which is an
expansion of the quasi-two-dimensional analysis that was the mainstream technique for flood
flow analysis? The interaction between flood flow unsteadiness and a channel’s cross-section
and profile plays an important role in storage. More specifically, storage cannot be calculated
unless not only unsteadiness but also variation in channel shape are properly incorporated.
This is why analysis evolved not to unsteady one-dimensional techniques but instead to
unsteady planar two-dimensional techniques, which incorporates the temporal changes in
water surface profile that correctly reflect river storage6). Rate of storage is defined as the

3-2
difference between the discharge that enters a river section from upstream and the discharge
that exits that section, and is a phenomenon in which the water surface height of a flood flow
increases and then decreases in a time-series manner. This is the essence of a flood flow and
could never happen in a steady flow. This indicates that a flood flow cannot be appropriately
analyzed unless temporal changes in water surface profile are sufficiently incorporated. The
hydraulic phenomena that occur in a flood flow are immediately reflected in the water surface
profile. The temporal changes in water surface profile that occur as a result of these
phenomena are the essence of a flood flow, and it soon became clear that the ability to explain
this was indispensable to the elucidation of flood phenomena. Water level of flood flows are
observed with greater accuracy than discharge, velocity, and other hydraulic quantities:
Temporal changes in water surface profile can be determined with a series of longitudinally
deployed water gauges. Once temporal and spatial data on water level are collected, it
becomes easy to incorporate temporal changes in water surface profile into unsteady-flow
analysis.
The authors have used unsteady planar two-dimensional equations in which temporal
change in observed water surface profile is the solution (assuming these observations to be
correct) to calculate discharge hydrographs, storage hydrographs, velocity distribution, and
other hydraulic quantities and, through comparison with observed data, have shown this
technique to be valid6),7). Because it explains temporal change in water level profile over a
spatially large area, this technique yields the temporally spatially and optimum solution when
the flood flow is viewed broadly longitudinally and laterally. This permitted the easy analysis
of many flood-flow phenomena that are reflected in temporal change in water level profile—
e.g., diverging flows8), confluence9), the relationship between channel changes and the flood-
flow propagation mechanism10), inflow into retarding basins11), outflow discharge
hydrographs for inundations caused by levee failure12), flood flow in the tidal reach with large
tidal variation13), and bed evolution in flood period14)—and as a result the technique came to
be used in river planning, design, and management.
Non-uniform flow analysis and quasi-two-dimensional analysis cannot incorporate the
unsteadiness-related storage mechanism and so cannot sufficiently incorporate section
variation properties. In addition, the error in observed discharge and flood trace water level
used in the analysis is compensated for with the roughness and boundary-mixing coefficients.
Consequently, these two coefficients differ for each flood, which impacts the method’s
reliability. In contrast, unsteady planar two-dimensional analysis incorporates the
unsteadiness and section variation of flood flows and, by using water level instead of
discharge as the boundary condition, and by using temporal changes in water surface profile
instead of flood trace water level, enables highly accurate calculations free of physical
ambiguity. In the case of channels with vegetation, this method employs a true roughness
coefficient based on the channel’s cross-sectional shape and profile and on friction with the
channel’s bed and which excludes the resistance of vegetation (which is assessed with a
vegetation permeability coefficient) and so provides a solution that guarantees a constant
roughness coefficient value for a given channel15).
The major reason that unsteady planar two-dimensional analysis can properly explain
observed flood flows is that it incorporates the temporal changes in observed water surface
profile. Although the unsteadiness of a flood flow is much smaller than that of ocean waves, it
is still not possible to express the fundamental properties of flood flows without unsteadiness.
In this sense, if conventional quasi-two-dimensional analysis were modified to incorporate
unsteadiness and temporal changes in observed water surface profile, then the resultant
unsteady-flow quasi-two-dimensional analysis should provide the similar accuracy to
unsteady-flow planar two-dimensional analysis.

3-3
 i=1 i=2 i=3 i=4

H
A1 S w2 A2 S w3 S w4 A4
Sw1 Sw2 Sw3 Sb4
Sb1 A3

Vegetation
Sb3
Fig.1 General cross-sectional from with vegetations and section
division method of quasi-two dimensional analysis

3. UNSTEADY QUASI-TOW-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF FLOOD FLOWS IN

COMPOUND MEANDERING CHANNELS WITH VEGETATION

The authors’ technique was constructed by expanding conventional quasi-two-

dimensional analysis2),3) into unsteady-flow analysis. Consequently, and cross-sectional forms
shown in Figure 1 are the same as previously2),3). The section-integrated continuity equation
and equation of motion are shown as equations (1) and (2), respectively.
∂A ∂VA
+ =0 (1)
∂t ∂x
∂VA ∂βV 2 A ∂H τ τ
+ + gA = − ∫ b dS − ∫ dS (2)
∂t ∂x ∂x Sb
ρ Sw
ρ
where V = section-averaged velocity, A = cross-sectional area, H = water level, ρ = water
density, τ b = bed shear stress, S b = wetted perimeter where τ b acts, τ = shear stress acting
at the vegetation boundary, S w = wetted perimeter where τ acts. Dividing the cross-sectional
form as shown in Figure 1, the quantities in equations(1) and(2) can be calculated as follows.

A = ∑ Ai , Q = VA = ∑ ui Ai , βV 2 A = ∑ β iui Ai
2
(3)
i i i

∫τ b dS = ∑ τ bi S bi , ∫ τdS = ∑τ S i wi
(4)
Sb i Sw i

where A i = cross-sectional area at i, u i = section-averaged velocity at i, b i = work correction

coefficient at i (in this paper, β i = 1), τ bi = bed shear stress at i, S bi = wetted perimeter where
τ bi acts, τ i = shear stress at the vegetation boundary at i, S wi = wetted perimeter where τ i acts.
The equation of motion for each section is expressed with equation (5)5),6).
Ai I e = τ bi Sbi + τ i S wi − (τ 'i +1 S 'wi +1 −τ 'i S 'wi ) (5)
where τ bi = downstream shear stress acting onι -1 at the boundary between i and ι -1, S' wi =
wetted perimeter where τ i acts, I e = energy gradient. When the flow at each section is
uniform, I e will equal the water level gradient or the bed gradient. The authors, by introducing
energy gradient I e , made it possible to extend the quasi-two-dimensional method shown in
equation (5) into the unsteady-flow technique represented by equations (1) and (2). Bed shear
stress τ bi is defined as shown below using Manning’s roughness coefficient n i , shear stress
acting at the vegetation and inter-section boundaries τ i , τ i′ and boundary mixing coefficient f
5),6)
.

3-4
 2
ni ui ui
τ bi = ρ 1/ 3
, Ri = Ai / S bi (6)
Ri

τ i = ρ f ui ui (7)

τ 'i = ρfδui δui , δui = ui − ui −1 (8)

The flow of calculations is as follows. The resistance term on the right side of the
equation of motion (2) is calculated with section velocity u i , which is determined with
equation (5). Through recursive calculation, the energy gradient I e in equation (5) is
calculated so that calculated discharge agrees with continuity equation (1). The calculation
process is shown in Figure 2. As in previous research2),3) the cross-section is divided into
flood channel, main channel, and vegetation area as shown in Figure 1. The inside of a
vegetation cluster is treated as a dead-water zone, and its resistance is assessed with the shear
stress τ that acts on the vegetation boundary. As with the authors’ unsteady-flow two-
dimensional analysis for flood flows6), the boundary conditions are defined as the temporal
change in water level at the upstream and downstream ends, and roughness coefficient n i and
boundary mixing coefficient f are determined so as to minimize the difference between
calculated and observed results for temporal change in water surface profile and the observed
discharge hydrograph for the channel section in question.

Topography data Ground

Observed Discharge data
(Reference) (planform and sectional cover data
water level form)

Create boundary conditions Create

(time series for upstream and calculation mesh
downstream end water level)
Distribution of
roughness and
Analyze water level Boundary mixing
and discharge coefficients

Compare upstream Adjust upstream

water levels water level
Compare downstream Adjust downstream
water levels weir height

Results

Discharge hydrograph
Longitudinal
distribution of water level
Compare with observed Adjust absolute value
discharge
of resistance
Compare with observed Adjust distribution
surface profile of resistance

Fig 2 Flowchart of overall analysis

The water surface profile and the temporal changes therein contain all the information
relating to the flood flow, including channel cross-sectional shape and vegetation resistance7).
Therefore, the authors’ method, which seeks to re-create temporal change in observed

3-5
water surface profile according to unsteady equations of motion that account for the channel’s
cross-sectional shape, vegetation, and other factors, is a practical method capable of
appropriately assessing changes in the hydraulic quantities of flood flows.

Higashi Kananoi discharge Dense vegetation zone

observation point Main channel Athletic ground
(m) Noda discharge
45 km
1000 46 km 43 km observation point Levee
44 km 42 km 41 km 39 km
40 km
500
Levee
Flood channel
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
(m)
Fig.3 Planform of the Edo River section observed (46.0km – 39.0km)

4. INVESTIGATING THE VALIDITY OF UNSTEADY QUASI-TWO

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Using temporal change in the water surface profile of an observed flood flow in the
Edo River—a compound meandering channel with vegetation—Fukuoka et al. performed
unsteady planar two-dimensional flow analysis and demonstrated that the technique can
produce highly accurate discharge hydrographs10). This section investigates the applicability
of the authors’ unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis technique by comparing results
obtained with the technique with results obtained with the unsteady-flow planar two-
dimensional technique of Fukuoka et al.
Figure 3 shows the planform and ground cover surface conditions of the section of the
Edo River investigated. The floodchannel in this section consists primarily of grassy plains,
with sparse vegetation spread out over a large area. In the 42.5–44.0 km section, however, the
vegetation is dense. The flood in question occurred in September 2001. Intense measurements
were made over a 45-hour period from 12:00 a.m. September 11 to 9:00 p.m. September 12,
with water level measured hourly on the left and right banks at 250-meter intervals in the 46–
41 km section and at 500-meter intervals in the 41–39 km section. Water level was measured
with an automatic water level gauge at the 46-km point (Higashi Kananoi) and the 39-km
point (Noda). Discharge was measured hourly at these same two points. Analysis focused on a
120-hour period from 12:00 a.m. September 10 (24 hours before flooding) to 12:00 a.m.
September 15 (hour 96). Here, conditions at the start of observations, at 12:00 a.m. September
11, are used as the baseline for the calculations. The upstream and downstream boundary
conditions used were observed water level at the 44.5-km point and the 39.0-km point (Noda).

Fig.4 Cross-section division at 44km

3-6
 The calculation cross-sections were chosen at 500-meter intervals longitudinally, and
each cross-section was divided as shown in Figure 4 using post-flooding measured cross-
sections as well as aerial photographs and ground cover diagrams to determine the locations
and state of vegetation. Referring to previous research,7),8),10) the authors used fixed values for
the main channel and floodchannel roughness coefficient and boundary mixing coefficient for
the entire flooding period so that the computationally obtained temporal change in water
surface profile would agree overall with the observed values.
This is shown in Tables 1 and 2.

4),5)
Table 1 Boundary mixing coefficient f

Mixing phenomenon Boundary mixing coefficient

Mixing between main channel flow and flood channel flow 0.17
Mixing between flow within vegetation adjacent to banks 0.03
and main channel flow
Mixing between flow within vegetation and main flows 0.10

Table 2 Manning roughness coefficient

Flood channel Flood channel

Place Main channel
Left bank ground Right bank ground
Roughness coefficient 0.03 0.04 0.04

In this analysis, the flow field is solved so that the calculated water surface profile
agrees with observed temporal changes in water surface profile. This is the same for both
unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis and unsteady planar two-dimensional flow
analysis. As the latter has already been shown to adequately explain observed hydraulic
quantities for flood flows, this section will compare the results obtained with this technique
with those obtained with the authors’ unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow technique in order
to demonstrate its appropriateness.
Figure 5 shows the observed water level profile and temporal changes in water level
profile obtained with unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis and unsteady planar two-
dimensional flow analysis. Despite some differences in temporal change in the water level
profile calculated with unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis for the sharply
meandering 42–45 km section, the observed water level profile is accurately re-created, with
almost no difference with the results obtained with unsteady planar two-dimensional flow
analysis, which appropriately accounts for waterway meandering and other planform changes.
Cross-sectional velocity distribution at peak water level is shown in Figure 6. In unsteady
quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis, vegetation clusters are treated as dead-water zones and
so have zero velocity in the non-submerged vegetation areas. The figure shows that that the
cross-sectional velocity distribution at peak water level as determined with unsteady-flow
quasi-two-dimensional analysis and with unsteady planar two-dimensional flow analysis are
in general agreement, indicating that the unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis
technique rather accurately predicts cross-sectioned velocity distribution. Figure 7 compares
observed and calculated discharge hydrographs and shows that the discharge hydrograph
calculated with unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis accurately reflects observed
discharge. The only slight difference with the results obtained with unsteady planar two-
dimensional analysis indicates that the authors’ technique can produce highly accurate
discharge hydrographs.

3-7
 Right bank observed water level
Left bank observed water level
13.0
Calculated water level 6h
Calculated water level 8h
12.5
Calculated water level 10h
Calculated water level 12h unsteady planar 2D
12.0 Calculated water level 14h
Water level (m)

Calculated water level 16h

11.5 Calculated water level 18h
Calculated water level 22h
11.0
06h
10.5 08h
10h
10.0 12h
14h
unsteady quasi 2D 16h
9.5 18h
22h
9.0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Longitudinal distance (km)
Fig. 5(a) Longitudinal distribution of observed and calculated water level
(rising-water phase)

13.0
Left bank observed water level
12.5 Right bank observed water level
Calculated water level 26h
Calculated water level 28h
12.0 Calculated water level 32h
unsteady planar 2D
Water level (m)

Calculated water level 36h

11.5 Calculated water level 40h

11.0

10.5 26h
28h
32h
10.0
36h
unsteady quasi 2D 40h
9.5

9.0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Longitudinal distance (km)
Fig. 5(b) Longitudinal distribution of observed and calculated water level
(receding-water phase)
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)

Unsteady quasi-2D Unsteady planar 2D 2.5

Unsteady quasi-2D Unsteady planar 2D 2.5
2 2
20 1.5 20 1.5
Water level (m)
Water level (m)

1 1
15 0.5 15 0.5
0 0
10 10
5 Peak water level : 10.91(m) 5
Peak water level : 11.94(m)
0 0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Lateral distance (m) Lateral distance (m)

(a) 41km(Straight reach) (b) 44km(Meandering reach)

Fig. 6 Comparison of cross-sectional velocity distribution (peak water level)

3-8
 Discharge(m3/s)

Time(hour)
Fig.7 Comparison between the observed and calculated discharge

As stated in section 2.2, conventional quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis retained

some ambiguity in how the roughness and boundary mixing coefficients are determined,
unavoidably necessitating different combinations of values for each different flood. In
contrast, unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis incorporates the unsteadiness and
temporal changes in water surface profile of flood flows, and so by properly assessing
vegetation areas true values based on channel cross-sectional shape and other factors can be
used for the roughness coefficient. As for the boundary mixing coefficient, in the case of the
Edo River, water surface profile, discharge hydrographs, and other hydraulic quantities were
calculated by using existing standard values. For floods in other rivers, further investigation is
necessary to determine whether these coefficients can be determined in the same manner.
Because it can reference data used in conventional quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis for
vegetation area quantities and coefficients of roughness and boundary mixing, unsteady quasi-
two-dimensional flow analysis is a highly practical technique whose advantages include
requiring less time and labor, particularly in comparison with unsteady planar two-
dimensional flow analysis. As with this latter technique, unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow
analysis can also be used to study flood flow behavior in the context of vegetation
management and river improvements, e.g., main channel widening and floodchannel lowering,
making this an advantageous technique for many aspects of river management.

5. CONCLUSION

The primary conclusions of this paper are presented below.

1. The authors have extended quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis into the unsteady-flow
regime to create an unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis technique that takes into
account the temporal changes in water surface profile during flooding. Because it
appropriately assesses temporal change in water surface profile and vegetation growth areas,
this technique can use a channel’s actual roughness coefficient—which can be determined
from such factors as channel cross-sectional shape and bed materials—as well as the constant

3-9
boundary-mixing coefficient that is standardized in quasi-two-dimensional flow analysis.
2. Upon using the authors’ unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow technique on the Edo River,
essentially no difference was observed between the results and those obtained with unsteady
planar two-dimensional flow analysis, indicating that this method is capable of assessing
various hydraulic quantities with sufficient accuracy for actual applications.

REFERENCES

1) Fukuoka,S.(2005), Flood hydraulics and river channel design, Morikita publishing

company
2) Fukuoka,S., Fujita,K.and Niida, H. (1992), Prediction in flood water level of river courses
with vegetation, Journal of Hydraulic, Coastal and Environmental Engineering, No.447/
Ⅱ-19，pp.17-24, JSCE.
3) Japan Institute of Construction Engineering(2002), Manuals for river course planning,
Sankaido publishing company.
4) Fukuoka,S. and Fujita,K (1989), Prediction of flow resistance in compound channels and
its application to design of river courses, Journal of Hydraulic, Coastal and
Environmental Engineering, No.411/Ⅱ-12，pp.63-72，JSCE.
5) Fukuoka,S. and Fujita,K.(1990), Hydraulic effects of luxuriant vegetation on flood flows,
Public Works Research Institute Report, No.180.
6) Fukuoka,S., Watanabe,A., Hara,T. and Akiyama,M.(2004), Highly accurate estimation of
hydrograph of flood discharge and water storage in rivers by using an unsteady two-
dimensional flow analysis based on temporal change in observed water surface profiles,
Journal of Hydraulic, Coastal and Environmental Engineering, No.761/Ⅱ-67，pp45-56，
JSCE.
7) Fukuoka,S.(2006), River’s maintenance and management based on observed water surface
profiles of flood flow, Advances in River Engineering, vol.12, pp.1-6.
8) Fukuoka, S., Watanabe, A., Tabata, K., Kazama, S. and Gocho, H.(2006), Evaluation of
hydrograph of flood discharge and roughness coefficient at the branched section in the
Tone River and the Edo River, Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol.50,
pp.1165-1170，JSCE.
9) Fukuoka, S., Nagai, S. and Sato,H.(2005), Evaluation of hydrograph of flood discharge and
flood water storage in the main river and tributary –In the case of Tone River-, Annual
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol.49, pp.625-630.
10) Sato, H., Fukuoka, S. and Deguchi, K. (2007) Analysis of changes in channel situation on
the propagation mechanism of flood flow, Advances in River Engineering, vol.13, pp327-
332.
11) Fukuoka,S., Kon,T. and Okamura,S. (2007), Assesment of flood control effects of the
Tsurumigawa multi-purpose retarding basin, Journal of Hydraulic, Coastal and
Environmental Engineering, vol.63 No.3，pp238-248.
12) Fukuoka, S., Yamazaki, K., Kuroda, Y., Iuchi, T. and Watanabe, A. (2006), On river bed
variation mechanism in a steep channel and method to calculate inundation discharge by
dyke breach, Advances in River Engineering, vol.12, pp55-60.
13) Suzuki,S. and Nakamura,S., Kawaguchi,K. and Fukuoka,S.(2008), Flood flow and bed
variation in rivers subjected to large tidal variation, 35th Annual Meeting of Civil
Engineering, Kanto Branch, JSCE.
14) Osada,K. and Fukuoka,S.(2008), Development of 1-D river bed variation analysis method
based on sediment transport mechanism in stony bed rivers, Annual Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, vol.52, pp.625-630
15) Fukuoka, S., Sato, H., Fujisawa, H. and Ohnuma, F.(2007), Assesment of permeability
coefficient of vegetation and roughness coefficient under various flood and channel
conditions, Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol.51, pp.607-612.

3 - 10
 2011/10/11

Keynote Lecture、 2008-ICHE in Nagoya

UNSTEADY QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL
FLOW ANALYSIS OF
FLOOD FLOWS IN A RIVER WITH VEGETATION

Shoji Fukuoka
Professor
Faculty of Science and Engineering,
Research and Development Initiative,
Chuo University

Content
1．Issues of river improvement and vegetation in rivers
2．Features of flood flows in Japanese rivers
3. Importance of temporal water surface profiles of flood
flows
4. Flood flow research in Japan
・Theory assuming quasi-steadiness
・Theory considering unsteadiness
5. Expanding steady quasi-two dimensional analysis to
unsteady quasi-two dimensional analysis
6. Application of unsteady quasi-two dimensional analysis
to the Edo River flood

1
 2011/10/11

1. Issues of River Improvement and Vegetation in

Japan

1) Modern rivers in Japan hold issues affecting discharge

capacity and safety.

2) Vegetation in rivers has caused extensive rise in water level

and delay in the flood wave propagation.

3) Assesing how channel changes affect flood water levels and

propagation is an important issues.

Tone River and Edo River

Normal time Edo

River

Tone
River
levee levee

Flood time 4

2
 2011/10/11

2. Features of Flood Flows in Japan’s Rivers

1) Most of rivers in Japan are protected by levees
against inundation .

2) Width of the water surface dose not change with

water level during floods. Accordingly, time change
in flood discharge almost corresponds to time
change in water level.

3) Effects of change in plan and cross-section forms of

rivers, bed variation and presence of vegetation and
hydraulic structures are seen in temporal and spatial
distributions of water level and flood propagation.

Typical Cross-section of Japanese Rivers

Ⅱ Ｂ

H3 H1 H2

Increase in discharge becomes water level increase,

because water surface width is kept constant by levees.

H3
H2
S2 H1
S1

QⅠ
dS
QⅡ  QⅠ  QⅡ
dt

Ⅱ Ⅰ S  B  L  H
6

3
 2011/10/11

3. Importance of Temporal Water Surface

Profiles in Flood Flow Analysis
1) Water storage in rivers is the essence of a flood flow and
is immediately reflected in the temporal water surface
profiles.

2) This indicates that water storage of flood flow cannot be

appropriately analyzed unless temporal changes in water
surface profile are sufficiently incorporated.

3) Once temporal and spatial data on water level are

collected, it becomes easy to incorporate temporal
changes in water surface profile into unsteady flood
flow analysis.
7

4) Water levels of flood flows are observed with greater

accuracy than discharge, velocity, and other hydraulic
quantities: Temporal changes in water surface profile
can be determined with a series of longitudinally
deployed water gauges.

5) Spatial and temporal water levels of flood flows in many

Japanese large rivers (30 rivers) are measured within
important reaches necessary for river management.

4
 2011/10/11

Flow X=X2
X=X1
Flood marks

Water surface profile

L=X1‐X
Q t=t1 t=t2 2

Q
Flood channel Water storage volume
height X=X1
t
Observation point X1 X=X2
Q t=t1 t=t2
dS/dt

Flood channel height

t
Observation point X2 t=t1 t=t2 t

Flood water storage volume in the river

9

Water Level and Discharge Relation of the

Maruyama River Flood(13km)
Discharge (m3/s)

Calculated
Observed

Water level (m)

10

5
 2011/10/11

4. Flood Flow Research in Japan

4.1 Theory assuming quasi-steadiness in the
flood flow
Flood flows propagate slowly over time. In a large watershed, a flood
flow often achieves a steady state around the peak discharge, in
which case steady-flow analysis would be appropriate for practical
reasons.

1) Steady one-dimensional analysis is particularly

effective for simple channels.
2) Steady quasi-two-dimensional analysis takes into account the
arrangement of vegetation and lateral mixing due to cross-
sectional variation and vegetation and so is effective for the
analysis of flood flows in complex channels with vegetation.
Observed peak discharge and distribution of flood marks are used
for the steady quasi-two-dimensional analysis.
11

2500

2000

1500
Discharge(m3/s)

1000

Higashi-kanenoi station
500

0
9/11 12:00 9/11 16:00 9/11 20:00 9/12 0:00 9/12 4:00 (Time)
12
Discharge hydorograph
Measured near the peak discharge
discharge hydrographs in the Edo
around peak River (Edo.R )
discharge

6
 2011/10/11

4.2 Analysis of steady quasi-2D flow with vegetations

(Fukuoka,Fujita and Niida,1992)

i=1 i=2 i=3 i=4

Q  VA   ui Ai H
A1 S'w2 A2 S'w3 S'w4 A4
i Sw1 Sw2 Sw3
A3 Sb4
 gAi I e   bi S bi   i S wi   'i 1 S ' wi 1  'i S ' wi 
Sb 1
Vegetation

Sb3
d  1 ui2 Ai  1 n 2u 2 1
   H    i 1/ 3i Sbi  fui2 S wj
dx  A 2 g  A Ri gA

2
ni u i u i
 bi   g 1/ 3
, Ri  Ai / S bi
Ri

 i   f u i ui n=0.04
n=0.04

f=0.17
A   Ai ,  V 2 A    i ui Ai
2 f=0.03 f=0.10

i i
Dead water zone n=0.03

13

4.3 Problems of steady quasi-2D analysis

1) Quasi-two-dimensional analysis has come to be used in
river planning, design, and management in Japan.

2) However, real flood phenomena exhibit channel water

storage owing to interaction between spatial variation in
channel properties and temporal changes in hydraulic
quantities that arise from a flood flow’s unsteadiness.

3) Differences in channel water storage phenomena from

flood to flood are compensated for with roughness and
boundary mixing coefficients and bring the problems
such as the difficulty of determining fixed coefficient
values.
14

7
 2011/10/11

Unsteadiness of flood flow

Control factors
Channel storage and flood on channel Channel form
vegetation
flow propagation storage of flood

Plan view

Flood mark
Flow
Propagation of flood

Longitudinal view x
15

4.4 Theory considering unsteadiness of flood

1) Recent changes in channel conditions due to vegetation
growth and other causes have resulted in non-negligible
storage-related transformations in flood flows to be
incorporated into river management.

2) Unsteady one-dimensional analysis often fails to deliver

the mathematical accuracy necessary to handle storage
related to complex channels with intricate planforms,
channel vegetation, and unsteadiness.

3) This is why the unsteady two-dimensional analysis was

used rather than first proceeding to unsteady quasi-two-
dimensional analysis.
16

8
 2011/10/11

4.5 Unsteady two-dimensional analysis

1) Fukuoka and Watanabe (2004) have used an
unsteady two-dimensional equations in which
temporal changes in observed water surface
profiles are the solution to calculate discharge
hydrographs, channel storage hydrographs, and
velocity distributions.

2) This method has demonstrated to be valid for

flood flow in rivers with ; dense vegetation;
diverging flows; confluence; inflow into retarding
basins; outflow discharge hydrographs for
inundations caused by levee failure.
17

Dense vegetation zone

Discharge observation point Main channel Athletic ground
(m)
45 km
1000 46 km 43 km Discharge observation point Levee

44 km 42 km
39 km
41 km 40 km
500
Levee
Flood channel

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

(m)

Planform of the Edo River section used

for unsteady two dimensional analysis (46.0km – 39.0km)

18

9
 2011/10/11

Lef t bank observ ed water lev el

13.0 Right bank observ ed water lev el
Calculated water lev el 6h
12.5 Calculated water lev el 8h
Calculated water lev el 10h
12.0
Water level (m)

Calculated water lev el 12h

Calculated water lev el 14h
11.5 Calculated water lev el 16h

11.0

10.5

10.0

9.5

9.0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Time (hour)Longitudinal distance (km)

Observed and calculated water surface profiles by the

unsteady planer two dimensional analysis (rising-water phase)

19

Discharge
（m3/s） Discharge Hydrograph (Unsteady 2-D analysis）

2500

2000

1500

1000
obsarved upstream end discharge
observed downstream end discharge
500
calculated upstream end discharge(unsteady planar 2D)
calculated downstream end discharge(unsteady planar 2D)
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Time（hour）20

10
 2011/10/11

200
Higashi-kanenoi discharge － Noda
東金野井流量-野田流量（平面2次元解析）
discharge (Unsteady 2-D analysis)
150 ds/dt　観測
ds/dt(=Qin-Qout) Observed

100

50

-50

-100
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Time(hour)

21
Time change in storage rate (unsteady two- dimensional flow)

• The major reason that unsteady two-dimensional

analysis can properly explain observed flood flows is that
(1)Consideration of unsteadiness of flood flows
(2)Incorporation of the temporal changes in observed
water surface profile
(3)Incorporation of the river geometry
↓
then the unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis
should provide the similar accuracy to unsteady two-
dimensional analysis if the above mentioned conditions
(1)~(3) are considered.

However, the application of unsteady quasi-two-

dimensional analysis may be limited to rivers of
complicated plan form, such as flow diversion and
confluence.
22

11
 2011/10/11

5. Unsteady Quasi-2D Flow Analysis Method

Two-dimensional velocity
field of flood flow in Tone Velocity(m/s)

Edo R. River Water surface velocity

Water level Vegetation

Tone R. Vegetation
Athletic field

Mathematical Approach Flood channel Main channel Flood channel

・ Steady one dimensional method

・ Steady quasi-two dimensional method
・ Unsteady one-dimensional method
・Unsteady quasi-two dimensional method
・Unsteady two-dimensional method
23

5.1 Analysis of unsteady quasi-2D flow with vegetations

A VA Unsteady quasi-2D flow analysis
 0 （1）
t x
VA V 2 A H  
  gA    b dS   dS （2）
t x x Sb
 Sw
 i=1 i=2 i=3 i=4
H

Q  VA   ui Ai （3） A1 S'w2 A2 S'w3 S'w4 A4

Sw1 Sw2 Sw3
i
A3 Sb4
Sb 1
 gAi I e 
（4）
 bi S bi   i S wi   'i 1 S ' wi 1  'i S ' wi  Vegetation

2 Sb3
ni u i u i
 bi   g , Ri  Ai / S bi
Ri
1/ 3
General cross-sectional form with
 i   f u i ui vegetations and section division
method of steady and unsteady
A   Ai ,  V 2 A    i ui Ai quasi-two dimensional analysis
2

i i

d  1 ui2 Ai 
   H 
dx  A 2 g 
Conventional quasi-2D flow analysis

1 ni2ui2 1 （5）
  Sbi  fui2 S wj
A Ri1/ 3 gA 24

12
 2011/10/11

Topography data Ground

Observed Discharge data
temporal water (Reference) (planform and sectional cover data
surface ptofiles form)

Create boundary conditions Create

(time series for upstream and calculation mesh
downstream end water level)

Distribution of roughness and

Analyze water profiles and boundary mixing coefficient
discharge hydrographs

Compare upstream Adjust upstream

water levels water level

Compare downstream Adjust downstream

water levels weir height

Results

Longitudinal distribution of
discharge hydrographs
Longitudinal
distributions of water levels ,velocity

Compare with observed

Adjust absolute value
discharge
of resistance
Compare with observed Adjust distribution
surface profile of resistance

Flowchart of unsteady quasi-2D analysis 25

6. Application of the Unsteady Quasi-2D Analysis

for the Edo River Flood

Higashi Kananoi discharge Dense vegetation zone (Dead water zone)

observation point
(m) Main channel Athletic ground Noda discharge
45 km observation point
1000 46 km 43 km Levee
44 km 42 km 41 km 39 km
40 km
500
Levee
Flood channel

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

(m)

Planform of the Edo River section used for

the unsteady quasi-2D analysis (46.0km – 39.0km)

26

13
 2011/10/11

10
Height (m) 8

6
Section 39km
4
Section 40km
Section 41km
2 Section 42km

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Lateral distance (m)
(a) 39km - 42km
10

8
Height (m)

6
Section 43km
4 Section 44km
Section 45km
2 Section 46km

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Lateral distance (m)
(b) 43km - 46km
-
Cross-sectional shape of the Edo River (39km - 46km)

27

Cross-section division at 44km

28

14
 2011/10/11

13

12

11
Water level (m)

10

8
45.00km observed water level
7 39.25km observed water level
45.00km calculated water level
6 39.25km calculated water level
45.00km cross-sectional shape
5

4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time（hour）

Observed and calculated water levels for the

upstream and downstream ends and cross-
sectional shape at the 45km point 29

Table 1 Boundary mixing coefficient f

Mixing phenomenon Boundary mixing
coefficient f
Mixing between main channel flow and flood 0.17
channel flow

Mixing between flow within vegetation adjacent to 0.03

banks and main channel flow

Mixing between flow within vegetation and main 0.10

flows

Place Main Flood

channel channels n=0.04
n=0.04
f=0.17
Roughness 0.03 0.04 f=0.03 f=0.10
coefficient
Dead water zone n=0.03

30

15
 2011/10/11

Right bank observed water level

13.0 Left bank observed water level
Calculated water level 6h
Calculated water level 8h
12.5
Calculated water level 10h
Calculated water level 12h Unsteady 2D 2D
unsteady planar
12.0 Calculated water level 14h
Water level (m)

Calculated water level 16h

11.5 Calculated water level 18h
Calculated water level 22h
11.0
06h
10.5 08h
10h
10.0 12h
Unsteady quasi-2D 14h
unsteady quasi 2D 16h
9.5
18h
22h
9.0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Longitudinal distance (km)
Fig. 5(a) Longitudinal distribution of observed and calculated water level
(rising-water phase)

31

13.0
Left bank observed water level
12.5 Right bank observed water level
Calculated water level 26h
Calculated water level 28h
12.0 Calculated water level 32h
unsteady planar
Unsteady 2D 2D
Water level (m)

Calculated water level 36h

11.5 Calculated water level 40h

11.0

10.5 26h
28h
32h
10.0
36h
unsteady quasi 2D 40h
9.5

9.0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Longitudinal distance (km)
Fig. 5(b) Longitudinal distribution of observed and calculated water level
(receding-water phase)

32

16
 2011/10/11

Unsteady quasi - 2D Unsteady 2D Unsteady quasi - 2D Unsteady 2D

Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m /s)
- 2.5 2.5
2 2
20 1.5 20 1.5

Water level (m)

Water level (m)

1 1
15 0.5 15 0.5
0 0
10 10

Peak water level 10.91(m) :

5 5
Peak water level 11.94(m)
0 0 :
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Lateral distance Lateral distance
(m) (m)

(a) 41km (Straight reach) (b) 44km (Meandering reach)

Comparison of cross sectional velocity distribution (peak water level)

33

discharge Discharge Hydrograph（Unsteady quasi-

（m3/s） 2D analysis）
2500

2000

1500

1000
obsarved upstream end discharge
observed downstream end discharge
500
calculated upstream end discharge(unsteady quasi 2D)
calculated downstream end discharge(unsteady quasi 2D)
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Time（hour）
34

17
 2011/10/11

12.0

11.5

11.0
Water level (m)

10.5

10.0
Observed water level

9.5 Calculated water level

9.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (hour)

Temporal change in water level

averaged between observed sections 35

200
Higashi-kanenoi discharge － Noda discharge
東金野井流量-野田流量（準2次元解析）
(Unsteady quasiー２D analysis)
150 ds/dt　観測
ds/dt Observed

100

50

-50

-100
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Water level （m）

36
Time change in storage rate (unsteady quasi –two- dimensional flow)

18
 2011/10/11

7. Concluding Remarks

1) The unsteady quasi-two-dimensional analysis that takes into

account the temporal changes in water surface profile during
flooding was developed for the analysis of rivers with vegetation
where the channel storage of flood flow plays an essential role.

2) Upon using the unsteady quasi-two-dimensional flow technique on

the Edo River, essentially no difference was observed between the
results and those obtained with unsteady two-dimensional flow
analysis, indicating that this method is capable of assessing
various hydraulic quantities with sufficient accuracy for actual
applications.

3) This method can use a channel’s actual roughness coefficient—

which can be determined from such factors as channel cross-
sectional shape and bed materials—as well as the given boundary-
mixing coefficients that are standardized in the quasi-two-
dimensional flow analysis.

37

19
Chapter IV

River Engineering Responses to Global Warming:

Promoting Close-to-Nature River Development
in Harmony between Flood Control and the Environment

（Translated from the Japanese paper of Shoji Fukuoka, Invited paper, Japan Society of
Civil Engineers, F, No.4, 2010,DVD-ROM)

Shoji Fukuoka 1
1Fellow; Professor, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Chuo University; Professor, Research and
Development Initiative, Chuo University
(1-13-27 Kasuga Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551 Japan)
E-mail: sfuku@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp

This paper begins by stressing the importance of river maintenance and improvement as a response to flooding caused
by global warming, citing cases of flood damage caused by six typhoons that made landfall on the Japanese island of
Shikoku in the 4-month period from July to October 2004. Next, the author, using data from Japan’s natural Tone River in
the Meiji Period, natural rivers in Canada, and reference points along the basic policy channels for river improvement of
Class A Japanese rivers, demonstrates that a dynamic relation equation between a river’s dimensionless width,
dimensionless depth, and dimensionless bed-forming discharge obtained with dimensional analysis using flood flow and
channel properties in the river basin are valuable metrics for river management that is sound in terms of both flood control
and environmental considerations; that a ship bottom -shaped cross-sectional form is sound as a standard cross-sectional
form; that the dimensionless bed load equation is solved within the dynamic relations in which stable dimensionless river
width and dimensionless depth, etc., are solved; and that these relation equations play an important role in close-to-nature
river management that achieves harmony between flood control and the environment. Lastly, the author suggests an
approach for encouraging the widespread adoption of close-to-nature river planning that encompasses the requirements of
flood control, water utilization, and riverine environments.

Key Words : global warming， adaptive technology， close-to-nature river， river management，
dimensionless river width， depth， rate of bed load， Fukuoka equation

4-1
 Chapter IV
1. Introduction
Every year in Japan, during the rainy season and the typhoon season,
flooding and landslides cause loss of life and property damage. Such
disasters due to flooding and landslides are expected to increase as
global warming–induced climate change results in larger flood
discharges because of changes in rainfall patterns, i.e. the temporal and
spatial distribution of rainfall. Urgent investigations are considering
how, from a national land development perspective, to adapt flood
management to the coming climate change.
Even if a river has been built to plans, greater-than-design-scale
rainfall resulting from climate change is highly likely to result in
overflow and flooding damage to surrounding residential areas. Most
of Japan’s rivers are still in the process of being improved and do not
have a cross-section capable of fully transporting the design high-water
discharge, meaning that overflow flooding due to flood discharge
exceeding the improved level is always a possibility.1) Consequently,
the most effective means of protecting life and property from flooding
that exceeds a given flood discharge is the use of levees and other
floodwater control infrastructure. It is therefore important to improve
rivers to fully transport the discharges specified in current flood control
plans.
With climate change induced by global warming resulting in larger
flood discharges, situations in which a river threatens to overflow its
banks and authorities must decide whether or not to evacuate nearby
residents are expected to be far more frequent than before. The long
timeframes of river repair results in a river being in an incompletely
improved state for a long time, necessitating the technical capability to
constantly assess a flood-control structure’s resistance to flood load in
this state, as well as overall risk. This includes assessing levee safety
during large floods and estimating the effects of vegetation inside the
channel and the effects of channel design aspects such as planform and
cross-section. The incomplete assessment of such factors, however,
makes it difficult to provide residents near a river with correct
information during a flood. Further efforts must be made, therefore, to
advance technology and acquire information. The fundamental
strategy must be to steadily improve flood control infrastructure in the
long term in view of the existing stock of such infrastructure and
changes in social structures and public attitudes.
Because of global warming, annual maximum daily precipitation is
forecast to increase 6% to 24% in the next 100 years.2)The resulting
increase in discharge will cause levee overtopping even in rivers that
comply with current flood control plans. For nationally administered
rivers, this necessitates the drafting of flood control responses that
4-2
encompass assessment of flood damage risk based on land use and the
state of flood control infrastructure improvement, along with the
communication of risk to surrounding communities and promotion of
urban development that addresses flood damage.2)
2. Lessons Learned from 10 Typhoons that Struck
Japan in 2004
In 2004, Japan was struck by 10 typhoons—nearly twice as many
as the six that had set the previous record of typhoon hits in a year—
resulting in 93 persons missing, of whom 87 were confirmed dead.3)
The cause was primarily unusually heavy downpours. Between July
and October of that year, the island of Shikoku was struck by six of
those typhoons, four of which caused extensive damage.4) The average
annual maximum discharge of 7,400 m3/s at the Iwazu reference point
on the Yoshino River was exceeded by four typhoons’ maximum
discharge over land: 9,600 m3/s during typhoon No. 10; 13,600 m3/s
during typhoon No. 16; 11,000 m3/s during typhoon No. 21; and
16,400 m3/s during typhoon No. 23. The controlled discharge by flood
control infrastructure and spatially distributed peak discharges along a
river, which form the basis of flood control planning in Japan, are
calculated on the assumption that flooding will be caused by a single
flood. However, the floods of 2004 show that a nearly continuous
series of large floods lasting all year can occur at any time. Thus the
damage caused by this series of floods serve as a valuable lesson in
preparing for the flooding and landslides caused by the larger and
more-frequent floods that are expected to result from global warming.
(1) What Happened in a Large River
Detailed observations were made of the temporal changes in water
level profile (i.e., water surface shape) that occurred during four floods
in the Yoshino River basin. Bed height was measured after the four
floods. Using the observed values for water surface shape from the four
floods, we conducted an integrated analysis of flood flows and bed
change and, by comparing these with the results of post-flooding cross-
sectional surveying of bed height, we studied the phenomena that
occurred in the riverbed during the four floods. This analysis provided
us with the invaluable and previously unknown information that bed
change was extensive at the peaks of the four sequential floods and,
furthermore, that bed change caused by the sequential floods differs
greatly than what occurs during a single flood. Namely, although bed
change caused by the first of the four floods, as with ordinary transitory
floods, was not great, bed change increased with the second flood, and
thereafter accelerated at points of scouring and sediment accumulation.
 Chapter IV
This work also showed that the presence of structure within a cross-
section caused great deformation in sandbars near the structures,
shifting the attack point on the levee and altering the flow around the
structure, thereby greatly speeding the progression of bed forms.
Thus analysis based on continuous monitoring of water surface
profile during flooding provides important information on changes in
bed height during flooding—information which can be helpful in
routine maintenance and in early detection of deformations in levees
and other river structures—and so is an extremely affective technique
for river management, especially where the danger of successive large
floods exists.
(2) What Happened in a Small River
In Ehime and Kagawa Prefectures, through which the precipitous
Shikoku Mountains run east-west almost to the coastline, repeated
typhoons have resulted in the deposition of massive amounts of
sediment in the rivers. The rise in bed height has been particularly
marked in the populous downstream and delta regions, greatly
increasing the risk of river overtopping. Consequently, large-scale
dredging has been conducted on an emergency basis in order to
enhance safety.
3. Maintenance Essential to Reducing Flood and
Landslide Damage
The maintenance of prefecture-administered rivers is sorely
lagging.1) However, it is difficult to imagine the pace of maintenance
accelerating greatly in the future. Running through small basins, these
rivers see a great concentration of rainfall, with flows of water and
sediment occurring suddenly. The increased severity and intensity of
downpours brought about by global warming will further intensify
such floods. As with nationally administered rivers, the prefecture-
administered rivers therefore need steadfast efforts to implement flood-
control strategies in response to global warming. Yet the state of river
administration by prefectures and other local governments is widely
deplorable, including the lack of basic data essential for river planning,
such as longitudinal and cross-sectional survey maps and observations
of discharge and water level during flooding.
Small and medium-sized rivers require steadfast maintenance efforts
to minimize flooding and landslide damage. The results of national
emergency inspection in August 2004 and a survey of the state of river
maintenance in June 2008 quantitatively indicate that proper
maintenance—including inspection of rivers and levees—and the early
detection and repair of weak spots in levees are critical to river-related
disaster prevention. Because weak spots in particular could have
4-3
literally fatal consequences as global warming makes flooding more
frequent, river administrators must first devise maintenance plans
suited to conditions of their respective rivers and under these plans
strive to minimize future damage, and also collect the data necessary
for proper river maintenance and use it to ascertain floodwater
discharge capacity and floodwater and sediment outflow properties.
4. Issues in Channel Planning
A river is a natural object in which natural phenomenon occur and
therefore requires proper maintenance in order to carry out the
functions desired of it. Although river maintenance has centered on
infrastructure maintenance, this section will consider, from a
technological viewpoint and in view of the River Act’s goal of
managing rivers comprehensively in terms of flood control, water
utilization, and the environment, how a river as a natural object should
be viewed and managed, how to minimize the flooding damage feared
from global warming, and how to resolve the issues of river planning in
properly implementing river management.
The middle and downstream reaches of Japanese rivers have a
compound cross-sections consisting of a main channel and flood
channels. In rivers having a large differential between normal and flood
discharge, the compound cross-section has been used as the standard
channel cross-section for such reasons as reducing velocity near levees
during flooding and thereby increasing levee safety and enabling flood
channels utilization during non-flood times by confining the flow to the
main channel.5) However, factors such as changes in river basin
sediment environments in recent years have resulted in significant
changes in channel conditions. Problems from a flood control and
environmental perspective have been acute, including increased
differentials between flood channels and main channels due to bed
lowering, the formation of narrow, deep waterways near banks and
levees in main channels due to changes in channel vegetation and bed
materials, and the loss of sustaining flow fields and habitats for river
wildlife.6) It is now crucial to reconsider the standard compound cross-
section: what cross-section would be suitable in terms of flood control,
environmental considerations, and ease of maintenance, and how to
gradually transform existing rivers into that cross-section.
River width and surface width are particularly important aspects of a
river’s cross-sectional form: these control flood flows, including
sediment transport at the river bottom. Because the average person
seldom sees a river’s flood flows, the public, seeing only the narrow
water surface width in a river’s broad width, often expresses doubt as to
why this width needs to be increased. After flood damage has occurred,
 Chapter IV
river engineers could explain that based on analysis of current cross-
sectional form, water surface width, and other factors, a river’s width
must be increased to accommodate higher flood levels than were
envisioned in previous river plans, but this would seem difficult for the
nonspecialist to comprehend. Instead, river engineers should strive to
explain the need to widen a river in terms of river basin conditions,
flood flow and channel properties, and a river’s proper role in that
context.
What is therefore required is an easy-to-understand explanation of
how river width and depth are dynamically and topographically
determined, how the current widths of rivers came about, and how
width should be in the future. This, in turn, requires elucidating the
mechanism—including flood flows as external forces, along with
sediment outflow and other factors—by which width, depth, and other
parameters are determined.
Despite the dynamic and topographic means by which river width,
water surface width, depth, and other river cross-section variables are
determined being fundamental issues in river studies and river
engineering, the author knows of no research that addresses river
channel formation dynamically and systematically. Instead, domestic
and foreign river engineering research in general discusses flood flows,
sediment transport, and other hydraulic phenomena with river width
treated as a given.5),7)
Numerous empirically derived regime theories have been published
on the stable channel cross-sectional forms of irrigation channels and
alluvial rivers.8) However, formula derived from regime theories have
inadequate dynamic consideration and are empirical formula with no
general applicability. For instance, river width and other parameters
with a length dimension are expressed as the 0.5 power of design
discharge Q.
Ikeda et al. have proposed an expression for determining channel
width and depth that is based on hydraulic considerations, but it cannot
account for broadly changing flood flows and river conditions.9)
Yamamoto, assuming the channel-forming discharge in a Japanese
alluvial river to be mean annual maximum discharge, has considered
main channel width, river cross-sectional area, and velocity using
national river survey data from the then Ministry of Construction.10)
Yamamoto expresses the ratio between mean velocity Vm and friction
velocity u*, i.e., the velocity coefficient (Φ = Vm/u*), as the factor f1 of
the bed material’s representative diameter and the bed slope (dr, I) and
expresses the square of the flood flow friction velocity (u*2) as the factor
f2 of the representative bed material diameter (dr) and, using these two
factors, expresses main channel width B (= f1–1f2–3/2g QmI), mean depth
Hm (= f2/gI), and mean velocity with the three quantities of bed slope ,
4-4
bed material representative diameter, and mean annual maximum
discharge Qm (f1f2–1/2). However, because f2 in the relation equation u*2
= f2 (dr), which is the most important when considering river scale, is
treated as a coefficient with a dimension, the equations with B, Hm, and
Vm are not represented with correct dimensional quantities.
Consequently, the results are affected by differences in scale of the
rivers and flood flows, limiting the equations’ scope of applicability. In
fact, Yamamoto has indicated that the relation equation u* 2＝f2(dr)
obtained with Japanese river data at mean annual maximum discharge
does not stand up for rivers in Alberta, Canada, as described by Bray et
al.10),11),12) This discrepancy is a direct effect of the scale difference
between rivers and flood flows. The Yamamoto equation attempts to
incorporate river dynamics into the mechanism for determining river
scale, but its weak point is that the resulting relation equation cannot
represent dimension properly. This reflects that when discussing
channel scale and bed stability, external forces and the responses to
them must be discussed in terms of dimensionless external forces and
dimensionless river width, for instance. In addition, although relatively
small scales of external force such as annual mean maximum
discharge are used as the main channel’s channel-forming discharge ,
in view of the coming increase in flood discharges, channel-forming
discharges that determine the entire river width and entire cross-
sectional area must be discussed in the context of river management,
rather than just the channel-forming discharge determining the main
channel’s width.
The transport of water and sediment in a channel involves many
phenomena relating to flood control, water utilization, and the
environment, and is the foundation of river planning.13) In recent years,
spatial and temporal measurements of discharge, water level, and other
aspects of flooding have been made, revealing the workings of flood
flows to a considerable degree.5) In contrast, the workings of sediment
transport during flooding is far less understood because of the relative
difficulty of measuring it, necessitating the use of sediment discharge
equations to estimate the amount of sediment transported. Current
sediment discharge equations, however, estimate sediment discharge
on the basis of the bed shear stress at channel center and do not account
for river width. As stated above, river width is the most important
determinant of flood flow and sediment discharge in a river.
Furthermore, current sediment discharge equations are woefully
imprecise for rivers with complex channel topography. This has
resulted in a lag in technically addressing sediment transport in the
context of preventing river disasters and protecting riverine
environments, calling for efforts to develop, from a new perspective, a
method for estimating sediment transport. One effective method of
 Chapter IV
estimating is to utilize the fact that sediment transport volume is
determined by the same mechanism—discussed later—that
determines river width and cross-sectional form.
Taken as a whole, the unresolved technical issues relating to flood
flows and sediment transport in river planning indicate that
conventional river-planning techniques are inadequate for improving
and maintaining many rivers currently under or in need of repair and
are inadequate for responding to flood control and environmental
issues in the face of global warming, and that new techniques devised
from a technical and social perspective must be deployed.14) These
issues are addressed in the following section.
5. Learning from Nature: Close-to-Nature River
Development and Maintenance from a Basin-
Wide Perspective
In principle, river development and management is based on the
concept of “close to nature.”15) In October 2006 the Close-to-Nature
River Development Review Committee proposed defining close-to-
nature river development as “river management that preserves or
creates environments where wildlife native to the river can live, grow,
and reproduce, as well as a diversity of riverine scenery, taking into
account the natural workings of the river as a whole and the goal of
harmony with local communities and historic and cultural assets.”
Thus defined, close-to-nature river development means managing
rivers in such a way as to achieve harmony between flood control and
the environment, taking the river’s natural functions into account.
Current close-to-river development, however, does not achieve
harmony between the environment and flood control based on the
realities of flooding. Although research inside and outside of Japan in
recent years has studied rivers’ natural flow regimes and the effects of
flood discharge change on ecosystems,16),17) true close-to-nature river
development cannot be said to be in place without a discussion of near-
natural river width and cross-sectional form and design discharge from
a basin-wide perspective. In view of the larger flood discharges that
will result from climate change brought about by global warming,
close-to-nature river development and management must be based on
a proper appreciation of the splendor of natural environments and on a
proper understanding of the dangers of nature.
Achieving a river channel in harmony with flood control and the
environment requires placing at the forefront the issue of river width,
water depth, and cross-sectional form. Such a channel cross-section
should be close to that of a natural river. The characteristics of a river
made by nature are evident in such aspects as planform, profile, and
4-5
cross-sectional form; river width and cross-sectional form are
determined by nature’s laws of dynamics. When considering, for
instance, what channel cross-section would be stable and achieve
harmony between flood control and the environment, it is therefore
important to keep in mind the structure of natural rivers and consider
the current structure of a river being impacted by human activity. Such
an approach can also lead to river design and management techniques
that are widely applicable for a broad range of channel and flood scales.
In the next section, in the context of close-to-nature river
development from a river basin perspective, I discuss, using findings
from studies of natural domestic and foreign rivers, the dynamic
relationship between flood flows and channel characteristic quantities
in a river basin that determine the important close-to-nature river
parameters of river width, water surface width, water depth, and cross-
sectional form. I also consider how results obtained from natural rivers
can be applied to the development of future rivers and existing rivers
under repair and to technical responses to global warming for
rivers.18),19),20)
6. Dimensionless Channel-Forming Discharge that
Determines Dimensionless River Width and
Dimensionless Water Depth
In flood control planning, the basic flood discharge is determined
looking at the entire river basin, and channel width and cross-sectional
form are calculated so that the design flood discharge is transported at
or below the design flood water level. For discharges below the design
flood discharge, however, adequate consideration is not given to what a
desirable water surface width or cross-sectional form would be. Nearly
all of Japan’s rivers are in need of repairs or maintenance and pose
many challenges to river management, such as channel vegetation
growth and fixed water paths in the main channel.6) River management
centers on infrastructure management and does not consider the entire
river or river basin, nor does it give priority to creating truly “riverlike”
rivers. Therefore, establishing the methodology for determining the
river width, water surface width, and cross-sectional form to produce
the natural richness of the entire river would enable river development
that supports desirable water surface width and cross-sectional form
even for rivers under or needing repairs.
River width, water depth, and other aspects of a river’s cross-
sectional form are thought to be a product of the effects of the external
factors of channel-forming discharge, river basin topography and
geology, channel slope, and bed material (size distribution)
experienced over the course of countless large floods over the river’s
 Chapter IV

history (Fig. 1).

A channel’s cross-sectional form and water surface width can be
considered essentially dynamically stable toward flood flows below the
channel-forming discharges that created the river as it exists today.
Here, a dynamically stable channel is defined as one that returns to its
original stable state even after changes caused by the external forces of
flooding. Once it becomes stable, a channel’s cross-sectional form
remains in equilibrium even as it changes and fluctuates because of the
interaction between floods, the channel’s planform and longitudinal
and cross-sectional form, and sediment transport, as indicated by the
arrows in Figure 1. Normal bed change is a phenomenon that results
from this interaction.
Before achieving this stability, the channel cross-sectional form
changes because of the interdependence between river width, water
depth, discharge, slope, and bed material size, but these parameters
become mutually independent once channel-forming discharge results
in stability. Furthermore, the effects of geology and topography on
channel formation can, except in special circumstances, be represented
as bed material size and bed slope.
When a channel’s cross-sectional form is represented with river
width and water depth, stable cross-sectional form is determined by
eight physical quantities, including channel-forming discharge, bed
slope, and bed material properties, as follows:
f (Q , B, h, I , d r , g ,  ,  )  0
 Q B h 
 , , I,   0
, (2)
 gId 5 dr dr 
 r 
The first term is dimensionless discharge, which indicates the state
of the flood; the second is dimensionless river width; and the third
dimensionless water depth. For the representative material diameter dr,
I used 60% (d60) in this research. Thus, nondimensionalization allows a
dynamically standardized explanation of stable channel cross-section
regardless of the scale of the channel or of the flooding. This is
discussed in greater detail in the next section.
7. The Relationship among Dimensionless River
Width, Water Depth, and Channel-Forming
Discharge in a Natural River
Let us first consider the relationship among dimensionless river
width, water depth, and channel-forming discharge (equation 2) in light
of data from Japanese and Canadian natural rivers and data on channel-
forming discharge from channel-widening experiments conducted in
the field and in the laboratory.
For the Japanese natural river, I used flood flow data from channel
sections in the upper and middle reaches of the Tone River in the Meiji
Period (1868–1912).21) Figure 2 is a rapid survey map of the river’s
(1)

where Q = discharge, B = river width, h = water depth, I = riverbed

slope, dr = representative diameter, g = gravitational acceleration, ρ =
water density, and σ = bed material density. Using the π theorem, we
derive the following dimensionless relationship:

Basin features
・channel-forming discharge ・topography, geology
・channel slope ・bed material

Figure 2 Upper Tone River reach around

Planform, longitudinal and cross-sectional form
Kurihashi (1884 rapid survey map)
river width, depth
Table-1 Flood discharge and probability scale
Table-1 Flood discharge and probability scale
Sediment discharge in in the
the Meiji
Meiji period
period (1868-1912)
(1868-1912)
Flow

・river bed variation ・water surface profile Year Discharge(m3/s) Reference point Probability scale
・bank erosion and ・resistance law
deposition 1895 3,780 Menuma 2~3 years
(sand waves)
1898 3,750 Menuma 2~3 years
Figure 1 Dynamic relation of stabe channel formation 1910 6,960 Downstream Menuma

1911 5,570 Yattajima 5~10 years

4-6
 Chapter IV

28
26
24
22 Design high water level (1924) 20.864m
Meters above the sea level

20
Design high water level (1911) 18.062m
18
16 high water level (1883) 20.864m

14
12
10
8
1883-channel明治18年計画高水量3,780m3/s
1885 design flood 3,780m /s3
明治16年河道
6
1911 design flood 5,570m 3/s
1936-channel明治44年計画高水量5,570m3/s
昭和11年河道
4 1959-channel 1949 design flood 14,000m 3/s
昭和34年河道 昭和24年計画高水量14,000m3/s
2 1999-channel 1980 design flood 17,000m 3/s
平成11年河道 昭和55年計画高水量17,000m3/s
0
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Transverse distance
Fig3 Channel cross-sections at Kurihashi point in each flood year21)

Table-2 Data used for investigation

d (mm) B (m) h (m) Q (m3/s) 1/I

Tone river in Meiji period 0.3~40.0 340~840 4.0~6.6 2240~6960 470~5000
Natural river inAlberta 19.0~145.0 14~545 0.4~6.9 6~8212 67~4545
Joganji river field experiment 80~125 7.8~9.6 0.5~1.2 3.2~14.4 130
Channel-widning experiment23) 0.83 0.84 0.02 0.0048 60
Channel-widning experiment24) 0.67 0.34 0.02 0.002 400

2year probable discharge

mean annual discharge

Photo-1 Typical natural rivers in Alberta

22)
(Peace River)

Fig 4 Ship-bottom-shaped cross-section seen in

Fig.-4 Ship-bottom-shaped cross-section seen in Canada’s
12)
Canada’s natural rivers12)
natural rivers
upper reaches obtained from surveying done in 1884. The Tone River
channel of that time retained the cross-section it had in the preceding
Edo Period (1603–1868) and, having only discontinuous levees (where
any were present), was essentially in its natural state, with overtopping
from the channel occurring during floods. Dashed lines in the figure
indicate the channel as of 1885, the orange lines the planned channel in
1891, and the solid blue line the planned channel alignment in 1948.
6
The river experienced large floods in 1885, 1898, 1910, and 1911;
Table 1 lists each flood’s discharge and probability scale. During the
Meiji Period, the 2- to 10-year probability discharges were roughly
equivalent to the design scale discharge, indicating a discharge that
formed the main channel of the time. Figure 3 is channel cross-section
at the Kurihashi Point on the Tone River in each flood year21). Bed
slope and representative bed material size at that point is assumed to be
unchanged today from the Meiji Period, and so the current channel’s
slope and bed material representative size are used.
As the foreign natural rivers, let us consider 67 river data from Bray

4-7
 Chapter IV

1.0E+08
△ 明治時代の利根川上・中流部の河道
Tone river in Meiji period21) 21)

1.0E+07 カナダ（アルバータ州）
△ Natural
10) 1
rivers in Alberta11)12)
常願寺川現地実験
B
× Joganji river’s field experiment
1.0E+06 平野(1973) 23) dr
＊ Hirano’s experiment23)
B h ●
福岡・山坂(1984) 24)
Fukuoka and Yamasaka’s experiment24)
dr dr 1.0E+05

1.0E+04

0.40
B  Q 
 4.25 
1.0E+03
dr  gId 5 
1.0E+02
 r 
0.38
h h  Q 
 0.13 
1.0E+01 dr dr  5 
 gId r 
1.0E+00
1.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+07 1.0E+09 1.0E+11 1.0E+13 1.0E+15 1.0E+17
Q
gId r5
Figure 5 Correlation of dimensionless water surface width and water depth
to dimensionless channel-forming discharge

et al. for rivers in Canada’s Alberta Province.11),12) These natural rivers
are comprised of a floodplain and a main channel, which is said to be
formed by the 2-year probable discharge, i.e., the main channel
bankfull discharge.11) This work also uses the 2-year probable
discharge. For details on the data, see references 11 and 12. Canada’s
natural rivers have a ship bottom-shaped cross-section, as shown in
Figure 4, in which the high water level is that during the 2-year
probable discharge and the low water level is that at mean annual
discharge. The data used are listed in Table 2. Photograph 1 shows the
Peace River, a typical natural river in Alberta.22) Table 2, in addition to
data on the Tone River and Canada’s natural rivers, also gives the
shows, within the broad dimensionless range of dimensionless river
width and water depth (102–106 and 100–104, respectively) on the
vertical axis and dimensionless discharge (103–1014) on the horizontal
axis, these variables are determined by dimensionless channel-forming
discharge, which in turn is determined by the combination of channel-
forming discharge, bed slope, and representative bed material size, and
can be represented with equations (3) and (4), the results of which are
indicated by straight lines in the figure.
0.40
B  Q 
 4.25  (3)
dr  gId 5 
 r 

results of three experiments: one by the author and others 43)with a large, 0.38
stony-bed compound waterway (length 190 m, total width 8 m, main h  Q 
 0.13  (4)
dr  gId 5 
channel width 3 m, water surface slope 1:130, representative bed
 r 

material size 8 cm) built in the bed of the Joganji River and having
straight and meandering sections, and channel-widening experiments
conducted by Hirano23) and by Fukuoka and Yamasaka24) with straight
channels.
Figure 5 plots the correlation of dimensionless water surface width
and water depth to dimensionless channel-forming discharge in the
Meiji Period Tone River, Canadian natural rivers, and river-widening
experiments in actual and experimental waterways. As the figure
Equations (3) and (4) (“Fukuoka equations”), hereafter independent
variable I is accounted for in combination with g as gI in dimensionless
channel-forming discharge Q / gIdr 5 . The relative density of water
to sediment (σ /ρ) is treated as a constant value. The reason that the
Tone and Alberta natural river data can be compared to the
experimental data on the same graph is that the dimensionless forms of
river width, water depth, and channel-forming discharge are used.

4-8
 Chapter IV

1.0E+08
5 5
B/d
B ~ Q gId
/ dr~Q/
△ 無次元水面幅－無次元流量
r / gId
r r
1.0E+07
5
~ Q gId
5
b/d
h / dr~Q/
○ 無次元水深－無次元流量
r / gId
r r
B
1.0E+06 dr
B h
dr dr 1.0E+05

1.0E+04

0.40
1.0E+03 B  Q 
 4.25 
dr  gId 5 
1.0E+02  r 
h  Q 
0.38
h
dr  0.13 
1.0E+01
dr  5 
 gId r 
1.0E+00
1.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+07 1.0E+09 1.0E+11 1.0E+13 1.0E+15 1.0E+17
Q
gId r5
Fig.-6 Correlation of dimensionless values for discharge to river width and

water depth at reference points in improvement Japanese basic policy channels for river

This indicates that the dimensionless width and water depth of a
stable channel are governed by dimensionless discharge Q/ gIdr 5 as
represented with channel-forming discharge, bed slope, and
representative bed material size.
8. The Relationship among Dimensionless River
Width, Water Depth, and Channel-Forming
Discharge at Class A River Reference Point
(1) Design Section Parameters at a Class A River
Reference Point
Next let us see whether the correlation among dimensionless river
width, water depth, and discharge in equations (3) and (4) that holds for
natural rivers also holds for flooding at a reference point along a Class
A Japanese river. Reference points are important locations for devising
high- and low-water plans of Class A Japanese rivers. In the case of a
Class A river, various data are collected at references points over a long
period, including discharge and water level hydrographs of flood flows,
channel cross-sectional form, and bed material size distribution. Bed
material size is assessed on the basis of size distribution determined
from bed material surveys of rivers. Although the grain size population
that impacts channel stability differs from river to river, here we use the
passing diameter of 60% by weight (d60), which is generally used for
mixed-grain-size channels, as the representative grain size. For bed
slope, mean bed slope at the reference point is used. For sections where
the bed is nearly flat, such as at the mouth, water surface slope is used
instead of bed slope.
The basic policy channel for river improvement is the river planned
so as to carry the design high-water discharge below the design high-
water level. Cross-sectional area, water surface width, and water depth
in the basic policy channel for river improvement are determined from
the design high-water level profile, i.e., the profile at design high-water
discharge. For design high-water discharge, the values correspond to
each river’s flood safety level (1/200, 1/150, and 1/100). Mean depth is
used for the water depth of channels with a compound form.18)
(2) Correlation among Dimensionless Quantities in a
Basic Policy Channel for River Improvement
Equations (3) and (4) are applied for the design high-water discharge
passing each reference point of basic policy channels for river
improvement of 109 Class A river systems.25) Figure 6 shows the
correlation of the dimensionless values for discharge to river width and
water depth. This shows that as with a natural river, dimensionless river
width and water depth at a reference point are both determined by
dimensionless design high-water discharge, which in turn is calculated
from design high-water discharge, bed slope, and representative bed
material grain size. However, the correlation between the data is not as
strong as with the Tone River or the Alberta Province natural rivers.

4-9
 Chapter IV
25
20
Number
15
10
5
0 and have acquired a stable channel form that has been shaped by these
Historically largest flood discharge
Design high-water discharge
Fig.-7 Ratio of historically largest flood discharge to design
high-water discharge at reference points in the basic policy
This is because while reference points on Class A Japanese rivers
represent a variety of topographical conditions—e.g., delta marshes,
lowlands, and mountainous regions—the data on Alberta natural rivers
assumes stony-bed rivers. Furthermore, cross-sectional shape (i.e.,
simple or compound cross-section) is not accounted for in the
calculation of dimensionless river width and water depth. In the figure,
most of the compound cross-section channels are found above the
approximation curve for dimensionless river width, while most simple
cross-section channels are found below the curve. Conversely,
compound cross-section channels are found below the dimensionless
water depth curve and simple cross-section channels above it.18)
It is therefore highly significant that Fukuoka equations hold
similarly for floods and channels for a wide range of sizes, including
foreign and domestic natural rivers and Japan’s basic policy channels
for river improvement. This is for the following reasons. First, although
the rivers of the world encompass various channel shapes and bed
morphologies, with no apparent dynamic rules governing factors such
as river width, the stable cross-sectional form of an alluvial river
formed by flooding is something formed, as Fig. 1 shows, over a long
period by large discharges, bed slope, and bed material grain size,
conditions which in turn correlate to the scale of the river basin; it is
natural to think of these as channels with a large river width and large
water depth. Therefore, the flow meandering resulting from sandbars
exposed in relatively low-depth flooding results in bed and bank
scouring and sediment deposition that varies only slightly compared to
rivers with a naturally determined width or cross-sectional area; this
should be considered variation within the boundaries of a stable river
width. Flooding discharges greater than the 2-year probably discharge
4 - 10
occur in the Alberta natural channels, but the main channels there have
a form stabilized at a 2-year probably discharge that is equivalent to
bankfull discharge. In contrast, the basic policy channels for river
improvement of Japan’s 109 Class A river systems have historically
largest flood discharges that exceed 80% of design high-water
discharge at 80% of its reference points (Fig. 7).25) In other words, the
reference points of Japan’s directly administered rivers have already
undergone large floods at least equal to the design high-water discharge
floods and sediment transport. From this, we can see that since the
Meiji Period, Japan’s river engineers, having seen repeated massive
flooding disasters, have striven to prevent a recurrence of such disasters
by building levees, river-widening setbacks, and other works designed
with a recognition of the power of nature and also gleaming lessons
from nature; as a result the vicinity of reference points have nearly the
exact channel for transporting design high-water discharge, which
along with bank revetments have increased the river’s safety from a
flood control perspective. We can, in other words, see today’s river
channels as the result of improvements that recognized and sought to
learn from and tame the fearsome power of nature.
A basic policy channel for river improvement may seem artificial,
with its large levees and hard revetments, but the fact that it exhibits the
same correlation as does a natural river of its dimensionless river width
and water depth to dimensionless discharge—design high-water
discharge in the case of a basic policy channel and channel-forming
discharge in the case of a natural river—indicates that a basic policy
channel has similar structures as those of a dynamically stable natural
channel.
Figure 6 does not include data from rocky channels, i.e., those
whose banks or bed are comprised of rocks or that have exposed rock
on the riverbed, such as the Fuji, Tenryu, Kurobe, Yoshino, and Kuma
Rivers. It should also be noted that cohesive-soil rivers (i.e., those
whose banks or beds are comprised mainly of clay)26) are also excluded
from data derived from equations (3) and (4) because their formation
mechanism differs from that of alluvial rivers.
Fukuoka equations are dynamic relation equations expressed as
dimensionless river width, water depth, and discharge using primarily
independent physical quantities of a channel formed by large flood
flows in the natural world: discharge (Q), river width (B), water depth
(h), bed slope (I), and representative bed material size dr. It is important
to use the equations with an understanding of their meaning and to use
them with the dimensionless values. The reason is as follows.
Equation (3) can be written with river width B as is done with
equation (5).
 Chapter IV

9. A Desirable Cross-Section from a Flood Control

1000
and Environmental Perspective: Ship Bottom-
Shaped Cross-Section
100 For the wildlife that live in rivers, a compound cross-section—
common in the middle and lower reaches of Japan’s rivers—offers
d60 (mm)

10
poor spatial continuity and a less-than-favorable environment.
Furthermore, the increased height difference between main channel
and flood channels is worrisome in terms of both flood control and the
1
environment. Moreover, channels will most likely have to
accommodate some of the increased flood discharge expected from
0.1 climate change. This necessitates considering what a desirable channel
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
cross-section is in terms of both flood control and the environment.
1/I
Many of the highly natural channels in Canada and the United
Fig.-8 Relationship between mutually independent States have the ship bottom -shaped cross-section shown in Figure 4,
and their water surface width and water depth both satisfy equations
representative bed grain size and bed slope25)
(3) and (4). A ship-bottom shaped cross-section is one with a wetted
0.2
perimeter whose shape resembles the bottom shape of a ship; other
 Q2  than in a straight channel or near the inflection points in a meandering
B  4.25  (5)
 gI  channel, the maximum depth portion often occurs on the left or right
side of the cross-section because of the effects of channel planform and
However, note that equation (5) does not have general applicability.
flow upstream and downstream from the cross-section. In addition,
That is, the bed material grain size (dr) on each side of equation (3)
“ship-bottom shaped cross-section” as used here is a channel cross-
cancels out because of the exponent of 0.4 and so is not included in
section in which the wetted perimeter changes continuously, with
equation (5), which is therefore not appropriate for calculating river
water surface width increasing or decreasing with discharge, i.e., the
width from grain size. However, there are two reasons that this
channel is characterized by the relationship between water surface
interpretation is incorrect. First, dr is indispensable to determining the
width and water level.
width of a dynamically stable channel. Figure 8 plots the relationship
Because of the workings of nature, many of Japan’s Basic Policy
between mutually independent representative bed grain size dr and bed
rivers have a ship-bottom shaped cross-section at reference points in
slope I as obtained from equations (3) and (4).25) This shows that many
nearly completed channel sections. Figure 9 gives the example of a
rivers can have the same slope but different representative grain sizes,
channel cross-section at a reference point in the Hii River, while Figure
which is because each river has a different stable cross-sectional form
10 shows a ship-bottom shaped cross-section of the Mississippi
and the discharge that determines it, meaning that equations 3 and 4 are
River.28),29) Figure 11 compares the dimensionless forms of the two
fundamental channel-dynamics equations for alluvial rivers. The
rivers’ cross-sections. Although some of the narrow portions of the two
equations assume that bed slope I is involved in bed formation along
dimensionless cross-sections differ in shape, even many of Japan’s
with the external force gravity g and is positively accounted for in the
directly administered rivers, with their raised levee banks, exhibit an
dimensionless discharge in the form of gI. Furthermore, representative
approximate ship-bottom shaped cross-section, other than in rivers with
bed material is negatively accounted for in relation to I, as shown in
obviously compound or simple cross-sections.
Figure 8. The second reason is that what is important in equations (3)
The ship-bottom shaped cross-section should be made a standard
and (4) is what dimensionless function relationship dynamically
form for unimproved rivers to be gradually transformed into close-to-
determines dimensionless river width and water depth; these are
nature rivers designed for harmony between flood control and the
approximate equations for determining mean data points. Therefore,
environment. A channel with a ship-bottom shaped cross-section takes
regarding the exponents (0.40 and 0.38), data must be examined in
on that shape naturally through the workings of nature. Figure 12 is a
light of the properties of each individual river. To conclude,
conceptual example of how a channel with a compound cross-section
dimensionless river width and water depth must be calculated using the
could be gradually reformed into a ship-bottom shaped cross-section.
dimensionless forms of equations (3) and (4).

