Class 5

Grammars
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Grammars
Grammars express languages Example: the English language
sentence p noun _ phrase noun _ phrase p article predicate p verb

predicate noun
article p a article p the noun p cat noun p dog verb p runs verb p walks
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A derivation of the dog walks: sentence noun _ phrase noun _ phrase article the noun noun verb predicate verb verb
the dog verb the dog walks

A derivation of a cat runs: sentence noun _ phrase noun _ phrase article a noun noun verb predicate verb verb
a cat verb a cat runs

Language of the grammar: L = { a cat runs, a cat walks, the cat runs, the cat walks, a dog runs, a dog walks, the dog runs, the dog walks }
Notation
Production Rules noun p cat noun p dog Variable Terminal
Another Example
Grammar:
S p aSb S pP
Derivation of sentence
ab :
S aSb ab
S p aSb
S pP
Grammar:
S p aSb S pP
Derivation of sentence
aabb :
S aSb aaSbb aabb
S p aSb
S pP
9
Other derivations:
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb
S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaaaSbbbb aaaabbbb
10
Language of the grammar
S p aSb S pP L ! {a b : n u 0}
n n
11
More Notation
Grammar
G ! V , T , S , P
V : Set of variables T : Set of terminal symbols
S:
P:
Start variable Set of Production rules

Example
Grammar
S p aSb S pP
G ! V , T , S , P V ! {S } T ! {a, b}
P ! {S p aSb, S p P}
More Notation
Sentential Form: A sentence that contains variables and terminals Example:

Sentential Forms
sentence
14
* We write:
S aaabbb
Instead of:

* In general we write:
w1 wn
If:
w1 w2 w3 . wn
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* By default:
w w
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Example
Grammar
S p aSb S pP
Derivations *
S P
*
S ab
*
S aabb
*
S aaabbb
Example
Grammar Derivations
S p aSb S pP
S aaSbb

aaSbb aaaaaSbbbbb
19
Another Grammar Example Grammar G : S p Ab A p aAb ApP
Derivations:
S S S
Ab b Ab aAbb Ab aAbb
abb aaAbbb aabbb

20
More Derivations
S Ab aAbb aaAbbb aaaAbbbb aaaaAbbbbb aaaabbbbb

S aaaabbbbb

S aaaaaabbbbbbb

S a b b
n n
Language of a Grammar
For a grammar G with start variable
L(G ) ! {w : S w}
String of terminals
Example
For grammar
G:
S p Ab A p aAb ApP
L(G ) ! {a b b : n u 0}
Since:
n n
S a b b
n n
A Convenient Notation
A p aAb ApP
A p aAb | P
article p a article p the
article p a | the
Linear Grammars
25
Linear Grammars
Grammars with at most one variable at the right side of a production
Examples:
S p aSb S pP
S p Ab A p aAb ApP
26
A Non-Linear Grammar
Grammar
G:
S p SS S pP S p aSb S p bSa
L(G ) ! {w : na ( w) ! nb ( w)}
Number of
a in string w
Another Linear Grammar

Grammar
G :
SpA A p aB | P B p Ab
L(G ) ! {a b : n u 0}
n n
Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form:
A p xB
or
Ap x
Example:
S p abS S pa
string of terminals
29
Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form:
A p Bx
or
Ap x
Example:
S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

string of terminals
30
Regular Grammars
31
Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any right-linear or left-linear grammar Examples:
G1 S p abS S pa
G2 S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

32
Observation
Regular grammars generate regular languages Examples:
G2 S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

L(G2 ) ! aab( ab) *
33
G1 S p abS S pa
L(G1 ) ! (ab) * a
Regular Grammars Generate Regular Languages
34
Theorem
Languages Generated by Regular Grammars
Regular Languages
35
Theorem - Part 1
Regular Languages
Any regular grammar generates a regular language
36
Theorem - Part 2
Regular Languages
Any regular language is generated by a regular grammar
37
Proof Part 1
Regular Languages
The language L (G ) generated by any regular grammar G is regular
38
The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let
G be a right-linear grammar
L(G ) is regular
We will prove:
Proof idea:
We will construct NFA with L ( M ) ! L (G )

M
39
Grammar
G is right-linear S p aA | B A p aa B B pb B|a
Example:
40
Construct NFA M such that every state is a grammar variable:
A
S
VF B
special final state
S p aA | B A p aa B B pb B|a
Add edges for each production:
a S
A VF B
S p aA
a S P
A VF B
S p aA | B
A
a S
a
VF
S p aA | B A p aa B
A
a S
a
VF
S p aA | B A p aa B B p bB
b
A
a S
a a
B VF
S p aA | B A p aa B B p bB | a
b
46
A
a S
a a
B
b
VF
S aA aaaB aaabB aaaba

