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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks and indebtedness is directed first and always to Allah for all his graces, without the power he gave to us , the accomplishment of this work would have been certainly impossible. We would like to extend our deep gratitude and appreciation to our family; for their love, help, understanding and continuous encouragement. We would like to express our deep gratitude, appreciation and sincerest thanks to our professor for his supervision, advices, constructive discussion and great help during the work Professor Doctor Attia M. Attia, our thesis supervisor. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to our project assistant Eng. Ahmed Rayan who helped us technically and mentally throughout our work period.
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Contents
Contents
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Belayim Marine Field (ZoneII) ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................................... 5
2 Literature Review................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Reserves Definition .................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 SEC Definitions ............................................................................................................... 6 2.1.2 SPE Definitio n s ......................................................................................................... 9 2 . 2 R e s e r v e E s t i m a t i o n M e t h o d s .................................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Analogy:- ...................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.2 Volumetric Method ....................................................................................................... 15 2.2.2.1 Volumetric Uncertainty ....................................................................................... 17 2.2.3 Decline Curve Analysis (DCA): ............................................................................... 18 2.2.4 Material Balance Equation (MBE): .............................................................................. 24 2.2.4.1 MBE Assumptions:............................................................................................. 27 2.2.4.2 Primary Recovery Mechanism ............................................................................. 29 2.2.4.2 .1Rock And Liquid Expansion Drive: ....................................................... 30 2.2.4.2 .2 Depletion Drive: ......................................................................................... 31 2.2.4.2 .3 Gas-Cap Drive: .......................................................................................... 33 2.2.4.2.4 .Water Drive: ............................................................................................. 35 2.2.4.2.5 Gravity Drainage Drive : ............................................................................. 37 2.2.4.2.6 Combination: ............................................................................................. 39 2.2.4.3 Driving Indexes MBE: ........................................................................................ 40 2.2.4.3.1 Depletion Drive Index(Oil Zone Oil Expansion ),(DDI) ...................... 41 2.2.4.3.2Segregation Drive Index (Gas Zone Gas Expansion),(SDI) .................... 41 2.2.4.3.3Water Drive Index (W DI) .......................................................................... 41 2.2.4.3.4Expansion Drive Index (Rock And Liquid), (EDI) .............................. 41 2.2.4.4 MBE In Linear Form: .......................................................................................... 42 2.2.4.4.1 Volumetric Under saturated Reservoir ........................................................ 45 2.2.4.4 .2Volumetric Saturated Reservoirs ........................................................... 47 2.2.4.4 .3 Gas Cap Drive Reservoirs ...................................................................... 48 2.2.4.4 .4 Water Drive Reservoirs ............................................................................ 50 2.2.4.4 .5 Combination Drive Reservoir ............................................................... 57 2.2.4.5 Water Influx[5] .................................................................................................... 59 2.2.4.5 .1 Steady-state method .................................................................................... 59 2.2.4.5.2 VEH unsteady-state method ........................................................................ 61 2.2.4.5.3 Fetkovich Pseudo steady-state method ...................................................... 63 2.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) [16,17] ................................................................................... 65 2.3 .1 Miscible EOR ................................................................................................................ 65 iv
Contents
2.3 .2 Chemical EOR ............................................................................................................. 66 2.3.3 Other EOR Processes ................................................................................................... 66 2.3 .2.1 Polymer Flooding ................................................................................................ 69 2.3.2.2 Surfactant Flooding ............................................................................................. 74 2.3 .2.3 Alkaline Flooding ............................................................................................... 75 2.4 Reservoir Simulation ......................................................................................................... 80 2.4.1 MBAL [22] .................................................................................................................... 81 2.4.2 Monte Carlo Simulation .............................................................................................. 83 2.4.3 ECLIPSE Simulation[21] .............................................................................................. 84 2.5 Comparison Between Reserve Estimation Methods[23] .......................................................... 87
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................... 89
3 Methodology..............................................................................................................................................89 3.1 Available Data .......................................................................................................................... 89 3.2 Methodology............................................................................................................................. 92 3.2.1.1 The Material Balance Equation ............................................................................ 93 3.2.1.2 Water Influx ....................................................................................................... 101 3.2.1.2 .1Steady state Water Influx (SS) ................................................................... 101 3.2.1.2 .2 Semi-Steady State For Water Influx (SSS) ............................................... 105 3.2.1.2 .3 Unsteady state (USS) ................................................................................ 110 3.2.1.3 Prediction ........................................................................................................... 116 3.2.2 Reservoir Management Spread sheet ........................................................................... 125 3.2.3MBAL [24] ................................................................................................................... 129 3.2.3.1 Montecarlo Simulation Tool [24] : .................................................................... 129 3.2.3.2 MBE Tool [24] : ................................................................................................ 133 3.2.4 ECLIPSE [21] .............................................................................................................. 149
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1 Belayim Marine Oil Location Map . ........................................................................................................... 2 Figure 2 SEC Classification Of Oil And Gas Resources .[2] .................................................................................... 6 Figure 3 SPE Resource Classification System[1] ...................................................................................................... 9 Figure 4 Probabilistic Definition Of Reserves. ........................................................................................................ 10 Figure 5 Classification of production decline curves .[4] ........................................................................................ 19 Figure 6 Exponential, Hyperbolic And Harmonic Approaches . ............................................................................. 22 Figure 7 Decline Curve of an Oil well . [6] ............................................................................................................. 23 Figure 8 (Material Balance Tank Model) ................................................................................................................ 24 Figure 9 Solution Gas Drive Reservoir.[8] .............................................................................................................. 31 Figure 10 Production Data Of Depletion Drive Reservoir. [8] ............................................................................... 32 Figure 11 Gas-cap drive reservoir.[8] ..................................................................................................................... 33 Figure 12 Production Data For A Gas-Cap Drive Reservoir.[8] ............................................................................ 34 Figure 13 Reservoir With Water Drive .[8] ............................................................................................................. 35 Figure 14 Aquifer Geometries . [8].......................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 15 Production Data For A Water Drive Reservoir. [8] ............................................................................... 36 Figure 16 Initial Fluid Distribution In An Oil Reservoir . [8] ................................................................................. 37 Figure 17 Combination Drive Mechanism . [8] ....................................................................................................... 39 Figure 18 Classification Of The Reservoir. [5] ....................................................................................................... 46 Figure 19 Determining N For Saturated Reservoirs . [5] ........................................................................................ 47 Figure 20 F versus Eo + m Eg . [5] ........................................................................................................................ 49 Figure 21(F/Eo) versus (Eg/Eo)............................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 22 (F/Eo) As A Function Of (P/Eo) .[5] ..................................................................................................... 52 Figure 23 Steady State Model Applied To MBE.[5] ................................................................................................. 53 Figure 24 Havlena And Odeh Straight Line Plot . [10.11] ....................................................................................... 56 Figure 25 VEH Cylindrical In Shape Reservoir....................................................................................................... 61 Figure 26 Dimensionless Time And Fluid Influx Chart.[5] ..................................................................................... 62 Figure 27 Pressure Steps Used To Approximate The Pressure-Time Curve . [5] .................................................... 63 Figure 28 EOR Injection Method.[17] ..................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 29 Chemical EOR Target In Selected Countries.[17] .................................................................................. 68 Figure 30 Chemical Floods History. [17]................................................................................................................ 68 Figure 31 Current Status World Wide Production World Wide.[17] ....................................................................... 68 Figure 32 Polymer Flood Field Performance .[17] ................................................................................................. 73 Figure 33 Surfactant Flood [17] .............................................................................................................................. 74 Figure 34 pH Values Of Alkaline Solutions .[16] .................................................................................................... 76 Figure 35 Alkaline Flood Field Performance. [17] ................................................................................................. 78 Figure 36 Isopach Contour Map For Net Pay Zone OF Marine Zone 2 . ............................................................... 89 Figure 37 Reservoir MBE . ...................................................................................................................................... 94 Figure 38 Chart Calculate N. ................................................................................................................................ 100 Figure 39 Plot Of Pressure And Pressure Drop Versus Time. [15] ....................................................................... 101 Figure 40 Semi Steady State Behavior . ................................................................................................................ 105 Figure 41 Un Steady State Behavior ..................................................................................................................... 110 Figure 42 Plotting Qt.P/Eo Vs (F-Wi*w)/EO At Re/Rw =2. .......................................................................... 113 Figure 43 Plotting Qt.P/Eo vs (F-Wi*w)/EO at re/rw =4............................................................................... 113 Figure 44 Plotting Qt.P/Eo vs (F-Wi*w)/EO at re/rw =8............................................................................... 114 Figure 45 Plotting Qt.P/Eo vs (F-Wi*w)/EO at re/rw =6............................................................................... 114 Figure 46 Qt.P/Eo At Re/Rw = Infinity............................................................................................................. 115 Figure 47 Chart between P with ( wepe& we uss)) ................................................................................................ 123 Figure 48 Chart Between P With ( Wepe& We Uss)By Using Mew Wi. ................................................................ 124 Figure 49 Predicted p . .......................................................................................................................................... 124 Figure 50 Reservoir Management Spread Sheet Wells Input. ................................................................................ 125
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List of Figures
Figure 51Reservoir Management Spread Sheet Pressure Input. ........................................................................... 126 Figure 52 Pressure Matching ................................................................................................................................ 126 Figure 53 Reservoir Management Spread Sheet PVT Input . ................................................................................ 126 Figure 54 Reservoir management spread sheet PVT Matching . ......................................................................... 127 Figure 55 Reservoir Management Spread Sheet Well Locations. .......................................................................... 127 Figure 56 Reservoir Management Spread Sheet Prediction .................................................................................. 128 Figure 57 Reservoir Management Spread Sheet Prediction by chemical effect ..................................................... 128 Figure 58 Choosing Monte Carlo Tool. ................................................................................................................. 129 Figure 59 System Option Window.......................................................................................................................... 130 Figure 60 PVT Menu ............................................................................................................................................. 130 Figure 61 Data Input ............................................................................................................................................. 130 Figure 62 Match PVT data .................................................................................................................................... 131 Figure 63 Selecting Distributions. ......................................................................................................................... 131 Figure 64 Distributions.......................................................................................................................................... 132 Figure 65 General Option Widow. ........................................................................................................................ 134 Figure 66 PVT list ................................................................................................................................................ 135 Figure 67 Black Oil ( Data Input). ......................................................................................................................... 135 Figure 68 PVT Matching. ...................................................................................................................................... 136 Figure 69 Matching. .............................................................................................................................................. 136 Figure 70 Oil FVF Curve...................................................................................................................................... 137 Figure 71 Oil Viscosity Curve............................................................................................................................... 137 Figure 72 GOR Curve. .......................................................................................................................................... 138 Figure 73 Input List. ............................................................................................................................................. 138 Figure 74 Tank Parameters. .................................................................................................................................. 139 Figure 75 Water Influx.......................................................................................................................................... 139 Figure 76 Rock Compressibility............................................................................................................................. 140 Figure 77 Rock Compaction. ................................................................................................................................. 140 Figure 78 Relative Permeability. ........................................................................................................................... 141 Figure 79 Relative Permeability Curves. ............................................................................................................... 141 Figure 80 History Matching Table......................................................................................................................... 142 Figure 81 Import Window. .................................................................................................................................... 142 Figure 82 Import Setup. ........................................................................................................................................ 143 Figure 83 Import file. ............................................................................................................................................. 143 Figure 84 History Matching List........................................................................................................................... 144 Figure 85 Run History Matching. .......................................................................................................................... 144 Figure 86 Analytical Method. ............................................................................................................................... 145 Figure 87 Graphical method.................................................................................................................................. 145 Figure 88 Energy Plot........................................................................................................................................... 146 Figure 89 WD Function Plot.................................................................................................................................. 146 Figure 90 Production Prediction List. ................................................................................................................... 147 Figure 91 Prediction Calculation Setup. ............................................................................................................... 147 Figure 92 Tank Prediction Data. ........................................................................................................................... 148 Figure 93 Run Simulation Window. ....................................................................................................................... 148 Figure 94 Data File Section. .................................................................................................................................. 149 Figure 95 Simulator Preface.................................................................................................................................. 153 Figure 96 Run The Simulator................................................................................................................................. 153 Figure 97 Running The Simulator. ........................................................................................................................ 153 Figure 98 Print File Location. ............................................................................................................................... 154 Figure 99 Original Oil In Place (OOIP)................................................................................................................ 154 Figure 100 Start FLOVIZ ...................................................................................................................................... 154 Figure 101 Run The Model 1 . .............................................................................................................................. 155 Figure 102 Run The Model 3 . .............................................................................................................................. 155 Figure 103 Run The Model 2. ................................................................................................................................ 155 Figure 104 (FLOVIZ Parameters). ........................................................................................................................ 156 Figure 105 Reservoir Model . ............................................................................................................................... 156 Figure 106 RUN OFFICE...................................................................................................................................... 157
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List of Figures
Figure 107 Load All Vectors . ................................................................................................................................ 157 Figure 108 Input Variables . .................................................................................................................................. 158 Figure 109 Output OFFICE. ................................................................................................................................. 158 Figure 110 OFFICE Output table.......................................................................................................................... 159 Figure 111 OFFICE Output Charts . .................................................................................................................... 159 Figure 112 Gas Solubility ...................................................................................................................................... 160 Figure 113 Correction..................................................................................................................................... 161 Figure 114 FVF ..................................................................................................................................................... 162 Figure 115 Oil Compressibility ............................................................................................................................. 163 Figure 116 Oil Viscosity ........................................................................................................................................ 164 Figure 117 Crude Oil Denisty................................................................................................................................ 165 Figure 118 Bw ....................................................................................................................................................... 165 Figure 119 Water Compressibility ......................................................................................................................... 166 Figure 121 Gp Vs Years ......................................................................................................................................... 168 Figure 120 Wp,Wi,Np (bbl) Vs Years ..................................................................................................................... 168 Figure 122 Cw,Co,Rs ............................................................................................................................................. 170 Figure 123 Bo, Mo ................................................................................................................................................. 170 Figure 124 re/rw=infinty ....................................................................................................................................... 171 Figure 125 Past& Future....................................................................................................................................... 174 Figure 126Purely Viscous...................................................................................................................................... 175 Figure 127 Visco Elastic ........................................................................................................................................ 176 Figure 128 prediction by chemical effect ............................................................................................................... 177 Figure 129 Montecarlo Results 2 ........................................................................................................................... 178 Figure 130 Montecarlo Results 1 ........................................................................................................................... 178 Figure 131 Drive mechanism ................................................................................................................................. 179 Figure 132 Bottom drive aquifer............................................................................................................................ 179 Figure 133 graphical method................................................................................................................................. 180 Figure 134 Analytical method ................................................................................................................................ 180 Figure 135 Gas and oil rate ................................................................................................................................... 181 Figure 136 Average water injected with cumulative oil produced ......................................................................... 181 Figure 137 cumulative gas and oil produced ......................................................................................................... 182 Figure 138 Cumulative oil produced with water injected ...................................................................................... 182 Figure 139 water injection And cumulative oil production with time .................................................................... 183 Figure 140 oil saturation with time........................................................................................................................ 183 Figure 141 recovery factor .................................................................................................................................... 184 Figure 142 Reservoir Model .................................................................................................................................. 185 Figure 143 Side view ............................................................................................................................................. 185 Figure 144 FOPT,FGPT, FWPT, FWIT Vs Date ................................................................................................... 186 Figure 145FGPR, FOPR, FWPR, FWIR Vs Date .................................................................................................. 186 Figure 146 In place calculation ............................................................................................................................. 187 Figure 147 New Well ............................................................................................................................................. 188 Figure 148 Comparison no. of wells ...................................................................................................................... 188 Figure 149 Comparison Inj. Wells ......................................................................................................................... 189
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LIST OF TABLES
List Of Tables
Table 1 Classification Of Proved Reserves.[2] .......................................................................................................... 8 Table 2 Historical Development Of Reserves Definitions And Classifications. ........................................................ 11 Table 3 Recovery Factors For Oil And Gas Reservoirs .[2] .................................................................................... 16 Table 4 Decline Curve Equations'. ......................................................................................................................... 21 Table 5 Dimensionless Time And Fluid Influx Table .[5] ........................................................................................ 62 Table 6 Polymer Structures And Their Characteristics.[16] ................................................................................... 70 Table 7 Properties Of Several Common Alkalis .[16].............................................................................................. 77 Table 8 Reserve Estimation Methods Comparison .[23] ......................................................................................... 87 Table 9 Summary Of Reserve Estimation Methods.[23] .......................................................................................... 88 Table 10 Belayim Marine Field (Zone 2) Data........................................................................................................ 90 Table 11 Belayim Marine Field (Zone 2) Pvt Data . ............................................................................................... 91 Table 12 Calculate Oil Compressibility. .................................................................................................................. 96 Table 13 Calculate Water Compressibility . ............................................................................................................ 97 Table 14 Calculate Effective Compressibility. ........................................................................................................ 98 Table 15 Calculate Wi ,Wp,w . ............................................................................................................................... 98 Table 16 Calculate (Eo)&(F-Wi w). ...................................................................................................................... 99 Table 17 Marine zone II Data ................................................................................................................................ 103 Table 18 Calculated k' values ................................................................................................................................ 104 Table 19 Determining Semi Steady State Equations Parameters ......................................................................... 108 Table 20 Comparing Values Of (we SSS)/T And (we MBE)/T. .................................................................. 109 Table 21 Td vs pressure and Ce. ............................................................................................................................ 112 Table 22 Calculation of Qt.P/Eo at re/rw = 2 and 4. ....................................................................................... 113 Table 23 Calculation Of Qt.P/Eo At Re/Rw = 6 And 8. .................................................................................... 114 Table 24 Calculating Qt.P/Eo At Re/Rw = Infinity. .......................................................................................... 115 Table 25 Prediction Table ..................................................................................................................................... 116 Table 26 3 Pressures Assumption .......................................................................................................................... 116 Table 27 Cw,Co,Ce, o, w for P.=1400 ............................................................................................................... 116 Table 28 Cw,Co,Ce, o, w for P.=1410 ............................................................................................................... 117 Table 29 Cw,Co,Ce, o, w for P.=1420 ............................................................................................................... 117 Table 30 Input Cw,Co,Ce, o, w for the 3 P. ....................................................................................................... 117 Table 31Calculate Delta P..................................................................................................................................... 118 Table 32 Calculate TD ........................................................................................................................................... 118 Table 33 Calculate TD at re/rw >10 [5]................................................................................................................ 119 Table 34 Calculate (QT) ........................................................................................................................................ 119 Table 35 Calculate Qt.P ................................................................................................................................... 120 Table 36 Input QT ,Qt.P. .................................................................................................................................. 120 Table 37 Calculate We uss ..................................................................................................................................... 121 Table 38 Input Wp ,NP........................................................................................................................................... 121 Table 39 Calculate Wi ........................................................................................................................................... 122 Table 40 Calculate NP*o ,WP*w, WI*w ,P ................................................................................................... 122 Table 41 Calculate N*oi*Ce*P ......................................................................................................................... 122 Table 42 Calculate We MBE .................................................................................................................................. 123 Table 43 crude oil denisty used correletion. .......................................................................................................... 164 Table 44 Oil Denisty suitable Correlation ............................................................................................................. 164 Table 45 PVT Conculosion .................................................................................................................................... 166 Table 46 History Matching. ................................................................................................................................... 167 Table 47 PVT Matching. ........................................................................................................................................ 169 Table 48 Wi/Np & dWi/Np ..................................................................................................................................... 172 Table 49 Prediction Calculation ............................................................................................................................ 173 Table 50 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 190
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LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
This book starts with showing the project objectives to be a good reservoir engineer and whats the purpose of reservoir engineering and what is reservoir engineer concerns. Then talking about literature review about reservoir engineering which used to build knowledge about types of reservoirs, driving mechanisms and different types of reserve calculation. Then starts to show the available data that will be used in calculations and starts it in methodology that shows the procedures followed in calculation to get final results Finally the book shows the final results and conclusion of different calculations type and compare between results to get the best one and build recommendations to increasing the recovery factor and productivity
CHAPTER 1
1.2 Objectives
From Reservoir Engineering Concepts Starting The Main Project Objectives:1- Selecting the most suitable correlations to calculate fluid properties of (Belayim Marine Field (ZoneII)) with lowest
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average absolute error(AAE) to helping and decrease money paid in core analysis and PVT Lab. Knowing the reservoir type and its driving mechanism. Calculating the original oil in place (OOIP) by using different methods e.g.(MBE, Montecarlo , Decline curve, MBAL ,Eclipse) , compare between those methods and choose the most accurate result. Predicting of the reservoir life and production rate with highest recovery factor. Enhancing oil recovery method to increase oil production and decrease water cut percentage.
The total oil and gas resources are the total quantities expected to be present underground, this can be divided into discovered resources and undiscovered resources. Undiscovered resources are those quantities not yet discovered. Discovered resources are those resources already discovered using existing technology. They can be classified into recoverable and unrecoverable resources. Unrecoverable resources are those quantities that cannot be recovered due to lack of technology or economic reasons. Recoverable resources are those quantities that can be recovered using existing technology and current economic conditions. They can be further classified into reserves and cumulative production.
Cumulative production is the quantities already produced from known accumulation s using the existing technology and under current economic conditions.
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Reserves are estimated volumes of crude oil, condensate, natural gas, natural gas liquids, and associated substances anticipated to be commercially recoverable from known accumulations from a given date forward, under existing economic conditions, by established operating practices, and under current government regulations. Reserve estimates are based on geologic and/or engineering data available at the time of estimate. The relative degree of an estimated uncertainty is reflected by the categorization of reserves as either "proved" or "unproved" Proved Reserves can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be recoverable under current economic conditions. Current economic conditions include prices and costs prevailing at the time of the estimate. Reserves are considered proved if the commercial productivity of the reservoir is supported by actual engineering tests. By using probabilistic approach, if the probability that the real production will have a chance of 90% to exceed or be equal to the calculated value, we consider the estimated value as proved reserves. Proved reserves can be further classified as shown in Figure 2. Unproved Reserves are based on geological and/or engineering data similar to those used in the estimates of proved reserves, but when technical, contractual, economic or regulatory uncertainties preclude such reserves being classified as proved. They may be estimated assuming future economic conditions different from those prevailing at the time of the estimate.. Unproved reserves may further be classified as probable and possible.
Probable Reserves (P50) are less certain than proved reserves and can be estimated with a degree of certainty sufficient to indicate they are more likely to be recovered than not. By using probabilistic approach, the chance of the real production figure to be equal to or exceed the calculated value is 50%, we usually refer to it as proved plus probable reserves and are given by (P50). Possible Reserves are less certain than proved reserves and can be estimated with a low degree of certainty, insufficient to indicate whether they are more likely to be recovered than not
Table 1 Classification Of Proved Reserves.[2]
PDP are those quantities expected to be recovered from locations where a proper field development plan was introduced, wells were drilled, and production is on-going. PDNP are those quantities expected to be recovere3d from locations where a proper field development plan was introduced, wells were drilled, but production has not yet started. PUD are those quantities that in order to be recovered, the accumulation sin which they exist need a proper development plan to take place in order to decide the number of wells needed And other requirement for these quantities to be produced and the field to be productive.
Discovered Petroleum-initially-in-place is that quantity of petroleum which is estimated, on a given date, to be contained in known accumulations, plus those quantities already produced therefrom. This may be may be subdivided into Commercial and Sub-commercial categories, with the estimated potentially recoverable portion being classified as Reserves and Contingent Resources respectively. Reserves are defined as those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be commercially recovered from known accumulations from a given date forward. The uncertainty in reserve estimation can be reflected in proved. Probable, and possible reserves. Proved, probable and possible reserves have the same definitions of the SEC classification. The probabilistic approach is best explained in figure 4.
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Contingent Resources are those quantities of petroleum which are estimated, on a given date, to be potentially recoverable from known accumulations, but which are not currently considered to be commercially recoverable. Undiscovered Petroleum-initially-in-place is that quantity of petroleum which is estimated, on a given date, to be contained in accumulations yet to be discovered. Prospective Resources are those quantities of petroleum which are estimated, on a given date, to be potentially recoverable from undiscovered accumulations Many governments, organisations and companies have made their own reserves definitions and classifications. The complete historical development of reserves definitions and classifications is shown in table 2.
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November 2003
11
12
2.2.1 Analogy:Reserves are estimated by analogy to reservoir in the same geographic area or field with similar properties. The SEC institute that only offset wells in the same field can be used to estimate proved reserves by analogy. Nevertheless, analogy is most used to determine probable and possible reserves in the same geographic area. The similarities between the target reservoir and the analogy model should include : Lithology and depositional environment of the reservoir rock Petrophysical parameters of the rock and fluid saturations Initial bottom hole pressure (BHP) and temperature (BHT) BHP at the start-up of a project Reservoir fluid properties (PVT) Structural configuration Reservoir heterogeneity and continuity Recovery mechanism, natural or induced Well spacing and spacing pattern
Reservoir maturity and the stage of development of both the analogy and the target reservoir should be taken into account. When the proper analogy has been established, it can be used to estimate[2]: Ultimate recovery per well Drainage area and appropriate well spacing Initial reservoir parameters Initial productivity per well Typical decline type and decline characteristics Expected abandonment pressure Expected drive mechanism
13
Enhanced recovery factor for pressure maintenance Recovery for a given drive mechanism: Per well Per acre-foot (RF) The analogy method is applied by comparing the following factors for the analogous and current fields or wells: 1. Recovery Factor (RF), 2. Barrels per Acre-Foot (BAF). 3. Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR). The RF of a close-to-abandonment analogous field is taken as an approximate value for another field. Similarly, the BAF is assumed to be the same for the analogous and current field or well, which is calculated by the following equation
14
Where:N = oil in place (STB) RF = Recovery factor Vb = Bulk reservoir volume (acre ft) = Average reservoir porosity Sw = Average reservoir water saturation Bo = Oil formation volume factor (RB/STB)
where Vb = contour interval Ao = area of the contour Using reservoir drainage area and thickness:-
15
Table 3 (gives the typical primary recovery factors for oil and gas reservoirs by drive mechanism. The primary oil driving mechanisms will be discussed in the Material balance equation section .
16
The accuracy of the reserve or resource estimates also increases once production data is obtained and performance type methods such as material balance and decline analysis can be utilized. Finally, integrating all the techniques provides more reliable answers than relying solely on any one method
17
18
Curves that can be used for production forecasting include: 1. Production rate versus time. 2. Production rate versus cumulative production. 3. Water cut percentage versus cumulative production 4. Water level versus cumulative production 5. Cumulative gas versus cumulative oil 6. Pressure versus cumulative production.
Figure 5 shows the classification of production decline curves and how each of them can be applied by using exponential, hyperbolic and harmonic approaches.[4]
19
The first two types are the most common types of decline curves, because the trend for wells producing from conventional reservoirs under primary production will be exponential ,which means that the data will present a straight line trend when production rate vs. time is plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale. The data will also present a straight line trend when production rate versus cumulative production is plotted on regular Cartesian coordinates. The wells ultimate production volume can be read directly from the plot by extrapolating the straight line trend to the production rate economic limit. Arps (1945, 1956) developed the initial series of decline curve equations to model well performance [3]. The equations were initially considered as empirical and were classified into (Exponential, Hyperbolic, Harmonic), based on the value of the exponent b that characterizes the change in production decline rate with the rate of production. For exponential decline b=0, for hyperbolic b is generally between 0 and 1. Harmonic decline is a special case of hyperbolic decline where b=1. Table 4 summarizes ARPS equation used in DCA.
20
Figure 6 shows the difference between the exponential, hyperbolic, and harmonic approaches used in DCA (rate versus time). [5]
21
22
Chapter 2
Figure7 is an example of a typical oil well showing the difference between Exponential and Harmonic Extrapolations (rate versus cumulative production) and also shows the economic limit at which data are extrapolated. [6]
In Figure 7, the Exponential extrapolation yields a straight line, while the Harmonic extrapolation yielded a concave upward shape (curve). This is due to the difference in the exponent b values for both methods. The economic limit line is the line showing the economic production limit at which the data are extrapolated in order to predict future production.
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Chapter 2
A general material balance equation that can be applied to all reservoir types was first developed by Schilthuis in 1936 [7]. Although it is a tank model equation, it can provide great insight for the practicing reservoir Engineer.
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Chapter 2
It is written from start of production to any time (t) as follows: Expansion of oil in the oil zone + Expansion of gas in the gas zone + Expansion of connate water in the oil and gas zones + Water influx + Water injected + Gas injected = Oil produced + Gas produced + Water produced The Generalized MBE can be written mathematically as:
Where: N = initial oil in place, STB Np = cumulative oil produced, STB G = initial gas in place, SCF Gi = cumulative gas injected into reservoir, SCF Gp = cumulative gas produced, SCF We = water influx into reservoir, bbl Wi = cumulative water injected into reservoir, STB Wp = cumulative water produced, STB Bti = initial two-phase formation volume factor, bbl/STB = Boi Boi = initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
25
Chapter 2
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF Bt = two-phase formation volume factor, bbl/STB = Bo + (Rsoi - Rso)Bg Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB Big = injected gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF Biw = injected water formation volume factor, bbl/STB Rsoi = initial solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB Rso = solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB Rp = cumulative produced gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB Cf = formation compressibility, psia-1 Cw = water isothermal compressibility, psia-1, Swi = initial water saturation, pt = reservoir pressure drop, psia = pi - p(t) p(t) = current reservoir pressure, psia
26
Chapter 2
27
Chapter 2
3. The water production term need represent only the net withdrawals of water; therefore, where subsurface disposal of produced brine is to the same source formation, most of the error due to poor data will be eliminated.
28
Chapter 2
29
Chapter 2
30
Chapter 2
Cole (1969), suggested that a depletion drive reservoir can be identified by the following characteristics:[9] 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Reservoir pressure declines rapidly and continuously Gas Oil ratio increases to maximum ad then declines Water production is absent or negligible Well behavior: requires pumping at early stage Oil recovery ranges from 8% to 25%
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Chapter 2
The above characteristic trends occurring during the production life of depletion drive reservoirs is shown in figure 10.
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Chapter 2
The natural energy available to produce the crude oil comes from: The expansion of the gas cap The expansion of solution gas as it is liberated
Cole and Clark (1969), suggested that gas-cap drive reservoirs have the following characteristics [9]: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Reservoir pressure falls slowly and continuously Gas Oil ratio rises continuously Water production is absent or negligible Well behavior: gas-cap drive reservoirs tend to flow longer than depletion drive reservoirs Oil recovery ranges from 20% to 40%
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Chapter 2
The above characteristic trends occurring during the production life of gascap drive reservoirs is shown in figure 12 .
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Chapter 2
When talking about water influx, it is common to speak about edge water and bottom water drive. Bottom water occurs directly beneath the oil and edge water occurs in the flanks at the edge of the oil as shown in figure 14 . Regardless of the source of water, the water drive mechanism is the result of water moving into the pore spaces originally occupied by oil, replacing the oil and displacing it to the producing wells.
35
Chapter 2
Cole (1969), suggested that water drive reservoirs have the following characteristics [11]: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Reservoir pressure remains high Gas Oil ratio remains low Water production starts early and increase to appreciable amounts Well behavior: flow until water production gets excessive Oil recovery ranges from 20% to 55%
36
Chapter 2
Gravity segregation of fluids is probably present to some degree in all petroleum reservoirs, but it may contribute substantially to oil production in some reservoirs.
37
Chapter 2
Cole (1969), stated that reservoirs under gravity drainage drive have the following characteristics [9] :1) 2) 3) 4) Reservoir pressure has variable rates of pressure decline depending on the amount of gas. In most cases, there is a rapid pressure decline. Gas Oil ratio remains low. Water production starts is absent or negligible. Oil recovery ranges from 30% to 70%.
38
Chapter 2
2.2.4.2.6 Combination:
In real cases, a reservoir usually includes at least two main drive mechanisms. For instance, in the case shown in the figure below, the management of the reservoir for different drive mechanisms can be diametrically opposed (e.g. low perforation for gas cap reservoirs compared with high perforation for water drive reservoirs). If both occur as in Figure, a compromise must be required, and this compromise must take into account the strength of each drive present, the size of the gas cap, and the size/permeability of the aquifer. It is the job of the reservoir manager to identify the strengths of the drives as early as possible in the life of the reservoir to optimize the reservoir performance.
39
Chapter 2
The terms on the left hand side of equation above represent the depletion drive index (DDI), the segregation drive (gas cap drive) index (SDI), and the water drive index (WDI) respectively. The expansion drive index (EDI), has a minor effect on the oil recovery and can be neglected (not included in the equation). Prisons abbreviation can be used to give the following equation [7] : DDI + SDI+ WDI+ EDI + 1 Where EDI can be neglected as mentioned earlier.
The driving index for each mechanism can be calculated for a reservoir in order to calculate the efficiency of each driving mechanism.
40
Chapter 2
2.2.4.3.1
Depletion drive is the oil recovery mechanism wherein the production of the oil from its reservoir rock is achieved by the expansion of the original oil volume with all its original dissolved gas.
2.2.4.3.2
Segregation drive (gas cap drive) is the mechanism wherein the displacement of oil from the formation is accomplished by the expansion of the original free gas cap.
2.2.4.3.3
Water drive is the mechanism wherein the displacement of the oil is accomplished by the net encroachment of water into the oil zone.
2.2.4.3.4
For under saturated oil reservoirs with no water influx, the principle source of energy is a result of the rock and fluid expansion. Where all the other three driving mechanisms are contributing to the production of oil and gas from the reservoir, the contribution of the rock and fluid expansion to the oil recovery is too small and essentially negligible and can be ignored.
41
Chapter 2
Defining the ratio of the initial gas cap volume to the initial oil volume as:
42
Chapter 2
Let:
Where: F = Underground withdrawal Eo = Oil and Dissolved gas expansion terms Eg = Gas cap expansion term Ef,w = rock and water compression/expansion terms So we obtain:
(E1)
The above equation was developed in order to determine the following three unknowns [10,11] 1. The Original Oil in Place N 2. The cumulative water influx We 3. The original gas cap size compared to the oil zone size m.
43
Chapter 2
The straight line relationship developed by Havlena and Odeh can be used in the following six applications: Case 1: Determination of N in volumetric undersaturated reservoirs Case 2: Determination of N in volumetric saturated reservoirs Case 3: Determination of N and m in gas cap drive reservoirs Case 4: Determination of N and We in water drive reservoirs Case 5: Determination of N, m, and We in combination drive reservoirs Case 6: Determination of average reservoir pressure, p
In this study, the main aim is to calculate the IOIP (N), and so the first five cases will be considered for calculating N only.
44
Chapter 2
(E2)
Or
(E2)
To calculate N, a plot of (F/ Eo+ Ef ,w) versus cumulative production Np is 0 plotted. Figure shows an example of this plot. Dake (1994) suggest that this plot can take two shapes [12]. As shown in figure 9, Line A implies that the reservoir is a volumetric reservoir. This defines a purely depletion drive reservoir whose energy drives solely form the expansion of rock, connate water and oil. Lines B and C, implies the existence of a water drive in which the reservoir was energized by water influx, Line B represents a moderate aquifer whose degree of energizing decreases with time. While, Line c represents a strong aquifer who is acting infinitely. In all cases, IOIP (N) is the ordinate value of the plateau as shown in figure 18.
45
Chapter 2
46
Chapter 2
(E3) Assuming that the water and rock expansion term Ef,w is negligible in comparison with the expansion of solution gas. This relationship can be used to determine N for saturated reservoirs by plotting F versus Eo. This should result in a straight line going through the origin with a slope of N as shown in figure 19.
47
Chapter 2
(E4) The way in which equation (E4) is applied depends on the number of unknowns in the equation, there are three possible unknowns in equation (E4). N is unknown, m is known. M is unknown, N is known. N and m are unknown. The first and last case will be considered, because in the second case, N is known ,and as mentioned earlier; only methods to determine N will be discussed.
Unknown N, Known m: Equation 3 indicates that when m is known, a plot of F versus (Eo + m Eg) on a Cartesian scale would produce a straight line through the origin with a slope of N as shown in figure 20.
48
Chapter 2
N and m are unknown: If both N and m are unknown, equation (E4) can be re-expressed as:
(E5) A plot of F/Eo versus Eg/Eo should be linear with intercept N and slope mN as shown in figure 21.
Chapter 2
50
Chapter 2
Pot-Aquifer model:
The pot aquifer model is used to represent water influx and is summarised by the following equation (E8)
(E9) The aquifer properties cw, cf, h, ra, and are rarely available and they can be combined as one unknown (K) and so equation (E9) can be written as: (E10) Combining equations (E8) and (E10) gives:
(E11)
Equation (E11) implies that a plot of (F/Eo) as a function of (P/Eo) would yield a straight line with an intercept of N and slope of K as shown in figure 22.
51
Chapter 2
Schilthuis steady-state model: The steady state aquifer model was proposed by Schilthuis (1936) is given by [11]:
(E12)
52
Chapter 2
(E13) Plotting F/Eo versus results in a straight line with an intercept N and
a slope (C) that describes the water influx as shown in figure 23.
53
Chapter 2
Van Everdingen - Hurst unsteady state model: The Van Everdingen-Hurst unsteady state model is given by [14]:
(E14)
With:
Van Everdingen and Hurst presented the dimensionless water influx WeD as a function of the dimensionless time tD and dimensionless radius rD that are given by:
(E14)
54
Chapter 2
The proper methodology of solving the above linear relationship is summarized in the following steps. Step 1. From the field past production and pressure history, calculate the underground withdrawal F and oil expansion Eo. Step 2. Assume an aquifer configuration, i.e., linear or radial. Step 3. Assume the aquifer radius ra and calculate the dimensionless radius rD. Step 4. Plot (F/Eo) versus ( p WeD)/Eo on a Cartesian scale. If the assumed aquifer parameters are correct, the plot will be a straight line with N being the intercept and the water influx constant B being the slope. It should be noted that four other different plots might result. These are: Complete random scatter of the individual points, which indicates that the calculation and/or the basic data are in error. A systematically upward curved line, which suggests that the assumed aquifer radius (or dimensionless radius) is too small. A systematically downward curved line, indicating that the selected aquifer radius (or dimensionless radius) is too large. An s-shaped curve indicates that a better fit could be obtained if a linear water influx is assumed.
Figure 24 shows a schematic illustration of Havlena-Odeh (1963) methodology in determining the aquifer fitting parameters [10,11].
55
Chapter 2
56
Chapter 2
(E1) Where:
Havlena and Odeh differentiated equation (E1) with respect to pressure and rearranged the equation to eliminate m to give [10, 11]:
(E15) Where:
57
Chapter 2
A plot of the left-hand side of equation (E15) versus the second term on the right for a selected aquifer model should, if the choice is correct, provide a straight line with unit slope whose intercept on the ordinate gives the initial oil in place, N. After determining N and We, equation (E1) can be used to solve directly for m.
The derivatives used in equation (E15) can be evaluated numerically by any finite difference technique including forward , backward and central techniques.
58
Chapter 2
Integrating Eq gives Where: k= water flux constant, bbl/day-psi P = pressure at the original oil-water contact pi= initial pressure at the external boundary of the aquifer.
59
Chapter 2
If the pressure stabilizes and the withdraw rates are not reasonably constant, water influx in the pressure stabilized period t can be calculated from the total productions of oil, gas and water within t:
For an under-saturated oil reservoir and at pressures higher than the bubble point pressure, Equation can be simplified to:
60
Chapter 2
In Where WeD is given as a function of dimensionless time D t and dimensionless radius D r (see Tables 5and Figures 26):
61
Chapter 2
62
Chapter 2
Values for pj are determined from measure pressures. The pressure changes are calculated as follows to approximate the pressure-time curve:
63
Chapter 2
2. Calculate the productivity index, J, for flow from the aquifer to the reservoir a) For finite aquifer with no flow at the outer boundary:
6. Calculate the average aquifer pressure at the end of the current timestamp
Chapter 2
65
Chapter 2
In deep, high-pressure reservoirs, compressed nitrogen has been used instead of CO2. Hydrocarbon gases have also been used for miscible oil displacement in some large reservoirs. CO2, nitrogen, hydrocarbon gases, and flue gases have also been injected to immiscibly displace oil. At one extreme of conditions, these displacements may simply amount to pressure maintenance in the reservoir (a secondary recovery process). Depending on oil character, gas composition and pressure, and temperature, the displacements could have a range of efficiencies up to and approaching a miscible displacement. CO2 has also been injected in a huff n puff or cyclic injection mode, like cyclic steam injection.
Chapter 2
In our case we will focus in chemical EOR Why we use chemical EOR? Conventional oil RF <33%, worldwide Unrecoverable oil = 2x1012bbls Much of it is recoverable by chemical methods Chemical methods are attractive: Burgeoning energy demand and high oil prices, most likely for longterm Diminishing reserves Advancements in technologies Better understanding of failed projects
67
Chapter 2
68
Chapter 2
69
Chapter 2
properties:
o o o o No O in the backbone (carbon chain) for thermal stability Negative ionic hydrophilic group to reduce adsorption on rock surfaces Good viscosifying powder Nonionic hydrophilic group for chemical stability
70
Chapter 2
1) Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide The most widely used polymer in EOR applications is HPAM (Manriqueet al.2007). For either a given polymer concentration or viscosity level, HPAM solutions have provided significantly greater oil recovery under Daqing conditions. The reason is that HPAM solutions exhibit significantly greater viscoelasticity than xanthan solutions (Wang et al., 2006a). Polyacrylamide adsorbs strongly on mineral surfaces. Thus, the polymer is partially hydrolyzed to reduce adsorption by reacting polyacrylamide with a base, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. Hydrolysis converts some of the amide groups (CONH2) to carboxyl groups (COO), as shown in the following structure:
2) Xanthan Gum Another widely used polymer, a biopolymer, is xanthan gum (corn sugar gum),or xanthan for short. The structure of a xanthan biopolymer is shown in the following figure. The polymer acts like a semirigid rod and is quite resistant to mechanical degradation. Average reported molecular weights of xanthan biopolymerused in EOR processes range from 1 million to 15 million. Xanthanbiopolymers are supplied as a dry powder or as a concentrated broth (Greenand Willhite, 1998). Generally, polyacrylamide copolymers are much more viscous than polysaccharide biopolymer at equivalent concentrations in freshwater, but these copolymers are much more sensitive to saline water than thebiopolymers. The viscosity of copolymers is lower than that of biopolymers in the saline water (10,000 ppm TDS). Some permanent shear loss of viscosity could occur for polyacrylamide, but not for polysaccharide at the wellbore .However, the residual permeability reduction factor of polysaccharide polymersis low (Luo et al., 2006). In EOR processes, HPAM is much more widelyused. Other potential EOR biopolymers are scleroglucan, simusan, AGBP, and so on (Luo et al., 2006).
71
Chapter 2
3) Salinity-Tolerant PolyacrylamideKYPAM KYPAM is the commercial name of a new Chinese product; its meaning in English is salinity-tolerant polyacrylamide, and its English translation is combshapepolyacrylamide. There are several sample products of this type in the laboratory. RSP1 is used mainly in treating drilling fluids; RSP2 is used main lyin EOR; and RSP3 is used mainly in water shut-off or profile control. The commercial product RSP2, which is known as KYPAM in EOR, is produced by Beijing Hengju (Luo et al., 2002). This new copolymer incorporates a small fraction of functional monomers with acrylamide to form comb-like
4) Hydrophobically Associating Polymer The polymer is hydrophobically associating water soluble, meaning it contains one or more water-soluble monomers (acrylamides) and a small fraction (0.5to 4%) of water-insoluble (hydrophobic) monomers. A typical hydrophobically associating polymer (HAP) structure is
72
Chapter 2
AMPS, or 2-Acrylamide-2-Methyl Propane-Sulfonate, has water-soluble anionic sulfonate, shielding acrylamide, and unsaturated double bond. Sulfonate makes it have good ionic exchange capability, electric conductivity, andgood resistance to divalence and salinity in general. Acrylamide gives it good thermal stability and good resistance to hydrolysis, acid, and alkaline. Plus, the double bond leads to easy synthesis and polymerization. The rigid side chains, large chains, or chains of ring structure also give it good thermal stability. AMPS are combined with other monomers to produce copolymers that are used in many industries (Lu and Chen, 1996). In the oil industry, the main application is in drilling (Hou et al., 2003). And other types like: Movable Gels,pH-Sensitive Polymers ,Bright Water , Micro ball ,Inverse Polymer Emulsion and Preformed Particle Gel. Polymer flood field performance
Chapter 2
74
Chapter 2
The dissociation of sodium silicate is complex and cannot be described by a single reaction equation. The pH values of several commonly used alkaline agents are presented in Figure 10.1. Of course, the pH of the solutions varies with salt content. For instance, the pH of caustic solutions decreases from 13.2to 12.5 when the salinity increases from 0 to 1% NaCl. By comparison, the pH of sodium carbonate solutions is less dependent on salinity (Labrid, 1991). In terms of effectiveness to reduce interfacial tension (IFT), it has been observed that there is little difference among the commonly used alkalis (Campbell,1982; Burk, 1987).
75
Chapter 2
Figure 34 shows a comparison of some of the properties of several common alkalis. Potassium-based alkalis, the price of which is higher than sodium-based alkalis, are not included. They are considered when clay swelling and injectivity problems are expected. Some alkalis are further discussed and compared in the following sections.
2) Polyphosphate Chang (1976) showed that use of a polyphosphate, which is a buffer, improved recovery. Sodium tri-polyphosphate (STPP) was used in laboratory tests for Cretaceous Upper Edwards reservoir (Central Texas). STPP was proposed to minimize divalent precipitation, for wettability alteration and emulsification(Olsen et al., 1990). Generally, it is not used as a primary alkali to generate soap for purposes of IFT reduction. Instead, it is used together with other alkalis such as sodium carbonate when divalent could be a problem (Harry Chang , Chemor Tech International, Plano, Texas, personal communication on June 16,2009).
76
Chapter 2
Silicate versus Carbonate Campbell (1981) compared sodium or thosilicate and sodium hydroxide in recovering residual oil. The test results showed that the former was more effective than the latter under the conditions studied, both for continuous flood in gand 0.5 PV slug. The mechanisms through which sodium or thosilicate produced higher recovery than sodium hydroxide in those tests were not concluded. Reduction in interfacial tension is similar for both chemicals. Other factors must play a more important role .Radke and Somerton (1978) investigated the use of a sodium meta silicate(Na2SiO3) buffer in core floods. A meta silicate buffer at a pH of 11.2 showed break through at 2.5 PV injection, whereas sodium hydroxide of the same pH did not appear until a 12 PV injection (Mayer et al., 1983). This result means that sodium meta silicate reaction with rock is much weaker than sodium hydroxide. Chang and Wasan (1980) indicated that there were differences in coalescence behavior and emulsion stability that favor sodium or thosilicate over sodium hydroxide .Silicate precipitates, however, are generally hydrated, flocculent, and highly plugging even at low concentrations. Carbonate precipitates are relatively granularand less adhering on solid surfaces (Cheng, 1986). Thus, under equivalent experimental conditions of porosity and flow rate, sodium carbonate shows less degree of permeability damage in the presence of hard water .
Table 7 Properties Of Several Common Alkalis .[16]
77
Chapter 2
And other types of chemical methods like Surfactant-Polymer Flooding, AlkalinePolymer Flooding, Alkaline-Surfactant Flooding, and Alkaline-SurfactantPolymer Flooding.
78
Chapter 2
Process evaluation
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Compare field results with lab (numerical) predictions Relative permeability changes? Oil bank formation? If so, what size? Mobility control? Fluid injectivity? Extent of areal and vertical sweep? Oil saturations from post-flood cores?
Conclusions:
a) Valuable insight has been gained through chemical floods in the past failures as well as successes b) Chemical flooding processes must be re-evaluated under the current technical and economic conditions c) Chemical floods offer the only chance of commercial success in many depleted and water flooded reservoirs d) Chemical flooding is here to stay because it holds the key to maximizing the reserves in our known reservoirs
79
Chapter 2
Reserves determination carries a lot of uncertainty even when calculated by the most skilled estimators and the most sophisticated means.
80
Chapter 2
Balance Monte Carlo Simulator Decline Curve Analysis 1D model Multi-Layer Tight Gas Material Balance This incorporates the classical use of Material Balance calculations for history matching through graphical methods (like Havlena-Odeh, Campbell, Cole etc.). Detailed PVT models can be constructed (both black oil and compositional) for oils, gases and condensates. Furthermore, predictions can be made with or without well models and using relative permeabilities to predict the amount of associated phase productions.
Multi
Tank Variable PVT with Depth Determine Components of Reservoir Energy Visualize the Parameters that Impact Performance
81
Chapter 2
schedule Set well and global constraints: At well and field level Determine when wells will water out Forecast pressure decline, producing GOR The long term effects of completion decisions on compression, gas/water injection, gas recycling PVT
Black
82
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
The ECLIPSE simulator consists of two separate simulators: ECLIPSE 100 specializing in black oil modeling, and ECLIPSE 300 specializing in compositional modeling. ECLIPSE 100 (Black oil Simulation) With fully implicit, three-phase, 3D simulations, ECLIPSE Black oil reservoir simulation software models extensive well controls and supports efficient field operations planning, including water and miscible-solvent gas injection. The black oil model assumes that the reservoir fluids consist of three phasesoil, water, and gas, with gas dissolving in oil and oil vaporizing in gas.
84
Chapter 2
The Benefits of using Simulator: Accurate determination of reserves. Prediction of production performance. Determination of number of wells needed. Determination of the best well pattern. Determination of the best perforation interval. Determination of the best completion size. Assessment of the early gas or water breakthrough and investigate how to minimize it. Determination of the best injection rates and the best time for injection. Confirm understanding of reservoir flow barriers to assess whether undrained regions exist. Estimate the optimum time for a new phases.
Reservoir Simulation Basics The reservoir is divided into a number of cells Basic data is provided for each cell Wells are positioned within the cells The required well production rates are specified as a function of time The equations are solved to give the pressure and saturations for each block as well as the production of each phase from each well
85
Chapter 2
86
Chapter 2
Method Volumetric
Best used when you dont have production trends you have a good estimate of recovery factor a representative reservoir model exists reliable production trends exist history of reservoir pressure available detailed reservoir model/data is not available reliable production trends exist you have an accurate reservoir model you have complete & accurate reservoir properties you have no other choice geographic location, formation characteristics, etc. render analogy appropriate
Simulation
Analogy
87
Chapter 2
Table 9 shows the data needed, the advantages, the disadvantages, and the results of using different estimation methods.
Table 9 Summary Of Reserve Estimation Methods.[23]
88
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3 3 Methodology
3.1 Available Data
Isopach Contour Map for NetPay Zone
Figure 36 Isopach Contour Map For Net Pay Zone OF Marine Zone 2 .
89
CHAPTER 3
Initial Reservoir Pressure (psi) Reservoir Temperature (oF) Water Salinity (PPM) API Saturation Pressure (psi) Porosity Permeability (md) rw (m) Connate water saturation Water viscosity (cp) Cf (psi-1) Initial Formation Volume Factor
3558 205 150000 21 1050 0.2 500 2460 0.3098 0.5 3.75*10-6 1.1563
This reservoir belongs to Belayim Petroleum Company PETROPEL) in Belayim Field zone . The production started on October 1963 from zone II , In May 1973 all the wells were shut off and the reservoir has produced 4595000.00stb of oil. In Jan/1978 all the wells were put on stream The water injection was started at Jan/1985, then a program of water injection has started to compensate the sharp decrease in the reservoir pressure. In October 2007 the reservoir has produced 6.42E+07 stb of oil with Production rate =932.5 bbl/day
Reservoir History
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3.2 Methodology
Montecarlo Simulation
Reservoir Management Spread Sheet MBAL Eclipse
92
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Reservoir type:- This reservoir is oil reservoir According to production history Theres no gas cap in the reservoir GP : produced during production from tubing Also thats small value
93
CHAPTER 3
The saturation of reservoir according to PVT data:From reservoir pressure records and PVT data Pb= 1050 Psi And the current reservoir pressure =1390 Psi This reservoir is under saturated reservoir
Type of under saturated reservoir From MBE The driving mechanism in this case depends on Cw: thats water compressibility from (correlation) CF: formation compressibility from (chart) Assume that this reservoir is without bottom water drive
94
CHAPTER 3
From 1, 2
95
CHAPTER 3
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3- Solubility Of Oil From (Data) So= 0.6962 Solubility of water from (Data) Sw=0.3038 4- Cw: Thats Water Compressibility From (Correlation)
Table 13 Calculate Water Compressibility .
97
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98
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CHAPTER 3
N
10E6 F-wiBw
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
From this chart (N) is not constant So This reservoir is with bottom water drive
100
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101
CHAPTER 3
Where o k is the water influx constant in barrels per day per pounds per square inch . o (Pi-P) is the boundary pressure drop in pounds per square inch.
Since We cant be determined due to inability to calculate N , by differentiation previous equation with time:
If the reservoir is under steady state water influx condition , then k must be constant.
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How to Calculate k? y using the Microsoft excel software , K can be easily determined by following the following steps : 1. A table is made with Date , Pressure , P , Np , Wp , Wi , NP , WP , Wi , o and w values as shown in table:
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CHAPTER 3
Since k values arent constant , then the reservoir isnt under steady state conditions and other states has to be tested.
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CHAPTER 3
Pi1 i
Pw2
Pw3
Characteristics : -has strong We (water Influx). -Has external boundary. -Initial Pressure declines with time. -(re) increases with time.
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CHAPTER 3
(1)
By Multiplying time (t) in each period of time: t . K.Log (a) + t . K.Log (t) = t.C
Where: a : constant. C: a constant refers to the reservoirs characteristics. t : time in days. n : number of periods of time included in the calculations.
From equations (1) & (2) the values of " a & c "can be determined as Shown Below :-
106
CHAPTER 3
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CHAPTER 3
Using This Table we determine the parameters of the equations (1) and (2) using the Microsoft excel software :Table 19 Determining Semi Steady State Equations Parameters
108
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It is found that
Then this reservoir doesnt follow the semi steady state behavior.
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CHAPTER 3
Rw
The diffusivity equation is applied to the aquifer where the inner boundary is defined as the interface between the reservoir and the aquifer With the interface as the inner boundary , it would be more useful to require he pressure at the inner boundary o remain constant and observe
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CHAPTER 3
the flow rate as it crosses he boundary or as it enters the reservoir from the auifer. Mathmaically , this condistion is stated as P = constant = Pi P at R=Rw Where Rw is constant and is equal to the outer radius of the reservoir (the original oil-watter contact). The pressure P must be determined at this original oil-water conact . van Everdingen and Hurst solved the diffusivity equation for his condition , which is referred to as the constan terminal pressure case , and the following initial and outter boundary conditions: Initial condition: P= Pi for all values of R Outer boundary condition: For an infinite aquifer : P = Pi at R = For a finite aquifer: = 0 at R =Re
At this point , the diffusivity equation is rewritten in terms of the following dimensionless parameters: Dimensionless Time : Dimensionless Radius : Dimensionless Pressure : With these dimensionless parameters , the diffusivity equation becomes:
Van Everdingen and Hurst converted their solutions to dimensionless cummulative water influx values and made he results available in a
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CHAPTER 3
convenient form given in tables for various ratios of aquifer to reservoir size by he ration of their radii .
The data are given in terms of dimensionless time tD , and dimensionless water influx Qt so that one set of values suffices for all aquifers whose behavior can be represented by the radial form of the diffusivity equation The water influx is then found by using this equation :
Where B is the water influx constant in barrels per pounds per square inch. Each radii ratio is tested and plotted to determine the type of the aquifer as follows:
Table 21 Td vs pressure and Ce.
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CHAPTER 3
re/rw=2
Millions Millions 7 7
re/rw=4
[F-(Wi*Bw)]/Eo
[F-(Wi*Bw)]/Eo
0 0 -1 50 100 Thousands
Qt*P/Eo
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CHAPTER 3
Millions
re/rw=6
500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 0.5 1
(F-Wi*w)/EO Millions
re/rw=8
re/rw=6
150 100 50
Qt.P/EoMillions
CHAPTER 3
From the results , the reservoir is clearly not under finite outer boundary conditions so , infinite outer boundary calculations are applied as follows
Table 24 Calculating Qt.P/Eo At Re/Rw = Infinity.
re/rw=infinty
Millions 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 Qt.P/Eo 30 40 Millions re/rw=infinty Linear (re/rw=infinty)
(F-Wi.Bw)/Eo
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3.2.1.3 Prediction
1) Assume 3 pressures :
1400 ,1410 , 1420 Table 25 Prediction Table
2) From Reservoir Management Spread sheet , Interpolating Cw, Co, Ce, Cf, o, w with actual data
Table 26 3 Pressures Assumption
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CHAPTER 3
where C = Cf + Cw
Table 30 Input Cw,Co,Ce, o, w for the 3 P.
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CHAPTER 3
4) Calculate P :
Table 31Calculate Delta P
5) Then Calculate Td :
Table 32 Calculate TD
118
CHAPTER 3
Interpolation:
Table 33 Calculate TD at re/rw >10 [5]
119
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CHAPTER 3
8) Calculate We uss
9) Calculate NP :
Enter Wp Values :
Table 38 Input Wp ,NP
10)
Calculate Wi :
Assume this const. Until We USS curve intercepts with We MBE curve
121
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First assume it = 1
Table 39 Calculate Wi
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CHAPTER 3
15) Change the value of the const. Until We uss intercepts with We mbe Const. Should be less than 2.5 At const. = 1.2992 the 2 curves are intercepted
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CHAPTER 3 Millions We 3.89 3.88 3.87 3.86 1395 uss me 3.93 3.92 3.91 3.9
1400
1405
1410 P
1415
1420
1425
Figure 49 Predicted p .
16) Get the P. at the intercept P. = 1416 17) Repeat these steps for every 2 years until : NP/Wi = 2.5 Then the prediction stops .
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The Required Data Start of Production date . Initial pressure . Reservoir Area and hight. Number and names of wells , wells types (production or injection), wells location and initial flow rate per day PVT data from lab or by correlations at different pressures. Reservoir pressure for each well along production history. Injection water viscosity.
Insert initial pressure and starting of production date Insert well name, Type and initial flow rate in bbl/day
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CHAPTER 3 2-
4- From Fig.53 press (PVT LAB MATCHER) to insert pvt lab data and start to match the data with different reservoir pressure.
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5- Press (GO TO LAB) to start matching the PVT data with wells pressure.
6- From Fig. 55 press (PREDICTION) , Insert (Wells locations, Reservoir area, Height , Initial injection water viscosity and injection water with polymers viscosity) then press (Predict).
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7- The following fig shows the prediction of the production of the reservoir.
8- The following fig showing prediction of reservoir production behavior at initial injection water viscosity and changing in water viscosity.
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129
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CHAPTER 3
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7- Entre the required data in the window where the bulk volume is calculated from reservoir geology information :
Figure 64 Distributions.
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1. Data loading: This step is the initial step of the development process. In this stage, the available data of the reservoir is loaded into the software, and the general options of the model are determined. These data include: i. Fluid properties ii. PVT properties iii. Estimation of the IOIP from the results of Eclipse simulation results. iv. Production start date. v. Petro-physical data vi. Relative permeability data. vii. Historical data (production and pressure) After loading the data, matching process should be applied for the fluid properties and PVT data as discussed earlier in the volumetric method. The main output of this step is the relative permeability plot and the cumulative oil production and pressure plot.
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2. History matching: History matching process involves matching the historical data with the data predicted by the model. 3. Model validation: Before using the model for any future prediction, the models ability to predict the past performance in agreement with the input data must be checked. In order to check the model, the model is run on prediction from the start till the end data of the input data. A plot of the cumulative production and historical pressure can be constructed to compare the input data with the prediction data, if the values match; then the model is ready for the prediction process. 4. Prediction: After making sure that the model is valid for prediction, we have to define the target and constraints for the prediction and then check the reservoir behavior under different scenarios.
Software step:
1. Data loading Defining model general options
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Fluid properties
From PVT list , choosing fluid properties
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Then match the data by using Match button and input the data in the table
Then click Match and choose data which will match on such as (Bubble point , Gas oil ratio , Oil FVF and Oil Viscosity ) as shown and press Calc button
Figure 69 Matching.
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Then click Plot button to plot the matched data graphs as shown in the figure :
1-Oil FVF
2-oil viscosity
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Reservoir parameters
The next step is to define the tank (reservoir parameters which include the estimation of the IOIP , average petro-physical data (porosity, water saturation), the relative permeability data, and production history. Figure 73 shows the determination of tank parameters From Input choose Tank Data
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2-the water influx of the aquifer was defined using Van EverdingenHurst model discussed earlier in the literature review section as shown:
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6- production History
a new window
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Choose Browse and identify the file location then choose " done " in the new window choose Tab Delimited then choose "done "
CHAPTER 3
2- History matching
Click on the History Matching button then choose Run Simulation to run the simulation
to start calculation
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2-Graphical method :
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3- energy plot :
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4-prediction :
The main objective of this study is the identification and evaluation of the remaining potential in existing producing zones.
Prediction steps :
1-choose production prediction from prediction set up :
CHAPTER 3
3- then choose prediction and constrains and enter the required data
CHAPTER 3
1- RUNSPEC
The RUNSPEC section is the first section of an ECLIPSE data input file. It contains the run title, start date, units, various problem dimensions (numbers of blocks, wells, tables etc.), The RUNSPEC section must always be present.
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The used data code :( TITLE, START, DIMENS, OIL, GAS, WATER, DISGAS, FIELD,EQLDIMS ,TABDIMS, WELLDIMS, AQUDIMS) each of this data code require a specific data, ECLIPSE Manual must had used for helping what this codes needs.
2- GRID
The GRID section determines the basic geometry of the simulation grid and various rock properties (porosity, absolute permeability, net-to-gross ratios) in each grid cell. From this information, the program calculates the grid block pore volumes, mid-point depths and inter-block transmissibilities. The actual keywords used depend upon the use of the radial or cartesian geometry options. The program accepts the radial form in a cartesian run and vice versa, but issues a warning.
The used data code :(TOPS,DX, DY, DZ, PERMX, PERMY, PERMZ, PORO, NTG, GRIDFILE, INIT, NOECHO, PINCH).
3- EDIT
The EDIT section contains instructions for modifying the pore volumes, block center depths, transmissibilities, diffusivities, and nonneighbor connections (NNCs) computed by the program from the data entered in the GRID section. It is entirely optional.
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4- PROPS
Tables of properties of reservoir rock and fluids as functions of fluid pressures, saturations and compositions (density, viscosity, relative permeability, capillary pressure, etc.). Contains the equation of state description in compositional runs.
The used data code :(SWFN, SGFN, SOF3, ROCK, DENISITY, PVDG, PVTO, PVTW, AQUATAB)
5- REGIONS
` Empty, because this section used for divide the reservoir in different regions and different properties.
6- SOLUTION
The SOLUTION section contains sufficient data to define the initial state (pressure, saturations, compositions) of every grid block in the reservoir .
7- SUMMARY
Specification of data to be written to the Summary file after each time step. Necessary if certain types of graphical output (for example watercut as a function of time) are to be generated after the run has finished. If this section is omitted no Summary files are created.
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The used data code :(RPTONLY, DATE, EXCEL, SEPARATE, ELAPSED, FOIP, FOPR, FOPRH,FOPT,FOPTH,FLPR,FLPRH,FLPT,FLPTH,GOPR,GOPRH, GOPT,GOPTH,GWPR,GGPR,WOPR,WOPRH,WOPT,WOPTH, WWPR,WWPRH,WGPR,WGPRH,FWPR,FWPRH,FWCT,FWCTH, FWPT,FWPTH,GWPR,GWPRH,GWCT,GWCTH,GWPT,GWPTH, WWPRH,WWCTH,WWPT,WWPTH,FGIP,FGPR,FGPRH,FGOR, FGORH,FGPT,FGPTH,RGIP,GGPR,GGPRH,GGOR,GGORH,GGPT, GGPTH,WGPR,WGPRH,WGOR,HWGPT,WGPTH,FPR,RPR,WBHP, WBP5,WBP9,WBHPH,WPI,WPIH,FAQR,FOEW,ROEW,TCPU, WMCTL,WLPR,WLPRH,WPR,AAQR,FAQR,FAQT, AAQP,FOPV,FWPV, WLPT, WLPTH, WWIR,WWIT, FWIR, FWIT,WPI, WBP9)
8- SCHEDULE
Specifies the operations to be simulated (production and injection controls and constraints) and the times at which output reports are required. Vertical flow performance curves and simulator tuning parameters may also be specified in the SCHEDULE section.
The used data code :(WELSPECS, COMPDAT, WCONPROD) WCONHIST, WCONINJE, DATES,
After Input the reservoir Data in the Data File, Starting the next step thats running the simulation
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Running the Simulator:1- From the Program Launcher ballet press ECLIPSE
2- Browsing computer drivers to select input data file and press RUN
3- Running the Simulator till end and having confirmation that there is no warning massages or errors
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4- After running to show the calculation of OOIP, open the file (.PRT) from input folder and search for OOIP
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7- (GRID PROPERTEY ) Button enable to show the different properties required and response of model with TIME factor, that can be selected from (PLAY,PAUSE, ETC. ) Buttons which at the top bar of the software.
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To get the last report and drawing the curves of different requirements from production rates (Gas, Oil & Water) along reservoir life from the beginning till the predicted depletion, Select from program Launcher (OFFICE).
SUMMERY
LOAD
ALL
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9- At (INPUT), select the vectors required to plot or shown in the output file then press (GENERATE REPORT) .
10- To see the report Press (OUTPUT) then select showing it as table or Plot as required.
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11- Finally, may have more than one plot and different vectors as required.
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CHAPTER4 4 Result
4.1 PVT Correlations [5] Gas Solubility (Rs)
The used correlations : Standings Glasos
Gas Solubility
200 180 160 140 120 Rs 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2000 4000 Pressure 6000
The Best and suitable correlation was (Standing correlation) with Average Absolute Error (AAE%) = 50.98 %
160
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Figure 113
Correction.
At known pressure
= (-610
-15
P )+(10
-11
-9
-6
()
161
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Below Bubble Point Pressure Standing's correlation Glasos Correlation The Vasquez-Beggs Correlation
Standing's correlation Glasos Correlation
The Suitable Correlation where P<Pb was (Standing's correlation) with AAE%= 1.282454 % P>Pb was (Calhoun's correlation) with AAE%= 1.033 %
Bo
1.2 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.12 Bo 1.1 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 0 1000 2000 3000 Pressure 4000 5000 Actual Standing Bo calhoun's correlation Modified Glasos Correlation The Vasquez-Beggs Correlation
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Oil Viscosity
The used correlation: The Chew-Connally Correlation (P<Pb). (where Mob is the oil viscosity and Mod is the oil viscosity at P=14.7psia) The Beggs-Robinson Correlation (P<Pb). (where Mob is the oil viscosity and Mod is the oil viscosity at P=14.7psia)
Mob = (10)^a (Mod)^b a = Rs [2.2(10^-7) Rs - 7.4(10^-4)] b=(0.68/10^c)+(0.25/10^d)+(0.062/10^e) c = 8.62(10^-5)Rs d = 1.1(10^-3)Rs e = 3.74(10^-3)Rs
163
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Oil viscosity
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 500 Pressure 1000 1500
Mo
AAE % = 8.28%
AAE %= 0.946866842
164
80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 0
CHAPTER 4
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
C3=
2.17E-11
Figure 118 Bw
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CHAPTER 4
Water Comprisibliity
Where Cwp =water compressibility at p=14.7,T,cp T = Reservoir Temperature (oF) Y =water salinity (PPM) P =reservoir pressure (Psi)
Table 45 PVT Conculosion
Property
Gas Solubility (Rs) Gas Specific gravity
Suitable Correlation
Standing correlation = ()
AAE%
50.98 ---1.282454 1.033 19.11 2.972 0.946866842 8.28
P<Pb Standing's correlation P>Pb Calhoun's correlation Petrosky-Farshad Correlation Chew-Connally P<Pb Standing P>Pb Vasquez-Beggs
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Date
Oct-63 Dec-63 Dec-65 Dec-67 Dec-69 Dec-71 Dec-73 Dec-75 Dec-77 Dec-79 Dec-81 Dec-83 Dec-85 Dec-87 Dec-89 Dec-91 Dec-93 Dec-95 Dec-97 Dec-99 Dec-01 Dec-03 Dec-05 Oct-07
T press,psi year
1963 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 3550 3500 3110 2860 2695 2555 2415 2275 2165 2055 1970 1860 1805 1695 1665 1600 1525 1470 1390 1335 1335 1350 1360 1390
t days
0 60.8 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 669.2
t days
60.8 790.8 1521 2251 2981 3711 4441 5171 5901 6631 7361 8091 8821 9551
NP (bbl)
131161.4 1594203 2258608 2874789 3360180 4553037 4595367 4595367 5856330 7480535 11147941 17339241 21990877 27760281
36833.19739 457607.4514 690542.993 906562.8094 1057850.842 1338178.666 1347607.682 1347607.682 1793137.517 2408742.788 3251562.624 4279254.74 5659457.859 7581882.371 8540004.594 9438303.772 10393282.99 10987734.77 11659207.85 12879859.3 14039769.53 15604244.58 16789192.91
69.18792 1012.66 1320.86 1346.02 3943.711 6660.91 6660.91 6660.91 9315.21 97529.81 124991.1 593802.2 1791955 3303377 5576024 7078767 8506195 9514156 10828708 12529240 14640220 17798347 21056041
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 912552.4 5727963 9440997 11020377 18805440 27964291 33643078 38510358 47821449 65198390 78063401 91329803
10281 32935028 11011 37532647 11741 41055155 12471 43656149 13201 45965899 13931 51218395 14661 56173602 15391 60766000 16060 64211703
167
Wp,Wi,Np (bbl)
60 2500 40 2000 1500 20 1000 0 1960 -20 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010500 0
time (YEARS)
Millions
18 16 14 12
Gp(MSCF)
GP(MMSCF) press,psi
1970
2000
168
Pressure
CHAPTER 4
PVT Matching
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CHAPTER 4
Cw, Co, Rs
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 500 1000 1500 Rs 2000 Co 2500 Cw 3000 3500 0.000002 0 4000 0.000006 0.000004 0.00001 0.000008 0.000014 0.000012
Pb
1.18
5 4.9
Bo
1.16
Bo Mo
Pb
2000 P
2500
3000
3500
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Driving Mechanism
Reservoir Type
Aquifer State
Reservoir type: under saturated reservoir with active water drive Aquifer type: Unsteady state with infinite Aquifer boundary OOIP=205749458 STB
re/rw=infinty
Millions 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 Qt.P/Eo 30 40 Millions re/rw=infint y Linear (re/rw=infin ty) (F-Wi.Bw)/Eo
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4.3 Prediction The project gets the prediction from ends of available data times :
2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019 get Wi/Np and then Wi/Np as shown :
WI/NP
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NP
68000000 72000000 76000000 80000000 84000000 88000000 92000000 96000000 100000000 104000000 108000000 112000000 116000000 120000000 124000000 128000000 132000000 136000000 140000000 144000000 148000000 152000000 156000000 160000000 164000000 168000000 172000000 176000000 180000000 184000000 188000000
NP/N
0.330497555 0.349938587 0.36937962 0.388820652 0.408261685 0.427702718 0.44714375 0.466584783 0.486025816 0.505466848 0.524907881 0.544348913 0.563789946 0.583230979 0.602672011 0.622113044 0.641554076 0.660995109 0.680436142 0.699877174 0.719318207 0.73875924 0.758200272 0.777641305 0.797082337 0.81652337 0.835964403 0.855405435 0.874846468 0.894287501 0.913728533
WP
22157428 24905428 27813428 30881428 34109428 37497428 41045428 44753428 48621428 52649428 56837428 61185428 65693428 70361428 75189428 80177428 85325428 90633428 96101428 1.02E+08 1.08E+08 1.13E+08 1.2E+08 1.26E+08 1.32E+08 1.39E+08 1.46E+08 1.53E+08 1.6E+08 1.67E+08 1.74E+08
WI
88345600 95472000 102782400 110200000 117776400 125532000 133571350 141813600 150258750 158906800 167757750 176811600 186068350 195528000 205190550 215056000 225124350 235395600 245869750 256546800 267426750 278509600 289795350 301284000 312975550 324870000 336967350 349267600 361770750 374476800 387385750
WI/NP
1.2992 1.326 1.3524 1.3775 1.4021 1.4265 1.451863 1.477225 1.502588 1.52795 1.553313 1.578675 1.604038 1.6294 1.654763 1.680125 1.705488 1.73085 1.756213 1.781575 1.806938 1.8323 1.857663 1.883025 1.908388 1.93375 1.959113 1.984475 2.009838 2.0352 2.060563
WI/VP
0.223612 0.241649 0.260153 0.278927 0.298104 0.317734 0.338082 0.358944 0.38032 0.402209 0.424612 0.447528 0.470958 0.494901 0.519358 0.544328 0.569812 0.59581 0.622321 0.649346 0.676884 0.704936 0.733501 0.76258 0.792172 0.822278 0.852898 0.884031 0.915678 0.947838 0.980512
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Now draw a chart between :Time on (x-axis) and (P, Np, Wi, Wp) on (y-axis) :
Np Wp Wi P
20000000 0 1999
2004
2009 Time
2014
174
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4.4EOR
From last study in literature review about types of recovery the best one and most suitable one is the(Polymer Flooding) that will be environmentally and economically good for the reservoir. Using polymers to increase viscosity of water in small bores and making the displacement of oil by water with same rate to not to trap oil So must use special type of polymers: 1. Purely Viscous This type at small diameter 1 increase water has low viscosity (high speed) so in small pores oil will be trapped thats make this type not suitable for use. Ex: a) Poly Socharide (PS). b) Hydroxy Ethyle Celelouse (HEC)
175
CHAPTER 4
2. Visco Elastic This type is suitable as in small diamter 1 has high water viscosity (low speed) and In large diamters 2 has low viscosity (high speed) . Ex: a) Poly Acylamide (PA) b) Poly Ethylene Oxyde (PEO) so by adding visco elastic polymer with optimum concentration make water in large and small diameter move at same velocity.
The Viscosity selection The selection of water viscosity that will flood its defends on the condition of the reservoir at moment of flooding and the target required By using (Reservoir management spread sheet) its able to show the behavior of reservoir with different water viscosity and comparing between them.
176
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As shown in the following chart Where Visc.1= 0.5 CP, Visc.2= 1 CP & Visc.3= 10 CP From this chart notice that the effect of changing viscosity on production where with increasing water viscosity the result is increasing in cumulative oil produced and retardant of water production
visc. 3
177
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4.5MBAL
1- Montecarlo Tool
178
CHAPTER 4
2-MBAL MBE
The figure shows the drive mechanism of the reservoir where it start with fluid expansion with Fluid expansion Pore volume compressibility and water influx with the percentage shown in the figure was the dominated driving mechanism . and at 1985 the water injection was started . B-Bottom drive aquifer
179
Figure 132 Bottom drive aquifer
CHAPTER 4
The Graphical method shows the relationship between (F/Et ) and (We/ Et ) where the intercept is the original oil in place (OOIP ) as shown in the figure = 205.79 MMSTB D-Analytical method graph :
180
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181
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182
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Figure 139 water injection And cumulative oil production with time
183
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184
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CHAPTER 4
2- GRAPHES a. Total production (Oil, Gas & Water) , total water injection verses Years Total oil production (FOPT) Total gas production (FGPT) Total water Production (FWPT) Total water injection (FWIT)
b. Production and injection rates verses date Field Gas Production Rate (FGPR) Field Oil Production Rate (FOPR) Field Water Production Rate (FWPR) Field Water Injection Rate (FWIR)
CHAPTER 4
Eclipse provide report for each year till depletion in the previous report show that:Original Oil In Place 204.653154 MMSTB Original Water In Place 215.737127 MMSTB Original Gas In Place 43664.797 MMSCF
Prediction
187
CHAPTER 4
Recommendation
Final Recovery factor can be increase by increasing number of produced wells or increase the injection rate . New produced well in marine zone at cell (9,2) Result recovery factor = .68
Increasing number of produced wells in highly oil saturation cells and thick formation will be economically and increasing the recovery factor and have the optimum production
188
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RF With and Without Injection The following chart shows the importsance of the water injection in the reservoir to increase the recovery factor. So By increasing the injection wells the production increase
70 60 50
RF %
189
CHAPTER 4
Conclusion
Based on the case study and the previous explanation, the following can be concluded: MBE by Excel calculations must be used to know the reservoir type and primary reserve estimate. Monte Carlo simulation (probabilistic approach) proved to be more successful in estimating IOIP as it gives all the possible values based on the data available (P10, P50, P90). MBAL Material Balance Tool can be used to confirm the IOIP from Monte Carlo and can also be used to determine the reservoir driving mechanism. ECLIPSE Simulation very useful for model the reservoir , shows the whole parameters of the reservoir with time changing , predict the reservoir behavior with changing conditions .
The summary of IOIP and RF results of the case study can be summarized as follows.
Table 50 Conclusion
OOIP RF%
190
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1- The Petroleum Society of CIM, Determination of Oil and Gas Reserves, Canada,1994. 2- Repsol YPF, Reserves Reporting System, Louisiana, 2005. 3- Arps,J.J, 1945, Analysis of Decline Curves, Trans. AIME 4- Arps,J.J, 1956, Estimation of primary oil reserves, Trans. AIME 5- Ahmed, Tarek. Reservoir Engineering Handbook. Amsterdam , Elsevier, GPP, 2006.Print. 6- Reservoir Issue 1, part of Reservoir Engineering for Geologists, Fekete, February 2008 7- Schilthius,R., Solution-Gas-Drive Reservoirs, Trans. AIME, 1936, Vol.118. 8- Clark, N., Elements of Petroleum Reservoirs. Dallas, TX:SPE, 1969. 9- Cole, F., Reservoir Engineering Manual, Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co., 1969. 10- Havlena, D., and Odeh, A. S., The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight. Line, JPT, August 1963, 11- Havlena, D., and Odeh, A. S., The Material Balance as an Equation of a Straight Line, Part IIField Cases, JPT, July 1963.
12-
13- Dake, L. P., Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 1978. 14- Van Everdingen, A., and Hurst, W., The Application of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs, Trans. AIME, 1949. 15- B.C.Craft, Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering,2nd edition ,1991. 16- James J. Sheng,Ph.D.,Modern Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery Theory and Practices, Elsevier, GPP,2010, Print 17- Sara Thomas , Chemical EOR-The Past, Does It Have A Future , SPE Distinguished Lecturer Series ,2005. 18- George S. Monte Carlo: Concepts, Algorithms, and Applications. New York, Springer, 2008. Print 19- Metropolis, N. and Ulam, S., The Monte Carlo Method J. Amer. Stat. Assoc., 1949. 20- Petroleum Reserves Definitions published by SPE, 1964.
191
REFERENCES
21- Schlumberger ,Simulation Software Manuals , Eclipse , 2005. 22- Petroleum Expert, MBAL Explanation, www.petex.com/products/?ssi=4 23- Islam Amged Nassar , Reservoir Project , BUE, 2010 24- Petroleum Experts, Reservoir Analytical Simulation , MBAL, version 7 , 2003.
192