10

4 - 11
 Chapter IV

present compound channel

(m)
30
30 (m)

H.P.+26.22m (H.W.L).
Meters above the sea level

25 25 H.P.+23.78m (2006 flood)
compound channel with lowered flood channels
H.P.+21.13m (mean annual largest discharge)
lowered flood channel
20

(m)
Present cross-section(2007)
Before the flood (2006.6)
After the flood (2006.7)
15 15
ship bottom-shaped channel
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
(m)
Transverse distance

Fig.-9 Channel cross-section at a reference point in the Hill-river

Figure 12 Reform of channels with a compound cross-section

into ship bottom-shaped cross-section
30
18k600

H.P. +26.22m(H.W.L.)
H.P.+26.22m（H.W.L.)
Figure 10 Ship bottom-shaped cross-section of the
25
28) H.P. +24.15m(S.47.7洪水)
H.P.+24.15m（S47.7洪水)
Mississippi river H.P.+23.78m（H18.7洪水)
H.P. +23.78m(H.18.7洪水)

H.P. +21.13m(平均年最大流量時)
H.P.+21.13m（平均年最大流量時)
1 20

0.8 Mississipi R.
Hii R. Pleiob lastas
0.6 Grass field Salix subfragilis anderss
人工草地 Phraginites ｵｵﾀﾁﾔﾅｷﾞ群落
japonicasteud ﾒﾀﾞｹ群集
0.4 15
Salix subfragilis
ｵｵﾀﾁﾔﾅｷﾞ群落
anderss ﾂﾙﾖｼ群落 ﾂﾙﾖｼ群落 Grass field
人工草地
0 50 100 150 200
0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4
Figure 11 Comparison of dimensionless cross-sections of
Mississippi river and Hii river
The upstream and downstream planform causes the main flow to shift
from the center to the left or right. Here, the basic strategy must be to
artificially “assist” the river to change on its own accord. A critical issue
is how to keep the ship-bottom shaped cross-section generally stable as
flood flows of different sizes pass through. The reference point section
of the Hii River with a cross-section of a basic policy channel for river
improvement shown in Figure 9 has undergone numerous floods, and
although pre- and post-flood surveying of the channel shows some bed
change, the current cross-section retains almost unchanged bed shape.
In addition, the 1.2-km section containing the reference point clearly
shows general dynamic stability. With a ship-bottom shaped cross-
section, making the boundary between the flow and the bed surface
(i.e., the wetted perimeter form) continuous results in the bed
undergoing an inundation frequency corresponding to the water level,
which promotes the growth of vegetation species suited to the depth
and frequency of inundation and prevents the unwanted spread of
vegetation in the channel.
0.6 0.8 1
Figure 13 Vegetation conditim at the reference point of the
Hill river
Furthermore, the resulting channel profile and cross-section create an
environment that is favorable to wildlife that moves between land and
water. Promoting the appropriate maintenance of channel vegetation
entails using National Census on River Environments data and field
surveys to determine the relationship between past flood water levels,
vegetation species, and growth conditions in those river sections, like
the Hii River reference point shown in Figure 13, that are already in
compliance with the basic policy channel for river improvement and
incorporate expert opinions to create a body of river environment
information to enable appropriate close-to-nature river development
and management and thereby create desirable river environments.
10. Applying Fukuoka Equations to Channel
Management of a Present River
We have seen that, with the design high-water discharge determined
according to the size of the river basin defined as the channel-forming
discharge, dimensionless river width and water depth are correlated to

11

4 - 12
 Chapter IV

1.0E+08
23.0km 24.0km Tama R.
25.0km 多摩川
Tama R.
1.0E+07 5.0km 10.0km 15.0km
20.0km 25.0km ToneTone
30.0km R. R.
利根川
1.0E+06 130.5km 181.5km

1.0E+05
B h B
dr d r 1.0E+04 dr

1.0E+03 0.40
B  Q 
 4.25 
dr  gId 5 
1.0E+02  r 
0.38
 Q 
h h
 0.13 
1.0E+01 dr  gId 5 
dr  r 

1.0E+00
1.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+07 1.0E+09 1.0E+11 1.0E+13 1.0E+15 1.0E+17
Q
gId r5
Figure 14 Correlation of dimensionless discharge to dimensionless water surface and water
depth of actual flooding through the present cross-section

dimensionless discharge (Figs. 5 and 6). We have also seen that in
Japan’s directly administered rivers, the discharge that forms a stable
channel (i.e., the channel-forming discharge) is greater than the mean
annual maximum discharge,13),15) i.e., is the design high-water
discharge. Flood discharges less than the design high-water discharge
occur frequently in channels having a stable width and cross-section
thus formed. Such floods do have the discharge and sediment transport
necessary to produce changes to the bed and banks through scouring
and sediment accumulation, but these hydraulic phenomena occur
below the channel-forming discharge and so result in bed and bank
change within the bounds of dynamic stability. Fukuoka equations
indicate that global warming, however, will produce discharges that
exceed current design high-water discharges and become the new
channel-forming discharges, which in turn will result in new
dimensionless river width and cross-sections corresponding to the new
dimensionless channel-forming discharge.
Figure 14 shows the correlation of dimensionless discharge to
dimensionless water surface width and water depth calculated with
water surface width and water depth from an observed depth–
discharge hydrograph for the main points of actual flooding through
the present cross-sections of the Tama and Tone Rivers. Here,
dimensionless water surface width is examined instead of
dimensionless river width because the discharge was sufficiently less
than dimensionless design high-water discharge (i.e., dimensionless
channel-forming discharge). In Japan’s rivers, where continuous levees
12
are commonly present, water surface width and river width are the
same at increased discharges.
The floods in question were large floods occurring in the Tama
River in 2007 (Ishihara reference point, 4,088 m3/s maximum
discharge) and in the Tone River in 1998 (aforementioned; Yattajima
reference point, 9,200 m3/s maximum discharge) and in 2007 (Chyoshi
Ohashi reference point, 5,499 m3/s). Solid lines in the figure indicate
calculations with Fukuoka equations. The representative bed material
size and bed slope used for the rivers were, respectively, material size
used for channel-forming discharge conditions and observed water
surface slope. The figure shows how both dimensionless water surface
width and water depth gradually change from their respective values at
dimensionless low discharge to those at dimensionless channel-
forming discharge. Because these are large rivers with sufficiently wide
inter-levee distances, the dimensionless water surface width of the
floods is plotted above the data derived with Fukuoka equations. In a
small or intermediate-sized flood, the wide cross-section means that
water surface width increases, for a larger dimensionless water surface
width and a correspondingly small dimensionless water depth, whereas
in a large flood, the dimensionless water surface width approaches the
value at channel-forming discharge. This is why in incompletely
repaired rivers that are narrower than dimensionless river width (which
is determined by dimensionless channel-forming discharge), the
dimensionless water surface width is plotted below the calculations

4 - 13
 Chapter IV

1.0E+08
ミシシッピー川
Mississippi R.
1.0E+07 Sacrament R.
サクラメント川

B h
1.0E+06
dr d r
1.0E+05

1.0E+04

1.0E+03

1.0E+02

1.0E+01

1.0E+00
1.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+07 1.0E+09 1.0E+11 1.0E+13 1.0E+15 1.0E+17

Q
gId r5
Figure 15 Correlation of dimensionless discharge to dimensionless water surface and water depth of actual flooding
through the present cross-sections of the Sacrament river and Mississippi river

27） 28)29)
Table-3. Data of the Sacrament river and Mississippi river

3
River d (mm) B (m) h (m) Q (m /s) 1/I
Sacrament R. 0.4~9.9 80~160 2.0~8.2 142~2243 3472~10101
Mississippi R. 19.0~145.0 86~880 1.4~7.0 46~4500 1400~5500000

12 times, with annual maximum discharge believed to be roughly

30)
Photo-2 Sacrament River( Clousa)
done with Fukuoka equations.
Figure 15 similarly shows 29 flood observation data points for the
Sacramento River from the U.S. Geological Survey27) and 53 flood
observation data points for the Mississippi River from Nakato.28),29) The
data used are listed in Table 3. All flood discharges were less than the
design discharge. For detailed data, see references 27, 28, and 29.
Nakato’s 29 data points for the Sacramento River represent a
discharge range of 142–2,243 m3/s. During the 19-year period of
measurement (1960–1978), bankfull discharge (2,270 m3/s) occurred
equal to bankfull discharge.
Photograph 2 shows the Sacramento River.30) The Mississippi River
is so wide that ordinary floods spread easily across it into a wide water
surface, and its dimensionless water surface width is greater than what
is predicted with Fukuoka equations. The Sacramento River, on the
other hand, has a narrower water surface width and would seem to
require widening or other means of increasing the channel cross-
section to accommodate the design-scale discharge.
Next, we present applications of Fukuoka equations to determine
river width and cross-section in resolving three issues common to the
management of incompletely improved rivers.
(1) Determining Devegetation Zones and Post-
Devegetation Cross-Sections in Rivers Where Dense
Vegetation has Reduced Discharge Capacity
a.) For the section to be devegetated, determine the bed material size
distribution, the 60% size, and the bed slope.
b.) Use Fukuoka equations and data such as actual bed material grain
size and bed slope to determine the relevant discharges, the

13

4 - 14
 Chapter IV
devegetation zone in the section, and a cross-sectional form that
accounts for these. The cross-sectional form should be ship-bottom
shaped. Define the devegetation zone, allow the determined
discharge to flow until the bed stabilizes, then use bed change
calculations to determine the cross-sectional form and bed material.
c.) If the bed degrades too much under the defined conditions,
increase the river cross-sectional surface area. If sediment
deposition is excessive, decrease the cross-sectional surface area.
Repeat steps 1 through 3.
d.) Determine whether Fukuoka equations hold for the determined
discharge in the final cross-section of the section in question. Use
the section’s stabilized channel cross-section, bed material grain
size, and bed slope.
(2) Determining Cross-Sections and Water Surface Width
for Accumulating Gravel and Restoring Bed Height in
Sections with Exposed Mudstone,31),32) Scouring of
Fixed Water Path 3),34)
a.) In general, gravel in exposed mudstone cannot be retained during
flooding. Determine the bed material grain size distribution in
upstream exposed mudstone beds (a source of gravel) and in
advance place an even, substantial layer of gravel there. Determine
the bed slope in the section being investigated.
b.) Use Fukuoka equations with the target discharge, assumed bed
material grain size, and bed slope to perform a primary calculation
of the cross-sectional form that restores bed height in the section.
The cross-sectional form should be ship-bottom shaped.
c.) For the bed material applied beforehand and bed material
transported from upstream, use bed variation calculations to
determine whether the bed height will be dynamically stable at the
given discharge, slope, and channel cross-section.
d.) If the bed degrades too much instead of stabilizing, widen the ship-
bottom shaped cross-section. If sediment deposition is excessive,
narrow the cross-sectional form. Repeat steps 1 through 3.
e.) If the bed is clearly dynamically stable, check whether it remains in
the range within which Fukuoka equation for dimensionless water
surface width and discharge is satisfied, then conduct secondary
calculation of the ship-bottom shaped cross-section.
f.) If a significant amount of bed material cannot accumulate on the
bed, enable accumulation by such means as placing large rocks
over the mudstone bed or creating a simple bed sill, then conduct
the investigation and determine the ship-bottom shaped cross-
section.
(3) Assessing River Width, Water Surface Width, and
14
4 - 15
Water Depth for the Close-to-Nature Development of
Small and Medium-Sized Rivers
Small and medium-sized rivers pose considerable restrictions on
land available for channel-widening to increase discharge capacity.
Current close-to-nature river development does not adequately address
matters from a river engineering perspective, provides no metrics for
determining river width, and so cannot provide a specific design
theory.15)
a.) Use Fukuoka equations to assess the positioning of the target river
in terms of flood control and the environment from the correlation
among discharge, river width, slope, and bed material size.
b.) Use Fukuoka equations to determine the river (or water surface)
width that is necessary for a nearly close-to-nature river that
satisfies both flood control and the environment. Consider the
maximum possible dimensionless river width for the discharge in
question, taking into account the circumstances around the river
from the perspective of close-to-nature river development and river
management.
Thus, Fukuoka equations are a tool for determining river width
change (including main channel water route width, main channel
width, and overall river width) and the corresponding channel cross-
section for channels with inadequate discharge capacity. The equations
can also be used for considering other issues, such as maintenance,
preventive flood control measures, river environmental restoration,
flood control systems including dams as well as in river projects, such
as assessing the need for repairs, how to improve the efficiency of
repairs, and how to prioritize projects. Specific applications in such
areas in the future are sure to reveal new methodologies.
11. Calculating Dimensionless Bed Load Transport
and Designing Channel Cross-Sections for
Sustainable Sediment Transport
Although sediment transport in an alluvial river is an important
quantity directly impacting channel damage prevention and river
environmental management, observational data are not extensive
owing to the scarceness of instruments that measure this quantity easily
during floods, because the complex phenomena on river beds make it
difficult to measure the resultant sediment transport, and because it is
difficult to understand sediment transport mechanism on the basis of
bed load alone.5),6),7) Because sediment motion is caused by the shear
force of the flow acting on the mobile bed surface, bed load equations
are derived by modeling flows and sediment motion to correlate it to
the shear force acting on the bed surface. However, the bed load
 Chapter IV

28)29)
Table-4. Bed load data measured in the Mississippi river

3 3
River d (mm) B (m) h (m) Q (m /s) 1/I QB (m /s)
-7 -2
Mississippi R. 0.25~0.85 86~880 1.4~7.0 46~4500 1400~5500000 4.37×10 ~2.15×10

37)
Table-5. Bed load data of USGS
3 3
river dm(mm) B (m) h (m) Q (m /s) 1/I QB(m /s)

Tanana River at Fairbanks 40 107~469 1.4~2.9 345~2020 1900~2400 2.3×10-4~3.4×10-2

Wisconsin River at Muscoda 0.5 219~310 0.7~3.4 87~1240 1900~4500 4.0×10-4~1.8×10-2

Black River near Galesville 0.6 72~122 0.55~1.9 13~256 2800~9000 7.1×10-5~1.5×10-3

Chippewa River near Caryville 8.0 124~247 0.89~2.8 31~779 4000~11000 2.0×10-5~5.1×10-3

Chippewa River at Durand 0.8 153~244 0.61~3.2 51~884 2800~4300 2.2×10-4~1.1×10-2

Chippewa River near Pepin 0.5 171~277 0.75~1.8 70~399 1700~5900 6.4×10-4~5.5×10-3

Table-6. Bed load data obtained by large-scale model tests

(a)Experimental data by Public Works Research Institute (b)Experimental data by Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region
3
dm(mm) h(cm) Q (l/s) 1/I QB(m /s) dm(mm) h(cm) Q (l/s) 1/I QB(m3/s)
36 1.038 19.3～43.7 43～200 613~4545 0.10~25.25 Run 1 28 57.1 1000 214 165.49

64 2.21 11.4～51.5 28～350 63~1538 0.01~66.94 Run 2 27.6 55.3 1000 214 386.21
Run 3 22 59.3 1000 214 230.52
63 2.62 19.6～51.3 90~325 340~1667 0.21~54.31
Run 4 23.3 56.8 1000 214 183.60
52 3.76 18.1～51.8 80~400 352~1111 0.22~57.66
Run 5 28.4 59.2 1000 214 325.10
31 4.58 19.4～42.3 80~350 431~800 0.39~18.97 Run 6 24.6 58.6 1000 214 83.87
21 10.0 21.0～50.5 395~1443 172~245 0.80~192.80 Run 7 11.3 65.2 1500 214 610.31

14 18.1 23.1～50.2 540~1630 133~183 1.53~270.31 Run 8 30.3 64.2 1500 214 616.21

equations used for sediment transport in rivers are of questionable
accuracy, and so sediment discharge equations that are accurate and
practical for rivers are needed.5) Previous sediment discharge equations
did not take into account the width or other size parameters of a river
and instead assumed sediment transport caused by the shear force at the
center of a large channel. However, flood flow and sediment discharge,
as seen in Figure 1, occur in a stable cross-section that is determined by
predominant physical quantities in the river basin, which in turn
determines the scale of the channel’s cross-section. Consequently,
sediment discharge must be determined by taking account of cross-
section or water surface width of rivers.
This section discusses a calculation method of sediment discharge
and bed load transport as a dynamic phenomenon determined within
the stable channel cross-section, that is based on an approach unlike
previous ones, and accounts for the mechanism (discussed in the
previous section) that determines river width and other stable cross-
section parameters.35),36) Ordinarily, flood discharge in a river is
sufficiently less than channel-forming discharge, and sediment
movement in the time of flood is a hydraulic phenomenon in the stable
cross-section. Bed load transport rate is a quantity determined by there
being a fixed cross-sectional form and so was not incorporated into
equation 1 as an independent quantity for determining river width,
water depth, and cross-section. Of course, bed load transport is closely
involved in the process by which the stable cross-section is created, as
large amounts of sediment are transported into the river from the river
basin. Once the channel stabilizes, however, bed load transport
becomes a dependent variable of cross-sectional form and the
parameters that determine it.
Thus bed load transport rate is determined by the dynamic
interrelation between mutually independent quantities that form the
stable channel cross-section, and so it can be calculated from the
interrelations in equation (6):
QB  f Q, B, h, I , d r , g ,  ,   (6)
where QB is bed load transport rate. Applying the dimensional analysis,
we derive the dimensionless interrelationship of equation (7):

15

4 - 16
 Chapter IV

土木研究所水路実験
PWRI experiment 寒地土木研究所水路実験
CERICR experiment Mississippi River (1977) Mississippi River (1981)
Tanana  River at  Fairbanks Wisconsin River at Muscoda Black River near  Galesville Chippewa River near  Caryville
Chippewa River at  Durand Chippewa River near  Pepin
1.0E+08

QB
1.0E+06
5
sgId r

1.0E+04

1.0E+02

QB  Q 
 0.2 I 1.3 
1.0E+00
sgId r
5  gId 5 
 r 

1.0E‐02
1.0E‐01 1.0E+01 1.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+07 1.0E+09
Q 1.3
I
5
gId r
Figure 16 Correlation between dimensionless discharge and dimensionless bed load

QB  Q B h  et al.37) collated from U.S. Geological Survey data collected with a

  , , , I,  (7)
sgId r
5  gId 5 d r d r  Helley-Smith bed load sampler, we used 127 data that were usable
 r 
with equation (8). Table 6a contains data obtained with a large-scale
as s = ( – )/. Equation (7) accounts only for bed load transport, not experimental waterway (length114m, width 1.76m, 0.78m) at Japan’s
for suspended sediment, which is strongly affected by factors such as Public Works Research Institute (PWRI),38),39) while Table 6b gives
bank erosion and sediment yield in the mountain area. Because the 2nd bed load data from a large-scale experimental waterway (length 24m,
and 3rd terms on the right side of equation (7) can be represented as the width 1.0m) at the Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold
Region (CERICR) .40) Of the latter’s bed load transport data, those on
changes in bed height and sediment transport rate from upstream
dimensionless form of the 1st term on the right side of equations (3) during running water were used in the calculations.
and (4), equation (7) can be rewritten as follows:

Figure 16 shows the correlation between dimensionless discharge and

QB  Q 
  ,I
dimensionless bed load determined using the American river bed load
(8)
sgId r
5  gId 5  data and experimental channel data from the two aforementioned
 r 
Japanese national organizations. Bed load transport rate is affected by
The bed load data used to derive equation (8) is listed in Tables 4 water surface slope (I), which is a local hydraulic quantity. To account
through 6. The variable dm in the tables represents mean grain diameter for this effect, dimensionless bed load is expressed as the product of
and here is used as dr. Except for data from Japan’s Civil Engineering dimensionless discharge (a determinant of channel cross-section) and
Research Institute for Cold Region, all of the data are direct water surface slope (a local hydraulic quantity of the channel). Here,
measurements made with bed load transport measurement instruments. dimensionless discharge is multiplied by I1.3, which is the value that
Table 4 contains 50 data points collected by Nakato for America’s best fits the dimensionless sediment transport rate data.
Mississippi River28),29). Of the bed load data in Table 5, which Williams Ordinarily, a slope (I) that is less than the critical slope (Ic) is thought
to allow sediment to stay in place. It would therefore be appropriate to

16

4 - 17
 Chapter IV
express the horizontal axis (I) in Figure 16 as I – Ic–, but here I is used
instead. With a dimensionless critical tractive force (τ*c) of 0.05, Ic can
be approximated as 0.083 d/h. The value of Ic should be accounted for
with swiftly flowing rivers where the grain size/water depth ratio is
relatively large but is essentially zero in gently flowing rivers. The solid
line in Figure 16 is a relation equation (equation (9) below) of
dimensionless bed load.
QB  Q 
 0.2 I 1.3 
（9）
sgId r
5  gId 5  represented with equation (9) occurs within the cross-section formed
 r 
Equation (9) is a dimensionless function incorporating
dimensionless discharge and bed slope, which determine
dimensionless river width and water depth. Conventional
dimensionless bed load transport equations incorporate a
dimensionless tractive force (τ*) for the center of a watercourse and
calculate bed load without taking river width into account.5) Equation
(9), in contrast, yields a dimensionless bed load that comprises the
same parameters that determine dimensionless river width—discharge,
bed slope, and grain size—and in this regard is a practical equation for
determining dimensionless bed load. Thus dimensionless discharge not
only determines a channel’s dimensionless river width and cross-
section but is also an important quantity for determining dimensionless
bed load .
It would be difficult to say that today’s river channels, with their
advanced bed lowering, gut formation, and vegetation overgrowth, are
achieving harmony between flood control and the environment.
Researches have begun on how to manage sediment inflow from
upstream to control bed shape and create a nurturing habitat for aquatic
wildlife.16),17) Controlling the volume of sediment inflow from upstream
makes it possible to create a bed structure suited to sediment discharge.
However, in a river with water path formation or vegetation growth in
the main channel, sediment from upstream does not flow through
smoothly, and so sediment transport volume varies depending on
channel conditions and the scale of discharge. Consequently, keeping
natural rivers in mind, we should first create an appropriate cross-
section, then determine the desirable correlation between flow and
sediment transport in the channel cross-section that results from the
forces of nature, and based on this finally contemplate a channel that is
improved in terms of both flood control and riverine environments.
A river that satisfies nearly all flood-control and riverine
environmental requirements is a channel that looks like a natural river.
A natural river, in turn, is one that satisfies equations (3) and (4)—i.e.,
17
4 - 18
has a channel with a dimensionless river width and water depth
determined by dimensionless channel-forming discharge—and whose
flow cross-section roughly complies with Fukuoka equations even for
water surface widths resulting from other discharges and water levels.
A channel with its channel-forming discharge carries bed load
corresponding to cross-sectional form and river width, with the result
being that the cross-sectional form is maintained. This suggests that
even when flood discharges or water levels are lower, dimensionless
bed load corresponding to the water surface width and water depth
by the channel-forming discharge, resulting in a stable channel in
which the channel-forming cross-section is essentially maintained. A
channel cross-section that provides a desirable relationship between
flood flows and bed load transport gives thus a standard of a channel
cross-sectional form in harmony between flood control and the
environment. Such a channel cross-section is a ship-bottom shaped
cross-sectional channel having the sort of continuous wetted perimeter
seen in natural rivers.
Thus for a channel with a ship-bottom shaped cross-section, it is
possible to define the dimensionless river width, water surface width,
and water depth for the dimensionless discharge and, with equation (9),
to calculate the resultant dimensionless bed load .
The ability to calculate dimensionless river width and bed load
transport for a standard channel cross-section such as a ship-bottom
shaped cross-section provides a basic tool for creating a sound cross-
sectional form in difficult-to-manage channels with a fixed water path
or overgrown vegetation. In many rivers, flows and sediment
movement in a cross-section are extremely non-uniform during
flooding, while at normal discharges, flow concentrates in the fixed
water path; aquatic wildlife exist in locations limited by localized
hydraulic and sediment-movement phenomena, meaning that it is not
widely applicable to discuss sound riverine ecosystems. Instead, a river
section requiring flood control and environmental improvement to
correct fixed water path and vegetation overgrowth must be reformed
into a ship-bottom shaped cross-section to achieve sound, sustainable
flow and sediment movement and a correlation between desirable
dimensionless river width (i.e., water surface width), discharge, and bed
load transport, after which factors such as desirable bed shape, habitats,
and vegetation management can be considered.
12. The Interrelation Among Flood Control, Water
Use, and Riverine Environments in an Age of
Global Warming—Toward Close-to-Nature
River Development Planning
 Chapter IV

control, water utilization, and river environments will become even

more important. It is from this perspective that this paper has heretofore
considered river development approaches, adaptation techniques, and
river management that seeks harmony between flood control and the
Flood Control
environment responding to rivers currently under or in need of
improvement and to global warming. This section presents a
Water utilization Environment comprehensive approach to close-to-nature river planning that
encompasses flood control, water utilization, and river environments.
Figure 18 shows the interrelation among the parts of a channel
cross-section that are relevant to flood control, water utilization, and the
41)s41)
FigureFigure
17 Three functions
17 Three of rivers
functions of liver
environment. Although a discussion of these three aspects should
Environment
ideally examine the whole channel, let us begin by focusing on the
channel cross-section. The external forces necessary for this discussion
Levee Water utilization Levee are flood discharge and the flood water level hydrograph. Flood control
Flood control
planning deals with large flood-related external forces, and because it is
particularly important to assure the safety of people in surrounding
communities, flood control is the starting point for determining the
overall cross-section. Because the functions of flood control and
Figure 18 Interrelation among the parts of a channel cross-section
related to flood control, water utilization and the environment environmental management overlap each other with regard to all water
levels during a flood period, the river environment should be
considered integrally with flood control in the flood water level
Japan’s present-day flood control and water utilization planning has
hydrograph. Environmental and flood-control functions overlap at low
been developed with the culmination of harsh lessons learned from
water levels; the area in which they overlap in the cross-section is
numerous floods and droughts since the Meiji Period, and of the
relatively small. Figure 19 is a conceptual diagram that takes the three
development of Japan’s national might. With regard to riverine
goals a step further from the consideration of cross-section functionality
environments, the 1997 amendment of the River Act added the
in Figure 18 and comprehensively views the temporal and spatial
“improvement and preservation of environments” as the goals of
effectiveness of a channel in terms of flood control, water utilization,
comprehensive river management, along with the previous goals of
and the environment: the three aspects’ spatial and temporal size are
flood control and water utilization. Nevertheless, the history of river
indicated in the radial and circumferential direction, while effectiveness
environmental management is a short one, with no national metric
is indicated in the perpendicular direction. A full circle on the time axis
goals as there are in flood control and water utilization, and so the
indicates 1 year. During flooding, effect of flood control assures safety
foundation of the “improvement and preservation of environments” is
while effect of river environment is evaluated with contributing to bed
to pursue close-to-nature river development in each river separately. In
revitalization, water cleaning, and bioactivity through factors such as
the field of river development, there are calls to adopt the sort of goals
increased disturbance and sediment movement in a given time or space.
for river environments that are seen in flood control and water
This effectiveness increases as flooding begins, decreases gradually
utilization planning.16)
after flooding ends, and approaches the river environmental state at
However, as the River Act stipulates a comprehensive management
normal discharge. The effectiveness of flood control and river
approach to flood control, water utilization, and environmental
environment varies in a pulselike manner through the full duration of
improvement and preservation, we cannot merely establish
flooding, while the effectiveness of water utilization and environment is
environmental goals; plans in all three areas must be organically
continuous at normal and low discharges. The effectiveness of spatial
interconnected. Figure 17 show the interconnectedness of the three
extent relates to a channel’s profile, cross-section, and planform.
functions of flood control, water utilization, and the environment as
During a flood, this relates to channel storage volume and contributes
required by the 1997 River Act amendment,41) but it does not specify
to flood control, water utilization, and the environment in the form of
the content of river plans. In an era of climate change caused by global
discharge and water level hydrographs. During normal and low
warming, river development that strikes a balance between flood

18

4 - 19
 Chapter IV
discharges, this relates to plant and animal habitats, the riverscape, and
river space utilization, among others. However, figure 19 does not
represent properly the effectiveness of spatial extent. So the
effectiveness of the spatial extent is an issue for future consideration.
River environments have been approached on a case-by-case basis
by the reason of the strong particularity of each river. Although there
has been awareness17) of the effect of flood discharge hydrographs on
river environments—particularly river ecosystems— it has been
qualitative assessments. Instead, river environment at normal and low
discharges has been focused. However, in view of the effects on the
occurrence of many flood control and environmental problems in
today’s rivers and on the extent and frequency of flooding and drought
caused by global warming, it is imperative to create a planning
approach to close-to-nature rivers that treats flood control, water
utilization, and the environment comprehensively.
Effectiveness
Flood control
Water utilization
Environment
Temporal size
Spacial size
Flooding
Figure 19 Conceptual diagram of flood control, water utilization and
the environment in view of special and temporal effectiveness
I have stated that a ship-bottom shaped cross-sectional form can be a
starting point for highly natural channel cross-sections. As a channel
undergoes flooding, a ship-bottom shaped cross-section changes into a
cross-sectional form with even closer-to-natural flow and sediment
transport. Such a channel would have a morphology—e.g., water
surface width, bed and bank structure, channel vegetation species and
locations, and flood channel banks—that is suited to its planform,
profile, cross-section, and flood level stage hydrograph. Important
issues to consider in close-to-nature river development include river
designs that allow aquatic life to survive even in high flood stages, a
riverbank structure that is stable but not monotonic, vegetation that
does not impede flood flows, and bed materials that are lively and
natural. Close-to-nature river development can be achieved by
creating—gradually and with validation at each step—channel cross-
19
4 - 20
sectional forms that are desirable in terms of both flood control and the
environment.
Water level, water surface width, and water path discharge at low
water levels are among the basic parameters in water utilization and
environmental planning. In addition, naturally formed riffles and pools,
and other bed topographies, and bed material grain size distribution are
important to the habitats where aquatic life lives, grows, and reproduces,
and these information should be incorporated into water utilization and
environmental plans. Bed height of ship-bottom shaped cross-sections
must also be considered as it serves as a standard for determining the
section. Figure 13 gives an example of trees, shrubs, grass, and other
vegetation for a channel with a nearly ship-bottom shaped cross-section
and provides a reference for close-to-nature river development.
Channel storage is an essential flood hydraulic phenomenon that
occurs in a river as a combined result of planform, profile, cross-section,
and unsteadiness represented by the flood hydrograph but is not
directly incorporated in current river planning. Channel storage is
related to water flow, sediment behavior, microtopography formation,
vegetation growth, water surface extension, wando formation, and
other factors. Channel storage plays a large role in actualizing the three
functions of a river and forms the foundation of close-to-nature river
development.5),42) Channel storage is also closely related to channel
safety, aquatic environmental soundness, and the support of the life
cycles of aquatic wildlife. Therefore, the role and effect of channel
storage is important to basic design approach to channel planform,
profile, and cross-section. This suggests that in addition to the
aforementioned goal of a cross-sectional form that achieves harmony
between flood control and the environment, close-to-nature river
development must consider how to achieve a richly natural
longitudinal profile and planform, as well.
13. Afterword
Regarding the understanding of issues in today’s channel planning
techniques and developing river-management technical
countermeasures to feared changes due to global warming, this paper
has, from the new perspective of learning from natural rivers, derived
Fukuoka equations for river development that achieves harmony
between flood control and the environment throughout the river basin,
such as dimensionless river width, water depth, cross-sectional form,
and bed load transport. Fukuoka equation demonstrated that an alluvial
river’s determinants such as dimensionless river width, water depth,
and cross-sectional form were determined by the natural laws of river
dynamics, and that the equations are universal expression equations for
 Chapter IV
channel formation in a river basin. The ability to determine
dimensionless river width, water depth, and other factors with a single
relation equation is not inconsistent with the uniqueness of each
individual river. A river’s uniqueness lies not only in such aspects as
river width and water surface width, but also in its single-row sandbars,
reticulated sandbars and other microtopographical features related to
sediment movement; the flows that result from such features; patterns
of vegetation growth; wildlife species and their life cycles; and how
surrounding communities interact with the river, among others. Close-
to-nature river development must fully recognize a river’s naturality
and understand that a river is the product of interaction between
macrostructures—river width, water surface width, cross-sectional
form, and other parameters determined by the river basin—and
microtopographical features and other elements sculpted by the flood
flows and sediment movement within that microstructure.
Fukuoka equations can estimate the required river width, water
surface width, water depth, and other factors—even for foreign and
domestic rivers for which data are sparse—as long as discharge, bed
slope , and bed material representative grain size are known, and so the
equations are highly applicable to river planning and river maintenance.
When using the equations in river planning or maintenance in Japan or
overseas, it is necessary to properly research the target river’s
conditions and parameters such as discharge and slope, and to use the
resultant numbers with an understanding of their meaning.
This paper has discussed dimensionless river width ,water depth,
and sediment transport and presented a practical and effective equation
for calculating dimensionless bed load transport. Despite its close
connection to flood control and riverine environmental management,
and despite its importance, bed load transport has been the subject of
little research in recent years. Based on the idea that bed load transport
is determined in the framework of the mechanism by which flood
flows produce a stable river width, the author has studied published
results on bed load measured in actual rivers and observed
experimentally and has created a practical dimensionless bed load
equation that explains these data. The author hopes that this research
will renew awareness of the importance of proactively measuring
sediment discharge as was done in Japan in the 1950s and 1960s, and
will thus lead to widespread measurement of a quantity so important in
channel planning.
The cross-section of reference points along basic policy channels for
river improvement in Class A river systems is stipulated in river
planning. A river’s cross-sectional form, based as it is on the existing
one and designed to transport the designed high-water discharge, is
often difficult to call one that, like a ship-bottom shaped cross-section,
20
4 - 21
is designed for harmony between flood control and the environment. In
addition to reference points, major points should also be gradually
reformed into a cross-sectional form suited to the individual river, using
the ship-bottom shaped form as a starting point. Particularly in a
revetment-fortified main channel where the height differential relative
to the flood channels is great, converting the cross-section to a ship-
bottom shaped one would require paying care to treatment of the
revetments and how the new riverbanks are created.
In terms of flood channel utilization, room for debate over the ship-
bottom shaped cross-section still exists. Nevertheless, rather than the
narrow perspective of revetment design, the entire river must be
considered from a broad perspective, and a comprehensive assessment
must be made, which includes relying on hard data and identifying
technical issues relating to the fundamentals of close-to-nature river
development and river management, following up on subsequent
channel changes in terms of drought and environmental management,
and taking society’s requirements into account, as well.
Close-to-nature river development must be elevated to the level of
comprehensive planning that integrates flood control, water utilization,
and environmental considerations. The ideas presented in this paper are
intended as the starting point toward the widespread adoption of close-
to-nature river planning. From this, it is important to construct a
comprehensive approach that encompasses flood control, water
utilization, and river environments and addresses measures for
mitigating the adverse effects of climate change induced by global
warming. Both adaptive technologies and basic planning strategies are
urgently needed.
Acknowledgements: The author wishes to thank the River Planning
Section, Rivers Department, of the Regional Development Bureaus,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport, for providing data used
in this research. The author also wishes to thank Fuminori Asano,
graduate student at Chuo University, for his assistance in preparing this
paper.
REFERENCES
1) Japan River Association, 2006, Handbook of River.
2) Council for Overhead Capital Maintenance, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism, 2008, What Adaptation
of the Climate Change to Global Warming in the Field of Water-
related Disasters Should Be.
3) The Meteorological Agency, 2008, Present Status and Perspectives
of Climate Change in Japan.
 Chapter IV
4) Section Meeting of Rivers, Council for Overhead Capital
Maintenance, 2005, Promoting Comprehensive Measures against
Heavy Rainfall Disasters.
5) Fukuoka, S. 2005. Flood Hydraulics and Channel Design, Morikita
Publisher.
6) Fukuoka, S. 2008. Issues on Fluvial Hydraulics of Stony Rivers and
Keys towards a Solution to a Problem, 44th Lecture Note of
Summer Training for Hydraulics, Course A, JSCE, pp.1-25.
7) Fukuoka, S. 2008. Flood Flow and Bed Variation Analysis
Considering the Change in Sediment Environment－Practical Issues
and Perspectives of The Sediment Research－, Advances in River
Engineering, Vol.14, pp.1-6.
8) Kikkawa, H. 1993.River Engineering, (Revised edition), 17,
Asakura Publisher.
9) Ikeda, S., Parker, G., Chiyoda, M. and Kimura, Y. 1986. Stable
Cross-Section of Gravel Rivers with Actively Transported Bed
Materials, Proceedings of JSCE, JSCE, Vol.375, pp.117-126.
10) Sankaido, 2004. Yamamoto, K. Alluvial Rivers.
11) Bray, D.I. 1979. Estimating Average Velocity in Gravel-Bed
Rivers , J. Hydraulics Div. ASCE, Vol. 105, HY9, pp. 1122-1130.
12) Kellerhals, R., Neil, C.R. and Bray, D.I. 1972.Hydraulic and
Geomorphic Characteristics of Rivers in Alberta, River Engineering
and Surface Hydrology Report, 72-1.
13) Gihoudo Publisher, 2005. Technical Standard of River and Sabo,
Planning.
14) Sankaido Publisher, 2002.Manual of River Planning.
15) Committee for the Review. 2006.Evolution of Close-to-Nature
River.
16) Nakamura, F., Tsujimoto, T. and Amano, K. 2008.Considering the
Objective of River Environment, Gihoudou Publisher.
17) Postel, S. and Richter, B. 2006. Rivers of Life, Island Press, 2003,
Translated by Yamagishi, S. and Tsujimoto, T., Shinjusha.
18) Asano, F. and Fukuoka, S. 2010. Stable River Width and Depth in
Alluvial Rivers －Determination of River Cross-Section Aiming at
the Harmony between Flood Control and Environment, Annual
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE, Vol.54, pp.1021-1026.
19) Fukuoka, S. 2010. A New Perspective on Management- Lessons
from Natural Rivers, River, No. 764, pp.3-9, Japan River Association.
20) Fukuoka, S. 2010. Determination Method of River Width and
Cross-Section for Harmonization between Flood Control and River
Environment, Advances in River Engineering, Vol.16, pp.5-10.
21) Shirai, K. 2010. Study on Channel Changes, Revetments and
Spurdikes in the Tone River , Doctoral Thesis, Chuo University.
22) Natural Resources Canada: Canadian Landscapes Photo
21
4 - 22
Collection， http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/com/ (Referred to
2010/05/06).
23) Hirano, M. 1973. River-Bed Variation with Bank Erosion,
Proceedings of JSCE, JSCE, Vol.210, pp.13-20.
24) Fukuoka, S. and Yamasaka, M. 1984. Shear Stress Distribution on
a Continuous Boundary and Widening Process of a Straight Alluvial
Channel, Proceedings of JSCE, JSCE, Vol.351/Ⅱ-2, pp.87-96.
25)http://www.mlit.go.jp/river/basic_info/jigyo_keikaku/gaiyou/seibi/i
ndex.html
26) Schumm, S.A. 1960. The Shape of Alluvial Channels in Relation
to Sediment Type， US Geological Survey Professional Paper,
352-B.
27) Nakato, T. 1989. Test of Selected Sediment-Transport Formulas，
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 116，No3，pp. 362-379.
28) Nakato,T., and Kennedy, J. F. 1977. Field Study of Sediment
Transport Characteristics of the Mississippi River near Fox Island
(RM 355-6) and Buzzard Island (RM 349-50), IIHR Report, No.
201, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research.
29) Nakato, T., and Vadnal, J. L. 1981. Field Study and Test of Several
One-Dimensional Sediment-Transport Computer Models for Pool
20，Mississippi River, IIHR Report, No. 237, Iowa Institute of
Hydraulic Research.
30) U. S. G. S.: Sacramento River Basin NAWQA Program, http://ca.
water. usgs.gov (Referred to 2010/05/06)
31) Matsumoto, T., Kudou, M. and Fukuoka, S. 2009. Outcrop of
Shale Caused by Flood Flow of the Asa River and the Concept of
Countermeasures Against Bed Scouring, Advances in River
Engineering, Vol.15, pp.285-290.
32) Tadatsu, T., Suzuki, K., Uchida, T., and Fukuoka, S. 2009.
Temporal Elevation Changes in the Shale Bed and Increase in Scour
Depth with Sandbar Deformation Around the Weir During Floods,
Advances in River Engineering, Vol.15, pp.249-254.
33) Fukuoka, S., Terasawa, N., Yamazaki, N. and Tsukamoto, Y.
2007. Hydraulics in Gravel Bed River with Boulders, Advances in
River Engineering, Vol.13, pp339-344.
34) Suga, M., Maeshima, T., Fujimoto, M., Osada, K. and Fukuoka, S.
2009. Technology Development of River Bed Level Recovery of
Degraded Stony-Bed Rivers, Advances in River Engineering, Vol.15,
pp.273-278.
35) Asano, F. and Fukuoka, S. 2010. Basic Study on Correlation
between River Channel Characteristics and Bed Load, The 37th
Conference of Kanto Branch, JSCE, Ⅱ-67, pp.177-178.
38) Sato, S., Kikkawa, H. and Ashida, K. 1958. Study on the Bed-
Load Transportation (1), Report of PWRI, Vol.98, pp.1-18.
 Chapter IV

39) Kikkawa, H., Fukuoka, S., Baba, T. and Kohno, T. 1975. Study on
Bed Load Transportation in Channels with Large –Sized Gravels,
Proceedings of the 19st Japanese Conference on Hydraulics, pp.1-6.
40) Ogawa, T. and Watanabe, Y. 2003. Experimental Study on Bed
Load Transportation Using Gravel Sand Collected at Upper Reach
of River, Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE, Vol.47,
pp.535-540.
41) Brochure of River Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transportation, and Tourism, Government of Japan 1998.
42) Workshop Report, Is an Approach to the Objective of River
Environment possible?, Committee for the Study of Objective of
River Environment 2005.
43) Maeshima,T.,Iwasa,M,.,Osada,K.and Fukuoka,S.,Flow, Effects of
Plan Cross-section on Longitudinal Transverse Profiles, and
Distribution of Bed Material in Rivers with Cobbles and Boulders,
The 37th Conference of Kanto Branch, JSCE, Ⅱ 2010..

22

4 - 23