NFA
M
a a
Grammar
A
a S
VF
G S p aA | B A p aa B B p bB | a
L( M ) ! L(G ) !
B b
aaab * a b * a
48
In General
A right-linear grammar has variables:
V0 ,V1,V2 ,Vi p a1a2 . amV j

or
and productions:
Vi p a1a2 . am
We construct the NFA each variable
M such that:
Vi corresponds to a node:
V1 V3
V0
VF
V2
V4
special final state

50
For each production:
Vi p a1a2 . amV j
we add transitions and intermediate nodes
Vi
a1
a2
am V j
51
For each production:
Vi p a1a2 . am
we add transitions and intermediate nodes
Vi
a1
a2
am
VF
52
Resulting NFA
M looks like this:

a9 a2 V1 a3
a4
a1
V0
a3
a4
V3
a5 a9 VF
V2
a5
a8 V4
It holds that:
L(G ) ! L( M )
The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let
be a left-linear grammar
We will prove:
L(G ) is regular
Proof idea: We will construct a right-linear R grammar Gd with L(G ) ! L(Gd )

Since G is left-linear grammar the productions look like:
A p Ba1a2 . ak A p a1a2 . ak
55
Construct right-linear grammar Left linear
Gd
A p Ba1a2 . ak
Bv
Right linear
Gd
A p ak . a2a1B
Apv B
Construct right-linear grammar Left linear
Gd
A p a1a2 . ak Apv
Right linear
Gd
A p ak . a2a1
Apv
R
57 Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI
It is easy to see that: Since
L(G ) ! L(G )
R d
is Gd right-linear, we have:
R d
L(Gd )
Regular Language
L(G )
L(G )
Regular Language
Regular Language
58
Proof - Part 2
Regular Languages
Any regular language L is generated by some regular grammar G
59
Any regular language L is generated by some regular grammar G
Proof idea: Let
M be the NFA with L ! L(M ).
Construct from M a regular grammar such that L ( M ) ! L (G )

G
60
Since L is regular there is an NFA M such that
L ! L(M )
b
Example:
M
q0
q1
P
q2
b
L ! ab * ab(b * ab) * L ! L(M )

q3
61
Convert
M to a right-linear grammar
b
M
q0
q1
q2 b
q0 p aq1
P
q3
62
M
q0
q1 P
q2 b
q0 p aq1 q1 p bq1 q1 p aq2
q3
63
M q0 p aq1 q1 p bq1 q1 p aq2 q2 p bq3

q0
q1 P
q2 b
q3
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L(G ) ! L( M ) ! L
G
q0 p aq1 q1 p bq1 q1 p aq2 q2 p bq3 q3 p q1 q3 p P
M
q0
q1 P
q2 b
q3
65
In General
For any transition:
Add production:
q p ap
variable
terminal
variable
66
For any final state:
qf
Add production:
qf p P
67
Since
G is right-linear grammar
G is also a regular grammar

with
L(G ) ! L( M ) ! L
68

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Grammars

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

sentence p noun _ phrase noun _ phrase p article predicate p verb

the dog verb the dog walks

a cat verb a cat runs

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S aSb aaSbb aabb

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S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaaaSbbbb aaaabbbb

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Language of the grammar

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

V : Set of variables T : Set of terminal symbols

Start variable Set of Production rules

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaabbb

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Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Another Grammar Example Grammar G : S p Ab A p aAb ApP

abb aaAbbb aabbb

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S Ab aAbb aaAbbb aaaAbbbb aaaaAbbbbb aaaabbbbb

article p a article p the

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Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Another Linear Grammar

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S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

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G2 S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

G2 S p Aab A p Aab | B Bpa

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Regular Grammars Generate Regular Languages

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Any regular grammar generates a regular language

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Any regular language is generated by a regular grammar

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

The language L (G ) generated by any regular grammar G is regular

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

The case of Right-Linear Grammars

We will construct NFA with L ( M ) ! L (G )

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

Construct NFA M such that every state is a grammar variable:

special final state

Add edges for each production:

S aA aaaB aaabB aaaba

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

V0 ,V1,V2 ,Vi p a1a2 . amV j

We construct the NFA each variable

special final state

For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Courtesy Costas Busch - RPI

M looks like this:

The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Proof idea: We will construct a right-linear R grammar Gd with L(G ) ! L(Gd )

Since G is left-linear grammar the productions look like: